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Journal of tDe

Ropal microscopical Society

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS

AND
A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ZOOXjOG-^' -A.3ST3D BOTANY
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia)

MICEOSCOPY, Sec

EDITED BY

R. G. HEBB, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P.

Physician Pathologist to Westminster Hospital

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND

J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. F.R.S.E.

Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen

A. N. DISNEY, M.A. B.So.

FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY

AND

A B. RENDLE, M.A. D.Sc. F.L.S. J. J. DOUGLAS, M.D. F.R.C.P.E.

Assistant in Botany, British Museum

Minimis paribus, per totum Naturae campum, certitudo omnis innititur
quas qui fugit pariter Naturam fugit. — Linnaus.

FOR THE YEAR
1904

TO BE OBTAINED AT THE SOCIETY'S ROOMS,

20 HANOVER SQUARE, LONDON, W.

of Messrs. WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 Henrietta Street, London, W.C.
and ok Messrs. DULAU & CO., 37 Soho Square, London, W.

9

+ 9

THE

togal Jjtiq0swp:al

Established in 1839. Incorporated by Eoyal Charter in 1866.

The Society was established for the promotion of Microscopical and
Biological Science by the communication, discussion, and publication of observa-
tions and discoveries relating to (1) improvements in the construction and
mode of application of the Microscope, or (2) Biological or other subjects of
Microscopical Besearch.

It consists of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-officio Fellows of either sex.

Ordinary Fellows are elected on a Certificate of Becommendation
signed by three Ordinary Fellows, setting forth the names, residence, and
description of the Candidate, of whom the first proposer must have personal
knowledge. The certificate is read at two General Meetings, and the Candidate
balloted for at the second Meeting.

The Admission Fee is 21. 2s., paid at the time of election, and the Annual
Subscription is 21. 2s., payable on election, and subsequently in advance on
1st January in each year, but the Annual Subscriptions may be compounded for
at any time for 31/. 10s. Fellows elected at a meeting subsequent to that in
February are only called upon for a proportionate part of the first year's
subscription. The annual Subscription of Fellows permanently residing abroad
is 1/. lis. 6cL or a reduction of one-fourth.

Honorary Fellows (limited to 50), consisting of persons eminent in
Microscopical or Biological Science, are elected on the recommendation of five
Ordinary Fellows and the approval of the Council.

Ex-officio Fellows (limited to 100), consisting of the Bresidents for the
time being of any Societies having objects in whole or in part similar to those of
the Society, are elected on the recommendation of ten Ordinary Fellows and the
approval of the Council.

The Council, in whom the management of the property and affairs of
the Society is vested, is elected annually, and is composed of the Bresident,
four Vice-Bresidents, Treasurer, two Secretaries, and twelve other Ordinary
Fellows.

The Meetings are held on the third Wednesday in each month, from
October to June, at 20 Hanover Square, W. (commencing at 8 p.m.). Visitors
are admitted by the introduction of Fellows.

The Journal, containing the Transactions and Broceedings of the
Society, and a Summary of Current Besearches relating to Zoology and Botany
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), MicroscojDy, &c, is published
bi-monthly, and is forwarded post-free to all Ordinary and Ex-officio Fellows
residing in countries within the Bostal Union.

The Library, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cabinet of Objects,
is open for the use of Fellows daily (except Saturdays), from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.
It is closed for four weeks during August and September.

Forms of proposal for Felloivship, and any further information, may be obtained by
application to the Secretaries, or Assistant-Secretary, at the Library of the Society,
20 Hanover Square, W.

a 2

patron

HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

*

Elected'

•Sir Eichard Owen, K.C.B. D.C.L. M.D. LL.D. F.R.S. 1840-1

John Lindley, Ph.D. F.R.S 1842-3

*Thomas Bell, F.R.S 1844-5

*James Scott Bowerbank, LL.D. F.R.S 1846-7

•George Busk, F.R.S 1848-9

* Arthur Farre, M.D. F.R.S 1850-1

•George Jackson, M.R.C.S 1852-3

* William Benjamin Carpenter, C.B. M.D. LL.D. F.R.S. . . 1854-5

* George Shadbolt 1856-7

*Edwin Lankester, M.D. LL.D. F.R.S 1858-9

•John Thomas Quekett, F.R.S 1860

•Robert James Farrants, F.R.C.S 1861-2

•Charles Brooke, M.A. F.R.S 1863-4

•James Glaisher, F.R.S 1865-6-7-8

*Rev. Joseph Bancroft Reade, M.A. F.R.S 1869-70

•William Kitchen Parker, F.R.S 1871-2

•Charles Brooke, M.A. F.R.S 1873-4

Henry Clifton Sorby, LL.D. F.R.S 1875-6-7

*Henry James Slack, F.G.S 1878

Lionel S. Beale, M.B. F.R.C.P. F.R.S 1879-80

•Peter Martin Duncan, M.B. F.R.S 1881-2-3

Rev. William Hy. Dallinger, M.A. LL.D. F.R.S... 1884-5-6-7
•Charles Thos. Hudson, M.A. LL.D. (Cantab.), F.R.S. 1888-9-90

Robert Braithwaite, M.D. M.R.C.S 1891-2

Albert D. Michael, F.L.S 1893-4-5-6

Edward Milles Nelson ,.,,... 1897-8-9

William Carruthers, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S 1900-1

Henry Woodward, LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S. F.Z.S 1902-3-

* Deceased.

COUNCIL.

Elected 20th January, 1904.

Jgresibent.

Dijkinfeld Henry Scott, M.A. Ph.D. F.E.S. F.L.S.

$kc-|]restbents.

*A. D. Michael, F.L.S.
*E. M. Nelson.

Henry George Plimmer, M.R.C.S. L.S.A. F.L.S.

Henry Woodward, LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S. F.Z.S.

treasurer.

J. J. Vezey.

Secretaries.

Eev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D. D.Sc. D.C.L. F.E.S.
E. G. Hebb, M.A. M.D. F.E.C.P.

(Drbmarir numbers of Council.

Jas. Mason Allen.

Wynne E. Baxter, J.P. F.G.S. F.E.G.S.

Conrad Beck.

Eev. Edmund Carr, M.A., F.E.Met.S.
*A. N. Disney, M.A. B.Sc

J. W. H. Eire, M.D. F.E.S. (Edin.)
*George C. Karop, M.E.C.S.

The Eight Hon. Sir Ford North, P.C., F.E.S.

Thomas H. Powell.

Percy E. Eadley.
*Charles F. Eousselet.

* Members of the Publication Committee.

LIBRARIAN. CURATOR.

Percy E. Eadley. Charles F. Eousselet.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
F. A. Parsons.

CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF TEE SOCIETY.

PAGH

I —On the Structure and Affinities of the Genus Porosphaera, Steinmann.

By George J. Hinde, Ph.D. F.R.S. (Plates' I. and II.) 1

II.— Microscopic Resolution : Note on a point in Lord Rayleigh's Paper of

1896. By Professor J. D. Everett, F.R.S. 26

III. — The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera,and their Relation to the other Families

inDiptera. By W. Wesche, F.R.M.S. (Plates II1.-VIII.) .. .. 2S

IV.— The President's Address : The Evolution of Vertebrate Animals in Time.

By Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S 137

V.— On the Vertical Illuminator. By Edward _M. Nelson 1K5

VI.— The Influence of the Antipoint in the Microscopic Image shown Graphi-
cally. By Edward M. Nelson. (Figs. 47 and 48.) 2G9

VII.— On a Microscope with Geometric Slides. By Keith Lucas. (Figs. 49-53.) 272

VIII.— On Certain New Methods of Measuring the Magnifying Power of the
Microscope and of its Separate Elements. By A. E. Wright, M.D.
(Fig. 54.) 279

IX.— A Direct Proof of Abbe's Theorems on the Microscopic Resolution of

Gratings. By Prof. J. D. Everett, F.R.S 38

X.— Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago collected
by Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S.— Part XVI. By Fortescue William
Millett, F.R.M.S. (Plate X.) 489

XL— Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago collected
by Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S.— Part XVII. (Conclusion). By Fortescue
William Millett, F.R.M.S. (Plate XL) 597

XII. — Theories of Microscopical Vision : a Vindication of the Abbe Theory. By

A. E. Conrady, F.R.A.S. F.R.M.S. (Figs. 95-101) 610

Vlll CONTENTS.

NOTES.

PAGE

On the Influence on Images of Gratings of Phase Difference amongst their Spectra.

By Julius Rheinberg 088

An Attachment for Reading the Lines in a Direct-vision Spectroscope. By

E. B. Stringer, B.A, F.R.M.S. (Fig. G3.) 390

On a Method of Obtaining Monochromatic Ultra-violet Light. By E. B.

Stringer, B.A., F.R.M.S 392

On Grayson's 120,000 Band-Plate. By Edward M. Nelson 393

On Nelson's New Formula Amplifier. By A. A. C. Eliot Merlin 396

On the Use of the Esculin Screen in Photomicrography. By Frederic E. Ives 631

OBITUARY.

Charles Thomas Hudson, MA. LL.D. F.B.S., Hon. F.R.M.S. 1828-1903. ■ .. 48

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

Relating to Zoology and Botany (principally Invertebrata and
Cryptogamia), Microscopy, &c, including Original Communications
from Fellows and Others.* 50, 167, 289 398, 507, 635

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.

Castlf, W. E. — MendeV s Law of Heredity 50

Wintrebkkt, P. — Regeneration of Hind Limbs and Tail in Amphibia 53

Bouin, P., & P. Ancel — Interstitial Cells of the Mammalian Testicle 53

Browne, F. B. — Ova and Larvse of Fishes 54

Schultze, Oskar — Determination of Sex 167

Kouschelt, E., & K. Heideb — General Embryology 167

Hickson, S. J. — Mechanics of Development 167

Kkasan, Franz — Conversational JEtiology 168

Rejsek. J. — Uterine Implantation of the Ovum of Spermophilus citillus 168

Dubuisson, M. — Normal Degeneration of Egg* not Liberated 168

Ballowitz, E. — Spermatozoa of DUcoglossus pictus 168

Phisalix, C. — Correlation between Poison-Gland and Ovary in Toad 168

Hubrecht, A. A. W. — Development of Tarsius Spectrum 169

Mencl, M. — Development of Lens 169

Peter, Karl — Notes on Development of Lizard 169

Punnett, R. C. — Nutrition and Sex Determination in Man 289

Copeman, S. M., & F. G. Parsons — Sex of Mice 290

Cuenot, L. — Heredity of Pigmentation in Mice 290

Vries, Hugo De — Fertilisation and Hybridisation 290

* In order to make the Contents complete, the papers printed in the ' Transactions '
and the Notes printed in the 'Proceedings' are included here.

CONTENTS. IX

PAGE

"Wilson, E. B. — Maturation of Germ-Cells and Mendel's Law 290

Ancel, P., & P. Bouin — Interstitial Testicular Gland and Secondary Sex Characters 290

Bouin, P., & P. Ancel — Interstitial Testicular Gland 291

Shattock, S. G., & C. G. Seligmann — Relation of Secondary Sexual Characters

to an Internal Secretion by the Testicle .. 291

Branca, A. — Testicle and Spermatic Duct* of Lemurs in Captivity 291

Morse, Max — Transmission of Acquired Characters 292

Peter, Karl — Gastrulation in Lizards , 292

Houssay, F. — Carnivorous Foivls and their Fecundity 292

Sandes, F. P. — Corpus luteum of Ttasyurus viverrinus 292

Holmes, S. J. — Problem of Form Regulation 293

Wendelstadt — Regeneration of Bone and Cartilage . 293

Harrison, K. G. — Development of the Sense Organs of the lateral line in Amphibia 293

Kling, 0. A. — Development of Lymph Glands in Man 293

Szily, A. v. — Origin of the Vitreous Humour 294

Phillips, Everett F. — Occurrence of Parthenogenesis 398

Bonne, C. — Development of Veins of the Liver in the Rabbit and Sheep 399

Meyer, R. — Nephridial Canals in Guinea-Pig 399

Schaper, A. — Lens Development under Abnormal Conditions 399

Druner, L. — Structure and Development of the Middle Ear in Man and Mouse . . 399

Wilder, H. H. — Early Development of Desmoguathus fusca 400

Hartog, Marcus — Some Problems of Reproduction .. .. 507

Schreiner, A. & K. E. — Maturation Divisions in Vertebrates 508

Perez, Ch. — Phagocytic Absorption of Ova by Follicle Cells in Fasting Newt .. .. 509

Bataillon, E. — Parthenogenetic Development of Lamprey's Ova 509

Bohn, Georges — Experiments on the Developing Ova of the Frog 509

Eggeling, H. — Development of Human Milk-Glands 509

Kjellberg, Knut — Development of Mandibular Articulation 509

Argand, R. — Transition between Internal Iliac and Umbilical Arteries in the

New-born 510

Kolliker, A. von — Development of Nerve Fibres 510

Reinhardt, Ad. — Ey pochor da of Salamandr a Maculosa 510

Druner, L. — Visceral Arches of Urodela 510

Hall, R. \V. — Development of Mesonephros and M idler ian Ducts in Amphibia .. 511
Swaen, A., & A. Brachet — Development of Layers and Organs in the Terminal

Bud and Tail of Teleost Embryos 511

Nicolas, A. — Development of Pancreas, Liver and Spleen in the Sturgeon . . .. 511

Moser, Fanny — Development of the Swim-Bladder 512

»Schultz, E. — Degeneration in Relation to Regeneration 512

Fauset, V. — Viviparity and Parasitism 513

Kerr, J. Graham — Development of Motor Nerve- Trunks and Myotomes in Lepido-

siren 635

Morgan, T. H. — Influence of Constant Agitation on the Development of the Toad's

Egg .. . 635

.Schaper, A. — Influence of Radium-Rays and Radium-Emanation on Development

and Regeneration 636

D'Evant, T. — Rudimentary Amnion in Selachians 636

Hilton, David C. — Development of Liver in the Pig 636

Smith, H. M. — Breeding Habits of Yellow- BeHied Terrapin 636

Wolterstorff, W. — Hybridisation of Triton marmoratus and Triton cristatus . . 636

Eycleshymer, A. C. — Bilateral Symmetry in Egg of Necturus .. 637

Rawitz, B. — Inheritance of Mental Qualities in Man 637

b. Histology.

Fibich, Richard — Histology of Hyaline Cartilage 54

Schulthess-Schindler, Von— Xerothermic Localities 54

Fischer, Otto — Human Locomotion 54

Elliot-Smith, G. — Transitory Tissues of Human Brain 55

Osburn, Raymond C — Adaptations to Aquatic Life in Mammals 55

Jolly, L. — Oxidation of Glucose in Mammalian Blood 55

Salensky, W. — The Phylogeny of Elephants 55

X CONTENTS.

PAGE

Guldberg, Gustav — Migrations of Right WMles 55

Macoun, John — Canadian Birds 56

Werner, F. — West Asian Reptiles and Batrachians 56

Volz, W. — Sumatra Fishes > 56

„ Sumatra Lizards 56

Launoy, L. — Secretory Phenomena in Poison-Glands and Digestive Glands .. .. 169

„ „ Nuclear Changes during Secretion 170

Bensley, R. R. — Brunner's Glands 170

„ „ Cardiac Glands of Mammals 170

Haack, W. — Buccal Gland of Lampreys 170

Beguin, F. — Oesophageal Glands in Reptiles 171

Marcelin, R. H. — Histogenesis of the Intestinal Epithelium in the Frog .. .. 171

Marceau, F. — Cardiac Muscle Fibres 171

Pondrelli, Margherita — Egg-Tooth in Sauropsida 171

Baum & Thienel — Minute Structure of Blood-Vessels 171

Bashford, E. F., & J. A. Murray — Zoological Distribution, Mitoses, and Trans-

missibility of Cancer 294

„ „ „ „ Conjugation of Resting Nuclei in an Epithe-
lioma of the Mouse 295

Boveri, T. — Behaviour of the Protoplasm in Monocentric Mitoses 295

Radtmann, H. — The Morphology of the Glands of Bartholin in Mammals .. .. 295

Glinski, M. — Peptic Glands of the Superior Region of the Oesophagus in Man .. 296

Bernard, H. M. — Studies in the Retina 296

Dale, H. H. — Islets of Langerhans of the Pancreas 296

Schafer, E. A. — Ciliary Movement 400

Baum & Thienel — Structure of Mammalian Blood-vessels 400

Dogiel, A. S. — Nerve-endings of Human Shin 400

Ballowitz, E. — Olfactory Organ of the Lamprey .. 401

Campbell, A. W. — Histological Studies on Cerebral Localisation 401

Townsend, A. B. — Histology of the Light Organs of Photinus marginellus .. .. 401

Pacaut, Maurice — Twin Nuclei in Various Types of Cells in the Guinea-Pig .. 513

Bates, G. A. — Histology of Digestive Tract of Amblystoma Punctatum 513

Du Bois, C. C. — Granule Cells in Mucosa of Pig's Intestine 514

Fuhrmann, F. — Minute Structure of Supra-renal of Guinea- Pig 514

Bokcea, J. — Kidney of Male Elasmobranchs 514

Bocin & Ancel — Interstitial Tissue of Testis 514

Hartog, M. — Models of Cellular Mitoses 637

Levi, Giuseppe — Comparative Histology of Pancreas 637

Lewis, F. T. — The Question of Sinusoids 637

8argent, P. E. — Optic Reflex Apparatus in Cyclostomes and Fishes 638

Cecchukelli, G. — Sensory Nerve-endings in Human Tongue 638

Coco, A. M. — The Fuchsinophile Granules of Spinal Ganglia Cells 639

Grynfeltt, E. — Supra-renal Capsule of Amphibians 639

c. General.

Henri, V. — Digestive Ferments in Cephalopods, Echinoderms, and Tunicates .. 56

Soourfield, D. J. — Lake Survey 56

Woodward, H. — President's Address: The Evolution of Vertebrate Animals in

Time 137

Lydekkar, R. — Zoological Essays 171

Lancaster, E. Ray — Economic Zoology 172

Lickley, J. Dunlop — Variations in Human Ribs . . 173

Sacharoff, N. — Function of Iron in Metabolism and Fermentations ■■ 173

Cade ac & Maignon — Production of Glucose by Animal Tissues 173

Batelli, F. — Alleged Alcoholic Fermentation in Animal Tissues 173

Abelods, J. E., & J. Aloy — Occurrence of an Animal Diastase at once Oxidising

and Reducing 173

Olivier, E. — Viviparous Lizard' s Prolific Multiplication . . 173

Ritter, W. E. — Habits of the Arboreal Urodele Autodax lugubris 174

Couvreur, E. — Respiration in Torpedo 174

CONTENTS. XI

PAGF.

Tullberg, Ttcho — Labyrinth of Fishes 174

Ewart, J. Cossar — Wild Horses 174

Pocock, K. I. — Coloration of the Quaggas 175

Murray, James — Plankton of Scottish Lakes .. 175

Tattersall, W. M. — Ceylonese Cephalochorda 175

Vire, Armand — Influence of Light and Darkness 297

Chapman, H. C. — Origin of Primates 297

Mandoul, H. — Tegumentary Colorations 297

Citelli, J. — Supra-cricoid Cartilage in Man 298

Smith, G. E. — Occipital Region of Cerebral Hemisphere in Man and Apes .. .. 298

Chaine, J. — Mandibulo-auricular Muscle 21)9

Mitchell, W. — Dentition of the Elephant 299

Beddard, F. E.— The Phyhgeny of the Boidie .. 299

Audige, J. — Infectious Exophthahnia of Freshwater Fishes 299

Sabatier, Armand — Limbs of Holocephali and Dipnoi 299

Hamburger, R. — Paired Fins of Fishes 299

Chaine, J. — Myology of Chondropterygian Fishes 300

Bodlenger, G. A. — Sub-Orders and Families of Teleostean Fishes 300

Haack, W. — Glands of the Mouth- Cavity of Petromyzon 300

Dean, Bashford — Japanese Myxinoids 300

Murie, James — Thames Fisheries 300

Deflandre, C. — Adipo-hepatic Function in Invertebrates 301

Diblin, L. I. — Arboreal Adaptations .' .. 402

Miller, Gerrit S., Jun. — Seventy New Malayan Mammals 402

Lickley, J. D. — Seventh and Eighth Sternal Ribs in Man 402

Abel, O. — Asymmetry of Skull in Toothed Whales 402

Boenninghaus, G. — Eir of Toothed Whales 402

True, F. W. — Photographs of Living Finback Whales from Newfoundland .. .. 403

Shufeldt, R. W. — Affinities of the Pygopodes 403

Martin, Rudolf — Comparative Osteology and Phyhgeny of the Columbiformes .. 403

Osborn, H. F. — Reclassification (f the Reptilia 403

Paracca, M. G. — New European Lizard 404

Werner, Franz — Notes on Reptiles 404

AVandglleck, B. — An Abnormal Tortoise 404

Hay, O. P. — Existing Genera of Trionychidsz 404

Regan, C. T. — Phytogeny of the Teleostomi 405

Mitchell, E. G. — Oral Breathing-Valves of Teleostei 405

Poppa, C anna M. L. — Gill- Arches of Mursenidm 405

Meek, S. E. — Fresh-water Fishes of Mexico 405

Barrett-Hamilton, G. E. H. — Sub-Species of Mustelidse 406

Hutton, F. W.— Fauna of New Zealand 406

Steuer, A.— Plankton of Gulf of Trieste 406

Smith, Walter — Why is the Human Ear Immobile? 515

Damany, P. Le — Homology of Olecranon and Patella 515

„ „ Defect of Human Hip-Joint .. 515

Stordy, R. J. — Domestication of Zebras 515

Rehn, J. — Revision of the Chiropteran Genus Macrotus 516

Eigenmann, Carl H., & Clarence Kennedy — Variation Notes 516

Freund, Ludwig — Osteology of the Dugong Flipper 516

Gessard, C. — Pigment of Supra-renal Capsules 516

Arnold, J. — Fat Synthesis by Mucous Membranes . . 516

Doyon & Jouty — Ablation of Parathyroids in Birds 516

Raspail, Xavier — Asymmetrical Development of FowVs Skull 516

Oberholser, H. C. — Monograph of Genus Dendrocincla 517

Muhse, Effa Funk — Eyes of a Blind Snake 517

Overton, E. — Osmotic Properties of Amphibian Skin 517

Kingsley, J. S., & F. W. Thyng — Hypophysis in Ambly stoma 517

Winslow, G. M. — Abnormalities in Urodela 517

Gallimabd, J. — Albumin Extracted from Frog's Ova 518

Borcea, J. — Oviducal Gland of Elasmobranchs 518

Eastman, C. R. — Descriptions of Bolca Fishes 518

Linder, Charles — Pelagic Fauna of the Lake of Bret 518

Xll CONTENTS.

PAGE

Hudleston, W. H. — Origin of the Marine (Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika 518

Foisbes, S. A. — Food of Fishes, Birds, and Insects .. .. 510

Bohn, G. — Phototropism of Convohitu and Nereids 519

Goodrich, Edwin S. — Dermal Fin-rays of Fishes 519

.IaiiGer, A. — The Physiology of the Swim- Bladder of Fishes 520

Fuhrbinger, K. — Notes on Dipnoan Cranium ..' 521

Garman, Samuel — Chimxroids 521

Eoule, Louis— Pisciculture 521

„ „ Evolution of Atherinx in Fresh Water 521

Zarnik, Boris — Segmental Veins in Amphioxus 522

Carlsson, A. — Anatomy of Noturyctes typhlops 039

Borinson, B. — Constrictions and 'Dilatations of the Ureter (J39

Lyon, M. W., Jun. — Hares and their Allies 640

Duerst, J. Ulrich— Influence of Unilateral Eorn-Growth on Cranial Characters 640

Lonnberg, Einar — Compound Ehamphotheca of Birds 640

Smith, G.— Middle Ear and Columella of Birds 640

Carlton, F. — Colour Change in Anolis Carolinensis 641

Phisalix. C. — Natural Immunity of Vipers 641

Werner, Fr. — Reptiles and Amphibians of Asia Minor 641

Pee, P. van — Limbs of Am phi wua 641

Pellegrin, J. — Fishes of Chilian Coast 642

Jordan, D. S., & J. O. Snyder — Deep- Water Fishes of Japan 642

Bean, B. A. — Pelican Fish from the Pacific 642

Gill, Theodore — Umbrids or Mud-Minnows 642

Gley, E. — Toxic Action of Serum of Torpedo marmorata 642

Vaillant, Leon — Mitsukurina Owstoni 643

Scott, A. — Parasites of Fishes 643

Marsh, C. D. — Plankton of Wisconsin Lakes 643

Tunicata.

Pizon, A. — Development of Diplosomidx 57

Henschkn, F. — Ova of Crustaceans and Gastropods 57

Graeffe, Ed. — Fauna of the Gulf of Trieste 57

Julin, Charles — Development of Branchial Apparatus in Tunicata .. .. 301

Korotneff, A. — Polymorphism of Dolchinia 301

Gutherz, S. — Self-Fertilisation and Cross-Fertilisation in Solitary Ascidians .. 406

INVERTEBRATA.

Stift, A. — Enemies of the Sugar Beet 176

Mollusca.

Schweikart, A. — Egg-Envelopes of Cephalopods and. Chitonidse 406

«• Cephalopoda.

Hoyle, W. E. — ' Albatross' Cephalopods 522

Marceau, F. — Structure of the Heart in the Common Octopus 522

Bergmann, W. — Receptaculum Seminis and Nuptial Combat in Octopus .. .. 522

y. Gastropoda.

Yung, Emile — Olfactory Sense in Helix Pomaiia 57

AVettstein, Ernst — Structure of Cryptoplax larvwformis 58

Couvreur, E. — Blood of Marine Gastropods 176

Simroth, Heinkich — New Type of Gastropod 302

„ ,, Abyssinian Slugs 302

Kesteven, H. L. — Nepionic Stage in the Gastropods 303

Conklin, E. G. — Inverse Symmetry in Gastropods 303

CONTENTS. Xlll

PAGE

Nekrassoff, A. — Maturation and Fertilisation in Cymbulia Peronii 303

Smallwood, W. M. — Natural History of Haminea solitaria Say .. •• . •• •• 407

Grosvenor, G. H. — Nematocysts of JEolids 407

Chapman. F. — Valetozoic Pteropoda. 407

Heath, Harold — Larval Eye of Chitons 408

Nierstrasz, H. F. — Heart of Solenogastres .. .. 408

Heath, H. — Habits of Selonogastres 523

Kunkel, Karl — Habit* of the Cellar-Slug 523

15onnevie, K. — Spermatogenesis in Enteroxenos Ostergreni 523

Randles, W. B. — Anatomy and Affinities of the Trochidx 643^

Mader. M. — Muscular Fibres in Heart of Nassa reticulata 644

Gkabau, Amadeus W. — Phytogeny of Fusus and its Allies 644

Contagne, G. — Mendelian Phenomena in Gastropods 644

Wissel, Curt vox — Chitons from the Pacific 644

Fisher, W. K. — Anatomy of Lottia giga idea 644

Heath, H, & M. H. Spaulding — Anatomy of Corolla (Cymbidiopsis) spectabilis .. 645

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Sassi, Moriz — Anatomy of Anomia ephippium 58

Davenport, C B. — Variations in Pecten opercidaris 176

Boutan, L. — Origin of Fine Pearls 177

Dubois, R. — Secretion of Pearls • 303

„ „ Detection of Pearls by means of X-Rays 303

Rice, E. L. — Development of the Gill in Mytilus 304

Anthony — Orientation of Trid.achnids within their Shells 304

Bhutan, L. — Origin of Fine Pearls 408

Marceau, F. — Adductor Muscles of Bivalves 523

Anthony, R. — JEtlieriidx 524

Herdman, W. A. — The Formation of Pearls .. .. 645

Davenport, C. B. — Evolution of Pecten 645

VigIer, P. — Muscular Fibre* of the Moll mean Heart 646

^Arthropoda.

Packard, A. 8. — Classification of Arthropoda 177

Carpenter, G. H. — Relationships between Classes of Arthropoda 178

Bruntz, L. — Excretion in Arthropods 304

Lankester, E. Ray — Structure and Classification of Arthropoda 524

«• Insecta.

Wesche. W. — The Mouth-parts of ih<> Nemocera, and their Relation to the other

Families in Diptera. (Plates III.-VIII.) 28

Fabre, J. H. — Habits and Instincts of Insects .. 58

Holmgren, N. — Viviparous Insects 59

Courvoisier, L. G. — Variations in Lycsenidx 59

Linden, Grafin von M. — Red and Yellow Pigment of Vanessa 59

8chulz, W. A. — Hymenoptera of West Indian" Islands 60

Holliday, Margaret — Ergatogynic Ants .. 60

Gessner, E. Frey. — Males of Andrena 60

Harris, W. H. — Habits of the Drone- Fly 60

Taylor, T. H. — Habits of Chironomus 60

Imms, A. D. — Marine Chironomid New to Britain 61

Conklin. Edwin G. — Follicular Cells of Cricket 61

Schulz, W. A. — Pelecinidse 61

Davenport, C. B. — Collembola of the Beach 61

Thayer, A. H.. & E. B. Poulton — Protective Coloration 62

Theobald, F. V. — Economic Entomology 178

Dickel, Ferd. — Sex- Determination in Bees 179

Garbowski, Tad — Parthenogenesis in Porthesia 179

XIV CONTENTS.

PAGE

Bolle, J., & M. Kichter — Sleeping Sickness of Silkworms 179

Forel, A. — Ants from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands 179

Lecaillon, A — Development of Ovary of Polyxenus lagurus De Geer 179

Embleton, Alice L. — Peculiar Aphid 179

Stschelkanovzew, J. P. — Maturation in Viviparous Aphides 180

Silvestki, F. — Neapolitan Myrmecophilons Insects ISO

Needham, J. (t. — Genealogical Study of Dragon-fly Wing Venation 180

PiCTBT, A. — Influence of Environment on Caterpillars .. 305

„ „ Influence of Humidity on Caterpillars 305

Anglas, Jdles — Metamorphosis or Insects 305

Porta, A. — Digestive Function in Insects 305

Ihering, H. v. — Biology of Stingless Honey-Bees of Brazil .. 305

Fielue, Adele M. — Notes on Ants 306

Forel, Auguste — Myrmecological Notes 306

Gal, Jules — Oviposition in Bombyx mori 306

Tower, TV. L.— Wings of. Beetles 306

Cantin, G. — Destruction of Wilder Ova of Phylloxera by Lysol 307

Stebbing, E. P. — New Scale-Insect from India .. .. 307

Distant, W. L. — Notes on Rhynchota 307

Bougardt, J. — Luminosity of Lampyridx 307

Cholodkovsky, N. — Structure of Pediculi due- 307

Pussig, H. — Gall-Formation 408

Moiuue, F. D. — Male Terminal Segment* and Armatures in the Hymenopterous

Genus Colletes 409

Cowan, T. W. — Natural History, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Hovey-Bee .. 409

Turner, A. J. — Australian Lepidoptera .. 409

Schwangart, F. — The Endoderm of Lepidoptera 409

Lathy. P. I. — Aberrations of Lepidoptera 409

Goeldi, Emilio A. — Mosquitoes of Para 409

Holmgren, N. — Reduction of the Head in Dipterous Larvx 409

Thienemann, A. — Anal Gills in larva of Glossoma boltoni and some Hydropsycliidse 410

Bemis, Florence E. — Mealy-Winged Flies of California 410

Peal, H. W. — Oriental Aleurodidm .. '.. ..' • 410

Mum, F., & D. Sharp — Egg-Cases and Early Stages of some Cassididse .. .. 410

Williams, C. E. — Life-History of Gongylus gongyloides 410

Dawydoff, C. — Phagocytic Organs in Gryllidas 410

Enderlein, Gunther — Neio Copeognatha .. .. 411

Kellogg, Vernon L. — New Mallophaga 411

Kellogg, V. L., & B. L. Chapman — Mallophaga from Hawaiian Islands .. .. 411

Stebbing, E. P. — Thanasimus in the Himalayas 411

Plotnikow, W. — Moulting Processes in Insects 5"J5

"Vigier, Pierre — Accommodation-apparatus in Compound Eyes 525

Dusmet y Alonso, Jose M. — Wasps of Spain 526

Dickel, Otto — Development of Bees' Eggs 526

Wasschew, J. W. — Parthenogenesis in Telenomus 526

Holmgren, N. — Formica exsecta as Hill-builders in Swamps 526

Packard, A. S. — Metamorphoses of Saturnian Moths 527

Perez, Ch. — Imaginal Adipose Tissue in Muscidse .. .. 527

Kxjnstler, J., & J. Chaine — Case of Dimorphism in Cecidomyidse 527

Longchamps, Maurice de Selys — First Abdominal Appendage in the Meal- Worm 527

Felt, E. P., & L. J. Joutel — Monograph of Genus Saperda 527

Carpenter, G. H., & W. Evans — New British Spring-Tails 527

Silvestri, Filippo — New Machilidse 528

Binnenthal, Fr. Kichter von — Enemies of Roses 528

Webster, F. M. — Habits and Development of Neocerata rhodophaga 528

„ „ Life-History, Habits and Taxonomic Relations of a New Species

of Oberea 528

Picard, F. — Habits of Sphex .. 646

Handlirsch, A. — Insect Evolution in Relation to Plants 646

„ ,. Convergence Pheiwmena in Insects 6iG

Bauer, V. — Metamorphosis of Central Nervous System in Insects 647

Mollinsox, Th. — Nutritive Role of Follicular Epithelium in Melolontha vulgaris .. 617

CONTENTS. XV

PAGE

Breed, R. S. — Muscle-Clianges in Beetle (Thymalua marginicollis) during Meta-
morphosis 64/

Enderlein, G. — Weevils of Crozet Inlands •• •• 648

Tutt, J. W. — Natural History of British Lepidoptera .. .. 648

Austen, E. E. — '1 'setse-Flies 64S

Chevrel, Rene — Neto Genus of Marine Diptera 648

d'Herculais, J. Kunckel — Dipterous Parasites of Lepidoptera 648

Schulz, W. A. — Diptera as Ectoparasites on South American Lepidoptera .. 649

Davydoff, C. — Phagocytic Apparatus of Cleandrus graniger 649

Matsumira, S. — Cercopidx of Japan .. 649

Ribaga, Constantino — Parthenogenesis in Copeognathm .. .. 649

Enderlein, G. — Nymphopsocus destructor : a new Copeognathid .. .. ■■ 649

J acobi, A.— Homoptera of North-East Africa 649

Enderlein, Gunther — Louse of Elephant-Seal ■• 649

Wassilieff, A. — Spermatogenesis of Blatta germanica 650

Agnus, M. — Palxoblattina Douvillei 650

Colves, W. D. — The Antennx- of Pulez irritans "725

l3. Myriopoda.

Silvestri, F.— Littoral Myriopods ISO

Hennings, C. — Sense of Smell in Myriopods 411

Silvestri, F. — New Genera of Scutigeridx 412

5. Arachnida.

Pocock, R. I. — Stridulation in Scorpions 62

Lewis, R. T.—New Chelifer 62

Michael, Albert D. — British Tyroglyphid;e. 181

Silvestri, F. — New Species of Kaznenia from Italy 181

Poljansky, I. — Development of Scorpions 308

Heim, F., & A. Oudemans — Two new forms of Trombidium parasitic in Man . . 308

Thor — Comparative Anatomy of Mites 308

Franz, V. — Structure of Heart and Origin of Blood-Cells in Spiders 412

Heymons, R. — Wing-like Lateral Organs of Solifugx 412

Smith, F. P. — Spiders of the Sub-Family Erigoninx .. : 412

Osborn, H. — Grasping Organs in Pediculidse 529

Cole, Leon J. — Pycnogonida of West Coast of North America 529

Wolcott, R. H. — North American Species of Limnesia 650

Witte, C. J. — Notostigmata : New Sub-order of Acari 650

Daday, E. von — Hungarian Species of Eylais 650

Fritsch, Anton— Palxozoic Arachnida 651

e.

Crustacea.

Gurney, Robert — Larval Forms of Crangonidse 63

Gurney, R. — Cladoceran new to Britain 63

Steuer, Adolf — New Copepod Genus .. .\ 63

Graeter, A.— Copepoda of Basel .. 63

Soourfield, D. J. — British Freshwater Entomostraca 63

Lehmann, Harriet — Variation in Cyclops 63

Calman, W. T. — Classification of Malacostraca 181

Labbe, Alphonse — Spermatozoa of Decapods 181

Cuenot, L. — Phagocytic Organ of Decapods 181

Hansen, H. J. — New Family of Amphipods 182

Small-wood, Mabel E. — Study of the Beach-Flea 182

Wilson, C. B.—Argulidse 182

Norman, A. M. — Calanoid Copepoda 182

Pcnnett, R. C— Proportion of Sexes in Shore-Crab 308

Holmes, S. J. — Sex Recognition among Amphipods 309

XVI CONTENTS.

PAGE

Senna, A. — New Hyperiid Amphipod 309

Stingelin, Th. — Hotopedidx 309

Wolf, E. — Winter Eggs in Copepods 30!>

Lankester, E. Ray — Modification of Eye-Peduncles in Cymonomus 412

Andrews, E. A. — Breeding Habits of American Crayfish 413

Bouvier, E. L. — Mutations of Certain Atyids 414

Scourfield, D. J. — British Fresh-water Eniomostraca 414

Labbe, A. — Maturation Divisions in Testicle of a Lobster 529-

Perez, Ch. — Isopod Parasitic in a Sacculina 530

Berndt, W. — Cryptophialus striatus, sp. n 530

Gruvel, A. — Fixation of Coronulidse in Skin of Cetaceans 530

„ „ Organ of Kcehler in Cirripeds 530

Marsh, C. Dwight — New Canthocamytus from Idaho 530

Eoster, E. — Free-swimming Copepods of Louisiana 530

Ekman, Sven — Entomostraca of Northern Swedish Mountains 651

Miculicich, Miroslav — NewLernxpod 651

Cussans, M. — Memoir on Gammarus 651

Samter, M., & W. Weltner — The Origin of Mysis, Pallasiella, and Poutoporeia .. 651

Calman, W. T. — Cave-dwelling Galatheid from the Canary Islands 652

Labbe, A. — Polyspermy and the Culture of Spermatozoids 652

Annulata.

Tzuka, Akira — Neio Polygordius 64

Gerould, J. H. — Development of Phascolosoma 61

Galvagni, Egon — Histology of Ctenodrilus Clap . .. 64

Schmidt, F. — Musculature of Branchiobdella parasitica 64

Stummer-Traunfels, R. Ritter v. — Anatomy and Histology of Myzostoma .. .. 64

Ladkeyt, F. — Leucocytes anil Similar Cells in Sipunculus nudus 183

Woodworth, W. McM. — Palolo Worm of Samoa 183

Moore, J. Percy — Some Woods Hole Pelagic Polychseta 184

Bretscher, K. — Distribution of Oligochseta 184

Adams, G. P. — Negative and Positive Phototropism of the Earthworm 184

Iwanow, P. — Regeneration in Lumbriculus variegatis 184

Stolc, Antonin — Experiments in JEolosoma hemprichii 184

Malaquin, A.^Cephalisation and Metamerism in Annelids 309

Schuberg, A., & A. Schroder — Nematode in Smooth Muscle-Cells of Nephelis .. 300

Iwanow, P. — Regeneration of Trunk and Head Segments in Lumbricus variegatus.. 414

Brasil, L. — Digestive Apparatus in Polychseta 415

Soulier, Albert — Revision of Annelid Genera 415

Ramon y Cajal, Santiago— Minute Structure of Nerve-cells and Epithelial Cells

in Earthworms 415

Livanow, N. — Splanchnic Musculature in Oligochseta and Hirudinea 416

Ditlevsen, Asger — Studies on Oligoilixta 531

Herubel, M. — Priapulidx of Scandinavia 531

Spiess, Camille — Digestive System of Hirudinea . . . . 531

Allen, E. J. — Structure and, Habits of Po3cilochastus 652

Goodrich, E. S. — Branchial Vessels of Sternaspis .. 652

Marenzeller, Emil von — Polynoid Symbion of Hydrocorallinse 653

Izdka, Akira — Neiv Deep-sea Polychsete • 653

Ashworth, J. H. — Memoir on Areni cola 653

Fage, L. — Nephridial Cells of Leech 653

Livanow, N . — Metamerism of Nervous System of Hirudinea 653

Nematohelminth.es.

Noe, G. — Filaria immitis 1 85

Low, G. C. — Filaria perstans in relation to Sleeping Sickness 185

Runther, Max — Cerebral Ganglion and Body-Cavity of Gordiidat . 416

Goldsohmidt, R. — Radially Striated Ganglion Cells in Ascaris 416

CONTENTS. XV11

PAGK

Boveri, Th. — Differences in the Chromosomes of Sister- germ-cells 531

Taniguchi, N. — Filaria Bancroft 'i 65 (

Metcalf, Haven — Nematode associated with Decay in Plants • 54

Loos, A. — Structure of Filaria loa 654

Sala, L. — Peculiar Structure of Epithelial Cells of Ovarian and Spermatic Tubes

of A scar ids 654

Platyhelminthes.

Chichakoff, G. — New Species of Phagocata Ledy 65

Bohn, Georges — Oscillatory Movements of Convoluta roscofensis 185

Laidlaw, F. F. — Pension of Classification of Polyclad 'J urbellarians 185

Zykoff, W.— Structure of Mesostoma nasonoffii Graff 185

Ball & Marotel — Cysticercus cellulosse on Dog's Brain 185

Zschokke, F. — Cestodes of South American Marsupials 185

Clero, W. — Parasites of Ural Birds 186

Stevens, N. M. — Development of Planaria simplUsima 310

Mattieben, E. — Early Development of Freshwater Dendrocoelida 310

Warren, E. — Structure and Development of Distomum cirrigerum 311

Bresslau, E. — Development of Turbellarians 416

Stafford, J. — Trematodes from Canadian Fishes 417

Fuhrmann, O. — Cestode with Separate Sexes 417

„ „ Fresh-water Representative of a Marine Genus of Turbellaria . . 417

Moll, Camillo — Terrestrial Planarians from North-East Africa 532

Ssinitzin, D. — Sense-Organs in Digenetic Trematodes 532

MacCallum, W. G. — Echinostomum garzettm 532

Fischoeder, F. — Three Species of Paramphistomum from Mammals 532

Janicki, C. von — Cestode* from Mammals 533

Fuhrmann, O. — A Dioecious Cextode 654

Hein, W. — Epithelium of Trematodes 655

Ward, Henry B. — Determination of Human Entozoa 655

Polyzoa.

Uousselet, C. F. — Fresh-water Poly zoo'n from Rhodesia ... 417

Maple8tone, C. M. — Tertiary Polyzoa of Victoria 417

Incertse Sedis.

Ikeda, Iwaji — Gonads of Phoronis 65

ineresheimer, E. — Lohmannia catenata, g. et sp. n 186

Caullery, Maurice, & Felix Mesnil — Pelmatosphmra 311

Cowles, R. P. — Body Cavities and Nephridia of Actinotrocha 418

Schultz, E. — Regeneration in Phoronis Mull eri 418

Spengel, J. W. — Ptychodera flava funafutica 418

Cowles, It. P. — Development of Blood- Vessels and Blood-Corpuscles in the Actino-
trocha Larva ^ 418

Neresheimer, E. — Lohmanella catenata .. 419

Spengel, J. W. — Anatomy of Ptychodera erythrsea 533

(alvet, M. L. — Geographical Distribution of Marine Bryozoa 533

Lang, W. D. — Jurassic Polyzoa 533

Fowler, G. H. — Notes on Hhabdopleura Normani 655

Ulrich, E. 0., & B. S. Bassler— Revision of Palasozoic Bryozoa 655

Rotatoria.

Bryce, David— New Species of Philodina 65

Marks, K. I., & W. Wesche— New Male Rotifers 65

Lauterborn, Bobert — Variation Cycle of Anurssa cochlear is 65

Daday, E. von — New Rotifers 66

Dec. 21st, 1904. b

XV111 CONTENTS.

I'AGK

Hlava, Stan. — Excretory Organs in the Family Melicertidse 18<i

Voigt, Max — Botatoria and Gastrotricha of Ploen 419

Jennings, H. S. — A Monograph of the Ratiulid*. 419

Lord, T. V^.—New Rotifer 533

Linker, Charles — New Rotifer .. .. 655

Beauchamp, P. de — Aeio Rotifer of Genus Drilophaga 050

Echinoderma.

Delage, Yves — Non-regeneration of Sphxridia in Sea- Urchins 06

Henki, V., & S. Lalou — Osmotic Action of the Internal Fluids of Echinoderms . . 66

htuenthek, K.— Study of the Nucleolus in the M attiring Ovum 18'

Theel, Hjalmar — Development of Echinus miliar is 187

Lokb, Jacques — Sea-Urchin Ova Fertilised by Starfish Spermatozoa 187

Krassuskaja, A., & E. Landau — Ova of Sea- Urchins 187

Delage, Yves — Parthenogenesis induced by Carbon Dioxide 187

Viguier, C. — Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Ova of Echinoderms 188

Mortensen, Th. — New Genus of Diadematidm 188

Mitsukuri, K. — Habits and Life-History of Stichopus japonicus 18S

McIntosh, D. C. — Variation in Ophiocoma nigra 188

Schucking, A. — Fertilisation and Parthenogenesis in Echinoderms 311

Bell, F. Jeffrey — New Genus of Spatangoids 311

Monks, Sarah P. — Regeneration in Starfish . . 312

Delage, Yves — Parthenogenetic Larvue of Asterias glacialis 420

Ludwig, H. — Parental Care in Echinoderms 420

Schmidt, H. — Larval Development of Echinus microtuberculatus 534

Herouard, E.— " Pentasomxa " theory 534

Bather, F. A. — Eocene Echinoids from Sohoto 535

Polara, G. — New Gonad in Holothunans 656

Spencer, W. K. — Palxodiscus and Agelacrinus 656

Ostergren, Hj. — Fu7ictio?i of Tube-Feet in Ophiuroids 656

Ccelentera.

Mat, Albert J. — Development of Corymorpha 67

Russell, E. S. — Depastrum 67

Gravier, Oh. — Medusa from Victoria Nyanza 189

MoMurrich, J. Blayfair — Sagartia paguri Verril 189

Motz-Kossowska, Madame S. — Modification of Hydroid Colonies by Movements in

the Water 189

Clarke, S. F. — Alaskan Corymorpha-lihe Hydroid 189

Hickson, S. J. — New Ceratella 190

Yakovleff, N. — Septa of Rugosa 190

Kinkelin, F. — Devonian Medusa 312

Roule, L. — New Cerianthid 312

Bigelow, H. B. — Medusas from Maldive Islands 420

Goette, A. — Development of Hydromedusai 535

J anower, Martin — Solenocaulon 5155

Kingsley, J. S. — Anatomy of Cerianthus borealis 535

Carlgren, O. — Studies in Anthozoa 535

Nutting, C. C. — American Hydroids 657

Mayer, A. G. — Medusze of the Bahamas 657

Torrey, Harry Beal, & Janet Ruth Mery — Regeneration and Non-Sexual Re-
production in Sagartia davisi 657

Torrey, H. B. — Habits and Reactions of Sagartia davisi £58

Davenport, G. C. — Variation in Sagartia lucias 658

Marenzeller, Emil von — ' Albatross ' Corals 658

Krempf, Armand — Modification of Tentacular Apparatus in Madrepora .. .. 659

Roule, Louis — Systematic Relationships of Antipatharia 659

CONTENTS. XIX
Porifera.

PAGE

Hinde, G. J. — On the Structure and Affinities of the Genus Porosphzera Steinmann.

(Plates I. and II.) 1

Sollas, Igerna B. J. — Haddonella 67

Gorich, W. — Spermatogenesis in Porifera and Ccelentera 312, 421

Protozoa.

Mitrophanow, P. — Nuclear Apparatus in Paramoecium 67

Statkewitsch, P.- — Action of Induction Shocks on Ciliata 68

Wright, Joseph — Micro-fauna of Boulder Clay 6S

Crawley, Howard — North American Gregarines (58

Anderson, J. F. — Tick Fever 68

West, G. S. — Neio British Freshwater Bhizopods 190

Stempell, W. — Nosema ano malum Monz 190

Hanna, W. — Trypanosoma in Birds 190

Castellani, Aldo — Trypanosoma in Sleeping Sickness 191

„ „ Developmental Forms of the Trypanosome found in Sleeping

Sickness 191

Mossu & Marotel — Coccidia in Sheep 191

Hartmann, M. — Beproductive Cycle in Protozoa, Volvocinese, and Dicyemidse . . 313

Awerinzew, S. — New Type of Suctoria 313

Silve3Tbi. A. — New or Little Known Miocene Foraminifera .. .. 313

Musgrate, W. E., & M. T. Clegg — Trypanosoma and Trypanosomiasis 313

Hanna, W. — Trypanosoma in Indian Birds 313

Leger, L. — Coccidia in Lamellibranchs 314

Laveran, A., & F. Mesnil — Piroplasma donovani 314

Jennings, H. S. — Demonstrating Discharge of Contractile Vacuoles.. .. : .. 421

Leger, Louis — Trypanoplasma of the Minnoio 421

Millett, F. W. — Beport on the Becent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago

collected by Mr. A. Durrand.— Part XVI. (Plate X.).- •• 489

Ditto.— Part XVII. {Conclusion). (Plate XI.) 597

Halben, R. — Significance of Pigment Spots in Protozoa 536

Woodcock, H. M. — Neogamous gregarines 536

Smith, J. C. — Protozoa of Louisiana 537

Laveran, A., & F. Mesnil — Trypanosoma dimorphon in Horses 537

Perez, Ch. — Peculiar Parasite of the Embryos of Daphnia 537

Hofer, Brdno — Handbook of Fish-Diseases 659

Grassi, B., & A. Foa — Mitosis in Flagellata 659

Mitrophanow, P. — Basal Corpuscles in Connection with Cilia 659

Hollis, F. S. — CJdamydomonas in Water-supplies 659

Mitrophanow, P. — Trichocysts of Paramoecium 660

„ „ Nucleus of Paramoecium 660

Fatjre, E.— Stalk of Vorticella 660

Woodcock, H. M. — Notes on Klossiella muris, g. et sp. n 660

Petrie, G. F. — Trypanosome of Babbit 660

Galli-Valerio, B. — Piroplasma of Dog 661

Woodcock, H. M. — Myxosporidia of Flat-fish- 661

b 2

XX CONTENTS.

BOTANY.

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Cytology,
including- Cell-Contents.

PAGE

JANS8EN8, F. A. — Nucleus of the Yeast-Plant 69

Janssens & Mertens — Micro-chemistry and Cytology of a Torula 69

Wisselingh, C. van — Abnormal Nuclear Division 70

Cannon, W. A. — Spermatogenesis of Hybrid Peas 70

Lotsy, J. P. — Bivalence of the Chromosomes 315

Wasielewski, W. v., & B. Nemec — Amitosis in Plants 315

Gregory, K. P. — Reduction Division in Ferns 315

Ichimura, T. — Formation of Anthocyan 315

Bibliography 316

Meves, Fr. — Occurrence of Mitochrondria and Chondromites in Plant Cells .. .. 538

Charabot, E., & G. Laloue — Scent of the Orange Flower 538

Strasburger — Observations on Reduction-division 662

Koernicke, M. — Recent Work on Cytology 662

Berghs, J. — Heterotypic Division 662

Wager, H. — Function of the Nucleolus 662

Gregoire, V., & A. Wygaerts — Reconstitution of the Nucleus and Formation of

the Chromosomes ' 663

Gregoire, V.. & J. Berghs — Formation of the Achromatic Figure in Pellia .. .. 663

Schulze, E., & N. Castoro — Inorganic Phosphates in Plant Seeds and in Seedlings 663

Structure and Development.

Vegetative.

Tondera, Fr. — Stem of Sicyos angulata 70

Svedelius, N. — Saprophytic Gentianacex 70

Daguillon, Aug., & H. Coupjn — Structure of the Extrafloral Nectaries of Hevea 71

Viguier, R. — Anatomy of Seedlings of Labiatse 192

Candolle, C. de — Adventitious Endogenous Buds 192

Delacroix, G. — Degeneration of the Potato 193

Chauveadd, G. — Persistence of the Alternate Structure in Cotyledons 317

Dauphine, A. — Lignification of Subterranean Organs in Plants of High Regions .. 317

Masteks, M. T. — General View of the Genus Pinus 422

Schaffner, J. H. — Morphological Peculiarities of the Nymphxacese and Helobise .. 423

Hamilton, A. G. — Byblis gigantea 424

Goebel, K. — Regeneration in Lentibulariex 424

Yasuda, Atsashi — Comparative Anatomy of Japanese Cueurbitaceas 538

Faber, F. C. von — Development of the Bicollaterdl Bundle of Cucurbita 539

Lippold, E. — Leaf form and Stomata of the Dwarf Plants of the Wiirzburg Lime-
stone 539

Daguillon, A., & H. Coupin — Structure of the Petiolar Glands of Hevea brasiliensis 540
Hemmendorff, E. — Vegetative Propagation in the Floral Region in Epidendrum

elongatum 540

Bibliography 540

Bernard, Ch. — Centripetal Wood in Leaves of Conifers 663

Arber, E. A. N. — Cupressinoxylon Hooheri 664

Ward, Lester F. — Cycadeoidea Reichenbachiana 664

Darbishire, O. V. — Observations on Mamillaria elongata 664

Gatin, C. L. — Germination and Formation of the Primary Root in Palms . . . . 664

Bibliography 665

CONTENTS. XXI
Reproductive.

PAGE

Hemsley, W. B. — Germination of Davidia 71

Akber, E. A. N. — Synanthy in Lonicera 72

Daniel, L. — New Graft-Hybrid 73

Bibliography 73

Murbeck — Development of Gametophyte and Embryo of Buppia rostellata .. . . 1 93

Laurent, M. — Embryology of J uncacex 194

Bibliography 194

Wylie, R. B. — Morphology of Elodea canadensis 318

Richer, P. P. — Pollination of Buckwheat 319

Britton, C. E. — Variation in the Violet Flower 540

Jancewski, Ed. de — Sexuality in the Genus Ribes 541

Smith, Isabel S. — Nutrition of the Egg in Zamia 541

Opperman, Marie — Embryo-sac and Fertilisation in Aster 541

York, H. H. — Embryo-sac and Embryology of Nelumbo 542

Schaffner, J.IH. — Jacket Layer in Sassafras 543

Bibliography 543

Stopes, Marie C. — Ovule and Seed of Cycadex 665

Kidston, R. — Fructification of Neuropter is Heterophyll'a 166

Lawson, A. A. — Gametophyte and Embryology of Cryptomeria Japonica .. .. 666

Shaw, C. H. — Gametophyte and Development of the Seed-coats in some Papaveracese 667

Physiology.
Nutrition and Growth.

Bokorny, T., & L. Macchiati— Photosynthesis 73

Laurent, E., & E. Marchal — Synthesis of Proteids 74

Wilfarth, H., & G. Wimmer — Deficiency of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potas-
sium in Plant- Growth 74

Laurent, E. — Influence of Mineral Food on Sex in Dioecious Plants 74

Molliard, M., & H. Coupin — Influence of Potassium on the Morphology of Sterig-

matocystis nigra 194

Tondera, F. — Function of the Starch-sheath 195

Hebert, A., & E. Charabot — Influence of the Nature of the Soil on the Organic

Composition of Plants 195

Reinke, J. — Nitrogen-assimilation of Fresh-water Algee 319

Kostytschew, S. — Respiration of Filamentous Fungi ,. 425

Hebert, A., & G. Truffaut— Influence of External Media on Mineral Constituents

and Organic Composition of Plants 425

Cordemoy, H. J. de — Mycorhiza of Vanilla 425

Becquerel, P. — Resistance of Certain Seeds to the Action of Absolute Alcohol .. 426

,, „ Permeability to Gases of Certain Dried Seeds 426

Bibliography 426

Ternetz, Charlotte— Assimilation of Atmospheric Nitrogen 543

Godlewski, E. — Intramolecular Respiration 544

Kastle, J. H., & E. Elvove— Sources of Nitrogen to Fungi 667

Burgerstein, A. — Transpiration 668

Baccarini, P. — Accumulation of Water in the Leaf-sheath of Musa Ensete .. .. 668

Irritability.

Weis, Fr. — Relation between Light Intensity and Energy of Assimilation in Plants

■belonging to different Biologic Types 195

Edelstein, W. — Hydathodes in the Leaves of Woody Plants 19(5

Newcombe, F. C, & A. L. Rhodes— Chemotropism of Roots 319

Watterson, Ada — Effect of Chemical Irritation on Respiration of Fungi .. .. 544

Darwin, F.— Perception of the Force of Gravity by Plants 545

Bennett, Mary E. — Aerotropism in Roots 546

Kanda Masayasu— Stimulating Action of some Metallic Salts on the Growth of the

Higher Plants 546

XX11 CONTENTS.

Chemical Changes.

PAGE

Meisenheimer, J. — Experiments on Yeast Extract 75

Wosnessensky, E., & E. Elisseef — Co-efficient of Respiration of Yeasts 75

Gobis, A. — Micro-chemical Researches on some Glucosides and some Vegetable

Tannins 76

Dunstan, Wyndham K., & T. A. Henky — Cyanogenesis in Plants 77

Kastle, J. H., & Mary E. Clark— Occurrence of Invertase in Plants 547

Maze, P. — Zymase and Alcoholic Fermentation 547

Niclodx, Maurice — Germination of Oily Seeds 668

General.

Etheridge, R. — Australian Fossil Botany 77

Duggeli, Max — Plant- Life in the SihWial at Einsiedeln 78

Lindm/bk, G. — Swedish Saxifrages 78

Clarke, . B. — Chinese Cyperacem 78

Schilbebsky, K., & O. V. Winnersten — Teratology 78

Bibliography 79

Harshberger, J. W. — Ecologic Study of the Flora of Mountainous North Carolina 196

Wieland, G. R. — Polar Climate in Time the Major Factor in Evolution .. .. 197

Stone, Witmeb — Racial Variation 198

Holm, T. — Studies in the Cyperacem : the Grouping of the Carices 200

Aubebt, S. — Association of Chalk-loving and Chalk-avoiding Species 200

Aterido, D. L. — American Plants Naturalised in Spain 200

Turner, F. — Australian Botany 201

Bibliography 201

Bernard, Noel — Endophytic Fungus of Orchids 320

Dandeno, J. B. — Mechanics of Seed-dispersion in Ricinus communis 320

Holm, T. — Triadenum virginicum, Rafinesque 321

Barsali, E.— Hairs of Aquatic Plants 321

Buohenau, F. — Development of Stamens in the Interior of the Ovary of Melandryum 321

Geisenhayner, L. — Monstrosities in Foliage Leaves 322

Bibliography 322

Bell, E. — Pollination of the Primrose 426

Wildeman, E. de — Randia Lujx: a New Myrmecophyte and Acarophyte .. . . 427

Buscalioni, L.— Caulifloria 427

Rendle, A. B. — Classification of Flowering Plants: Vol. I. Gymnosperms and

Monocotyledons 427

Renault, B. — Relation between the Cryptogams and Higher Plants 428

Forbes & others— Chinese Flora 428

Higgin, A. J. — Ash Analysis of Acacia salicina 428

Bibliogeaphy 429

Gadeceau, Emile — Botany of Belle Isle 547

Merrill, E. D.— Flora of the Philippine Islands 548

Nathorst, A. G. — Antarctic Fossil Flora 548

Laurent, L. — Presence of Abronia in the Tertiary Flora of Europe 549

Bibliography 549

Gregory, R. P. — Determination of Sex in Plants 669

Gerbeb, C. — Replacement of Stamens by Carpels in Wallflower 669

Perez, J. — Attraction of Colours and Scents for Insects 669

Schimpeb, A. F. W. — Plant-Geography upon a Physiological Basis 670

Freuler, B. — Forest Vegetation in Southern Switzerland 670

Rendle, A. B. — Completion of Chinese Flora 670

Maiden, J. H.— Flora of Norfolk Island 670

Stefansen, St., & W. G. Soderbaum — Icelandic Fodder Plants 671

Philippine Rubber Plants 671

Stone, Herbert — Timbers of Commerce and their Identification 671

Mattirolo, O. — Carlo Allioni 672

Gayon, U., & C. Sauvageau — Alexis Millardet 672

CONTENTS. XX11I

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

PA OK

Shull, G. H.— Isoetes 79

Jakowatz, .A — Investigations on Fern-prothallia 80

Lindman, C. A. M. — Tropical American Ferns 80

„ „ Trichomanes (sect. Didymoglossurri) 80

Christ, V. H. — Asplenium Ruta-muraria 81

Underwood, L. M. — Li missus's System of Ferns 81

Bibliography 81

Tansley, A. G., & E. B. Lclham— Vascular System of the Rhizome and Leaf-trace

of Pteris Aquilina and P. incisa 201

Scott, D. H. — Germinating Spores in a Fossil Fern 202

Lyon, F. M. — Two Megasporangia in Selaginella 202

Underwood, L. M. — Ferns of the Philippines 202

Gilbert, B. D. — American Ferns 203

Bibliography 203

Chauveaud, G. — Development of Vascular Cryptogams 322

Campbell, D. H. — Antithetic versus Homologous Alternation 323

Parish, S. li.— Californium, Ferns 323

Bibliography 324

Boodle, L. A. — Structure of Leaves of the Bracken Fern in Relation to Environment 429

Bibliography 430

Ott, E. — Anatomical Structure of Hymenophyllacex 549

Bibliography 550

Bibliography 672

Bryophyta.

Keid, C. — Fossil British Mosses 81

Best, G. N. — North American Species of Leskea 81

Begcinot, A. — Bryology of the Tuscan Archipelago 82

Levier, E. — European Mosses in the Himalayas 82

Britton, E. G., & others — North American Mosses 82

Dosen, P. — South American Mosses 83

Lampa, E. — Germination of Liver-worts 83

Porsild, M. P. — Development of Riella 83

Cavers, F. — Riella capensis, sp. n. 84

„ Petalophyllum Ralfsii S4

Howe, M. A. — Yukon Hepatics 85

Bibliography 85

Fleischer, M. — Mosses of Java 204

Hansen, A. — Danish Species of Amblystegium 204

Miller, M. F., & others — American Mosses 204

Cardot, J. — Leucobryacese of the East African Islands 205

Garjeanne, A. J. M. — Oil-bodies in the Jung ermanni ales 205

Cavers, F. — Explosive Discharge of Antherozoids in Hepaticse 205

Lampa, E. — Exogenous Antheridia in Anthoceros 205

Lohmann, C E. J. — Chemistry and Biology of Hepatics 206

Coker, W. C. — Structure of some North American Hepatics 206

Evans, A. W. — Odontoschisma in North America 206

„ „ Hepaticse of Puerto Rico 207

Cavers, Y.— Pallavicinia Flotowiana 207

„ „ Fegatella conica 207

Ewing, P. — British Hepaticse 208

Macvicar, S. M. — Census of Scottish Hepaticse 208

McArdle, D. — Irish Hepaticse 208

Bibliography 209

Holperty, G. M. — Origin of Moss- Archegonium 326

Schiffner, V. — Critical Notes on Muscinese 326

XXIV CONTENTS.

p.

PAGE

Dixon, H. N. — Rhynchoitegium litoreum 326

Torre, K. W. v. Dalla, & Ludwig Graf von Sarnthein — Tyrolean Muscinex .. 326

Holzinger, J. M. — North American Mosses .. 327

Dusen, P. — Patagonian and Fuegian Mosses 327

Levier, E. — Hawaiian Mosses 327

Garber, J. F. — Morphology and Biology of Iiicciocarpus natans 327

Garjeanne, Anton J. M., & B. Nemec — Mycorrhiza of Liver-worts 32S

Evans, A. W. — Patagcnian Hepatics 328

Bibliography 328

Cavers, F. — Biology of Hepaticx 431

Macvicar, S. M. — Hepaticx of Atlantic Type in Scotland 431

Jones, D. A. — Plagiothecium piliferum 431

Evans, A. W. — Hepaticx of Puerto Rico 431

Douin, I. — A New Irish Hepatic 432

Cardot, J. — Mosses of Korea 432

Grout, A. J. — North American Mosses 432

Bibliography 433

Dixon, H. N— British Mosses 552

Warnstorp, C. — Mosses of Mark Brandenburg 552

Salmon, E. S. — Ectropothecium 552

Boulay, Abbe — French Hepaticx 552

Bibliography 553

Johnson, D. S. — Monoclea 674

Schiffner, V. — Revision of Lophozia 674

Pfaehler, A. — Dispersal of Moss-spores 674

Bibliography 675

Thallophyta.

Algae.

Hansgirg, A. — Polymorphism of Algx 86

Fliche, P., & B. Renault — Fossil Algx 86

Moore, G. T. — Algx in Public Water-supplies 86

Fritsch, F. E. — Thames Plankton 87

West, W., & G. S. West— Scottish Freshwater Plankton 87

Lemmermann, E. — Phytoplankton from Bradenburg Lakes • .. .. 88

Keissler, K. von — Plankton of Hallstalter See 88

Ostenfeld. C. H. — Norwegian Phytoplankton 88

Iwanoff, L. — Russian Fresh-water Algx 88

Howe, Marshall A. — " Flowering" of North American Lakes 89

Cushman, J. A. — New England ' Desmids 89

Borge, O. — Freshwater Algx from Brazil and Paraguay 89

Philip, R. H. — Diatoms new, to the Hull District 89

Oestrup, E., & 0. H. Ostenfeld — Diatoms and Plankton from the Faeroes .. .. 90

Bibliography 90

Bolochonzew — Phytoplankton of the Volga 210

Volk, R— Plankton if the Elbe 211

Heiden — Atlas of Diatoms 211

Prudent, P. — Diatoms from the Jura 211

Miquel, P. — Cultures of Diatoms 211

Yendo, K. — Caulerpa anceps 211

,, „ A New Species of Hedophyllum 212

Liburnau, J. L. von — Halimeda Fuggeri 212

Wesenberg, C. — Mgagropila Sauteri 213

Robinson, C. B. — Fucus serratus in America 213

Sauvageau, C. — Sphacelaria cirrosa 213

McMillan, C. — Kelps of Juan de Fuca 214

"Williams. L. — Alternation of Generations in the Dictyotacex 214

Rosenvinge, L. K. — Hair --like Growths of the Rhodomelacex 215

Foslie. M. — Lithothamnia from the Indian Ocean 215

CONTENTS. XXV

PAoa

Jonsson, H.— Marine Algse of Iceland 215

Mazza, A. — Marine Algse from Sicily 215

Palibin, J. — Arctic Algse .. .. 216

Reinbold, Th. — Marine Algm from the Red Sea 216

Barton, E. S. — Indian Ocean Algm 216

„ „ Marine Algm from the Gulf of Manaar 216

Yendo, K. — Three Neic Japanese Algm 216

„ „ Uses of Marine Algze in Japan 217

„ „ Distribution of Marine Algse in Japan 217

Collins, F. S. — North American Algm 217

Tobler, F. — Cell-growth and Plant-form in Marine Algse 217

Bibliography 218

Chodat, R. — Points of Algological Nomenclature 332

Gaidukov, N. — Colour of Algse and of Water 332

Zederbauer, E. — Sexual Reproduction in Ceratium 332

Ernst, A. — Siphonem Studies 333

Ll'TKEMuller, J. — Genus Spirotmnia 334

Yendo, K. — New Species of Ecballocystis 334

Mereschkowsky, C. — Transmutation of Various Stages in Diatomacese 334

Riuhter, O. — Pure Cultures of Diatoms 335

Sauvageau, C. — Sphacelariacese 335

Yendo, K. — Corallinem of Japan 336

Toni, G. B. De — Bangia atropurpurea 336

„ „ & A. Forti — Byssus purpurea 336

Bachmann, H. — Phytoplankton of Fresh Water 336

Beesley, Ti. — A Fountain Alga 336

Pascher, A. A., & M. Schmidt — German Fresh-water Algse 337

Preda, A. — Algse of the Gulf of Spezia 337

Howe, M. A.— Bahaman Algse 337

Bibliography 338

Brehm & Lederbauer — Plankton of Certain Alpine Lalies 434

Mereschkowsky, 0. — Morphology of Diatoms 4H4

Petit, P. — Diatoms from Madagascar 434

Lanzi, M. — Uses of Diatoms 435

Mereschkowsky, C. — Transmutation of Various Stages in Diatomacese 43.5

Raymond, M. G. — Alga related to Raphidium polymorphum 435

Rathbone, M. — Myr i act is Areschougii and Coilodesme calif ornica 436

Sauvageau, C. — Sphacelariacem 436

Heydrich. F. — New Genus of Cor allinacem 436

Gepp, E. S. — Chinese Marine Algse 437

Saunders, A.— Alaskan Algse 437

Bibliography 437

Gepp, E. S. — Sporangia of Halimeda 556

Fritsch, F. E. — Pleodori'na in Ceylon 556

Hollis, F. S. — Chlamydomonas 556

Philip, R. H. — Fragilaria Harrisonii 556

Muller, O. — Diatoms from Nyassaland 557

Williams, J. Lloyd—' Studies in the Dictyotacese 557

Bosse, A. Weber van, & M. Foslie— Corallinacem 557

Mottier, D. M. — Development of the Spermatozoid in Chara 558

Borgesen, F.— Algal I egetation of the Faeroes 558

Wesenburg -Lund, C— Plankton of the Danish Lakes .. 559

Gaidukov, N. — Analysis of the Colour of Algse 559

Mooke, G. T., & K. F. Kellerman — Growth of Algse in Water Supplies .. .. 559

Mazza, A.— Sicilian Marine Algse 560

Bibliography 560

Migula, W.— Algse of Central Europe 677

Marquand, E. D.— Algse of Alderney 678

Schmidle, W. — New Algse from Java and the Philippines 678

Okamura, K.— Marine Algse of the Caroline Islands, etc 678

Collins, F. S. — American Algm 678

Bosse, A. Weber van— Two Algse from the Malay Archipelago 678

XXVI CONTENTS.

PAGE

Preda, A. — Floridese of the Gulf of Spezia 679

Yendo, K. — Genicula of Corallinese 679

West, G. S. — British Fresh-water Algse 679

West, W., & G. S. West — British Desmidiacex 680

West, G. S. — West Indian Fresh-water A'l 'gas 680

Lakzi, Matteo — Biology of Diatoms .. 681

Cushman, J. A. — Micrasterias 681

Turner, C. — Development of Cocconema 681

Oestrup, E. — Diatoms of Koh Chang 681

Redeke, H. C. — Dutch Plankton 681

Redeke, H. C, & P. J. van Breemen — North Sea Planldon 681

Bibliography 682

Fungi.

Fritsch, F. E. — New Chytridinese 90

Loewenthal, W. — Basidiobolus Lacertse 91

Petrt, L. — Hesearch on the Genus Streptothrix 91

Petersen, M. Henning Eiler — Note on Phycomycetes 91

Rostowzen, S. J. — Contribution to our Knowledge of Peronoxporese .. . .. 91
Euhland, W. — Studies on the Fertilisation of Albugo Lrpigoni and, some Perono-

sporese '92

Osterwalder, A. — Peronospora on Rehum undulatum 98

Eberhardt, Albert — Biology of Cystopus candidus 93

Vuillemin, Paul — Notes on Syncephalis 93

„ „ Zygospore of Mucorini 93

Maire, R., & P. A. Saccardo — New Genus of Phacidiex 93

Dangeard, P. A. — Fertilisation in Ascodesmis 93

Maire, R. — Cytology of Galactinia succosa 94

Aderhold, Rud. — Infection Experiments with Nectria ditissima 94

Gueguen, F. — Morphological 'and Biological 'Researches on Stysanus 94

Eriksson, Jakob — Rhizoctonia violacea 94

Tranzschel, M. — Experiments with Heteracius Rusts 95

Eriksson, Jakob — Vegetative Form of Yellow Rust .. 95

Klebahn, H. — Heteroecious Rusts 95

Jordi, Ernst — Infection Experiments with Rusts 95

Bibliography 96

Matruchot, L., & M. Molliard — Phytophthora infestans 218

Atkinson, G. F. — The Genus Harpochytrium in the United States 219

Bessey, C. E. — Structure and Classification of the Phycomycetes 219

Sadebeck, R. — Critical Notes on Exoascex 219

Hartmann, M., & others — Mould Yeasts 219

Hall, C. J. J. van — Disease of Currant and Gooseberry 220

Ceboni, G., & G. Megliola — Disease of Cultivated Mushrooms 2i?0

Magnis, P. — New Helminthosporium 220

Johnson, T. — Phellomyces Sclerotiophorus 221

Bates, John M.. & W. A. Kellersian — American Uredinese 221

Blackman, V. H. — On the Fertilisation, Alternation of Generations, and General

Cytology of the Dredinex 22 1

Klebahn, H. — Cultures with Rusts 222

Hennings. P. — Agaricinese on Trees 222

Merril, W. A. — Polyporacese of North America 222

Kltjg, A. — Meridius lacrymans as a cawe of Cancer 2*22

Petri, L. — Spore-formation in Naucoria nana 222

Schrenk, Hermann von — Polyporus fraxinophilus 223

Appel — Oidium Tucker i 223

Morgan, A. P. — American Mycology 223

Mattirolo, O. — Subterranean Fungi in Italy 223

Moller, A. — Mycorhiza of Conifers 223

Petri, L. — Sporangioles of Endotropic Mycorhiza 224

Schrenk, H. von — Diseases of Yellow Pine 224

Sorauer — Injury by Frost followed by Fungoid Attacks 224

Hennings, P. — Wood-destroying Fungi 224

CONTENTS. XXV11

PACK

Hennings, P. — Notes on German Fungi 225

Freeman, E. M. — Seed-fungus of Lolium temulentnm 225

Hollrung, M. — Disease of Coco-Palm 225

Maassen, A. — Biological Test for the Presence of Arsenic 225

Magnus, W. — Morphological Researches 225

Istva'nffi, Julius von — Harmful Fungi 225

Via la, P., & P. Pacoltet — Vegetable Pathology 226

Potter, M. C. — The Action of Fungi on Woody Cells 226

Hollrung, M. — Annual Record of Plant Diseases 226

Holland, L., & others — French Mycology 227

New British Fungi 227

Stevens, F. L., & W. A. Kellerman — American Mycological Notes 228

Potter, M. C. — Brown-rot of Swedes 228

Bibliography 228

King, C. A. — Cytology of Araiospora pulchra 339

Berlese, A. N. — Peronosporeas 339

Vuillemin, Paul — Spinellus chdlybeus and the Spinellus Group .. .. .. .. 339

Woyoicki, Z. — Sexual Reproduction of Basidiobolus 339

Bonnier. Gaston — Conidial Stage of Morchella 340

Dangeard, P. A.— Development of the Perithelium 340

Baccarini, P. — Notes on Ceratostoma juniperinum 340

Salmon, E. S. — Specialisation of Parasitism in the Erysiphacese 340

„ „ Cultural Experiments with the Barley Mildew, Erysiphe graminis

D.C. .. 341

Klocker, Alb. — Forms of Saccharomyces 341

Schionning, H. — Saccharomycopsis 341

Klocker, Alb. — Classification of Penicillium 342

Iwanoff, K. S. — Trichothecinm roseum 342"

Klebahn, H. — Botrytis Disease of Tulips .. 342

Istvanfi, Gy de — Wintering of Oidium Tuckeri 342

Weiss, F. E. — Parasite of Stigmarian Rootlets 343

Magnus, P. — Vredinopsis 343

Dietel, P. — Notes 071 Uredinepe 343

Mangin, L., & P. Viala— Phthiriose of the Vine 343

Traverso, G. B. — Eriksson's Mycoplasma Hypothesis 343

Arthur, J. C. — Taxonomic Importance of the Spermogonium 344

Massee, George— On the Origin of Parasitism in Fungi 344

Copeland, Edwin Bingham — New and Interesting Calif ornian Fungi 344

Kohl, F. G.— Coffee Disease 345

Volkart, A. — Parasitic Fungi 345

Saito, K. — Occurrence of Fungus Spores in the Atmosphere 345

Sarauw, G. F. L. — Mycorrhiza 345

Rea, Carleton, & others — British My cology 346

Boudier, Em., & others — French Mycology 346

Morgan, A. P., & others — American Mycology 347

Bibliography 347

Vuillemin, Paul — Membrane of Zygospores 439

Lagerheim, G. — Bulgaria globosa Fr 439

Aderhold, Rud. — Sclerotinia and Monilia 439

Buba'k, Fk.— Sclerotinia Alni _. 439

Guilliermond, A. — Epiplasm in the Ascomycetes 439

Sadekeck, R. — Critical Notes on Exoascacese 440

Salmon, E. S. — Specialisation of Parasitism in Erysiphacew. 440

„ „ Mycological Notes 441

Dangeard, P. A. — Observations on Gymnoascacex and Aspergillex 441

Guilliermond, A. — Yeast Nucleus 441

Coupin, Henri, & others — Sterigmatocystis versicolor 442

Vast, A. — Culture of Oospora destructor 442

Molliard, Marin — Conidial Form of Daldinia concentrica 442

Lindau, G. — Fungi imperfecti 442

Milesi, M., & G. B. Traverso — Triphragmium 443

XXV111 CONTENTS.

PAGE

Constantineau, J. C. — New Species of Vrtdineae 443

Eriksson, J., & G. Tischler — Vegetative Life of Cereal Busts 448

Klebahn, H. — Mycoplasma Hypothesis 443

Remer, W. — Bust of Cereals in Silesia 444

Hohnel, Franz v. — Myxosporium, Myxolibertella and Sporodiniopsis 444

Morgan, A. P., & others — American Mycology 444

BjORKfcNHMM. C. G. — Boot Excrescences of J Inus 445

Posch-Grin'ad, Karl — Mycopathological Notes from Hungary 445

McAlpine, D. — Australian Fungi 445

Farneti, R.. & R. Aderhold — Diseases of Plants 445

Koning, C. J. — Fungi of the Soil 440

Bordas, F. — Disease of Cork Trees 440

Giesenhagen, K. — Sorica g. n.. Parasitic on Ferns 440

Franzschel, W. — Errors in Determination of Fungi due to Misconception of Host-
Plants 440

Weiss, F. E. — Fossil Fungi 447

Bibliography 447

Horn, L. — Variations of Growth in Achly a poly andra 501

Blakeslee, A. F. — Zygospore Formation in Mucoraceas 502

(Edomyces leproides .. 502

Viala, P., & P. Pacottet — Vegetable Pathology 503

Salmon, E. S. — Cultural Experiments with " Biologic Forms" of the Erysiphacex,

etc 503

Hennings, P. — Aschersonia 503

Viala, P., & P. Pacottet — Anthracnose of the Vine 503

Vanha, J. J. — Disease of Potato 504

Lindau, G. — Hyphomycetes 564

Hohnel, V. — Notes on Moulds 504

Baar, R. — Ustil ago viola cea 504

Arthur, J. C. — Mcidium of Maize Bust 504

Smith, Ralph — Water-relation of Puccinia Asparagi 505

Eriksson, Jakob — Mycoplasma in Urerfinete 505

Holway, E. W. D. — American TJredinese 565

Christman, A. H. — Variability of Dictyophora 565

Merrill, W. A. — The Polyporacese of North America. VII 560

Peklo, Jaroslav — Mycorhiza of Muscinese 5GG

Diseases of Economic Plants 500

C'ruchet, D. — Parasites of Edehveiss 500

McAlpine, D. — Diseases of Cereals 560

Cordemoy, H. Jacob de — Mycorhiza of Epiphytic Plants 507

Thaxter, Roland — Myxobacteriacese 507

Morgan. A. P.; & others — American Fungi 507

Dubourg, E. — Helicomycelium fulignosum 508

Nikitinsky, Jacob— Growth of Moulds 568

Molliard, Marin — Conidial Forms of the Higher Fungi 508

Delacroix, Georges, & A. Pdttemans — Disease of the Coffee Plant 508

Maublanc & Lasnier — Disease of Cattleya 509

Hennings, P. — Fairy-Bings 561)

Hohnel, F. v. — Mycological Contributions 569

Delacroix, G. — Diseases of Potatoes 569

Hohnel, Franz v. — Mycological Notes 570

Trelease, William, & others — Fungi of Alaska 570

Bibliography 570

Hecke, Ludwig — Plasmopar a cubensis in Austria 683

Rothert — Spore-development in Aphanomyces 681

Blakeslee, A. F. — Sexual Beproduction in the Mucorinex 684

Dauphin, J. — Development of Mucorini 084

Molliard, Marin — Conidial Form of Morchella esculenta 684

Giesenhagen, K. — Copnodium maximum 685

Guillermond, A. — liaryolcinesis in the Ascomycetes .. 685

Salmon, E. — Erysiphe Graminis 685

Kossowicz, A.— Growth of Yeast in Mineral Solutions 686

CONTENTS. XXIX

PAGE

Saito, K. — Saccharomyces Anomalus 686

Osterwalder, A. — Contributions to the Morphology of Saccharomyces 686

Bertel, Rud. — Aposphxria violacea, sp. n 686

Traverso, J. B. — Cercosporella compacta, sp. n 686

Lindac, G. — Hyphomycetes 687

Mc Alpine, D., & others — TJredinex 687

Blackman, V. H. — Fertilisation, Alternation of Generations, and General Cytology

of the Uredinem 6S7

Holden, li. J., & P. J. Harper — Nuclear Phenomena in Coleosporium Sonchi-

arvensis 688

Magnus, P. — W itches' -Broom caused by Puccinia 688

Hecke, L. — Infection of Cereals by Smut 689

Federley, H. — Copulation of Conidia in Ustilago Tragopogi-pratensis 689

JVIURRILL, W. A. — North American Polyporaceie 689

Malenkovie, B , & J. Beadveuie — Dry-rot .. .. 689

Coccont, G. — New Species of Microfungi 690

Filauszky, Ferdinand — Teratology of Fungi 690

Maze, P., & A. Perrikr — Production of Citric Acid by Citromyces 690

Fakneti, R. — Diseases of Ficus 691

Briosl, G., & R. Farneti — White Mildeio of Citrus Limonum 691

Rolfs, P. H. — Diseases of Citrous Trees and Fruits 691

Harshberger, J. W. — Mycodomatia of Myrica cerifera 691

Tuszon, Johan — Formation of False Heart-wood in the Red Beech 691

Nikitinsky, Jacob — Influence of Growth Products of Fungi on their Further De-
velopment 692

Bessey, Ernst A. — Conditions of Colour Formation in Fusarium 692

Lindau, G. — Seed -fungus of Lolium temulentum 692

Bibliography 692

Lichens.

Hue, A. — Lecanora subfusca 98

Steiner, J. — Lichens from Socotra .. 98

Zwaokh-Holzhausen, W. Ritter von, & Hugo Gluck — Lichen Flora of Heidel-
berg 230

Hesse, O., & \V. Zopf — Contributions to our knowledge of the Chemistry of Lichens 230

Bibliography 231

Bkitzelmayer, Max — Growth-Forms of Lichens 348

Metzcer, Otto, & Erwin Baur — Development of Lichen Fruits 348

Lang, Eugen — Anatomy of Crustaceous Lichens 350

Bitter, Georg — Studies of Peltigera 449

Harris, Carolyn W. — Collema and Leptogium 449

Nilson, B. — Swedish Lichens 449

Stahl, E. — Protection of Lichens against Animals 450

Elenkin, A. — Lichens as Fndosap i ophytes 450

Bibliography 450

Wainio — Antarctic Lichens .. .. 572

Bilter, Georg — Formation of Soredia in Lichens 572

Cummings, Clara E. — Lichens of Alaska ..^ 572

Bibliography 694

.Mycetozoa.

Pinoy, M. — Development of Myxomycetes 98

Bibliography 98

Jahn, E. — Studies of Myxomycetes 450

1'roweizek, J. — Nuclear Changes in the Plasmodium of Myxomycetes 694

Schizophyta.
Schizophyceae.

Wille, N. — Schizophyceae in Marine Plankton 231

V'ritsch, F. E. — Studies on Cyanophycex 45C

XXX CONTENTS.

Schizomycetes.

PAGE

Ulpiani, C. — Uric Acid Bacterium 9!)

Smith, R. Greig — Bacterial Origin of the Forms of the Arabin Group 99

Trolldekier — Streptothrix in a Dog 99

Delacroix, G. — Jaundice of the Beet : a Bacterial Disease 100

Marchoux, E., & A. Salimbeni — Spirillosis of Fowls 100

Smith, R. Greig — Slime Bacterium from the Peach, etc 231

Ellis, D. — Presence of Cilia in the Genus Bacterium 232

Klein, E. — Bacillus Carnis 232

Plehn, M. — Bacterium Cyprinicidia (n. sp.) 232

Christensen, H. R. — Two New Fluorescent Denitrifying Bacteria 233

Bienstock — Anaerobes and Symbiosis « 233

Mallock, A., & A. M. Davis — Besistance to Heat of Bacillus anthracis .. .. 234

Krisling, K. J. — Fat of Tubercle Bacilli 234

Schweinitz, E. A., & M. Dorset — Composition of Tubercle Bacilli derived from

Various Animals 234

Itersox, G. van — Decomposition of Cellulose by Aerobic Micro-organisms .. .. 23a
Desmots, H. — Production of Acetylmethylcarbinol by Bacteria of the Bacillus

mesentericus Group 3130

Delden, A. van — Reduction of Sulphates by Bacteria 351

Danysz, J. — Microbe Pathogenic to Rats (mws decumanus and mus ratus) .. . . 351
Baudouin, M. — Bacteriology and HUtology of Mud obtained at a depth of 10 m.

from a Roman Funereal Pit at the Necropolis of Bernard (Vendue) .. .. 351
Woolley, P. G., & J. W. Jobling — Hemorrhagic Septicemia in Animals .. . . 352
Woolley, P. G. — Some Pidmonary Lesion* Produced by the Bacillus of Hemor-
rhagic Septicemia of Caraboas 352

Smith, R. Greig — Bacterial Origin of the Forms of the Arabin Group : the

Pararabin form of Sterculia {Bad. pararabinum, sp. n.) 352

Grttn, A. B. — Action of Radium on Micro-organisms 451

Itersen, G. van, J un.— Accumidation Experiments with Denitrifying Bacteria .. 452

Maze, P., & P. Pacottet — Ferments of Diseases of Wines 452

Dalton, F. J. A., & J. \V. H. Eyre — Resistance of the Micrococcus melitensis to

Moist Heat 453

Levaditi, C. — Spirillosis in Fowls 454

Lewawlowsky, F. — Growth of Bacteria in Scdt Solutions of High Concentration .. 454
Desmots, Henri — Production of Acetylmethylcarbinol by the Bacteria of the Group

Bacillus mesentericus 455

Marpmann, G. — Growth of Bacteria under altered Pressure 455

Bullock, W., & J. J. R. Macleod — Chemistry of Tubercle Bacillus 455

Pfeiffer, H. — Bacterial Flora of the Male Urethra 455

Molisch, H. — Bacterial Light and Photographic Plates 572

Smith, A. Greig — Gum and By-products of Bacterium Sacchari 573

Walker, E. W. A., & W. Murray — Effect of certain Dyes upon the Cultural

Characters of the Bacillus Typhosus and some other Micro-organisms .. . . 573

Bodin, E. — Role of Bacteria : Saprophytic arid Pathogenic 573

Jammes, L., & H. Mandoul — Bactericidal Properties of Helminthic Juice .. .. 574

Stephens, J. W. W. — Non-flagellate Typhoid Bacilli 574

Klein, E. — Etiology of Rat-Plague and other Infectious Rat Diseases 694

Schultz-Schultzenstein — Nitrifying Organisms in Sewage Filters 695

Besredka & Dopter — Role of Streptococci in the Course of Scarlatina 695

Besredka — Antistreptococcic Serum and its Mode of Action 696

Herzog, M. — Fatal Infection by a Hitherto Undescribed Chromogenic Bacterium :

Bacillus aureus faitidus 696

Maze, P., & A. Perrier — Role of Microbes in Alcoholic Fermentation which

StoMasa attributes to the Zymase isolated from Vegetable or Animal Tissues 696

Smith, R. Greig — Loss of Colour in Red Wines 697

Metcalf, H. — Bacterium teutlium, sp. n 697

Galli- Valerio, B. — Influence of Shaking on the Development of Cultures . . . . 697

Bibliography 697

CONTENTS. XXXI

MICROSCOPY.
A. Instruments. Accessories, &c.
(1) Stands.

PAI1E

Swift's Simple Dissecting Microscope (Fig. 1) 101

„ Newly Designed Microscope for Bacteriological Research (Fig. 2) .. .. 101

Newly Designed Histological and Physiological Microscope (Fig. 3) .. .. 103

', Continental Stand (Fig. 4) 105

Watson & Sons' " Works" Metallurgical Microscope (frig. 5) 105

J. each's Oxy -hydrogen Lantern Microscope (Fig. 6) 107

Watson's New "Argus " Substage (Fig. 7) 107

., Compound Substage (Fig. S) 108

Stokes, W. B. — Metallurgical Stage 108

Kabop, G. C— Pocket-Magnifier (Fig. 9) 108

Ross' Improved No. 2 " Standard " Microscope (Figs. 21-7) 236

Watson and Sons' New "Argus" Microscope (Fig. 28) 238

Bibliography 240

Lucas, K. — On a Microscope with Geometric Slides (Figs. 49-53) 272

Old Microscope by Bate (Fig. 55) 354

Old Microscope by Plossl, of Vienna (Fig. 56) 355

Baker's Diagnostic Microscope No. 1 (Fig. 57) .. 357

Mineralogical Microscope (Fig. 58) 350

Travelling Microscope (Figs. 59 and 50a) 350

Leitz' New Binocular Loup (Fig. 60) 359

Bibliography 360

Gelblum, S.— Draw- Tube Stop ( Fig. 64) 457

Beck's London Penological Microscope (Figs. 65-7) 457

Zeiss' Rotary Projection Slide Carrier 430

Bibliography 460

Ortner's Entomological Microscope (Fig. 78) 575

Hollick's Naturalist's Microscope (Fig. 79) 576

Pfeiffer, A. — Notched Fine Adjustment for Optical Instruments (Fig. SO) .. .. 577
Pulfrich, C. — Application of the Stereo-Komparator to Monocular Use, and a

Specially Designed Monocular Comparison Microscope (Fig. 81) 578

Bibliography 578

Howard, B. J.— Exhibition Microscope (Fig. 102) 698

Societe Genevoise Second Large Model Microscope (Fig. 103) 600

Culman's Monocular Image- Erecting Prism-Microscope (Fig. 104) 609

Ortner's Pocket-Loup (Fig. 105) 701

„ Loup-Stand (Fig. 106) „ 701

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Merlin, A. A. C. E. — Nelson's Formula Oculars 109

'• H."— Lens Calculation .. 109

Zeiss' Compound Lens with Iris Diaphragm (Fig. 68) 460

Bibliography .. , 578

(3)' Illuminating and.'other Apparatus.

Dunning's New Portable Oil-tight Lamp (Figs. 10 and 11) 110

Swift's Light Modifiers (Figs. 12 and 13) 110

„ Double-Image Prism for Penological Microscopes (Fig. 14) Ill

Nelson, E. M. — On the Vertical Illuminator 165

Heele's Heliostats (Figs. 29-32) 24)

Bibliography 242

Wright, A. E. — On Certain New Methods of Measuring the Magnifying Power of

the Microscope and of its Separate Elements (Fig. 54) 279

Stringer, E. B. — On a Method of Obtaining Monochromatic Ultra-violet Light .. 392

XXX11 CONTENTS.

PAGE

Merlin, A. A. C. E. — On Nelson's New Formula Amplifier .. .. 396

Watson & Sons' New Objective Changer (Fig. 69) 461

Bibliography < 461

Gray, A. W. — An Easily Set-up Heliostat (Fig. 82) 579

Polariscope and Microscope Lantern 580

Chamberlain, C. J. — Artificial Light for the Microscope 702

Zeiss' Apparatus for Examination of Ultra-microscopical Particles (Figs. 107-17) 702

Bibliography 711

(4) Photomicrography.

Bibliography Ill

Bagshaw, W. — Photographing Microscopic Crystals 24 2

O'Donohoe, T. A. — lite How and Why of the Lippmann Colour Process (PI. IX.,

Figs. 33-6) 242

Bibliography 360

Forgan, W. — Photomicrography of Bocli Sections 461

Bibliography 462

Microphotographs 580

Bibliography .. . 582

Ives, F. E. — On the Use of the Escidin Screen in Photomicrography 634

Wallace, R. J. — Grain in Photographic Plates 711

Spitta. E. J. — On Suiting Contrast Screens for the Photography of Bacteria

(Pis. XII.-XIV.) 712

Bibliography 714

° (5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Everett. J. D. — Microscopic Resolution : Note on a Point in Lord Bayleigh's

Paper of 1896 26

Bibliography 112

Nelson, F. M. — The Influence of the Antipoint in the Microscopic Image shown

Graphically (Figs. 47 and' 48) 269

Schaudinn, V. — Absorption and Emission of Air and its Ingredients for Light of

Wave-lengths from 250 p. to 100 w ' 360

Glazebrook, R. T. — Note on the Diffraction Theory of the Microscope as applied

to the Case when the Object is in Motion 361

Michelson, A. A. — Light Wares and their Uses 362

London, E. S. — Simple Method for the Observation of Ultra-Microscopic Particles 362
Krl'ss, H. A. — Filtration of Ultra-Violet Bays through a Selection of Jena Optical

Glasses 363

Gifford, J. W., & W. A. Shenstone — Optical Properties of Vitreous Silica .. .. 363

R.T.G. — Theories of the Besolving Power of a Microscope 364

Everett, J. D. — A Direct Proof of Abbe's Theorems on the Microscopic Besolution

of Gratings 385

Rheinberg, J. — On the Influence on Images of Gratings of Phase Differences

amongst their Spectra 388

J amin's Circle for Befiexion, Befraction a7id Polarisation (Fig. 70) 463

Zschimmer, E. — New Kinds of Glass of Increased Ultra-violet Transparency .. 464

Barus, C. — Direct Micrometric Measurement of Fog Particles 464

Bibliography 465

Bibliography 582

Conrady, A. E. — Tlieories of Microscopical Vision: a Vindication of the Abbe Tlieory 610
Legros, V.. & M. Stiassnie — Photogrammetric Focimeter for Microscopical Optics:

an Instrument for Verifying Microscopies (Fig. 118) 714

Desain's Apparatus (Fig. 119) 715

Conrady, A. E. — Chromatic Correction of Object-Glasses .. .. 716

Gordon, J. W. — Note in reply to A. E. Conrady' s Paper on Microscopical Vision.. 729

Conrady, A. B.—Bf joinder 733

_^ (6) Miscellaneous.

Grubb, Sir H. — General Principle of some Novel Forms of Geodetical Instruments

(Fig. 15) 112

Czapski, S. — The Collected Treatises of Abbe 113

CONTENTS. XXX111

PAGK

Dowdy, S. E. — Focussing Safeguard (Fig. 16) Hi

Birch-Hirschfeld, A. — Ultra-Microscopic Investigation of Colour-matters and their

Physiological Significance 114

Bibliography 115

Cotton, A., & H. Mouton— Ultra-Microscopic Objects (Figs. 37 and 38) .. .. 243

Horder's Clinical Case (Fig. 39) 245

Heele's Miniature Spectroscopes (Figs. 40 and 41) 246

Gage's Microscopy . 369

Stringer, E. B. — An Attachment for Beading the Lines in a Direct-vision Spectro-
scope (Fig. 63) .. .. 390

Regaud, Cl., & Fouilliand, R. — Electro-thermic Regulator and Electric Incubators

(Figs. 71-73) 465

Beck, R. & J.— Optical Bench (Figs. 84-91) 582

Bibliography 585

Biltz, W., & Z. Gatin-Grdzewska — Ultra-microscopic Observations in Solutions of

Pure Glycogen 716

Osborn, A. S. — Microscope and Expert Testimony 716

Bibliography r. 716

B, Technique.

CD Collecting- Objects, including- Culture Processes.

Wright's Collecting Bottle (Fig. 17) 115

Winslow, C. E. A., & C. P. Nibecker — Bacteriological Methods in Sanitary Water

Analysis 116

Rosenbekger, R. C. — Technique of the Bacteriology of the Blood .. ., .. .. 116

McNeal, W. J., & F. G. Novt — Cultivating Trypanosomes 116

Fischer, H. — Simple Method for Clearing Nutrient Agar without Filtration .. .. 246

Warfield, L. M. — Blood Cultures in Typhoid Fever 246

Sea well, B. L. — Method of Concentrating Plankton without Net or Filter .. .. 247

Rovere. Della — Neio Culture Medium made with Helix Pomatia 369

Lipschutz, B. — Bacterial Diagnosis of Typhoid by means of the v. Drigalski-

Conradi Medium and Agglutination 369

Gordon, M. H. — Capsule Formation by Diplococcus Pneumonias in Culture . . .. 370

Laing, A. R. — New Anaerobic Apparatus (Fig. 61) .. .. 371

Bibliography 371

Bodin, E., & E. Cartex — Apparatus for the Continuous Agitation of Cultures

(Fig. 74) 468

Richter,0. — Pure Cultures of Diatoms 47)

Hofmann, W. — New Method of Demonstrating Typhoid Bacilli 470

Ficker, M. — Demonstrating Typhoid Bacilli in Water 470

Eyre, J. W. H. — Preparation of Nutrose Agar 470

„ „ Preparing Plates of Nutrose Agar 471

Richard. J. — Nets for Gathering Plankton 472

Bordet, J. — Culture of Anaerobic Bacteria (Figs. 92, 93) 585

Herouard, E. — Pure Cultures of Chlorella vulgaris 586

Bruce, W. S.— Scotia Closing Plankton Net (Fig. 94) 587

Rosam, K. — Preparing Agar 58S

Frank, Th. — Cultivation of Algae .. 588

Hamilton, D. J. — Cultivation of Anaerobes 5SS

Schultz-Schultzenstein — Detection of Nitrifying Organisms in Sewage Filters .. 716

Klein, E., & A. C. Houston — Identification of the Bacillus typhosus in Stools .. 717

Gordon, M. H. — Bacteriological Test for Estimating Pollution of Air 717

Rickards, B. R. — Simple Method for Cultivating Anaerobic Bacteria (Figs. 120

and 121) 718

Bibliography 718

(2) Preparing Objects.

Whetzel, H. H.— New Method of Preparing Superficial Fungi 117

Hamlyn-Harris, R. — Demonstrating the Statocysts of Cephalopods 117 ■

Dec. 21st, 1904 c

XX XIV CONTENTS.

PAGE

Dilg, C. — Detection of Tubercle Bacilli in Organised Sediment by means of Centri-

fugalising or Simple Sedimentation 117

Dowdy, S. E. — Bleaching Reagents 247

Pearl, R. — F or mol-sublimate Fixing Fluids 247

Enderlein, G. — Preparing Small Dried Insects for Microscopical Examination .. 371

Marshall, F. H. A. — Demonstrating the Structure of Corpus luteum of Sheep . . 372

Frefman. E. M. — Demonstrating Presence of Seed-Fungus in Darnel 372

Beauchamp, P. de — Fixation of Infusoria 372

Oajal, S. Ramon t — Demonstrating the Tubular Reticulum in the Cytoplasm of

Nervous and Epithelial Cells of the Earthworm 372

Marpmann, G. — Preparing Planarian Worms 373

Marceau, F — Demonstrating the Structure of Cardiac Fibres 373

Dekhuyzen, M. C. — Fixative Solutions Isotonic ivith Sea Water 472

Guilliermond, A. — Picroformal for Fixation 472

Diederichs, K. — Preparing, Staining and Mounting Fresh-water Fauna .. . . 472

Rossig, H. — Fixing and Examining Cyrripida Larvse 473

Ashworth, J. H. — Preparing and Demonstrating the Structure of Arenicola . . .. 474

Helly, K.— Modification of Zenker's Fluid 474

Bibliography 474

Preserving Insects 589

Lendenfeld, R. vox — Preparation of Spicules of Silicious Sponges 589

Regaud, Cl. — Collodionage of Cells 589

Bibliography .. .. ' 719

(3) Cutting1, including' Imbedding and Microtomes.

Kaplan — Pleuel Microtome 247

Krefft, P.— Rotation Microtome (Fig. 42) 248

Bibliography 248

Fischel, R. — New Method for Sticking Celloidin Sections to the Slide 373

Mich ae lis, H. — Method for Sticking Paraffin Sections to the Slide 374

Katz — Preparation of Frozen Sections by Means of Ansesthol 474

Bibliography 475

Lubarsch, O. — Rapid Method of Hardening and Paraffin Imbedding 590

Stein, A. — Rapid Hardening and Imbedding 590

Dixon, H. H. — Use of Radium in Section Cutting 590

Luther, A. — Fixation and Staining of Eumesostamina 591

Bibliography 591

York, H. H.— Agar Method for Imbedding Plant Tissues 719

Howard, B. J. — Sectioning Wheat Kernels 719

Johnston, J. B.— Imbedding Medium for Brittle Objects 719

Radais' Microtome with Vertical Slideless Carrier (Figs. 122 and 123) 720

Bibliography 722

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Sieber — Modification of Tichmann's Injection Syringe (Figs. 18-20) 118

Arnold, J. — Vital and Supravital Granule Staining .". 119

Meyer, A. — Naphihol-Blue as a Reagent for Bacterial Fat 119

Pappenheim, A.— Gonococci Staining 120

Nicolle — Modification of Gram's Method 120

L aver an — Method of Staining the Protozoal Parasites of the Blood 120

Berestneff — New Modification of the Romanowsky-Ruge Method for Staining

Blood-Spores 249

Ellis, D. — Demonstrating presence of Cilia in Bacteria 249

Coles, C. A. — Resistance of Tubercle and other Acid-fast Bacilli to Decolorising

Agents 249

Paine, A. — Neio Method of Staining with. Iron Hematoxylin 374

Zieler, K. — Staining of Bacteria difficult to Stain (Glanders and Typhoid Bacilli,

Gonococci, etc.) in Sections of Skin and other Organs 374

Krause, R.— Is there a " Vital " Staining ? :J-75

Musgrave, W. K., & M. T. Clegg— Staining Trypanosoma 375

Colombo, G. — Method for Intra-vitam Staining of the Protoplasmic Granules of

the Cornea 375

CONTENTS. XXXV

PAGE

Petit, L. — Triple Staining of Vegetable Tissue 376

Kolmer, W. — Vitnl Staining of Corethra plumicornis 376

Dowdy, S. E. — New Form of Section-Lifter 376

Bibliography 376

Andre, E. — Concretions in Acetic-methyl-green 475

Mayer, P. — Hxmatein and Hxmalnm 475

Hastings, T. W.— Modified Nocht's Stain for Blood Films 476

Ramon y Cajal, S. — Staining the Myelin in Section* of Nervous Tissue previously

Treated by Marchi's Method 476

„ „ Methods for Silver Impregnation of Nervous Tissue .. .. 477

Christophers, S. R. — Demonstrating a Parasite found in Cases of Enlarged Spleen ¥11

Bibliography 478

Pavlow, W. — Hematoxylin Staining of Nerve-fibres of the Central Nervous System 591

Weigert, K. — Modification of the Van Gieson Method, 592

Freeman, W.— Method of Staining Sections Quickly with Picrocarmin 592

Rettereb, E. — Fixing, Staining and Mounting Sections of Skin 593

Unna, P. G. — New Method of Staining the Epithelial Fibres and the Membrane of

Prickle Cells ' .. .. _ 593

Schultze, O. — Staining with Chrom-hxmatoxylin 593

Stephens, J. W. W. — Modification of van Ermengem's Method of Staining Flagella 593

Kraus, A. — Staining Hyphomycetes in Horny Tissues 722

Thesing, E. — Simple Method of Spore Staining 722

(5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Dowdy, S. E. — Improved Mounting Clip (Fig. 21) 120

Bibliography 121

Bibliography 250

Watson & Sons' New Mounting Device (Fig. 75) 478

Harz, C. O. — Iodine-Paraffin Oil: a New Micro-reagent and Mounting Medium .. 594

Nei'haus, E. — Method for the Removal of Air-Bubbles from Frozen Sections .. .. 594

Bibliography 594

Tellxesinczky, K. v.— Sticking of Celloidin Sections 723

~(6) Miscellaneous.

Waterproof Cement for Glass 121

Dowdy, S. E. — Mounting Medium Bottle 121

Diederichs, K. — Gelatin Plates as Substitute for Glass Light-filters 121

Qdilter, H. J. — Method of taking Internal Casts of Foraminif era 121

Jachtchinsky, S. — Silicate of Soda {Water Glass) as an Lnjection Medium for

Macroscopic Preparations 122

Zikes, H. — New Small Shaking Apparatus (Fig. 22) 122

Houston, D. — Bacteriological Tests for Show Butters 122

Seeliger, E. L. — Lodine-Calcium Nitrate, a new Beagent for Cellulose 250

Jaeger, H. — The Agghdinoscope, an Apparatus for facilitating the Macroscopic

observation of Agglutination in the Test-tube 250

Gage, J. H, — Prevention of Pedetic or Brownian Movements 250

Dowdy, S. E. — Cover-glass Cleaner .. .. -4 251

Powell, J. G. R. — Mounting Diatoms 377

Beck's Safety Cedar Wood Oil-Bottle (Fig. 62) .'. 378

Konaschko, P. — New Method for Neutralising Carmin Injection-Masses .. .. 378

Rothenbach — New Method for Sterilising Vessels 478

Steyenson, W. C. — Differentiation of B. typhosus and B. coli communis by means

of the Photographic Plate 478

Kingsford's Glass Troughs (Figs. 76, 77) 479

Wood, W. J. — Ebonising Laboratory Tables . . .. , 479

Cameron, J. — Preparing Lantern Slides of Histological Objects 480

Bibliography 480

Lundyall, Halvar — Demonstrating Foetal Cartilage .. .. 594

Wright, A. E. — Preparation of Slides for Blood Films 595

Bibliography 595

Ink for Writing on Glass 723

Bibliography 723

XXXVI CONTENTS.

Metallography, &c.

PAGE

Swift & Son — Dichroiscopt (Fig. 23) 123

Jolt, J. — Penological Examination of Paving Sets 123

Chesneau, M. G. — Microscopic Study of the Prehistoric Bronzes of the Charente .. 124

Beilby, G. T. — Surf ace Structure of Solids 124

Vigouroux & Arrivault — Contributions to the Study of Alloys of Aluminium and

Silicon 125

Bonney, T. G., & J. Parkinson — Primary and Secondary Devitrification in Glassy

Igneous Rocks 125

Guillet, L. — Metallography of Nickel Steels 125

Bibliography 125

Watson & Sons' Metallurgical Auxiliaries (Figs. 43-6) 251

T. K. R.— Elastic Limit of Metals 253

Arnold, J. O., & G. P. Waterhouse —Influence of Sulphur and Manganese on Steel 253
Stead, J. E. — Segregatory and Migratory Habit of Solids in Alloys and in Steel

below the critical points 254

Outerbridge, A. E., jun. — Recent Investigations in Cast Iron 255

Bibliography 255

Osmond, Floris — Microscopic Analysis of Metals 378

Job, K. — Influence of Structure upon Strength under Sudden Stresses 379

Stead, J. E. — Notes on the Structure of an Alloy which on Freezing Separates into

Solid Solutions and a Eutectic 379

Boynton, H. C. — Sorbitic Steel 481

BlBLOGRAPHY 481

Beilby, G. T. — Bard and Soft States in Metals 595

Longmuir, P. — Influence of Varying Casting Temperature on the Properties of Steel

andiron Castings 595

Ewing, J. A. — Structure of Metals 596

Bibliography ; 596

Cartaud, M. G. — Evolution of Structure in Metals 723

Bibliography , 723

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting, December 16, 1903 126

Anniversary Meeting, January 20, 1904 129

Meeting, February 17, 1904 256

„ March 16, „ 261

April 20, „ 380

May 18, „ 382

„ June 15, „ 482

„ October 19, „ 724

„ November 16, „ 727

General Indkx to Volume 737

JOURN.R.MICR. S0C.1904. PL I.

G.M.Woodward del.et hth. West, Newman imp.

POROSPH.ERA FROM THE ENGLISH CHALK.

f . ■

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

FEBRUARY 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

I. — On the Structure and Affinities of the Genus
Porospheera, Steinmann.

By George J. Hinde, Ph.D. F.R.S.

(.Read December 16th, 1003.)
Plates I. and IT.

CONTEXTS.

I. Introduction
II. History of the genus

III. Mode of occurrence and zonal

distribution

IV. Mineral character and con-

dition of preservation .
Y. Form and manner of growth

O*

1

VI.

Skeletal mesh

11

2

VII.

Basal layer

1.")

VII I.

Spicular dermal layer .

lo

G

IX.

Canal system

. 17

X.

Affinities of the genus

IS

10

XI.

Description of species

IS

11

XII.

Summary .

24

I. Introduction.

The genus Porospheera was established in 1878 by Dr. G. Stein-
mann for certain small rounded fossils widely distributed in the
Cretaceous rocks of this country and the Continent, which, in 18 2 'J,
had been named and figured by Prof. John Phillips, Millepora
gldbularis. Steinmann considered the fossils to be nearly allied
structurally to Parlceria, and he placed the genus in the family
Milleporida?, Moseley, thus in approximately the same systematic
position as that to which they had been assigned by Phillips fifty
years previous^. Very divergent views respecting the nature of
these fossils have been held by older authors, and they have been
referred in turn to Foraminifera, Sponges, and C}Tclostomate
Polyzoa. Latterly, Steinmann's determination of their hydrozoal
characters has been accepted generally as correct, though some
Feb. 77th. 1904 b

2 Transactions of the Society.

competent authorities have questioned his conclusions. The general
resemblance of Porosphcera to sponges, which has led several
authors to place the fossils in this group, induced me for many-
years past to collect and study all the forms I could meet with ;
for a long time I failed to discover any decisive evidence respect-
ing the original characters of their calcareous skeletal fibres, but
at last, about eight years ago, a small specimen, preserved in flint,
which was sent to me by Mr. H. Muller of Eltham, clearly showed
that the fibres were built up of spicules. On further investiga-
tion this spicular structure was recognised in microscopic sections
of many other specimens, and it became apparent, as I have already
mentioned elsewhere,* that Porosphcera belonged to the Lithonine
division of Calcisponges, and possessed the same structural cha-
racters as the genus Plcctroninia, Hinde,f from the Eocene Tertiary
of Victoria, Australia, and the recent Pctrostroma, D6derlein,| from
the Japanese sea.

Other work has prevented me from giving till now a detailed
description of the structure of Porosphcera, but the delay has
been in one respect an advantage, for in the interval my friend,
Dr. A. W. Howe, F.G.S., has carried on a series of researches on
the fossils from the different zones of the Chalk on the east and
south coasts of England, during which he has met with many
hundred examples of Porosphcera, all of which he has most
generously forwarded to me for examination. The study of this
large series of well-preserved specimens, together with those of
my own collecting, has enabled me to gain a better knowledge of
the real characters of these fossils than hitherto, and, further, to
trace out their distribution in the various zones of the Chalk of
this country.

II. History of the Genus.

The following is a brief history of the fossils which are now
included under Porosphcera.

In 1822, Dr. G. A. Mantell figured, in the Geology of Sussex,
pi. xvi. figs. 17, 18, p. 162, ' Siliceous specimens of a Zoophyte of
a pyriform shape, the nature of which is unknown,' from the
Chalk near Brighton. These are examples of Porosphcera nuci-
formis, von Hag. sp. Eigs. 22-24 of the same plate, referred to
Lunulites (?), probably belong to P. patettiformis. In 1835, they
were placed by this author under Orbitolites Icnticulata, Lam.,
Trans. Geol. Soc. s. 2, vol. iii. p. 204.

In 1829, Prof. J. Phillips, in the Geology of Yorkshire, pt. i.
p. 186, pi. i., fig. 12, gave a figure of Millepora globularis, and

• Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, lvi. (1000) p. 57. t Op. cit., p. 51.

% Zool. Jahrb., x. (1898) pp. 15-32, pis. ii.-vi.

The Genus Porosphccra, Steimnanu. By George J. Hinde. 3

another (fig. 11) is named Lunulitcs uvccolata, Lam. Both speci-
mens are partly imbedded in a slab of hard chalk from Dane's
Dike, Flamborough, now preserved in the York Museum. Stein-
mann has taken the first of these as the type of the genus Poro-
sphccra, whilst the Lunulitcs urccolata is now known as Porosphccra
pileolus. No description accompanied either of the forms figured
by Phillips. In the third edition of the Geology of Yorkshire,
which appeared in 1875, both Millcpora globidaris and Lunulitcs
urceolata are placed in the genus Coscinopora, Goldfuss, but here
again no description is given ; the specific name of the latter is,
however, changed to pileolus.

In 1833, S. Woodward figured in the Outline of the Geology of
Norfolk, pi. iv., figs. 10-12, several examples of Millcpora globidaris
from the Chalk of Norwich and near Holt, which are placed with
other fossil sponges under the heading Polypi. It is doubtful if
the Lunulitcs urceolata, pi. iv., fig. 9, belongs to Porosphccra. I
have not been able to trace the originals of the figures.

In 1839, F. von Hagenow described and figured in the ' Mono-
graphic der Rugenschen Kreide Versteinerungen ' {Neues Jahrbuch
filr Mineralogie), as a new species of Polyzoa, Ceriopora nuciformis,
the same pear-shaped forms of Porosphccra which had been already
figured by Mantcll in 1822. He regarded them as a more com-
plete development of the rounded forms, i.e. of P. globidaris, Phill.
sp., though he does not mention this species (p. 286, pi. v., fig. 9).
In the same work (p. 2(30) a description is given of another
rounded fossil from the Chalk of Eiigen, named Achilleum globoswm,
which appears to have been partly based on specimens of P. glohu-
laris, and partly on small round siliceous sponges subsequently
named by v. Zittel, Plinthosella squamosa.

In 1844, A. E. Pteuss, in Geognostische Skizzcn aus Bohmcn,
vol. ii., p. 140, quoted Ceriopora pisum = Millcpora globidaris, Phill.,
from the Pliinerkalk of Kutschlin and near Bilin ; and shortly
after (1845-6), in Die Versteinerungen der bohmischen Kreide-
formation, Abth. 2, p. 78, pi. xx., fig. 5, he described and figured
the same form as a sponge under the name of Tragos globidaris.

In A. d'Orbigny's Prodrome de Pcdeontologie, vol. ii. (1850)
p. 284, Tragos globidaris, Reuss ( = P. globidaris, Phill.) is placed
in the genus Coscinopora, Goldfuss.

John Morris, in the second edition of the Catalogue of British
Fossils (1854) pp. 27, 28, follows d'Orbigny in placing P. globidaris
under Coscinopora, and to the same genus he refers Lunulitcs,
Mant., L. urccolatus, Phill., and Orbitolitcs lenticulccta, Mant. These
forms are placed with a query as synonyms of Lamarck's species
(0.) pileolus.

In the Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist,, s. 3, vol. vi. (1860) p. 30,
W. K. Parker and T. E. Jones described P. globidaris, Phill. sp.,
as a Foraminifer, and placed it in the genus Orbitolina, d'Orbigny,

b 2

4 Transactions of the Society.

whilst the allied conical, hemispherical, and depressed forms are
definitely assigned to 0. concava, Lamk. sp.

F. A. Roemer, in 'Die Spongitarien des Norddeutsehen Kreide-
gebirges' (Palceontographica, vol. xiii. (1864) p. 56), placed Tragos
globularis, Iieuss ( = P. globularis, Phill.), as a synonym of Achilleum
globosum, v. Hag.

In the ' Seeschwiimme des mittleren und oberen Quaders '
{Palmontographica, vol. xxii. (1872-5) p. 4), H. B. Geinitz pointed
out that the resemblance in outer form between Ccriopora nuci-
formis, v. Hag. (= P. nuciformis) and Achilleum globosum ( = Plin-
thosella squamosa, v. Zitt.) is so close that they may readily be
mistaken for each other. Geinitz placed this latter sponge with
the Lithistidce, where it rightly belongs.

H. J. Carter, in the Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., s. 4, vol. xix.
(1877) p. 64, and s. 5, vol. i. (1878) p. 298, described under the
names, first of (?) Bradya tergestina, and afterwards of Millepora
Woodwardi, a new species of Porosphcera, characterised by branched
canals which radiate from points on the surface. It is regarded
as a Hydrozobn with a structure similar to that of Parkcria. The
forms occur in the Grey Chalk near Dover, and the types are now
in the British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington.

In his memoir ' Ueber fossile Hydrozoen aus der Familie der
Coryniden' (Palceontographica, vol. xxv. (1878) p. 120, pi. xiii.,
figs. 8-12), Dr. G. Steinmann referred Millepora globularis to a
distinct genus, Porosphaira, belonging to the Hydrocorallina?. The
skeleton is stated to consist of anastomosing calcareous fibres, like
those of Parkcria, and their microstructure is distinctly radiate.
The author recognises the close resemblance in outer form of
Porospltcera to Sponges, but stated that the definite connected cal-
careous skeleton is quite unknown in existing sponges, though it
occurs in numerous fossils. The various forms of Porosphcera,
including P. Woodwardi, Carter, are regarded as belonging to a
single species, P. globularis, Phillips.

In the Elcmcntc der Palceontoloejic (1888) p. 77, fig. 73, by the
same author and Dr. Doderlein, Porosphcera is retained in the
same systematic position. The Gastroporen are stated to be
radial and numerous, in other respects like Millepora.

Dr. F. A. Quenstedt, in the Petrcfaktenkunde Dcutsch lands,
vol. vi. (1879) p. 262 ; Atlas, pi. 153, figs. 1-12, referred a series
of the usual forms of P. globidaris to Ccriopora nuciformis, v. Hag.,
and considers them as Bryozoa. Quenstedt farther mentioned that
amongst a suite of specimens sent to him direct by v. Hagenow
as examples of his Achilleum globosum, some were genuine forms
of Ceriojyora nuciformis, whilst others were definite sponges.

In the Handhuch der Palceontologie, vol. i. (1879) p. 288,
Prof. v. Zittel accepted Steinmann's determination of Porosphcera,
and placed the genus in the family Milleporida^ ; in the same

The Genus Porosphcera, Steinmami. By George J. Hinde. 5

author's Grunchugc der Palceontologie (1895) p. 102, it is placed
next to Parker ia iu the Order Tubularia3 ; and in the English
edition of the work (1900) p. Ill, it is retained in the same
position.

Treating of the affinities of the genus Parkeria, Carpenter,
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., s. 6, vol. i. (1888) p. 11, the late Prof.
H. A. Nicholson stated that microscopic sections of Porosphcera
globidaris show that its minute structure differs from that of any
Hydrozobn, and that it has no special relationship with Parkeria.
The author thinks that it will be found to belong to the group of
the Lithistid sponges, and to be related to the genus Hinclia,
Duncan. The same opinion is also expressed in the Manual of
Palccontology, 3rd ed. (1889) vol. i., p. 200.

Prof. A. Fritsch. gives a description of Amorphospongia globosa,
v. Hag. sp., in Studien im Gcbicte der bohmische Kreidcformation,
iv. Die Teplitzer Schichten (1889) p. 108, fig. 52. It is stated
that the inner skeleton appears to consist of a plait-work of cal-
careous spicules, and that there is a surface layer which likewise
seems to be of spicules. Through the kindness of Dr. Fritsch,
I have examined a microscopic section of the specimen which he
has described, and can confirm his statement of the spicular
character of the interior skeleton, which is similar to that of
Porosphccra globular is ; but I failed to recognise any spicular struc-
ture in the outer crust. The specimen seems to me to belong to
P. globidaris, Phill.

G. J. Hinde stated in the Quart. Joum. Gcol. Soe., vol. lvi.,
Feb. 1900, p. 57, that Porosphccra, Steinmann was a Calcisponge in
which the spicules of the skeletal mesh were fused together as
in Plcetroninia and Petrosiroma, and that it belonged to the
Lithonina.

Dr. Gr. Steinmann, in the Einfuhrung in die Palaontologie (1903)
p. 95, places Porosphccra globularis in the Lithonina as a group
of the Pharetrones.

The varied opinions respecting the nature of Porosphccra indi-
cated in the references given above may to some extent be
accounted for by the minute and delicate structure of the fibrous
skeletal mesh of the organism, which appears in the majority of
microscopic sections, even of well-preserved specimens, as a con-
tinuous network in which scarcely any traces of the constituent
spicular elements can be recognised. Another source of error
arises from the fact that certain zones of the Chalk in which
Porosphccra is plentiful likewise contain specimens of the siliceous
sponge, Plinthosella squamosa, v. Zitt., which closely resemble
Porosphccra globidaris in form and size, and the two kinds of
sponges appear to have been confused together by von Hagenow
and other authorities.

Transactions of the Society.

III. Mode of Occurrence and Zonal Distribution.

In this country Porosphmra is met with most commonly in
the Chalk cliffs of the coasts of Yorkshire, Kent, Sussex, Isle of
Wight, Dorset, and South Devon. It is by no means uniformly
distributed in the Chalk, for whilst in some beds and horizons
specimens are very plentiful, in others they are rare or apparently
absent altogether. They are usually seen slightly projecting from
the weathered face of the cliff, from which they can readily be
picked out with a blunt knife or chisel. When naturally weathered
out of the cliff and fallen to the beach, they are soon worn smooth
and their surface characters are partly obliterated. As a rule,
they are seldom found in inland areas, either in Chalk pits or on
downs and other places where the Chalk outcrops at or close to
the surface ; but their apparent scarcity in these positions may be
due to their generally small size and to their close resemblance
to rolled fragments of Chalk. As an instance of their occurrence
in such places when carefully searched for, I may mention that
within the limits of a moderately-sized garden situated on the
slope of a Chalk clown at Croydon, Surrey, I have during the last
sixteen years picked from the surface soil 632 specimens of dif-
ferent forms of Porosphwra which have all been derived by slow
weathering from the underlying Chalk.

With the object of tracing the development of Porospliaira at
various horizons in the Chalk, the collections made by Dr. Eowe
and by myself from each zone and locality have carefully been kept
separate, and in the list below details are given of the number and
range of size of each species from the respective zones, which will
show approximately the relative proportions of the different forms
which occur together. About two-thirds of the total number of
specimens in this list have been obtained by Dr. Eowe.

It will be seen from this list that the earliest appearance of
Porosphccra in the Chalk of this country is in the zone of Holastcr
sulglobosus at Dover and at Durdle Cove, Dorset. There are only
very few specimens present on this horizon, and they all belong to
one species, P. Woodwardi, Carter, which, so far, has not been found
in any higher zone.

In the next higher zone of PJiynchonclla Cuvieri, the pre-
dominant species, P. globularis, Phillips, occurs for the first time —
it is represented by only a few small specimens ; with it are some
diminutive forms of P. arrecta. P. globularis is more abundant in
the succeeding zone of Tcrcbratulina gracilis, but the specimens
are still small generally ; in this zone the limpet-shaped P. patclli-
formis is first met with.

At the base of the Upper Chalk, in the zone of Holastcr planus,
the thimble or inverted cup-shaped P. pilcolus makes its first
appearance.

The Genus Porosphcera, Steinniann. By George J. Ilinde. 7

In the succeeding zones of Micraster cor-tcstudinarium and
M. cor-anguinum, we find P. glohularis more numerous and of
larger size ; in the latter zone, the ribbed, pear-shaped P. nuciformis
has been first noted. P. pileolus and P. patelliformis are more
common than in the Middle Chalk ; but they form only a small
percentage in comparison with the numbers of P. glohularis.

It will be noticed that the forms from South Croydon, which I
have placed in the zone of Micraster cor-anguinum, differ consider-
ably in their maximum size from those of the same zone on the
Thanet coast, and. approach more nearly in this respect to those
obtained by Dr. Eowe from the Marsupites zone of Margate. This
fact has led me to question whether the Chalk at South Croydon
has been correctly referred to the M. cor-anguinum zone ; but I have
hitherto failed to find in it any remains of Marsupites. I have,
however, found a single specimen of 0 faster pillula, Lam., associated
in the same area with the large specimens of P. glohularis ; and as
this echinoderm, according to Dr. Eowe, also occurs, though rarely,
in the Marsupites zone of Thanet, there is some probability that the
Chalk at South Croydon may be correlated to this zone.

From the zone of Marsupites, at Margate more particularly, and
also at Flamborough, Porospthcvra is very common, and Dr. Eowe
has obtained a large series of the different species. The greater
number were found in the lower part of this zone, the Uintacrinus
Band of Dr. Eowe. At this horizon, in Kent, the specimens
generally are notably larger than those from the lower zones of the
Chalk, some of P. glohularis reaching a maximum diameter of
34 mm. ; the larger forms also are in part loaf- or cushion-shaped,
a feature still more strongly pronounced in specimens from the
higher zone of Bclemnitella mucronata.

At various places on the Sussex coast, and at Sewerby on the
Yorkshire coast, Porosphcera is very abundant in the next higher
zone of Actinocamax quadratics. P. nuciformis is numerous in the
Sussex cliffs. The specimens are generally smaller than those
from the Marsupites zone, and approximate in size to those from
the Micraster cor-anguinum zone on the Thanet coast.

In the zone of Bclemnitella mucronata, the highest in the English
Chalk, an interesting series of forms was collected by Dr. Eowe at
Ballard's Cliff and at Studland Bay, Dorset, and also from the
Norfolk coast. The Dorset specimens are characterised by their
fairly large size, the abundance of loaf- and cushion-shaped forms
of P. glohularis, and the relatively large proportion of P. nuciformis.

Summing up the zonal distribution of Porosphcera in the Chalk :
the genus is first noted in the Lower or Grey Chalk, of the zone of
Holastcr suhglohosus, by a few specimens of the rare P. Woochvardi ;
the principal species, P. glohularis, appears for the first time in
the zone of B. Cuvicri, the lowest horizon of the Middle Chalk,
accompanied by P. arrecta. In the zone of T. gracilis, we first meet

H Transactions of the Society.

List showing the Number and Eange of Size of the different forms

h^O

»- o
8 «

Zone of Hdlaslir subglobosus.

Dover

Durdle Cove, Dorset Coast .....

Zone of Blnjnclonella Cuvieri.

Dover

Bransconrbe and Berry Cliff, S. Devon Coast .

Zoue of Tercbralulina gracilis.

Dover, East Cliffs

Dover, West Cliffs

Seaton, S. Devon Coast

Flamborough, Yorkshire Coast

Zone of Holaster planus.

Dover, East Cliffs

S. Devon Coast

Zone of Micraster cor-testudinarium.

Chatham

Dover, East Cliffs . .

Seafoid Head and Newhaven

S. Devon Coast

Zone of Micraster cor-anguinum.

Gravcsend . . . !

Chatham

Thanet Coast

Dover, St. Margaret's

Dorset Coast

S. Devon Coast

South Croydon, Avondale Hoad

Croydon, near

Flamborough, Yorkshire Coast

Zone of Marsupiles testudinarius.
Uintacrinvs Band.

Thanet Coast

Margate

Flam borough .

Marsupiles Band.

Sussex Coast

Dorset Coast

Sewcrby, Yorkshire Coast

Zone of Actinocamax quadratus.

Seaford Head and Newhaven

Sussex Coast

Brighton, East of pumping station ....

Isle of Wight, Bcratchells Bay

Dorset Coast

Winchester

Sewerby

Zone of Belemnitella mucronata.

Ballard Cliff and Studland Bay, Dorset Coast
Sheringham, Weybourne, Overstraud, Norfolk

rnmmgham, Norfolk Coast

Norwich, near, Cation Pit

Zones unknown.

Surrey and Kent

Hampshire and Wiltshire

Borosphxra
gldbularis.

8 ('2-4 mm.)
12 (1 -5-5 mm )

34 (2-4 mm.)

43 (2-7 mm.)

2 (2 mm.)

20 (3-7 mm.)
6 (3-4 mm.)

18 (2-4 mm.)

50 (2-9 mm.)

266 (1-15 mm.)

3 (6-9 mm.)
51 (2-14 mm.)

579 (4-27 mm.)

33 (1-5-25 mm.)

77 (3-13 mm.)

35 (7-23 mm.)

429 (2-5-34 mm.)

35 (2-13 mm.)

7 (13-31 mm.)

1 (2 mm.)

53 (2-5-12 mm.)

72 (3-17 mm.)

12 (9-23 mm.)

181 (2-5-13 mm.)

56 (2-5-9 mm.)

166 (2-5-15 mm.)

62 (6-24 mm.)

6 (7-24 mm.)

16 (2-12 mm.)

1 (14 mm.)

5 (1-12 mm.)

6 (1- 15 mm.)

rorosph&ra
nuciformis.

3(9-1

5 (7-9 mm.)

3 mm.)

28 (6-20 mm.)
2 (7-9 mm.)

36 (4-15 mm.)
25 (5-20 mm.)
4 (5-13 mm.)

1 (12 mm.)

1 (13 mm.)

3 (5-10 mm.)

69 (5-14 mm.)
14 (7-14 mm.)
20 (4-9 mm.)
8 (4-14 mm.)

5(7-l*2mm0 j
8 (6-10 mm.)

23 (5-12 mm.)
2 (6, 7 mm.)

The Genus Porosjohcera, Steinmann. By George J. Hindc. 9
of PorospHjEra obtained from the Zones of the English Chalk.

Porosphasra
Woodward/.

2 (12, 14 mm.)
1 (9 mm.)

Porosphasra
pileolus.

1 (7 mm.)

2 (3 mm.)

10(2-9 mm.)
2 (4 mm.)

Porosphasra
patelliformis.

2 (7-14 mm.)

23 (7-17 mm.)

1 (10 mm.)

9 (2-11 mm.)

22 (4-17 mm.)

10 (5-18 mm.)
2 (7-13 mm.)

4 (12-16 mm.)
2 (7-9 mm.)
8 (3-8 mm.)

25 (7-18 mm.)
8 (7-13 mm.)

11 (5-13 mm.)
2 (2-5 mm.)

1 (7 mm.)

4 (5-13 mm.)

1 (13 mm.)

3 (2-8 mm.)

1 (10 mm.)

3 (4-G mm.)
23 (2-il mm.)

2 (1(5 mm.)

2 (8-10 mm.)
1 (8 mm.)

2 (14-17 mm.)
9 (3-15 mm.)

22 (4-23 mm.)
3 (11-13 mm.)
10(7-11 mm.)

1 (21 mm.)

2 (10 mm.)
G (11-22 mm.)

1 (7 mm.)

3(2-5-13 mm.)

3 (6-11 mm.)

4 (8-12 mm.)

Porosphasra Porosphxra.
arrecta. Irregular forms

7 (3-0 mm.)

1 (3 mm.)

3 (6 mm.)
2 (3-G mm.)

1 (7 mm.)

5(1 5 mm.)

3 (S-10 mm.)

2 (7-9 'mm.)
5 (5-12 mm.)

4 (7-12 mm.)

1 (14 mm.)

Totals.

— 3

8
19

— 27

34
43

2

82

31

G
— 37

23

50

304

2

379

2

3

58

1

3

2

G32

34

98

118

4G9

51

13

4
G4

83-:

638

SI

172
40

214
72

1

5

181

88
6

22
1

GS5

117

20

2902

10 Transactions of the Society.

with P. patelliformis, whilst P. pileolus first comes in at the base
of the Upper Chalk in the zone of Holastcr planus. The well-
marked P. nuciformis has not been found until reaching the zone
of Micrastcr cor-wnguinwm.

In the lower zones of the Chalk the examples of Porosphcera are
comparatively rare and generally small, the large majority not
exceeding 6 mm. in diameter, but in the higher zones in the South
of England the various species are more numerous, and there is
a gradual increase in size, which reaches its maximum in the zone
of Marsapitcs, where some forms of P. globularis are 34 mm. in
diameter. In the next higher zone of Actin. quadratus the speci-
mens are smaller, but there is a reversion to larger forms in the
Bel. mucronata zone.

In the Chalk of the vicinity of Flamborough, Yorkshire, the
various species of Porospha'ra are uniformly of small dimensions in
all the zones, in marked contrast to those from the higher zones on
the South coast.

IV. Mineral Character and Condition of Preservation.

The large majority of the specimens of Povospliwra from the
Upper Chalk of this country consist of calcite, and their radial
canals and the smaller interspaces of the skeletal mesh are usually
filled up solid with the same mineral. In thin sections seen under
the Microscope, the mesh appears as light grey bands by reflected
light ; whilst in transmitted light the bands or fibres are marked
off from the calcitic matrix by numerous minute granules of a
darkish tint, which, unless the sections are very thin, render them
nearly opaque. This appearance of the mesh is very similar to
that in many of the Pharetron Calcisponges from the Inferior
Oolite, the Great Oolite, and the Coral Eag, and also in some of
the Tertiary Calcisponges from Australia. In no instance have
I seen a finely radiate fibrous micro-structure in the mesh, like
that which characterises Millepora and Madreporarian corals
generally.

In many specimens of Porosphcera the outer portions are of
calcite, whilst in the interior, both the skeletal mesh and the
matrix consist to a varying extent of silica. This has given rise
to an impression that the fossils were originally of silica which
has, in part, been replaced by calcite. That a reverse process has
taken place, and that the silica is of secondary origin, is shown by
the fact that in the silicified portion of these specimens the mesh
is usually very indistinct or altogether obliterated, whilst its
characters are retained in the outer or calcitic portion. We find,
moreover, that Porosphcera is frequently associated in the same
beds of Chalk with undoubted siliceous hexactinellid and lithistid
sponges, in which the skeletal mesh has been either removed,

The Genus Porosphcera, Steinmann. By George J. Hinde. 11

leaving an empty mould of silica, or it lias been replaced by
reddish ferric oxide, thus presenting a marked contrast to the
usual state of preservation of Porosphcera. Under exceptional
conditions, as in the Chalk at Flamborough, the matrix of the
interior of many of the specimens of Porosphcera, also consists of
powdery ferric oxide, but the exterior of these forms shows the
calcific mesh which readily distinguishes them from the siliceous
sponges in the same beds.

Porosphcera likewise occurs either partially or entirely imbedded
within the flint nodules of the Chalk, and in this condition the
skeletal mesh is, in part, siliceous, as well as the matrix. In
some of these flint-enclosed specimens the structural details are
more distinctly shown than in the usual forms from the Chalk,
but in others, and even in parts of the same specimen, they are
only faintly visible.

V. Form and Manner of Growth.

A large proportion of the specimens of P. globular is are
approximately spherical without any indication of a point of
attachment. Small individuals of about 1 mm. in diameter show
that the rounded form prevailed in the early stages of the growth
of the organism, and there is but little variation in the shape of
the specimens up to 6 mm. in diameter. In larger specimens the
growth is less symmetrical, they become oval, loaf-shaped, cushion-
shaped, rounded or subangular at the bases, which are flattened
or even slightly concave (pi. I., figs. 1-4, 9, 10). In some instances
growth does not take place uniformly over all the surface, but in
layers which only extend over parts of the surface and overlap
each other (pi. I., fig. 2). Usually the entire outer surface is
dotted over closely with the minute apertures of the radial canals
bounded by the skeletal mesh, but in a very few rare examples
these are covered by small patches of a spicular dermal layer
(pi. I., figs. 7, 8).

The specimens of P. nuciformis vary in form from nearly round
to melon- and pear-shaped ; they appear in all cases to have been
free. Their surfaces are covered-with simple, slightly raised ridges
or swellings with correspondingly open, shallow, intermediate
furrows, which extend longitudinally from the rounded to the
obtusely pointed summit of the specimens (pi. I., figs. 11-17).
In a few rare examples there are two or more areas from which
the ridges extend (pi. I., fig. 18).

Numerous specimens of P. globularis, both of the spherical
and of the oval or cushion-shaped forms, and also of P. nuciformis,
are penetrated by cylindrical tubes, some of which extend quite
through, so that the specimen becomes a natural bead, whilst
others reach only to the central portion of the fossil or beyond to

12 Transactions of the Society.

near the opposite side, but without passing through it completely
(pi. I., fig. 1). The tubes generally pass straight through the
centres of the rounded forms, but they are not definitely oriented
in the cushion- or pear-shaped fossils, through which they extend
either longitudinally, transversely or obliquely. In the collections
examined from the zone of Micr aster cor-tcstudinarmm upwards
to the Bel. mucronata zone, out of 1799 specimens of P. globidaris
from different localities, there were 321 or about 18 p.c. per-
forated ; of this number 147 were completely perforated or natural
beads, whilst 174 were partially perforated. In 184 specimens of
P. nuciformis from the same beds, there were tubes in 32, or about
17 p.c. ; in only 6 instances the tubes extended through ; whilst
in 26 they only reached to varying depths in the fossils.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Tlie figures are of natural size except where otherwise indicated.

Fig. 1. PorospJisera globidaris, Phillips, sp. Large oval specimen, with tubular
perforation. Zone of Micraster cor-anguinum ; South Croydon,
Surrey. Collection of G. J. Hinde.

„ 2. Ditto; showing overlapping layers of growth. Zone of Marmpites; Margate,
Kent. Collecti >n of Dr. A. W. Eowe, F.G.S.

„ 3. Ditto ; loaf-shaped. Zone of JJelemnitella mucronata ; Ballard Cliff, Dorset
coast. Collection of Dr. Eowe.

„ 4. Ditto; cushion-shaped specimen. Zone of Bel. mucronata; Ballard Cliff.
Collection of Dr. Piowe.

., 5. Ditto ; of average s;ze. Zone of Actinocamax quadratus ; Cliff, east of
Brighton. Collection of G. J. Iiinde.

„ (J. Ditto; median section, showing the arrangement of the radial canals.
Upper Chalk. Collection of G. J. Hinde.

,, 7. Ditto ; completely enveloped with a spieular dermal layer. Zoae of B.
mucronata ; Ballard Cliff. Collection of Dr. Eowe.

„ S. Ditto ; partially covered with an uneven dermal layer. Same zone and
locality as the preceding. Collection of Dr. Eowe.

,, !*, 10. Ditto; loaf-shaped specimens, showing faint indications of surface grooves.
Zone of Marsupites (Uintacrinui Band) ; Thanet coast. Collection
of Dr. Eowe.

.. 11. Pwosphasra nuciformis, v. Hagenow, sp. Viewed from above, showing the
convergence of the grooves at the summit. Zone of Marsupites
(Uintacrinus Band); Margate. Collection of Dr. Eowe.

„ 12. Ditto; side view. Zone of A. quadratus; near Newhaven. Collection of
Dr. Eowe.

„ 13. Ditto; showing closely- arranged grooves. Zone of A. quadratus; Win-
chester. Collection of Dr. Kowe.

„ 14. Ditto; with prominent apex. Zone of A. quadratus ; Sussex coast. Col-
lection of Dr. Eowe.

„ 15. Ditto ; with fragments of the dermal layer. Zone of A. quadratus ; near
Newhaven. Collection of Dr. Eowe.

„ 10, 16a. Ditto ; viewed from above and in profile. Zone of Marsupites (Uinta-
crinus Band); Thanet coast, Kent. Collection of Dr. Eowe.

„ 17. Ditto; viewed from above. Same zone and locality as tho preceding.
Collection of Dr. Eowe.

„ 18. Ditto ; with surface grooves and ridges radiating from several centres.
X 2 diam. From same zone as the preceding; Sussex coast. Col-
lection of Dr. Eowe.

The Genus Porosphcera, Steinmann. By George J. Hinde. 13

These tubes are generally considered to have been occupied
originally by some organic body, such as the stem of a sea-weed,
not capable'of preservation as fossil, round which the Porosphcera
lived and grew. They are now found solidly infilled with the
soft chalky matrix which can readily be extracted.

A further interest is attached to these naturally perforated
examples of Porosphcera from the fact that similar forms have
been found in association with the remains of the " Kiver-Drift "
folk, and it has been surmised * with much probability that they
may have been used by them for personal adornment, such as
necklaces, etc.

P. IVoodwardi, Carter, is generally of a rounded form with one
or more slightly projecting peaks ; the base is small, concave, and

* Kigollot, Mem. sur des Instruments en Silcx, etc., Amiens, 1854, p. 16 ; Parker
ami Jones, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vi. (1860) p. 3D ; James Wyatt, Geologist,
v. (1862) p. 233 ; T. Bupert Jones, torn, cit., p. 236 ; Sir C. Lyell, Antiquity of
Man, 1863, p. 110, fig. 15 ; 4th ed., 1873, p. 165; Worthington Smith, The Primitive
Savage, 1894, p. 272 ; Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,
2nded. 1897, p. 657.

Explanation of Plate I. — continued. '■

Fig. 19. Porosplaera Wocdicardi, Carter, sp. Showing the branching surface canals.
X 2 diam. Zone of Hula ster subglobosus; Dover. Collection of Dr.
Eowe.

„ 20, 20a. Porosphrra pileolus. Thimble-shaped specimen, with a fragment .of
dermal layer on the exterior ; the base (20a) showing concentric
bands of growth. Zone of A. quadratus ; near Newhaven. Col-
lection of Dr. Eowe.

., 21,21a. Ditto. Zone of Marsupites (JJintaerinus Band); Thauet coast. Col-
lection of Dr. Eowe.

,. 22,22a. Porosphxra patelliformis, sp. n. Viewed in profile (22); the deeply
concave base (22a) showing concentric lines of growth and faint
radial lines. Zone of A. quadratus ; Sussex coast. Collection of
Dr. Eowe.

., 23, 23a. Ditto ; a couical specimen, viewed in profile (23) ; the base with faint
concentric lines of growth (23a). Zone of Marsupites {JJintaerinus
Band) ; Thanet coast. Collection of Dr. Eowe.

„ 24,24a. Ditto; a depressed specimen, viewed in profile (24); the base with
concentric and radial lines (24a). Same zone and locality as the
preceding. Collection of Dr. Eov.rc.

., 25. Ditto; viewTed from above, showing some fragments of the spicular dermal
crust. Same zone and locality as the preceding. Collection of
Dr. Eowe.

,. 26. '26a. Ditto; a small specimen, viewed in profile, natural size (26); and the
concave base, with rod-like spicules radiating from the centre to the
margins, enlarged 4 diam. (26a). Zone of Terebratulina gracilis ;
East Cliff, Dover. Collection of Dr. Eowe.

„ 27, 27a. Forosphxra arrecta, sp. n. Viewed in profile (27), and showing the
base (27a), enlarged 3 diam. Zone of Rhynchonella Cuvieri ; Brans-
combe Cliff, South Devon coast. Collection of Dr. Eowe.

,, 28, 28a. Ditto ; showing the exterior and the basal aspect, enlarged 3 diam.
Zone of Marsupites (JJintaerinus Band); Thanet coast. Collection
of Dr. Eowe.

14 Transactions of the Society.

wrinkled (pi. I., fig. 10.). The specimens are now free, but the
wrinkled character of their bases seems to indicate that they may-
have been attached to some foreign body during life. From the
surface elevations deeply impressed branching canals radiate down
their sides.

Typical examples of Porosphwra pilcolus are thimble- or in-
verted cup-shaped, with thick walls and deeply concave bases ;
the basal hollow is lined with a spicular dermal layer and shows
successive growth-rings or bands. The upper surface of this
species resembles that of P. globularis (pi. I., figs. 20, 21). In
P. patelliformis, the outer form resembles that of a limpet, the
basal cavity is wide, the walls are comparatively thin, and it is
furnished with a distinct basal dermal layer (pi. I., figs. 22-26«)
In yet another form which I have named arrccta, the sponge is
like a small, upright tapering pillar with a concave base (pi. I.,
figs. 27-28«). In some specimens the base may probably have
been attached originally to some other body.

VI. Skeletal Mesh.

The skeleton of Porosphara is of a stony character ; in thin
sections under the Microscope it appears to be made up of a finely
porous mesh-work of continuous anastomosing fibres, in which,
however, little structure can now be distinguished. The nature
of the mesh-fibres is better shown on the surface of specimens
obtained directly from the Chalk. These, when carefully cleaned
from the matrix, exhibit under a strong lens or a Microscope a
multitude of minute, projecting spines or rays, which also can be
recognised by a rasping sensation when the finger is rubbed over
the surface. On close examination, each of these projecting rays
can be seen to spring from the central junction of three other short,
generally recurved rays, and they are, in fact, the apical rays of
four-rayed spicules similar to those in Plectroninia and Petro-
stroma. The three sub-equal, short facial rays of these spicules have
truncate ends, which are fused or welded to the surfaces of the
adjoining spicules, in such a manner as to form the mesh-fibres
which delimit the radial canals (pi. II., figs. 6, 0).

The nature of the skeleton of Porosphccra in the early stages of
growth is admirably shown in a small specimen of P. glolularis,
about 1*25 mm. in diameter, which has been preserved in a flint from
the Upper Chalk of Kent (pi. II., fig. 1). The specimen was dis-
covered by Mr. H. Muller, of Eltham, to whom I am indebted for
the opportunity of studying it. The apical rays are very prominent,
and the facial rays are already firmly fused to those of adjacent
spicules. By further surface growth these prominent apical rays
would be partially surrounded by and welded to the facial rays of
the succeeding layer of spicules above them, and would thus be

The Genus Porosphccra, Steinmann. By George J. Hinde. 15

incorporated with the mesh-fibres, so that they would be hardly, if
at all, recognisable in microscopic sections of the interior of the
organism. In older specimens of Porosphcera the mesh-spicules are
frequently considerably larger and thicker than in the young
individual just referred to (pi. II., fig. 9).

In sections of specimens of P. globularis and of P. pileolus from
South Croydon, the free apical spicular rays near the surface are
seen to be furnished with stout lateral prickles, closely resembling
those in Plcctroninia Haiti (pi. II., figs. 5, 6).

VII. Basal Layer.

The hollow inverted cup- or thimble-shaped bases of P. pileolus,
and the more open saucer-like bases of P. patclliformis, show con-
centric lines or bands, which mark intervals of growth (pi. I.,
figs. 20a-24a) ; and these are lined by very slender thread-like
and occasionally wavy spicules, disposed generally parallel with
each other, in the direction of the margin of the cup. These
spicules are so fine and closely set that it is difficult to determine
whether they are simple rods or rays of three-rayed spicules ; but
in some few specimens there is a thin exterior layer of straight,
slender spicular rods, extending downwards and outwards like
thatch on a» roof (pi. I., fig. 26a).

In P. Woodwardi the base is small, concave and rugose, and its
spicular characters are obscured.

VIII. Spicular Dermal Layer.

With a few rare exceptions, the outer surface of Porosphcera,
even of well-preserved specimens which have had the chalky
matrix carefully removed, only shows the skeletal fibres and the
projecting apical rays of the spicules described above. But in the
exceptional examples, the usual skeletal mesh is covered in places
with a layer or crust of so different a character and appearance that
at first sight it might have been taken for an encrusting sponge
which had settled and grown on the outside of the Porosphozra.
This dermal layer appears as a whitish crust, in some instances
thin and smooth, in others of measurable thickness, uneven, and
with occasional small projections (pi. I., figs. 7, 8). Examined
directly under the Microscope, it is seen to consist, in the majority
of cases, of an agglomeration of minute three- and four-rayed
spicules, with an admixture of simple rods so intimately and
irregularly mingled together that it is difficult to distinguish the
individual forms. These spicules seem to have been originally quite
free and not connected together organically in any way (pi. II.,
fig. 7). In one or two specimens the outer surface of the dermal

16 Transactions of the Society.

layer consists of very slender rod-like spicules, regularly disposed
side by side or arranged concentrically round a small opening
(? pore). (PI. II., fig. 10.)

Out of a total number of about 3000 specimens of Porosphcera
examined, I have only met with a dermal layer in eighteen indi-
viduals. In but two of these does it extend over the whole surface ;
in the others only small patches of the skeletal mesh are now
covered by it. Where thin, the apical spicular rays can be seen
to penetrate through it. It occurs in specimens of P. globularis,
P. nuciformis, P. pileolus and P. patelliformis, from different
localities and horizons, from the zone of Micrastcr cor-testudinarium
upwards, with the exception of the zone of M. cor-anguinum. Pro-
portionately, a larger number of specimens with the dermal layer
partially preserved are found in the zone of Bel. mucronata than in
the lower horizons of the English Chalk.

In its structure and general characters, the dermal layer of
Porosplmra is very similar to that of the Tertiary Plectroninia and
the recent Pctrostroma from the Japanese Sea. In both of these

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Fig. 1. Porosph.xra globularis, Phill., sp. A small specimen, preserved in flint,

showing the spicular structure of the exterior. x 50 diam. Upper

Cbalk ; near Sidcup, Kent. Collection of Mr. H. Muller.
., 2. Ditto ; portion of the outer surface, showing the arrangement of the skeletal

spicules bounding the apertures of the radial canals. X 40 diam. Zone

of Belemnitella mucronata ; Ballard Cliff, Dorset coast. Collection of

Dr. Rowe.
„ 3. Ditto; three-rayed spicules of the dermal layer, x 100 diam. Zone of

Aclinocamax quadratus; Scralchell's Bay, Isle of Wight. Collection of

G. J. Hinde.
„ 4. Porosphxra nuciformis, \. Hag., sp. Portion of the surface, showing the

skeletal spicules and the radial canal apertures, x 40 diam. Zone of

A. quadratus ; Cliff, east of Brighton.
., 5. rorosphxra pileolus. A four-rayed mesh spicule, the apical ray armed with

lateral prickles. From a microscopic section near the margin of the

specimen, x 200 diam. Zone of Micrader cor-anguinum ; South Croydon.

Collection of G. J. Hinde.
,, (I. P. globularis. A portion of the skeletal mesh, showing its structure of fuur-

rayed spicules, the basal rays of which are now fused together, x 100 diam.

Zone of M. cor-anguinum ; South Croydon. Collection of G. J. Hinde.
„ 7. Ditto; a fragment of the dermal layer, showing three- and four-rayed

spicules irregularly intermingled, x 50 diam. Zone of B. mucronata ;

Ballard Cliff, Dorset coast. Collection of Dr. Rowe.
., IS. Ditto; a small specimen preserved in chalk, showing blunted apical rays of

spicules projecting from the surface, x 40 diam. Upper Cbalk, Graves-
end, Kent. Collection of Mr. T. H. Powell.
„ 9. Ditto; the skeletal mesh near the margin of a specimen preserved in flint,

showing the curved facial and the projecting apical rays of four-rayed

spicules, x 40 diam. Upper Chalk; Chatham. Jeimyn Street Museum.
„" 10. Ditto; portion of the outer surface of the dermal layer, showing rod-like

spicules arranged concentrically round a central pore (?). x 50 diam.

Zone of Belemnitella mucronata; Ballard CI iff', Dorset coast. Collection

of Dr. Bowe.

JOURN.R.MICR. S0C.1904.Pl.il.

i

% Q

a- so

^fflw™-

x/Oi

#1V

10

.

)

xSO

'

^$&ir

YfO

G M Woodward del.et lith.

We st, Newman imp.

POROSPH^RA PROM THE ENGLISH CHALK.

The Genus Porosphcera, Steinmann. By George J. Hinde. 17

genera the dermal layer is very fragile and easily removable
from the connected skeletal mesh of the body of the sponge, and
Dr. Doderlein* states that in the specimens of the latter genns,
which had evidently been dead some time before they were hooked
up from the bottom of the sea, every trace of the dermal layer had
disappeared.

It seems to me, therefore, highly probable that in the various
forms of Poros])hcvra from the Chalk a spicular dermal layer
covered the surface originally, and its subsecpuent complete dis-
appearance from the very large majority of these specimens may be
attributed to the loose intermingling and the absence of organic
connection of its constituent spicules, whereby the crust became
liable to disintegration and removal soon after the death of the
organism. It is only owing to exceptionally favourable conditions
of preservation that some small fragments of the dermal layer still
remain on a few of these sponges.

IX. Canal System.

All the forms of Porosphmra possess a series of simple, straight
canals which, in P. globidaris and P. nuciformis, radiate in all
directions from a central point or area to the surface of the sponge
(pi. I., fig. 6), whilst in P. pileolus, P. patclliformis, also in P.
Woodivardi, they radiate upwards and outwards from the centre
of the concave base. The canals are closely arranged, uniformly
small, and of the same dimensions throughout their length : as
the sponge increases in size fresh canals are intercalated. The
canals are bounded by the spicular mesh-fibres and free intercom-
munication can take place in the small spaces between the fibres.

In P. nuciformis, in addition to the radial canals of the interior,
there are simple, shallow, surface grooves, with intermediate,
slightly elevated, rounded ridges, which are directed meridionally
towards the summit of the sponge, where, however, there is no
special aperture. Generally there is but one pole towards which
the grooves converge (pi. 1., figs. 11-17), but in some rare speci-
mens there are two or more elevations which serve as centres (pi. I.
fig. 18). These grooves are but surface features, and they are fre-
quently so faintly marked as to be scarcely noticeable, but it
seems probable that they played some part in the circulation of
the sponge.

In P. Woodwardi there are distinct, strongly marked, branch-
ing canals, which extend from one or more slightly raised peaks
down the sides of the sponge (pi. I., fig. 19). As in P. nuciformis,
there is no special aperture at the slightly projecting points where

* Zool. Jahrb, x. (1893) p. 17.
Feb. 17th, 1904 c

18 Transactions of the Society.

the canals converge. Though now open surface canals, it is likely
that they were covered by a dermal layer during the life of the
sponge.

X. Affinities of the Genus.

The structure of Porosphcera, described above, shows clearly
that it is a Calcisponge, belonging to the group of the Lithonina,
and its nearest ally is Plectroninia, Hinde,* from Tertiary strata,
near Geelong, Australia. In common with the other members of
this group, it has a very firm resistant skeletal mesh of fibres
composed of four-rayed spicules, each with a partially free apical
ray and three facial rays, which are intimately fused with the rays
of adjoining spicules. It also possessed a dermal layer of loosely
interwoven spicules of a readily destructible character. It is dis-
tinguished from Plectroninia by the well-marked simple radiate
canals of the interior, by the absence of distinct floors or layers of
growth consisting of smaller spicules, not definitely fused together,
and further, by the apparent absence of minute " tuning-fork "
spicules. From Pctrostroma, D6derlein,f Porosphcera is also dis-
tinguished by its radial canals, and its skeletal fibres are not fused
into radial balks, with smaller connecting spicules, as in the former
genus. Whether the fibres of Porosphcera were invested with a
common calcareous pellicle like those of Plectroninia is uncertain,
for their state of preservation does not allow of determination.

XI. Description of Species.

Porosphcera globularis, Phill. sp. (pi. I., figs. 1-10; pi. II.,

figs. 1-3, 6-10).

1829. Millepora globularis, Phill., Geol. Yorks., pt. 1, p. 186, pi. i., fig. 12.
1833. „ „ S. Woodward, Geol. Norfolk, p. 46, pi. iv., figs. 10-12.

1814. Ceriopora pisum, Eeuss, Geognostische Skizzen aus Bohmen, vol. ii,

p. 140.
1845. Tragus globularis, Eeuss, Versteinerimgen bolmi. Krei deformation,

Abth. ii. p. 78, pi. xx., fig. 5.
1850. Coscinopora globularis, A. d'Orbigny, Prodr. dePak'ont., vol. ii., p. 284.
1854. „ „ Morris, Cat. Brit. Foss., 2nd ed. p. 27.

1860. Orbitolina globularis, Parker and Jones, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,

ser. 3, vol. vi., p. 34.
1864. Achilleum globosum, F. A. Eoemer, Pateontographica, vol. xiii., p. 56.
1875. Coscinopora globularis, Etheridge, Geol. Yorks , 3rd ed. p. 322, pi. i.,

fig. 12.

1878. Porospjhxra globularis, Steinmann, pars. Pakeontog., vol. xxv.,p. 120.

1879. Ceriopora nuciformis, Qnenstedt, pars. Petrefactenk. Deutsckf, vol. vi.,

p. 262 ; Atlas, pi. 153, figs. 1-7, 9.

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, lvi. (1900) pp. 50-66, pis. iii. and iv.
t Zool. Jalirb.,x. (1S9S) pp. 15-32, pis. ii.-vi.

The Genus Porosphcera, Steinmann. By George J. Hinde. 19

1879. Porosj)hxra globularis, v. Zittel, Handb. der Pal., vol. i., p. 288.

1888. „ „ H. A. Nicholson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist , ser. 6,

vol. i., p. 11.

1889. „ „ Nicholson, Man. Pal., 3rd ed. vol. i., p. 200.
1889. Amorphosponyia globosa, A. Fritsch, Stud. Gebiete d. bohm. Kreiilef.,

vol. iv., p. 108, fig. 52.
1900. Porosphxra globularis, Eowe,Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xvi., pt. 6, pp. 299,

344, 361 ; vol. xvii., pt. 1 (1901) pp. 67, 71 ;

vol. xviii., pt, 3 (1903) pp. 37, 49.
1903. „ „ Steinmann, Einfiihrung in die Palaontologie,

p. 95, fig. 125.

Sponges simple, generally rounded, like peas or marbles, but
sometimes oval, loaf- or cushion-shaped, without any distinctive
base ; for the most part free and unattached, but in many cases
they grew round foreign bodies which have been incapable of
fossilisation, and these sponges now exhibit cylindrical hollow
tubes which extend partly or entirely through them (pi. I., fig. 1).
Generally increase of growth is uniform over the surface, but in
some instances fresh layers are formed so as to cover but portions
of the surface at once (pi. I., fig. 2).[ Small specimens are found
of about 1 mm. in diameter ; the larger forms range to 34 mm. in
diameter.

The outer surface is completely covered with the minute
apertures of straight, simple canals, which radiate outwards from
a central point or small area, with intercalations as the sponge
increases in size. The apertures of the canals are rounded or
somewhat polygonal, from 0'16 to 0-25 mm. in diameter, and
they are separated from each other by the delicate mesh fibres ;
the interspaces being sometimes less than, and sometimes exceed-
ing, the width of the canal apertures. Barely, shallow open grooves
are faintly shown on parts of the surface of some of the larger
loaf-shaped forms (pi. I., figs. 9, 10).

The four-rayed spicules which form the skeletal fibres vary
somewhat in size in different specimens. The pointed apical ray
is directed outwards ; those near the exterior project as minute
spines beyond the general surface of the sponge ; sometimes this
ray is smooth, sometimes armed with horizontal prickles. The
apical ray ranges from 0 • 14 to 0 • 35 mm. in length, and from 0 ' 04
to 0 • 1 mm. in thickness at the base. The three facial rays of the
spicules are shorter than the apical ray ; they curve downwards,
tripodal fashion, and are truncate at the ends where fused to
proximate spicules. They are from 0*1 to 0'2 mm. in length, and
from 0 -04 to 0 "075 mm. in thickness. The mesh fibres formed by
the fusing together of the individual spicules are about O'll mm.
in thickness.

The dermal layer, which is very rarely preserved, is a whitish
crust, uneven, and with small protuberances in places ; it consists
of three- and four-rayed spicules and apparently simple rod-like

c 2

20 Transactions of the Society.

forms confusedly intermingled (pi. II., figs. 3, 7). The rays of the
former are from 0*14 to 0*22 mm. in length, and about 0-03 mm.
in thickness. The exterior surface of the dermal layer appears to
be composed of very delicate linear spicules, regularly arranged ;
in one instance they are disposed concentrically round a small
pore-like aperture (pi. II., fig. 10).

Distribution. — P. globularis is by far the most numerous species
of the genus ; out of a total of 2902 specimens from the English
Chalk which I have examined, 2357, or slightly over 81 p.c,
belong to it. Its earliest appearance is at the base of the Middle or
Turonian Chalk in the zone of Rliynclionclla Cuvieri at Dover and
the South Devon coast. It is distributed generally in all the
higher zones of the Chalk, and becomes more numerous and larger
in size till reaching its maximum in the zones of Micraster cor-
anguinum and Marsupitcs. The loaf- and cushion-shaped forms
occur chiefly in the Marsiqritcs zone at Margate and the Thanet
coast, and in the Bel. mueronata zone at Ballard Cliff and Studland
Bay, on the Dorset coast. It is common in the Chalk of Flam-
borough Head and Sewerby, on the Yorkshire coast, where the
specimens are small generally. It is also abundant at and near
Newhaven and Brighton, and in the Isle of Wight. Inland, it is
found plentiful at and near Croydon. Surrey, and sparsely in
Hampshire and Wiltshire.

According to Steinmann, P. globularis is generally present in
the Chalk of Middle and Northern Europe. Eeuss and Fritsch
record it from the Teplitzer beds (Lower Senonian ?) at Ivutschlin
and near Bilin, in Bohemia, and von Hagenow from the island of
Biigen. Lately Bavn * has recognised it in the Bryozokalk (Older
Danian) of Jutland.

Porosphccra nuciformis, von Hagenow, sp. (pi. I., figs. 11-18;

pi. II., fig. 4).

1822. Zoophyte of a pyriform shape, the nature of which is unknown, Mantell,

Geology of Sussex, p. 162, pi. xvi., figs. 17, 18.
1839. Ceriopora nuciformis, von Hagenow, Neues Jalirb. fur Mia., p. 286, pi. v.,

fig. 9.
1872-5. „ „ Geinitz, Palreontographica, vol. xxii., p. 4.

1879. „ „ Quenstedt, pars. Petrefact. Deutschl., p. 62.

1900. Porosphasra Woodwardi, Eowe (non Carter), Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xvi.,

pt. 6, pp. 304, 344, 361 ; vol. xvii., pt. 1 (1901) pp. 67, 72.

Sponges free, simple, typically pear-shaped, but occasionally
melon- or loaf-shaped, with longitudinal low swellings or ridges,
and intermediate shallow grooves which converge to the obtuse
pole of the sponge. The number of the ridges variable ; in some
specimens they are set closer and more strongly marked than in

* Kgl. Datiske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter, 6 Eakke, xi. 6 (1903) p. 423.

The Genus Porosphccra, Steinmaun. By George J. Hinde. 21

others, sometimes also there are two or more slight elevations to
which the grooves converge (pi. I., fig. 18). There are no special
apertures at the point of convergence beyond the openings of the
minute radial canals, which are present all over the surface, alike
on the ridges and the grooves.

As in P. globulavis, a number of these sponges are penetrated
by cylindrical tubes which extend either longitudinally or trans-
versely through them; of those which I have examined about
17 p.c. are traversed by tubes. The sponges range from 4 to
20 mm. in diameter.

The spicular structure of the skeletal fibres appears similar
to that of P. globulavis, and the same may be said of the dermal
layer, fragments of which, however, were only observed on the
surface of two specimens.

From P. globidaris, this species is distinguished by its form
and the ridges and grooves of its surface ; and from P. Woodwardi,
Carter, by the absence of a concave base of attachment and by
the great difference between its shallow simple grooves and the
branching canals of P. Woodwardi. Specimens of P. nuciformis
have been generally referred to Carter's species, but this latter is
rare, and it seems to me a quite distinct form, and, moreover, it
is restricted to a lower zone than that in which P. nuciformis
occurs.

Von Hagenow considered that the pear-shaped specimens of
nuciformis which he figured were only more perfect examples of
the spherical forms, that is of P. globularis, Phillips, of which
he makes no mention, and he evidently intended to include both
in the species nuciformis. If this wrere the case, Phillips' name
would have the priority, but it seems to me that the pear-shaped,
grooved forms differ specifically from P. globularis, and I propose
to retain for them Hagenow' s name nuciformis.

Distribution. — P. nuciformis makes its first appearance in the
zone of Micraster cor-anguinum at Croydon, coast of Thanet and
Dorset, and at Flamborough ; it is relatively more numerous in
the zone of Marsupites at Margate and the Thanet coast, and
reaches its maximum in numbers, and size in the zone of Act.
quadratus at and near Newhaven, near Brighton, and the Isle of
Wight ; it is also numerous in the zone of Bel. mucronata at
Ballard Cliff and Studland Bay, Dorset, and likewise occurs at
Trimingham, Norfolk coast. Abroad it is found in the Chalk
of Riigen.

ov

PorospJiaTa Woodwardi, Carter sp. (pi. I., fig. 19).

1877. (?) Bradya tergestina, Carter (non Staclie), Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,

ser. 4, vol. xix., p. 64.

1878. Millepora Woodwardi, Carter, op. cit., ser. 5, vol. i, p. 306, pi. xvii., figs. 6 8 .

22 Transactions of the /Society.

1878. Porosphsera globularis, Steinmann, pars. Pal?eontograpliica, toI. xxv.,

p. 120, pi. xiii., figs. 8-10.
1900. 71071 Po7-o^hx7-a Woodwardi, Kowe, Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xvi., pt. 6,
pp. 304, 344, 361 ; vol. xvii., pt. 1 (1901) pp. 67, 72.

Small oval or rounded sponges, from 12 to 18 mm. in diameter,
with deeply impressed branching canals which extend from the
basal portion to the summit, and also to one or more lateral
centres. There is no special aperture either at the summit or at
the sides where these canals meet. The base of the sponge is
concave, elongate and rugose, and it appears to have been fixed ;
no spicular structure can be recognised in it.

The surface of the sponge is covered with the apertures of
radial canals, which are about 0-16 mm. wide and from one to
two diameters apart. The skeletal fibres are about 0*05 mm. in
thickness ; the spicules in them are now rarely visible, but here
and there in thin sections the pointed apical rays can be distin-
guished; these are about O'll mm. in length by 0*04 mm. in
width at the base.

This species, which has been fully described by the late
Mr. Carter, is distinguished from any of the other Chalk species
of Porosphcera by the strongly-marked branching canals of the
surface, which are very distinct from the simple, shallow grooves
in P. nuciformis. From this latter it differs also in the possession
of a concave base of attachment.

Professor Steinmann considered that the branching canals in
P. Woodwardi, Carter, were of no real signification, and he included
the species in P. globularis, in which, however, these features are
not present.

P. Woodwardi is rare, and in this country has only been met
with in the Grey Chalk of the zone of Holastcr siibglobosus at
Dover, and at Durdle Cove, Dorset. The specimens from the
higher zones of the Chalk, which have been referred by Dr. Eowe
and others to this species, really belong to P. nuciformis. Stein-
mann also states that this species occurs in the Upper Chalk
(Senonian) of Vordorf and Ahlten, North Germany, but it is pro-
bable that the forms mentioned should be included in P. nuciformis.

Porosphcera pileolus (pi. I., figs. 20-21a; pi. II., fig. 5).

1829. Lii7i7ilites urceolata, Phill. (non Lamarck), Geol. Yorks., pt. 1, p. 186,

pi. i., fig. 11.
1854. Cosct7iopora (?) pileolus, Morris, Cat. Brit. Foss., 2nd ed. p. 28.
1860. Orbitolina concara, Parker and Jones (non Lain, sp.) Ann. and Mag.

Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. vi., pp. 35, 39.
1875. Coscinopora pileolus, Etheridge (Phill.) Geol. Yorks. 3rd ed. p. 322, pi. i.,

fig. 11.
1900. Po7-osphxi-a pileolus, Eowe, pars. Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol.xvi., pt. 6, pp. 304,
344, 361 ; vol. xvii., pt. 1 (1901) pp. 67, 72.

The Genus Porosphcera, Steinmann. By George J. Hindc. 23

Sponges simple, free, thimble- or inverted cup-shaped, some-
times hemispherical, with a deeply concave, cup-shaped base.
Walls thick. The outer surface is even, without grooves or ridges,
and covered with the apertures of the minute radial canals. The
concave base shows concentric rings or bands of growth, and a small
umbo or boss at the bottom. The specimens range from 2 to 18 mm.
in diameter.

The skeletal fibres resemble those of P. globularis. The canals
radiate upwards from the basal layer. The concave base has a
layer of minute spicular rays, regularly arranged like thatch on a
roof, and outside of this there appear to have been elongate, slender,
rod-like spicules.

In one specimen there is a small fragment remaining of a
spicular dermal crust of a similar character to that in P. globularis.

This species is characterised by its form, thick wall, and deeply
concave base.

The various specific names by which this species has been
known, are taken from Lamarck's Animaux sans Vcrtebrcs, torn. ii.
(1816) pp. 190-197. They were applied originally to Foraminifera
or Polyzoa, and therefore have no proper connection with this
sponge. It seems to me desirable, however, that quite inde-
pendently of Lamarck's use of the term " pileolus" it may be
suitably retained for this species of Porosphcera.

Distribution. — P. pileolus is first known from the Holaster planus
zone at Dover, and from this upwards it occurs in the higher beds
of the Chalk to the top of the Actinocamax quadratics zone at
Croydon, Margate, Thanet coast, near Newhaven, near Brighton,
Isle of Wight, Dorset coast, as well as at Flamborough and
Sewerby, Yorkshire.

Porosphcera patelliformis, sp. n. (pi. I., figs. 22-2 6ft).

1822. Lunulites (?) Mantell, Geology of Sussex, p. 180, pi. xvi., figs. 22-24.
1835. Orbitolites lenticulata, Mantell (nou Lam.), Trans. Geol. Soc, ser. 2,
vol. iii,. p. 204.

Sponges limpet-shaped, with peaked or rounded summits, base
rounded or oval in outline, usually deeply concave, but occasionally
flattened, and in some young specimens even slightly convex.
Wall relatively thin. The specimens range from 2 to 23 mm. in
diameter.

The skeletal fibres are of a somewhat coarse character, and the
radial canals are short ; their apertures range to 0 • 3 mm. in width.
The concave base shows concentric bands of growth, and its
spicular structure is similar to that of P. 'pileolus. Usually there is
no boss at the bottom of the base. A spicular dermal crust covers
in part the surface of one specimen (pi. I., fig. 25).

This species is distinguished from P. pileolus by its limpet-like

24 Transactions of the Society.

form, thin walls, slight development of the radial canals, and some-
what coarser skeletal fibres.

Distribution. — It occurs, rarely, in the zones of Tcreuratulina
gracilis and Holastcr planus at Dover, and in each succeeding
higher zone of the Chalk. It is most abundant in the M. cor-
testudinarium zone near Newhaven, in the Uintacrinus band of the
Thanet coast, and at Flamborougli.

Poi'osjrfio'ra arrccta, sp. n. (pi. I., figs. 27-28a).

Sponges small, simple, conical pillar-shaped, the base concave
with thin margins ; in some specimens it retains traces of spicules,
whilst in others it is rugose, as if it had been attached to an un-
even surface originally. The sponges are about 8 mm. in height,
and the diameter of the base from 3 to 7 mm.

The walls are thin and the canals are scarcely noticeable;
whilst the skeletal fibres are of the usual character.

This form is rare ; it first appears in the zone of B. Cuvieri at
Branscombe and Barry Cliff on the South Devon coast ; it occurs
also in the zone of M. cor-anguinum at Flamborougli, in the
Marsupitcs zone at Margate, and in the A. quadratics zone near
Newhaven.

Porosphccra. Irregular forms.

There are a few specimens in the collections examined which
differ from any of the species described above, but do not present
any features sufficiently well marked to justify placing them as
distinct forms. Some are merely thin crusts either overlapping
one another, or attached to other bodies, others are spindle-shaped
and free, whilst yet others appear to be distorted or monstrous
growths of P. globularis and P. patelliformis.

XII. Summary.

The descriptions of the structure of Porosphccra given in this
paper are based chiefly on extensive collections from the various
zones of the English Chalk made by Dr. A. W. Bowe and by the
author. The fossils have long been well known, but owing to
their state of preservation, it has been difficult to ascertain their
minute structure, and hence very divergent opinions have been
held respecting their nature and systematic position ; latterly,
however, the view that they were Hydrozoa, structurally allied to
Millcpora and Parkeria, has been generally accepted. It is now
definitely shown that the calcareous anastomosing fibres of their

The Genus Porosphop/ra, Steinmann. By George J. Hindc. 25

skeleton consist of four-rayed spicules, in which one ray is taper-
ing and the other three blunted and organically fused to adjoining
spicules. They also possessed originally a crust or dermal layer
of smaller spicules than those of the skeletal mesh, which are
not fused together, and also in some forms a distinct spicular base
is present. In the form of the skeletal spicules and in their
arrangement Porosphcera closely resembles the Calcisponge genus
Plectroninia, Hinde, from the Eocene (?) Tertiary of Australia, and
the recent Petrostroma, Doderlein, from the Japanese sea, and with
these genera it finds a place in the Lithonina group of Calcisponges.
Descriptions are given of the following species : P. globularis,
Phill., P. nuciformis, von Hag., P. Woodicardi, Carter, P. pileolus,
P. patelliformis, sp. n., and P. arrecta, sp. n.

26 Transactions of the Society.

II. — Microscopic Resolution : Note on a Point in Lord Hay high's

Paper of 1896.*

By Peofessoe J. D. Everett, F.E.S.

(Head November 18th, 1003.)

In Lord Bayleigh's paper of 1896, which contains the fullest
investigation ever published of the theory of microscopic resolu-
tion, there is one paragraph of special difficulty, — that in which
the transition is made from direct to oblique illumination of a
grating under the Microscope, the aperture being supposed
rectangular.

With direct illumination, the phase of vibration is the same
all over the grating, and it is shown that the amplitude of vibra-
tion at any point in the plane of the image is expressed by the
series

sin u sin (u -f v) . sin (u — v) , sin (u + 2 v) , /0QN

- T — r— " T~ - "T - — ; — ~ — T • • • \£&)

u ii + v u — v u + 2 v

v denoting the increment of u from line to line of the grating, or
of its geometrical image.

The change to oblique illumination introduces a uniform phase-
difference from line to line ; and it is assumed (for reasons not
stated) that this has the effect of changing the expression for the
amplitude to

sin u sin (u + v) _imv , sin (w — v)

+ : C ■+■ :

U U + V U — V

pimxi

+ sin (u + 2 v) e_2imv + ,32v

u + 2 v

i denoting s/ — 1, and m a multiplier to be determined.

It is not easy to see how this series can be equal to a quantity
which is entirely real ; and apart from this difficulty the process
of deducing a practical result is rather laborious. I wish to
indicate a simpler process leading to the same result.

The grating-interval being denoted by e, and the obliquity of
illumination by 7, the difference of optical path from line to line

* See this Journal, August, 1903, pp. 447-73.

Microscopic Resolution. By Professor J. D. Everett, F.R.S. 27

is e sin 7, giving a phase-difference -^— e sin 7. This is to be
added (with its proper sign) to the phase-difference v in (28),

2 IT

which is found, on examination, to have the value -^— sin a
(a denoting the numerical aperture). It is, therefore, simply

2 7T

necessary to assign to v in (28) the value -— — (sin a + sin 7),

and (28) will be the general expression for the amplitude for any
obliquity of illumination (7 being zero when the illumination is
direct). This conclusion is in accordance with (45), which is the
final result deduced from (32).

The value above assigned to v for direct illumination is
obtained in the following way. Let a denote the distance from
line to line in the geometric image of the grating. The magnifi-
cation a I e is, by the sine-law, equal to sin a j sin 6, the small
angle 9 being equal (in the notation of the paper) to ^ a
divided by /. As u stands for the abscissa of a line in the

geometric image multiplied by — -, its increment v is

*• /

it a it a 2 f . 2 7r

— a = — - e — -i- sm a = e sin a.

\f \f a \

We assume (as usual) that the plane waves of illumination
intersect the plane of the grating in lines parallel to the grating
lines. The resolution will be most complete when sin a + sin 7
is greatest, that is, when the difference of optical path from line
to line is greatest. To this end, the grating (a small microscopic
object) should be on one side of the axis of the Microscope, and
the light should come from the other side ; sin a and sin 7 will
then have the same sign.

28 Transactions of the Society.

III. — The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera and their Relation
to the other Families in Diptera.

By W. Wesche, F.E.M.S.

(JXead November 18th, 1903.)
Plates III.-VIII.

The work which I have done on the tropin of Diptera has been
mostly concerned with the Muscidse. I have endeavoured to
prove : (1) that the palpi, always regarded as maxillary, are in fact
labial ; (2) that the whole proboscis homologises with the typical
insect mouth ; (3) that the palpi in the Empidse and Syrphidse are
homologous, but not homologous with those of the Muscidse, the two
former being maxillary, and the latter labial ; (4) I have also formu-
lated a rule which enables the observer to discriminate between
the palpi of the two parts. " The maxillary palpi when present in
Diptera are always in contact with the stipites and cardines of
the maxilla?." The application of this rule, and the comparison
of a large number of parts, have enabled me to divide nearly all
the families of the order into eight groups.

Several difficulties have been pointed out to me by Mr. A. E.
Hammond, F.L.S. (who is well acquainted with the anatomy of
the Nemocera), in the Bibionidse, the Tipulidse, and the Chirono-
midse ; these I propose to deal with in my remarks on each group.

In my classification of the families into the different groups,
a certain amount of generalisation must be allowed for ; the re-
markable diversity of the tropin in the order making this necessary.
As it is, genera of the same family, and even the sexes of a species
have been placed in different divisions, and I have little doubt
but that exceptions, other than those I have noted, will be found,
especially among the less known families and rarer species.

The first group consists of those flies which possess the nearly
complete mouth-parts, and are without exception either blood-
sucking or raptorial ; mandibles are present, maxilla? lacking the
gala?, labium without the palpi, labrum and hypopharynx. As to
the epipharynx, it is generally indistinguishable in Diptera, and
therefore best omitted ; but I suspect a curious wrinkled mem-
brane, lying under the hypopharynx in Simuliwm rcptans L., of
being this part.

The Mouth-parfc of the Ncmocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 21)

Group 1. — All parts distinguishable, except the labial palpi,
which are aborted.

Simulidae. (Type S. reptans L.)
Culicidae, the females only.
Tabanidae, „ „ „

Asilidae.

Group 2. — The mandibles are fused into the labium, and the
labial palpi are aborted.

(a) Raptorial, or bloodsucking.

Empidae, with exceptions.

Leptidae. (Type L. scolopacca L.)

The genus Ceratopogon of the Chironomida3.

(I) Suctorial.

Mycetophilidae.

Psychodidse.

Culicidae, the males only and the genus Corethra.

Ehyphidse. (Type R. fencstralis Scop.)

Bombylidae.

Syrphidoe.

Group 3. — The mandibles are fused into the labium, the
laciniae and galas of the maxillae and the labial palpi are aborted.

Cecidomyidae.

Chironomidae, except the genus Ceratopogon. (Type Ch.

pilumosus L.)
Tipulidae.
Stratiomidae.
Conopodae.

Group 4. — The mandibles are fused into the labium ; all parts
of the maxillae except the stipites and cardines are aborted ; the
palpi present are labial, the trachea? of the paraglossae (labella) are
only moderately developed.

Bibionidae. (Type B. hortulanus L.)

Dolichopidae.

Phoridae.

Group 5. — The mandibles and other parts as in Group 4, but
having the tracheae well developed.

(a) With remnants of maxillary palpi.
«• Some Tachinidae.

Some Muscida?. (Type M. domestica L.)

Some Anthomyidae.

30 Transactions of the Society.

(b) With no remains of maxillary palpi.
Lonchopteridre.
Pipunculidce.

Some Tachinidce ) Particularly highly modified
Some Muscidse ) genera, as Siphona or Stomoxys.
Some Anthomyidoe. (Type C. erythrocephala Mg.)
Cordyluridse.
OrtalidaB.
Trypetidse.
Loncheidse.
Chloropodee.
Hippoboscidse.

Group 6. — The mandibles are fused into the labium ; the car-
dines, stipites and lacinire of the maxillae are present, the latter
leaf-shaped and pubescent ; the paraglossoe are without teeth ; the
palpi are labial.

Phycodroniidre. (Type C. frigida Mg.)

Helomyzidse.

Sciomyzidre.

Sapromyzidae.

Group 7. — The mandibles are fused into the labium ; the
maxilhe are embedded, the palpi being the only part exposed,
labial palpi also present ; the trachea of the paraglossee are more
or less well developed.

Opomyzidoe.

Sepsidre.

Ephydridae.

Drosophilidse.

Borboridre. (Type B. eauinus Pin.)

Group 8. — All parts atrophied.
(Estridse. (Type G. equi F.)

I propose making remarks on the trophi of these various
families, each in its group, which will facilitate reference for those
who wish to consult the paper on some particular family ; but
before doing so it will be of service to explain a diagram of a
hypothetical mouth. This has mandibles, complete inaxillce,
which only differ from those found in Hydrcllia griscola by the
presence of four joints in the palpi; a labium, also with four-
jointed palpi, and which has incorporated into its paraglossa? the
transverse levers which I homologise with the ligulai • a well-
marked labrum covering the hypopharynx, which is ciliated, with
levers at the base which represent the submentum. This part is
also known as the " fulcrum." The mentum is not prominent as

The Mouth-parts of the Nemoeera, etc. By W. Wesche. 31

it is on the ventral side of the labium, but it is an important part
of the trophi. All these parts are found in the various families of
Diptera (pi. III. fig. 1).

I do not include the Pulicidre in this classification, as good
authorities place them in an order by themselves, Siphonaptera .
But there are so many points of general affinity that I give a
figure of the mouth-parts, which are however on a first view very
far removed from the type in Diptera. The absence of any labium
or paraglossa? at once differentiates them. These insects are pro-
vided with two sets of palpi, both four-jointed, the maxillary on
the maxilla and the labial, higher up on the head, and having
some analogy to the situation of the labial palpi in the Muscidse.
The labrum is absent or very minute, but the hypopharynx is well
marked ; the maxilke have undergone a curious transformation,
and the mandibles are scales on either side of the head (pi. I.
% 2).

Group 1. — The Simulidse have four-jointed maxillary palpi,
and differ from the females of the genus Culex which have
apparently only two joints, though the males have four. The
hypopharynx in the Simulidte is ciliated at the extremity, and
under it is a curious wrinkled membrane which may possibly be
the epipharynx ; but this part is so minute that it is impossible
to be certain, and I only note it as a possibility. The mandibles
are provided with very beautiful serrated edges, and the maxillfe
are even more complicated, as they are provided with a double
row of sharp teeth. These insects are keen blood-suckers (pi. IV.
fig. 7).

In the Culicida? are curious differences : — (1) The genus Corethra
though possessing the wing of a biting gnat, has a much less
modified mouth-part; it is without mandibles, and the maxilla?
are broad, minutely pubescent and unfitted for piercing purposes.
(2) The mouth-parts of the sexes are different in the other genera
(pi. II. fig. 5).

Since the mosquito has been found to be the host of the
malaria parasite, this family has been much studied, and a number
of new species has resulted in several fresh genera. Mr. F. V.
Theobald has kindly placed many specimens at my disposal, and
I have examined the following species with a view of finding
specific or generic characters in the mouth-parts.

Culex pipiens L.

C.fatigans Wied.

C. annulatus Schrk.

C. concolor Des.

Stegomyia fasciata F.

Mizorhynchus barhirostris "Walk.

Thcobaldia spathijKiIpus Eond.

32

Transactions of the Society.

Grabhamia dorsalis Mg.
Myzomia rossii Theo.
Mansonia uniformis Theo.
M. annulipes Mg.
Tccniorhynchus conopus Frau.
Nyssorhynchus jamesii Theo.
Sabcthes remipes Wied.
Desvoidia vcntralis Walk.
Mucidus altcrnans Westw.
Dinocerites cancer Theo.
Anopheles cinercus Theo.
A. maculipennis Mg.
JEdomyia squamipennis Ami).
Acartomyia longirostris Theo.
Verrallia butleri Theo.
Melanconion a trains Theo.
TJranotaznia pygmcca Theo.
Eretmapodites sp., undetermined.

EXPLANATION OF TLATE III.

1. Diagram of a hypothetical complete mouth in Diptera. This is seen from the

dorsal side ; the maxilla? have been separated, and the mandibles removedf rom
their positions on the dorsal sides of the maxillae. The cardines and the sub-
mentum are supposed to have been dissected out of the enclosing membrane.

2. Mouth-parts of Pulex irritant L. Viewed laterally.

3. Diagram of a hypothetical labium of a common ancestor of the Tabanidse and the

Muscidie. The labial palpi here are in the position they occupy in Dilophus,
and the palpigers are representative of those found in Chrysops excutiens L. ;
they are to be found in most of the Muscida? in a more posterior position,
reverting to the position of the part in Blatta. Seen as in fig. 1.

4. Mouth parts of Gastrophilus equi F. In this family the trophi are quite rudimen-

tary ; in the figure the parts have been cut from the head of a female, and are
seen from the ventral side. The upper part is the more anterior portion.

5. Diagram of the mouth-parts of the female Culex pipiens L. The parts are seen

from the dorsal side. On the labium is marked a depression where the " false
joint" is occasionally found. This rarely occurs in the females.

6. Diagram of the usual type of mouth armature in the Empida; ; the trophi in the

Syrphidse only differ by having a much greater development of the tracheae
on the paraglossae ; the characters of the mouth parts iu the Empida? are
variable, constant in the Syrphidaj. The diagram is seen from the dorsal side.

7. The " false joint " in the labium of Dinocerites cancer Theo. Ventral view.

Note. — The following letters are used throughout the plates :-

m Mandible.

I Laciuia.

g Galea.

mp Maxillary palpus.

pf Palpifer.

s Stipes.

c Cardo.

Maxilla.

pr

1 9

lp

PG
mn
8 m
Ir

Paraglossa.

Ligula.

Labial palpus.

Palpiger.

Mentum.

Submentum.

Labrum.

Labium.

h Hypopharynx.
cl Clypeus,

JOURN. R.MICR. S0C.1904. PI.

W. Wesche, del

London Etching Co., ens

MOUTH-PARTS OF DIPTERA.

JOURN. R.MICR.SOC. 1904. Pi. IV.

VV. Wesche, del.

London Etching Co., eng

MOUTH-PARTS OF DIPTHRA.

The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 33

I find some characters exist, but they are of so minute a
nature, and depend so much for their visibility on the way in
which they have been mounted, that they are of little or no value
in differentiating species. Yet there is one character that sharply
separates Anopheles from the other genera: the mandibles are
serrated at the tip. This part in the other species seems in an
atrophying state, and is often exceedingly difficult to make out.
The rare presence of the mandibles in the males, I shall discuss
in Group 2, to which section they belong.

Tor an excellent description and plate of the mouth-parts of
Anopheles maculipennis, I refer the reader to Dr. G. H. F. Nuttall's
and Mr. A. E. Shipley's paper on the " Structure and Biology of
Anopheles." *

In the Culicidse, omitting Corethra, the parts are specialised
for blood-sucking, and especially the blood of man. An examina-
tion of the tropin of another pest, Cimex lectidaria, shows an
interesting correspondence in the fine serration and delicate struc-
ture of the maxilla?, enabling the insects to punrture the skin
without inflicting pain, or attracting the attention of the victim.

In the female C. pipiens, the maxillary palpi are apparently
two-jointed, but I can trace the remains of two more on the lower
joint, making them conform to the Nemocera type of four joints.

In the Brachycera, are the Tabanidre ; they have been so
much studied that little need be said about their very beautiful
tropin. I have figured Chrysops ccvcutiens L. (pi. IV. fig. 2), as
there are on the dorsal side of the labium two short rows of hairs,

* Journal of Hygiene, i. No. 4, 1901, p. 461, pi. ix.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

1. Trophi of Pangoniq lonyirostris $. Seen from the dorsal side.

2. Maxilla and palpus of Chrysops excutiens L.

3. Mandible of C- excutiens.

4. Labium of C. excutiens. Dorsal view, showing the palpigers.

5. Palpigera of C excutiens, enlarged.

0. Labrum and liypopharynx of C. excutiens.

7. Maxilla and palpus of Simulium reptans L.

8. Mandible of S. reptans.

9. Labium, with two minute teeth, of S. reptans.

10. Hypopharynx of 8. reptans.

11. Labium of S reptans. In the centre is seen the wrinkled membraue, which is

possibly the epipharynx, Dors-U view.

12. Maxilla and palpus of Asitus crabroniformis L.
I'd. Mandible of A. crabroniformis.

14. Labium of A. crabroniformis. Lateral view.

15. Labrum of A. crabroniformis. Dorsal view.

16. Ciliated hypophannx of A. crabroniformis.

17. Trophi of Sciara thomx L. Dorsal view.

18. „ cf Hybos femoratus Mull. Lateral view. Only one of the maxillae sb< ws.

19. „ of Leptis scolopacca L. Dorsal view.

Feb. 17th, 1904 D

34 Transactions of the Society.

forming a triangle ; these remind me of Savigny's often quoted
vestiges of labial palpi on Tabanus italicus, though they are
differently placed. I regard them as the palpigers, as their situa-
tion corresponds with the position of the labial palpi in Dilophus
(pi. IV. fig. 5 ; pi. VI. fig. 6). They then explain the constant
appearance in the Muscidae, calyptrate and acalyptrate, of rows of
hairs at the base of the labial palpi, though the position is much
more posterior. I also find on the labium of T. siideticus Zlr., a
cluster of fine hairs in the same place as the palpigers are on in
Chrysops (pi. VII. figs. 6, 8; pi. VIII. figs. 6, 11 ; pi. III. fig. 3).

In Pangonia is found an extraordinary development in the
leugth of the labium without the geniculation that usually accom-
panies this character. This enables these insects to pierce through
clothing to the skin. The figure gives the mouth-parts of the
male, and it will be noted that like the normal male Culex, it is
without mandibles. The female has a full armature, and certainly
belongs to Group 1 (pi. IV. fig. 1).

The Asilidae, which prey on other insects, have the labium
hardened and horny, the hypopharynx ciliated, (showing, as will
be seen later, its relationship to the Nemocera,) and the maxillae
very broad and strong; the maxillary palpi have but one joint
(pi. IV. fig. 12).

Group 2. — The large family of the Empidae are raptorial, con-
sequently the maxilhe are well developed ; they carry a single-
jointed palpus, which is often annulated at the base. In this
family the paraglossae have but few tracheae, but both the labrum
and hypopharynx are almost invariably large and strong (pi. III.
fig. 6).

In Hybos femoratus Mull. I find a remarkable difference in the
palpi, which are labial, and placed as in the Muscidae. The
maxillae seem atrophying, and are slightly ciliated at the tip ; the
hypopharynx is very strong and channelled with a large tube
leading down to the pharynx ; this seems the offensive weapon,
as in Scotophaga. In Ocydromia glabricula Fin. the palpi are
also labial, and the whole labium somewhat of the Musca type
(pi. IV. fig. 18).

In Lcptis scolopacea L. the maxillae are broad and strong, but
the labrum, and particularly the fine, acute hypopharynx, seem
better adapted for skin-piercing purposes ; the labium is large, and
though the tracheae are relatively small, they are fairly numerous.
This insect has been reported to attack man, but nothing exact has
been recorded. In June 1903 Mr. F. V. Theobald gave me a female,
which had bitten him at Wye, in Kent, and from that insect the
figure in the plate is drawn (pi. IV. fig. 19).

In the suctorial group, the My cetophilidae have minute maxillae
at the base of the three-jointed palpi; the hypopharynx is ciliated

The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera, etc By W. Wesche. 35

at the extremity, and the paraglossa? of the labium resemble those
found in the Chironomyda? (pi. IV. fig 17).

The paraglossa?, in some species of Psychoda, are hardened, and
furnished with three minute teeth on the extremities ; these are
not to be confounded with the teeth in the Muscida?, having no
homology, being modified hairs. P. phalccnoidcs L. and P. sex-
punctata Curt, are of this type. In Ulomyia and others the para-
glossa? are as in Chironomus, Bibio, Sciara, and may be considered
as characteristic of the jSTemocera. The maxilla? are brush-like in
appearance, carry four-jointed palpi, which are joined on to the
stipites as in Culex. The hypopharynx is ciliated all down the
sides (pi. V. fig. 1).

In this family, when the mouth is used for blood-sucking, the
offensive weapon seems to be the labium, and the other ciliated
organs seem adapted to carrying up the fluids by capillary attrac-
tion. In Britain these insects are not known to bite, and indeed
it is very doubtful if they feed at all, as in a number of specimens
examined, no food has been found in the abdomen, and it seems
difficult to recognise any alimentary canal.

The males in Culex are peculiar, as their mouth-parts differ
from those of the females ; the mandibles are mostly aborted, and
the maxilla? appear to be in an atrophying condition. Occasionally
a male is found with developed mouth-parts, but these are decidedly
less perfect than the weapons of the female ; I have lately examined
a number of males of the species enumerated on a previous page,
besides many C. pipiens. I only found one Anopheles maculipennis
with complete mouth-parts, and of these the mandibles and maxilhe
are in an atrophied state. I have also a record of a male C. pipiens
in September 1902 with complete tropin (pi. V. figs. 2-5). In
the males of all the species, is a surprising reversion ; the hypo-
pharynx, unlike that of the female, is ciliated at the tip ; the palpi
also are four-jointed, and hinge on to the maxillary stipites and
cardines. In Dinoccritcs cancer the larva? are parasitic on the crabs
in the Barbadoes ; the palpi in the males are very short, but the
remains of the four joints can still be made out. In some species
the males are thought to sting; in Siegomyia fasciata, the host of
the yellow-fever germ, he is reported to act in this manner. I have
dissected the tropin of several males, and I found very short
atrophying maxilla?, no mandibles, a ciliated hypopharynx, and
the labrurn and labium well developed. In August, 1903, I had a
number of males of C. pipiens, C. annulatus, and A. maculipennis,
and, with the exception mentioned, the trophi were in the same
state as in Stegomyia. Not one of these males had his abdomen
distended with food, though many had been in my sleeping chamber
all night ; and I have little hesitation in saying that normally
the males do not suck blood, and I even doubt that they feed at all.
Occasionally an aberrant male appears with fully developed mont'.i-

D 2

36 Transactions of the Society.

parts, and he probably bites, and his individual misconduct is laid
to his brethren in general.

Besides the ciliated hypopharynx, another reversion appears
occasionally in the males, rarely in the females. On the labium is
sometimes found a false joint, or a swelling which has the appear-
ance of a false joint. This is relatively on tbe same place as the
labial palpi are found in Dilophus, or the palpigers in Chrysops.
It is difficult of explanation, but it seems probable that it bears
some relation to the aborted labial palpi (pi. III. fig. 7). I have
preparations of the heads of C. pipiens, male and female, G. con-
color <J, G. fatigans <J, and Dinoccrites cancer <J, with this joint
well marked ; and in the cabinet at the British Museum (Natural
History) is a species, the males all having a hairy bulb at the same
spot (Limatus durhamii Theo., South America).

Gorcthra emphasises the relationship between the "plumed"
and " biting " gnats, as it has a longer labium than most Chiro-
nomydse, with structures on the base of the paraglossa? similar to
those found in the same place in the Culicidse, a ciliated hypo-
pharynx, four jointed palpi, and broad stout maxillae (pi. V. fig. 6).
Geratopogon pulicaris L., one of the minute biting midges, lias a
labium very much the same shape as Gorcthra plumicornis F., long
fine maxilla?, a strong labrum, and a ciliated hypopharynx. The
structure of the mandibles is evident on the dorsal side of the
labium (pi. V. fig. 7).

Rliyphus fenestralis Scop, and R. punctatus F. have typical
mouth-parts of this group, in character practically the same as
Psychoda ; the maxilla? are hairy, the palpi are four-jointed, the
hypopharynx is ciliated, and the trachea? of the paraglossa? fairly
well developed. The Bhyphidse are said to feed on the juices of
plants (pi. V. fig. 9).

In this group, besides the EmpidaB, are two more families of the

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V

1. Tropin of Ptychorfa , phaltenoides L. Dorsal view.

2. Tiophi of male Culex pipiens L. The mandibles are aborted, and the maxillce

are in an atrophying slate. Dorsal view,

3. Paraglossse of C. pipiens. Ventral view, showing chitinous processes at base, also

found in Corethra plumicornis F.

4. Hypopharynx of C. pipiens 6 , showing the ciliated tip.

5. Troplii of Anopheles maculipennis Mg. Exceptional male, with complete mouth-

parts ; the mandibles and maxillso are in an atrophying condition.
G. Tropin of Corethra plumicornis b\ Dorsal view.

7. „ of Ceratopoqon pulicaris L. Dorsal view.

8. „ of an undetermined Cecid. Dorsal view.

9. ,, of lihyphus fenestralis Scop.

10. „ of Chironomus plumosus L. Dorsal view.

11. Dissection of the dorsal apodeme of lipula oleracea L. Showing the palpi

attached, and the median suture of the fused stipites andcardines.

JOURN.R.MICR. SOC.1304.P!. Y.

W. Wesche, del

London Etching Co., eng-

MOUTH-PARTS OF DIPTERA.

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC. 1904. PI. VI.

h 1 • a*-

' ' ' ! 9 A"

i lip

J>

VV. Wesche, del

London Etching Co., f n.

MOUTH-PARTS OF DIPTERA.

The Mouth-par U of the Nemocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 37

Brachycera, the Bombylidre and the Syrphida?. In the latter family
is less variation in the mouth-parts than in any other large family
in Diptera ; Rhingia campestris Mg. has, however, a very long
labium, geniculated in a curious manner.

Group 3. — The minute Cecidornyidre appear to be without
trachete on the labium, the hypopharynx is ciliated, the labrum well
marked, and the palpi are four-jointed (pi. V. fig. 8).

The large family of the Chironomidre has fairly constant cha-
racters, though Ceratopogon appears to be specialised. The tracheal
of the paraglossaj are but slightly developed, the palpi are attached
to the stipites, and the cardines are long, though all the other parts
of the maxillse are wanting ; the hypopharynx is ciliated for some
distance down its sides ; the labrum is less modified than in most
families, being little more than a fold of skin. The palpi are four-
jointed, though they appear to have only three joints — a careful
examination shows the lowest joint to be very short, and under-
neath is the palpifer, which adheres to the stipes (pi. V. fig. 10).
These insects are said not to take food in the imaginal stage.

Owing to the imperfection of some of my preparations, I was
inclined to consider the palpi in this family as labial, regarding
them as homologous with those found in the Bibionida). Mr.
A. H. Hammond, F.L.S., pointed out to me that in his, and Prof.
L. C. Miall's paper,* they had traced the palpi of C. dorsalis Mg.,

* ' The Development of the Head of the Imago of C'hironomus,' Trans. Linn. Soc.
London, Zool., ser. 2, v., 271-2.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

1. Trophi of Stratiomys chamasleon L. Dorsal view.

2. Paraglossae of Bibio hortulanus L. Dorsal view, but part of the mernbrano has boeu

removed to show the fused mandibles on the ventral side.

3. Labrum of B. hortulanus.

4. Hypopharynx of B. hortulanus.

5. Labial palpus of B. hortulanus.

0. Trophi of Dilophus febrilis L. Dorsal view, showing the position of the labial
palpi.

7. Paraglossae of D. febrilis, ventral view, showing the small remains of the mandibles

on the ventral side of the labium, corresponding with those on the labium of
B. hortulanus.

8. Trophi of Conops quadrifaseiata Deg. Lateral view, showing the very rudi-

mentary state of the maxillary palpi, while the labial are aborted.

9. Labrum of Jlolichopus griseipennis Stan. Lateral view.

10. Hypopharynx of J), griseipennis. Lateral view.

11. Labium and paraglossre of D. griseipennis. Ventral view, showing the fused

mandibles and the cardines of the maxillae on the dorsal side.

12. Labium and paraglossae of I), griseipennis. Dorsal view.

13. One of the tracheae of D. griseipennis, further enlarged.

14. Labial palpus of D. griseipennis.

15. Trophi of Lonchoptera flavicauda Mg. Lateral view.

16. „ of Pipunculus zonatus Ztt. Lateral view.

38 Transactions of the Society.

through larval and pupal stages, from tie maxilla?. On making
some fresh dissections of the head of C. plumosus L., mounted with-
out pressure, I was able to make out very clearly the cardines of
the maxillae, and to see the connection with the palpi, thus proving
Mr. Hammond's point and the reliability of my rale. I have also
heads of C. dorsaiis, C. viridis Mcq., and G. riparius Mg., which
agree with C. p>lumosus.

In many of the Tipulida? a special difficulty is encountered.
The cardines of the maxilla?, which in the very large majority of
species are so useful a guide, are replaced by two median apodemes,
one on the dorsal, and one on the ventral side. That on the dorsal
side thickens anteriorly and bifurcates, sending out symmetrical
arms to the sides, to which the four-jointed palpi are attached.
On examining this apodeme with high powers, a suture can easily
be made out, running down the centre, and obviously this part is a
fusion of the maxillary cardines. The ventral apodeme is without
lateral processes, but a suture is evident, and I homologise this
part with the mandibles. Tipula olcracea L. has a very imperfect
labium and hypopharynx, and the whole mouth-parts seem to have
undergone great changes (pi. V. fig. 11). The Ptychopterida? are
also of this type, but the cardines are separate. Urioptera tceni-
onota Mg. has a well-marked labrum of the usual type in Diptera,
while an insect which Mr. J. H. Verrall places in the same family
(Limnobida?), the common Trichocera hiemalis Deg. has maxilla',
a ciliated hypopharynx and well-developed labium, and would be
placed in Group 2.

In the Brachycera, the Stratiomida? have the trachea? well de-
veloped and numerous, but not occupying the whole space of the
paraglossa?, as in the Muscida? ; the palpi have two joints, and in
S. chameleon L. the palpifers can be differentiated ; the maxilla? are
very minute in this species, almost obliterated ; they are more
visible in Microschrysa polita L., but have quite disappeared in
Chloromyia formosa Scop. The labrum is rather formless, and I
have not seen a ciliated hypopharynx in any species (pi. VI. fig. 1).

The Conopoda? have a specialised type of mouth-part, resembling
the Syrphida?, but having no maxilla?. In some species the labrum
is short, and the hypopharynx long ; the latter organ seems to find
its protection in the fold of the labium. In Conops quctdrifasciata
Deg. it is remarkable that only the rudiments of the maxillary
palpi are present, while the labial are wholly aborted. I know of
no exactly parallel case, but in Sepsis cynipsca L. the palpi are
exceedingly minute, but are labial, and remnants of the maxilla?
are present, two or three hairs marking the place of their palpi
(pi. VI. fig. 8).

Group 4. — To determine the homologies of the mouth-parts in
Bibio requires a dissection of the parts, and a comparison with the

The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 39

other genera, Scatopse and Dilophus. From dissection it is seen
that the palpi do not adhere to the cardines of the maxillae, and are
quite away from them. This is exceedingly difficult to under-
stand, because these four-jointed palpi are so much like the palpi
in Simulium, Psychoda, Chironomus and Ehyphus, which are un-
doubtedly maxillary. However, similar palpi are found in Dilophus,
agreeing in all particulars, having the sense-organ in the second
joint, and these are undoubtedly labial. Scatopse has single-
jointed labial palpi. The mandibles are found adhering to the
bases of the paraglossae on the ventral side, and enclosed in the
membrane of the labium ; the tracheae have a very modest develop-
ment, but the labrum is strong, is hinged on to the cardines of the
maxilla?, and the hypopharynx is large, seems to have fused at its
base with some portion of the submentum or fulcrum, and is much
ciliated. The labium is exceedingly long in Dilophus, short in
Bibio, and still shorter in Scatopse. The mouth-parts of these
three genera are at first sight unlike, yet they will be found to
have characters in common ; in Dilophus they seem specialised
for flower-sucking ; and, as in Bibio, though smaller, the vestiges of
the mandibles can be seen on the ventral side. Scatopse is so
small that it can readily penetrate with its whole body into the
nectaries of most flowers ; I have often seen it feeding on the juices
of the ivy blossom. Bibio also has a suctorial mouth-part, but the
armature on the fore legs, found in both sexes, inclines me to
suspect it of occasionally seizing prey (pi. VI. figs. 2-7).

The mouth-parts of Dolichopus possess one feature which
separates them from all other families in Diptera : the tracheae on
the paraglossae are of the most curious description. Under high
powers, each one of them appears to be made up of a number of
sub rectangular, semi-transparent cells, which decrease in size as
the tracheae approaches the edge of the labellum ; at its extremity is
ii very short blunt hair inserted in a minute cylinder. In Medcr-
terits truncorum Mg. it has another appearance, rather granular and
less differentiated. In most genera of this family the cardines of
the maxilke are very anteriorly placed— the points on which the
palpi are usually situated, (close to the base of the labrum,) are
quite at the extremity of the paraglossae, and have feathered pro-
cesses at the extremities, which are probably the remains of the
maxillary palpi. The mentum has a central rod, which ends in a
point between the paraglossae ; this rod has a median suture, and
is homologous with the paired rods found in Bibio and the ventral
•apodeme in Tipula, and represents the mandibles. This character
is found in several families, and marks them off from the Muscidao,
where the mandibles are on the dorsal side of the labium. The
labrum is elaborately toothed and haired, and covers a powerful
hypopharynx, with a deep channel, connected with a suctorial
trachea, the true pharynx. The palpi are single-jointed, with a few

40 Transactions of the Society.

long hairs, but with no central sense-organs, such as are seen in the
second joint of Bibio and of most Nemocera (pi. VI. figs. 9-14).

One interesting specialisation is found in Orthochilc nigroccrulu
Ltr., which has an elongated labium, a totally different arrangement
of the cardines, and a general similarity to the mouth-parts in the
Muscicke. This lengthening of the labium probably enables the
insect to reach the nectaries of flowers ; most of the other species
are raptorial, haunt marshy spots, and -feed on minute insects and
Gastropods (pi. VII. fig. 1).

The mouth in the Phoridse has the cardines in the usual place,
and working the labrum and hypopharynx ; the latter part has in
some species a curious double point, which reaches well up to the
tip. Some species have a toothed labrum, which is a character of
the Dolichopidoe, and accentuates the affinity which these two
families have to each other. Though the tracheae on the paraglossa>
are of a different type from each other, it is remarkable that they
have also the short blunt hair in the cylinder at the extremity ;
this is a striking affinity, as I am not aware of this structure being
found in any other families in this situation.

I have often seen these insects on plants and on window-panes,
but I have never seen them attack prey. Their appearance is
against them, but I have no evidence that thev are of raptorial
habits (pi. VII. fig. 2).

Group 5. — As I have dealt with the first section of this group
in previous papers,* I shall confine myself to giving a list of species
in which I have found the characteristic rudimentary palpus : —

Myioccra carinifrons Fin.

Graphomyia metadata Scop.

Mesembrina mcridiana L.

Musca domestica L.

M. corvina F.

Cyrtoncura stabidans Fin.

* ' Undeseribtd Palpi in Diptera,' Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc. 1902 ; ' The Labial and
Maxillary Palpi in Diptera,' Trans. Linn. Soc. London, Zool., ser. 2, vol. ix.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE ATI.

1. Tropin of OrthocMle nigrcecerula Ltr. Lateral view.

2. „ of undetermined species of Phora. Dorsal view.

3. „ of Ha matdbia irritans L.

4. Teeth on the labium of //. irritans.

5. „ of Aorellia ttriolata Mg. (Cordyluridse).

6. Tropin of Ccelopa .frigid a Mg. (Phycodromida)). Dorsal view

7. „ of Helomyza rufa I In. Dorsal viev*.

8. Labial palpus ot Stiomyza cinerella Fin.

9. Maxilla of £>. cinerella.

10. Tracheae of Sapromyza prsew ta Fin. Dorsal view.

11. „ of 8. pneufta. Viewed ventrally.

12. Maxilla of S. praeueta.

JOURN. R.MICR.SOG. 1904, PI. VII

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MOUTH-PARTS OF DIPTERA.

JOURN. R.MICR.SOC, 1904. PI. V

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MOUTH-PARTS OF DIPTERA.

The Mouth-parts of the Ncmoccra, etc. By W. Wesche. 41

Morellia hortorum Fin.
Policies lardaria F.
Hyetodcsia lucorum Fin.
H. obscura Mg.
R. Iceta Fin.
H. perdita Mg.
//. bascdis Ztt.
H. sudetica Sclmbl.
Mydea impuncta Fin.
Spilogastcr communis Dsv.
$. Jlagripcs End.
$. idiginosa Fin.
Hydrotca occulta Mg.
i/! dentipes F.
if. mcteorica L.
Ophyra leucostoma W.
Hylemyia strigosa F.
iT". cardui Mg.
iT". pullula Ztt.
Lasiops stemciema Kov.
Anthomyia pluvialis L.
J. radicum L.
^4. sulciventris Ztt.
Pegomyia bicolor W.
Homalomyia canicvlaris L.
i^T. hamata Mcq.
Azelia macquartii Stceg.

All these insects are suctorial.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE Till.

1. Trophi of Seoptera vibrans L. Showing the supposed ludiinenfs of mandibles.

Dorsal view.

2. Trophi of an undetermined species of Cldorops.

3. Diagram of the head of Melophagus ovinus L. This is drawn as a transparent

object, and shows the bulb of the labium and the cardiacs of the maxillae
showing through the chitin of the head.

4. The teetli on the end of the labium of M. ovinus.

5. Maxilla of Balioptera combiuala L.

(5. Trophi of Saltella Scutellaria Flu. Showing the four palpi and the palpigers.
Dorsal view.

7. Trophi of Ephydra coarctata Fin. Lateral view, showing the curious trachea;.

8. Maxilla of Mosillus subsultans F. Showing the palpus, the atrophying lacinia,

and the alteration in the cardo and stipes.
'.). Organ in the submentum of Drosophila funebris F. Gizzard (?).

10. Maxilla of D. funebris.

11. Trophi of Borborus cquinus Fin. Lateral view, showing the labial palpi, a

palpiger, and a maxillary palpus.

12. Tip of the labium of Glossina morsitans Westw. Showing the teeth and tho

ufhnity to M. ovinus and H. irritants.

42 Transactions of the Society.

In the second section of this group the mouth-parts are very
much the same as in the Muscidae ; the trachere in the Loncho-
pteridae are numerous, but are "without teeth at the base, the
palpi are quite the same in appearance as in the Muscidae ; the
hypopharynx is a relatively strong, sharp, hairless lancet. The
paraglossae in the flower-haunting Pipunculidae are practically the
same as in the Lonchopteridae ; the palpi resemble those found in
the Empidae, but are labial and have a well-marked sense-organ
(pi. VI. figs. 15, 16).

The specialised forms in the Tachinidae are adaptations, en-
abling the insects to explore the deeper cavities of flowers ; in the
Muscidae, to pierce skin and suck blood. Siphona gcniculata Deg.,
& cristata F., and Prosena syharita F., are flower-suckers. Siphona
has an elongated labium, somewhat resembling that of JSMngia
campestris Mg., of the Syrphidae. Prosena is of a type which has
gained an evil notoriety in Glossina and Stomoxys; but this insect,
with different habits, has different modifications. The tip of the
labium, which is hardened, laminated and toothed in Glossina, has
remains of tracheae, but no vestiges of teeth (pi. VIII. fig. 12).

Glossina has several interesting developments of palpi in dif-
ferent species, mostly in the direction of length, resembling in
this particular our English Hccmatobia ii ritans L. (pi. VII. figs. 3, 4).

Glossina, Hamatobia, and Stomoxys have lost the tracheae,
though the paraglossaa are still evident, and they retain, and
indeed have developed the teeth, as found in the Muscidae. The
palpi, notwithstanding their extreme length and important func-
tion, are based on the membrane of the labium ; they are therefore
labial and not maxillary, as a recent writer with some pretensions
to experience has named them.* The cardines are connected with
the labrum.

The genera Ccenosia and Caricea in the An thorn yidae are char-
acterised by a very decided increase in the size of the teeth,resembling
in this respect the Cordyluridae, where they are very marked, and
probably reach their largest modification (pi. VII. fig. 5). On account
of the teeth, and of the general character of the mouth-parts, I
think Mr. Verrall at fault when he transferred the little fly
Schccnomyza littorclla Fin., to the Agromyzidae. It is a decided
Anthomyid. The mouth-parts have all the characters found in
the Anthomyida?, and it shows its relationship to the Ccenosia
group, by the large teeth on the paraglossae, a character quite
absent in the smaller acalyptrate Muscidae.

Though the Cordyluridae are raptorial, the tropin, with the
exception of the teeth, are but little modified ; the hypopharynx
is a trifle stouter and longer than in the house flies.

* Dr. H. J. Hansen, 'Monograph of the Tsetse-flics,' p. 114. E. E. Austen,
London, 1S03. Dr. Bar sen has also committed himself, in the statement that
there aie no if mnar.ts of maxillae in the head of Glossina.

TJi c Mouth-parts of the Nemocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 43

Scatophaga is a haunter of the ivy blossom, and feeds there
as well as on fresh cow-dung, besides picking up " unconsidered
trifles " in the way of flies.

The Ortalidse, the Trypetida?, and the Lonclueida?, have no
teeth on the paraglossa?, and have numerous minute trachea? some-
what like those found in the Pipunculidse.

Seoptera vibrans L. has curious paired processes on each side of
the labium, which may be vestiges of the mandibles ; while the
cardines of the maxilla? take a form which is also met with in the
Ephydrida? and the Borborida? ; it sends out a limb in the centre,
at right angles to the rest of the organ. Ulidia dcmandata F. has
the cardines straight, as in the Anthomyida?, as has also the
Trypetid Acidia heraclei L. The Lonchseidse have mostly the
cardines of the same type as Seoptera (pi. VIII. fig. 1).

The obscure and difficult family of the Chloropoda? has a dif-
ference in the structure of the trachea?, which would enable an
observer to separate these insects ; the trachea? are stouter, fewer,
and more markedly chitinous (pi. VIII. fig. 2).

In the parasitic Hipposboscida?, there is a venation well re-
moved from that of other families, a modification of shape, and a
type of mouth-part, that makes the parentage of this family not
at all obvious. But in the mouth-parts are two points that
suggest a strong probability of a descent from one of the blood-
sucking Muscida?. This is strengthened by a fact in the life-
history of Glossina, that insect being viviparous. This would be
a step to the curious condition existing in the Pupipara, in which
sub-order the young are brought forth as pupa?, having passed the
egg and larval state in the oviduct.

The most striking feature of the mouth-parts is a pair of large
palpi, which act as a sheath for a chitinous tube, which is the
piercing and blood-sucking apparatus of the insect. This tube
has some exceedingly minute serration at its extremity ; and a
very high magnification shows these to be teeth, similar, in cha-
racter and relationship to their support, to those on the labium
of Glossina, Stomoxys and Haimatobia. Further, the tube swells
out at its base into a bulb (pi. VIII. figs. 3, 4, 12 ; pi. VII. figs. 3, 4).

Taking these facts into consideration, I consider the proboscis
in Hippobosca as clearly homologous with the same organ in
Glossina, Stomoxys, Haimatobia, or Prosena, and it is therefore a
modification of the labium, and the palpi are labial palpi.

It may be suggested that a Tabanid ancestry was not impro-
bable, and that a similar serration can be seen on the labrum of
the Tabanida?. This objection may be disposed of by showing the
labrum as present in some species of the Hippoboscida? as a
separate part. The cardines which I have shown to be so constant
in Diptera are present, but have changed positions, seeming to
work the labium at an angle to the plane of the head.

44 Transactions of the Society.

Group 6. — The Phycodromidae have paraglossae much of the
same type as the Ortalidae, and, like them, totally devoid of teeth.
The labial palpi are stiffly haired, and have a long hair on the tip.
The maxillae end in a leaf-shaped scale, covered with a fine
pubescence. I have mostly taken these insects on sea-weed, and
they probably feed on the juices of those plants (pi. VII. fig. 6).

The mouth-parts of the Heliomyzidae have but little to dis-
tinguish them from those of the Phycodromidae ; the likeness in
the paraglossae is very marked, the ends of the maxillae are some-
times identical in shape, but have a finer pubescence. The labial
palpi in those examples I have examined have no long hair on the
lip. I have usually found these insects on damp herbage, and
there they probably find their food (pi. VII. fig. 7).

The Sciomyzidae have a great affinity with the Heliomyzidae,
and we may perhaps consider the ciliated costal vein which dis-
tinguishes the latter family as almost a generic character, though
it is undoubtedly a useful one. The tracheae are as numerous as
in the two preceding families ; the maxillae are of the same shape,
with perhaps a trifle less pubescence ; and the palpi are haired,
and with a long hair on the tip as in the Phycodromidae (pi. VII.
figs. 8, 9).

The Sapromyzidae have the same type of maxilla?. There
are no teeth on the paraglossae, but the rings of the tracheae are
strong and thick, and the part is very different from that found
in the three preceding families (pi. VII. figs. 10-12).

Group 7 is wholly confined to the acalyptrate Muscidae. The
character which distinguishes it from the previous group is the
presence of four palpi. Sometimes the laciniae may be thought
to be present, but even then it is so thickly haired as to make
certainty as to its real nature impossible.

The Opomyzidae have tracheae like the Phycodromidae. The
maxillae in Balioptera are characteristic, the cardines rather
rounded, and tapering to the part that is ordinarily the lacinia, but
here is thickly haired and distinctly like a palpus. 0. gcrmina-
tioncs L. differs, in having the maxillae of the same type as the
Phycodromidae. These insects can be taken anywhere and every-
where in long grass (pi. VIII. fig. 5).

I have already referred to the peculiar mouth-parts of Sepsis
cynipsca L., in my remarks on Group 3. Ncmopoda cylindrica F.
explains the homologies, as it possesses well-developed labial
palpi, and distinct maxillary palpi in the usual position on the
cardines. The tracheae are less marked than in Sapromyza. SaUella,
scutettaris Fin. is very much the same type as Nemopoda (pi. VIII.
fig. 6).

In the Ephydridae the mouth is relatively much developed.
There is great variability in the character of the tracheae, such sur-

The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera, etc. By W. Wesche. 45

prising modifications as the toothed trachea} of Hydrcllia griseola
Fin. being found. In Ephydra coarctata, or Parhydra coarctata Fin.,
of Mr. Verrall's list, are remarkable trachea?, which may reasonably
be supposed to be primitive forms. They consist of a number of
hairs, arranged in double lines, which arch over and form passages,
capable of drawing up fluid by capillary attraction. This insect
I have taken in great numbers on marshy spots, and it may be
that it is a special modification, enabling the insect to feed on
infusoria ; but as it is in this family that I have found complete
maxilla? in one species {Hydrcllia griseola)* and remains in several
others, I am inclined to think them of very archaic type. The
labrum is a rather shapeless fold of skin, pierced with the sockets
of hairs, and the hypopharynx is very rudimentary. The larger
palpi are labial and thin. The cardines of the maxilla? bear palpi,
which in several species are quite relatively large (pi. VIII. fig. 7).

In Mosillus subsidtans F. are nearly complete maxilla? ; the
lacinia? are atrophying, and appear exactly in the same state as in
H. griseola ; but the palpi are very hairy, though the gala? have
gone ; the stipites and cardines are much altered (pi. VIII. fig. 8).

Drosophila funebris F. has trachea? somewhat similar to Sapro-
myza preusta Fin. ; the maxillary palpi are of the type seen in
the Opomyzida? ; the fulcrum is curious, and has an organ in the
interior which seems to be some sort of gizzard, or crushing-
apparatus. The palpi are relatively not so large as in the
Opomyzida? (pi. VIII. figs. 9, 10).

The Borborida? have characteristic tropin with curious large
tracheae, and the paraglossa? are united and without a median
division. The maxillary palpi are very marked in some species,
but almost all the other parts of the maxilla? have disappeared ;
the cardines, with their characteristic joint or hinge, cannot be
made out, and only the stipites remain. The large development
of the mentum, and the character of the maxillary palpi, bring
this family very close to the Ephydridae. The seta? at the base
of the labial palpi, which represent the palpigers, are very constant
in this family (pi. VIII. fig. 11).

Group 8 contains but one family, the CEstrida? ; these extra-
ordinary flies are quite devoid of any developed mouth-part,
two tubercles representing the elaborate structures of the ordinary
insect mouth. A small buccal orifice is visible, surrounded by a
chitinous ring, which is in some places shortly but thickly haired ;
more anteriorly placed are two chitinous arches, which appear to
cover another cavity. What these parts homologise with, it is
difficult to say, (1) but the tubercles have structures on their

* 'The Labial and Maxillary Palpi in Diptera,' Trans. Linn. Soc. Lon Ion,
Zool., ser. 2, vol. ix., pp. 223-229, figs. 21, 22.

46 Transactions of the Society.

surface, (2) are paired organs, and (3) occupy positions, which
several facts suggest that they represent the labial palpi (pi. III.
fig. 4).

Summary.

(1) On reviewing these eight groups, it is apparent that they
are artificial, so that families that are closely related to each other
are occasionally in different sections, though it oftener happens that
they are in neighbouring, or even in the same group.

(2) It will also be seen that the Nemocera have characters in
the tropin, as well as in the antenna;. Examples of species with
four-jointed palpi and a ciliated hypopharynx will be found in every
family, and these parts may, when in that condition, be considered
as distinguishing characters — establishing a relationship with the
Asilidse and the Empidae, in the sub-order Brachycera. The palpi
are maxillary in every case, with the exception of the Bibionida?,
and it is difficult to understand why this family has deviated.

(3) It seems that Dilophus gives the clue to the original situa-
tion of the labial palpi, (4) while Chrysops shows the palpigers ;
these have altered their position in the Muscidre, but are very
constant, and generally to be found at the base of the labial palpi.

(5) That as a rule the males of the Culicidse are harmless,
but their trophi are variable, and may in some instances be fully
developed.

(G) The mandibles of Anopheles differ from those of other
Culicidas.

(7) In some males of the genus Culex, and related genera, is
found a false joint on the labium. This possibly marks the spot
where the labial palpi were articulated. In some genera this is
constant, in others variable.

(8) The median apodemes in Tipula are a fusion of the
mandibles on the ventral, and of the cardines of the maxilla; on
the dorsal side.

(9) Species exist in Diptera (apart from (Estridaj) in which
both palpi are aborted.

(10) Homologisation of the trophi of the Dolichopida?, and their
aberration both from the Nemocera and Musca types.

(11) Affinities exist in the trophi of Dolichopus and Phora.

(12) The palpi in Glossina are labial.

(13) The Hippoboscidffi are descended from blood-sucking
Muscida?. Homology of their trophi.

(14) Archaic types of trachoe and maxilloe in the Ephydridre.

(15) Gizzard in the submentum (fulcrum) of Drosophila.

(16) The trophi in the different species of a family are some-
times variable, especially in the Brachycera. The Dolichopidee and
Empida? present the greatest divergences in this respect, and it is-

The Mouth-parts of the Nemoccra, etc. By W. Wcsche. 47

only in the Cyclorrhapha that types of mouth-parts seem firmly
established, and the specialisations easily homologised.

In the whole order, the mandibles are only present in a few
families, and even in those families they are often absent in the
males. The palpi are very variable, and when the maxillary are
present the labial are absent, though occasionally rudiments of the
absent part are found, more often of the maxillary than of the labial.
The paraglossre, which are considered typical of the order, only
occasionally disappear, as in the specialised Muscidse and the
Hippoboscidfe. The most constant parts are the stipites and
cardines of the maxilla3, which are only absent in the (Estridre ;
and it is very possible that a more comprehensive study of that
family than I have hitherto had the opportunity of making, may
show them to be present in some species.

It follows from this constant variability, that the tropin cannot
be regarded as unfailing guides in classification, but I think that
this variability will be of assistance in considering the relations of
families ; on the other hand, the persistence of types in the
Cyclorrhapha makes the mouth-parts of great use in studying the
phylogeny of that sub-order.

48

OBITUARY.

Charles Thomas Hudson, M.A. LL.D. F.R.S. Hon. F.E.M.S.

1828-1903.

Charles T. Hudson was the son of John Corrie Hudson, of
Guildford, and was born at Brompton on March 11, 1828. He was
educated at the Grange. Sunderland, and at St. John's College,
Cambridge. In 1852 he took his degree, being bracketed fifteenth
Wrangler in the Mathematical Tripos.

From 1855 to 1860 he was head master of Bristol Grammar
School, and from 1861 to 1881 of Manilla Hall, Clifton. Dr.
Hudson became a Fellow of the Society in 1872, served on the
Council for some years, and was President from 1888 to 1890.
In 1889 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1901
Honorary Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society.

Dr. Hudson was always devoted to microscopical studies, and
liis researches on the Rotifera are of world-wide knowledge and
repute ; in this branch of science he was the chief authority of hi.s
time. In 1886 he published, in collaboration with Mr. P. H.
Gosse, F.R.S., The Rotifera, or Wheel Animalcules.

He was the discoverer of several new genera and species of
Rotifera, among which may be mentioned Pedalion minim. The
results of his researches and observations were communicated to
various scientific journals, our own being specially favoured. His
addresses were charming in style, and his lectures on his favourite
topics were exceedingly interesting both to hear and see, for they
were elegantly illustrated by a method which he had made
peculiarly his own. The outlines of the objects were indicated by
means of dots and lines, cut out of a large brown paper screen,
the perforations when necessary being covered in Math coloured
transparencies. When illuminated from behind, a dark-ground
effect was produced, which was most effective and elegant.

Mr. Hudson was twice married, first to a daughter of Mr.
W. B. Tibbits, of Braunston, Northamptonshire, and in 1858 to a
daughter of Mr. Freelove Hammond.

He died on October 24, 1903, at Hillside, Shanklin, where he
had resided for some time.

List of papers by Dr. C. T. Hudson in the Journal of the Royal
Microscopical Society : —

1879. On (Ecistcs umhella and other Rotifers. Note on M. Deby's

paper (on Pedalion).
1881. On (Ecistcs janus and Floscularia trifolium, two New Species

of Rotifers.

Obituary. 49

1883. Five New Floscules, with a Note on Prof. Leidy's Genera
of Acyclus and Dictyophora.
On Asplanchna Ebbcsbornii nov. sp.
1885. On Four New Species of the Genus Floscularia, and Five
other New Species of Rotifera.

1889. President's Address : On the Distribution of Rotifera.

1890. President's Address : On some Needless Difficulties in the

Study of Natural History.

1891. President's Address : On some Doubtful Points in the

Natural History of the Rotifera.

Other Papers by Dr. Hudson.

On Rhinops vitrea, a new Rotifer. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, iii., 1869.

On Triarthra longiseta. Monthly Microsc. Journ. i., 1869.

Notes on Hydatina senta. Monthly Microsc. Journ. ii., 1869.

On Synchcuta mordax. Monthly Microsc. Journ. iv., 1870.

On Pterodina valvata sp. n. Monthly Microsc. Journ. v., 1871.

On a new Rotifer. Monthly Microsc. Journ. v., 1871.

Note on Pedalion mirum. Monthly Microsc. Journ. vi., 1871.

On Euchlanis triquctra and E. dilatata. Monthly Microsc. Journ.

viii., 1872.
Is Pedalion a Rotifer ? Monthly Microsc. Journ. viii., 1872.
On Pedalion mirum. Quarterly Journ. Microsc. Sci. xii., 1872.
Remarks on Mr. Henry Davis's paper ' On the Desiccation of

Rotifers.' Monthly Microsc. Journ. ix., 1873.
On some Male Rotifers (1874). Monthly Microsc. Journ. xiii.,

1875.
On the classification and affinities of the Rotifera. Brit. Assoc.

Rep., 1875.
On Cephalosiphon (limnias) and a new Infusorian (Archimeda

remex). Monthly Microsc. Journ. xiv., 1875.
On a new Melicerta (M. tyro). Monthly Micros. Journ. xiv., 1875.

Feb. 17th, 1904

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICEOSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.
a. Embryology.f

Mendel's Law of Heredity 4 — W. E. Castle gives a lucid account
of the discovery which Gregor Mendel made in 18GG — the discovery of
a law of heredity. The law was re-discovered independently in 1900
by I)e Vries, Correns, and Tschermak, who were engaged in the study
of plant hybrids. It remained, however, for Bateson, two years later,
to point out the full importance and the wide applicability of the law.
To make the matter clear in a summary, we follow the headings of the
analysis which Castle has given.

(1) The Law of Dominance. — When mating occurs between two
animals or plants differing in some character, it often happens that all
the offspring exhibit the character of one parent only, and that is
called the " dominant " character ; while the character that is not seen
in the immediate offspring (though still part of the heritage) is called
" recessive.''' When white mice are crossed with grey mice, all the off-
spring are grey ; the grey colour is dominant, the white colour recessive.
Parents with distinctive characters A and B, yield hybrid offspring with
the character A (B) or B (A), the parentheses being used to indicate a
recessive character not visible in the individual. This is the law of
dominance.

(2) Peculiar Hybrid Forms. — The law of dominance is not of uni-
versal applicability. (1) The cross-bred offspring, e.g. of peas differing

in height, may be intermediate between the parents (Ax B = -~- ).

(2) The cross-bred offspring, e.g. of brown-seeded and white-seeded
beans, may exhibit what seems to be an intensification of the character

* The Society arc not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and they
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers at actually published, and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Api aratus, etc., which are either new or havo
not been previously described in this country.

f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Develo] ment, Reproduction, and allied subjects.

X Pica Amer. Acad., xxxviii. (190!) pp. 535-48.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES. 51

of one parent (A x B = A2). (3) The cross-bred offspring, e.g. of
spotted, black-and-white mice and albino mice, may have a charactei
entirely different from either parent, " a character of its own "
(A X B = C). (4) The cross-bred offspring, e.g. of white and bnff
pigeons, may resemble an ancestral form, may exhibit " reversion "
(A X B = R). (5) But, finally, as with grey and white mice, the off-
spring may show patently the character of one parent only (A X B =
A (B) or B (A), according to the law of dominance.

(8) Purity of the Germ-cells. - — The great discovery of Mendel is
this : The hybrid, whatever its own character, produces ripe germ-cells
which bear only the pure character of one parent or the other. The
hybrid A (B) or B (A) will have germ-cells, bearing either the character
A or the character B, hut not both ; and A's and B's will he produced
in equal numbers. This is the law of " segregation " or the law of the
"purity of the germ-cells." " It bids fair," Mr. Castle says, " to prove
as fundamental to a right understanding of the facts of heredity as is
the law of definite proportions in chemistry. From it follow many
important consequences."

A first consequence is polymorphism of the second and later hybrid
generations, as may be represented in the following scheme : —

A x B = A (B) or B (A).

A (B) x A (B) = (1) A set of pure A's, which if inbred will

breed true to that character ever

afterwards.

(2) A set of similar pure B's approximately

equal in number to the pure A's.

(3) A third set of A B's like those of the

first hybrid generation.

If this be expressed in terms of the germ-cells, it seems to mem
this : — A (B) produces germ-cells bearing either the character A or the
character B. If a male germ-cell A meet a female germ-cell A, the
result is an offspring pure A ; if a male germ-cell B meet a female
germ-cell B, the result is an offspring pure B. As these pure A's and
pure B's occur in approximately equal numbers, the inference is pro-
bably correct that the original hybrid A (B) produces two equal sets of
gametes, dominantly A's and B's. There is one chance each for the
combinations A A and B B, and two chances for the combination A B.
And the whole progeny tends to occur in the proportions 1 A 4- 2 A B
+ 1 B. As a mattter of fact this does occur.

In his experiments with the Chinese primrose (Primula sinensis)
Bateson produced an unfixable hybrid, " Giant Lavender," by crossing
a magenta-red with a white flowering variety tinged with pink. This
hybrid constantly produces plants bearing magenta-red and white
flowers respectively, as well as other plants bearing lavender flowers in
the proportion of 1:2:1, the exact numbers being 12 : 23 : 11 and
9:20:9.

In cases of complete dominance, only two categories of offspring
will be recognisable, and these will be in the ratio of 3:1, but the
larger group on further breeding breaks up into two classes : first,

E 2

52 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

dominants ; secondly, hybrids ; i.e. into groups A and A (B) in ratio
of 1 : 2.

Mendel found bis results to come very close to tbe theoretical pre-
supposition, when he crossed yellow with green peas. He found the
numbers to be 3:1, and the recessive or green seed produced only
green seed ; while of the yellow or dominant, one in three produced
only dominants, but two out of three produced hybrids, and this gave
him A, 2 A (B), B, the theoretical proportions. Mr. G. M. Allen has
found the same proportions to be true in the case of crossing white
mice with grey mice.

The correctness of Mendel's hypothesis of the purity of the germ-
cells and of their production in equal numbers, is shown by back-
crossing of a hybrid with one of the parental forms. For example, in
a case of simple dominance the first generation will all be D (R). Any
one of them back-crossed with the recessive parent will produce 50 p.c.
pure recessives and 50 p.c. hybrids.

For hybrid produces germ-cells . . D + R

For recessive parent produces germ-cells R + R

The possible combinations are 2 D (R) + 2 R

And this has been proved for peas and for mice.

In dealing with cross-breeding between parents differing in more
than one character, we find in the second and later hybrid generations,
individuals possessing new combinations of the characters found in the
parents, indeed, all possible combinations of these characters will be
found, and in the proportion demanded by chance.

Take parents differing in two characters A, B (the recessive phases
a, b). The immediate offspring resulting from the cross will be all
alike, A B (a b). The second and later generations of hybrids will
contain the stable classes A B, A b, a B, a b, also the unstable forms
A B (a b), A (a) b, and a B (b). One, therefore, of each of the stable
combinations occurs in every sixteen " second-generation " offspring ;
and only the individual which possesses both recessive characters can at
once be set aside as pure. Moreover, nine out of every sixteen
" second generation " hybrids will possess the two dominant characters,
but only one will be pure with, regard to those characters, for four will
be hybrid in one character, and four will be hybrid in both characters.

Mendel generalised these statements as follows : In cases of com-
plete dominance (parents differing in n ways), the number of different
classes in the second generation will be 3", of which 2" will be stable ;
the remainder will be hybrid, though indistinguishable from pure in-
dividuals, and the smallest number of individuals which, in the second
hybrid generation, Avill allow of one pure individual to each visibly
different class will be 4". This gave rise to a new conception of
" purity " : An animal or plant is pure if it produces gametes of only
one sort, even though its grandparents may among themselves have
possessed opposite characters.

Several exceptions to Mendel's law have been observed, for example :

(1) Mosaic inheritance, in which a pair of characters usually related
as dominant and recessive occur in a balanced relationship side by side

Z30L0GY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 53

in the hybrid, and frequently in its germ-cells also. This balanced
condition, once obtained, is stable under close breeding, for the germ-
cells are not D or R, but |DR, and this breeds true to itself ; but this
is very easily disturbed by cross-breeding, e.g. if the gamete unites
with a pure R or a pure D, the result is D (R) ; in some cases it may
be J D (R) • R, and this latter hypothesis accounts for the reappearance
of, say, spotted mice after their disappearance for a generation in con-
sequence of crossing.

(2) Stable hybrid forms may occur, and this occurrence may be
explained either by the gametes bearing the balanced relationship | D R,
or by one of the gametes which unite, bearing the character D and the
other the character R.

(3) Coupling (or complete correlation) may exist between two or
more characters, so that they form a compound unit not separable in
heredity, e.g. the blue flower and purple-coloured stems of Datura,
and in animals, white hair and pink eyes.

(4) Disintegration of characters apparently simple may take place
in consequence of cross-breeding. Thus the grey coat-colour of the
house-mouse is always transmitted as a dominant unit in primary crosses
with its white variety, but in the second generation a number of black
appear. These black mice belong to the category of dominant in-
dividuals, but they have only the black constituent of the grey coat ; the
remaining constituent, a rufous tint, has become separated, and it may
have become latent (recessive).

(5) Departures from the ratios of dominants to recessives may be
explained in some cases as due to inferior vigour, and so greater
mortality, on the part of dominants or recessives respectively.

(6) Cases of apparent reversal of dominance may arise from " false
hybridisation " or induced parthenogenesis, where the one gamete has
served merely to stimulate the other to development without uniting with
it. It is possible, however, that one of a pair of characters may be
sometimes dominant, sometimes recessive. Sex may be a case of this
sort.

Mendel's principles strengthen the view that species arise by dis-
continuous variation. They explain also why new types are especially
variable, how one variation causes others, and why certain variations
are so persistent in their occurrence.

Regeneration of Hind Limbs and Tail in Amphibia.* — P. Wintre-
bert finds that in the larvse of Anura -regeneration of the tail is rapid
and regular, and independent of the nervous system. In Siredon, after
spinal extirpation, it proceeds regularly. His conclusion is that regenera-
tion and ontogeny proceed in the same fashion ; the various parts are
formed in the same order in both cases, and apparently independently of
nervous control in the ordinary sense.

Interstitial Cells of the Mammalian Testicle.f — P. Bouin and
P. Ancel have investigated the morphological and functional relations of
the testis and its interstitial cells, and make out an independent function
for the latter. They find that interstitial cells exist in the Mammals

* Comptes Kendus, cxxxvii. (1003) pp. 761-3.
t Arch. Zool. Exp., 1903, pp. 437-523 (3 pis.).

04 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which have been examined ; their abundance varies with the species. Ira
the first place it is noted that they present all the cytological characters of
glandular elements, — the structure of the nucleus, the presence in the
cytoplasm of numerous secretion products (granules and vesicles, fat, pig-
ment, and crystalloids), and the existence of a cycle of secretion. These
cells possess a relative independence — ontogenetic, structural and func-
tional— manifesting itself (1) in young testicles, where they are welL
developed, while the seminal organ has embryonic characters ; (2) in.
adults, where numerous interstitial cells occur far from the seminiferous
tubules, in the albuginea, bodies of Highmore, trabecule, where their
situation is distinctly perivascular ; (3) in old testicles, where they are
entire while the sexual elements are degenerate, or have disappeared ;
(4) in various pathological conditions of the testis, in which the inter-
stitial tissue persists and presents the usual cytological manifestations.

The independence of the two tissues, which the foregoing illustrates,
suggests the- function of an internal secretion. The investigators con-
sider the interstitial gland an organ which probably elaborates nutritive
material for the testis proper, and by its internal secretion controls genital
ardour and the determination of the secondary sexual characters. This
is an important paper with a bearing on the general question of ductless,
glands, as well as on the various functions of the testis.

Ova and Larvse of Fishes.* — F. B. Browne gives a very interesting
report on the eggs and larva? of Teleostean fishes observed at Plymouth..
His paper contains a large number of interesting data with regard to
( 'allionymus, Zeugoptcrus, Phrgnorhombus, Gadus, and Motella.

l\ Histology.

Histology of Hyaline Cartilage.! — Kichard Fibich has examined the
cartilage of a five-month human embryo, and finds that the cells have
prolongations at both poles. These prolongations, which sometimes
branch and connect with those of other cells, are protoplasmic continua-
tions of the cell, and are most numerous at a distance from the vessels.
Near the vessels the cells are isolated in a hyaline substance. He con-
siders that this latter arrangement is possibly related to the transference
of the nutritive fluid from the vessels to the tissue, since just before
ossification the stream is stronger. In the neighbourhood of the vessels.
the passage is through the matrical substance, and presumably rapid ;
further off it is only from cell to cell.

Xerothermic Localities.* — Von Schulthess-Schindler discusses the
occurrence of these " dry-warm " areas, with remains of a steppe-like
flora, which persist here and there as sunny islands, with a relict fauna not.
found in the adjacent areas. The area studied was the Domlesehg — a
valley between the Statzerhorn range and the Heinzerberg. The insect
fauna is discussed in detail.

Human LocomotionJ — Otto Fischer discusses the kinematics of the
swinging movements of the legs in walking. This is the fifth memoir

* Jouiu. Marine Biol. Assoc, vi. (1903) pp. 59S-G1G.

t Anat. Anzei;,'., xxiv. (1903) pp. 209-14.

X MT. Schweiz. Entomol. Ges., xi. (1903) pp. 2G-40.

§ Abb. K. Siicbs. Gcs. Wiss., No. 5 (1903) pp. 321-418 (4 tabular pU).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 55

that he has published on human locomotion — of physical rather than
biological interest.

Transitory Fissures of Human Brain.*— G. Elliot-Smith points out,
that Bischoff, Cunningham, Ecker, and Retzius are in error in ascribing
to human foetuses of the fifth and sixth months a " fissura perpendicularis
externa." The structure so described he finds is invariably causally
related to a "ridge formed by the inward-folding of the membrane
joining the occipital and parietal bones in the lambdoid sutural line."
It is, in fact, a mechanically produced post-mortem furrow. Another
type of "transitory fissure," found in foetuses of third and fourth
months, is accounted for by the " puckering of the partially-collapsed
and decomposed neopallial bladder."

Adaptations to Aquatic Life in Mammals. p— Raymond C. Osburn
contributes an able paper on aquatic adaptations in Mammals. He starts
from the reasonable supposition that all Mammals were originally terres-
trial, and for convenience classifies their adaptations to aquatic life under
three headings : those connected with the general form, including the
head, trunk and tail regions ; next, those of the limbs ; and lastly, those
affecting the integument, lie gives a detailed account of the various
adaptations under each heading. With regard to hyperphalangism he
agrees with Kiikenthal in saying that it is a result of retarded ossification
and the formation of double epiphyses. Under the third heading he
calls attention to the loss of hair and of dermal armature. He also
discusses the light and spongy nature of the bones in truly aquatic
forms.

Oxidation of Glucose in Mammalian Blood. :j — L. Jolly finds that
in the blood of the ox, there arises as a decomposition product of glucose ■
a very small amount of alcohol, a certain part of which by oxidation is
transformed into acetic acid.

The Phylogeny of Elephants. § — W. Salensky points out that the
phenomena of transformation in the feet of the mammoth follow the
same law, which, generally speaking, determines the transformation in
the number of toes in Mammals and especially in the change of penta-
dactyl feet to the tetra-, tri-, bi-, and monodactyl type in Ungulata.
From this it appears that the mammoth, which represented the latest
development of the numerous order of prehistoric Elephantidae, was
undergoing a process of transformation when it became extinct. It is
not easy to understand how pentadactyl proboscidean types such as
elephants could have arisen from a type which was undergoing retro-
gressive development. The two species of elephants have probably
originated from some order of fossil Elephantidai. They have no
phylogenetic affinity with the mammoth.

Migrations of Right Whales. ||— Gustav Guldberg is of opinion that
the migrations of particular species of whale are" regulated by the
distribution, the drifting hither and thither, and the season of appearance

* Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1903) pp. 216-20 (2 figs.).

t Anier. Nat , xxxvii. (1903) pp. 651-65.

X Comptes Kcndus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 771-2.

§ Biol. Centralbl., sxiii. (1903) pp.'793-S0.J. U Tom. cit, pp. S03-16.

5G SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of the organisms upon which they feed. On this account the ocean
currents, too, have a secondary influence on the migration and appear-
ance of the whale in certain regions near the coast. On the other
hand, the reproductive instinct has a determining influence. Gravid
females seek calm and shallow waters ; and mating also has been
observed most frequently during fine quiet weather. The subject is to
be continued in a second paper.

Canadian Birds.* — John Macoun has completed Part II. of his
catalogue of Canadian Birds. It deals with the birds of prey, wood-
peckers, fly-catchers, crows, jays, and blackbirds. The catalogue includes
many breeding notes, and will be found of interest to British as well as
Canadian ornithologists.

West Asian Reptiles and Batrachians.j — Dr. F. Werner describes a
list, with in some cases brief descriptions, of Reptiles from Asia Minor,
chiefly from the Island of Kos, and from N. Persia, collected by Prof.
Vosseler and J. Bornmiiller.

Sumatra Fishes.} — Dr. W. Volz, during a stay of two and a half
years in S.E. Sumatra, collected much zoological material. He describes
in this paper the fishes, amongst which there is one new genus Trypano-
cheno})sis, nine hitherto undescribed species, and nineteen new to the
fauna of Sumatra.

Sumatra Lizards.§ — Dr. W. Volz enumerates with brief notes, sixteen
species of lizards from Palembang, a place seldom visited by zoologists.

c. General.

Digestive Ferments in Cephalopods, Echinoderme, and Tunicates.||
Y. Henri finds that hepatic juice from Octopus and Sepia is rich in
amylase and proteolytic ferment. It digests albumin of cooked egg,
fibrin, and gelatin. The product of the salivary glands is not specially
digestive, but its injection in small quantities into crayfish and crabs
causes paralysis. There is a little amylase in the blood and much in the
kidney.

The caecum upon the intestine of Spatangus has glandular walls and
contains a yellowish-brown feebly acid liquid, which has a notable
quantity of amylase and exhibits the same digestive action as the
hepatic fluid of Cephalopods. The perivascular liquid contains a little
amylase, but has no proteolytic ferment.

Macerations of the pyloric gland of Salpa yielded a liquid rich in
amylase, but it did not digest the substances mentioned above, though it
had a feeble effect on glycerin. The gland contains many digestive
ferments. Maceration-fluids from other parts gave no result.

Lake Survey. H — D. J. Scourfield writes a short paper advocating the
scientific investigation of lakes, not only because it is desirable to have

* Geol. Survey cf Canada, Ottawa, 1903, pp. 219-413.

t Zool. Jahrb., xix. (1903) pp. 329-4G.

X Tom. cit., pp. 347-420 (2 pis.). § Tom. cit., pp. 421-30.

|| Comptes Rondus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 7G3-5.

«[f Proc. South London Entom.and Nat. Hist. Soc, 1902 (published 1903), pp. Gl-C.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 57

them investigated, but also on account of the fact that their investigation
will furnish many important details with regard to such problems as the
origin of lake-basins, the influence of environment and the laws of
variation. In addition they will furnish many interesting facts with
regard to the physical conditions of these faunal areas. It has already
been shown how important the presenci of the " Sprung schicht " is to the

organisms in the lake.

Tunicata.

Development of Diplosomidse.* — A. Pizon has worked out the
development of Diplosomidae during the three weeks after hatching.
The facts described are remarkable. From the individual which is
hatched, there arises by budding a " bithoracic " individual which in
turn gives origin to an ascidiozooid " bithoracique et biventrique" which is
described as a " new physiological individual, much more complex than
the preceding, with two independent branchiae, two oesophagi super-
imposed, two stomachs communicating with the oesophagi, two hearts,
whose contractions are rarely synchronous, and two recti superimposed."
In the main, there are three remarkable phenomena : (1) the regular
regression of the old thorax in the bithoracic specimens ; (2) the persistence
of the abdomen from the one ascidiozooid to the other ; (3) the building up
of the "bithoracique et &wwtfr/^<e " ascidiozooids, and their final division
into two simple ascidiozooids with transformation of the visceral masses.

Ova of Crustaceans and Gastropods.! — F. Henschen communicates
some notes on the structure of the immature eggs of Astacus fluviaiiUs,
Homarus vulgaris, Helix jJomatia, Linuuca stagnates, etc. In all these
forms he finds in some of the cells, chiefly those of medium size,
" pseudo-chromosomes " such as have already been described in various
ova by other observers. Their commonest position in Astacus is around
the nucleus forming part of a sphere, and enclosing a zone which is
sometimes distinguished by a greater granularity and sometimes by small
alveoli. With hajmatoxylin and eosin, they stain an intense blue. They
are straight or slightly bent and of a varying thickness ; the coarsest
consist of two threads lying closely together. He has no suggestion as
to their significance.

Fauna of the Gulf of Trieste.}— Dr.Ed. Graeffe gives a list of the
Molluscoidea (Bryozoa and Brachiopoda) and Tunicata, with notes on
the time of appearance and spawning of certain species. No new forms
are enumerated.

INVERTEBRATA.

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

Olfactory Sen£e in Helix Pomatia.§ — Emile Yung states that there
are in the snail no groups of tactile, gustatory, or other differentiated

* Comptcs Rendu?, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 759-61.

t Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 15-29.

t Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien, xv. (1903) pp. 1-16.

§ Comptcs Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 720-1.

58 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

sense-corpuscles, and that there is no part which can be described as a
group of specialised olfactory cells. In reality, the sensory cells are
" mixed " and respond to shock, heat, or odour. The whole exposed
surface of the body is sensory, the long tentacles most so, and next the
smaller pair, and next the dorsal surface. Snails deprived of both pairs
of tentacles were able to find food placed in their vicinity ; in one case
a piece of ripe melon was " tracked " at a distance of 40 centimetres.

Structure of Cryptoplax larvae formis.*— Ernst "Wettstein describes
the structure of this representative of the Cryptoplacidae, an interesting
family of Placophora, which seems likely to throw some light on the
affinities between Placophora and Solenogastres.

The form is elongated, almost worm-like ; the strongly developed
mantle makes the foot inconspicuous ; the mantle cavity is deepest in
the region of the gills ; localised muscle strands are lost in the general
body-nmsculature,whieh like the form, means adaptation to boring ; the
stomach and intestine are spirally coiled ; the pericardium is reduced in
its most anterior portion to a narrow vesicle ; the aorta is connected by
looping vessels with the vena pallia! is (peculiar to Cryptoplacidai), and
the latter with the sinus lateralis.

The most notable fact in regard to the nervous system is the
shunting of the origin of the buccal connective to the posterior portion
of the cerebral semicircle. A peculiarity, which only occurs elsewhere in
Aplacophora, is the existence of two connections of the pleurovisceral
strands over the hind-gut.

The left and right kidney are directly connected by a vesicle. This
species agrees with C. oculatas in the dorsal position of the main canal
and of the reno-pericardial duct, and in the nature of the reproductive
organs.

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Anatomy of Anomia ephippium.f — Moriz Sassi, in a detailed
research on the heart and kidneys of Anomia ephippium, sets himself to
discover whether a portion of the ccelome exists with which the kidneys
communicate by a ciliated funnel, and if so, whether it also functions as
a pericardium. He finds that each kidney has the remains of such a
funnel communicating with a small sac-shaped remnant of the ccelome,
which from its position might have been originally situated round the
heart.

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Habits and Instincts of Insects. J— J. H. Fabre has published the
eighth series of his delightful " Souvenirs Entomologiques." It deals
with rose-beetles, bean-beetles, Pentatomas and masked bugs, aphides,
wild bees, carrion-flies, etc. Special attention has been given to eggs,

* Jenaische Zeifschr. Naturwiss., xxxviii. (1903) pp. 473-501 (3 pis.).

t Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien, xv. (1903) p. 1-16,(1 pi-)-

X 'Souvenirs Entomologiques (Huitieme Serie) : Etudes sur l'Instinct et les
Mceurs des Insectes.' Svo, Paris, 1903) p. 379. See Ann. Nat. Hist., xii. (1903)
pp. 637-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 59

cocoons, and nests. Some observations of former writers are ques-
tioned. Thus he has been " unable to confirm the statement that
Pentatoma griseum watches over her young like a hen over her chickens
or that the favourite prey of Reduvkis personatus is the bed-bug " ; nor
does he regard the superficial resemblance between Volucella and a wasp
as having anything to do with mimicry. " The relation of Volucella to
the wasp seems to be that of a simple scavenger."

In regard to limitation of instinct, it is noted that when the nest of
the common wasp is covered with a bell glass, "the enclosed wasps
never dig a passage out, but remain cooped up till they die ; and
though stragglers left outside will dig their way in, they are equally
unable to show their companions the way out or even to make their own
escape."

Viviparous Insects.* — N. Holmgren has examined a very large
number of species in which viviparity occurs, and finds that in rela-
tion to this condition the structure of the female organs is variously
affected in different cases. In those cases where parthenogenesis occurs
the development of the egg may take place within the ovary, as in
the Aphides and Coccidao, or in the body cavity as in Miastor larvae.
In amphigenetic types the place of storing of the eggs depends upon the
region in which fertilisation is effected. In the Diptera they are retained
in the vagina or its differentiations, in Strepsiptera in the body cavity or
brood canal, and in Orina and Chrysomela in the canals of the ovary.
In Diptera there is sometimes differentiated on the vagina a diverticulum
which acts as a brood-sac, in others the vagina is lengthened and
functions as a brood-sac, while in others only the wider and more
anterior portion so functions.

In Diptera the larvae may remain only till partially developed ;
in pupiparous forms the young are born in a highly advanced state.

In most viviparous insects there is no special maternal provision
for the brood. Only in pupipara are there specific organs of nutrition,
the accessory glands being transformed into nutritive glands, a fact
which is related to the long life of the brood in the vagina.

Variations in Lycffinidse.j— L. G. Courvoisier describes variations
from the normal type of wing-marking in various Lycsenids. especially
Lycccna and Chrijsopltanus. They are not irregular, but follow
certain lines, some with too much (" luxuriant " forms), others with too
little (impoverished forms) of certain normal characters. The author's
observations were made before he became aquainted with Oberthur's
great work, 'La Variation chez les Lepidopteres ' (18%).

Red and Yellow Pigment of Vanessa. \ — Dr. M. Grafin von
Linden has investigated the chemical nature, function and origin of
these pigments. The various colours of the butterfly are the result of
various stages of oxidation of a pigment that is itself attributable to-
the plant-cells forming the food of the caterpillar.

* Zool. Jahrb., six. (1903) Heft. iv. pp. 431-68.

t MT. £ckweiz. Entomol. Ges., xi. (li)03) pp. 1S-25 (1 pi.).

I Biol. CViitralbl., xxiii. (1903) pp. b21-8.

CO SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Hymenoptera of West Indian Islands.* — W. A. Schulz describes
a number of Aculeate Hymenoptera from the "West Indies. About 1300
Hymenoptera are now known from the Antilles, and it seems probable
that this is only a small fraction of the existing species. The paper
gives a good example of the need of caution in making species ; Pepsis
rubra and P. stellata are the dimorphic sexes of P. rubra.

Ergatogynic Ants.f — Margaret Holliday ' has made a thorough
examination of numerous species with a view of determining the relative
sexual conditions of the queens and workers. She finds that the ovaries
of ithe workers of most of the species investigated show a reduction
in the number of tubules, but they are not rudimentary. Morpho-
logically and histologically they are capable of producing and do
produce eggs. The presence of the receptaculum seminis is not peculiar
to the queen ant and cannot be used as a distinguishing feature. There
is no physiological reason why those workers possessing the receptaculum
should not have the power of performing the function of the sexual
female, and it is believed that they do so. The author does not think
that intermediate conditions of fertility are induced by direct changes in
social conditions, as has been held, but thinks a phylogenetic explanation
the better one.

Males of Andrena.J — E. Frey. Gessner describes the males of
Andrena ccneiventris Mor., A. incisa Evers., A. parviceps Krchb., and A.
rogenhoferi, which were not known when Schmiedekneeht published his
monograph on the Bees of Europe. The author has found the males of
the four species noted, and Morawitz has also described the male of A.
incisa.

Habits of the Drone-Fly.§ — W. H. Harris gives an account of the
emission of musical notes and of the hovering habit of Eristalis tenax.
He shows that the musical notes are not due to the rapid vibrations
of wings or poisers, nor to the rapid motion of the legs, but to the
expulsion of air from the trachea) through the spiracles. In each
spiracle there are two chitinous crescent-shaped rods joined together by
a ligament and thus forming a bow with elongated free arms. The
rods support very delicate and pliant membranes which are folded or
plicated in a very complicated manner. When the air is expelled and the
free edges of the plicated membranes are brought together by the
thoracic muscles the musical notes are produced. He finds that the
power of hovering is due to specialised or auxiliary organs. In Eristalis
tenax it is due to the four alulets and to a newly discovered organ which
he calls the " plume." These organs are attached near the bases of the
wings, and consist of a basal part of chitin and a membranous hollow
expansion with long hairs attached.

Habits of Chironomus.|| — T. H. Taylor contributes some notes on
Chironomus sordidellus. He describes the way in which it converts its

* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Munchen (1903) Heft. iii. pp. 451-88 (7 figs.),
t Zool. Jahrb., xix. (1903) pp. 293-328 (16 figs.)
% MT. Schweiz. Entom. Ges. xi. (1903) pp. 40-5.
§ Joum. Quekett Micr. Club, viii. (1903) pp. 513-20.
|| Trans. Eut. Soc. Lond., 1903, part iv. pp. 521-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 61

larval tube into a pupal case, and how it makes a new exit for itself at the
lower end of the dilated portion. This exit is seldom single ; generally
two, three, or even four holes are made. When it is ready to emerge, the
pupa creeps out by using hooks on its body. The larva of a water mite
is often attached to the pupa, and it succeeds in attaching itself to the fly,
to which it apparently does no harm.

Marine Chironomid New to Britain.*— A. D. Imms found Clunio
ftkolor Kieff skimming on the surface of rock pools near Port Erin. It
is a new addition to the British fauna. The males appear to be only on
the wing in fine weather ; even a slight wind is detrimental to their fragile
constitution. They are only seen at low water, and probably do not
survive until a second ebb-tide. A single female — not previously known
— was discovered resting on the surface film. She is likewise very short-
lived, and is apterous and vermiform.

Follicular Cells of Cricket.f— Edwin G. Conklin describes the process
of amitosis in the follicle cells of the ovum of the cricket. He shows the
stage at which amitosis occurs, and finds that the type found here exactly
corresponds to the type described by Remak. He finds that the amitotic
division is, in this case, one of the last functions of the cells, and that it
is an accompaniment of cellular senescence and decay.

Pelecinidae.J— W. A. Schulz makes a contribution to our knowledge
of this small family of Ichneumon-flies, which is represented by two
genera, Pelecinus and Monomachus. A third genus, OphioneUas =
Pharsalia, previously referred to the Pelecinidas, belongs to the Ophionidai
(NototrachinaB). The Pelecinidaj occur in equatorial regions in the New
World, and one species is Australian. They are remarkable in form and
show well-marked sexual dimorphism.

Collembola of the Beach. § — C. B. Davenport deals with Anurida
maritima Guerin, Xenylla humicola, Tullberg and Isotoma bessellii
Packard — the common Collembola of the beach, as at Cold Spring on the
north shore of Long Island. He discusses their distribution and move-
ments on the beach, their reactions to gravity, contact, moisture, air-
cnrrents, light, etc., the Collembola as ancestral insects, and the evolution
of insect intelligence. He also gives, after Macgillivray, a useful key to
the determination of the genera of boreal Collembola.

The Podurids of the beach live between tide-marks, go into the sand
at high tide and rise to the surface to take the air when the tide is out.
They run up surfaces in face of the wind, and leap when they reach the
top, being blown back to the starting point. They are exceedingly
sensitive to gravity, to contact, to moisture, to currents of air, and to
light, and these elementary reactions are so combined as to bring about
their normal movements. They are provided with these instincts before
they reached the beach, else they could never have survived there. The

* Proc. and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Ass., xvii. (1902-3) pp. 81-5 (3 figs.).
t Amer. Nat, xxxvii. (1903) pp. 667-75 (8 fiss.).
% SB. K.B. Akad. Wiss. Miincken, 1903, Heft iii. pp. 435-50 (1 pi).
§ Cold Spring Hirbjr Monographs, Brooklyn Inst, of Arts and Science3, No. ii.
(1903) p. 32(1 pi.).

62 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

instincts have selected the habitat. The behaviour of insects i3 deter-
mined by their elementary reactions to the chemical and physical condi-
tions of the environment.

Protective Coloration.* — A. H. Thayer contributes a memoir on
protective coloration in ite relation to mimicry, warning colours and
sexual selection. He begins his paper by a statement of the artist's
claims to be the only judge of all matters of colour, pattern, visibility,
and their effect on the mind. He says that the pattern and coloration
of butterflies are all evolved for the sake of rendering them invisible, as
a pattern is less conspicuous than a monochrome ; he also holds that the
mimicking is not of each other, but of some flower or of some organic-
form, for if they were mimicking each other there would be no necessity
for the great detail, but if they were mimicking flowers then they would
derive the greatest benefit from the minutest details. He holds that the
syncryptic resemblance to flowers gives a full explanation of all the
patterns and colours. His paper contains many very important sugges-
tions, e.g., the concealing effect of iridescence, the overflow of individuals
from a concealing region to one less favourable, and the resemblance of
butterfly patterns in general to flower-masses and the shadow-depths
between them.

E. B. Poulton f criticises Thayer's paper on Protective Coloration.
He holds that the syncryptic resemblance is a highly improbable interpre-
tation and that, in spite of Thayer's repeated statement to the contrary,
zoologists have not entirely misunderstood the principles underlying the
cryptic pattern. He also holds that the effacive shading of the body and
the brilliant pattern of the wing help in preserving the life of the butterfly,
as they misdirect the attack of the enemy. He believes that Thayer's
suggested interpretation of mimetic resemblance is untenable, but he
admits having had ideas similar to Thayer's in regard to warning colours.
He concludes his paper by saying that naturalists owe Thayer a large
debt for many new points of view and illuminating suggestions.

5. Arachnida.

Stridulation in Scorpions. | — R. I. Pocock describes a new stridula-
ting organ in scorpions discovered by W. J. Burchell. This organ
consists of the modified pectines and granular areas on the overlying
sternal plate. These modifications were a puzzle until a reference and
explanation was found in Burchell's MSS. The author has now given a
full description and careful drawings of this organ, and he adds that
it is purely of aposematic significance.

New Chelifer.§— R. T. Lewis describes a new species of Chelifer.
His attention was first drawn to it in 1890 by a specimen sent from
Natal. This, when compared with a number of specimens in the British
Museum, was found to be new. The Chelifer is bright red in colour, with
an ovate body much narrowed in front and semicircular behind. On
account of the beautifully sculptured segments it is proposed to name the
species Chelifer sculpturatus.

* Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1903, pp. 553-09. f Tom. cit., pp. 570-5.

% Ann. Nat. Hist., xiii. (1904) pp. 56-62 (1 pi.").

§ Jonrn. Quckett. Micr. Club, viii. (1903) pp. 497-8 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 63

e. Crustacea.

Larval Forms of Crangonidae.* — Robert Gurney gives an account of
the larva? of two species of Crangonidre — Cheraphilus trispinosus and
JEgeon fasciatus. He describes the characteristic features of the larvse,
and gives at the end of his paper a diagnostic table for the distinction of
all Crangonid larva? at present known. In many cases he has been able
to confirm the descriptions that Sars has given of the larval forms.

Cladoceran new to Britain.f — R. Gurney has found Scapholeberis

aurita S. Fischer in three localities in Norfolk. He compares its swim-
ming habits and some points in its structure with Scourfi eld's description^:
of 8c. mucronata 0. F. Muller. The two species swim on their backs
suspended by the surface film, but the mechanism is different in the two.

New Copepod Genus. § — Adolf Steuer describes a Copepod which he
finds in great abundance in the intestine of Mytilus yalloprovincialis.
It requires a new genus, and he names it Hytilicola intcstinalis n.g. et sp.,
within the family Dichelestiina. From its size, relative transparency,
frequency of occurrence, and the ease with which it may be kept free
living in an aquarium, he has found it well suited for thorough observa-
tion. In his present communication he gives a full account of the
vascular system, shell glands, reproductive organs, and other parts.

Copepoda of Basel. || — A. Graeter, in a very full paper, gives an
account of the Copepods of this region, and discusses, with the help of
analytical tables, the horizontal and vertical distribution of the species in
the different areas. The chief interest of the memoir is as regards
distribution.

British Freshwater Entomostraca.1T — D. J. Scourfield continues his
synopsis of the known species of British freshwater Entomostraca. He
gives a list of the free-swimming and of the parasitic Copepoda, to which
is added a table of distribution in England and in Scotland. Anions; the
free-swimming forms, he notes the occurrence of BeJisarius viguicri in
Regent's Park, London, and Kew Gardens. This form is peculiar in its
habitat — the cups formed by the leaves of Bromeliaceous plants ; it is
remarkable in being blind, in having no ovisac, and in having a special
vibrating organ in the region of the shell-gland.

Variation in Cyclops.** — Harriet Lehmann undertook the investiga-
tion of the variations in form and size of Cyclops brevispinosus and
Cyclops americanus, with special reference to the question of specific
distinction between these forms in the furca and the armature of the
fourth swimming foot. She found that the range of variation was very
great, so much so that the specific differences between the two forms are
not trustworthy. She advocates a careful study, and thinks the result
would be a re-classification of the species and varieties.

* Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass., vi. No. 4 (1903) pp. 595-7.
+ Ann. Nat. Hist., xii. (1903) pp. 630-3 (2 figs).
% Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) xxv. (1894) | p. 1-19.
§ Arbeit, ^ool. Inst. Univ. Wien, xv. (1903) pp. 1-4G (5 pis.).
II Revue Suisse Zool., ii. fasc. 3 (1903) pp. 419-541.
^ Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, viii. (1903) pp. 531-44.
** Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., xiv. (1903) pp. 279-98 (4 pis).

G4 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Annulata.

New Polygordius.* — Akira Izuka describes Polygordius Ijimai, a
new species from Misaki,: Japan. The discovery is noteworthy, since
all the species hitherto known are from the coasts of Europe. The
members of this species, both male and female, are of a light pink colour.
On each side of the head, at about the level of the mouth, an oval-shaped
vibratile pit is found. The musculature of the body wall is peculiar in
not having circular muscle fibres, while in the intestinal wall neither
longitudinal nor circular muscles are to be found. The vascular svstem
is peculiar in having the dorsal and the ventral vessel connected by a pair
of lateral loops in each segment. A point worthy of notice is that the
species is nearly sexually mature as early in the season as the end of March.

Development of Phascolosoma.f— J. H. Gerould, in a preliminary
note, summarises the results of his studies on the development of Phas-
colosoma. They throw light on the hitherto apparently anomalous
development of Sipunculus. Phascolosoma is in most respects less
highly modified, and is more like the Annelids. Numerous features,
e.g. a transitory metamerism of the mesoblastic bands, and of the nerve-
cord in the trochophore, indicate close relationship between the Sipun-
culids and Annelids. Sipunculids are to be regarded as forms that have
recently sprung from the ancestral trochozoon. The adult Sipunculid
retains the retractor muscles and nephridia of the trochophore. The loss
of the prototroch, the development of the coelome, and the enormous
elongation of the trunk, are the only fundamental changes which the
trochophore undergoes in passing into the adult condition.

Histology of Ctenodrilus Clap. J — Egon Galvagni has made a de-
tailed comparative study of the two species of Ctenodrilus, dealing
principally with details of the vascular system, nephridia, and pharynx
previously incorrectly described, and with other features, e.g. circular
muscles, pigment, and mucous cells, etc. He concludes that the cha-
racters of the nervous system, etc., and in particular the nature of the
bristles, suggest relationship to the Cirratulids, and decides in favour of
classing the genus under this family.

Musculature of Branchiobdell aparasitica.§— F. Schmidt finds the
musculature of this parasite, in relation to its extremely sluggish and
leisurely movements, feebly developed. The muscle cells are of the
primitive nematoid type, i.e. the myoblast is surrounded by a contractile
tegument, which is interspersed with either widely-gaping or narrow
slit-like fissures, into which the protoplasm of the myoblast is continued.
The myoblast consists of plasma and a nucleus. The contractile tegu-
ment contains radiating layers of fibrils, which consist of colourable and
uncolourable longitudinally-placed columns. There are notably two
types of muscular cells, a cylindrical and double cylindrical type.

Anatomy and Histology of Myzostoma.|| — R. Eitter v. Stummer-
Traunfels, in view of the fact that descriptions of species of this genus
contain a series of errors, due to the neglect of internal characters in

* Annot. Zool. Japon, iv. (1903) pp. 137-9.

t Arch. Zool. Exp., ii. (1904); Notes ct Revue, No. 2, pp. xvii-xxix.

% Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Uuiv. Wien, xv. (1903) pp. 1-31 (2 pis.).

§ Zeitsch. f. Wiss. Zool., Ixxv. (1933) pp. 59G-705 (1 pi., 13 figs.).

|| Tom. cit., pp. 495-595 (5 pis ).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 65

species diagnosis, seeks to place the classification upon a firmer basis.
He gives a revised diagnosis of Myzostoma asterm Marens, a form which,
on account of its strictly endoparasitic mode of life within the arms of
certain star-fishes, is of special interest. This is followed by a detailed
account of its anatomy and minute structure.

Platyhelminth.es.

New Species of Phagocata Ledy.* — Gr. Chichakoff has found near
Mount Vitocha, in company with Planar ia alpina, a Turbellarian which
appears to differ from this species in one character only, viz. in possess-
ing a multiple pharynx. This character classes it in the genus Phagocata,
of which there has hitherto been known a single species, P. gracilis.
The new species, however, differs from P. gracilis, not only in the
general form of the body, but also in certain internal characters.
Reasons are adduced for believing that the genus has had a teratological
origin from Planar ia alpina. The new species he terms Phagocata
cornuta.

Incertee Sedis.

Gonads of Phoronis.f — Iwaji Ikeda gives a concise account of the
development of the sexual organs and of their products in Phoronis.
In young individuals, he says, sexual organs are not found, but in their
stead there exist csecal capillaries which, by the modification of the peri-
toneal layer, give rise to the gonads. As sexual maturity approaches,
the peritoneum becomes thickened and forms a pyramidal layer. This
layer is called the nutritive layer, because it contains reserve nutriment
in the form of spheres. Immediately below this layer a few scattered
peritoneal cells lie which give rise, by proliferation, to the germinal cells.

In the ovary the oogonia soon differentiate into oocytes and follicular
cells. These cells absorb the nutritive layer in their growth, and then
the follicular layer becames a mere membrane when the egg approaches
maturity. In the testis the same development takes place, but the
characteristic feature is the pushing out of fibrous bundles, by the con-
nective tissue layer, round which the spermatogonia arrange themselves.

Rotifera.

New Species of Philodina.J — David Bryce figures and describes
two new species, Philodina nemoralis and Ph. rugosa, with two varieties
of the latter, found on mosses growing in damp ground, or on sphagnum
in mossy pools, and also gives some general details about the structure
of the foot and toes of the animals belonging to this genus.

New Male Rotifers.§ — To the long list of male Rotifers now
known, K. I. Marks and W. Wesche add those of Brachionus quadratus,
Anuroza brevispina, and Pterodina patina, figures and description of
which are given.

Variation Cycle of Anursea cochlearis.|| — Three years ago Robert
Lauterborn published If the first part of his study of the cycle of

* Arch. Zool. Exp., 1903, pp. 401-9 (1 pi.).

t Annot. Zool. Japoii, iv. (1903) pp. 141-53 (1 pi.).

t Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, viii. (1903) pp. 523-30 (I pi.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 505-12 (1 pi.).

I Verh. Naturhist.-Med. Ver. Heidelberg., Bd. vii. 4 (1903) pp. 52»-621.

t Cf. this Journal, 1901, p. 159.

Feb. 17th, 1904 f

66 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

variation of this Rotifer, in which he showed how the variations could
be traced in three or four definite directions from the type species, so as
to embrace all the known varieties of this very variable form. The
second part, now published, is an elaborate account of the conditions
which appear to produce these variations. These conditions the author
finds principally in the constitution of the water of the various ponds
and lakes, and in the changes of temperature due to the seasons. By
collecting regularly once a month throughout the year in seven different
localities, examining and measuring twenty-five to fifty specimens each
time, and tabulating the results, the author has ascertained that Anurcea
cochlearis goes through a regular cycle of variation, which is repeated
every year.' During the cold season — December, January, and February
—this species is represented in the old bed of the Rhine, near Neuhofen,
by the typical form and by the variety macraccmtha, with long posterior
spine. In the spring these forms are very gradually replaced by members
of the irregularis and hispida series, with short spines, including tecta,
with no spine ; so that by the month of May the long-spined varieties
have entirely disappeared, to reappear again in the month of October
or November. The author has observed the same regular cycle of
variation in the same locality for a period of twelve years. In order to
account for these regular variations, the author is inclined to adopt
W. Oswald's suggestion that the reason is to be found mainly in the
" internal friction " of the water, which varies very considerably with
the temperature, and which must have an influence on the floating
capacity of the various organisms living in the water. He thus sets
aside as insufficient the theory advanced by Wesenberg-Lund, who thinks
that similar seasonal changes in the size of animals and appendages in
Cladocera, Rotif era and Infusoria, are due to a tendency to accommodate
the organisms to changes in the specific gravity of fresh water, which
decreases, but only slightly, with increasing temperature.

New Rotifers.* — E. von Daday gives an account of the Plankton
organisms collected by Franz Werner in some fresh-water lakes in the
northern parts of Asia Minor, and thereby figures and describes one new
species and one new variety of Rotifers, Mastigocerca heterostyla (which
really is Rattulus bicornis of Western) and Brachionus rubens var.
Wern&ri. The author also gives some new figures of several species
already known, namely Brachionus budapestinensis and forficula and
Notops macro urus .

Echinoderma.

Non-regeneration of Sphaeridia in Sea-Urchins. f — Yves Delage
in an interesting note points out that removal of the epidermis, spines,
pedicellariae, sphaeridia,— everything in fact — from the surface of Para-
centrotus (Stryonglocentrotus) Hindus, was followed by regeneration of
all the structures, except the sphaeridia. It does not appear to be the
case that these bodies are necessary to equilibrium as has been suggested,
since the urchins can turn over, although these have been removed.

Osmotic Action of the Internal Fluids of EchinodermsJ — V. Henri
and S. Lalou find that the membranes connecting the internal cavity of

* SB. K. Acad. \Vi>s. Wien, Bd. cxii. pp. 139-07(1 pi.).
t Coiuptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 681-2.
j Tom. cit, pp. 721-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 67

sea-urchins and Holothurians with the external medium are semi-
permeable, as are also the walls of the water-vascular system, the polian
vesicles, and the digestive tubes of Holothurians.

Ccelentera.

Development of Corymorpha.* — Albert J. May undertook the study
of Corymorpha pendida with special reference to the development of the
medusoid, and to the origin of the sex cells. His results may be
summarised thus : — Corymorpha is a solitary form, developed from a bud
of the peduncle wall, in which the attaching filaments and papilla? are
modifications of the same structure. The central axis of the stem is
filled with parenchyma-like cells in which extensions of the hydranth
cavity are found as longitudinal canals. Owing to the development of
gland cells in the hydranth cavity, digestion and circulation have become
localised. The sex cells are derived from an apical plug of ectodermal
cells, and in the case of the ova, the development is by absorption of the
germinal tissue, thus giving rise to a syncytium in which the nuclei of
the primitive germ cells persist for a time.

Depastrum.| — E. S. Russell contributes a few notes on the rare
Lucernarid Depastrum cyathiforme (Gosse). Its peculiarly local distribu-
tion is difficult to account for, but he has found that it never occurs iii
muddy localities, nor in spots where there is much decaying sea-weed.
He shows that instead of there being many rows of tentacles, as Haeckel
says, there are only two. He found two types, one with a long narrow
umbrella and the other with the umbrella as broad as long. His paper is
of interest as a record of the fairly abundant occurrence of a Lucernarid
around the Cumbraes, etc., which is but little known to the majority of
British zoologists.

Porifera.

Haddonella.J— Igerna B. J. Sollas gives an account of the new genus
Hadclonella, a ceratose sponge belonging to the Dendroceratina, paying
special attention to the structure and development of the pithed fibres of
Haddonella topsenli. She finds that Haddonella and Ianthella are closely
allied in having cells in the cortex of their pithed fibres. The growing
points consist of naked pith secreted by a many-layered cap of spongo-
blasts. Layer after layer of spongoblasts deposit spongin until finally
the pith is enclosed in many successive sheaths of spongin, between
which lie the spongoblasts, which have diminished and lost their granular
contents. These results justify Polejaeff's assertion that the presence of
cells in the spongin of sponge-fibres is a character of sub-family or
family value.

Protozoa.

Nuclear Apparatus in Paramcecium.§ — P. Mitrophanow has studied
the functions and accompanying changes of structure in the nuclei of
Paramecium. The micronucleus plays the principal part in the pheno-
mena of multiplication and conjugation ; it exhibits the principal

* Araer. Nat.. 1903, pp. 579-99 (12 figs.).

t Ann. Nat. Hist. xiii. pp. 62-5 (1 pi.).

\ Op. cit, xii. (1903) pp. 557-63 (2 pis.).

§ Arch. Zool. Exp., 1903. pp. 411-35.

F 2

68 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

features of the changes in the nuclei of metazoan cells in division.
The raacronucleus dominates above all the functions of nutrition,,
assimilation, and movement ; it is very susceptible to changes in the
conditions of life, and assumes sometimes, among other transformations,
characters which recall the appearance of chromosomes. On the whole,
the structure of the nuclei is complicated, and the changes in the macro-
nucleus varied in relation to the numerous functions of the organism.

Action of Induction Shocks on Ciliata.* — P. Statkewitsch gives
a very full account of the behaviour of seventeen different species of
Ciliata to stimuli of this type. There are two different groups of
results from single induction shocks, which he relates to both physio-
logical reaction and to structure, viz. certain movements of the cilia
(which occur in all), and alteration of the form of the individual in
consequence of the contraction of the outer layers. These results are
detailed for each of the species examined. His results contradict
Pfliiger's law of polar excitation.

Micro-fauna of Boulder Clay.f — Joseph Wright found Foraminifera
in three-fourths of 134 samples of boulder clay from widely separate
localities. With one or two exceptions all the species found in the clay
occurred recently off our coast. More than half the specimens are
referable to Nonionina depressula, and Gassidulina crassa, though some-
what rare, as a recent British species is often plentiful. Porcellanous
forms are usually very rare, and the only arenaceous form is Haplo-
phragm htm canariense.

North American G-regarines.J — Howard Crawley has prepared a list
of the Polycystid Gregarines of the United States. He has made a care-
ful examination of the species, and has established twelve new ones,
which he carefully describes and figures, giving in each case the locality
and the host.

In a subsequent paper,§ Crawley continues his list of North American
Polycystid Gregarines, and gives a description of two new genera and
several new species. He also adds a note on the time required for a
Gregarine cyst to mature, and gives a short account of the cysts of
Acutispora macroc&phala.

Tick Fever. || — J. F. Anderson confirms the observations of Wilson
and Chowning, who discovered the presence of an intracorpuscular
parasite in spotted or tick fever. It is not pigmented ; it shows amoeboid
movements ; it is arranged in pairs, or occurs as a single pyriform or
ovoid body. It stains with difficulty ; and is never found in large
numbers. Cultivations were negative.

-^

* Le Physiologiste Russe, iii. (1903) pp. 1-55.

t Rep. and Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist, and Phil. Soc, 1902-3, pp. 47-50.

t Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1903, pp. 41-5S (3 pis.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 632-44 (1 pi.).

|| Bull. No. 14, Hygien. Lab. U.S.A., 1903, 50 pp. (3 pis.).

■» I<ga I •

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 69

BOTANY.

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Cytology,
including: Cell Contents.

Nucleus of the Yeast-Plant.* — F. A. Janssens gives a review of
the various observations made on this subject since the publication of
his and Leblanc's paper on the cytology of yeast. The majority of
recent observers are agreed that the yeast-cell possesses a definite cor-
puscle, with the micro-chemical characteristics and the physiological
properties of a true nucleus. A few others doubt the existence of a
definite nucleus, and consider the cell to have the same structure as that
of the bacteria. Others, again, hold an intermediate view, that the
nucleus exists in a primitive state as a vacuole, containing granules of
nuclein. Wager puts forward the view that the cells contain a nuclear
apparatus rather than a true nucleus, consisting of a nucleolus (the
nucleus of most authors) which resists peptic digestion and stains
feebly ; and in young and vigorous cells a vacuole also, which contains
granules often united in a network and resisting digestion with pepsin.
It is clear, then, that most authors admit the existence of a nucleus in
the yeast-cell, but there is considerable disagreement on the existence
and significance of the vacuole. Janssens believes that the nucleolus
always lies inside the vacuole when the latter is present ; its appearance
by the side of the vacuole, as observed by Wager, he considers to be
due to the process of fixation, which he has followed under the micro-
scope. The author ranges himself on the side of those who believe
in the existence of a true nucleus, since there is to be found in the yeast-
cell, as in the cells of higher forms, an organised body which contains
nuclein, and plays an important part both in ordinary division and in
spore-formation. Recent observations also confirm the views put for-
ward earlier by Janssens and Leblanc as to the importance of this body
in fertilisation. The role of the nucleus in budding, in sporulation
and in fertilisation, is discussed with reference to recent work.

Micro-chemistry and Cytology of a Torula.f — -Janssens and
Mertens have isolated a rose-coloured Torula from a deposit in beer,
and investigated its structure and behaviour. Their most important
observations are, that the colouring matter is carotin, that it is sensitive
to light, and that its nucleus sometimes increases by a process of unequal
division. When grown in reverse plate cultures, small masses of gelatin
are projected on to the cover and form there images of the colonies ;
this is brought about by a liquefaction of the gelatin and the formation
of a certain quantity of gas.

* La Cellule, xx. (1903) pp. 337-49. t Tom. cit., pp. 353-68 (2 pis.).

70 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Abnormal Nuclear Division.* — C. van Wisselingh has made a
detailed study of the various methods of abnormal division of the
nucleus to be found in Spirogyra when subjected to the action of
various reagents, chiefly dilute chloral-hydrate solution. His general
conclusion is that the various abnormal processes observed are not of a
special nature or of the nature of amitosis, but are to be considered as
processes of karyokinesis, though modified to a greater or less extent.
The evidence for amitosis in plants is reviewed, and its unsatisfactory
nature pointed out. Many of the observations are to be explained as
modifications of karyokinesis. The author has modified somewhat his
views on normal division ; he no longer believes that two of the six or
twelve chromosomes are derived from the nucleolus (or nucleoli), but
that a small portion only of the substance of these two special chromo-
somes is derived from the nucleolus.

Spermatogenesis of Hybrid Peas.j — W. A. Cannon, continuing
his studies in plant hybrids, has investigated the nuclear development in
pollen-formation in hybrid peas, namely, Fillbasket X Debarbieux and
Express X Serpette. The hybrids investigated were of those of the
second generation, and they showed variation after the Mendelian law.
They matured their spores in exactly the same way as the pure ancestral
forms ; the first mitosis being heterotypic, the second homotypic.
The reduced number of chromosomes was seven, both in hybrids and
pure forms, the somatic number being fourteen. In the anaphase, how-
ever, of the last sporogenous division of both hybrids and of the pure
form, Fillbasket, the chromosomes were found associated in pairs ; this
condition is considered not to be the result of chance. It is clear that
abnormalities and irregularities of nuclear division (which have been
observed in some forms, probably in connection with their non-fertile
nature) do not form the basis for the variation of these hybrids. The
basis of variation is probably the same as that of variations in the pure
forms.

Structure and Development.

Veg-etative.

Stem of Sicyos angulata.J — Fr. Tondera gives an account of the
morphology and the anatomy of the stem of this member of the order
Cucurbitaceae. The stem is a sympodial structure, and the arrangement
and course of the vascular bundles is clearly described and figured.
The five-angled stem contains a mass of collenchymatous tissue in each
of the angles, the well-developed parenchymatous ground-tissue is
bounded by a sclerenchymatous ring, and contains an inner and an
outer series of bicollateral bundles, the course of which through the
internodes is carefully followed.

Saprophytic Gentianaceae.§ — -N. Svedelius describes some points
in the structure of species of Leiphamos and Voyria, from material

* Bot. Zeit, xxxii. (1903) pp. 201-48 (3 pis.).
t Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxx. (1903) pp. 519-43.

% SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-naturwiss. CI. cxi. (1902) pp. 317-26 (2 pis.).
§ Bihang. K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl., xxviii. (1902) Afd. iii. No. 4, pp. 1-16
(11 figs, in text).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 71

collected by Dr. Landman on the Regnell Expedition to South America.
His results serve to confirm or supplement those obtained by Karsten,
Johow, and others. The two species examined were Leiphamos azurea
and Voyria coerulea. He finds in the former a whorl of disc-like scales
at the base of the sepals, similar to that already described in other
species. In the anatomy of the roots, L. azurea approaches most nearly
L. tenella, which represents the most reduced type of the genus. In
fiis species, too, as Johow also found in the species which he studied,
the fungal hyphas which form a well-marked mycorhiza in the root,
occur also in the tissue of the stem penetrating to directly beneath the
flower. In contrast with Johow's statement as to the absence of stomata
from all leaf- and stem-organs in West Indian saprophytes, including
species of Leiphamos, the author describes and figures these organs on
the reduced leaves of L. azurea, and also of L. aphylla.

In the case of Voyria coerulea an account is given of the stem-
structure. No vascular bundles are present in the much-reduced
scale-leaves, but stomata occur sparingly on the inner surface. In the
structure and development of the ovules, this species differs from
Leiphamos, in which Johow found the ovules erect and with no integu-
ment. Here also occurs the phenomenon noted by Johow, that many
ovules remain sterile, forming hair-structures like paraphyses. The
. ovules in V. coerulea are anatropous and have a single integument, thus
agreeing with those of other members of the order.

As Leiphamos and Voyria show but little agreement in their ana-
tomical structure, and also differences in seed-structure, pollen, etc., it
is probable that the two genera are not so closely related as has some-
times been supposed. Leiphamos would seem to be a remarkably
reduced and isolated type, while Voyria shows more agreement with
the Gentianacese in general.

Structure of the Extrafloral Nectaries of Hevea. * — Aug. Da-
guillon and H. Coupin describe the form and internal structure of
the glands which occur in different species of this genus of Euphor-
biaceae, at the top of the petiole on its upper face, near the origin of
the three large leaflets. These glands, although used by systematists in
the distinction of species, do not seem to have been studied anatomically.
In Hevea brasilkiisis the glands, which vary from two to five in number,
form a little wart, in the centre of which is a more or less circular
depression, surrounded by a sort of cushion. The authors describe in
detail the internal structure of the central depressed glandular area, the
cushion and the rest of the gland, and draw special attention to two
points : (1) the presence of a ring of sclerosed parenchymatous cells in
the interior of the cushion ; and (2) the distribution and termination
of the laticiferous cells in the parenchyma adjacent to the glandular
surface and right among the cells of the secreting epidermis.

Reproductive.

Germination of Davidia.f— W. B. Hemsley describes the structure
of the fruit and the germination of the seeds in this genus, which is a

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (190:?) pp. 767-9.

t Journ. Linn. Soc. xxxv. Bot. (190;?) pp. 556-9 (1 pi).

72 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

monotype, and one of the most remarkable of the endemic genera of
Chinese trees. It was discovered more than thirty years ago by the Abbe
David near Moupin, in the province of Szechuen, but a recent supply
of fresh seeds has rendered possible the study of the germination. The
fruit is drupe-like ; the hard bony endocarp intrudes between the six to
ten one-seeded cells to the axis with which it unites. After the decay
of the fleshy coat, the fruit opens by the separation of the upper portion
(one-half to two-thirds) of the back of each carpel in the form of a
valve or shutter. Usually only about half the number of the ovules
are fertilised and develop, sometimes only one. The solitary pendulous
seeds are not released by the falling away of the dorsal valves, but held
fast until the seedling has reached a considerable development. The
straight embryo has a pair of flat leafly cotyledons, and is imbedded in
endosperm. After the dehiscence of the dorsal valves of the carpels,
the radicles of as many seeds as are present in the fruit emerge simul-
taneously, the cotyledons elongate rapidly, the axis of the plantlet is
•carried out of the testa, and the cotyledons after absorbing the endo-
sperm free themselves, and form the first green leaves of the plant. An
•opposite pair of foliage-leaves is developed at right angles to the cotyle-
dons, while the succeeding leaves are alternate. The writer suggests that
in a cluster of seedlings, developing thus from one fruit, there is a greater
chance of partial escape from phytophagous organisms than there is for
solitary individuals. Another point of interest is the presence of buds
in the axils of the cotyledons, which may serve to ensure the develop-
ment of the plant if the plumule is injured or destroyed.

Davidia is usually placed in the Cornaceae, next to Nyssa, a genus
of Asiatic and North American trees, which it resembles in some
particulars, but from which it differs greatly in appearance and floral
structure.

Synanthy in Lonicera.* — E. A. N. Arber gives a detailed account
of the cases of synanthy which occur in the Xylosteum section of this
genus. This, the largest of the three sections into which the genus has
been divided, contains more than seventy species, which are mainly erect
shrubs. It is widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, but its
chief centre is eastern Asia ; several species are alpines in the mountains
of southern and eastern Europe. Two different types of synanthy are
represented. One, which is distinguished as true synanthy, is effected
by the partial or complete fusion of the receptacular walls of the inferior
ovaries or fruits, and the bracteoles play no part in its formation.
Lonicera xylosteum, a doubtful British plant, is an example of an in-
complete union ; L. alpigma may serve as the type of the somewhat
more numerous cases in which the synanthy is complete, and where the
resulting fruit is a false berry, the pericarp being formed from the walls
of the two ovaries. In many species the pistils are enveloped by a
bracteolar sheath, which as a rule plays no part in the formation of the
fruit, but in Lonicera crrrulea a false synanthy is effected by the union
of the two pistils in certain planes with the bracteolar sheath, the pistils
themselves remaining quite free from one another. The fruit is a

* Journ. Linn. Soc, xxxvi. Bot. (1903) pp. 463-74 (3 figs, in text).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 73

pseudocarp, forming a false berry in which the bracfceoles as well as the
ovary-walls contribute to the formation of the pericarp.

The author is unable to make a suggestion as to the special biological
significance of the false berries of L. alpigena and L. cmrulea, beyond
the possibility that the adaptations have some connection with the
alpine conditions under which these species thrive.

New Graft-Hybrid.* — L. Daniel describes a graft-hybrid which
originated under the following circumstances from a grafted pear in the
garden of the St. Vincent Institution at Rennes. The pears had been
badly attacked with chermes, and to prolong their life had been severely
pruned and cut down to within about 2 metres from the ground.
M. Daniel followed carefully the results of this severe disturbance of
the relation between the absorbing and transpiring members of the
plant. In every case the grafts put out shoots which were for the most
part more or less drooping. The fruit-buds flowered and bore fruit in
the same year, yielding monstrous productions, the form and structure
of which the author has already described {La Theorie des capacites
fonctionnelles, Rennes, 1902). Hitherto only one of the stocks has
developed shoots (a Coignassier, on which is grafted a William pear),
but these are of special interest. Two, which are situated well below
the cushion, preserve all the characters of the normal plant, but, at the
level of the cushion, on a protuberance entirely covered by the cortex
of the stock, are three other shoots, which in their size, direction,
indumentum, number of lenticels, and leaf -characters are more or less
intermediate between the stock and the graft. They represent a graft-
hybrid in the same sense as those obtained by the writer in experimenting
with herbaceous plants, or those which have since been recorded in
woody plants. M. Daniel again points out that the absence of observa-
tions on graft-hybrids in the Rosacese, although members of this order
have been grafted from time immemorial and in large numbers, is due
to the constant suppression of shoots on the stock.

Lindmark, Gunnar — Om Adventiv Lbkbildning pi Stjalken hos Liiium can-

didum. (On formation of adventitious bulbils on the stem of Liiium candidum.)

[The author describes and figures a remarkably copious bulbil formation on

the stem of this lily.] Bihang h. Svensh. Vet.-Ahad. Handl., xxviii. (190o)

Afd. iii., No. 3, pp. 1-9 (1 pi.).

Physiology.
Nutrition and Growth.

Photosynthesis.! — T. Bokorny, experimenting with Petroselinum
sativum, shows that assimilation of carbon dioxide is checked in solu-
tions containing 1 part of formaldehyde in 20,000, and even by 1 in
50,000. It is therefore impossible for appreciable amounts of formal-
dehyde to accumulate in plants ; but there is nothing improbable in the
assumption that this is immediately converted into carbohydrate. As
regards reduction of carbon monoxide, the author points out that pro-

* Comptes Eendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 7G5-7.

t Chem. Zeit, xxvii. (1903) pp. 525-7. See also Journ. Chem. Soc, lxxxiv. (1903)
ii. p. 505.

74 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

duction of hydrogen has hitherto only been observed in connection
with fermentation processes. He concludes that hydrogen carbonate
is directly reduced to formaldehyde by the chlorophyll apparatus in
presence of an adequate amount of light.

L. Macchiati * claims to have established some new facts in support
of his contention that photosynthesis takes place in extracts prepared
from the green parts of plants, owing to the presence of a ferment.
Having powdered the leaves of five species of plants last autumn, and
stored the powder in dried sterilised flasks, he mixed these powders
with distilled water last March and succeeded in obtaining an evolution
of oxygen gas in varying quantities, when the temperature of the air
rose to 15° C. A triangular discussion as to the validity of his con-
tention is carried on between himself, G. Pollacci and A. Fiori in the
same periodical.

Synthesis of Proteids.f — E. Laurent and E. Marchal arrive at the
following conclusions. Nitrogen in the form of ammonia is assimilated
both by normal and by etiolated chlorophyllous plants, the process
being more active in the former. Assimilation of nitrogen in the form
of nitrates by green plants is, with some exceptions, far more intense
in presence of light than in darkness. When nitrogen is assimilated in
darkness, the necessary energy is derived from the consumption of carbo-
hydrates. Whilst the "lower non-green plants can produce proteids in
absence of light, the synthesis in higher chlorophyllous plants can take
place only in the light.

Deficiency of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potassium in
Plant-Growth 4 — H. Wilfarth and G. Wimmer find that when nitrogen
or phosphoric acid is deficient, growth is more or less restricted, but the
composition of the dry matter is only affected when the deficiency is
very great. When the phosphoric acid is present in insufficient quantity,
the leaves become a dark green or bluish-green according to the amount
of nitrogen present, or in extreme cases the leaves blacken, beginning
from the edges. Very small amounts of potassium enable plants to
grow normally for weeks or months, but when the potassium is used up
photosynthesis ceases. Sugar-beet when grown with insufficient potas-
sium readily decays, and the sugar is often changed, partially or entirely,
into invert sugar. As in the case of the sugar-beet, the proportion of
leaves in potatoes is much increased when potassium is deficient, but
the yield and size of the tubers and the percentage of starch are reduced.
The effect of want of potassium on the appearance of the leaves and
plants is frequently very difficult to distinguish from that of fungi and
insects.

Influence of Mineral Food on Sex in Dioecious Plants.§ —
E. Laurent has made a series of experiments, extending over seven years,
on the effect of the nature of the mineral food of a plant on the sex of

* Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1903, pp. 196-S.

t Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg , 1903, pp. 55-114. See also Journ. Cliem. Soc, lxxxiv.
(1903) ii. p. 50G.

X Journ. Landw., li. (1903) pp. 129-38. See also Journ. Cliera. Soc, lxxxiv.
(1903) ii. pp. 500-7. § Comptes Rendus. exxxvii. (1903) pp. 689-92.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 75

its flowers ; the plants used were spinach, hemp, and Mercurialis annua.
These have been treated with manures in which one of the following
elements predominated : nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, chalk, and
sodium chloride. In the hemp and Mercurialis no obvious influence
on the number of male or female plants could be observed ; but in the
case of spinach, especially the Dutch variety, the effect was a marked
one. Two distinct effects were noticeable. In the first place, there was
a direct effect on the sex of the plants observed ; in the second, the
nutritive elements reacted on the sex of the embryos produced by these
same plants. As regards direct action, an excess of nitrogenous manure
or of chalk gives more male plants, while potash and phosphoric acid
cause an increase in the number of the females. As regards the second
effect, the seeds of plants cultivated with an excess of nitrogen produced
fewer male plants, more female, and among the monoecious individuals
a larger number of female flowers. On the contrary, an excess of
potash, phosphoric acid, or chalk, predisposes the seeds to yield more
male plants among the dioecious individuals, and more male flowers
among the monoecious individuals. In two years the descendants of
the monoecious plants of the Dutch spinach were tabulated. Seeds
were taken from a plant, of which the main axis bore female flowers,
while on the branches the male flowers were more numerous. In the
first year (1899), 100 large seeds gave 72 plants comprising 46 males,
13 monoecious and 13 females; 100 small seeds of the same origin
gave 21 plants, of which 17 were males, 2 monoecious and 2 females.
In the second year (1900), 200 seeds of medium size gave 98 male
plants, 23 female and 29 monoecious ; and among the latter there was
only one in which female flowers preponderated. These results, asso-
ciated with the general preponderance of male over female flowers in
Dutch spinach, suggest that the monoecious plants are males, in which
a certain number of flowers have become female.

Chemical Changes.

Experiments on Yeast Extract.* — J. Meisenheimer finds that even
when yeast extract is considerably diluted (1 in 25) it still has strong
fermentative properties. With water alone as the diluent, the activity
is largely destroyed ; dilution with 10 p.c. glycerol solution, or with
10 p.c. egg-albumin solution, does not destroy the activity. Impure
zymase may be precipitated from the extract by the addition of large
amounts of acetone (10 to 1), and the product is similar in all respects
to that obtained by the use of ether and alcohol. Trommsdorff's state-
ment that the proteids undergo a change during extraction from the
yeast is not correct, as the dry residue gives the same reaction with
Gram's reagent as the yeast itself. Small amounts of acetic and lactic
acids are formed during the fermentation of sugar solutions with the
extract freed from yeast cells.

Co-efficient of Respiration of Yeasts.f — E. Wosnessensky and
E. Elisseef give the tabulated results of experiments with different

* Zeit. Physiol. Chem., xxxvii. (1903) pp. 518-26. See also Journ. Chem. Soc.,
lxxxiv. (1903) i. p. 591. t Centralbl. Bakt., x. (1903) pp. 629-36 (1 tig).

76 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

races of yeasts cultivated on nitrogenous media. Their intention was
to test whether Pasteur's dictum, that " Fermentation is life without
oxygen," would hold good for other forms than Saccharomyces cerevisice.
They experimented with this yeast, and also with 8. Ludwigii and 8.
Fombe. The authors find that the co-efficient of respiration depends
on the kind of yeast under culture, and also on the substratum ; they
find also that fermentation takes place with full aeration, and they have
no doubt that alcoholic fermentation is a zymase fermentation. They
got a very small co-efficient from S. Pombe cultivated on ammonium
phosphate, which indicated the absence of alcoholic fermentation.

Micro-chemical Researches on some Glucosides and some Vege-
table Tannins.* — A. Goris gives a resume of previous work, dealing
with the question of the localisation in the cells of the active principles
found in plants. He then describes the results of his investigations
on the a3sculin and tannin in the horse-chestnut and in Pavia rubra.
iEsculin is characterised by the intense blue fluorescence of its watery
solution, its solubility in acetic acid and ethyl-acetate, and its intense
blood-red coloration after passing successively into concentrated nitric
acid and pure ammonia (Sonnenschein's reaction). After discussing
the composition, chemical constitution and affinities of resculin, the
author studies its localisation in the plant-tissues by means of Sonnen-
schein's reaction. He finds that it is especially localised in the epidermis,
often also in the sub-epidermal layer, in the endodermis, and in a peri-
pheral layer of the pith ; but it also occurs abundantly, though in
varying quantity, in isolated cells of the parenchyma of the cortex and
pith, in the pericycle and the medullary rays, in the wood and paren-
chyma, and the old bast parenchyma. It is absent from the meristem
and from dead tissues, the young bast tissue, the wood-vessels, the root-
hairs and the embryo.

Its formation apparently has no direct relation to the action of
light ; it appears in seedlings from seeds germinating in the dark as
well as in the light, and bears no relation to the chlorophyll-containing
cells, but brightly illuminated aerial organs are the richest in the gluco-
side. It does not seem to be a reserve-substance, since it makes its
appearance in germination as an early result of the utilisation of the
reserves in the embryo. However, in the autumn it partly disappears
from the leaves, and is found in the bast of the branches, as if it were
being carried towards the persistent parts of the plant.

The chestnut also contains a tannin (ajsculitannic acid) which
M. Goris finds in the same organs and in the same cells as tesculin.
Moreover, since the latter, although insoluble in alcohol, disappears
from twigs when treated with alcohol, and since the alcohol thus
obtained yields under proper treatment a quantity of sesculin, the
author concludes that the glucoside occurs in the cells, in combination
with the tannin, as a tanno-glucoside.

By similar or analogous methods the author has studied the fustin
in Rhus Cotinus, the fraxin in the Ash, the daphnin in Daphne alpina,

* Goris, Alb. Eecherches miiToehemiqui s sur quelques glucosides et quelques
tanins ve'getaux. Thesis. Joanin, Paris. 190:!. Bee alio Bot. Centralhl., xeiii. (1903)
pp. 261-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 77

the salicin in Salix alba, and the cafe in in Thea sinensis and Cola
acuminata.

All of these glucosides or special compounds seem analogous to
sesculin, and, with the exception of daphnin, occur in the cells in com-
position with a tannic acid ; and M. Goris thinks it probable that many
of the compounds, both glucosides and alkaloids, occur in the plant
totally or partially combined with a body having the reactions of
tannin. It is these tanno-glucosides or tanno-alkaloids, very soluble
in water and alcohol, but also very unstable, which in the majority of
cases are the chief active principle in certain medicinal plants.

Cyanogenesis in Plants.* — Wyndham R. Dunstan and T. A. Henry
have made a further contribution to this aspect of plant physiology, viz.
the isolation of Phaseolunatin, the cyanogenetic glucoside of Phaseolus
lunatus, an annual, widely cultivated in the tropics where the edible
bean is used as a vegetable. When a few beans are powdered and
moistened with cold water, the odour of hydrocyanic acid is perceptible
in a few minutes, but if boiling water is used, and the vessel is imme-
diately closed and allowed to cool, no prussic acid odour is perceptible,
and no evidence of its production can be obtained by the usual tests.
These observations indicate that the production of the acid is connected
with the action of an enzyme. The glucoside was isolated from an
alcoholic extract of the powdered beans, as spreading rosettes of colour-
less needles from \ in. to 1 in. long, which melt at 141° C. Its formula
was determined as C]0HnO6N, by combustions of specially purified
material dried at 100° C, and the correctness of the formula was con-
firmed by estimations of the dextrose produced on hydrolysis. The
alkaline hydrolysis proves that phaseolunatin is the dextrose ether of
acetone cyanhydrin. The hydrolytic enzyme of Phaseolus lunatus was
isolated as an amorphous white powder, almost completely soluble in
water ; it readily hydrolyses amygdalin, salicin, and phaseolunatin. As
the latter is also hydrolysed by the emulsin of sweet almonds, it is
probable that the enzyme of Phaseolus lunatin is emulsin. The occur-
rence in the plant, apparently throughout its life, of a cyanogenetic
glucoside, together with the enzyme appropriate for its hydrolysis, seems
to strengthen the view, previously expressed by the authors, that these
glucosides must play some definite part in the metabolism of plants.

General.

Australian Fossil Botany.f — R. Etheridge gives a description of
more complete specimens than have hitherto been obtained from the
Leigh Creek coal measures, South Australia, of Thinnfeldia odonto-
pteroides, and points out that the nervation is more complex than in the
typical form of the species, and that at least three varieties of nervation
have been included in Thinnfeldia : suggesting those of the three genera,
Thinnfeldia, Odontopteris and Lescuropteris.

J. Shirley \ describes several new species, and gives notes on others,

* Proc. Roy. Soc, Lxxii. (1903) pp. 2S5-94.

t Contributions to the Palaeontology of South Australia, 1902, No. 12, p. 2(1 pi.).

% Geolog. Survey, Queensland, Bull. No. 18 (1902) pp. 1-16 (11 pis.).

78 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

from various Queensland localities. From the Permo-carboniferous of
Dawson river he records several species of Sphenopteris and Glossopteris,
and describes a new seed, Cycadospermum Dawsoni. It is suggested
that Sphenopteris lolifolia, S. alata, S. flexuosa and S. crebra represent
different parts or growth-stages of the same frond, which a discovery
of the fertile leaves places in the genus Mertensia. Taxoxylon Philpii
is a new species from the Ipswich beds, and represents the first taxaceous
fossil wood from Queensland.

Plant-Life in the Sihlthal at Einsiedeln.* — Max Duggeli gives
an account of the geographical position, the geology, climatology and
flora of this high valley, and the plant-associations which it comprises.
The district, which has an area of 12 kilometres, is soon to be sub-
merged to form a reservoir in connection with some electric works.
Under the heading vegetation, the author gives a list of about 150
cultivated plants, followed by a list of those growing wild. The latter
comprise nearly 200 species of fresh-water algge, 50 fungi, 75 lichens,
130 mosses, 25 vascular cryptogams, and 560 seed-plants. In his
description of the cacology of the valley the author distinguishes the
following formations : — (a) forest ; (b) bush-vegetation ; (c) schutt-
fluren ; (d) meadow-formation (the most important), and the various
types comprising it ; (e) water-vegetation, both of flowing and stagnant
water, including the plankton ; and (/) culture-formation. The text
is accompanied by several sectional diagrams, showing the characteristic
plants at the different levels in several of the formations. Another
feature of interest is the tabulation which the author gives of the plant-
remains found in the peat at various stations in the valley, compiled
from a study of numerous sections. There is also a good general map
of the district.

Swedish Saxifrages.f — G. Lindmark gives a somewhat detailed
account of the vegetative and floral morphology of the Swedish species
of Saxijraga. A short general account containing an organographic
key to the species is followed by a special portion, comprising for each
species an account of the germination of the seed, the development of
the seedling, and the vegetative and floral characters of the adult plant.
The paper is well illustrated by five plates ; four of these are double-
page.

Chinese Cyperaceae.J — C. B. Clarke has elaborated this order for
Messrs. Forbes' and Hemsley's Enumeration of the Plants of China.
The order is well represented in the Chinese flora. Mr. Clarke's
enumeration includes a number of new species, especially in the genus
Carex, which is by far the largest. There are also various critical notes
of some general interest.

Teratology.§ — K. Schilberszky describes and figures the following
examples of teratology : twin-bulbs in an onion (Allium Cepa), the

* Vierteljahrschrift der Naturforschend. Gescllsch. in Zurich, xlviii. (1903) pp.
49-270 (with map and tigs, in text).

t Bihang K. Svensk. Vet -Akad. Handl., xxviii. Afd. iii. No. 2 (1902) pp. 1-84
(5 pis.). % Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., xxxvi. (1903) pp. 217-96.

§ Novenytai Kijzlemenyek, Fachbl. bol. Sekt. kgl. ungar. Naturw. Geeellscli.
Budapest, ii. (1903) pp. 76-89 (7 fie;s.). See also Bot. Centralbl., xciii. (1903) p. 260.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 79

formation of foliage-leaves on the tendrils of the vine, and a forked
flower-spike in Plantago lanceolata var. altissima.

0. V. Wennersten * describes, with illustrative figures, examples of
floral and also foliar teratology in specimens of the walnut grown in
Gothland.

Abech avaleta, J. — Contribucion al conccimento de la Vegetacion del Uruguay.
(Contribution to our knowledge of the vegetation of Uruguay.)

[Includes mainly grasses, with descriptions of new species of Stipa and
Aristida.'] Anales Mus. Nation. Montevideo, iv. (1903)

pp. 61-86 (7 pis.).
„ „ Ncmina Vernacularia. (A list of vernacular names of the

Uruguay flora.)

Anales Mus. Nation, Montevideo, iv. (1903) pp. 132-52.

Goldschmidt-Geisa, M. — Die flora des Rhongebirges III. (The flora of the
Rhongebirg.)

[Comprises the grasses, with a few additions to the two previous parts.]

Verhandl. Phys.-Med. Ges. Wurzburg, N.F. xxxv. (1903) pp. 313-35.
Johansson, K. — Archieracium-Floraninom Dilarnes Siluromrade I Siljanstrakten.
[A long paper on Hieracia, with notes on localities, etc., of previously known
species, and very full descriptions (in Latin) of many new ones.]

Bihang K. S ensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl., xxviii. (1902)
Afd. iii. No. 7 (1902) pp. 1-156 (12 double plates).
Korbhinsky, S. — On the origin of the Peach. (Russian.)

Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Pe'tersb., 8er. 5, xi v. (1901) pp. 77-83.

„ On the original form of the Common Almond and allied species.

Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. i'e*ers6.,ser.5,xiv.(1901)pp. 85-94.
Nathorst, A. G. — Svenska Vaxtnamn. (Swedish plant-names.)

Bihang K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Eandl., xxviii. (1902)

Afd. iii. No. 9 pp. 1-72.
Sargent, C. S. — Recently recognised species of Crataegus in Eastern Canada and
New England, IV. and V.

[Several new species are described in the two groups Coccinese and Tomentosx.~]

Rhodora, v. (1903) pp. 159-68, 182-7.

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

Isoetes.f — G. H. Shull shows in a map the exact distribution of
Isoetes saccharata along the shores of the tributaries of Chesapeake bay,
and discusses various problems presented by it. It is confined to Chesa-
peake bay, and occurs but locally, on tidal beaches, requiring fresh or
slightly brackish water, and soil firm enough to resist wave-action. It
does not thrive where competition with other plants is great. Its dis-
persal is effected probably by water-currents, not by winds or birds.
A nearly related species, I. riparia, is similarly confined to the neigh-
bouring Delaware bay. There are grounds for concluding that the
former species is polymorphic, and for supposing that /. riparia may
prove to be an extreme form of it, some intermediate varieties being
untenable. The curious distribution finds an explanation in the geo-
logical alteration of the coast-line by upheaval and subsidence.

* Bihang. K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Hand!., xxviii. (1902) pp. 1-12 (12 figs, in (ext).
t Bot. Gazette, xxxvi. (1903) pp. 187-202 (with map).

80 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Investigations on Fern-Prothallia.* — A. Jakowatz has studied the
development of the prothallium in several members of PolypodiaceaeT
and finds remarkable differences in the early stages of development
and their conversion into the later flat expanded form. It is, however,
impossible to say whether these differences are characteristic of the
various species or genera. In some species the developmental course
in these stages follows a definite scheme ; in others, different types of
development are observed apparently without reference to external
conditions. There is, however, a common law governing the first stages
of development, which in all the forms investigated begins with a
thread-like stage ; the growth of this becomes closed, while the flat pro-
thallial growth originates from an apical cell appearing laterally on the
filiform rudiment. Often the formation of a branch coincides with the
formation of this cell, which then comes to stand in the axil of the
branch. The further development of the pro thallial surface depends
on the well-known segmentation of the apical cell. The segments,
always the earliest, show a limited growth and often conclude with a
papilliform terminal cell.

In the filiform rudiment, the lateral origin of the later flat structure,
and the formation of segments with limited growth, the ferns investi-
gated show a remarkable homology with the development of the mosses.
We may regard the thread-like rudiment as a protonema stage, and the
papilla-like ends of the segments as structures homologous with the
leaf -ends of the Muscineae.

Tropical American Ferns. f — C. A. M. Lindman gives an account
of the ferns collected by him during the first Regnell Expedition
(1892-4) in Brazil and Paraguay, and of those collected by Regnell,
Mosen and others, thirty to fifty years ago. In all he records 209, sixteen
of which, with three varieties and nine forms, are new. Having
examined Swartz's types at Stockholm, he has revived several old
species which had been misunderstood or quite forgotten. This has
involved change of nomenclature and synonymy. He has followed the
general lines of Hooker's Synopsis Filicum. Finding the old descrip-
tions too elastic and indefinite, he pleads that they be made more exact,
and hence more helpful to collectors in enabling them to appreciate rare
species, which run the risk of being disregarded as mere forms of
common species too loosely defined.

Trichomanes (sect. Didymoglossum)4 — C. A. M. Lindman publishes
critical notes on the American species of Didymoglossum Desv., a section
of the genus Trichomanes. Having studied Swartz's little-known types
in the Stockholm Museum, he is able to correct the erroneous con-
ceptions which Hooker, Greville, and others, formed of the species
T. apodum, muscoides, reptans, quercifolkim, etc., and to amend the con-
fusion that has consequently arisen. He has carefully re-described the
original specimens, and, as words are insufficient to give an accurate
idea of such difficult plants, he has found it indispensable to add a
number of camera-lucida drawings to prevent future misunderstanding.

* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-naturwiss. CI. ex. (1901) pp. 479-505(7 pis.)-
t Arkiv. for Botanik. Stockholm, i. (1903) pp. 187-275 (8 pis.).
j Tom. cit., pp. 7-56 (31 rigs, in text).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 81

He gives descriptions of thirteen species in all, and three of these are
new species collected in South America.

Asplenium Ruta-muraria.* — V. H. Christ has studied the varieties
and allies of this well-marked but most variable species, and publisher
a systematic account of the various forms grouped in accordance with
his views, with descriptions and critical notes and figures. He arranges
them in four sections — rhomboidea, ellipsoidw, lanceolate/,, cuneata — ■
according to the ultimate segments of their leaves. Passing on to the
consideration of the abnormal forms, exotic forms and allies of A. Ruta-
muraria, he concludes with a synoptic key to the whole group.

Linnaeus's System of Ferns.f — L. M. Underwood criticises
Linnaeus's treatment of the ferns, especially those of America, in the
Species Plantar urn (1753), and shows that he was not the originator of
binominal nomenclature. His conception of the genera was, with a
few exceptions, far different from those of the present day. His fern-
system was crude even for the time at which it was published, as is
evidenced by the unnatural groupings under Osmunda, Acrostichum,
and Polypodium. The greater number of his species were compiled
from books and plates. His herbarium is of comparatively little value
for the determination of his types. A small part only are represented
by specimens, often scrappy — mere tips of leaves, often sterile. His
types must very largely depend on the plates and descriptions of ea lier
writers quoted by him.

Bars alt, E. — Nota sul Polypodium vulgare L. (Note on Poh/podiam vulgarelj.)
[Describes a waxy coating excreted by the exposed rhizoinu to protect itself
fiom desiccation in hot climates.]

Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital, 1903, pp. 119-21.
Lyon, F. M. — Two megasporangia in Selaginella.

[Occurrence of two normal megasporangia on one sporophyll in Selaginella
ritpestris.] Bot. Gazette, xxxvi. (1903) p. 30S (fig. in text;.

Bryophyta.

Fossil British Mosses.:}: — 0. Reid gives a list of ten mosses ob-
tained from a glacial fresh-water stratum, reached at a depth of GO feet,
during the sinking of a well at Mundesley in Norfolk. They were
identified by H. N. Dixon, who reports that tne bulk of the deposit
consisted of Hypnum turyesce/is, a boreal moss which was not known
to grow in the British Isles, but was discovered on Ben Lavvers in
July 1902. With it were H. capillifolium and H. Richardsoni, neither
of which are members of the existing British flora. A variety of H.
polygamum occurred in some quantity.

North American Species of Leskea.§ — G. N. Best publishes a
revision of Leskea, a genus now much restricted as compared with its
earlier dimensions. The name Leskea may have to be transferred if
the strictest rules of nomenclature are applied to it. Accepting L. poly-
carpa as the type of the genus, he ranges the species under two sub-

* Hedwigia, xlii. (1903) pp. 153-77 (4 pis.).

t Tonvya, id. (19u:s) pp. 145-50.

% Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc, vii. (1902; pp. 290-S.

§ Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxx. (1903) pp. 463-82 (2 pis.).

Feb. 17th, 1904 G

82 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

genera, EnJesTcea and Hetcroleskea, each containing five species, the
former with papillose leaves, the latter with smooth. He gives careful
descriptions of the species and varieties, with critical notes, synonymy
and good figures. The novelties are two species and four varieties.

Bryology of the Tuscan Archipelago.* — A. Beguinot in the winter
of 1897-8 studied the Muscinese of the Tuscan archipelago, and gives
lists for the islands as follows : Giannutri, 27 mosses, 9 hepatics ;
Giglio, 108 mosses, 45 hepatics ; Montecristo, 49 mosses, 23 hepatics ;
Pianosa, 32 mosses, 17 hepatics ; Elba, 182 mosses, 54 hepatics ; Capraia„

83 mosses, 33 hepatics ; Gorgona, 59 mosses, 13 hepatics. The total
for the archipelago is 17G species of mosses and Gl species of hepatics-
The geographical distribution of the mosses is worked out at con-
siderable length, and the species are divided into four groups : (1) ten
species which are cosmopolitan ; (2) eighty-three which are not cosmo-
politan, but widely distributed in and outside Europe ; (3) fifty-four
which are widely distributed in southern and middle Europe and in
other continents ; (4) twenty-eight more or less widely distributed in
southern (and western) Europe and outside the continent. The actual
distribution is detailed for each species. The comparative floras of
various countries and regions, and past and present geological conditions,
climate, etc., are fully discussed ; also the conditions of growth required
by the species themselves. An attempt is made to explain the floras,
of the Tuscan islands in terms of these factors. The geographical dis-
tribution of the hepatics is not discussed owing to lack of satisfactory
data for comparison. The paper ends with a tabulated list of the species,
and varieties that constitute the bryological flora of the archipelago.

European Mosses in the Himalayas.f — E. Levier calls attention
to the want of a work of reference giving the geographical distribution
and zones of altitude of the mosses of the world : and, as a contribu-
tion towards such a work, he has compiled from his carefully labelled
herbarium a catalogue of 1G2 European mosses which occur in the
Himalayas, with their exact localities and altitudes in the latter region.
These mosses were collected by J. F. Duthie and his assistants, and
determined by V. F. Brotherus.

North American Mosses. $ — E. G. Britton publishes some notes on
Splachnum, especially with reference to the curious umbrella-shaped apo-
physis of the sporophyte of *S'. rubrum and S. luteum. J.M. Holzinger§
reports on some well preserved fossil mosses from Iowa, extracted from
a deposit five to ten thousand years old — Hypnum fluitans, H. re-
volvens, and //. Richardsoni. A. J. Grout || gives the results of some
exhaustive examinations of the colonies of mosses occurring in selected
areas of a few square feet ; for example, an old pear tree, an old log in
a deep moist wood, a sandy field, a road cutting, an old stone wall. To
his surprise, these yielded several species which he had never gathered
before. R. S. Williams If publishes a list of 382 mosses gathered by
himself in the State of Montana, between 188G and 1897. Three new

* Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., x. (1903) pp. 285-332, 423-530.

t Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1903, pp. 105-14.

% Bryolo-ist, vi. (1903) pp. 91-3 (1 pi.).

§ Tom. oit.. pn. 93-4. ' || Tom. cit , pp. 94-6.

^ Lull. New Yoik Pot. GarcUn, ii. (1903) pp. 351-80 (6 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 83

species are described, and these and three other rare species are figured
in detail. Some critical notes are appended to the more difficult species.
R. S. Williams * gives a list of 230 mosses collected by him in the
Yukon territory during a residence of more than a year (1898-9). A
new genus with one new species, Bryobrittonia pellucida, closely related
to Tortula and Desmatodon, is established ; and ten other new species
are described. Numerous critical notes are interspersed. B. M. Britton f
records the first discovery of the rare Buxbaumia indusiata in New
England. It occurred in quantity on a rotten log of poplar at Surry,
New Hampshire. It is usually found as a saprophyte on decayed coni-
ferous logs. It is known from four other localities in the United
States. J. F. Collins % publishes some critical and distributional notes
on Hypnum Richardsoni, Anacamptodon splachnoides, Catoscopium
nigritum, and other mosses in connection with the New England flora.

South American Mosses.§ — P. Dusen gives an account of the
Sphagnacea? and Andrea3acea3 collected by himself and by 0. Norden-
skjold and F. W. Neger in the neighbourhood of the Straits of Magellan,
in west Patagonia and south Chili, with descriptions and figures of
seven new species and two new varieties, and critical notes as to their
affinities. The Sphagnaceae attain their highest development in the
regions of the deciduous and evergreen forests ; of the commoner
forms two varieties of S. medium form bogs, and a variety of &
fimbriatum occurs in large loose cushions in open country.

Germination of Liver-worts. || — E. Lampa publishes some well
illustrated studies on the germination of Preissia, Reboulia, Plagio-
chasma, FegateUa, Fossombronia and Anthoceros from their spores, and
considers that the development of the sexual generation can be divided
into several stages. The germ-tube is a protonema usually of limited
growth. The rudiment of the stem arises from segmentation of the
terminal cell, the apical cell arising from the third segment, the plan of
this process resembling that of moss-gemma3. The embryo is highly
sensitive to the direction and intensity of the incident light. Leaves
do not appear in Anthoceros, and are more or less rudimentary in
Marchantiacese. In FegateUa, though absent in the rudimentary stage,,
they appear later as under-leaves. Three rows of well-developed leaves
are produced in the vertically growing Haplomitrium. They are present
in other Jungermanniaceas. Anthoceros holds a leading position in
virtue of its highly developed asexual generation, though the sexual
generation appears very reduced as compared with the Jungermanniaceae,
the Marchantiacea3 occupying an intermediate position. In the rudi-
ment of the stem are signs of reduction which approach the typical
development of the moss-stem.

Development of Riella.1T— M. P. Porsild gives the results of his
investigations of this aquatic genus. Starting with a historical and
geographical survey of the species, he supplies a comparative table of

* Bull. New York Bot. Garden, ii. (1903) pp. 105-48 (10 pis.),
f Bhodora, v. (1903) pp. 257-S. \ Tom. cit., pp. 199-201.

§ Arkiv. lor Botanik. Stockholm, i. (1903) pp. 441-65 (11 pis.).
I| SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien, cxi. (1902) pp. 477-89 (5 pis).
If Flora, xcii. (1903) pp. 431-^6 (8 figs, in text).

G 2

84 SUMMARY OF CUBKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the spore-measurements, calling attention to the vitality and floating-
capacity of the spores, which for germination require good light ; in
cultivating them he succeeded best by employing their native mud, and
he noticed that the fronds arranged themselves parallel to the incident
light. He describes the first stages of development, in which he could
find no trace of an apical cell. Gemmre he found in the Central Asiatic
E. Paulsenii ; these rise to the surface, and float until their stores of fat
are used up in growth. As the result of germination of spores, gemmae,
etc., a primordial lobe (protonema) is produced, the growth of which
ceases at the apex, and a meristematic growing-point is formed near
the base at one or both edges, which as it develops pushes aside the
primordial lobe and forms on one side the stem and leaves, and on the
other the dorsal wing and reproductive organs. In species of vertical
habit, the stem and dorsal wing are from the first vertical. The growing
point is thus intercalary and meristematic. As a general rule there is
no apical cell, even up to a late stage ; sometimes, however, in strongly
developed plants of the larger species, a wedge-shaped apical cell occurs
at the point of junction of stem and wing, and throws off segments
upwards to the wing and downwards to the stem, but only the wing-
segments can be recognised for any length of time. The normal
absence of an apical cell indicates the primitive character of the genus.
The oil-bodies situated along the margin of the frond possibly serve to
protect the plant from being eaten by animals. No fresh details as to
the reproductive organs were observed, but in the sporogonium some
of the cells which fail to become spore-mother-cells persist as stores of
starch. As to the E. Jhelkophylla, the beautiful helicoid growth figured
in the Flore (V Alger ie is no exaggeration, and may be a result of growth
in subdued light in deep w7ater (Goebel) ; and the tufts of rhizoids
shown as springing from knots at the base of the stem are germinations
from spores in semi-decayed sporangia. E. Parisii, a floating species,
is peculiar in its habit.

Riella capensis sp. n.* — F. Cavers describes and figures this new
species, obtained from dried mud, which had been gathered from a pond
at Port Elizabeth for the sake of the Crustacea contained in it, and
sent to the Owen's College, Manchester, for cultivation in an aquarium.
The plant soon made its appearance, and in three months' time was
found to be in a fruiting state. It is allied to /.'. helieophylla, but
sufficiently distinct. The author gives full details as to its habit.

Petalophyllum Ralfsii.| — F. Cavers gives a full description of this
very rare hepatic, wdiich occurs sparingly in patches of Pallavkinia on
Coatham Marshes, Yorkshire. It has been gathered only in five British
and one Italian locality, and always in damp sandy places near the sea.
It may prove to be identical with the Algerian Fossombronia corbulce-
formis. The author describes in detail and figures the structure of the
gametophyte, and calls attention to the marked occurrence of mycorhiza
in the ventral zone of the thallus, and to the formation of tubers much
resembling those described in the Californian Geothallus tnberoxus.

'&

* Etev. Brvol , xsx. (1903) pp. 81-4 (1 pi.).

f The Xatuialist, 11)03, pp. 327-34 (li-s. in text).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 85

The sexual organs and sporogonium agree closely with those of Fos-
sombronia.

Yukon Hepatics.* — M. A. Howe gives a list of 24 hepatics, col-
lected by R. S. Williams in the Yukon territory in 1898-9. It contains
one new species, Scapania imbrkata, one species new to North America,
five new to Alaska, and two or three of great rarity.

A it nell, H. W. — Martinellia calcicola Arnell et Persson sp. nov.
[Description of a new Swedish hepatic]

Rev. Bryol. xxx. (1903) pp. 97-8.
Bagnall, J. E. — The Mosses and Hepaticae of Worcestershire.

[List of 283 mosses and 65 hepatics, with numerous varieties.]

Journ. ofBot., xli. (1903) pp. 360-71, 388-97.

Bar sal i, E. — Una breve escursione al Monte Argentario. (A short trip to Monte
Aigentnrio.)

[Contains a list of 29 additions to the local moss-flora, six of which have never
before been recorded for the Tuscan archipelago.]

Bull. Soc. Rot. Ilal, 1903, pp. 149-52.
Bliss, M. C. — The occurrence of two venters in the archegonium of Polytrichum
juniperinum.

[The egg-cell occupying the upper venter represents the first neck-canal-cell.]

But. Gazette, xxxvi. (1903) pp. 141-2 (fig. iu text).

Bomansson, J. 0.— Brya nova.

[Descriptions of ten new species of Bryum collected in Finland.]

Rev. Bryol. xxx. (1903) pp. 85-89, 98-100.

Culm ann, P. — Notes bryologiques snrlesflores du canton de Zurich etdes environs
de Paris. (Bryological notes on the floras of Canton Zurich and of the vicinity of
Pans )

[Annotated list of 27 hepatics and 10 mosses from near Zurich, and five from
a suburb of Paiis.] Rev. Bryol, xxx. (1903) pp. 89-92.

Jensen, C. — Fire for Norge nye Sphagnum- Arter. (Four species of Sphagnum new
to Norway.) h'yt. Magazinfor Naturvidenslc, xl. (190:5) pp. 119-21.

Lett, H. W. — Some Mosses and Hepatics of South Donegal.

[List of 1 15 mosses and 73 hepatics gathered in two days on Slievo League, a
rich locality.) Journ. of Bot., xli. (1903) pp. 356-9.

L ill ie, D.— Anew British Hepatic.

[Describes Jungermannia Kaurini Liurpr., and its first discovery in Britain, at
Caithness.] Journ. of Bot., xli. (1903) pp. 363-4.

Macvicab, Symers M. — Anthoceros dichotomus in Britain.

[Contains a description of this Mediterranean plant and of its first finding
in Britain. The species is remarkable for its tubers.]

Journ. of Bot., xli. (1903) pp 347-8.

Paris, E. G. — Muscinees de Madagascar (4° article).

[Eighteen mosses, three described as new, and two new hepatics undescribed.

_ Rev. Bryol., xxx. (1903) pp. 93-5.
„ „ Muscinees de l'Afrique occidentale francaise.

[List of 20 mosses and one hepatic from French West Africa, with descrip-
tions of aeven new species.] Rev. Bryol., xxx. (1903) pp. 101-4.
Podpera, J. — Miscellen zur Kenntnis der Europaischen Arten der Gattung Bryum.
(Additions to our knowledge of the European species of the genus Bryum.)

[Contains descriptions of three new Sardinian species and three new varieties,
together with notes on a number of critical forms.]

Beth. z. Bot. Centralbl. xv. (1903) pp. 4S3-92.

Roth, G. — Die Europaischen Laubmoose.

[Gives descriptions and fia;ure-i of all the mosses of Europe.]

Leipzig, Engelmann, 1903, i. pp. 129-381 ; tabb. viii.-xxvi., xlix.

* Bull. New York Bot. Garden, ii. (1901) pp. 101-5 (1 pi.).

8G SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Sebille, E. — Nouvelles observations sur Gastero^rimmia poecilostoma (Cardot et
Sebille).

[Description of tlio male plant, and distribution of this moss-species in
Dauphine.j Rev. Bryol , xxx. (1903) pp. 105-0.

The riot, J. — Brachythecium populeum (Hedw.) Br. Eur. var Levieri, var. nov.
[Description of a moss gathered at Uormio.]

Bull. Soc. But. Ital, 1903, p. 220.

Thallophyta.
Algae.

Polymorphism of Algse.* — A. Hansgirg adds a final note to his
work on this subject, pointing out the inevitable necessity for a thorough
reform in the systematic classification of algae, and maintains that the
study of " pure cultures " of algae, advocated by Klebs as a necessary
preliminary to such reform, will only lead to error. He gives a list of
papers bearing on this subject, which have appeared since the publication
of his paper, ' On the Polymorphism of Alga?,' in 1893.

Fossil Algae.f — P. Fliche records some additions to the genera of
fossil algae, which, from their resemblance to modern genera, he names
Chordites, Lomentarites, and Cystoseirites Sternb. (emend.). Each is
represented by a single species. Lomentarites was found in the Gres
Vigarre, at Merviller-Vacqueville, the other in the Muschelk.-superieure,
at Chauffontaine and Sainte-Anne, near Luneville. They were all very
abundantly represented. Four other species from the Muschelkalk have
been named Algae ites, since the author cannot with certainty place them
near any existing genus, though he has no doubt as to their algal nature.

B. Renault publishes a note on the algae which form " Boghead,"
in which he states that this formation in the northern hemisphere is
characterised by the presence of Pila ; Reinsehia occurs everywhere in
the southern hemisphere ; Thylax britannicus is the principal constituent
of British Boghead, and Cladiscothallus that of the Moscow beds. Every
important stratum can be recognised by the algae of which it is formed.

Algae in Public Water-supplies.:}:— G.T.Moore reports on the con-
tamination of reservoirs and cress-beds by fresh-water algae. Spirogyra
uives considerable trouble in a mechanical way by smothering the young
water-cress plants, and it also forms a thick heavy mat over the surface
of the water, thus preventing the growth of even the older plants. The
Schizophyceae are very commonly the cause of pollution in drinking-
water, especially the genera Olathrocystis, Anabana which produces a
polluting oil, and Oscillatoria. Diatomaceae, notably the genus Aste-
rionella, play a prominent part in the pollution of water, as also members
of the group Syngeneticeae. The author mentions as methods of pre-
vention of such pollution : the covering over of reservoirs, since light is
favourable to algal growth ; the keeping of both source of supply and
reservoir as free as possible from organic matter ; and the aeration of
water by pumping, fountains, or some sort of spraying apparatus. The

* Beibl. Bot. Jahrb. xxxii. No. 72 (1903) pp. 1-3.

t Comptes Rendiis, exxxvi. (1903) pp. 827-9, 1340-3 (6 figs.).

t Year Book Dept. Agricult. U.S.A. (1902) pp. 175-80.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 87

last method is, however, beneficial rather than harmful to certain forms
of polluting algae, and may, therefore, do more harm than good. A
new remedy is being tried, and has so far proved successful ; but the
author waits for the result of further trials before detailing the process.
This pollution by algas renders water extremely unpleasant, though not
actually poisonous.

Thames Plankton.* — F. E. Fritsch continues his investigations on
this subject, and compares his results with those of Schroder and Brunn-
thaler on the Oder and Danube respectively. In the Thames there is
a well-marked living plankton all the year round, while in the two
continental rivers there is an almost entire absence of plankton in the
winter. A table is given showing the periodicity of Thames plankton,
which may be summarised thus : mixed plankton — Melosira — Synedra
— mixed plankton. Aster ionella forms a minor phase during the winter
months. The periodic distribution of forms is not by any means the
same as that of the Oder or the Danube, but the author considers that
the periodicity of the Thames plankton may vary in different portions of
the river's course. The plankton of four backwaters was also examined,
namely, Molesey, Sunbury, Walton and Shepperton ; and the results
are given in the form of tables, together with a comparison with the
plankton of the main stream. Though there is a considerable difference
both in quality and quantity, the backwaters have far more of a river
than a pond-plankton.

Scottish Fresh-water Plankton.j — W. West and G. S. West give
the result of their examination of the plankton of some lochs in various
parts of Scotland. They divide their paper into four sections. The
first is an Introduction, which deals with previous literature on British
fresh-water plankton, and contains remarks on the present collection and
the method of obtaining it. In Section II. the various lochs examined
are described geographically, and notes are given on the animal plank-
ton which was collected with the algae. Two tables follow, one of which
enumerates the species from eleven lochs taken in summer and autumn,
and the other deals with a few small collections made in the south of
Scotland during the spring. Section III. consists of a systematic account
of the most interesting species in the preceding plankton collections.
This is almost entirely confined to Desmids, of which six new species and
some new varieties are described. An interesting record is Staurastrwii
verticillatum Archer, no figure of which has hitherto been published ; since
the so-called figure of it in Cooke's BritisJi Desmids, 188G, tab. CI, fig. 3,
does not represent this species. The general conclusions of the authors
form the contents of Section IV. They find that the Scottish plankton
differs considerably from that of the western parts of continental
Europe. It is unique in the abundance of its Desmids, of which the
most conspicuous are of a type confined almost exclusively to the
extreme western and north-western shore districts of Europe and North
America. The commonest and most abundant species are invariably
those of the genus Staurastrum, principally S. Ophiura, S. Aretiseon, ar.d

* Ann. Bot., xvii. (1903) pp. 631-47.

t Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., xxxv. (1903) pp. 519-50 (5 pis.).

88 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

S. grande. There are very few free-swimming Protococcoidete. The
majority of the species of Staufastrum and Arthrodesmus are remarkable
for their long spines or long processes with spinate apices, and this
characteristic holds good throughout the entire plankton. The most
striking diatoms are Asterionella gracillima, Tabellaria fenestrata var.
asterionelloides, and forms of Surirella robusta. The plankton is richer
in species in late summer and autumn than in the spring.

Phytoplankton from Brandenburg Lakes.*— E. Lemmermann con-
tinues the publication of his investigations into the phytoplankton of
the Muggelsee and other neighbouring waters. His results are first
presented in the form of tables or lists for each month from May to Sep-
tember 1897, and from June 1898 to May 1899, with details concerning
the temperature of air and water, the wind, the presence or absence of
sunshine, etc., on the specified days. Then follow deductions from the
tables as to the development of the plankton flora during these two
periods of investigation, tracing the maximum of various groups and
species. Finally, lists are given, arranged systematically, of all the
species hitherto recorded from the Muggelsee, and eleven other lakes and
waters.

Plankton of Hallstatter See.f — K. von Keissler, in a paper on this
subject, records five species of Chlorophycere and three of Bacillariacese,
with indications of the seasonal distribution of each species.

Norwegian Phytoplankton.^— C. H. Ostenfcld publishes a list of
43 plankton algae found by him in two lakes in the Rendalen district,
Lomnaessjon and Harsjon. He finds that the algae of the former lake
are much the same as those recorded from the forest lakes of Lappmark,
and include Dinobryon (which is predominant), Tabellaria fenestrata,
T. floeculosa and Aster ionella formosa. Myxophyceae and Peridiniacea?
are entirely absent, and the Chlorophyceae are rare. The phytoplankton
of Lake Harsjon is rather rich, and differs entirely from that of Lom-
naeesjon, but resembles strikingly that of Swiss lakes. The author adds
critical notes to tAvelve of the species recorded.

Russian Fresh-water Algae.§— L. Iwanoff gives an account of the
vegetation growing in and around certain lakes, especially Lake Bologoje.
The first chapter of his work contains a physical and geographical
description of that lake, with a list of the diatoms which help to
compose the thick mud at the bottom. The second chapter deals with
the distribution of the vegetation in Lake Bologoje, and the subject is
treated in some detail. The third chapter contains a list of 438 alg&>
from nine other Russian lakes. In the fourth are given diagnoses of
new species, and remarks on species already existing which present points
of special interest. Among these may be mentioned the division of the
monad of Uroglena volvoz Ehrcnb., which is here described for the first
time. The fifth chapter is devoted to a study of 'Algae-formations,'

* Zeitscli. f. Fischerei, xi. (1903) pp. 7.3-123 (figs, in icxi).
f Yerliandl. k. k. Z< ol. But. Gesell. Wicn, liii. (1903) PP- 33S-4S.
I Bot. Ti.lssk., xxv. (1903) pp. '235-41.

§ V.d. biol. Station Uologoju d. Kais St. Pet. Nsifurfv., ii. (1T02) 152 pp. Sco
also Bot. Centralbl., xciii.(!903) pp. 379 87.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 89

the Aerophilae, Geophihe, Reophike, or those that inhabit running water,
Magmaphilre, or tuft-forming alga:, Paludophilse, Phytoplankton, and
finally, those that live at the bottom of lakes, etc. Tables are given
showing the Desmids and other alga3 which live in bogs, composed of
Sphagnum or Hypnum respectively. The paper is written in Russian.

" Flowering " of North American Lakes.* — Marshall A. Howe
describes an alga which appears in great quantities at Honnedaga Lake,
Herkimer County, New York, and appears to be Gloiotrkliia echinidata
P. Richt. The same plant occurs freely at Chilson Lake, Essex County,
Avhere it forms small colonies, which are usually spherical. No spores
were found, but the resemblance between these plants and those from
the Plon Station, in Germany (No. 587, PhyTcotheka universalis of Hauck
and Richter), is so great, that there is little doubt as to their identity.
The Lake Chilson specimens show a greater development of terminal
hairs than those figured in Hauck and Richter (1. a), but the hairs vary
with the age of the colony, and in some stages they may be entirely
wanting. The colonies multiply by means of hormogonia. The author
makes remarks on the " flowering " of other American lakes and on the
synonomy of Gloiotrkliia echinulata.

New England Desmids.j — J. A. Cushman records 30 species of
Desmids found by him in Steep Brook, Massachusetts, about three miles
north of Fall river railway station. Staurastrum was well represented
in the collection. Notes on the measurements and other points of special
interest follow each species' name, and a bibliography of New England
Desmids completes the first of a series of papers on this subject.

The second paper gives two lists of Desmids from New England, one
locality being in Massachusetts, the other in Maine. The first contains
20 species, the second 25 species, both lists including records formerly
doubtful.

Fresh-water Algae from Brazil and Paraguay.} — 0. Borge has
worked out the collection of Desmidiacea? brought home by the Regnell
Expedition, and publishes the results, including descriptions of 28 new
species and some new varieties. A list of 55 localities is given, of
which 44 are in Brazil, and the remainder in Paraguay.

The same author records eleven species of Zygnemaceas and Meso-
carpaceaa from the same collection, including two new species, Spirogyra
paraguayensis and Gonatonema splmrospora.

Diatoms New to the Hull Districts — R. H. Philip adds some
new records to the diatoms already known from this part. The rock
pools at Filey, and the flats east of Cleethorpes on the Lincolnshire
coast, have yielded good material. The most interesting find was
Surirella medulka Per., from a ditch in the low-lying country between
the wold i and the Market "Weighton canal, called Hotham Carrs.
Some of the frustules show an indentation on one side of the valve,
and a specimen of this form is figured, together with a typical specimen.
Many other species are figured in a plate.

• Torreya, iii. (1903) pp. 150-4. f Rhodora, v. (1903) pp. 221-5, 252-5.

X Arkiv. Bot. Stockholm, i. (1903) pp. 71-138, 277-86 (pis. 1-5, 15).

§ Trans. Hull tfci. & Field Nat. Club, iii. (1903) pp. 110-14 (pi. xi., rip. in text).

90 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Diatoms and Plankton from the Faeroes.* — E. Oestrup enumerates
182 species from these islands. The material at his disposal consisted
of the collections of Borgesen and Helgi Jonsson, and included 136
gatherings from different localities. The following genera are the most
characteristic of the whole : Amphipleura, Cocconeis, Fragilaria, Gom-
yhonema, Grammatopliora, Licmophora, Navicula, and Synedra. A list
is given of the species most frecptently found in localities exposed to
the open sea, and it is pointed out that there exists no slight resemblance
between the genera characteristic of the Faeroes and of Greenland.

C. H. Ostenfeld gives a list, accompanied by critical notes, of 54
diatoms found in the marine plankton round the Faeroes. Tables are
also drawn up giving for each species the locality, date, temperature C°,
and salinity pro mille. Notes are given on the geographical distribution
of the species. An account of the Peridiniaceas is included.

Foslie, M. — New Species or Forms of Melobesieae.

[The author describes four new species of these coralline algae, and four new
forms of already existing species. They all occur on the western coast
of North America.] K. Norslce Vidensh. Sets. Shrift., 1902, No. 2, 11 pp.

Karsten, G. — Zur Frage der Auxosporentypen. (On the types of auxospores.)

[A criticism on Meretckkowsky's views concerning auxospore formation.
Among other points, the author denies that auxospores are entirely a
condition of growth, and maintains that the periods of the first auxospore
formation and those of its growth are quite distinct.]

Bot. Zeit., ii. (1903) pp. 306-11.

Pa ji pal on i, L. — Sopra un singolare modo di comportarsi di un' alga, allorche
venga coltivata in determinate sostanze nutritizie. Nota preliminare. (Pre-
liminary note on the curious behaviour of an alga when cultivated on certain
nutritious substances.)

[Cultivation of Protococcus calda riorum-']

Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital, x. (1903) pp. G02-5 (with figs, in text).

Pekagallo, H.—Diatomees marines de France. (Marine diatoms of France.)

[A continuation of a former paper, and describes fifteen species and three
varieties of Campylodiscm.~]

Le Micrographe Prcparatcur, >.i. (199") pp. 18G-9.

Tilden, J. E. — Algae collecting in the Hawaiian Islands.
[An account of the author's experiences.]

Postehia, 1902, pp. 135-75.

De Toni, G. B., & Achille Fokti — Pugillo di Diatomee bentoniche del Lago
Ngebel (Giava). (Small collection of Benthon-Diatoms from Lake Ngebel, in
Java.)

[List of 24 diatoms, with notes and bibliography.]

Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital, 1903, pp. 133-41.

Fungi.

New Chytridinea9,t — F. E. Fritsch has found parasitic on a fresh-
water alga two species of RestkuJaria, one of them already recorded by
Dangeard, the other new to science, which he names R. Boodlei. The
fungus occupies the cells of the host from which hyphse pass out into the
open, branching and forming spores. No zoospores were seen.

* Bot. of the Faeroes, pt. ii. (1903) pp. 533-611.
t Ann. Bot., xvii. (1903) pp. 649-G4 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPV, ETC. 91

Basidiobolus Lacertae.* — W. Loewenthal found the spores of this
fungus in the intestine of the lizard. Germination was easily induced
either in distilled or tap water. The spores grew out into a short
septate filament, or a slight pseudotissue was formed. The vegetative
cells were all nucleate. Zygospores are formed by the fusion of the
nuclei of two neighbouring cells. The process is somewhat similar to
that observed in B. Ranarum. The writer considers that the fungus
reproduces itself in the lizard, as he found other types of spores smaller
in size.

Research on the Genus Streptothrix.j — L. Petri found a form of
Streptothrix growing on the roots of Fragaria. He isolated it and
made cultures and reinfected other healthy plants. The Str&ptothrix
grew very sparingly, and did not impair the healthiness of the host-
plant. Petri therefore concluded that it was only a saprophyte. The
cells in which it was found were empty of contents and dark in colour.
The writer takes occasion to review the affinities of Str&ptothrix. He
gives a list of known species and records the results of his cultures.
He calls special attention to the formation of vesicles laterally on the
filaments. They are not conidial in their nature, and development of
the filament ceases when they are formed. He compares them with the
clavate formation of Actinomyces. They are formed of a mucilaginous
substance the nature of which is not determined, and are presumably
to be regarded as a degenerative process of the filament.

Note on Phycomycetes4 — M. Henning Eiler Petersen records the
fungal flora he found on the chrysalis of caddis-worms. There were a
number of oomycetes, their presence doubtless being due to the nutritive
quality of the substratum. The absence of hairs seems to allow the
development of the sporangia of various Chytridinese. Besides forms
already known he records three new genera of that order : Rhizo-
closmetium with branching hair-like mycelium and globose sporangium ;
Asterophlgctis, with a somewhat hemispherical sporangium studded with
protuberances, but akin to the previous genus ; and Siphonaria, near
to the genus Obelidium and distinguished by the thick-walled empty-
looking rhizoids.

Contribution to our Knowledge of Peronosporese.§ — A disease of
cucumbers occurring in the Twer Government was indentified by
S. J. Rostowzen as similar to that caused by the fungus Plasmopara
cubensis, and hitherto found only in America. He gives an account
of the damage done by the disease, and devotes attention to the fungus
itself. The conidia, which are borne on branched conidiophores, like
those of Peronospora, are violet-grey in colour, and have at the tip a
colourless papilla which is characteristic of species of Plasmopara, and
on germimtion they form zoospores, also a feature of Plasmopara.
This peculiarity had already been noted by Humphrey, who considered
the fungus in question a transition form between the two genera.

* Archiv. f. Protistenkunde, ii. (1903) pp. 364-420. See also Bot. Zeit., lxi. (19C3)
|'p. 326-7. t Nuovo. Giom. Hot. Ital., x. (1903) pp. 585-601 (2 figs.).

X Journ. ile Bot. xvii. (1903) pp. 214-22 (17 figs ).
§ Flora, xoii. (19l 3) pp. 40.r-25 (3 pis.).

92 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Uostowzen found that in the plant he was examining:, the conidia
formed zoospores or they germinated by a tube. He places it under
a new genus, Pseudoperonospora, and, as it differs slightly from the
species cubensis first described by Berkeley and Curtis, he designates
it as var. tweriensis.

Studies on the Fertilisation of Albugo Lepigoni and some
Peronosporeae.* — W. Ruhland records the results of his research on
several forms of Oomycetes. Albugo Lepigoni grew on Spergida marina ;
the oogonia developed rather plentifully towards the end of the vege-
tative period. In the young oogonium there are some 60 to 90 nuclei
present. These increase in size and the first mitosis takes place,
simultaneously in the oogonium and the antheridium. The chromo-
somes, about four or five in number, were extremely small and evidently
round in form. At a further stage the nuclei wander towards the
periphery of the oogonium ; other divisions must take place though
they were not followed in detail, but the number of nuclei increased to
o00 or 450. The latter stages of division show a much smaller spindle.
Meanwhile the ccenocentrum had appeared towards the centre of the
oogonium. It absorbs the surrounding plasma and increases to a rela-
tively large size. The female nucleus attaches itself to the ccenocentrum,
and after division and degeneration of the resulting daughter nucleus
it is joined by the male nucleus from the antheridium, and both enter
the ccenocentrum, which gradually disappears as the nuclei increase in
size. They show a very fine spirem stage, then fusion takes place and
subsequent division, the dividing nucleus resembling the first karyo-
kinesis in the oogonium, with the same number of chromosomes. By
repeated division, some seventy to eighty nuclei are formed, and the
oogonium becomes surrounded by a thick exospore formed from the
periplasm.

In Peronospora Alsinwrum the nuclei of the oogonium divided only
once, and the " period of zonation," when all the nuclei had travelled
to the periphery, lasted a considerable time. A ccenocentrum appeared
here also. Fusion of the two nuclei was delayed for a considerable
time till after the exospore was formed,

ficlerospora graminicola provided an immense number of oogonia.
These contained few nuclei. The spindle formed in mitosis was very
large, and the chromosomes had a U shape. Xo ccenocentrum was
present, and probably owing to this the male nucleus remains for some
time at a distance from the female nucleus. The different stages are
described in detail.

In Plasmopara densa the development largely resembles that of
iSderosjwra. There is no ccenocentrum, and in both forms the periplasm
is drawn into the oospore, and the exospore is consequently of a slighter
structure.

The writer concludes by reviewing the work done on all the forms of
Albugo. He finds a regular gradation of forms from Albugo Bliti, in
which a large number of female nuclei fused Avith male nuclei, to
A. Lepigoni, where only one is present. The receptive papilla is also

* Jahrb. Wiss. Hot., xxxix. (1903) pp. 135-6G (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 93

less developed, while the ccenocentrum is larger. He compares, finally,
the development of the Albuginacefe with the Peronsporacese.

Peronospora on Rheum undulatum.* — A. Osterwalder found that
the fungus causes small reddish spots on the leaves. The conidiophores
emerged from the leaf on the under side through the stomata. Oospores
were not seen, but the writer considers the species to be the same as
Peronospora pohjgoni. The conidiophores and conidia are of a slightly
violet colour.

Biology of Cystopus candidus.f — Albert Eberhardt describes the
changes brought about in the host-plant by tbe presence of the parasite.
There was universal hypertrophy and distortion, alteration of form in
the floral organs, physiological changes in the cell-contents and in the
cell-forms, etc. He tested by culture experiments the specialisation of
the parasite, and found that within a limited range of host species the
conidia from Cystopus would infect easily. With conidia taken from
T ragopog on prate nsis it was impossible to infect any of the Cruciferae.

Notes on Syncephalis.^: — Paul Yuillemin records a new species,
Syncephalis adunca, and makes an examination of the section Curvatce.
He insists on the autonomy of S. curvatce, which has been included under
S. cornu, and gives his reasons for doing so. The new species is yellow
in colour, and the spores occur in chains of four, the enclosing membrane
(merisporocyste) remains visible up to maturity. Vuillemin places it
between S. nigricans and S. curvata.

Zygospore of Mucorini.§ — Paul Vuillemin has studied the process
of zygospore formation, especially in Sporodinia, with a view to watching
the fusion of the wall of the gametes. After the two copulatory branches .
have joined, the end of each remains for a time distinct, forming a
median wall, and a new layer is then laid down on each side of it and
on the external walls of the cells. Vuillemin notes that these two layers
fuse separately, the primitive central wall disappearing first. The later-
formed layers coalesce into one, to be in turn absorbed in the pro-
toplasm of the zygospore.

New Genus of Phacidieae.j] — R. Maire and P. A. Saccardo found a
minute Discomycete parasitic on the leaves of Juniperus Oxycedrus,
half covered by the torn epidermis. The fungus had no excipulum, the
asci were tetrasporous, and the spores two-celled, brown ; characters which
are found in no existing genus. The writers have named it Didymascella
Oxycedri, one of the Phacidiere, and ^near to Didymascas in form and
structure.

Fertilisation in Ascodesmis.lf — P. A. Dangeard finds at the origin
of the perithecium, branches of the hypliEe which fuse in pairs, as they
do in Gymnoascus. The number varies from six to ten for each fruit.
The two branches, which wind round each other in a spiral, are at first

* Centralbl. Bakt , x. (1903) pp. 775-7 (3 figs.). f Tom. cit„ pp. G55-6.

% Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) pp. 420-7 (1 pi.).
§ Comptes Reudus, cxxxvii. pp. SCO— 71.
|| Aim. Mycol., i. (1903) pp. 417-19 (4 figs.).
*j[ Comptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp 528-9

94 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

identical, but one, the ascogonium, gradually becomes richer in contents.
Both branches are multinucleate, seven or eight nuclei in the ascogonium,
three or four in the antheridium. A cell is cut off at the tip of the
ascogonium analogous to the trichogyne of Monascus ; after the separa-
tion of the trichogyne only four or five nuclei are to be seen in the
ascogonium, but they are larger, and they furnish, after division, the
copulatory nuclei of the asci. Dangeard explains the theory of this
retarded copulation by comparison with the Siphomycetes. He considers
it to be sexual fertilisation.

Cytology of Galactinia succosa.*— It. Maire, with a view to elucidate
the affinity between nuclear evolution in the Ascomycetes and the
Basidiomycetes, has studied one of the higher Pezizas, Galactinia succosa.
This species is of interest in having laticiferous elements which are still
but little known in the Ascomycetes. The author finds that it shows a
real relationship with the Basidiomycetes from the point of view of its
nuclear evolution ; the presence of a group of synkaryons before the
formation of the ascus, places it above the other Ascomycetes : we find here
the first suggestion of that phase in the life-history, the synharyophyte,
which plays so important a part in the development in the Basidiomycetes.

Infection Experiments with Nectria ditissima.f— Bud. Aderhold
refuses to accept Brzezinski's theories as to the origin of canker in fruit
trees. The latter had failed to induce canker by infection with Nectria
spores, but in all cases had done so by injecting Bacterium Mali into the
trees. By repeated experiments Aderhold has proved that Nectria causes
the wounds known as canker, not only in apple and pear trees, where it
is well known, but in cherry trees and plum trees, where its parasitism
was unsuspected. The writer has found canker wounds on cherry trees
not due to artificial infection, in all points resembling those induced
by the introduction of Nectria, but he was unable to find the fruiting
form of the fungus. He calls for further proof by Brzenzinski of his
theory before it can be received.

Morphological and iBiological Researches on Stysanus.J — F.
Gueguen has come to the conclusion that Stysanus Mandlii is only a
form of St. Stemonites. From both he developed a similar perithecial
form, Melanospora siysanophora. The ascus spores were cultivated in
turn, and produced a form of Acladium, brown chlamydo-spores and
new perithecia, but Gueguen failed to reproduce the Stysanus form. He
cultivated also Echinobotryum atrum, so frequently found on Stysanus^
He considers it a sessile form of St. ftmetarius. He has classified some
other forms with St. Stemonites, and thinks that, though usually sapro-
phytic, it may grow as a true parasite.

Rhizoctonia violacea.§ — Jakob Eriksson completes his account of
experiments with this fungus-disease of roots. He had already recorded
that the parasite can transfer itself to other roots, and that in succeeding

* Coniptcs Bendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 769-71.

f Cenlraibl. Bakt., x. (1903) pp. 763-6.

% Bull. Soc Mvcol. France, sir. (1903) pp. 217-44 (3 pis.).

§ Centralbl. Bakt., x (1903) pp. 766-75 (1 pi. and 1 tig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 95

generations this power of adaptation grows stronger. He has proved
that, m the second generation, such an adapted fungus increased greatly
in vitality and destructive power. The new fungus race is, however,
less hardy, and succumbs easily to unfavourable weather conditions.
Lime has proved useless as a fungicide, but Eriksson thinks that carbolic
lime and petroleum water may prove effective remedies for the disease.

Experiments with Heteroecius Rusts.* — M. Tranzschel records the
successful injection of JEcidium Jeucosptermum, from Anemone nemorosa,
on Sorbus Aucuparia, the uredospores of Ochrospora sorbi developed.
He further proved the connection of Puccinia on Polygonum amphibii,
with JE. sanguinolentum on Geranium ; of a Puccinia, on Carex limosay
with JE. Trientalis, and of JE. coruscans, on Picea, with a species of
Chrysomyxa on Ledum palustre.

Vegetative Form of Yellow Rust.f— Jakob Eriksson has revised
his work on Mycoplasma, and finds that the bodies which he termed
" corpuscles speciaux " are not the first visible form of the fungus, as they
belong to a later stage in its development. He finds, first of all, in the
cells of the leaf a granular vacuolated substance, which takes a darker
violet colour when fixed and stained with Flemming, and is the myco-
plasma.

When the first spots of rust begin to appear, a plasmic mass is formed
occupying the tissue between the different sori. It spreads as mycelial
filaments between the cells, or it occupies the intercellular spaces ; this
stage he terms protomyceUum. In the third stage the protomycelium
becomes septate, and forms a pseudoparenchyma, and this is followed by
the formation of the sporiferous hymenium.

Hetercecious Rusts. J — H.Klebahn has collected from many sources
all that is known about these rusts. He gives a list of the species of
which the life-cycle has been traced — 150 in all — and discusses the
different questions touching on their growth. The occurrence of the
different forms, the conditions that influence their growth, spore dissemi-
nation, infection, methods of culture, theories as to the spread of the
rust disease, and theories as to their sexuality, occupy the first part.
The second half of the book takes up each species in full detail. There
are complete indices and graphic tables of illustration ; the whole
forming a valuable summary and book of reference.

Infection Experiments with Rusts.§ — Ernst Jordi extends still
further our knowledge as to the specialisation of rust forms. Under
Uromyces Fake he finds there are four specialised forms on the different-
hosts, species of Vicia., Lathy r us and Pisum. Uromyces Ervi grew only
on Vicia hirsuta. U. AnUnjllidis infected only AnthyJUs Vulneraria.
Experiments were also made with U. Hedysari obscuri and U. Astragali.
The latter species grows on a number of host-plants.

* Centralbl. Bakt., xi. (1903) p. 10G.
t Comptes Rcudns, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. o7S-<c0.

% Die Wirtsweehseliulcn Ro^tpilze. (Jebr. Boi ntr'.iger, Berlin, 1903, pp. xxxvii.
and 447.

§ Centralis. Bakt. x. (1933) pp. 777-9.

96 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Iainier, M. G. — Sur quelques especes de Mucorinees nouvelles ou peu connues.
(Some new or little-known sp cies of Mucorini.)

[The new genera are I'arasitella, Gloniertila and Pfeudo-absidi'a, each with
one species. There are ten new species of Mucor, and one new CircineJla.
The writer describes the zygospores in the latter genus: they had not
been hitherto known.]

Bull. Soc. Mycol. France,x\x. (1903) pp. 153-72(2 pis.).

Baubiek, Ma uk ice — Liste annotee d'Hymenomycetcs des environs de Dijon.
3me partie.

[This part includes the Polyporese, Hydneoe, Thelephoreaj, Cyphellea?,
Corticieaj, Clavariese, Calocerso and Tremellacese, with critical notes on
many of the species.]

Bull. Soc Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 273-90.
Boudi e r, E. — Note sur quelques Ascomycetes nouveaux du Jura.
[The author describes and figures six new species.]

Butt. Soc. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 193-9 (1 pi.).

Oavaba, F. — Novita Micologiche Siciliane. (New Sicilian fungi)

[Peziza Ammopkila, found on the leaves of Arunrio Mauritanica and Awers-
ualdia Cheemerops, parasitic on Chiemerops humilis, in tiie botanical
garden of Catatonia.] Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital , No. 4 (1903) pp. 114-55.

Costantin et Lucet — Sur un Rhizopus pathogene.

[A new pathogenic form, Rhizopus equinus, i- described by the authors.]

Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 200-16(2 pis.).
D i e t e l, P. — TJeber die Teleutosporenform von Uredo laeviuscula D. & H. und iiber
Melampsora Fagi D. el Neg.

[The author finds that the first of these plants is Thekopsora laeviuscula
D. and H., and that the second is not a Melampsora, but Mikronegeria
Fagi.] Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) pp. 415-17.

Eakle, F. S. — Mycological Studies.

[A synopsis of the North American species of the genus Periconia, and a list
of other new fungi. The new genera are Hypodermopsis, an Ascomyccte
l somewhat similar to Hi/poderma, and OKUrieUa, near akin to Older ia.~]
Bull. New York Bot. Garden, ii. (1902) pp. 331-50.

Hese y, E. — La lutte contre le champignon des maisons. Experiences recentes.
(Methods of destroying dry-rot.)

[A description of the various antiseptic solutions used to impregnate wood
and render it sterile.] Bull. Mensuel. Soc Sci. Nancy, 1902, 11 pp.

See also Centralbl. Bald., x. (1903) pp. 809-10.
lloHNEL, Fkanz V. — Mycologische Fragmente.

[A large series of new forms and critical notes on species already described.
The new genera are Heimerlia, amyxomycete, one of the Krhinosteliacere,
and Siropatella and Agyricllopsis, belonging to Excipulaeese]

Ann. Mycol. i. (1903) pp. 391-414.
Hollos, Laszlo — "Descriptions of Fungi.

[The writer de>cnbes a new genus. Glasteropsis, from South Africa, and two
species of Lycoperd»n from South Carolina.]

Bot.Sekt. K. Ungar-Natorius, Ges., ii. (1903) pp. 72-0.
Kaserer, Hermann — Versuche zur bekampfung von Peronospora und Oidium ini
Jahre 1902. (Methods of destroying Peronospora and Oidium during the year
1902.)

[Solutions cont dning copper were found more effectual than the employment

ofsulrjbur.] Zeitschr. Landwirtsch. Ver sucks icesen in Oesttrreich.

1903, 2u5 pp. See also Ceulralbl. Bald., x. (1903) p. 809.

vellerman, W. A. — Ohio Fungi. Fascicle VIII.

[The fascicle included 5J0 fungi, all of them parasitic on various hosts.
Diagnoses of some of the species are given.]

Journ. of Mycol., ix. (1903) pp. 171 0.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 97

K jk L'L e r m a n, W. A. — Index to North American Mycology.

[Alphabetical list of articles, authors, subjects, new species and hosts, new
names and synonyms.] Joum. of Mycol., ix. (1903) pp. 177-199.

Konino, C. J. — Bijdrage tot de kennis van het levender humicole fungi en van de
scheikundige processen welke bij de humificatic plaats hebben.

[Deals with the microfungi that live on decaying vegetation, and discusses
their disintegrating action on humus.]

Verhand. K. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, ix. (1903) No. 7, 69 pp.

Lindau, Gustav — Hilfsbuch fur das Sammeln der Ascomyceten mit Beruck-
sichtigung der Nahrpflanzen Deutschlands, Osterreich-Ungarns, Belgiens, der
Schweiz und der Niederlande.

[Aid to the collection of Ascornycetes, with regard to their host-plants and
the substances on which they grow ]

Oebr. Borntrager, Berlin, 1903.
See Bot. ZeiL, lxi. (1903) pp. 321-2.

Lindner, P. — Zum nachweis von untergariger Bierhefe in Preszhefe.

Zeitgchr. Spiritusindustrie, Bd. xxvi. No. 22, p. 229.
See also Centralbl. Bald., x. (1903) pp. 663-4.

Macalpine, D. — Australian Fungi. New or unrecorded. Decades IIL-IV.

[Forty species of microfungi, most of them parasitic on leaves, etc. Fifteen
are new species.]

Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, xxviii. (1903) pp. 94-103.

Maublanc, A. — Sur quelques especes nouvelles de champignons inferieurs.

[The writer describes 18 new species of microfungi. There is one new genus,
Nomurxa, a member of the Hyphomycetes.]

Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 291-6 (2 pis.).

Molliard Marin — Observations sur le Cyphella ampla Lev., obtenu en culture
pure. (Observations on Cyphella ampla grown in a pure culture.)
[The fungus was developed from the basidiospores.]

Bull. Sue. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 146-9.

„ „ Sur une condition qui favorise la production des peritheces

ches les Ascobolus. (On a condition which favours the production of the fruit of
Ascobolus.)

[The writer finds the associalion of a bacterium necessary for the formation
of the fruits of Ascobolus fur/uraceus.']

Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 150-2.

Magnin, M. L. — TJn cas d'empoisonnement par l'Amanita muscaria. (A case of
poisoning due to Amanita muscaria.)

[Some pathological notes on the effects of the poison.]

Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xix. (1903) pp. 173-5.

Mubbill, W. A. — The Polyporaceae of North America. (V.) The genera Cryptoporus,
Piptoporus, Scutiger and Porodiscus.

[The writer is dealing chiefly with the somewhat fleshy terrestrial forms,
which are exceedingly rare and beautiful in North America. The genus
Porodiscus is new, and has been created to contain the species knowi?
as Cyphella pendula.']

Bull. TorxeyBot. Club, xxx. (1903) pp. 423-34.

Patodillabd, N.— Addition an Catalogue des champignons de la Tunisie (suite).
[A list of fungi, with habitat and locality ; with critical notes on some of the
species, several of which are new to science.]

Bidl. Soc. Mycol. France,\ix. (1903) pp. 245-61.

Pennington, Stcab t — Uredineae from South America.
[The writer records 30 B[ ecies.J

Anal. Soc. Cientif. Arg. Ix. (1903) pp. 81-40.
See also Bot. Centralbl. xciii. p. 273.

Saocardo, P. A. — Florae mycologicse Lusitanicae.

[The list enumerates 129 species. A number of the species of Microfungi on
the leaves and stems of plants are new to science ]

Bol. da Soc. Bot., 190^, pp. 1-16.

See also Ann. Mycol, xix. (1903) pp. 458-9.

Feb. 17th, 1904 H

98 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Saccardo, P. A., & Traverso. G. B. — Contriburione alia flora micologica della
Sardegna.

[The writers take up the work begun by the late A. N. Berlese. They enu-
merate 167 species of Microfungi, ten of them new to science.]

Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) pp. 427-44 (1 pi.).

Sydow, H. & P. — Neue und kritische TJredineae. (Nesv and critical Uredineae.)

[Many of ihe species from various parts of the world are described for the
first time.] Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) pp. 324-34.

Tra verso, G. B. — Primo elenco di Micromiceti di Valtellina. (First catalogue of
Micromycetes from Valteilina.)

[The writer records l.r>7 species ; several of them are new to science.]

Ann. Mywl, i. (1903) pp. 297-323(5 figs.).

Zahlbruckner, A. — TIeber die systematische Gruppierung der pyrenokarpen
Flechten.

[The author has grouped them in six families, accordins to the formation of
thallus and fruit.] Verhandl. Zool.-botan. Ges. Wien, 1903, pp. 81-2.

See also Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) p. 474.

„ „ Die "Parmelia ryssolea " der pennonischen Flora.

[A description and diagnosis of this plant.]

Magyar botan. Lapok., ii. (1903) pp. 169-175 (1 pi.).
See also Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) p. 474.

Lichens.

Lecanora subfusca.*— A. Hue has looked through a large amount of
material, and finds that this very wide-spread Lichen has three distinct
varieties and a number of forms. They are distinguished by the form
of the apothecium.

Lichens from Socotra.f — J. Steiner worked through a small collec-
tions of Lichens made by O. Simony, and found three new genera and
eleven new species. The new genera are Simonyella and Roccellographa,
both belonging to the Koccellacese. The latter has a distinct Graphidean
fruit, and this confirms Darbishire's view of the position of Roccella
among the Graphideae. The remaining new genus, Phlc&opeccania,
belongs to the family of Glceolichenen.

Mycetozoa.

Development of Myxomycetes. J — M. Pinoy had already found that
various species of endosporous myxomycetes would not grow in pure
cultures until some bacterium was added to the medium. He has carried
out further researches on Dictyostelium mucoroides. He considers that
the bacterium associated with the species of Acrasise exercises a consider-
able influence in determining the colour and the form of the organism,
and that species described as distinct from each other are merely the same
species associated with different chromogenic bacteria.

Fries, Rob. E. — Myxomyceten von Argentinien and Bolivia.

[Myxomycetes of Argentina and Bolivia collected and determined by the
author, forty-seven species in all. He notes the comparatively large
occurrence of species with lime in the sporangia.]

Arkiv.for Botanik. K. bvens. Vetenskaps-Akad., i. (1903) pp. 57-70.

* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1903, pp. 22-86. See also Ann. Mvcol., i. (1903) p. 472.
t Deutschr. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss. Wien, lxxi. ^1902) 1903, pp. 93-102. See also
Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) pp. 475.

X Cumptes Reudus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 580-1. ,

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 99

Schizophyta.
Schizomycetes.

Uric Acid Bacterium.* — C. Ulpiani gives the results of his work
on a micro-organism capable of causing the following change in uric
acid :

C5H4N403 + H20 + 30 = 2C0<? JJ2+3CO

'2

It was isolated from the fresh excrement of the fowl, by means of
inoculations first in tubes containing a solution of uric acid, then by
agar plates. Pure cultures are capable of completely fermenting a
solution of uric acid in three to four days, at 37° C. It is a motile
coccus furnished with a capsule. Involution forms are common. It is
positive to Gram aDd stains well with fuchsin.

Cultivated on plates of agar with uric acid, it develops in three
days round superficial yellowish white colonies 1-1*5 mm. in diameter.
In both it causes turbidity and the formation of a surface pellicle. In
a solution of uric acid and traces of salts it produces opalescence. It
grows well between 29° C. and 42° C, and best at 39° C. An hour at
50° C. stops further development.

Bacterial Origin of the Forms of the Arabin Group. | — R. Greig
Smith, working at this subject, first investigated the acids produced
during the growth of Bad. acacia and Bad. mdarabinum in saccharose
media. He used saccharose with asparagin as a nitrogenous nutrient,
and found that the action of the two organisms is identical and consists
in the formation of laevolactic, succinic, lauric, and oxalic acids (non-
volatile), and of acetic, formic, and carbonic acids (volatile). The
author found that the gum-flux of the vine is caused by Bad. acacia
and Bad. metarabinum ; that the gum-flux of the plum is due in part
at least to the action of Bad. acacia, ; that the gum-flux of the cedar is
caused by Bad. acacia and Bad. persica ; and that the gam-flux of the
peach is produced chiefly by Bad. acacia, as is also the gum-flux of the
almond. He also shows that the gum-flux of a Japanese date-palm is
dependent on Bad. levaniformans and Bad. acacia.

Streptothrix in a Dog.| — Trolldenier found, in a dog dead after
a short illness, caseous and suppurative bronchial lymphadenitis and
other lesions. In the suppurating bronchial glands were detected a
great number of longer or shorter threads with distinct bifurcation,
staining intensely red by the Ziehl-Cabbot method. Glycerin plates
inoculated with the same material showed after 24 hours numerous
white grains, which were found microscopically to be formed of a
Streptothrix species The author concludes that the infection occurred
by the inhalation of the fungi into the lung alvioli, so to the bronchial
glands, and thence through the lymph channels into the vascular system.
He established the virulence of the organism in mice, guinea-pigs,

*

Atti R. Accad. Lincei, xii. (1903) pp. 236-40.
t Proc. Linn. So-. N.S.W., xxviii. (1903) pp. 114-31.

% Zeitsdir. f. Tissand, vii. p. 81. See also Centralbl. Bakt. 1" Abt. (Ref.) xxxiv.
(1903) pp. 124-5.

H 2

100 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

rabbits, dogs and cats. Liquefaction of gelatin did not occur, and
growth was strictly aerobic. On horse serum there was no growth, and
the author was unable to infect the horse. The organism was not
identical with Streptothrix Eppinger.

Jaundice of the Beet: a Bacterial Disease.* — G. Delacroix has
investigated this disease of the beet, a disease characterised by irregular
spots on the leaves. In these spots, as well as in the roots, petioles
and seed-vessels, he found numerous motile bacilli ; and his experiments
indicate that these bacilli are the cause of the disease, which is probably
propagated by means of the seed-vessels. The micro-organism can be
cultivated on various media, but not on gelatin, and the author pro-
poses to call it Bad. calificans. It stains with ordinary dyes, but not
with Gram. It does not produce spores. Cultivated to the twelfth
generation it loses its virulence. In the way of treatment, the author
recommends rotation of crop at least triennially, the avoidance of
carrying to waste heaps the diseased leaves, and the burying of them
directly ; the sowing only of four-years-old seeds, and the absolute
exclusion of seed-vessels from the neighbourhood of fields where beet
is cultivated.

Spirillosis of Fowls. f — E. Marchoux and A. Salimbeni have investi-
gated a disease of fowls common in Rio de Janeiro. The symptoms
are diarrhoea, pyrexia, malaise, and death usually in a few days. In
the blood they found a spirillum, and this blood produced the disease
in other fowls. The authors conclude that the disease is caused by this
spirillum, and is transmissible by inoculation of infective blood, and
also by way of the digestive tract when blood charged with spirilla or
the dejecta of infected fowls is ingested. Outside the organism the
spirilla lose all virulence in about 48 hours. Protection can be obtained
by the injection of blood or virulent serum, which has been kept
48 to 96 hours, or heated to 55° C. for five to ten minutes, and also by
serum freshly obtained from an infected fowl and passed through a
Berkefeld filter. Serum of animals which have recovered has pre-
ventive properties. In vitro the same serum has marked agglutinating
power.

* Comptes Rendus, exxxvii. (1903) pp. 871-2.
t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xvii. (J 903) pp. 567-80.

* I <g» I m

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC.

101

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c*
(1) Stands.

Swift's Simple Dissecting Microscope.f — This is shown in fig. 1,
and consists of a metal base and sliding pillar for focussing, with 3-in.
and 2-in. lenses.

Fig. 1.

Swift's Newly Designed Microscope for Bacteriological Research.;
This stand (fig. 2) was constructed from suggestions given by Dele-
pine of Manchester. It is fitted with Swift's spiral rack-and-pinion
for coarse adjustment. The fitting carrying the optical tube has the
same wear-and-tear-preventing device as in the last instalment. The
fine adjustment is also the same as in the last instrument. The draw-
tube is divided to millimetres ; when fully extended it is 220 mm., when
closed 160 mm. The triple nose-piece is perfectly dust-tight. The
stage is covered with vulcanite, and is specially large to allow of the
free use of the largest size Petri dish ; its right-hand side is divided
into squares which answer the purpose of a finder. A full-size im-
proved Abbe condenser, fitted with iris diaphragm and special focussing
adjustment for raising or lowering it, is screwed to the under surface of
the stage. Flat and concave mirrors arc supplied, and a simple ingenious
device enables the manipulator to determine when they are in the
vertical axis. Three object-glasses are supplied with the instrument,
one of them being Swift's TVm- oil immersion N.A. 1'30. The
makers specially guarantee this particular lens to be of the highest
possible optical excellence. Another of the objectives is the ^-in., as
supplied with the last.

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous

t J. Swift & Son's Catalogue, London, 1901, p. 26.

X J. Swift & Son's special Catalogue, London.

102 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Fig. 2.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

103

Swift's Newly Designed Histological and Physiological Micro-
scope.*— This stand (fig. 3) is fitted with Swift's newly patented

Fig. 3.

* J. Swift & Son's special pamphlet, London.

104 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Fig 4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 105

isolated micrometer screw, whereby side movement is entirely eliminated.
The fitting carrying the body or optical tube is new and of a novel
construction, such that the wear and tear indispensable to all fittings
can be compensated for by means of a simple adjustment effected by
three screws fitted to the limb. The coarse adjustment is by means of
Swift's patented diagonal rack-and-pinion. The stage is larger than
that usually supplied to students' stands, and allows of the free use of
a Petri dish. The whole of the instrument, with exception of the tripod
and stage, is polished bright, and is of the highest possible mechanical
excellence. The -jUin. objective supplied has an exceptionally long
working distance for blood examination with the Thoma-Zeiss haema-
cytometer.

Swift's Continental Stand.* — The makers have introduced this
stand (fig. 4) for the convenience of those who prefer this style. A
special plant of machinery has been put down for the manufacture, and
the instrument is an absolute replique of a stand manufactured by one
of the most reputed German makers, and is listed at the Continental
price. A variation is, however, introduced in the size of the stand,
which is much larger than in the original, and allows of the free use of
the largest Petri dishes.

Watson and Sons' "Works" Metallurgical Microscope. f — The
form and construction of this instrument are shown in fig. 5, and
resemble the "Van Heurck" model made by the same firm. The foot
is of the tripod pattern, and its front is so shaped that access is freely
obtained to the milled heads, which control the movements of the stage
and substage. The spread is 9§ in. The instrument can be inclined
on the foot in any position from the horizontal to the vertical ; a
clamping screw being provided for fixing it firmly in position. The
stage is mounted on a very substantial bracket which, at the back, is
fitted by dove-tailed grooves into a frame in which, by rack-and-pinion,
it can be raised or lowered to or from the body of the Microscope.
Special attention has been given to affording a sufficient interval
between the nose-piece of the Microscope and the surface of the stage,
for the use of very low-power objectives. The coarse adjustment
afforded by the rack-and-pinion has, in many instances, been supple-
mented by a fine adjustment, so that the whole focussing of the speci-
men can be done from the stage instead of with the Microscope body.
The stage usually supplied is similar to that of Watson's " Circuit
Stage Van Heurck " Microscope with mechanical screws, having a range
of motion of one inch in each direction. Complete rotation is provided,
so that specimens may be examined under every aspect of illumination.
In the illustration it will be seen that a sliding bar is fitted to a recess in
the stage ; this bar may be instantly removed, and a levelling stage or
metal holder may interchange with it. The body is of extra large
diameter, and is fitted with two draw-tubes ; one having a rackwork,
and the Other sliding, so that a wide range of body-length may be
obtained. There is sufficient range of adjustment for the focussing of
the lowest-power lenses. The instrument is recommended by the makers

* J. Swift & Son's special Catalogue, London.

t W. Watson & Sons' Catalogue of Micro-outfits for Metallurgy, pp. 1, 3, 4.

Fig. 5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

107

as embodying the latest ideas, and maximum of "convenience for metal-
lurgical work.

Leach's Oxy-hydrogen Lantern Microscope.*; — This instrument
(fig. 6), which has been for some time before the public, and has been
described in earlier numbers of this Journal,t has received some improve-
ments from its manufacturers, Messrs. Woolley of Manchester, who equip

Fig. G.

it with the highest quality lenses and workmanship. It is fitted to any
oxy-hydrogen lantern by screwing it into the flange, which carries the
usual lantern objective. In working with this Microscope, all the
different parts are mechanically connected. There are no loose parts
to get out of position, or to keep in their place after the instrument is
set up. Fig. 6 shows the Microscope in its present form.

i : ;
v -

Fig. 7.

Watson's New " Argus " Substage.f— This substage (fig. 7) can
be fitted to almost any Microscope. It is intended to replace the spiral
focussing screw so frequently applied to under-fittings of students'
Microscopes, and which Messrs. Watson have found so unsatisfactory

* Woolley, Manchester, Special Circular,
t 1887, p. 1019; 1890, p. 803; 1892, p. 105.
% W. Watson & Sons' Special Catalogue, p. 7.

108

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

to discontinue it. The rackwork in the
a number of grooves cut on a cylinder,

that they have determined
above auxiliary consists of

against which a pinion engages, as in the ordinary coarse adjustment of
Microscopes. This can be mounted strongly, and to work accurately
on almost any Microscope. It is provided with a loose ring, by which
it is centred precisely to the Microscope, with which it is to be used,
before leaving Messrs. Watson's works, and the ring is then held by
screws in position.

Watson's Compound Substage.* — This substage (fig. 8) has spiral
rackwork, pinion, coarse adjustment, and centring screws, to enable the
apparatus that may be contained on it to be set exactly coincident with
the optical axis of the objective.

Fig. 8.

Metallurgical Stage.f — W. B. Stokes has devised an appliance,
intended to effect a temporary conversion of any Microscope possessing
a focussing substage into a stand suited to the needs of metallurgists.
When using the " vertical illuminator," a change of object often in-
volves a considerable change in the illumination, but by giving the
stage a focussing movement the lighting arrangements remain undis-
turbed. The aim of the present accessory is to supply this movement
to an ordinary Microscope. Taking advantage of the substage move-
ment, it is evident that there is required only a stage-plate fixed to a
stem, which fits into a substage adapter in such a way that the stem
passes through the ordinary stage aperture.

Pocket-Magnifier.f — G. C. Karop describes a new pocket-lens
(fig. 9) made by Swift and Son. It is a modified Herschelian doublet,
made up of a lower inequi-convex 6 : 1 lens, and an upper plano-
convex of smaller size, just sufficiently spaced to admit a thin polished

* W. Watson & Sons' Supplemental List, October 1903, p. 7.
t Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, viii. (1903) pp. 549-50 (1 fig.).
X Tom. cit. pp. 499-504 (8 tigs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 109

metal reflector-diaphragm between them. The sizes and focal lengths
of the lenses are approximately as follows : Inequi-convex, diameter
1-3; focus 2*1. Plano-convex, diameter "65; focus l-75. Focus of
combination, diameter 1*95. Of course, all these can be varied in

Fig. 9.

relative proportion if required. The three elements are mounted
separately, so that, although it is calculated to act as a " system," either
lens may be used by itself with or without the speculum.

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Nelson's Formula Oculars.* — A. A. C. E. Merlin calls attention to
the very fine visual results obtained by the employment of E. M. Nelson's
new formula Huyghenian eye-pieces when fitted to the telescope. One
of these yields a measured power of 160 diameters on a 3-3-in. clear
aperture refractor, the object-glass of which was made by Wray. The
formula of this description of eye-piece was computed by Mr. Nelson
some years ago, and is published in the last edition of Carpenter, but
its high qualities when used on an astronomical telescope do not appear
to be generally known.

The author is satisfied of the superiority of these oculars for critical
microscopical work, over the compensated or ordinary Huyghenian eye-
pieces, when working with apochromatic, semi-apochromatic or achro-
matic objectives.

Lens Calculation.! — " H." in a letter to the English Mechanic,
compiles the following bibliography of works useful for above purpose.

1. The Perthensis Encyclopaedia, vols. xvi. and xxii.

2. Encyclopaedia Britannica, third edition.

3. The Telescope, by Herschel.

4. Optical Instruments, by Herschel, in vol. ii. of the Library

of Useful Knowledge.

5. Rees' Cyclopaedia— very full and complete— vol. xxxv. being

the most useful one.

6. Coddington's Optics.

7. Potter's Optics, part ii.

8. Hansen's Dioptrische Untersuchungen.

9. W. Scheibner's Dioptrische Untersuchungen.

10. Steinheil's Handbuch der Angewandten Optik, containing
numerous worked out examples and figures.

* English Mechanic, lxxviii. (1903) p. 425.
t Tom. cit., (Nov. 13, 1903) p. 316.

110

SUMMARY OF CURRENT EESEARCHES RELATING TO

(3) Illuminating and other Apparatus.

Dunning's New Portable Oil-tight Lamp.*— This (figs. 10 and 11)
has been constructed to meet the requirements of microscopists exhibit-
ing at societies' meetings and conversazioni. The lamp packs in an
oval tin case, 2| in. by If in. by 8 in., and can be easily carried in the
coat-pocket without any risk of leakage. When full it will burn for
four hours, and give sufficient light for a large binocular Microscope.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Either the flat or edge of the flame may be used by turning theJmetal
chimney, which takes an ordinary 3-in. by 1-in. slip. The flame can
be lowered sufficiently for direct illumination. Fig. 10 shows the lamp
set up for use. Fig. 11, folded for packing in case.

Swift's Light Modifiers.f — These are light filters, and consist of a
metal frame made to carry one or more squares of tinted glass, with
adjustments admitting of any position in front of and close to the
source of illumination. The modifiers are made in two forms uone

* J. Swift & Son's Catalogue, London, 1901, p. 45.
t Tom. cit., p. 47.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

Ill

(fig. 12) carries two pieces of cobalt glass of different tints in a tele-
scopic horizontal arm, sliding upon a vertical pillar attached to a heavy
base ; the other (fig. 13), has a hinged arm and bull's-eye.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Swift's Double-Image Prism for Petrological Microscopes.*- —
This accessory is shown in fig. 14, and will be found extremely useful
for viewing small dichroic crystals. The two images are seen side by
side in the field, and one rotates round the other when tbe prism is
turned round the eye lens of the ocular. The images differ according

Fig. 14.

to the nature of the crystal mineral and the direction in which the light
passes through it. A thin plate of brass, with a number of small aper-
tures, is inserted in the eye-piece for the purpose of reducing the field
to a size smaller than the crystal under observation.

I (4)i Photomicrography.

Rose, L. K.— Photomicrography of Metal?.
[An historical and practical paper.]

Photographic Journ., xliii. (July 1903) pp. 195-9.

* J. Swift & Son's Catalogue, London, 1901, p. 40.

112

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Lyman, T. — The Prolongation of Spectral Lines.

[Explains the cause of the streamers observe! in the use of a concave grating.]
Proc. Amer. Acad, of Arts and Sciences, xxxix. No. 2 (July 1903)

pp. 33-5(1 pi.).

„ „ Explanation of False Spectra from Diffraction Gratings.

[Shows that they seem due to a so-called periodic error in the gnuing ruling.]
Proc. Amer. Acad, of Arts and Science*, xxxix. No. 3 (July 1903)

pp. 39-47 (1 pi.).

(6) Miscellaneous.

General Principle of some Novel Forms of Geodetical Instru-
ments.*— Sir H. Grubb describes an important simplification in geo-

= = ^

Fir. 15.

detical instruments, which may also be found useful in some departments
of microscopy. The half-silvered, half-plain piece of glass generally
used in such instruments is replaced by a piece of glass having a thin
film of lead sulphide deposited on its surface. This film both reflects
and transmits the incident light, and by varying its thickness the pro-
portion of transmitted to reflected light may be varied. The effect is
that the images of two objects may be got actually superposed, instead
of (as in the prismatic compass) vertically above and below one another.
The arrangement will be understood from fig. 15, where the distant
object is seen by direct vision through the film, and the near object
(after collimation) by reflection. One great advantage is that all the

* Brit. Opt. Joum., iii. (Oct. 1903) pp. 29-31 (4 figs.).
(Oct. 30, 1903) pp. 263-4.

Eng. Mech., lxxviii.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 113

rays on the observer's eye are parallel, and there is therefore no error due
to parallax.

The Collected Treatises of Abbe.* — Dr. S. Czapski has undertaken
the welcome task of collecting and publishing in a compact form the
various treatises of Prof. Abbe. This, the first volume, is to be followed,
in due course, by two or three others, all on mathematical and optical
subjects ; and a later volume will contain his writings on social and
economical topics.

The order adopted is chronological, and treatises originally written
in other languages have been translated into German. The task of
editing has been performed by Prof. Ambronn.

The following is a translation of the titles of the various papers, and
the reference is given when the original was in English. The year of
composition is also given.

1. On a spectrum apparatus for the Microscope (1870).

2. On the determination of the light-intensity of optical instruments,

with especial reference to the Microscope, and apparatus for
light concentration (1871).

3. Contributions to the Theory of the Microscope and of microscopical

veracity (1873).

4. On a new illuminating apparatus for the Microscope (1873).

5. Description of the apertometer (1877 ).f

6. The optical auxiliaries of the Microscope (1878).

7. On micrometric measurement by means of optical images (1878).

8. On the computation of blood corpuscles (1878).

0. On Stephenson's system of homogeneous immersion for Microscope
objectives (1879).

10. On new methods for improving spherical correction applied to the

construction of wide-angled object-glasses (1879)4

11. On the conditions of aplanatism of lens-systems (1879).

12. Some remarks on the apertometer (1880). §

13. Description of a new stereoscopic ocular, with general remarks on

the conditions of micro-stereoscopic observation (1880).

14. On the limits of geometrical optics, with observations on Altmanu's

treatise ' On the Theory of Image-formation ' (1880).

15. On the conditions of orthoscopic and pseudoscopic effects in the

binocular Microscope (1881). j|

16. On the estimation of aperture in the Microscope (1881). If

17. The relation of aperture and power in the Microscope (1882).**

18. On the mode of vision with objectives of wide aperture (1882).ff

19. Note on the proper definition of the amplifying power of a lens or

a lens-system (1884)4$

* Gesnrnmelte Abhandlungen,von Ernst Abbe, Erstcr Band, 48G pp., "_' pis , 29 figs.
Portrait of author. Published by Fischer, Jena, 1904.

t Journal R.M.S., i. (1S78) pp. 19-22.

% Op. cit., ii. (1879) pp. S12-24. § Op. cit., iii. (1SS3) pp. 20-31.

|| < >p. Pit., i. (1881) pp. 203-11. i Op. cit., i. (1881) pp. 38&-12 i.

** Op. cit., ii. (1882) pp. 300-9, 4G0-73 ; iii. (1883) pp. 790-S12.
tt Op. cit. iv. (1884) pp. 20-2G. }$ Op. cit, iv. (1881) pp. 348-51.

Feb. 17th, 1904 i

114

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING To

20. On improvements of the Microscope by means of new kinds of

optical glass (1886).

21. On the effect of illumination by means of wide-angled cones of

light (1889).*

22. On the adaptability of fluorite for optical purposes (1890).

Focussing Safeguard.! — In showing microscopic objects to those
unacquainted with the use of a Microscope, there is always the risk of
accidental injury to either the slides or objectives when the latter are
of short focal length. To obviate risk of injury S. E. Dowdy has
devised the following contrivance (fig. 1G). A B is a metal collar,
velvet lined, with a screw at A for clamping on to the objective.
D is a fine screw rotating with arm B C, and having a felt-covered
circular base, E. In use, the objective should first be accurately

Fig. 16.

focussed, and then by means of the fine adjustment brought within
its focal length, with its front lens as near as possible to the cover-glass
without touching it.

The screw D is then rotated until the base touches the slide, when it
will be obvious that it would be impossible to bring the objective into
contact with the cover, though focussing in a safe direction may be
effected to any extent.

Ultra-Microscopic Investigation of Colour-matters and their
Physiological Significance.! — A. Birch-Hirschfeld describes howBaehl-
mann used a new Microscope, introduced by Siedentopf and Zsigmondy,
of Jena, which, by means of a brilliant focal, lateral illumination, renders
visible the smallest particles (5/a to 10//) in their natural colour. With
this instrument he examined solutions of colouring matter, such as
Prussian-blue, carmine, ultramarine, naphthol-yellow, and so forth. The
resolution of each of the colouring matters into its component colours

* Journ. E.M.S., ix. (1889) pp.721-4.

t English Mechanic, lxxviii. (1903) p. 291 (1 fig.).

X Ophth. Klinik, Aug. 20 and Oct. 5, 1903. See Ophthalmoscope, i. (1903) p. 21 8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

11;

yields an unsuspected insight into the physical and physiological nature
of colour, and is of importance as regards our conception of the mixing
of colour. The smallest particles of a pure colouring matter are not
only characterised by their colour, but probably also by distinctive form
and movements. It therefore follows that colouring matters may be
analysed by this method. The composite colours examined showed their
smallest component particles either lying alongside each other (physio-
logical mixture of colours), or were seen to consist of particles differing
in shape, movement, and colour from those of the components. This
condition has been proved by more recent researches — for example, on
a mixture of Prussian-blue and naphthol-yellow — to rise from the fact
that the particles of one component cluster around those of another,
forming, as it were, a kind of sheath. This covering, according to
Raehlmann, is formed by electro-magnetic action, minute negatively
charged particles collecting around those positively charged, or vice versa.
These composite particles may be again separated by the action of electro-
magnetism.

Dowdy, S. E. — Amateur Microscopy.

[A series of four excellent articles upon this subject, describing a stu lent's
Microscope, its apparatus, and the way to use it. The articles are well
worth the attention of those intending to purchase a student's Microscope,
as well as of those taking up the subject for the first time.]

English Mechanic and World of Science, Ixxviii., Nos. 2003-11

(.Sept. and Oct. 1908).

B. Technique.*
(1) Collecting Objects, including: Culture Processes.

Wright's Collecting Bottle.f — This

(fig. 17) contains an improvement by the

introduction of an extremely rapid siphon,

which is covered with a cylinder of very

fine silk, thus preventing the escape of

the smallest rotifer during the drawing off

•of the superfluous water. At the same

time the fabric permits the water to be

drawn off almost as quickly as it is poured

into the bottle. This apparatus will be

found invaluable to those collecting pond

life, as gallons of water can be rapidly

drawn off by means of the siphon without

sacrificing a single insect. A cork bung

with boxwood top is supplied to the bottle,

to save the loss of material collected. ^

Fig. 17.

• This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2, Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous.

t J- Swift & Son's Catalogue, Loudon, 1901, p. 42.

I 2

116 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Bacteriological Methods in Sanitary Water Analysis.* — C. E.
A. Winslow and C. P. Nibecker in an extensive series of water examina-
tions employed the following bacteriological methods : (1) The gelatine
plate at 20° C, the count being made after 48 hours. This count was
found to roughly correspond to the free ammonia and " oxygen con-
sumed" of chemical analysis, and indicates the amount of organic
decomposition in process. A low count is, of course, highly reassuring,
but a high one may only mean an exceptional multiplication of certain
water forms. (2) The fermentation test, as determined by the gas
formula obtained in dextrose-broth tubes after 24 hours, at 37° C.
This was found to be especially useful as an indicator of B. coli.
(3) The litmus-lactose-agar plate after 24 hours, at 37° C. This, by
means of the total count and the count of the red colonies, gave a
measure of the organisms which thrive at the body temperature, and
of those which form acids, which latter are coming to be recognised as
intestinal forms.

Technique of the Bacteriology of the Blood.f — R. C. Rosenberger
quotes the following procedure adopted by Coplin, who has elaborated
and extended Sittmann's method. The middle half of the arm is washed
with hot soap and water, and then with sterile water and GO p.c. alcohol.
The arm is then covered with 1 to 1000 sublimate gauze. In 24 hours it
is cleaned with alcohol and ether, followed by hot 1 to 1000 perchloride,
and lastly with sterile water or normal salt solution. All the solutions
should be used hot. The blood is withdrawn from the median vein
with a syringe or an aspirating needle. 20 c.cm. of blood should be
obtained. From this, plates maybe made bypassing blood into liquefied
agar kept at 45° C, in the proportion of 2 to 3 c.cm. of blood to 6 c.cm.
of medium. After thorough mixing, plates are made and incubated at
37° C. Bouillon in flasks should be inoculated ; 8 to 10 c.cm. of blood
should be divided among flasks each containing 150 c.cm., so that the
dilution is from 1 to 75 to 1 to 150. The flasks are well shaken and in-
cubated at 37*5. If the bouillon become cloudy it is plated upon agar.
Agar and serum slopes should be inoculated with 1 to 2 c.cm. of blood.
Spreads on slides should be made, and animals inoculated with at least
5 c.cm. of blood. A sample of the blood may be incubated as a control
or enrichment. Special solid media should be used for certain kinds,
as urine agar or blood-serum agar for gonococcus, blood-smeared agar
for Bacillus influenzal. The spreads and films should be stained with
anilin pigments. The haemoglobin may be removed by immersion in
5 p.c. acetic acid for ten seconds. The acetic acid is removed by rapid
aeration and by exposure to ammonia vapour. The film may then be
stained for bacteria, the removal of the haemoglobin facilitating the
search for micro-organisms.

Cultivating Trypanosomes.t— W. J. McNeal and F. G-. Novy have
cultivated Trypanosoma lewisi in a mixture of defibrinated rabbit's blood
and agar. Agar, prepared in the usual way, is sterilised and cooled

* Technology Quarterly, xvi. No. 3 (1903) pp. 227-30.
t Araer. Juuru. Med. Sci., exxvi. (190b) pp. 234-57.
% Bull. Inst. Pasteur, i. (1903) p. 602.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 117

down to 50° C. To this, one-third of its bulk of defibrinated rabbit's
blood, obtained aseptically, is added, and agar slants made. Loopfuls
of trypanosomatous rat's blood were sown in the condensation water,
and the tubes incubated at from 81° to 37° C.

(2) Preparing: Objects.

New Method of Preparing Superficial Fungi.* — H. H. Whetzel
has found the following method very useful for demonstrating the
presence of mycelium and pycnidia of fungi : (1) Peel or slice off a
piece of the epidermis on which the fungus is growing. (2) Immerse
the slice in a 2 to 4 p.c. solution of KHO, and boil in an evaporating
dish over a low flame for 20 to 30 minutes. Cook long enough to
remove all colour from the tissue of the host. (3) Pour off the
potassium hydrate, and wash by letting the material stand for 10 to 20
minutes in each of two or three changes of water. If all the colour
be not removed from the host tissue, cook again. Pick away any pieces
of sub-epidermal tissue that may cling to the epidermis. (1) Dehydrate
in 95 p.c. alcohol. (5) Clear in a mixture of two parts carbolic acid
and three parts turpentine. (6) Mount in balsam.

The gist of the process lies in the fact that the pigment of the host-
plant is bleached by caustic potash, while that of the parasite is not
affected.

Demonstrating the Statocysts of Cephalopods.f — R. Hamlyn-
Harris fixed and decalcified the material by immersion in sublimate-
acetic acid, though bichromate of potassium and acetic acid answered
perfectly well. Heidenham's staining method gave the best results,
though other stains were satisfactory. If the Statoliths were not
sufficiently decalcified the Statocysts were imbedded in celloidin, and
then decalcified with 1 to 2 p.c. hydrochloric acid. The celloidin was
afterwards dissolved out, and the preparations imbedded in paraffin.

Detection of Tubercle Bacilli in Organised Sediment by means
of Centrifugalising or Simple Sedimentation.}: — C. Dilg gives the
results of a research chiefly on the specific gravity of the sputum in
relation to the position of tubercle bacilli in the tube of sputum after
centrifugalising, i.e. as to whether these bacteria are present in the
upper, middle, or deeper layers, as determined by the use of a capillary
pipette. In estimating the specific gravity of the sputum, it was first
rendered as air-free as possible by means of the air-pump, and then a
modification of the blood method of Hammerschlag employed, an
acetone-chloroform mixture being used. The specific gravity of the
tubercle bacilli, if in pure culture, was estimated in the same way. If
in sputum, it was held that if the bacilli were found copiously in the
middle layers of the tube of sputum after centrifugalising, then they
and the sputum were of the same specific gravity. By these means the
author found that the specific gravity of the sputum varied between

* Journ. MyooL, ix. (1903) pp. 218-9.

t Zool. Juhrb., Abt. f. Morph., xviii. (1903) pp. 327-58 (5 pis.).

% Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., ix. (1903; pp. 141-55.

118

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

0*9290 and 1*224:2, while that of tubercle bacilli varied between
1*0110 and 1*0760. The sputum is, therefore, sometimes lighter and
sometimes heavier than the bacilli. The author accordingly proposes
to ensure its always being heavier by the addition of an equal volume
of a 25 p.c. salt solution, a drop of ammonia having previously been
added. By this means the bacilli are always found in the surface layers,
after centrifugalising, a drop being removed thence by means of a
capillary pipette, placed on a slide, dried, and stained in the usual way.
The added salt does not cause any difficulty in staining. The author
has also devised an instrument which he names a " Sputumdensimeter,"'
for the ready determining of the specific gravity of sputum.

(4) Staining and Injecting-.

Modification of Teichmann's Injection Syringe.*— Sieber describes
some improvements which he has effected in this syringe (fig. 20). The

Fig. 18,

end of the piston-rod is grooved, so that, though fixed to the plunger,
] otary movement is permitted. The end-cap of the syringe snaps on
by means of a bayonet-joint, and this is quite independent of the piston-
l od screw. Handles attached to the syringe afford a firm grip of the
instrument. A two-way cock (fig. 19) attached to the nozzle allows
the syringe to he refilled without disturbing the apparatus or unfasten-

* Aimf. Anzo'g, nv. (1903) pp. 7-10 (7 figs.).

ZOOLOGY, AND BOTANY MICROSCOPY, ETC.

HO

mg the parts. A piece of tubing is slipped over the joins of the cannula
and nozzle. This pressure-sheath is capable of resisting the pressure of

Fig. 19.

two atmospheres, and prevents the cannula
from becoming detached from the syringe during
manipulation. The illustrations show the
syringe (fig. 20), the two-way cock (fig. 19),
and the working arrangement (fig. 18).

Vital and Supravital Granule Staining.*
J. Arnold has studied the grannies in epithelial,
endothelial and connective-tissue cells, mast-
zellen, leucocytes, etc. Employing the vital
method, he either sprinkles the tissue to be
examined, e.g. the mesentery, with neutral-red
solution, or dusts it with the same substance
in powder. If the supravital method is fol-
lowed, the tissues taken fresh from the animal
are placed at once in normal saline solution, con-
taining either *01 to -1 p.c. neutral-red or
•0005 p.c. methylen-blue, as the case may be.
The granules appear in 10 to 20 minutes. In
the epithelium of the frog's bladder he finds a
perinuclear arrangement of granules, which he
thinks might easily be mistaken for karyo-
kinetic figures. He has compared the effects
of vital with those of supravital staining in
the case of the tongue of the frog, and finds
them identical. The author is of opinion that
cell-granules are concerned in the elaboration
of fat, iron and bile pigment.

Naphthol-Blue as a Reagent for Bacterial
Fat.f — A. Meyer, in order to demonstrate this
staining reaction, uses organisms known by
accurate research to be rich in fat and destitute
of volutin, e.g. B. megatherium. He mixes a

Fig. 20.

* Anat. Anzeig., sxiv. (1903) pp. 1-6.

t Centralbl. Bakt. 1" Abt. Orig., xxxiv. (1903) pp. 578-9.

120

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RLSEARCHEiS RELATING TO

a drop of a filtered 1 p.c. solution of diniethyl-paramethylendiainin
(base) on a slide with a trace of a colony of the organism, and then
adds to it a single loopful of a solution of a naphthol in 1 p.c. NaOH.
If the preparation is examined after a minute the fat granules or drops
are found to be stained dark blue. They are decolorised, however, with
1 p.c. H2S04. To show that this reaction is not due to volutin, he uses
B. alvei, an organism rich in this substance and fat-free. In this, the
reaction did not take place.

Gonococci Staining.* — A. Pappenheim advocates the use of a
methyl-green and pyronin mixture for the staining of gonococci and for
their differentiation from the cell nucleus. The action of this staining
mixture depends on the aversion of methyl-green to bacteria, and on
its affinity for the cell nucleus, whilst pyronin being a weak stain only
affects the nucleus if added in excess. The result is a blue-green
nucleus and red cocci. If it is desired to stain also the protoplasm of
the cell, an acid stain, such as eosin, may be added to the mixture.

Modification of Gram's Method.f — Nicolle has employed instead
of the ordinary Oram's solution, one containing bromine 1 grm., potas-
sium bromide 3 grm., water 100 grm. Over the former it has no
advantage, but the results in each case appear to be identical.

Method of Staining the Protozoal Parasites
of the Blood.J — Laveran suggests the following
modification of Giemsa's staining method § for the
malaria parasite. Cover-glass preparations are
stained for ten minutes with eosin (1 : 1000) 2 c.cm.,
distilled water 8 c.cm., azur (1 : 100) 1 c.cm. A
drop of a 5 p.c. solution of tannin is then placed
on the film and allowed to act for 2 to 3 minutes.
The film is then washed and dried. The author
finds this method useful when dealing with material
which is not fresh.

(5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative
Fluids, &c.

Improved Mounting Clip.||— S. E. Dowdy has
devised the following form of clip or press by which
central pressure, which is completely under control,
may be readily obtained (fig. 21).

A B C is a stout piece of wire bent into a circle

at right angles to the upright A B at C. D is a

Fig. 21. screw, having at its end a flat circular metal

button at E, which rotates, independently of the

sere on the pin F. In use, a freshly prepared Canada balsam slide

is placed on the circle C, and the screw L) rotated until the button or

* Monatsbefte f. prakt. Derinat, April, 1903.
fief., xxxiv. (1903) pp. 20-1.

See also Centralbl. Bakt. l,e Abt.

t C. E Soc. Biol., No. 10, 1903. See also Centralbl. Bakt., xxxiv. (1903) pp. 78-9.
X Op. cit.., No. 9. 1903. See also Centralbl. Bakt. Ref., xxxiv. (1903) p. 78.
§ Centralbl. Bakt., xxxii. p. 307.
|| English Mechanic, lxxviii. (1T03) p. 337 (I fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, LTC. 121

pad E presses on the cover-glass. Direct downward pressure with-
out displacement of the cover is then attained by further rotation of the
screw.

G ribbon, W.— Mounting Clip.

English Mechanic, lxxviii. (1904) p. 491 (I fig.).
Vi Li, ag 10. — Modern Mounting Methods.

Tom. cit., p. 490.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Waterproof Cement for Glass.* — The following preparations, which
are unaffected by water, will be found suitable for cementing glass,
repairing troughs, etc. : — ■

(1) Dissolve 5 to 10 parts gelatin in 100 parts of water ; add 10 p.c.
of saturated bichromate of potassium solution ; mix thoroughly and keep
in a dark place. Af ter using the cement the articles are exposed to sun-
light, by the action of which the medium is rendered unaffected by
water. (2) Quicklime, 1 parts ; litharge, 6 parts ; linseed-oil varnish,
1 part.

Mounting Medium Bottle. f — S. E. Dowdy gives the following
directions for fitting up a bottle for holding balsam. Obtain a 1 oz. or
I5 oz. wide-mouthed metal screw-stoppered bottle, and bore a circular
hole through the lid large enough for a thin glass rod to pass through
with plenty of room to spare. Thread the rod on a medium sized cork
several diameters larger than the hole in the metal lid, and the thing is
finished. Pour the balsam into the bottle, after removing the lid. The
length of the rod can be easily altered to suit the depth of the medium.

Gelatin Plates as Substitute for Glass Light-filters. $ — K. Die-
derichs describes a procedure for making light-filters for microscopical
and photomicrographical purposes. A solution of the best gelatin, such
as is used for making dry plates, is made in the usual way, the propor-
tion to the water being as 1 to 200. To the filtered solution 3 c.cm. of
1 to 50 aqueous solution of alum are added.

The films are made by pouring the gelatin on a glass plate placed on
a levelling stand. When quite dry the gelatin is overlaid with a film of
collodion stained with some anilin dye.

Red plates may be made as follows : — Dissolve (1) 2 grm. aurantia
in 40 c.cm. absolute alcohol, (2) 5 grm. rose Bengal in 20 c.cm.
methyl alcohol. Then mix 20 c.cm. of (1) with 10 c.cm. of (2), and
add 90 c.cm. of 4 p.c. collodion. Yellow plates can be made by adding
20 c.cm. of a saturated alcoholic solution of aurantia to 80 c.cm. 4 p.c.
collodion. The gelatin plates may be doubled so as to strengthen the
film, or one may be placed on either side of the coloured layer.

Method of taking Internal Casts of Foraminifera.§— H. J. Quilter
obtains perfect specimens by the following method. The shells having
been cleaned by boiling in caustic potash, in order to remove all traces

* Scientific American. See Knowledge, xxvi. (1903) p. 285.

t English Mechanic, lxxviii. (1903) p. 401 (1 fig.).

t Zeitsch. angew. Mikr., ix. (1903) pp. 197-8.

§ Journ. Quokett Micr. Club, viii. (1903) pp. 551-2.

122

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of sarcode, arc soaked in benzole to extract most of the air and prepare
the surface of the shell for the was. They are then transferred to
melted paraffin wax, the wax being cooled and heated several times in
order to expel the air. After the air-bubbles have disappeared a little
melted wax is put on the centre of a slide placed on a warm stage. To
the melted wax the shells are transferred, and arranged so that there is a
clear space around each. The slide is then allowed to cool. When the
wax has become hard the wax above and around the shells is removed by
means of a brush dipped in benzole. After this the preparations are
brushed with soap and water, and then immersed in a beaker filled with
water. To this hydrochloric acid is added until effervescence takes
place. When effervescence ceases the slide is washed, dried and mounted.

Silicate of Soda (Water Glass) as an Injection Medium for
Macroscopic Preparations.* — S. Jachtchinsky recommends a saturated
solution of silicate of soda, to which is added a little powdered chalk
stained with cinnabar or ultramarine, for injecting the vascular system
of animals. The advantages claimed are that it is used cold, does not
set too quickly, does not block the syringe, has no disagreeable odour, and
when once dry the preparations keep excellently.

New Small Shaking Apparatus.f— H. Zikes has devised the fol-
lowing shaking apparatus for use in fermentation work (fig. 22). A

Fig. 22.

steel bar a h is supported at each end by a rigid metal stand. From
this bar hangs the shaking trough c d by two short brass rods. These
rods can glide on the steel bar and are firmly joined to a pushing rod,
which by means of a projecting end / is able to move the trough to
and fro in one direction. This projecting end articulates with a connect-
ing rod, through which the movement is given by means of a turbine or
electro-motor. The shaking trough is a half cylinder, closed at the ends,
open at the top, and having a flap along one of its sides. The fixing of
the vessel to be shaken is accomplished by means of a steel peg attached
to the flap on one side, and fitting into one of a series of holes on the
other, according to the size of the vessel.

Bacteriological Tests for Show Butters.:}: — D. Houston, in a
bacteriological examination of butters exhibited at the winter show of
the Royal Dublin Society, employed the following method : • 1 grm. of

* Anat. Anzeicr., xxiv. (1903) pp. 204-5.

t -entralbl. Bakt., 2" Abt., xi. (1903) pp. 107-8 (1 fig.).

\ Proc. R<>y. Dublin Soc, i. CI 902) pp. 179 88.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 123

the butter sample was placed in 10 c.crn. sterile water and kept at 25° C.
This was then thoroughly mixed and allowed to cool. The fat having
separated, "1 c.crn. was taken and mixed with nutrient gelatin, usually
2 p.c. lactose gelatin, and plated out in the usual way. The colonies
were then counted, and subcultures made in different media. For the more
ready estimation of gas-forming organisms, the solidified inoculated
gelatin in the Petri dish was covered with a thin layer of sterile gelatin.
The little gas-bubbles were then easily seen. The author found that
undesirable flavours and aromas were in most cases due to the action of
micro-organisms, working either in the ripening cream or in the made-up
butter. Such organisms may be either bacteria, yeasts or moulds. A
good-flavoured butter containing undesirable contaminations will soon
become objectionable. The bacteriological tests were not found to agree
with the judge's awards.

Metallography, etc.

Dichroiscope.*— This instrument (fig. 23), made by Swift & Son,
is for the accurate comparison of the different colours of dichroic
minerals. It is extremely useful for distinguishing coloured gems from
glass imitations.

Fig. 23.

Penological Examination of Paving Sets.f — J. Joly gives the
following method for determining the proportions of hard and soft
constituents in rock. The thin rock-section is placed in the Microscope,
and using a low power and low eye-piece the image of the field is pro-
jected into a ground-glass screen above the eye-piece, any of the usual
photographic apparatus being used. The ground glass is turned rough
side up. Upon this is placed a transparent divided scale prepared as
follows. A piece of logarithmic paper (divided to square millimetres, or
square tenths of inches) is placed in contact with a sensitive plate in a
photographic printing frame, and printed off by contact in the usual
manner. The result is a negative, having the divisions appearing as
clear lines on a dark background. This negative may be used, or a
positive printed from it. The transparent divided scale is placed face
downwards upon the ground-glass. We now have an image of the field
traversed by the lines upon the scale. On the back of this scale, the
outline of any particular constituent is traced by an ordinary writing
pen and ink. This done, the divided plate is lifted off, and holding it
up to the light the number of square millimetres, or square centimetres,
are estimated as contained within the ink outlines. The whole circular

* Swift's Catalogue, 1901, p. 40.

t Proc. Roy. Dublin Sop., x. (1903) pp. C2-92 (4 pie.).

124 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

area of the field in square centimetres is — — ; hence the area occupied

by the mineral can be estimated as a percentage of the area of the field.
This is done for several fields, and an average taken. In most cases
this method is quite accurate, but in exceptional instances, e.g. where
mica plates appear edge-on in the field, certain allowances mnst be made,
otherwise the quantity of the constituent would b2 underestimated.

Microscopic Study of the Prehistoric Bronzes of the Charente.*
M. G. Chesneau has microscopically examined the metal of two pre-
historic bronze axe-heads. One head was provided with a socket ; the
other merely heeled. It is admitted that the former is the more recent
type of weapon. Micrographic analysis reveals that, at any rate in the
Charente district, axes were used rough from the mould at the beginning
of the Bronze Age, but that later on the methods of manufacture were
improved, and the axe, after casting, was submitted to numerous re-
heatings and hammerings at high temperatures to increase the hardness
of the material.

Surface Structure of Solids.f — G. T. Beilby seems to succeed in
proving the following important propositions by means of his series of
photomicrographs of metallic films :

(1) The operations of cutting, filing, grinding or polishing, produce
on the surface of solids a thin film, which is in many respects essentially
different to the general body underneath it.

(2) This surface film results from a certain mobility, which is con-
ferred on a thin layer of molecules by the tool or polishing agent
moving over the surface.

(3) While it is in the mobile condition, the film of solid molecules
behaves like a liquid, and is subject to the action of surface tension.

(4) If these propositions are established it will follow that a truly
polished surface is one in which, for a certain minute depth, the sub-
stance has been liquefied and then smoothed by the action of surface
tension.

(5) Heat and solvents can confer on the molecules of solids sufficient
mobility to enable their films or other minute portions of the solid to
behave like a liquid.

(6) In the aggregation of solids from their molecules there is a
certain size of the aggregate up to which its form is controlled by
surface tension, and only after this point is passed can crystallic force
come into play.

(7) The metals are the most opaque bodies we know, but their
substance is nevertheless intrinsically transparent.

(8) The " spicular " appearance frequently to be seen by the Micro-
scope on the surface of metals, and other solids under obliquely-
reflected light is due to a granular texture in the thin translucent film
with which the surface is covered.

(9) This granular texture results wholly or in part from the action
of surface tension on the surface layer of molecules, while it is in the
mobile condition.

* Comples Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 930-2 (2 figs.).

f Third Hunter Memorial Leeturo, G! isj^ow, 1903, 55 pp., 42 pliotomicros.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 125

Contributions to the Study of Alloys of Aluminium and Silicon.*
Vigouroux and Arrivault find that |the lack of durability often met
with in vessels made of commercial aluminium is due to the presence
of minute crystals of silicon, or of the eutectic silicon alloy. The two
elements act as the poles of a battery, and set up rapid corrosion.

Primary and Secondary Devitrification in Glassy Igneous Rocks.f
T. G. Bonney and J. Parkinson point out analogies between these
phenomena and those observed in the micro-chemistry of alloys. Just
as important changes take place after solidification in copper-tin alloys,
so that the structures and compounds produced at earlier stages of con-
solidation disappear, to be replaced by later products ; so not improbably
similar changes would be found to have taken place in many rocks.

Metallography of Nickel Steels.* — L. Cuillet has made a very com-
plete set of observations on steels containing nickel varying in amount
from zero to 90 p.c. The observations included : —

(1) Microstructure of cast steels. (2) Microstructure of quenched
steels. (3) Microstructure of reheated steels. (4) Microstructure of
cold-worked steels. (5) Microstructure of steels cooled below atmo-
spheric temperature. (6) Cementation and decarbonisation of nickel
steels. (7) Research on the regeneration of quenched steels. (8) Con-
elusions.

His conclusions are that the constituents of nickel steel are : —

(1) Ferrite, pearlite, and, of course, troostite and sorbite. (2)
Martensite. (3) Acicular crystals, which appear after etching, some-
times white, sometimes black, although the reason for this phenomena
is not known. (4) Polyhedric grains, undoubtedly corresponding to
Mr. Osmond's iron.

The acicular crystals are probably hardenite, another form of
martensite.

Ashe, A. — Photography of Cavities in Minerals and the Determination of the Con-
densation Points of the Enclosed Gases.

Joum. Quekett Micro. Club, viii. (1903) pp. 545-S (1 pi.).

ISeck, W. T. — Preparation of Samples for Microscopic Analysis, as followed by
the "Westinghouse Ele trie and Manufacturing Company.

l'roc. of Engineers' Soc. of Western Pennsylvania, Dec. 1902.
Metalhgraphist, vi. (Oct. 1903) pp. 320-2.
Lac, F. C. — Tests on Finishing and Annealing Heats.

Sparks from the Anvil, Oct. 1902.
Melallographist, vi. (Oct. 1903) pp. 322-7 (6 figs.)-

Wood worth, J. V.— Hardening, Tempering^ Annealing, and Forging of Steel.

[Favourably reviewed by J. O. Arnold in Nature, lxix. No. 1780 (Dec. 10,
1903) p. 124.] Constable & Co., 2S8 pp.

* Proces-Verbaux des Seances de la Soc. des Sciences de Bordeaux, 1901-2,
pp. 20-3, 3 plates f 6 pliotomicos.

t Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc, lix. (Nov. 1903) pp. 428-44, 1 plate of 6 photomieros.

j Bull, de la Soc. d' Encouragement, May 31. 1903; Metal lograpbist, vi. (Oct.
1903) pp. 274-302 (40 figs.).

12C

PROCEEDINGS OE THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the IGth of December, 1903, at 20 Hanover Square, W.
Dr. Henry Woodavard, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of the 18th of November, 1903, were
read and confirmed, and were signed by the President.

Mr. Vezey said that having been one of those Fellows of the Society
who attended at the Natural History Museum by invitation of the
President, he should like to take the opportunity of thanking Dr.
Woodward, on behalf of himself and of the other members of the party,
for the very interesting explanations which were given to them of the
Fossil Mammalia on Saturday November 28, and of the Fossil Reptiles
on the Saturday following. The descriptions of the specimens in each
case were given in a particularly clear and interesting manner, and he
thought they ought to express their thanks for the trouble taken by
Dr. Woodward on these occasions.

Mr. Wesche said he should like to join Mr. Vezey in thankimr the
President for his kindness and courtesy. He had greatly enjoyed
Dr. Woodward's demonstration, and could only say that their President
had given them, in the short time at his disposal, as much information as
it would take them a week of hard reading to acquire ; and even then,
speaking personally, Mr. Wesche doubted if he would have understood
it as well.

The President said he was glad to know that these visits had given
pleasure to those who responded to his invitation, and only regretted that
more persons had not been able to attend. Unfortunately, on the second
occasion a pitchy darkness prevailed, so that he feared it was for the
most part necessary to accept his descriptions of objects which they were
scarcely able to see. He hoped, however, that as the new year advanced,
they should be able to arrange for some further meetings — under more
favourable atmospheric conditions.

The List of Donations to the Society, exclusive of exchanges and
reprints, received since the last Meeting, was read, and the thanks of the
Society were voted to the Donors.

Abbe, Gesammelte Abbandlun^en. Band I., Abhandlungenl Th n j,r -L
iiber die Theorie des Mikrosknps. (8vo, Jena, 1904) . . . . / ine l umslier-

Herdman, W. A., Report on tbe Pearl Oyster Fisheries of tbel „,, r> 7 a • ,
GulfofManakr. (4to, London, 1903) ^ The Royal Society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 127

Mr. F. W. Watson Baker said that he had brought for exhibition a
series of sixteen specimens illustrating the development of an Ascidian.
A card describing the specific object shown was placed beside each
Microscope, so that no detailed description would be further necessary ;
but he miglit mention briefly that the series originated as follows. Two
simple Ascidians of the same species were under observation in a small
dish ; one was observed to eject a number of ova, and in about one
minute the second Ascidian discharged some spermatozoa, and fertilised
them : then the process of development proceeded, as illustrated in the
specimens exhibited. The specimens had been seen by well-known
experts in such matters, and as they had considered them to be an
exceedingly complete and valuable series, it had been thought worth
while to bring them for exhibition before the Fellows of the Society.

The President expressed his sense of the indebtedness of the Society
to Mr. Watson Baker for his extremely interesting exhibition, and also
proposed that their thanks should be voted to Messrs. Watson and Sons
for their kindness in lending the Microscopes under which the objects
were shown.

The thanks of the Meeting were unanimously voted to Mr. Watson
Baker and to Messrs. Watson and Sons.

Dr. G. J. Hinde, F.R.S., then read his paper ' On the Structure
and Affinities of the Genus Porosplmra,'' which he illustrated by dia-
grams, and by the exhibition of numerous specimens, a large number
of which he had found in his garden at Croydon, where they had no
doubt been weathered out of the Chalk, and were now commingled in
the thin layer of surface soil overlying the Chalk.

The President said it would be unnecessary to ask the Fellows
present to return their thanks to Dr. Hinde — as they had done so
already— for his very interesting communication, which was in itself
an object lesson on the way in which a subject of that kind should be
approached. He had worked out the structure of Porosphsera from
materials which, though very abundant, did not appear to have been
carefully studied by anyone who had hitherto taken it up ; they all
seemed to have been satisfied with noticing the mere external appearance.
Long before Mr. Worthington Smith took up the subject of Coscino-
pora in the Bedford Gravels, Mr. Read brought to Prof. Owen a mass
of these beads which he had picked out of the gravel in close proximity
to a number of flint implements ; and Mr. Wyatt also found a large
number of these specimens, which were still preserved in the geological
collection. The President also thought that his own father, Mr. Samuel
Woodward, was one of the earliest to notice Coscinopora, as he had
figured them in his Geology of Norfolk, as far back as 1833, and might
possibly even have antedated Phillips.

Mr. D. J. Scourfield asked whether it was known what was the
special function of the radial canals, and how was the water supposed
to circulate in these curious organisms ?

Dr. Hinde in reply, said that Phillips named these forms in 1829 ;
and that Mr. S. Woodward in 1833 adopted Phillips' names for the
sirao fossils. He believed the radial canals were excurrent in function ;

128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

there were a number of small apertures occurring between the spicules
of the fibres through which the water may possibly have entered, and
then found its way out through the radial canals. He desired to express
his thanks to the Fellows of the Society for the attention which they
had given to what he feared must have been a very dry subject.

The thanks of the Society were cordially voted to Dr. Hinde for his
communication.

The Secretary reminded the Fellows that their next Meeting, on
January 20th, would be the Anniversary Meeting of the Society, at
which the Officers and Council for the ensuing year would have to be
elected. He therefore read the following list of nominations by the
Council, to be submitted for election by the Fellows at the Annual
Meeting;.

President— Dr. D. H. Scott.

Vice-Presidents— Messrs. A. D. Michael, E. M. Nelson, H. G. Plimmer,
and Dr. Hy. Woodward.

Treasurer — Mr. Yezey.

Secretaries — Bcv. Dr. Dallinger and Dr. Hebb.

Council — Messrs. J. M. Allen, Wynne E. Baxter, C. Beck, Bev. E.
Carr, Mr. A. N. Disney, Dr. J. W. H. Eyre, Messrs. J. W. Gordon,
G. C. Karop, Bt. Hon. Sir Ford North, Messrs. T. H. Powell, P. E. Badley,
and C. F. Bousselet.

Librarian — Mr. Badley.

Curator — Mr. Bousselet.

The Secretary also announced that Mr. W. E. Baxter had been
appointed Auditor on behalf of the Council, and invited the Fellows
present to elect an Auditor to act on behalf of themselves.

Mr. J. M. Offord thereupon proposed Mr. Chas. L. dirties as Auditor,
and this having been seconded by Mr. Ersser, was put to the Meeting
and unanimously carried.

It was further announced that the Booms of the Society would be
closed from December 24th to January 2nd inclusive.

The President said that he hoped to take as the subject of his
Address at the next Meeting, " The Vertebrate Forms of Life," — in con-
tinuation of his subject of the previous year.

The following Instruments, Objects, etc., were exhibited : —
Mr. F. W. Watson Baker :— Sixteen slides illustrating the de-
velopment of an Ascidian : (1) The fertilised ovum ; (2) after 30
minutes, segmentation ; (3) 1 hour ; (4) 1 hour 35 mins. ; (5) 2 hours ;
(6) 2 hours 25 mins. ; (7) 3 hours ; (8) 3 hours 40 mins. ; (9) 5 hours
55 mins. ; (10) 10 hours 25 mins. ; (11) 14 hours 15 mins. ; (12) 20
hours; (13) 25 hours 15 mins.; (14) 49 hours; (15) 73 hours ;
(16) 10 days, fixing stage.

Dr. George J. Hinde : — Specimens of Fossil Calcisponges belonging
to the genus Porosphaera, from the English Chalk : Porosphaera globu-
Jaris Phill. sp., Upper Chalk, Gravesend, young specimens ; P.globu-

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 129

laris, Upper Chalk, South Croydon, section showing skeleton spicules ;
P. globidaris Phill. sp., Upper Chalk, Sidcup, Kent, young specimen
preserved in Flint ; P. pileolus, Upper Chalk, zone of Micraster cor-
anguinvm, South Croydon, vertical section showing skeleton spicule ;
section of Tertiary Calcisponge, Plecironinia Halli H., Eocene Tertiary,
Moorabool, Victoria, Australia : for comparison with Porosphaera and
section of recent Calcisponge, Petrostroma Sclmhei, Doderlein, Sagamai
Bay, Japan, also for comparison with Porosphsera.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows : —
Messrs. A. P. W. Heupt, and W. A. Riley.

ANNIVERSARY MEETING.

Held on the 20th of January, 1904, at 20 Hanover Square, W.
Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., Etc., President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Ordinary Meeting of the 16th of December,
1903, were read and confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The President having appointed Mr. Rheinberg and Mr. Taverner
to act as Scrutineers, the ballot for Officers and Council for the ensuing
year was proceeded with.

The List of Donations received since the last Meeting (exclusive
of exchanges and reprints), was read, and the thanks of the Society
were voted to the donors.

From
Michelsen, A. A., Light Waves and their Uses. (8vo, London, j The University

1903) "" / of Chicago Press.

Abbe, Ernst, Gesammelte Abhandlungen. Erster Bd. Abhand- j^ggr< q^ ^eiss
lungen iiber die Theorie deB Mikroskops. (8vo, Jena, 1904) /

Mr. C. F. Rousselet exhibited an old form of Microscope by Plossl
of Vienna, which had been sent to the Society on approval, and read
a full description of the instrument.

The thanks of the Meeting were unanimously voted to Mr. Rousselet
for his communication.

Feb. 17th, 1904 K

130 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

The Scrutineers having handed in the result of the ballot, the
President declared the following gentlemen to have been elected as the
Officers and Council of the Society for the ensuing year.

President— DuMnfield Henry Scott, M.A. Ph.D. F.R.S. F.L.S.

Vice-Presidents— A. D. Michael, F.L.S. ; E. M. Nelson ; Henry
Geo. Plimmer, F.L.S. ; Henry Woodward, LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S. F.Z.S.

Treasurer — J. J. Vezey.

Secretaries— Rev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D. D.Sc. D.C.L. F.R.S.
F.L.S. F.Z.S ; R. G. Hebb, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P.

Other Members of Council — Jas. Mason Allen ; Wynne E. Baxter, J.P.
F.G.S. F.R.G.S. ; Conrad Beck ; Rev. Edmund Carr, M.A. F.R.Met.S. ;
A. N. Disney, M.A. B.Sc. ; J. W. H. Eyre, M.D. F.R.S. (Edin.) ; George
C. Karop, M.R.C.S. ; The Rt. Hon. Sir Ford North, P.C. F.R.S. ;
Thomas H. Powell ; Percy E. Radley ; Charles F. Rousselet.

Librarian — Percy E. Radley.

Curator — Charles F. Rousselet.

The Secretary called attention to the fact that although at the last
Meeting twelve Fellows had been nominated to serve on the Council,
the names of eleven only appeared on the ballot papers. This was owing
to one gentleman having found, since the last Meeting, that it would
be inconvenient for him to attend, and having consequently withdrawn
his name. They were, however, perfectly within their legal rights in
electing only eleven on that occasion.

The Report of the Council for the year 1003 was then read by the
Secretary, as follows.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR 1903.

FELLOWS.

Ordinary. — During the year 1003, 10 new Fellows have been elected,
15 have resigned, 9 have died, and 0 have been removed from the list.
Among those who have died are found the distinguished names of
James Glaisher, President from 1865 to 1868 ; of Charles Thomas
Hudson, President from 1888 to 1890 ; and of Rudolf Yirchow ; the
two last being Honorary Fellows.

The list of Fellows now contains the names of 422 Ordinary,
1 Corresponding, 44 Honorary, and 82 Ex-Officio Fellows, being a
total of 540.

THE JOURNAL.

The papers communicated to the Society during the past year have
fully maintained their previous high standard ; some indeed, notably
those of Mr. J. W. Gordon, Dr. H. Siedentopf and Lord Rayleigh, being
of unusual merit and importance.

The Summary of Current Researches continues to be of the same
merit as heretofore.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 131

FINANCE.

There is not much calling for special notice in reference to Finance
during the past year. It is satisfactory to note an improvement in the
amount received for admission fees, and a material increase under the
head of Annual Subscriptions. This is partly owing to the more prompt
payment of the Annual dues, and the Treasurer hopes Fellows will see
the desirability of maintaining this improvement, as it greatly facilitates
the financial arrangements of the Society.

The sale of the Journal has somewhat fallen off in the past year,
but the Council trusts it is only a temporary decline. The Journal for
11)03 compares most favourably with any of the preceding years, and
as the editorial and abstracting staff receive very small remuneration
for their services, the expenses of publication are reduced to the lowest
possible figure. In spite of this, however, Fellows will observe that
the cost of the Journal swallows up nearly the whole of the Annual
Subscriptions. It is therefore imperative that the sale of the Journal
outside the Society should be well kept up, otherwise its maintenance
at its present high standard cannot be continued.

Though some of the issues of the Journal during the past year have
been of exceptional size, the cost of printing and illustrating has been
kept within the ordinary limits.

During the year a further investment in India 3 per cents, was made,
consisting of the admission and compounding fees received in the
previous year.

The Treasurer has been enabled to keep a somewhat larger sum than
usual on deposit during the year, which is a matter of great importance,
as it is only by the strictest economy that the finances of the Society
can be kept in a satisfactory condition.

Instruments, Apparatus, Etc.

The Instruments and Apparatus in the Society's Collection continue
to be in good condition.

With the consent of the Council two of our old Microscopes,
Nos. 20a and 31 in the Catalogue, being duplicates, have been ex-
changed with Messrs. Carl Zeiss of Jena, for two old German Micro
scopes, types not yet represented in our Collection.

During the past year, the following "additions have been made : —

Feb. 18, 1903. — An old Microscope, with Apparatus. Presented
by Mr. Frank Orfeur.

April 15. — An Old Microscope by Dollond. Presented by Mr. Wynne
E. Baxter.

May 20. — An Early Compound Microscope, and an Old Microscope
by Cary. Both presented by Mr. E. M. Nelson.

June 17. — An Old Non-Achromatic Simple Microscope. Presented
by Mr. E. M. Nelson.

Oct. 21. — A Microscope by Negretti and Zambra, and Accessories,
elonging to the late James Glaisher, F.R.S., a former President of the
ociety. Presented by Dr. Glaisher.

132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Two Stage-Micrometers, supposed to have been ruled by Hugh.
Powell. Presented by Mr. E. M. Nelson.

Some slides belonging to the late Mr. James Glaisher, F.R.S.
Presented by his son, Dr. Glaisher.

LIBRARY.

The Library is in good order, and every item catalogued up to the
end of the year 1903. The attention of Fellows is called to the rules in
regard to the length of time books may be kept, as great inconvenience is
sometimes caused by their non-observance.

VISITS TO THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

On the initiative and by the invitation of the President, five visits
have been paid to the Natural History Museum. In three of these a
party of Fellows was conducted by the President through the Geological
galleries, where Dr. Woodward described numerous specimens, and
discoursed on the geological aspects of the Invertebrate,, Mammalia, and
Reptilia. On the other occasions the parties visited the Botanical
department under the guidance of Mr. Carruthers, and the Mineralogical
under that of Mr. Fletcher.

These visits were highly instructive, and much appreciated by those
present, and should sufficient interest be evinced it may be anticipated
that, by the kindness of Dr. Woodward and other gentlemen, further
visits may be arranged for.

The Treasurer read the Annual Statement of Account and Balance
Sheet for l'J03, which had been audited and found correct.

Mr. Marshall then moved, " That the Report and Balance Sheet now
read be received and adopted, and that they be printed and circulated in
the usual way."

The motion, having been seconded by Mr. Gardner, was put to the
Meeting by the President, and carried unanimously.

Dr. E. J. Spitta said he should like to ask the Council if they would
consider whether it would be possible to issue post-cards, to such Fellows
who desired to have them, intimating the subjects to be brought before
the Meetings of the Society a few days before the date of the Meeting.
He thought, in common with some others, that they lost a great deal in
consequence of the absence of such information, for everyone had his
own tastes, and if they knew beforehand what was going to be discussed,
Fellows interested in that special subject would attend the Meeting, and
add to their general knowledge. He hoped, therefore, that the Council
would kindly take the suggestion into consideration, and that they might
be able to see the advisability of introducing the practice. It had been
tried at the Royal Astronomical Society, and he believed at other learned
societies, and found to be of great advantage. The only objection to it
was the expense, but he thought this would not be a very serious matter,

TROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

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134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

as only a comparatively few persons outside London, who do not see the
advertisements in the newspapers or the notices in the opticians' shop-
windows, would need to be advised in this way.

The Secretary reminded the speaker that the subjects of the papers
and demonstrations to come before the next Meeting were duly notified
in several journals, e.g. Nature, The Athenceum, The Standard, and
others.

A Fellow thought that any gentlemen who sent stamped and
addressed post-cards to the Society for the purpose might have these
filled in and posted to them, if they so desired.

The President said that if this motion was offered as a suggestion to the
Council, they would no doubt be very glad to take it into their considera-
tion. He was of opinion that it would greatly conduce to the interest of
the Meetings of the Society if the Fellows knew beforehand the nature
of the papers to be brought before the Meeting. To send a notice to
each individual member might, however, be beyond the capacity of the
clerical staff ; the question of expense would also have to be considered.
But in any case, he felt sure that the Council would carefully consider it.

Sir Ford North did not think that they could dispose of the question
at once, as no formal resolution could be put at this Meeting, but the
motion might be treated as a request to the Council to take the matter
into consideration. The expense could not be very much, and he thought
the suggestion a desirable and useful one.

The President then gave his Annual Address, taking as his subject
' The Evolution of Vertebrate Animals in Time,' but intimated that
instead of giving it in extenso he intended merely to read the first few
pages, and then to exhibit the slides which he had brought in illustra-
tion, offering a brief description of each.

The slides, to the number of about eighty, were then shown upon
the screen, the special points of interest being pointed out.

Mr. A. D. Michael said it was almost unnecessary for him — after the
applause which had just subsided — to do so, but yet he rose with very
great pleasure to propose a vote of thanks to the President for his
admirable and most interesting Address, in which he had been carrying
them through the Vertebrata in the same way as he took them through
the Invertebrata at the Annual Meeting of the previous year. They
had also to thank the President for his services to the Society during
his whole term of office, and for the unfailing interest which he had
taken in its affairs. He should like, therefore, to propose that their
heartiest thanks be given to Dr. Woodward for his conduct in the Chair
during the term for which he had occupied it, and for the great service
he had rendered to the Society, and the extreme interest he had taken
in it during his period of office. He wTas sure there was not a Fellow
present who would not feel that they were losing a President who had
filled that position admirably during a period which they would all
remember with the greatest pleasure.

Sir Ford North, on behalf of Dr. Braithwaite (who had been obliged
to leave the Meeting earlier) had great pleasure in seconding the motion.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 135

Mr. A. D. Michael said that as the President would be unable to
put this motion to the Meeting, he had much pleasure in submitting
that the best thanks of the Society be given to the President for his
interesting and instructive Address, and for the great interest he had
shown in the Society during his period of office.

Carried unanimously.

Mr. T. C. White said that a pleasant duty had been delegated to
him, that of proposing that their best thanks be given to the Officers
of the Society for their services during the past year. Having himself
in former years gone all through the drudgery of office, he knew some-
thing of what time and care were required to make things go smoothly.
He need not particularise individuals, for they knew that all had worked
well — indeed, they knew this so well, that it seemed hardly necessary to
propose this vote of thanks to them.

Mr. Webster having seconded the motion, it was put to the Meeting
by the President, and unanimously carried.

Mr. W. Wesche then moved that the cordial thanks of the Society
be given to the Auditors and Scrutineers.

Mr. J. J. Vezey had great pleasure in seconding this proposition, for
certainly, as far as the auditors were concerned, he knew how much
trouble had been taken and how carefully their work had been done.

This also was put to the Meeting by the President, and carried
unanimously.

The President said that as they had been so kind as to accord him
a vote of thanks, he must on his part be allowed to thank them for the
kindness shown to him during the past two years. It had been a great
pleasure to him to preside over such an amiable and kindly Society. He
must further thank them for the honour they had done him in electing
him as one of their Vice-Presidents. He hoped still to be able to render
them some service in the future ; and if they should desire again to visit
the Natural History Museum, he should be only too happy to conduct
them round, and point out to them the xcellent work which was being
carried on by the present staff, and he hoped they would be able to avail
themselves of the offer at no distant date

Mr. J. J. Vezey said Dr. Hebb had i ked him to respond on behalf
of the Officers, and to thank the Fellows for the kind way in which they
had acknowledged their services. It would, of course, be idle to say
that the work done did not entail any" trouble, but he could say that it
was work which they had done with a great deal of pleasure.

The President then said it now only remained for him to ask Dr.
Dukinfield H. Scott, F.R.S., to take the Chair, and to assure the Fellows
that they had in their new President or. vho would be certain to do his
best in the interests of the Society.

Dr. D. H. Scott having taken the Chair, said it would be a poor
return for their kindness if at that late hour of the evening he were to
detain them with any remarks of his own ; but he could not take his
seat without thanking them for the very great compliment paid to him,
one which he especially appreciated, I cause this Society was the first
scientific body he had ever joined ; and though he had not been able

136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

very often to come to their meetings, he had been a constant reader of
their Journal. He could promise them that he would do his best to
further the interests of the Society, and he felt it a special honour to
follow such a President as his friend Dr. Woodward.

The following Objects, Instruments, etc., were exhibited : —

The President, in illustration of his Address : — Table of strata giving,
on an approximate scale, the relative thickness of the sedimentary deposits
from the Archaean upwards, with the appearance in time of all the great
groups of Vertebrata, Invertebrata, and Plants.

Illustrations (more than eighty in number) were shown by means of
the Epidiascope upon the screen. Commencing with Amphioxus, the
Cyclostomi, and the minute denticles known as Conodonts, from the
Cambrian and Silurian ; then illustrations of Ostracodermi, Pteraspis,
Cephalaspis, etc. ; followed by the true fishes : commencing with the
primitive shark CladoseJache, from the Upper Devonian of Ohio ; the
Teleostomi, and other groups of early fishes with bony plates, enamelled
scales, and generally a notochordal skeleton ; giving examples of the
Crossopterygii and Actinopterygii.

The Amphibia were represented in the Coal Measures by the
Labyrinthodontia and other forms, whose remarkable skulls, teeth
and skeletons were shown ; also the Caudata, illustrated by Crypto-
branchus, and the Ecaudata by the tail-less modem Batrachians.

Passing on to Eeptilia, Pariasaurus and other Anomodonts were
shown, also the Plesiosaurs, Chelonia, and Ichthyosauria ; the flying
Pterodactyls and terrestrial Dinosauria were likewise illustrated.

The early Birds (Archjeornithes) Archceopteryx, Hesperornis,
Ichthyornis, and the more modern Ratite or Struthious birds, and also
the degenerate (carinate) Dodo, etc.

Examples of the leading Mammalian types were next illustrated, as
the Monotremes, Marsupials, Cetacea, Sirenia and Edentata ; and the
leading examples of Ungulate quadrupeds, the Amblypoda, Proboscidea,
Toxodontia, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, etc.

Among special illustrations may be mentioned a carnivorous The-
riodont Reptile from the Permian of Russia ; restorations of Arsinoi-
therium Zitteli, a new Amblypod from Egypt ; and three ancestral
forms of Elephant, viz. Meritherium, Palceomastodon and Tetrabelodon ;
lastly, a beautiful slide, and an unpublished plate of Okapia Johnsoni
were exhibited.

Mr. C. P. Rousselet : — An Old Microscope by Plossl of Vienna.

New Fellow. — Mr. Thomas John Davis was balloted for and duly
elected a Fellow of the Society.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

APRIL 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

IV. — The President's Address: The Evolution of Vertebrate

Animals in Time.

By Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S.

(Delivered January 20th, 1904.)

In my Anniversary Address to you last year, I directed attention
to what is known of the History of the great groups of the
Invertebrata in past geological times, and I pointed out to you,
that although we could not trace back the phylogeny of these to
a common stem, yet we were able to show that every individual
group whose appearance is recorded in the various sedimentary
deposits, and can be traced upwards through successive ages, marks
also the evolution of its progeny; some, like the giant Oak and
Plane-tree, putting forth many wide-spreading branches ; others,
like the Bamboo of the tropics, attaining great length with years,
but no lateral expansion; some families, like the Trilobites, the
Graptolites and the Eurypterida, reaching perfection in Palaeozoic
times, and then disappearing ; whilst others, having put forth great
vigour in the past, have left, like some ancient tree, but one living
branch to tell of its past greatness.

Before proceeding with my address to the Fellows of the Royal
Microscopical Society, I must apologise to them in that I have for
a second time diverted their thoughts from the field of the Micro-
scope to the field of Nature ; but every apologist has his excuses also.

Last year I spoke of many minute organisms (which I illus-
trated on the screen), whose whole body would not fill the aperture
of a Microscope.

This year I propose to speak of Vertebrate animals, many of
which are of such large size that one of them would easily fill

April 20th, 1904. l

138 Transactions of the Society.

this entire room to overflowing ; nevertheless their separate struc-
tures, whether of bones, teeth, hairs, horns, feathers, or scales, as
well as their blood-corpuscles and various tissues, have doubtless
often attracted the investigation of our Fellows. I venture to think
that an introduction to these animals and their ancestors in past
times may not be so inappropriate as might at first sight appear,
and that some slight account of them, as a whole, may even
enhance the interest we may hereafter take in their minute struc-
tures when brought to our notice under the Microscope.

From the earliest Archaean rocks up to the Carboniferous,
through a series of deposits more than fifteen miles in thickness,
comprising Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian forma-
tions, all are marine deposits, and in consequence yield scarcely
any trace of other than marine organic remains.

The first appearance, then, of Vertebrate life upon our earth
must necessarily have been marine, or at least aquatic — in fact, in
the form of fishes only.

The first fishes were, however, without hardened skeletons,
having a persistent notochoral, a condition of the spinal column
characteristic of the embryo of most vertebrate animals, but only
found to be persistent through life in the adult of a few groups of
Fishes and Amphibia.

The First Vertebrates. — The lowliest of these (forming the
Leptocardii or Pharyngobranchii) is the " Lancelet " or Amphi-
oxus — a minute animal, flattened in body and pointed at both ends,
which has no hard parts whatever, only a membrano-cartilaginous
skeleton without vertebra?, ribs, or jaws.

The mouth in Amphioxus is furnished with cirri ; respiration
is performed by gills enclosed in a branchial chamber ; and pul-
sating vascular trunks serve instead of a heart.

Having no hard parts to be preserved in a fossil state, we of
course cannot claim for it great antiquity by reason of its remains
having been met with in Palaeozoic strata ; nevertheless, its wide
geographical distribution on the sandy coasts of the North Sea, of
the Mediterranean, of South America, of the Indian Ocean, and
other widely separated localities, justify us in considering it to be
a very ancient and primitive,* as it undoubtedly is a most simple,
form of vertebrate.

In the next group (the Cyclostomi or Marsipobraxchii) are
placed certain cylindrical vermiform fishes, without pectoral or
pelvic fins, with a simple cartilaginous skeleton and persistent
notochord. Eespiration is performed by means of a series of six

* On similar grounds Prof. E. B. Poultou claims for the curious Arthropod
Peripatus (which has not been found fossil, but has at present a most extensive
terrestrial geographical range) a geological antiquity greater thau any other form
of life we are acquainted with, " at least twice as remote as the earliest known
Cambrian fossil." Presidential Address (Zoology), British Association, Liverpool,
1896.

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 139

or seven pairs of pouch-like gills ; the mouth is circular, or semi-
circular and suctorial, but there are no jaws, and the teeth are
arranged around the buccal cavity. To this order belong the
" Lamprey " and the " Hag-fish."

The " Lamprey " (Petromyzon) is marine, but ascends rivers to
spawn.

The " Hag-fish " {Myxiiie) has similar habits. Its teeth are
numerous, minute and serrated ; it lives attached, parasitic, on
other fishes, and even in some instances enters their body-cavity.

The species have a very wide geographical distribution in the
North Atlantic, the shores of Japan, Straits of Magellan, the North
Sea, Norwegian fiords, the British shores, and many of our rivers,
as the Thames, Severn, etc.

The point of geological interest which they present to us is
that, although the rest of the animal-structure is soft, or merely
cartilaginous and incapable of conservation, their minute micro-
scopic teeth of glistening chitinous consistence may readily have
been preserved.

Now certain minute bodies, like conical and serrated teeth, but
of considerable variety of form, were discovered by Pander in the
Silurian and Devonian rocks of Eussia, as long ago as 1856, and in
1875 by Prof. Newberry in North America ; in 1879, they were
obtained by Dr. G. J. Hinde, P.E.S., in the Cambrian and Silurian
rocks of Britain, North America, and of Sweden ; and later, both
Prof. Newberry in America, and Prof. Pander in Eussia, have ex-
pressed the opinion that these microscopic structures belong to
Cyclostomatous fishes, like our modern Lamprey and Hag-fish, and
were not referable to either Annelida or Mollusca. This opinion
was also shared by the late Prof. Huxley, who examined a series
submitted to him by Dr. G. J. Hinde.

In 1894, Dr. E. H. Traquair described a remarkable fossil from
the Old Eed Sandstone of Scotland, being the nearly complete
skeleton of a small creature, about an inch in length, having a
calcified skeleton, the general aspect of the skull resembling that
of a recent Lamprey, with no evidence of jaws or separate ossifica-
tions, but with well-calcified ring-vertebrae, and neural and hremal
spines.

A single species, named Pcdeeosponchjlus Gunni, has been found
in the Caithness Flagstones near Thurso.

Another primitive group, the Ostracodermi, appears in the
Upper Silurian and Lower Devonian, and exhibits no trace of jaws
or of a segmented axial skeleton or arches for the support of paired
Hmbs, but median fins are present ; with no hard internal skeleton,
and with the notochord persistent.

The head and trunk are invested with a dermal armour, and
in addition to the shield covering the head there is usually one
covering the abdomen, and a ventral plate meeting the dorsal on

l 2

1-40 Transactions of the Society.

each side. The tail seems to have remained flexible. The plates-
consist of three layers, an inner " nacreous " layer of lamellae, a
thick middle one of polygonal cancellse, and an outer hard layer of
vasodentine.

The Ostracodermi comprise the Cyathaspis, Ptcraspis, Cephal-
aspis, Pterichthys, Bothriolepis, and some others. The bodies of
Pteraspis, Cephalaspis and Pterichthys, were covered with dermal
enamelled scales or plates.

They mimic in a singular manner the contemporary giant
Crustaceans, the Eukypterida.

Quite lately, a number of new forms have been discovered in
the Upper Silurian of Lanarkshire, and described by Dr. E. H.
Traquair. They are considered to be primitive Heterostraci, or
Pteraspidian fishes, covered with a dermal armour of shagreen-like
granules (LanarJcia spinosa), or an outline of plates with a central
shield and a series of polygonal plates (Drepanaspis).*

The Ostracodermi, as a group of early vertebrates, are quite
extinct ; and their range in past time seems to have been very
limited, namely, from the Upper Silurian to the Upper Devonian.

If the Marsipobranchii of to-day (the " Lampreys " and the
" Hag-fishes ") were really represented by the Cambrian Conodonts
and the Old Eed Sandstone Palmospondylus, then these lowly
vertebrates may claim as great a range in time as any of the
Invertebrata ; but this point is not as yet definitely established.

Pisces. — We have spoken of the preceding groups as Fishes,
but they lack the important character of possessing a lower jaw,
they also have only a notochordal skeleton, and they do not always
possess paired appendages.

True Fishes begin with the class Elasmobranchii, the most
ancient of which are the sharks, which extend as far back in time
as the Lower Devonian, the entire skeleton is cartilaginous, only
the teeth and the periphery of the vertebras being calcified ; but
in many species the primitive notochord is persistent ; the gills are
not covered by an operculum, but are pouch-like, having distinct
clefts on each side ; they have both median and paired fins, and
the tail is heterocercal.

Examples of Early Sharks have been discovered in a remarkable
state of preservation in the Upper Devonian of Ohio, showing the
complete outline of the fish with its fins and tail preserved.
Although the jaws are cartilaginous the teeth in all are coated
thickly with enamel and are well preserved. They also possess
bony and enamelled dorsal spines, and microscopic shagreen
dermal ossicles in the skin. This type is very persistent, and its
remains are met with in almost every formation from the Devonian
to the seas of the present clay.

* Gcol. Mng, 1902, pp.289-291.

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward, 141

Another interesting order are the Dipnoi, or double-breathers,
in which both the gills and the air-bladder, which serves the
purpose of a lung, are present, and take part in respiration.

The modern Lepidosiren of South America, the Protopterus of
South African rivers, and the Ccratodus (or "Mud-fish") of the
Australian rivers, are living examples of this type.

Teeth, like those of the living Ceratodus, occur in the older
"Secondary formations in both hemispheres, and similar teeth,
known as Ctenodus, occur in the Carboniferous and Permian rocks.

The true fishes, with well-developed paired fins and jaws, the
€rossopterygii and the Actixopterygii, are characterised by the
presence of external ganoine-coated bony plates, with a more or
less notochordal skeleton, or only a thin bony tube to the vertebrae
and a gelatinous centre.

Others, like Platysomus, Dapedius and Lepidotus, had a com-
pact dermal covering of thickly enamelled bony scales.

Similarly-armoured fishes like Aspidorhynchus, from the Solen-
hofen lithographic limestone, still exist, such as the bony pike of
the American rivers.

The great majority of the Fishes in Secondary and, Tertiary
times, like our modern bony-framed fishes, were Teleostomi.

Fishes with a complete bony skeleton, and in which the gills
are but feebly separated, and open into an external cavity covered
by a bony operculum, are, with few exceptions, homocercal tailed.

With the exception of the Dipnoi, all the Fishes are purely
aquatic in their habits, and breathe simply by gills, and cannot
sustain life for any long period out of the water.

Amphibia. — The earliest vertebrates which show by the arrange-
ment of the nares that they breathe by means of lungs (at least in
the adult state) belong to the Amphibia. This group of animals are
distinguished from true reptiles by the fact that the young undergo
certain metamorphoses after leaving the egg. At this early stage of
their existence they breathe by means of external gills, which are
occasionally retained along with internal lungs in the adult animal,
and one or more pairs of limbs may be wanting. When present,
they have the same bones as in the limbs of higher animals ; they
are never converted into fins ; the skull has two occipital condyles ;
the mandible articulates directly with the skull ; teeth are commonly
present on the premaxilla, the maxilla, the vomer, and the dentary
bone of the mandible ; they are usually achylosed to the bone, and
are simple in structure, but more complex in Ldbyrinthodon ; only
two vertebrae are coalesced to form the sacrum ; sometimes the
backbone is unossified, forming a mere ring of bone, the interior
being gelatinous, a form of backbone called notochordal.

The earliest of these Amphibians are found in the Coal Measures,
Lsuch as Anthracosaurus, represented by Zoxomma, and Archegosaurus.

142 Transactions of the Society .

These forms are represented by Cryptobranclms, in the Miocene
of Switzerland, and by the gigantic salamander of Cliina and Japan,
now living.

The tail-less Batkachia, Frogs and Toads, do not make their
appearance until Tertiary times.

All these forms appear to have undergone regular metamorphoses
in the young state after leaving the egg. Some of those in the
Coal Period, and especially in the Permian, attained to a very large
size, and had thick bony plates covering the head. The head varies
in form from a broadly semicircular shape in Branchiosaurus,,
to a more elongated form in Loxomma and Archegosaurus ; the
skull in Mastodonsaurus giganteus, from the Keuper of Wiirtem-
berg, measured a yard in length and was broad in proportion.

Like their modern representatives at the present day, the
Amphibia were all of aquatic habits, although air-breathing in the
adult ; but they were also capable of progression upon the land — -
they represent, therefore, the first terrestrial vertebrates.

Eepresentatives of both the tailed and tail-less forms, the Newts
and Salamanders, and the Progs and Toads, still survive, although
greatly reduced in .size.

The skeleton in the Amphibia presents a combination of cha-
racters intermediate between the lowest Mammals and certain
of the Anomodont reptiles.

EEPTILIA. — Of the extinct forms of Eeptiles, the Anomo-
dontia are certainly the most remarkable, as they are among the
most recent discoveries of geological science. They derive their
name from the varied modification of their dentition, so unusual
a character among Eeptiles, in which the teeth are, most generally,
all of one pattern and size. They were all land animals, with
limbs adapted to habitually support the body ; some were of very
massive build, others were of much more light and agile form.

One of the most striking of the former of these is the Paria-
saurus Bainii, from the Trias formation of Cape Colony : the teeth
are close set, and fused with the bone ; they resemble those of the
Iguanodon in being worn down on their summits, as if applied to
the mastication of vegetable food ; fifteen or sixteen are closely set
on each side of both the upper and lower jaws ; they are very
uniform in character, there being no means by which to separate-
the incisors or canines from the premolars or molars ; the palate
also bears several rows of small teeth ; the entire animal measures
fully nine feet in length, and its skull and jaws closely resemble
those of the short-headed Labyrinthodont Batrachia ; while the
surface of the skull was completely covered by a bony roof
sculptured on the surface, like the cranial plates in many
Labyrinthodonts and Crocodilia.

One of the most strange Ehynchocephalian reptiles is the
Dimetrodon incisivus from the Permian of Texas, remarkable for

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 143

the extraordinary dorsal fin supported upon bony prolongations
from the dorsal spines oi' the backbone ; the body is Crocodilian in
aspect; the legs were short, the jaws armed with exceedingly
sharply pointed teeth, and may have served for the purpose of
preying upon fish and other aquatic animals.

Passing over a number of forms, Dicynodontia, etc., with
variously modified teeth and skulls, we come to the division
Thekiodontia, remarkable for the resemblance of the skull to that
of a carnivorous mammal {Galesaurus, JElurosaurus), and the differ-
entiation of the marginal teeth (so far as shape is concerned) into
incisors, canines and molars. Only one occipital condyle, how-
ever, articulates the skull to the vertebral column. So far as we
are able to judge by a knowledge of recent reptiles, they exhibit an
advance upon the Amphibia, not only in being provided with a
foetal envelope, known as the amnion, but also by breathing by
lungs throughout life, and never possessing branchia at any stage.
The remarkable form Tritylodon, originally considered by Owen to
be a mammal, has now been referred to the Theriodontia. In
nearly all these forms the pineal foramen can be distinctly seen ;
they have also anterior nares.

The Saukopterygia {Plesiosauria) form another primitive group
of reptiles, in which the bones of the skull in the temporal region
contract into a single broad zygomatic arch. Commencing with
small amplnbious animals in the Trias, they are represented by
larger, truly aquatic forms through the whole of the Secondary period.
Although these larger forms (the Plesiosauria). lived wholly in the
open sea, they retained their two pairs of pentadactyle limbs, and
their long-neck and lizard-like form, in contradistinction to the
Ichthyopterygia, which have an extremely shortened neck, and are
quite fish-like in external shape. They have a pineal foramen, and
exhibit two large supra-temporal vacuities on the skull ; the conical
teeth form a single series on the margin of the jaws, and they have
distinct sockets.

In the small Triassic form Lariosaurus, which preceded them,
and was probably ancestrally connected, the limbs are elongated and
slender, with five digits, and the normal number of phalanges. In
the later genera they are modified as paddles, with shortened fore-
and hind-limb, but still with only five digits present ; but these
are lengthened by the addition of supernumerary phalanges, and are
destitute of claws. They have a system of well-developed ventral
ribs, and the skin appears to have been destitute of armour.

The Chelonia may possibly have been developed from a highly
modified form of Plesiosaurian. The earliest known Chelonian is
met with in the Trias, and differs in no very important degree from
the later forms. They have a very wide geological and geographical
range. The genus Testudo, which is represented by many large
living species, is found fossil in the Siwalik Hills of India and in

144 Transactions of the Society.

Madagascar, whilst living examples survive in the Mauritius,
Bourbon, and many other small islands of the Indian Ocean, and on
Galapagos Island.

Gigantic marine turtles with extremely degenerate shells, like
the modern leathery turtle, occur fossil in the Eocene of Europe
and of America, and living in the West Indies. One living sub-
order of Chelonia, the Pleuroclira, is confined to the Southern
Hemisphere, although its fossil remains have been discovered in
Europe and North America. The genus Miolania has been found
in the Pleistocene deposits of Queensland, and has also been obtained
from Lord Howe Island, 400 miles distant from the Australian
coast. Quite recently Dr. Moreno has obtained the same genus
(only specifically distinct) in the Tertiary deposits of Argentina,
South America.

The Ichthyopterygia, or fish-limbed reptiles, make their first
appearance in the Trias, range throughout the Mesozoic, with little
structural modification, and disappear in the Chalk. In outward
form they must have closely resembled the Cetacean mammals of
the present day, such as the dolphin, with its large head, long
rostrum, numerous and uniform teeth, and no apparent neck.
Their hind limbs have never (unlike the Cetacea) quite disappeared,
although sometimes extremely reduced in size ; and the caudal fin
was expanded in a vertical plane, as in fishes, not in a horizontal
plane, as in the Cetacea. It is possible that the Ichthyopterygia
were originally derived from land animals, as the earliest Triassic
forms show a slightly elongated character in the radius and ulna,
and the teeth are in less uniform series than those from the Jurassic
and Cretaceous rocks — but we know nothing of their terrestrial
ancestors. The vertical folding of the walls of the conical teeth is
only paralleled by that observed in many Labyrinthodonts ; their
short biconcave vertebral centra may also best be compared with
Mastodonsaurus.

Another remarkable group of Beptiles having its origin in the
Trias, called the Khynchocephalia (beak-headed), in allusion to the
typical beak-shaped rostrum of several of the genera, has a single
representative at the present day in the small lizard-like Sphenodon
or Hatteria, found on certain small islands off New Zealand. The
two best known genera in the Permian are Palceohatteria, a long-
tailed-lizard-like reptile of small size, and Protorosaurus, a large
reptile from the Upper Permian ; but the British form of Hypcro-
dapedon Gordoni from the Trias of Elgin, and a larger species
from the Trias of Central India, with Rhynchosaurus from the
Trias of Shropshire, and another form from Bavaria, make up a
most remarkable and all but extinct group.

The Squamata, or Scaled Animals, represented by the Lizards
and Snakes, are, comparatively speaking, of recent origin, only
going back to the Cretaceous period ; one of the earliest of these

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 145

is a small aquatic animal of snake-like shape, named Doliclio-
saurus, from the English Chalk. One extinct order must, however,
be mentioned — the Pythonomokpha. They were truly aquatic
reptiles with remarkable elongated snake-like bodies ; the skull
resembled certain Lizards, such as Varanus ; the teeth are large
and conical and fixed by tumid bases to the supporting bones ; the
pterygoid bones also bear teeth like those on the jaw.

We are familiar with the remains of the Great Mosasaurus from
the Upper Chalk of Maestricht, Holland, and the more complete
remains of Platecarpus from the Chalk of Kansas.

Clidastcs is also found in the Chalk of America.

Snakes occur in the Eocene of Sheppey, and of Bracklesham ;
they have also been obtained of large size by Dr. Andrews, in beds
of similar age in Egypt. Large lizards occur in early Tertiary
times in Europe and in Queensland, Australia, related to Varanus.

The Dinosauria form a singular group of very large terrestrial
reptiles now entirely extinct. They all possessed limbs suited to
progression on the land, and capable of sustaining the body in
either a quadrupedal position or erect, supported on the hind-limbs
and tail, like the kangaroo. The tail was of large size, and they
were probably good swimmers. Some were no doubt amphibious
in habit, the caudal appendage being expanded vertically and well
adapted to assist in aquatic progression. The hind-quarters in a
large number of forms are disproportionately massive as if to
support the body in an erect position, whilst the fore-limbs were
often exceedingly small. Some of the Dinosaurs had very massive
and others very light, strong, and hollow bones ; the teeth in the
latter were adapted to a carnivorous diet, while the worn surfaces
of the former show that they were herbivorous in habit ; two or
more of the sacral vertebra? are fused together to support the
pelvis.

The earliest Dinosaurs appear in the Triassic deposits ; a small,
nearly complete, carnivorous Dinosaur was obtained in 1884 from
the Trias of Connecticut Kiver Series — the Anchisaurus colurus ;
these Connecticut Sandstones have long been famous for the re-
markable foot-prints preserved upon' their slabs formerly ascribed
to birds ; Marsh has now shown them to have been made by
this small Dinosaur Anchisaurus. Another little reptile of car-
nivorous habit, about the size of a rabbit, with greatly elongated
hind limbs suggesting the generic name of Hallopus or " Leaping-
foot," from its probable mode of progression, occurs in the Jurassic
strata of Colorado. A third minute carnivorous form (Compsogna-
thus) occurs in the Lithographic stone of Solenhofen ; these are
among the smallest of the class.

One of the largest predaceous forms was Ceratosaurus (0. nasi-
■comis Marsh), measuring some 18 ft. in length and standing
nearly 15 ft. from the ground. It had a horn-core on the nasal

146 Transactions of the Society.

bone ; the bones of the pelvis and the metatarsals are all eo-ossified",
as in existing birds. The premaxillaries each contained three,
and the maxillaries had each fifteen, large, powerful, and trenchant
teeth, clearly indicating (as in our own Oolitic Megalosaurus) the
ferocious character of the animal.

Of the other carnivorous Dinosaurs of the American Jurassic,
three forms, Allosaurus, Crcosaurus, and Labrosaurus, are specially
worthy of notice. They were the natural enemies of the gigantic
herbivorous forms that were so abundant in the same period. All
had powerful jaws, sharp, cutting teeth, and a flexible neck. The
fore-limbs were quite small, and the feet (manus and pes) were
armed with strong claws for seizing their living prey. The hind-
limbs were large and strong, and the animals probably used these
alone either in running or leaping, or for ordinary locomotion.

The herbivorous Dinosaurs comprising the Sauropoda are the
most primitive and gigantic forms of the group. Atlantosaurus^
is only known from imperfect remains ; but the pelvic bones and
femur of A. immanis give an idea of its gigantic size. The femur
is over 6 ft. in length, and this, with the other portions of the
skeleton, indicate (says Marsh) an animal about 70 or 80 ft. in
length !

Brontosaurus is known from nearly an entire skeleton, which
measured more than 60 ft. in length. The head is remarkably
small, probably smaller in proportion to the body than in any
other known reptile. The neck is long and flexible, the body
short, the tail much elongated. There are about thirteen cervical
vertebra?, with a very small neural canal and no neural spines.
The hatchet-shaped ribs are fused with the anterior cervicals but
free on those behind. Its skeleton is distinguished among Dino-
saurs by the peculiar lightness of its vertebral column, the cervical,
dorsal, and sacral vertebrae, all having very large cavities in their
centra ; the first three caudals, also, are lightened by excavations
in their sides.

An animal fully equal in size to Brontosaurus, named Cetio-
saurus, has been obtained from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough,
and, although imperfect, the skeleton shows it to have been as
large as the American form.*

The Sauropodous Dinosaurs, of which Cetiosaurus and Diplodo-
cus are examples, are the largest known four-footed animals. Their
weight must have been so great that it is difficult to believe they
were active on the land. Their remains are often found in marine
deposits, and Prof. E. D. Cope has suggested that, like the extinct
sea-cow {Bhytina), they may have lived on the sea-shore browsing;

* This specimen may be seen exhibited in the Reptilian Gallery of the Geo-
logical Department, British Museum of Natural Hi.-tory, Cromwell Road, haviug-
been lately set up by the present Keeper. Dr. Arthur Smith Woodward, F.R.S. The=
specimen was obtained by A. N. Leeds, Esq., F.G.S., Eyebury, mar Peterborough.

TJtc President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 147

on the sea-weeds just below low-water mark. This theory would
afford an explanation of the long, slender neck. The animal, on
account of its great weight, would be able to walk in tolerably-
deep water and reach the surface to breathe, by means of its neck
without the necessity of swimming.

Another remarkable form met with in America is named
Diplodocus.

The orbits are large and placed far back in the cranium ; the
facial portion is elongated and broadened in front; the nasal
opening is very large and placed near the apex of the skull. The
teeth are very weak, slender, and cylindrical in shape, like a row
of bluntly rounded pins, and are all crowded to the front of the
jaw, twenty-six above and twenty below, forty-six in all. No-
restoration of this Dinosaur has been attempted, but it is believed
to have been from 40 ft. to 50 ft. in length. The teeth indicate a
herbivorous diet, the animal feeding largely upon succulent vege-
tation, and the position of the nares seems to indicate an aquatic
mode of life. Morosaurus is placed near to Diplodocus. The
limbs suggest a plantigrade progression, as in Brontosaurus. There
does not appear to be any representative of Diplodocus out of North
America.

Some of the Dinosaurs had a remarkable defensive armour : for
instance, Stcgosaurus had a row of enormous vertical plates forming
a single series and reaching from the head to the tail, the extremity
being armed by one or more pairs of large spines ; the head was
very small, as in Brontosaurus. We have in this country an inter-
esting example of an armoured Dinosaur in Scelidosaurus Harrisoni
from the Lias of Dorsetshire ; the back was protected by plates and
spines ; there were also lateral rows of smaller tubercles ; the head
was small and furnished with teeth, like those in the Iguanodon.

Triccratops was a large Cretaceous Dinosaur, the head being
6 ft. in length and broad in proportion ; it had a huge bony frill
margined by tubercles, covering the back of the neck and joined
to the skull. A pair of bony horns were placed, one over each eye,
covered in life by a horny sheath, and a smaller central one over
the nasal bones ; the extremity of the beak was provided with a
horny bill, both in the lower and upper mandible. The cheek
teeth are very singular among reptiles, having two distinct roots,
placed transversely in the jaw, with a separate cavity for each
fang ; this structure in the teeth is truly remarkable, being charac-
teristic of the Mammalia.

One of the earliest Dinosaurs known in this country is the
Iguanodon, originally described by Dr. Mantell and more fully by
Prof. Owen, but neither of these anatomists had anything but very
imperfect remains and detached bones to guide them in arriving
at a correct idea of the form of the entire animal. Mr. Water-
house Hawkins, in 1857, commenced a series of restorations of

148 Transactions of the Society.

extinct animals for the Crystal Palace Company at Sydenham,
then in its palmy days. Among these restorations may still he
seen the Iguanodon, represented as a pentaaaetyle four-footed beast,
the fore and hind limbs being of equal length. From the remark-
able discoveries made of late years in the Wealden deposits at
Bernissart in Belgium, we now know the true character of the
entire skeleton of the Iguanodon, a reproduction of the Brussels
Museum skeleton being set up in the Natural History Museum in
Cromwell Eoad.

The proportion between the fore and hind limbs is truly re-
markable ; the tail was of very great length ; the hind feet were
provided with three toes, and closely resemble in their digits the
foot of ordinary birds ; the fore limbs are very much shorter than
the hind limbs, and have the full complement of five digits. In an
erect position, the animal would measure 15 ft. in height, and about
twice that in length ; the only defensive armour consisted of a
strong spine on the thumb of each hand, covered in life by a horny
sheath ; the cheek teeth, which are very numerous in the sides of
the jaw, were — by the trituration of their food (which was of a
vegetable nature) — worn fiat on their tops, like the molar teeth in
horses. Instead of front teeth, there was a horny covering to the
jaws above and below, resembling the beak in the Tortoise or Turtle,
by means of which they cropped their food.

Remains of the carnivorous form of Dinosaur, the Mcgalosaurus,
are only imperfectly preserved to us, but from its teeth, limbs, and
vertebra we know that it was predaceous in habit, its teeth being
adapted for cutting and tearing flesh, not vegetable food ; the feet
and hands were armed with sharp claws, like those of carnivorous
mammals of the present day. In this group of reptiles, which
formerly occupied nearly the whole terrestrial field in the Secondary
period, we find the same arrangement as among existing mammals,
that is to say, many and very numerous forms of Herbivora,
mostly slow-moving, heavy beasts, and a few types of very active
and formidable Carnivora, whose business it was to keep down the
excessive number of the Herbivora.

Pterosauma, the flying Lizards, form a remarkable extinct
order of Winged Reptiles only met with in the Secondary rocks.
These animals had the centra of the vertebrae hollow in front ; they
possessed a broad sternum, or " breast bone," with a median ridge
or keel, similar to that of birds ; the jaws were usually armed with
teeth fixed in sockets. The fore limbs had a short humerus, a long
radius and ulna, and one of the fingers of the hand was enormously
elongated to give support to the wing-membrane (patagium), which
was attached to the sides of the body, the arm, the thumb, and the
long finger, and also to the hind limb and tail. The other fingers
of the hand were free, and furnished with claws. The wing-
membrane appears to have resembled that of the Bat, being desti-

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 140

tute of feathers. The caudal series of vertebra in some genera (as
in Bhamphorhynchus) was greatly elongated, and stiffened with
slender ossified fibres. The bones were pneumatic (i.e. filled with
air-cavities), the walls of the bones being very thin, and their
substance very hard and compact, thus combining strength with
lightness. A great American Pterodactyl, Pteranodon, with a head
4 ft. long, had its jaws armed with a horny bill and no teeth ; the
expanded wings measured about 18 ft. across. The remains of
another form, met with in the English Chalk of Kent, had its jaws
armed with teeth, and possessed wings of equal expanse. The
Dimorphodon, from the Lias of Lyme Regis, had a rather large head,
armed with lancet-like teeth, and a long rigid tail, which served
— like the same organ in Bhamphorhynchus, from the lithographic
stone of Bavaria — as a rudder to steer by, being provided with
an expanded membrane near its extremity, like the blade of a
canoe-paddle. Many forms, varying greatly in size, some no bigger
than a sparrow, others as large as Pteranodon, existed in the Lias,
Oolites, Greensand and Chalk, but they have all now disappeared,
and left no representatives behind among living beings.

The Crocodilia make their appearance in the Keuper and Lias
and are well represented by long and broad-headed forms in the
Secondary and Tertiary periods, but they offer but few points of
interest, save to the comparative anatomist, by which to separate
them specially from living forms. The Crocodiles belong to Pro-
fessor Owen's group the Procoelia, having the vertebrae concave in
front ; this includes the long-snouted Garials, as well as the short-
headed Alligators and Crocodiles, and various Tertiary forms.

The Secondary genera belong to Owen's Amphiccelia, in which
the vertebra? are concave .at both ends. Belodon, in the Keuper of
Stuttgart, and Stagonolejris, in the Trias of Elgin, are among the
oldest forms.

AVES. — Birds are so similar to reptiles in all the most essen-
tial features of their organisation, that they may be said to be merely
extremely modified and aberrant forms of the reptilian type ; still,
the differences which they present are sufficiently great to justify
their being placed in a distinct class. Another reason why Birds
are placed in an intermediate position between the Eeptilia and
Mammals is because, whilst their bony skeleton most closely
relates them to the Eeptilia, yet the fact that the chambers of the
heart in Birds are completely separated, as in Mammals, the blood
in consequence possesses a high temperature — in spite of all the
changes of external variations to which they are subjected — the loss
of heat being provided against by the clothing of down and
feathers, which preserves them from cold, just as the thick coat of
hair and wool does in the Mammalia.

The most ancient type of birds was supposed to be some
gigantic forms of struthious birds, such as the Ostrich, Bhea, Emu,

150 Transactions of the Society,

Cassowary or Apteryx ; but the bird-like footprints in the Trias,
which gave support to this belief, were not accompanied by any
osseous remains. When such remains were met with, they proved
that the supposed footprints of great Eatite birds were really made
by bird-footed bipedal reptiles. When a feathered fossil was first
discovered, its bony skeleton, although accompanied by impressions
of feathers, presented so many points of resemblance with the
Eeptilia, as to lead the German naturalist Wagner to name it
Gryphornis. This bird, the Archceopteryx, was obtained from the
lithographic stone of Solenhofen, Bavaria, and exhibited a tail
elongated like that of a lizard, comprising some twenty free vertebra?,
each bearing a pair of feathers. The pelvis was not constructed of
a large number of anchylosed vertebrae, but had only two or three
vertebras coalesced with the iliac bones ; the vertebras were either
amphiccelous or with flat ends ; the sternum is not well known, but
the furculum resembles that of modern carinate birds. The wing
was small, with three free digits, each terminated by a claw. It
is not certain if the metacarpal bones were fused together or not ;
the hind limb is essentially Avian, but the tibia does not show the
usual cnemian crest. In addition to the characters of the tail and
wing-bones, the skull also — which was very imperfectly preserved
in the first example — is now known (from a second example pre-
served in the Berlin Museum), to have been furnished with a series
of conical teeth, both in the upper maxillae and the mandible. The
foot is that of a true perching bird.

The next example of a fossil bird met with is from the Upper
Chalk of Kansas, in America, and makes us acquainted with a
huge fish-eating ratite bird, resembling in general form the loons
and grebes. The Bcsperornis, which was apparently destitute of
wings, possessed a long neck, and elongated skull ; the margins of
both jaws are provided with very numerous teeth arranged in
grooves, not in distinct sockets. There are twenty-three pre-sacral
vertebras united with saddle-shaped articulations, like those of
modern birds, seventeen being cervical vertebras ; fourteen are
fused together in the much-extended sacrum, and there are twelve
caudals, eight or nine of which are free.

The femur is remarkably short, thick, and flattened ; the tibia-
tarsus is the largest bone in the skeleton, and very stout and
powerful, its legs and feet being admirably adapted for swimming
and diving ; there are four digits in the foot, the fourth or outer
toe being much the largest. One specimen discovered shows traces
of feathers, which were soft and plume-like over the whole
body.

The Hcspcrornis rcgalis attained a height of 3 ft. 6 in. when
standing. On account of its ratite breast-bone, and its rudi-
mentary wings, it has been spoken of by Marsh as " the swimming
ostrich."

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 151

Another Cretaceous bird, Ichthyornis victor, also from Kansas,
appears to have been possessed of powerful flight, with a strongly-
formed and deeply carinate breast-bone ; the beak being like
Hesperomis armed with teeth, but implanted in distinct sockets.
The vertebrce were bi-concave, as is the case with a few recent and
many extinct reptiles.

The Odontopteryx toliapicus, from the London Clay of Sheppey,
also had a powerful serrated bill well adapted for seizing fishy
prey. An imperfect skull of a large bird, from Sheppey, probably
allied to the ostrich, is named Dasomis Londinicnsis.

We have another struthious bird, Gastornis Klaaseni, from
the lower Eocene of Croydon, as large as an ostrich but more
robust.

A similar bird, Gastornis jxirisiensis, was found in the Eocene
of Meudon, near Paris.

Fossil bird remains have not unfrequently been met with in
the Miocene-Tertiary beds of Allier, La Grive-St. Alban, in France,
the Brown Coal of Bonn, and from Oeningen in Switzerland.
Another fossil Ostrich comes from the Miocene of the Siwalik
Hills in India. But the most wonderful assemblage of fossil bird
remains met with anywhere has been found in the islands of New
Zealand. Here since first these birds were isolated and left alone
unmolested to increase and multiply, undisturbed by man the
destroyer, or by any carnivorous mammal ; with only two possible
enemies, a large vulturine bird Harpagornis, and the "Kea"
parrot which, is carnivorous in its habits ; — for untold centuries
they remained and flourished until the advent of the Maoris, who
commenced their steady destruction, which must have gone
on probably for hundreds of years. Mr. Commissioner Mantell
discovered at Poverty Bay the native ovens where the Maoris
prepared their repasts, and where the bony remains of hundreds
of these birds were found associated with the charcoal of the fires
in which they had been cooked. They were probably living as
lately as down to the first visits paid to New Zealand by white men
in 1642 ;* or even when Capt. Cook, the navigator, sailed around
the islands in 1769-70, and took - possession of them for the
British Government ; they however remained uncolonised by the
English until the year 1840. The Maoris, being cannibals, created
some little trouble, as after exterminating all the wingless birds,
they proceeded to Chatham Islands, 500 miles distant from New
Zealand, where they devoured all the natives.

Some idea may be formed of the enormous length of time
during which these great Eatite birds, Dinornithidce, must have
lived undisturbed, from the fact that some twenty species have
been described, varying in size from animals 12 ft. or more in

* These Islands were first discovered by Tasman in 1G42.

152 Transactions of the Society.

height down to individuals but little bigger than the existing
Kiwi or Apteryx. It is quite possible that these great wingless
birds, which must have existed in thousands, judging by their
remains, once occupied a land area far larger than the existing
islands of New Zealand. Of wingless birds on these islands the
Apteryx alone survives.

In the adjacent continent of Australia two species, the Emu
and the Cassowary are living, and two other forms named Drom-
ornis and Genyornis are extinct. On the island continent of
Madagascar, near the coast of Africa, the JEpyomis was once
equally abundant, and like the Dinomis in New Zealand was
represented by several well-marked species, some of which attained
a size as great as that of the Dinomis ; and the eggs which have
been very commonly found in the sands of Madagascar, surpass
in size those of any bird's egg known, living or extinct. On
the neighbouring continent of Africa, the Ostrich still survives.
In South America another struthious bird also exists, named the
Ehea, and a fossil bird of very great size, the Pliororhachos, from
the Tertiary of Patagonia, which was probably as tall as the
Dinomis and destitute of the power of flight.

It is not positively known whether the great series of
wingless Birds, the Eatitce or Eaft-breasted Birds, originally
belonged to one family or not ; they are now certainly very widely
separated on the great Southern land-areas, and if they have
sprung from a common ancestor in the past, they afford remarkable
evidence of the high antiquity of Birds on the surface of the earth.
One wingless bird, the Dodo, found only on the Island of Mauritius,
was probably exterminated more than 250 years ago by man.
The Dodo was a great wingless ground pigeon, which had lost
by disuse the power of flight, and so fell an easy prey to the
early Dutch navigators, who devoured them all. The Mascarene
Islands were also the ancient home of the Solitaire (Pezohaps)
which inhabited the island of Bodiguez, the " weka " or wood-hen
(Erythromachus), a great species of crake, and several other birds
now quite extinct.

The Penguins (Spheniscidcc) have fossil representatives in New
Zealand and Patagonia. They range at the present day from South
America to the Falkland Islands, South Africa, Australia, New
Zealand, and most of the Antarctic lands, but are not met with
north of the Equator.

The Great Auk (Alca impennis), though separated from its
representatives in the Antarctic, is a corresponding type of fish-
eating, diving, wingless birds, in which the wing no longer functions
as a wing, but rather as the fore-arm or flipper of an aquatic
mammal or reptile : it is, in fact, only used in swimming. Once
common on all the Arctic lands, just as the Penguin is at the
present day on the Antarctic coasts and islands, it lived around the

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 153

shores of Scotland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, Greenland, and the shores
of Newfoundland, but since the year 1844 it has been completely
exterminated by man.

Mammalia. — In the earlier groups of the Vertebrata which we
have already considered, the young have, as a rule, been deposited
by the parent enclosed in an egg, while in a few instances they
have been found to be hatched before birth, as in the case of the
Viper among Reptiles, the Blenny among Fishes, the Scorpion in
the Arachnida, the Flesh-Fly, and the Earthworm. Among Mam-
malia in general, the foetus is nourished by the parent before birth
by a vascular membrane called the placenta, in which it is en-
closed, and when born it has usually attained a certain amount of
growth ; in fact, the young are born alive, and are suckled by the
parent until sufficiently advanced to be able to feed themselves.

Birds, we have seen, are clothed in feathers, but the Mammalia
have instead a hairy covering, which is seldom entirely absent
even in huge aquatic forms like the whales ; whilst a few large,
apparently-naked, terrestrial, tropical species possess hairs on certain
parts of the body : for instance, the Cetacea have short bristles at
least on the lip ; animals like the Elephant and the Hippopotamus
have some hairs, whilst the extinct Mammoth had a complete hairy
and woolly covering. Mammals, chen, may be described as warm-
blooded, hairy animals, the head being attached to the vertebral
■column by a double-occipital condyle. They are viviparous (bring-
ing forth their young alive), and the young are suckled by a
secretion, known as milk, furnished by the mammary glands.

The earliest mammals known belong to the Prototheria.

Prototheria : Multituberculata. — Two living examples of
the Monotremata {Ornithorhynchus and Echidna), small, toothless,
burrowing animals, probably represent the sole survivors of the
first-known mammals of the Trias, the Stonesfield Slate, and the
Purbeck Beds.

There is a remarkable resemblance between the early-shed teeth
of the immature Ornithorhynchus and the multituberculate molars
in certain small jaws found in Mesozqic and Eocene strata.

Some of the forms originally placed by Owen among the earliest
mammals, as, for instance, Tritylodon, from the Trias of South
Africa, are now referred to the Anomodont Pteptiles, with Cyno-
gnathus, etc. Those still considered to represent early mammals are
placed in the Multituberculata, on account of the number of
tubercles borne on the molar teeth ; the most interesting of these
are Amphilestcs, Phascolotherium, and Stereognathus, from the Great
Oolite Stonesfield, and Plagiaulax, Microlcstcs, Bolodon, Allodon,
Ctenacodon, from the Purbeck Beds — all these represent extremely
small animals, not bigger than a rat or a mouse. Polymastodon is
represented by somewhat larger animals, one being equal in size
to a kangaroo ; the teeth are on the rodent pattern, with cutting

April 20th, 1904 M

154 Transactions of the Society.

incisors, the molars and premolars being tubercular. Numerous
remains of these small mammals have been met with in this
country, in America, and in France, the earliest being the Droma-
thcrium sylvestre, from the Trias of North Carolina.

Monotremata. — The lowest type of living mammals (the Mono-
tremata) are oviparous, the egg being apparently placed by the
female in the marsupium or pouch of the mother, the young re-
maining attached to the parent until able to feed themselves.

Metatheria: Marsupialia. — In the Marsupialia, which com-
prise the kangaroos and wombats, the young is not enclosed in an
egg at birth, but is produced as a very minute and immature foetus,
and placed by the parent in the marsupial pouch, where it becomes
attached to the mammary gland, and is carried in this receptacle
until able to run alone.

The kangaroos and wombats are almost entirely confined at
the present day to Australia, but one genus, Didelphys, is found
living in South America, while fossil remains occur in Tertiary
deposits in Europe. Possibly some of the small extinct mammals,
whose remains have been found in the Purbeck and Stonesfield
Slate, may have belonged to the Marsupialia.

In Tertiary times, animals of very large size, such as the
Diprotodon, the Nototherium, and Thylacoleo existed in numbers
upon the Australian continent ; but these are all now extinct, and
only the existing Kangaroos, the small Wombats, and Opossums,
survive.

Eutheria : Placental Mammals. — The origin of the two
groups of marine placental mammals, the Cetacea and Sircnia,
still remains uncertain, and Palaeontology does not afford us any
information thereon.

Cetacea. — The largest of all living or extinct animals belong to
the whale tribe, probably the great Eight-whale, measured not short
of 100 ft. in length and was many tons in weight ; the Cetacea are
all warm-blooded mammals, and have probably been derived from
Terrestrial ancestors who at some distant period took up an aquatic
existence probably within the tropics ; the body in these animals
is not clothed in fur, but beneath the skin is a thick layer of fat
("blubber") which as effectually protects the vital organs from the
cold in its watery home, as does the fur of any arctic animal on the
land. The remains of Cetacea, particularly of the Toothed Whales,
the Sperm Whale, the Dolphin, etc., are met with in deposits of
later Tertiary age, such as the Crag of Suffolk and of Antwerp.

The earliest known Cetacea (Zevglodon) were provided with
cheek teeth with double fangs ; whereas the later Cetacea have no
distinction in the teeth in their jaws, which are all simple one-
fanged teeth of the same pattern. In the Eight-whales, teeth,
except in the foetus, are unknown, their place being taken by
horny plates of whalebone known as baleen, which differs greatly

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 155

from teeth, being produced from the ephithelium, the cuticular
covering of the lips.

Sirenia. — The Sirenia form an entirely distinct group of re-
markable aquatic vegetable-feeding animals, subsisting entirely on
the aquatic plants in rivers, and on the great beds of laminaria
and other sea-weeds, which grow just below low-water and
especially abound in the North Pacific Ocean. Numerous species
formerly existed in the Old World whose remains are met with in
Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene strata in Europe, North Africa, in
our own Crag formation, as well as in that of Antwerp. One
huge form, about 20 ft. in length, known as " Steller's sea-cow,"
Rhytina f/igas, was living on the coast of Behring and Copper
Island, off Kamchatka, between 1740 and 1780, but it was en-
tirely exterminated by the hand of man. The adult animal was
apparently edentulous (the young only being furnished with milk-
teeth) ; instead of teeth there were horny palates on the upper and
lower surface of the mouth, which, being strongly ribbed trans-
versely, served in place of teeth. Two other surviving forms :
one, the Manatee, inhabiting the shores and rivers of both sides of
the Atlantic, near the line of the equator, and met with in the
Congo in Africa, and the Amazons and Orinoco in South America ;
the other species, the Dugong {Halicore), being confined to the
shores and islands of the Indian Ocean, the Bed Sea, and the
eastern shores and northern coasts of Australia. Both these forms,
being restricted to those localities where sea- weeds and other aquatic
plants abound, on which they feed, are rapidly being exterminated
by man. Some years ago a company was formed on the east coast
of Australia for the production of dugong oil ; so that the Halicore
australis will soon be a thing of the past.

No doubt these forms were at one time derived from terrestrial
ancestors. The teeth in the Manatee are tuberculated molars
resembling those of the pig and the hippopotamus. The teeth in
the Dugong are of a more simple form and fewer in number. The
Ehytina, as before stated, had no teeth. The hind limbs in all
these Sirenians are only indicated by & rudiment within the body
as is also the case in the Cetacea. The Sirenians retain free move-
ments of the bones of the fore-arm, with separate motion between
the humerus and the radius and ulna, which is lost in the Cetaceans,
the whole fore-arm being rigid, moving only from the shoulder,
thus forming a true flipper or fin.

Although owing to their mode of life these two groups are
purely aquatic in habit, yet they possess all the attributes of the
mammalian class. They bring forth their young alive ; they are
nourished by the milk of the parent, and the offspring enjoy the
same tender care from the mother as do the young of terrestrial
animals.

Edentata. — The Edentata are not all toothless animals, as their

m 2

156 Transactions of the Society.

name would imply. Although without teeth in the front of the
jaws, they yet possess cheek teeth ; the Ant-eaters, however, have
no teeth. The existing forms are all of moderate size, being repre-
sented by the Ant-eater Myrmccophaga, of which there are three
species living in South America, two species of scaly Ant-eaters
in Africa, and two in the East Indies. Orycteropus, the hairy Ant-
eater, or " Aard-vark," of the Cape, is lound also in north-eastern
Africa, and fossil in the island of Samos. The great body of
Edentate animals are characteristic of South America ; there are,
beside the Ant-eaters, many species of Armadillos and several forms
of Tree-Sloths ; this group of animals is interesting also as affording
illustrations of mammals, in some of which the hairy covering is
quite subsidiary ; the scaly Ant-eaters having an entire covering of
horny scales like some reptiles, whilst in the Armadillos the body
and tail are provided with a coat of mail, having a thin horny
surface with thick bony plates beneath.

The modern Armadillos have a banded coat of bony, horny
scales, arranged in rows, so as to enable the animal to roll itself
into a ball like a hedgehog. But in Tertiary times the Armadillos
were represented by many species of Olyptodon and of Hoplophorus
of giant size, which had no bands to their armour, but were
covered with a solid cuirass of thick bony plates united together
into one massive shield, covering the whole body and attached to
the bony vertebral skeleton within. The modern Sloths are small,
the largest of them not being bigger than a moderate sized dog ;
they spend their lives in an arboreal existence, climbing by means
>f their long claw-like nails among the boughs of lofty trees, on
the foliage of which they browse ; they sleep in the same manner
attached by their hooked claws to the branches of trees, and carry
their young with them.

The Ancient Sloths were of gigantic size, and being so large
they dwelt upon the ground, but like their small modern repre-
sentatives they fed upon the leaves of trees and obtained them
by uprooting the trees with their powerful feet armed with strong
claws. The last surviving species of Giant Ground Sloths lived
contemporary with early man in South America, probably, indeed,
within a hundred years of the present time. In a cave in South
America near Last Hope Inlet, in Patagonia, numerous remains of
these animals, named Ncomylodon, had evidently been kept in
confinement, and fed upon grass cut by man, as cows are kept
in a shed at the present day. They were killed off by their
captors from time to time when needed for food, and their bones,
with the implements of early man, were found in the cave where
they had been eaten. No historic record of these South American
Indians is known ; we cannot, therefore, fix the exact date when
these great animals were last seen alive. Like the Moa in New
Zealand, the Jfipyornis in Madagascar, and the great sea-cow

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 157

(Rhytina) of Behring Island, and many other animals, they have
all been destroyed by man.

Ungulata Condylarthra. — This is a small, generalised, early
group of ungulates approaching the ancestors of the carnivora.
The feet are pentadactyle and plantigrade ; the brain is diminutive.
Hyracops and Phenacodus are typical examples. The teeth have a
low crown, bearing tubercles. They occur in the Eocene formation.

Hyracoida. — In this order there are two surviving genera,
Hyrax and Dendrohyrax, of Africa and Syria. They occur fossil
at Pikermi, in Samos, in Egypt, and Patagonia.

Amblypoda. — The Amblypoda, or blunt-toed animals, make
their appearance in the Lower Eocene. Many of these animals
attained a very large size, nearly equal to that of the Elephant,
their limbs being adapted to support the weight of very ponderous
bodies. The brain in these early animals was extremely small ;
the teeth are brachyodont, the tubercles being fused mostly into
transverse ridges, the full number of teeth being forty-four.

Coryphyodon and Dinoceras are from the Lower and Middle
Eocene formations, and are striking examples of this now extinct
group. Dinoceras and Tinoceras are provided with horns on the
skull, and a full series of teeth are present ; the skeleton and limbs
closely resemble those of the Elephant in their general characters.
They have no living representatives at the present day.

Arsinoitherium Zitteli Beadn. — There has lately been obtained
from the Upper Eocene of the Fayum, Egypt, a most remarkable
and novel form of large extinct Mammal belonging to the
Amblypoda, as big as a large rhinoceros in size, and having
a most bizarre and remarkable skull. The brain was small, and
placed near the hind part of the cranium ; the whole of the
top of the skull being occupied by two very small and two
immense horn-cores, the latter of which measure, from the occipital
condyle to the tip of horn, 99 cm. ; their points are directed for-
wards ; the nasal openings are beneath them in front, divided by a
very narrow septum. The jaws are compressed in front, and pro-
vided with numerous teeth adapted to vegetable food. The mouth
had probably a prehensile upper lip, or a proboscidiform snout like
that of a tapir, to enable it to gather its food, whether leaves or
grasses. It is probable these animals possessed a horny sheath,
covering their great bony horns, as the surface of the bone is marked
by vascular canals. The skeleton in the Amblypoda — save the
skull — was not unlike that of the elephants, and these great pachy-
derms probably may have been derived from a common ancestor in
the far distant past.

Proboscidea (Elephant, Mastodon, etc.) — Although the exist-
ing Elephants form a well-known group of hoofed quadrupeds,,
they have been for a very long time separated from all the other
herbivorous animals by many peculiarities in their structure and

158 Transactions of Hue Society.

dentition, and we were for a very long time unacquainted with any
older forms showing a more generalised type of structure. Until
about a year ago the only forms of Elephants with which we were
acquainted were (1) the African Elephant, (2) the Indian Elephant,
(3) the Mastodon, (4) the Tetrabelodon, and (5) the Dinothcrium.
The extinct forms of Elephant approach either the African or the
Indian type : for instance, the Mammoth agrees most nearly with
the modern Indian form ; the Mephas mcridionalis of the Norfolk
Forest Bed and other deposits suggests affinities with the African
species. Certain small pigmy forms, occurring fossil in Malta,
Sicily, and Cyprus, may also have had affinities with the African
species. But it is only in the molar teeth that these Elephants differ
in any material degree from one another. The Mastodon has the
character of the molars considerably changed from those of the
true Elephants. In the Indian Elephant and in the Mammoth, the
transverse ridges — which are placed closely together, forming the
massive molar teeth — have sometimes as many as tliirty ridges in
one tooth ; in some of the American Mastodons the molars had
only three ridges. Another peculiarity is the occasional presence of
milk-incisors in the lower jaw of the American Mastodon. Other-
wise, modern and extinct Elephants and Mastodons agree in having
only one pair of incisor teeth, and those always being in the upper
mandible. In Tetrabelodon, which was a Miocene form, two pairs
of incisors seem always to have been present, the upper pair being
bent downwards, and the lower pair being directed nearly straight
in front, or a little curved upwards. On account of the large size
of the molar teeth in modern Elephants, we usually find not more
than two molar teeth on each side in use in the jaws at the same
time ; these are renewed from behind — not from below, as in most-
other mammals, and in the earlier forms of Proboscidea — and are
pushed forward and worn away in front by the new molars
gradually taking their place from behind. In the earlier forms of
the Elephant and Mastodon, the teeth being smaller, a larger
number could be in use in the cheek-series at the same time than
in Eleplias ; in Tetrabelodon this is also the case.

The gradual increase in the complexity of the proboscidean
molars is one of their most striking characteristics. We notice also
the loss of the incisors, only two upper ones remaining ; the canines
are also lost. In the earliest forms some at least of the cheek-teeth
are replaced by premolars in the usual manner ; these teeth remain
in wear simultaneously with the true molars, but in later forms no
vertical succession takes place, and as the milk-molars are worn
they are shed, being replaced from behind by the true molars.

In Palcvomastodon (Upper Eoeene) the molars are trilophodont ;
in Moerithium the teeth are simple brachyodont bilophodont
(quadritubercular molars), and molars, premolars and incisors are
all present. In the earliest forms the skull had not attained the

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 159

elevation seen in the modern Elephants, but resembled that of an
ordinary form of mammal such as the Pig or Tapir. With the
increased length of the proboscis the length of the jaws diminished,
the teeth were reduced in number, and became deeper and larger,
and the jaws also correspondingly deeper, also the facial angle
became more vertical, and the jaw shorter. In the modern Ele-
phant we may observe that the brain actually is just above the
palate and over the grinding-surface of the teeth, which no longer
occupy a position anterior to the brain, as in ordinary mammals.

In Dinotherium the incisors so characteristic of modern Ele-
phants are wanting in the upper jaws, but two exist in the lower
jaw curved downwards, quite unlike that in any other of the Pro-
boscidea known ; molars and premolars seem to have been present
in the jaw at the same time.

The Ancylopoda represent another primitive sub-order of
ungulates, with a very wide range in Miocene and Pliocene times.
They resemble the great extinct ground sloths of America, and the
existing ant-eaters of the old world, and when the limbs alone were
known they were referred to the Edentates. Homalodontothcrium,
Macrothcriitm, and Chalicotherium belong to this sub-order, and are
met with in Patagonia, North America, Europe and Asia.

Tyfotheria. — These form a group of extinct ungulates from
South America, found in the Pampas formation, some of them of
considerable size, comprising Typothcrium, Pyrotherium, and Pachy-
rucus. The teeth are more or less rodent-like. They appear to be
little-modified descendants of very primitive mammalia.

Toxodontia. — Named from the typical genus Toxodon. The
complete skeleton of Toxodon is known. The animal was shorter-
limbed, but more bulky than a horse, having rodent-like incisors in
its jaws. The teeth are deepened, and more or less curved, often
growing persistently throughout life. The dental series is nearly
complete, only the canines being reduced or absent. The name
Toxodon is derived from the bow-like form of these teeth.

Lytopterna. — This is a South American group of animals
which in their foot and tooth structure resemble the uneven-toed
ungulates (the Perissodactyla), though they are not related to them.
Protcrotherium and Thoatherium belong to this sub-order. A better
known genus is that of Macraachcnia patagoniea, an animal with
a long neck and three complete digits. The original fossil remains
of this animal were obtained by Darwin during the voyage of the
' Beagle.'

Perissodactyla (Uneven-toed Ungulates). — Many early forms
are included in this division, the Perissodactyla, or uneven-toed
Herbivora. Nearly all the ancestors of these animals had penta-
<lactyle (five-toed) feet. One of the earliest of these families are the
Tapirs, the living representatives of which being found as far apart
from one another as South America and the Malay Peninsula.

160 Transactions of the Society.

Many fossil forms of tapirs occur as far back as the Eocene period ;
others are met with in the Miocene and Pliocene formations of
North America ; their teeth are found in the Eed Crag of Suffolk,
in the Antwerp Crag, in the Lower Pliocene of Hesse-Darmstadt,
Austria-Hungary, France, and Italy ; one species occurring as far
off as in the Pliocene formation of China ; their geographical range,
as well as their geological antiquity, being very great.

Among the ancestors of the horse may be mentioned the Hyra-
cotherium {Protorohippus venticolum), from Wyoming, in which
there are four toes present in the fore foot, and five toes in the hind
foot ; Orohippus is a closely allied genus, also from the Middle
Eocene of Wyoming. Palosotherium is found only in the Upper
Eocene of Europe, its remains having been obtained in a very
perfect state from Montmartre, Paris.

Anchithcrium closely resembles Palosotherium, but the incisor
teeth exhibit an apical pit or depression, which characterises the
front teeth in the existing horse. Mesohippus is anotherearly form
allied to these, from the Miocene of Dakota.

The lower Pliocene makes us acquainted with another three-
toed ancestor of the horse in which the crown of the worn upper
molar displays a more marked complexity in the folding of the-
enamel, and a shortening of the second and fourth digits, which
no longer take any part in supporting the foot on the ground.

In Pliohippus, the second and fourth digits have lost their
phalangeal bones ; and only the slender splint-bones seen in the-
leg of the horse, represent the second and fourth digits, the=
animal, like the horse, being supported on the third digit alone.

In the EmNOCEEOTiDiE we have several curious ancestral forms
preserved to us, of which Titanotherium, from the lower Miocene
of Dakota, is a remarkable example. In this animal a pair of
blunt bony horns are placed side by side on the nasal bones. In
the modern Ehinoceroses there is no bony base to the horn ; the
whole being composed of a mass of coalesced hair of the same
nature as the outer investing sheath of the cow's-horn, only the-
interior is solid and entirely composed of the same epidermic
material. Numerous fossil species of Khinoceros have been met
with in America, in this country, throughout Europe, and in India ;
and its geographical range formerly extended North, even to Arctic-
Siberia. Species of Rhinoceros still survive in Africa and in India.
One of these African species, Rhinoceros simus, is probably closely
related to the Rhinoceros antiquitatis, found fossil in Siberia.

The tichorine or woolly rhinoceros is found in most English
bone-caves and river-deposits, and on the Dogger Bank, in the
North Sea, and other submerged old land-deposits off the Norfolk
and Suffolk coasts. In Siberia it wandered even within the Arctic-
Circle, its mummified remains having been discovered in the frozen

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 161

earth in Northern Siberia, from which it is seen that the animal
had been thickly clothed with hair and wool. Its huge horns
have also been found in the same deposits.

A remarkably specialised fossil form occurs in Southern Russia,
known as Elasmothcrium, in which the nasal bones are slender,
but the nasal septum is ossified ; and there is an enormous bony
prominence on the frontal region of the skull, which must have
borne a relatively large horn.

Numerous species of Ehinoceros occur fossil in the Siwalik
Hills of India ; at Maragha, in Persia ; at Pikermi, in Greece ;
in Italy, France, and Britain.

Artiodactyla (even-toed Ungulates). — The even-toed hoofed
animals are traceable from early Eocene times ; they have the third
and fourth digits almost equally developed in both fore, and hind
feet ; the hoof-bones are liattened on their inner or contiguous
surfaces. They are sub-divided into four groups : (1) pigs,
peccaries, and hippopotami (Suina); (2) camels and llamas
(Tylopoda) ; (3) chevrotains (Tragulina) ; (4) deer, sheep and
cattle (Pecora).

Such divisions as Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla, lose much of
their significance when we follow them down to their earliest
ancestral types. One of the most well-known families is that
of the Hippopotamidse. These large Amphibia, now only met
with in the rivers and lakes of the interior of tropical Africa, were
once equally abundant from the Cape to the Delta of the Nile ;
where they occupied the sea-shores and estuaries, as well as the
internal rivers and lakes. In late Tertiary times they were most
abundant in Britain, France and Italy, whilst pigmy species
occurred in the islands of Malta, Sicily and Cyprus. Numerous
species have also been found in the Siwalik Hills of India, and
the fossil remains of a small form occurs abundantly in the Island
of Madagascar. Large species of fossil pigs occur both in India
and in America ; at Pikermi, in Greece ; in Tuscany ; and at
Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt. Various ancestral forms of these
animals go back to Eocene times.

The extinct genera, Elotherium and Cheiropotavius, each possess-
ing the typical number of forty-four teeth, occur in the lower
Miocene of France, and in the Hempstead beds of the Isle of
Wight. Another Eocene form, Anthracotherium, occurs in Pied-
mont, in France and in Hampshire. Hyopotamus, from the Isle
of Wight, and Merycopotamus are closely related; the latter is
from the Siwalik Hills, India.

Anoplotherium represents another of the early Eocene Mammals,
once abundant in this country and in France, but it does not
appear to have left any descendants behind.

Passing over a large number of small Eocene and Miocene
Mammals, as Ccenotherium, Xiphodon, Oreodon, and Agriochosrus^

162 Transactions of the Society,

the two former from French localities, and the two latter from the
American Miocene deposits, we come to an ancestor of the existing
Camelidre, camels and llamas (Tylopoda, in allusion to their cushion-
like feet).

Of these, Macrauchenia occurs in Patagonia, Poibrotherium and
Procamelus in Colorado and New Mexico. Protoceras is another
remarkable horned form from the lower Miocene of Dakota, having
bony prominences, probably supporting horns, on the nose, on the
frontal bones, and a third pair on the parietal bones of the skull.

The Cervid.e, true deer, appear for the first time in the middle
and upper Miocene of North America, and in the Miocene of
France, etc. The earliest members of the deer-tribe appear to
have had very prominent bony pedicles on their skulls giving rise
to small deciduous Antlers, which seem to have attained their
greatest size in Pleistocene or Quaternary times.

The gigantic Irish deer, the Reindeer, and the Elk, have all
been living inhabitants of Britain within the human period.

The Gikaffid^e are represented by two surviving forms, the
Giraffe and the Okapi, both confined at present to the interior of
Africa.

The extinct forms are JTclladotherium, and Samotherium, from
Samos, Greece, and Persia ; Palocotragus from Greece ; and
Sivatherium from the Siwaliks of India.

The Axtelopid-'E are almost confined to Africa, but they
formerly ranged, in Tertiary times, into France, Spain, England,
Austria, Italy, Greece, Samos, Persia, and India. The Saiga
tartarica once inhabited the Thames Valley, and is still living on
the Siberian steppes of the Volga.

Of the ancient stocks from which our domestic cattle have
arisen, the only ones of geological interest are the musk-ox (Ovibos
moschatus), the Bison, occurring both in Europe and North America,
the great Bos primigenius (probably the " Urus " of Csesar), and
the small Bos longifrons; this last having survived down to
Romano-British times.

Rodentia. — The Rodentia are a well-defined group of small
gnawing mammals, destitute of canine teeth, and with one pah' of
large chisel-shaped incisor teeth above and below, growing with
persistent pulps throughout life. The Hare, Babbits, Porcupines,
Beaver, Bats, Mice, Dormice, Squirrels and Marmots, offer
examples of existing forms of this group.

The Marmot, Spher?nophilus, occurs in the Pleistocene deposits
in this country ; the Beaver was once a common animal with us,
its remains being abundantly met with in the Pleistocene deposits
of Essex and Cambridgeshire ; it is still living in the estuaries of
the Rhone and the Danube, and in some Russian rivers ; it is also
to be met with in Canada, and Vancouver's Island, British Columbia.
In the Forest Bed series of the Norfolk coast, in South Russia, in

The President's Address. By Dr. H. Woodward. 163

Ohio, New York, Mississippi, etc., several gigantic forms of Beaver
are known, e.g. Trogontherium Cuvicri, Castoroidcs Ohioensis, twice
as large as the existing Beaver. An extinct giant Dormouse, Myoxus
nulitensis, has been found in the newer Tertiary deposits of the
Island of Malta, associated with the remains of the Pigmy
Elephant. The Zagomys, or Tail-less Hare, occurs in Brixham
Cave and Kent's Cave, Torquay, and in the Miocene deposits of
Oeningen.

Cakxivoea. — Before the appearance of warm-blooded mammals
the duties of the Carnivora, or flesh-eating animals, were per-
formed by the carnivorous Dinosaurs, and in earlier times by the
carnivorous Theriodonts. AVith the advent of the herbivorous
mammalia Lions, Tigers, Hyaenas, Bears, Wolves, and lesser
Carnivora made then appearance ; one of the most striking of
these early forms was the great Sabre-toothed Tiger, Macharodus,
whose remains have been discovered in North and South America,
in England, in France, in Italy, in India, and various localities,
associated with the early species of Elephants. There is little
doubt that this formidable extinct Tiger preyed upon these great
herbivores, and that the huge canine teeth protruding from the
upper mandible enabled it to fasten upon the flanks of the
Elephant, whose blood it doubtless sucked. Hyamas and Bears
were both abundant in this country in late Tertiary times, their
remains with those of the Machcerodus being found in the cave
deposits of Britain, France, Germany, etc.

Pinnipedia {Fin-footed). — The Seals represent in the marine
deposits the Carnivora of the Land. Gigantic species of the clam-
eating Walrus have left then remains in the Suffolk Crag and the
Dogger Bank in the North Sea. Seals were once also abundant
in these later deposits and upon our coasts.

Inscctivora. — The small mammals belonging to the Insectivora,
— the Moles, Shrews, and Hedgehogs — do not go back in time
beyond the Eocene and Miocene deposits. One form, Necrogym-
nurus, occurs in the Eocene of Hordwell, and a species of
Erinaceus in the Miocene of Oeningen ; others occur in the Brick-
earth of the Thames Valley and the Norfolk Forest Bed.

Chiroptera. — The Chiroptera or Bats have the fingers of the
fore-limbs enormously elongated, and united by an expansile
membrane (patagium) which joins the fore and hind limbs and
the sides of the body together, enabling the creature to pursue an
aerial existence somewhat like a bird ; but the " flitter-mouse,"
(the old English name for the Bat), is clothed in fur, not feathers.
Some of the large tropical Bats are fruit-eaters, while others are
insectivorous in their diet. Remains of a fossil bat have been
found in the Upper Eocene of the Gypsum Quarries of Mont-
martre, Paris.

Primates {Man). — The remains of man and of the higher

164 Transactions of the Society.

Anthropoid Apes are seldom found in a fossil state ; the earliest
human remains known are met with in Caves, in Peat deposits^
or, as represented by their weapons, in river valley gravels. Fossil
monkeys are extremely rare. A single tooth referred to Macacus
pliocamus was obtained from the Brick-earth of Grays, Essex.
Of the Lemurs, Adapts and Nccrolemur occur in the Eocene of
Hordwell, Hampshire, and the older Tertiaries of France ; other
remains have been obtained from the Miocene of Dakota, North
America ; and Megaladapis, a giant Lemur, from the newer
Tertiaries of Madagascar.

I would only remark in conclusion, that the geological record,
so far as preserved to us, gives proof of progressive advance in
vertebrate life, and we find throughout the rocks undoubted evi-
dence of development from lower to higher forms. Groups like
the Sauropterygia, Ichthyopterygia, the Cetacea and Sirenia, are
so evidently exceptions, and present cases of retrogression so>
divergent from the rest of the biological series, that they do not
impugn the general conclusion of a gradual onward progression
of life to a higher condition of existence.

A few instances of lowly persistent forms occur in the verte-
brata as among the invertebrata. Thus the Cyclostomi and the-
Elasmobranchi have probably lived on but little changed from th&
Devonian, or even earlier, until recent times ; but the great
majority of vertebrates give evidence of evolution, not only in
their orders and families, but in their individual development.
Nor can it be doubted that the advance of mankind from the rude
state of primitive savages to the present conditions of culture and
development in the arts and sciences, attests the same progress in
the human race towards a higher life to which all nature moves.

My friend, Dr. H. Dukinfield Scott, who will presently occupy
this chair, which, by your favour, I have been called upon to fill
for the past two years, will be able to tell you that in his special
branch of investigation (Paleobotany), he has found it to be indis-
pensable not only to know the microscopic structure of living
plants in order to compare them with those of fossil ones ; but
also to know both the living and the fossil plants themselves, the
former as they are met with at the present day, and their ancestors
as they are found in the rocks.

I shall thus, I hope, obtain from my successor some countenance-
for my temerity, in having ventured to detain you so long this
evening with my sketch of the ancestors of the Vertebrata, which
follows as Part II. of my Address to you in January 1903.

165

V. — On the Vertical Illuminator.
By Edwakd M. Nelson.

(Read Feb. 17th, 1904.)

With reference to the Vertical Illuminator, which, after lying
more or less in abeyance for some twenty-five years, has lately
come into notice for the examination of opaque objects, a few
words may be said both on its construction and use.

There are four forms of this appliance now catalogued by
opticians.

1. That known as Tolles' interior illuminator. This consists of
a minute prism let into the side of the objective mount, either just
behind the duplex or triplex front, or the back lens.

This form may be criticised, because (a) it gives, and can only
give, oblique illumination ; (/3) it requires a special modification of
the objective mount ; (7) the objective cannot perform so well as it
ought to do when it has a portion of its aperture at its periphery
permanently stopped out.

(Zeiss' form of Tolles' illuminator blocks out half the objective
aperture.)

2. The Beck form : this consists of a nose-piece containing a
cover-glass for a reflector, mounted so as to be capable of rotation.

This has the advantage (a) that the objective aperture is left
quite clear ; (/3) that in the objective itself there is neither the
modification nor the structural alteration that the Tolles' method
requires.

This device may be criticised because (a) only a portion of the
back lens can be illuminated by a parallel beam when the circular
cover-glass is rotated to an angle of 45°, and (/3) it has no means of
regulating the illumination.

3. Powell's form, like Beck's, consists of a nose-piece, but it
contains a piece of worked glass fixed permanently at an angle of 45°
in place of the rotating cover-glass. It has, however, an attached
wheel of diaphragms for the purpose of regulating the light. The
criticism relating to this device is that the opening is so small that
(a) it cuts down the aperture of the objective ; (/3) the whole of
the back lens cannot be illuminated by a parallel beam.

4. Iteichert's form is somewhat similar to Powell's, only it is
mounted in an eye-piece adapter at the upper end of the draw tube,
and it has no light regulator. The criticism upon this device is
(a\ the reflector is too far from the back lens of the objective, and
(/3) there is no means of regulating the illumination.

By casting one's eye over the criticisms on these forms of
vertical illuminators, it is quite easy to see what is, and what is
not wanted.

166 Transactions of the Society.

1. The vertical illuminator must not be an oblique, and an
oblique illuminator only.

2. It should be capable of illuminating the full aperture of the
back lens of any obiective with a parallel beam of light.

3. It must not be a permanent attachment to an objective, so as
to impair its performance of ordinary work.

4. The reflector must be placed near the back lens.

5. There must be some method of regulating the illumination.
From the above we may gather that a nose-piece form of

apparatus is the best, and it would seem that the Beck and Powell
forms more nearly conform to the above named conditions, but the
reflecting glass must be made much larger than at present, and the
hole in the side of the nose-piece should be as large, or nearly as
large as the opening of the Society's gauge.

How to use a Vertical Illuminator to the best advantage.

This form of illumination can only be used to the best advantage
with oil-immersion objectives, and it is the peripheral portions of
these objectives which play the most important part with this
method.

Hence we see it is absolutely necessary that the full opening of
the Society's gauge should be left perfectly clear, so that the back
lens of any objective may have none of its aperture cut down.

Again, in order that the illuminating source may be focussed
upon the object, it is necessary that the path of the light from its
.source to the mirror, and from the mirror to the objective, should
be equal to that from the eye-piece to the objective. To satisfy
this condition with the Eeichert method, the lamp would have to
almost touch the body-tube — a quite impossible condition.

At the hole in the side of the nose-piece there should be a
carrier for diaphragms of various sizes — this is preferable to either
a wheel of diaphragms or an iris. There should also be a strip of
metal with a slit in it, which can be drawn across the hole at the
side of the nose-piece. The direction of the slit should be in a line
with the edge of the flame of the Microscope lamp. Good illumi-
nation can be obtained by carefully attending to the focus of the
image of the flame on the object, by placing the lamp at a suitable
distance, and by regulating both the size of aperture and the
position of the slit. A large cover-glass supplied for compressors
would form an excellent mirror ; nothing else is required except the
nose-piece adapter with a hole in its side, the diaphragm-carrier,
which might with advantage be made capable of rotation, and
a few loose stops. As the microscopical examination of metals
is now of so much importance, perhaps the few moments spent on
the consideration of the vertical illuminator will not have been
wasted.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.
a. Embryology. t

Determination of Sex.| — Oskar Schultze communicates a full
account of his experiments on mice designed to test whether alteration
in nutrition had any effect on the proportions of the sexes in the off-
spring. His results are decidedly in favour of an answer in the negative.
He gives a masterly review of the whole subject, and concludes that
sex is determined in the early stages of oogenesis.

General Embryology.§ — E. Korschelt and K. Heider give in the
first instalment of the " general " part of their treatise on the compara-
tive embryology of invertebrates an account of the structure, matura-
tion, and fertilisation of the germ-cells, and a review of all the recent
work on the physiology of development.

Mechanics of Development. ||— S. J. Hickson gives a lucid account
of recent work in experimental embryology. " The facts which to-day
may convince us that there is no preformation of structures in the
animal egg, that there is no ' mosaic ' arrangement of the particles of
primordial protoplasm, may, in the course of time, be supplanted by
others, which will lead us to a reconsideration of our opinion. We
have at least learned to realise that no simple, physical or mechanical
explanation will ever solve the problem of the living substance of the
egg-cell. We may learn the effect of gravity, of temperature, of various
kinds of intensities of light, or of chemical and electrical stimuli, upon
protoplasm ; but we have not yet got within measurable distance of an

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and they
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and allied subjects.

t Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxiii. (1903) pp. 197-257.

§ Lehrbuch. d. vergleich. Entwicklungsges. d. wirbellosen Thiere. Allg. Theil.
Erstc Lief. 8vo, Jena, x. and 750 pp..

|| Rep. and Trans. Manchester Micr. Soo, 1902 (published 1903), pp. 28-37.

168 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

understanding all of the forces that influence the phenomena of pro-
toplasm."

Conversational .Etiology.* — Franz Krasan discusses by means of
imaginary conversations between half a dozen incognitos the pro-
foundest questions of biology : — How far is organic form a function
of organic substance ? What is the nature of reaction to environment ?
Can we distinguish between the original and the accessory characters of
individuals ? What is the real meaning of metamorphosis and sub-
stitution of organs ? What is the evolutionary import of variation,
mutation, and modification ? How are we to define species, variety,
and breed ? What is the scope of hybridisation and in-breeding, of
isolation and selection ? The author traverses the whole field of evolu-
tion-theory, but his peculiar mode of presentation is not attractive.

Uterine Implantation of the Ovum of Spermophilus citillus.f—
J. Rejsek shows that the first fixation and preliminary nutrition of the
ovum in this mammal is quite apart in time and space from the placental
fixation and nutrition. Fertilisation and cleavage occur in the Fallopian
tube, and the segmented ovum passes into the uterus. A portion of the
superficial stratum (Rauber's layer) remains composed of high cells,
while the rest of the cells of this stratum are flattened. The high cells
form a thickening at the pole opposite the blastodermic disc, and give
rise to a syncytial prominence which enters into close connection by
means of processes with the wall of the uterus. Details of the growth
of these syncytial processes are given ; they degenerate as the placenta
develops.

For a very short time the ovum depends on itself, but there is soon
need for maternal nutrition. This is provisionally afforded by the pro-
cesses of the syncytium, which establish a nutritive connection between
the ovum and a fluid material for the most part derived from the
maternal uterine cells.

Normal Degeneration of Eggs not Liberated. £ — M. Dubuisson
corroborates and extends the observations of C. Perez on the degenera-
tion of unlaid eggs. His material was found in the eggs of sparrow,
frog, and newt. He describes the part played by follicular cells and by
phagocytes.

Spermatozoa of Discoglossus pictus.§ — E. Ballowitz gives a de-
tailed description of the unique spermatozoa of this amphibian. They
are remarkable (1) in their extraordinary length (2|- mm.) ; (2) in the
elaboration of screw-architecture in all the parts ; and (3) in the fine
details of their structure.

Correlation between Poison-Gland and Ovary in Toad.|j — C.
Phisalix notes that the poison-gland of the female toad is almost empty
at the spawning time, and in striking contrast to that of the male. He
finds that the active principles of the poison are present in the eggs,

* Ansicbten und Gespr'ache iiber die individuelle und specifiache Gestaltung in
der Natur. 8vo, Leipzig, 1903, vii. and 280 pp.

t Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxiii. (1903) pp. 259-73 (1 pi.).
X Comptea Rendus, cxxxvi. (1903) pp. 1690-1.
§ Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxiii. (1903) pp. 343-64 (1 pi.),
if Comptea Kendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 1082-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 169

but that they disappear during early embryonic life. " The re-appear-
ance of these toxic substances in the organism is correlated with the
development of the poison-glands. The poisons formed by these glands
pass into the blood after the manner of internal secretions, and at the
time when the ovary becomes active, they become associated with the
germ-cells to contribute to the formation and the development of
the egg."

Toxic substances are known in the eggs of certain fishes and sea-
urchins, and Phisalix thinks that they probably have an important role
in oogenesis and development. " Perhaps they form a material basis
of inheritance, and serve to transmit the chemical characteristics of the
species," — which seems a large conclusion to draw from the premises.

Development of Tarsius Spectrum.* — A. A. W. Hubrecht notes
that the placentation of this aberrant type is pronouncedly " deciduate,"
while the arrangement of the foetal membranes, with the diminutive
yolk-sac, rudimentary allantois, and large extra-embryonic ccelomic
space, brings Tarsius near the monkeys and man.

The author describes the maturation, fertilisation, segmentation, etc.,
and pays particular attention to the germinal layers. The material for
the extra-embryonic coelom springs from the posterior end of the blasto-
derm ; in continuity with it is formed the primitive streak in the centre
of which is the rudimentary blastopore or neurenteric canal. The
mesoderm is formed from an anterior tract of hypoblast (as frequently
in Amniota), and from a peripheral ring (as described by the author in
the shrew).

To solve the problem of the germ-layers, Hubrecht goes back as far
as a Coelenterate type, and asks us to see in its gastrovascular cavity
and stomodamm the fore-runners of the blastopore and notochord
respectively.

Development of Lens.f — Em. Mencl discusses the difficult case of
the development of a lens apart from any direct contact between the
brain and the epidermis.

Notes on Development of Lizard. — Karl Peter finds that while
the primitive plate is essentially an ectodermic proliferation, some endo-
dermic cells are included along with it. He re-affirms his conclusion
that there are in lizards five pairs of gill-clefts, and that the supraperi-
cardial body is the homologue of a pair of gill-clefts.

b. Histology.

Secretory Phenomena in Poison-Glands and Digestive Glands.§ —
L. Launoy has made a detailed study of the poison-glands in the viper,
newt, scorpion, centipede, etc., and of the digestive glands in crab and
hermit-crab. In the active glands, whether poisonous or digestive, the
nucleus of an actively secreting cell is the seat of " passive phenomena "

* Furchung und Keirablattbiklung bei Tarsius spectrum. Amsterdam, 1902,
115 pj.. and plates. See Nature, lxvii. (1903) pp. 341-2.
t Auat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1903) pp. 169-73 (15 rigs).
t Tom. cit.. pp. 156-G4 (4 figs.).
§ Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.), xviii. (1903) pp. 1-224 (2 pie.).

April 20th, 1904 n

170 ' SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

— " nuclear turgor, anteropulsion, and centrifugal projection of granules
of chromatin ;" and of " active phenomena " — " variations of chroma-
ticity, emission of fuchsinophilous and cyanophilous granulations into
the perinuclear cytoplasm, dissolution of the chromatic substance and
its exosmosis, and phenomena of intra-nuclear pyrenolysis."

The process of elaboration is two-fold, a nuclear phase giving rise to
" venogen " and " caryozymogen," and a cytoplasmic phase giving rise
to poison and prozymase. Cytologically, caryozymogen and venogen are
comparable, and so are prozymase and poison.

In the poisons studied the toxic enzyme does not co-exist with any of
the enzymes, such as amylase or emulsin. In the poison of the cobra
there is a substance precipitating soluble ferments ; there is no catalysing
action, either positive or negative, on the soluble ferments, emulsin,
amylase, and pancreatin, but there is a slight inhibitory action on pepsin.

Nuclear Changes during Secretion.* — L. Launoy has studied the
changes in the nuclei of actively-secreting cells. He distinguishes
passive phenomena, concerning the volume and position of the nucleus,
and active phenomena, which include profound modifications of struc-
ture in correlation with the direct participation of the nucleus in the
secretory process, and especially involving the chromatin and the nu-
cleolus.

Brunner's Glands.f — R. R. Bensley has made a detailed study of
the cytological characters, staining reactions, and functions of the glands
of B runner in a number of representative mammals. He shows that
they are distinctively mucous glands, but does not exclude the possibility
that they also form minute quantities of digestive ferments, which
escaped detection by available means. It seems to the author probable
that the glands of Brunner are caenogenetic structures, developed in
mammals from the hypoblast of the midgut. The occurrence of serous
tubules in the glands of Brunner in the rabbit is evidence of a new
functional need in the intestine. Bensley is against Oppel's theory, that
Brunner's glands are developed as a further downward growth of the
pyloric glands into the intestine.

Cardiac Glands of Mammals.^ — R. R. Bensley has studied these in
man, pig and various rodents. He finds that they are mucin-glands,
and interprets them as retrogressive derivatives of the fundus glands.
In support of this interpretation, he discusses the phylogeny of the cardiac
glands at some length.

Buccal Gland of Lampreys.§ — "W. Haack describes the paired
multicellular gland which lies in the mouth of adult lampreys, imbedded
in the musculus basilaris. He shows that multicellular glands also occur
in Myxinoids, C'himcera, and Elasmobranchs, and as poisonous organs in
some Acanthopterygii. Although the skin of aquatic Vertebrates is in
general devoid of multicellular skin-glands, doubtless a secondary effect
of the medium, and although integumentary glands are rudimentary and

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxvi. (1903) pp. 1479-81.

t Decennial Publications Univ. Chicago, x. (1903) p. 50 (6 pis.).

% Amer. Journ. Anat., ii. (1903) pp. 105-56.

S Zeitschr. wiss. Zool , lxxv. (1903) pp. 112-46 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 171

salivary glands absent in cetaceans, yet cases like the skin-glands of
Myxine and Chimcera, and the buccal gland of lampreys, show that it is
almost impossible to make a phylogenetic series with well-defined steps.

(Esophageal Glands in Reptiles.* — F. Beguin finds distinct oeso-
phageal glands in an African lizard, Uromastix acanthmurus, and in
Testudo grtcca, but not in the alligator.

Histogenesis of the Intestinal Epithelium in the Frog.f — R. H.
Marcelin gives an account of the development of the frog's intestine —
its growth in length, the histogenesis of the epithelium, and the develop-
ment of the glands. The whole intestine is originally ciliated, and this
is important before the muscles causing peristalsis have developed. In
the buccal cavity and oesophagus the ciliated epithelium persists, aiding
in this region of rapid movement the action of the muscles. In the
stomach and intestinal regions the cilia disappear as the adult conditions
are attained. The calyciform cells, which appear first in the oesophagus
and stomach, and subsequently in the small intestine after the cilia have
gone, secrete a mucus which is probably both digestive and lubricating.
They disappear from the stomach as the gastric glands develop, they are
minute in the small intestine, and they disappear completely from the
large intestine as the strong musculature develops.

Cardiac Muscle Fibres. X — F. Marceau discusses the transverse
scalariform-striated bands in cardiac muscle fibres which occur in adult
mammals, in young mammals some time after birth, and in certain adult
birds. He describes their intimate structure, their development, and
their distribution in the heart ; and then discusses their probable signi-
ficance in helping to secure rapid and rhythmic contraction.

Egg-Tooth in Sauropsida.§ — Margherita Pondrelli finds that the
egg-tooth in Chelonia has the same structure and development as in birds.
It consists of a mass of epithelial cells, irregularly polygonal in form,
dovetailed together, with indurated walls, and without intercellular sub-
stance. It is abetted by an epitrichial thickening, which forms a cap
with abundant ceratohyaline.

Minute Structure of Blood- Vessels. || — Drs. Baum and Thienel have
completed a laborious research on the peculiarities in the detailed struc-
ture of the walls of the arteries and veins in different parts of the body
and in different animals. They bring out very clearly the fact that
various mammals are quite specific as regards the walls of the vessels.

c. General.

Zoological Essays.lf — R. Lydekker has re-published in volume form
a set of his well-known and much appreciated zoological essays — fine
examples of the possibility of expressing accurate science in vivid

» Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 337-56 (14 figs.),
t Revue Suisse Zool., xi. (1903) pp. 309-92 (1 pi.).
X Comptes Rendus, cxxxvi. (1903) pp. 1085-7.
§ Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1903) pp. 165-8 (2 figs.).
|| Arch. Mikr. Anat., Ixiii. (1903) pp. 10-34 (1 pi.).

Tf Mostly Mammals. Zoological Essays. 8vo, London, 1903, ix. and 383 pp.
16 full-page illustrations.

N 2

172 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

literary form. The volume includes essays on extermination in the
nineteenth century, domesticated animals and their history, problems of
geographical distribution, desert faunas, protective coloration, the
whiteness of arctic animals, the colours of cowries, the nursing habits of
amphibians, scorpions and their antiquity, and on many other subjects.
The book deserves to be widely known and admired.

Economic Zoology.* — E. Ray Lancaster prefixes to F. V. Theobald's
First Report on Economic Zoology (see Insecta) a luminous and useful
survey of the various sub-divisions which it is found convenient to
recognise in the treatment of this subject. This classification of animals
in their economic relation to man appears to us so important, that we
submit it in condensed outline.

Group A. — Animals captured or slaughtered by man for food, or for
the use by him in other ways, of their skin, bone, fat, or other
products. Examples .- — Animals of the chase ; food-fishes ; whales ;
pearl-mussels.

Group B. — Animals bred or cultivated by man for food, or for the
use of their products in industry, or for their services as living things.
Examples : — Flocks and herds ; horses ; dogs ; poultry ; gold-fish ; bees ;
silkworms and leeches.

Group C. — Animals which directly promote man's operations as a
civilised being without being killed, captured or trained by him.
Examples : — Scavengers such as vultures ; carrion-feeding insects ; earth-
worms and flower-fertilising insects.

Group D. — Animals which concern man as causing bodily injury,
sometimes death to him, and in other cases disease, often of a deadly
character. Examples : — Lions ; wolves ; snakes ; stinging and parasitic
insects ; disease germ-carriers, as flies and mosquitoes ; parasitic worms ;
parasitic Protozoa.

Group E. — Animals which concern man as causing bodily injury or
disease (both possibly of a deadly character) to (a) his stock of domesti-
cated animals ; or (b) to his vegetable plantations ; or (c) to wild animals
in the preservation of which he is interested ; or (d) wild plants in the
preservation of which he is interested. Examples : — Similar to those of
Group D, but also insects and worms which destroy crops, fruit and forest
trees, and pests such as frugivorous birds, rabbits and voles.

Group F. — Animals which concern man as being destructive to his
worked-up products of art and industry, such as (a) his various works,
buildings, larger constructions and habitations ; (b) furniture, books,
drapery and clothing ; (c) his food and his stores. Examples : — White
ants ; wood-eating larvae ; clothes' moths, weevils, acari, and marine
borers.

Group G. — Animals which are known as " beneficials," on account
of their being destructive to or checking the increase of the injurious
animals classed under Groups I), E, and F. Examples ; — Certain car-
nivorous and insectivorous birds, reptiles, and Amphibia ; parasitic and
predacious insects, acari, myriopods, etc.

* First Keport on Economic Zoology. By Fred. V.Theobald. British Museum,
1903, xxxiv. and !92 pp., 18 figs.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 173

Variations in Human Ribs.* — J. Dnnlop Lickley gives statistics
as to the relations of the seventh and eighth ribs to the sternum. He
concludes that the lower end of the thorax is degenerating, as shown
by the diminution in the number of ribs which unite with the sternum
in man and the higher Primates as compared with the lower monkeys.
The eighth rib has undergone so much degeneration that it rarely joins
the sternum, though when degeneration has been partly arrested it
reaches the middle line without becoming incorporated in or joining
with the sternum. Similarly the seventh rib may meet its fellow of the
opposite side without joining with or being incorporated in the meso-
sternum. A further change brings the seventh rib in a few cases into
the same position as the eighth normally occupies, namely, it fails to
reach the middle line and terminates by a secondary connection with
the sixth.

Function of Iron in Metabolism and Fermentations, f — N.Sacharoff
has elaborated a theory according to which iron plays the essential role
in vital processes and fermentations, acting as the "enzyme of all
enzymes," and operative through an iron-containing nucleiu substance,
" Monuclein," with oxidising and reducing capabilities.

Production of Glucose by Animal Tissues. J — MM. Cadeac and
Maignon find that all the organs or tissues of the dog and the horse
(except the bones) normally include a small quantity of glucose. They
all produce it when submitted for a suitable time to conditions of
asphyxia ; when these are prolonged, the sugar present or formed
entirely disappears. This production of glucose is a phenomenon of
protoplasmic metabolism, for it is not exhibited when the tissues are
killed by immersion in boiling water.

Alleged Alcoholic Fermentation in Animal Tissues. § — F. Batelli
criticises the view of Stoklasa and others, that extracts of the tissues of
higher animals contain an enzyme capable of transforming glucose into
alcohol and carbon dioxide, and the view of Mile. Borrino that this
fermentation is due to nucleoproteids. Batelli's experiments lead to
support Cohnheim in the conclusion that the fermentation observed
in vitro is due to the presence of micro-organisms.

Occurrence of an Animal Diastase at once Oxidising and Re-
ducing.!— J- E. Abelous and J. Aloy have satisfied themselves that in
extract of liver, kidney, lung, etc., there is a ferment which has the
power of acting both as an oxidising and as a reducing agent. This
double role leads the author to regard the ferment as the agent in
respiratory exchanges.

!■■*- Viviparous Lizard's Prolific Multiplication. If — E. Olivier cap-
tured on the Cantal mountains (an col des Gardes) a gravid female of
the melanic variety of Lacerta vivvpara Jacq. It was entirely of a

* Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 32G-32.

t Das Eisen als das t'atige Prnicip der Enzyme und tier lebendigen Substanz.
Translated l.y M. Recbt»anier. 8vo, Jena (1902), 83 pp., 2 pis. and 15 rigs. See
Centralbl. Bakt. Parasitenk., 2" Abt., x. (1903) pp. 578-93.

X Comptes Rendus, cxxxvi. (1903) pp. 1682— t.

*j Op. cit., cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 1079-80. || Tom. cit., pp. S85-7.

Tf Bull. Soe. Zool. France, xxviii. (1903) pp. 1S0-1.

174 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

deep black colour. After eight days of captivity, it gave birth to
fifteen black offspring. The normal number is three to five, and twelve
has been recorded by Fatio as altogether exceptional.

Habits of the Arboreal Urodele Autodax lugubris.*— W. E. Ritter
finds that the usual breeding place of this " unsalamander-like sala-
mander," whose close kinship to the other Plethodons cannot be
doubted, is in holes in trees (Quercus agri folia). Some were taken from
holes at a height of thirty feet at least : in some of the largest cavities
as many as twelve individuals were found ; more commonly a hole con-
tained two, or occasionally but a single Autodax. Several facts indicate
pretty clearly that in some cases all the inhabitants of a single chamber
were close of kin, constituting in fact a family. Most of the cavities
occupied had very narrow orifices.

The egg clusters, each containing from twelve to eighteen eggs, each
egg with its own pedicle about two centimetres in length, were usually
suspended from an overhanging surface, where the parent was able to
bring its body into contact with them. Both parents, wrhich are not
distinguished by secondary sexual characters, may participate in the
office. The animals seem to exercise more or less of an active defence
either of themselves, or of the eggs, or of both. The unusually large
teeth are used viciously in " showing fight." Experimental study on
the behaviour of this unique Urodele should yield very interesting
results.

Respiration in Torpedo.f — E. Couvreur finds that in Torpedo mar-
morata the water may enter by the gill-clefts, the spiracles, and the
mouth, but always passes out by the clefts. There is a synchronism
between the movements of the heart and the respiratory movements, as
Jorgen Thesen observed in Tcleosts, and as the author previously noticed
in the lamprey.

Labyrinth of Fishes. f — Tycho Tullberg has made experiments on
various fishes which lead him to conclude that the labyrinth of the ear
is not an equilibrating organ, nor an organ " of static sense " (Breuer),
nor a " tonus-labyrinth," nor the seat of "a spatial sense" (v. Cyon).
Tt is perhaps in some degree an auditory organ, but it is primarily and

rincipally sensitive to the movements — both currents and undulations
—of the surrounding water, with its nervous centre probably in -the

erebellum.

Wild Horses. § — J. Cossar Ewart gave an interesting lecture on
Przewalsky's horse, which he regards as a true and valid species. He
compares it with the Kiang and with various hybrids which he has
reared. " If Przewalsky's horse is neither a Kiang-pony mule nor a
feral Mongolian pony, and if, moreover, it is fertile (and its fertility
can hardly be questioned), I fail to see how we can escape from the
conclusion that it is as deserving as, say, the Kiang, to be regarded as
a distinct species. Granting Przewalsky's horse is a true wild horse,
the question arises : In what way, if any, is it related to our domestic

* Amer. Nat., xxxvii. (1903) pp. 883-G.

t Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, lxxxix. (1903) pp. 78-9.

% Bihang. k. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl., xxviii. Afd. 4 (1903) No. 15, p. 25.

§ Nature, lxviii. (1903) pp. 271-3 (3 figs).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 175

horses ? It is still too soon to answer this question ; but I venture to
think that if we should, by and by, arrive at the conclusion that our
domestic horses have had a multiple origin — -have sprung from at least
two perfectly distinct sources — we shall probably subsequently come to
the further conclusion that our big-headed, big-jointed horses, with
well-marked chestnuts on the hind legs, are more intimately related to
the wild horse than the small-headed, slender-limbed varieties without
chestnuts on the hind legs ; that, in fact, the heavy horses, whether
found in Europe, Asia, or Africa, and Przewalsky's horse have sprung
from the same ancestors."

Coloration of the Quaggas* — E. I. Pocock has an interesting
essay on the coloration of the "quaggas," — i.e. zebras of the type
commonly known as Burchell's. The coloration of the coat renders a
zebra invisible under three conditions, namely, at a distance on the
open plain at mid-day, at close quarters in the dusk and on moonlight
nights, and in the cover afforded by thickets. Pocock analyses the
various factors which contribute to this " procryptic " result. The pro-
tective value is so great that it seems unnecessary to seek for any other
interpretation.

Plankton of Scottish Lakes. j — James Murray contributes some
notes on the plankton of the lakes of the Tay basin, samples of which
were collected in the course of bathymetrical survey undertaken by
Sir John Murray and Mr. Laurence Pullar. Of almost constant occur-
rence at all seasons are DiajJtomus gracilis, Cyclops strenuus, Daphnia
lacustris, Bosmina obtusirostris • two species of Conochilus, Anurma
cochleare, Notholca longispina ; and the Diatom, Asterionella gracillima.
In the summer, Holopedium, Leptodora, Bythrotrephes, and Polyphemus
are as generally distributed. Only less common are Asplanchna prio-
dontctj Polyarthra platyptera, Peridinium tubulatum, Ceratium hirundi-
nelta, Mallomonas. The rotifers, Floscularia pelagka and Notops
pygmmis, are of frequent occurrence ; a not very dissimilar association
is found in small ponds, but the species are for the most part different ;
thus Diaptomus is represented by 1). castor, Daphnia by D. pidex,
Bosmina by B. cormtta ; Rotifers and Algse will be more abundant and
varied, and there will probably be some Ostracods. Even the smallest
lochs surveyed had the plankton distinctly lacustrine, but a few nearly
or quite stagnant lochans showed a slight approach to the pond type.
In some forms, e.g. Daphnia lacustris and Bosmina obtusirostris, there
is great variability. The phenomenon of Wasserblut, usually due to
Alga?, may also be due to Protozoa and to Rotifers, — on one occasion
to the rather uncommon Rotifer, Dinocharis collinsii. Many details
are given as to individual lochs.

Ceylonese Cephalochorda4 — W. M. Tattersall reports on a collection
made by Prof. W. A. Herd man. Although no new species are recorded,,
the fact that seven species (including var. belcheri) occur around Ceylon,
indicates the great wealth of the Acraniate fauna of these waters.

* Nature, lxviii. 1903, pp. 356-7 (1 tig.).

f Scottish Geogr. Magazine, xx. (HiOl) pp. 41-7.

X Rep. Pearl Oyster Fisheries Ceylon. Sappl. Report vi. pp. 200-26 (1 pL>

17G SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Four species are recorded from this neighbourhood for the first time.
The depths at which the specimens were taken range from three to
fourteen fathoms, in all cases comparatively shallow water. They
usually live in clean coarse sand and feed largely on diatoms. The
spawning time in tropical seas appears to be the latter half of March,
rather earlier in the year than in more temperate seas. It is noted that
Branchiostomum lanceolatum, now for the first time recorded from the
Indian Ocean, is cosmopolitan, that the variety B. belcheri is the pre-
dominant form, that B. pelagic urn is truly pelagic, and that B. cali-
fornieiise occurs, though showing some slight variation when compared
with its American relations. Tattersall's tables show how extremely
variable the species of this group are ; " the more extended our know-
ledge of this group becomes, the less distinctly do the species appear to
be separated."

IN VERTEBR AT A .

Enemies of the Sugar Beet.* — A. Stift has notes on the injurious
effects of Eurycreou sticticalis (caterpillars), Bibio hortulans, Anthomgia
co/iformis, Aphis papaveris, lulus guttulatus, Heterodera schachtii, and
other forms which prey upon the beet. He also refers to the injuries
done to winter wheat by Geophilus longicomis.

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

Blood of Marine Gastropods. f — E. Couvreur has studied the blood
of Murex braiularis, M. trunculus, and Tritonium nodiferum. There is
a general resemblance with the blood of the snail. The fresh blood is
almost colourless, but acquires a faint blue tint due to hasmocyanin ;
there is no spontaneous coagulation, there being no fibrin-forming sub-
stance ; a little sugar is present.

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Variations in Pecten opercularis.J — C. B. Davenport has com-
pared three lots of individuals from widely separated localities, — Eddy-
stone, Firth of Forth, and the Irish Sea. He discusses change of
proportions with age, changes in symmetry, ray frequency, variation of
the " ears," colour variations, and abnormalities.

In some studies on Pecten irradians from the American coast,
Davenport was struck by the gradual change of the shells from place
to place ; a change of such a nature that one might say that the dif-
ference in the place modes was a function of the spatial interval between
the places in question.

Davenport's study of Pecten opercularis from British coasts yields
a similar result. The three lots collected from three places are measur-
ably unlike in size, proportions, and average number of rays. When

* Zeitsclir. Zucker Industrie und Landwirtsekaft, 1903, p. 3. See Centralbl.
Bakt. Parasitenk, 2,e Abt., x. (1903) pp. 611-5.

t Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, lxxxix. (1903) pp. 79-81.

t Proc. Anier. Acad., xxxix. (1889) pp. 123-59, many tables.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

177

the lots are arranged in the order a, b, c, in which a and c are the geo-
graphical extremes, they are found to be the biological extremes also.
iy "Where the environmental conditions of the isolated form units
are similar, the differences met with are easily accounted for on the
assumption of mutations which are preserved. Where, on the other
hand, the environmental conditions are dissimilar, it is obvious that
they must produce a change either through their " direct and definite "
action or possibly by selection. To deny that environment may act
directly to produce profound, eventually specific changes is to deny the
evidence of some of the best experimental work in evolution, and this
experimental work has also proved the inheritance of these environ-
mentally induced changes. The mutation theory errs, then, in stating
only a half truth. Through mutation, and also through the direct
action of environment, specific changes may be produced."

Origin of Fine Pearls.* — L. Boutan maintains that there is no real
distinction between nacreous pearls formed external to the mantle like
the shell, and fine pearls, said to be formed within the tissues of the
mantle. Experiments have convinced him that in all cases the pearl,
which is provoked by the presence of a parasitic fluke, as has been pre-
viously shown, has an epithelial origin, and represents a secretion of the
external epithelium of the mantle. When it becomes possible by artificial
trepanning of the shell to imitate precisely the penetration of the fluke,
the production of true pearls will be Avithin human control.

Arthropoda.

Classification of Arthropoda.| — A. S. Packard discusses in an in-
teresting paper the affinities and evolution of the Arthropods, which he
regards as forming a polyphyletic group. His general conclusions may

be inferred from the scheme which he suggests.

Insecta
Arachnida Sjmjhyla

Crustacea

MeroBtomata Diplopoda Chilopoda

Trilobita

Pauropoil

Malacopoda

Palteopoda

Protagnostus
(Protaspis)

Annelida

II
Pancarida

III

Merupoda

IV

1 'rotracheata

V

Entomoptera

Annelida

or

Troehosphaera

Annelida

Annelida

* Cornptes Rendus, oxxxvii. (1908) pp. 1078-5.

t Proe. Amer. Phil. Soc., xlii. (1903) pp. 142-G1 (1 fig.).

178 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Relationships between Classes of Arthropoda.* — G. H. Carpenter
contributes a valuable essay on this difficult siibject, and comes to the
following principal conclusions : —

(1) The Arthropoda are a natural, monophyletic assemblage of
animals.

(2) There is exact numerical correspondence between the segmenta-
tion of typical Insects, Crustaceans, and Arachnids (worked out in a
detailed comparative table).

(3) Such correspondence in three distinct classes cannot reasonably
be explained as the result of convergent evolution from ancestors with
very numerous segments, which independently became diminished to
exactly the same extent.

(4) The ancestral Arthropods must, therefore, have possessed a fixed
and definite segmentation ; and the various forms with very numerous
segments (Phyllopods, Millipedes, etc.) have undergone abnormal
elongation.

(5) The Insecta, Chilopoda and Diplopoda may be derived from
common Symphylan ancestors, which branched off from the primitive
Crustacea (proto-Leptostraca) .

(G) Among the Crustacea, the Leptostraca and the Trilobita show
the most primitive characters. The proto-Trilobita had the typical
Arthropodan number of segments.

(7) The Arachnida, including the Merostomata, Xiphosura and
Pycnogonida, arose from the proto-Trilobita.

(8) The Malacopoda must be regarded as Arthropoda of low type.
They have no close relationship to Chilopoda or Insecta, and their
Annelidan affinities are doubtful.

(9) The Arthropoda, as a whole, probably sprang from Naupliform
ancestors, and not from well-developed Annelid worms. A genealogical
tree is given expressing these conclusions in graphic form.

o. Insecta.

Economic Entomology .f — F. V. Theobald discusses a great variety of
subjects in his first report on economic zoology, but the majority are
entomological. They afford a fine illustration of the multitudinous-
ways in which man comes into practical contact with animal life, and
the author deserves congratulation on the impressiveness of his " First
Report." There are discussions on cereal pests, root-crop pests, fruit
pests, garden pests ; on dipterous larvse in human excreta ; on Anobium
tesselatum in St. Albans Cathedral ; on the cigar beetle ; on the tsetse
fly ; on locusts in the Sudan ; and on mosquitos at Blackheath, and
so on. And inter alia we find information on poison for moles ; tape-
worm in sheep ; the origin and varieties of domesticated geese ; green
matter in Lewes public baths ; the screw-worm in St. Lucia ; the Teredo ;
the Ceylon pearl fisheries, and so on, through a variety of subjects as
interesting as it is astounding.

* Proc. K. Irish Acad., xxiv. (190::) pp. :;20-60(l pl.\

t First Keport ou Economic Zoology. British Museum. 1D03, xxxiv. and 192 pp.,
18 fies.

any par-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 179

Sex-Determination in Bees.* — Ferd. Dickel has made twelve ex-
periments which seem to him to support his somewhat heretical views in
regard to the sex-determination in bees. He believes that " drone-eggs "
are fertilised ; that drones can be reared from " worker-eggs," and vice
versa ; that all the eggs laid by a normal queen are fertilised ; that the
ripe ovum has in itself only the potentiality of masculinity ; that the
sperms bring in the potentiality of femakmess, whether of workers or
queens ; and that the workers produce a " sex-determining " and a
" volume-determining " substance which settles the destiny of a
ticular egg which they handle.

Parthenogenesis in Porthesia.f — Tad Garbowski reports the occur-
rence of indubitable parthenogenesis in Porthesia similis, which was
reared from a pupa-case and kept in isolation. It laid eggs in three
batches, and died. All the eggs hatched into active caterpillars.

Sleeping Sickness of Silkworms.^ — J. Bolle and M. Richter find
that this disease is in no wise due to the micro-organisms of the mulberry
leaves. Six species of bacteria and two yeasts were obtained from the
leaves, but inoculations of cultures failed to induce any Schlafsucht in
the silkworms.

Ants from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.§ — A. Forel reports
on a collection, which shows that the ants of these islands are related to
those of India and of Indo-China, and include some peculiar forms.
There has been an invasion from both east and west. Forel analyses
the collection into 9 local forms, 5 occidental, 7 oriental, 3 shared with
Hindustan and Burmah, 10 both oriental and occidental, and 4 cosmo-
politan— 38 in all.

Development of Ovary of Polyxenus lagurus De Geer.|| — A.
Lecaillon finds in newly-hatched larvre two distinct ovarian primordia,
each consisting of a small aggregate of oogonia surrounded by an en-
velope of flattened cells, and including small cells destined to form the
follicular elements. In a short time, however, the two oogonial masses
unite and form a single ovary- — unique among insects. The further
history is followed, and noteworthy is the appearance in the cytoplasm of
the young ova of a special eytochromatic substance, which is probably a
differentiation concerned with the elaboration of assimilable substances.

Peculiar Aphid.T — Alice L. Embleton describes Ceratajjnis latanim,
which has been called by more than half-a-dozen names. In Britain the
species seems now to occur in only one form, the apterous female,
which reproduces parthenogenetically in an uninterrupted manner. The
occurrence of the winged female was, however, noted in England for one
or more seasons a quarter of a century ago. It is suggested that the

* Arch. Ges. Physiol., xev. (1903) pp. 66-100. See Zool. Centralis, x. (1903)
pp. 740-1 .

t Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 212-4.

X Zeiteehr. Landw. Versuchswesen Osterreich, 1903, p. 287. See Centralbl. Bakt.
Parasitenk. I19 Abt, xxxiii. (190:!) pp. 73f>-6.

§ Revue Suisse Zool., xi. (1903) pp. 399-411.

|| Comptcs Rendus, cxxxvi. (190:'.) pp. 1691-3.

i Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxix. (1903) pp. 90-107 (1 pi.).

180 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCilES RELATING TO

conditions of life — in orchid-houses — have brought about the simplifica-
tion of the life cycle, the permanence of the " aleurodif orm " stage.
The insect is probably one of the migratory Aphides that has been
deprived of the series of metamorphoses, owing to an artificial mode of
life. Experiments should be made on Hormaphis hamamelidis, or on
some other migratory Aphis, with a view to ascertaining whether — by
affording successive generations a constant supply of food under equable
conditions of temperature, etc.- — the creature could be maintained for
many generations, or permanently, in the aleurodif orm stage.

Maturation in Viviparous Aphides.* — J. P. Stschelkanovzew has
studied the phenomena of maturation in the summer ova of Aphis rosrc,
showing that only one polar body is formed. The changes in the
chromatin-substance occur very rapidly and in somewhat simplified
fashion. The old chromatin thread of the germinal vesicle is partly
dissolved, and probably gives rise to several of the nucleoli, though the
majority of these arise by new formation. During the formation of
the nucleoli, changes occur in the plasma of the ovum, apparently
implying a passage of chromatin-like substance from the plasma into
the nucleus. The new chromatin thread from which the chromosomes
of the polar body arise, is formed directly from the peripheral nucleoli,
and shows no trace of a longitudinal splitting. The chromosomes show
marked differences in size.

Neapolitan Myrmecophilous Insects, f — F. Silvestri describes the
myrmecophilous habits of Tettigometra impressifrons Muls., and T.
costulata Fieb. (Hemiptera), Hyperaspis reppensis Herbst. (Coleoptera),
Mprmeeophila acervorum Panz., and M. ochracca Fisch. (Orthoptera).

Genealogical Study of Dragon-fly Wing Venation. J — J. Gr.
Needham seeks to translate the records of natural selection as written
in the venatioual characters of Odonate wintrs. The result is a most

m o

interesting essay on " developmental dynamics," showing how in accord-
ance with mechanical principles, .operating in vein-shifting and vein-
differentiation, a form of wing is reached, several times independently,
that is most efficient, — a wing broad at the base and long and pointed at
the apex, rigid at the front and pliant toward the posterior margin — a
wing combining the principle of the aeroplane with that of the scull.
But this is only a hint of the scope of an elaborate and suggestive

investigation.

B. Myriopoda.

Littoral Myriopods.§ — F. Silvestri records from the shore of Portici
near Naples, six Myriopods, namely, Pachymeriumferrugineum C. Koch,
Geophilus poseidonis Verb., Henia bicarinata (Mein.) Silv., and Scliendgla
submarina Grube, among Chilopoda ; and Polyxemis lapidicola Silv.
and Isobates littoralis Silv., among Diplopoda. It seems that littoral
Myriopods are much more frequent than is generally supposed, but the
author distinguishes (a) accidental halophilous forms (three species of

£■;■ * Biol. Centralbl., xxiv. (1904) pp. 104-12 (7 figs.).

t Ann. Mns. Zool. Univ. Napoli, new series, i. No. 13 (1903) 5 pp.
J Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxvi. (1903) pp. 702-64 (24 pis. and 44 figs.).
§ Ann. Mns. Zool. Univ. Napoli, new series, i. (1903) No. 12, 5 pp.

ZOOLOGY, AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 181

Lithobius found in Normandy by Gadeau de Kerville) ; {b) indifferent
halophilous myriopods (eight species) ; and (c) genuine halophilous
myriopods, namely, ScoliopJanes maritimvs, Geophilus poseidonis, Schen-
ilijln submarina, Polyxenus lapidwola, and Isolates Jittoralis.

5. Araclinida.

British Tyroglyphidse.* — Albert D. Michael is to be congratu-
lated on the completion of his monograph on this family. We notice
the new genus Fusacarus, the useful diagnostic tables, the list of foreign
species, the bibliography, and the beautiful illustrations. The injury
to horticulture caused by Rhizoijlyphus echinopus is carefully discussed.

New Species of Koenenia from Italy.f — F. Silvestri describes two
new Italian species of this interesting genus, — A", berlesei, near K.
mirabilis Grassi ; and A', subangusta, near A", angtista Hansen.

€. Crustacea.

Classification of Malacostraca. X — W. T. Caiman gives his reasons
for proposing the following new classification :
Series Leptostraca, Clans., 1880.

Division Phyllocarida, Packard, 1870.
Order Nebaliacea, nov. nom.
Series Eumalacostraca, Grobben, 181*2.

Division Syncarida, Packard, 1886.

Order Anaspidacea, nov.
Division Peracarida, nov. nom.

Orders Mysidacea, Cnmacea, Tanaidacea, Isopoda,
Amphipoda.
Division Eucarida, nov. nom.

Orders Euphausiacea, Decapoda.
Division Hoplocarida, nov. nom.
Order Stomatopoda.

Spermatozoa of Decapods. § — Alphonse Labbe points out that the
figures usually given represent a stage which is not the final one. The
fully ripe spermatozoon is only a portion of the spermatid. A whole
series of accessory or transitional structures in the spermatid disappear
before the spermatozoon is ripe. The ripe spermatozoon includes an
anterior acrosome apparatus enclosing the centrosomes, a nucleus, and
radiating cytoplasmic prolongations. Labbe describes the remarkable
final transformations of the spermatids in Homarus vulgaris and Maia
squinado, the spermatozoa of the latter, those of other Decapods (more
briefly), and the constitution of the acrosome.

Phagocytic Organ of Decapods. |j — L. Cuenot describes the special
phagocytic organ which is found in the mid-gut gland on the terminal
branches of the hepatic arteries. In Pagurids, where the gland is

* British Tyroglyplmlaj, ii. Kay Soc. (1903) pp. 1-1S3 (pis. xx-xxxix).
t Ann. Mus. Zool. Univ. NapoU, new series, i. No. 11, 2 pp.
% Ann. Nat. Hist., xiii. (1904) pp. 144-58 (2 rigs.).

§ Arch. Zool. Expe'r.. 4th series, ii. (1904). Notes et Uevuc, No. 1, pp. 1-14
(27 figs,).

|| Comptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 619-20.

182 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

abdominal, there are two arteries which correspond in position to the
hepatic arteries of other Decapods, but do not go to the " liver." They
remain in the cephalothorax, and their fine branches are covered with
a mantle of fixed phagocytes. The lymphoid organ in connection with
the ophthalmic artery, gives rise to the free amoebocytes of the blood,
but is not phagocytic.

New Family of Amphipods.* — H. J. Hansen describes Ingolfiella
abyssi g. et sp. n., from deep water to the south entrance of Davis
Straits, 1870 fathoms, and /. littoralis sp. n., from one fathom of water
in the Gulf of Siam. The new type is clearly distinguished from all
Gammarina and Caprellina by at least four characters. Two of these
are of very high rank, viz. the complete separation of the eye-lobes
from the head and the peculiar structure of the pleopods. The other
two distinctive characters are less important, viz. the elongate styliform
shape of the molar process of the mandibles, and the structure of the
first two pairs of prehensile hands, in which the fifth joint is developed
as a hand, and the two distal joints, together with the real claw, are so
completely claw-shaped that a similar structure has not been observed
in any other form. It is necessary at present to maintain the Ingolfiel-
lidae as a tribe of the same rank as the Caprellina.

Study of the Beach-Flea.f — Mabel E. Smallwood has made a study
of Talorchestia Jongicornis, a common amphipod of Cold Spring Harbour.
She notes that the adult males are very variable in their proportions,
especially in regard to the relative lengths of the body and the second
antennas, but this may be due to moulting. The males are larger than
the females, and differ from them in the shape and size of the second
gnathopods, and, when fully mature, in the relatively longer second
antennas. Unlike most amphipods, these beach-fleas are poor swimmers,
but they run rapidly and jump with great agility. They have become
secondarily terrestrial, and do not voluntarily enter the water. They
die, indeed, if the mouth of the furrow be kept under water. They
are responsive to white light, being photokinetic, but not phototactic.
They are effective scavengers, and are well protected from birds and
fishes by their pale colour and nocturnal habits.

Argulidae.J — C. B. Wilson gives an account of North American
Argulidse in the U.S. National Museum, describing four new species.
He gives a welcome systematic review of all the known species (over
forty), and a bibliography of the family.

Calanoid Copepoda.§ — A. M. Norman reports on Calanoida, chiefly
abyssal, from the Faroe Channel and other parts of the North Atlantic.
The enormous range of these deep-water Copepods is very remarkable.
In the Faroe Channel there are species at considerable depths whicli
Nansen found near the surface at the point nearest to the North Pole
from which any animals have been obtained ; and these are associated

* Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxix. (1903) pp. 117-33 (2 pis).

f Cold Spring Harbor Monographs (Brooklyn Inst. Arts and Sci.), No. 1 (1903)
pp. 1-27 (3 pis. and 3 figs.).

X Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxv. (1903) pp. 635-742 (20 pis.).
§ Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxix. (1903) pp. 133-41.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 183

with other forms which are known to occur, some in the Mediterranean,
some in the Gulf of Guinea and South Atlantic, one in the Antarctic
Ocean, and some from the very centre of the Pacific. At the depth at
which they live the temperature conditions are similar, whether under
the tropics or under Arctic ice. They are always on the move, and tend
to be readily transported. We are beginning to learn more and more
how widely diffused large numbers of abyssal genera and species are, but
in no group of animals has this fact been more clearly demonstrated than
in Canon Norman's notes on these Calanoida.

Annulata.

Leucocytes and Similar Cells in Sipunculus nudus.* — F. Ladreyt
finds that there are two very distinct types of leucocytes in this worm.
There are minute plastids, with very active fine pseudopodia, and central
or slightly excentric nucleus (amcebocytes or phagocytes), which have
an important role in excretion and phagocytosis ; and there are large
elements, including numerous transparent spherules, without pseudo-
podia, with a lateral nucleus (vesicular leucocytes or " glycoleucytes ")
which are especially devoted to storing nutritive substances, like glycogen.
The adult coloured haamatids absorb carmine injected into the ccelom.
When the small amoebocytes absorb excretory substances, they transport
these to areas suitable for diapedesis, and the waste is got rid of by
epidermic exfoliation, or via the nephridia, or with the fasces. A sheath
is formed by the same elements around infecting Bacteria and Nematodes.

Palolo Worm of Samoa.f — W. McM. Woodworth has prepared a
summary report on the well-known form, Eunice viridis Gray. We note
a few points only. At the end of October (1897) the Samoan reef was
"literally alive with Palolo," which were discovered by prising off
pieces of the rock with a crowbar. The operation of freeing unbroken
specimens of these fragile worms is a delicate one ; three complete
worms were obtained, and an excellent figure is given. The total length
averages 400 mm., about one-fourth of which is in the anterior atokal
part. In two males about 429 and 359 atokal segments were counted,
in a female about 250. The greatest diameter of the atokal part is 4 mm.,
and that of the epitokal region 1-1 J mm. The colour of the male is
reddish-brown, that of the female bluish-green. These colours, which
are very marked in the epitokal portions, are there due to the colours of
the spermatozoa and ova, after the discharge of which the collapsed
integument is translucent and colourless. In the atokous parts the
female is more greenish than the male, and the colours are there in-
tegumentary. Each epitokal segment bears on its ventral surface a pro-
minent pigmented spot, the Bauchauge of Ehlers. These " eye-spots "
can be traced into the atokal part through about twenty segments,
diminishing in size toward the anterior end ; they are lacking on the
anal segment, and are usually absent in two to six of the pre-anal
segments.

A similar swarming of marine Annelids, and at corresponding seasons,
is known for other islands of the Pacific, though the worms have not

* Comptes Rendus, exxxvii. (1903) pp. 865-7.
f Amer. Nat., xxxvii. (1903) pp. 875-81 (1 fig.).

184 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

been everywhere identified. The Palolo makes its appearance in Samoa
in the months of October and November, during the last quarter of the
moon, the time of the lowest or spring tides. Woodworth is inclined to
believe in some thermotropic or heliotropic reaction of the " eyes " on
the epitokal part of the worm. The " Palolo time " in Samoa embraces
three succesive days. During these days another Annelid — Lysidice
falax Ehlers, L. viridis Gray — exhibits phenomena similar to those of
the true Palolo.

Some Woods Hole Pelagic Polychgeta.* — J. Percy Moore points out
that the pelagic Annelid fauna of southern New England has received
but little attention. He describes some forms new to the region—
Amphinome pallasii Quatrefages, Hvpponoe gaudichaudi Aud. and M.E.,
Drieschia pellucida sp. n., and Tomopteris kelgolandka Greef.

Distribution of Oligochseta.f— K. Bretscher has made a special
study of the distribution of earthworms in Switzerland, where there
are sixteen 'endemic species. A great deal depends on the degree of
humidity and the atmospheric conditions, as is shown by considering the
rainfall records.

Negative and Positive Phototropism of the Earthworm.}— G. P.
Adams finds that the phototropism of AUolobophora fmtida changes
according to the intensity of the light. The negative phototaxis, very
marked with intense illumination, gradually decreases as the intensity is
lessened. Finally, the earthworm shows itself positively phototactic.
This agrees obviously with the habits of the animal in nature, for it hides
from the sunlight, but is drawn to the weak nocturnal light.

Regeneration in Lumbriculus variegatis.§— P. Iwanow compares in
detail the regeneration of trunk-segments and head-segments in this
worm. We can only allude to a few results. The gut is formed
similarly in both, by the backward or forward growing of the old gut
until it meets a minute proctodreal or stomodaal invagination. The new
epidermis differentiates early into a new growing epithelium and into
large sub-epithelial " germ-cells," which form nervous tissue and external
musculature. The mesoderm of the trunk-segments arises from special
indifferent "germ-cells," but in the head-segments the material for
mesoderm regeneration is afforded entirely by derivatives of the " germ-
cells " of the trunk, especially from the somatic wall. The muscle
elements in the head arise wholly from muscle-cells of the old mesoderm ;
the connective tissue cells come mainly from leucocytes or peritoneal
cells. Thus the secondary mesoderm in the head-segments does not
form chloragogen cells or nephridia.

Experiments in Jlolosoma hemprichii.|| — Antonin Stole notes that
this naid has normally six double-pairs of bundles of seta?, and that its
asexually-produced progeny show the same number. Various parts of

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Pci. Philadelphia, 1903, pp. 793-S01 (1 pi.).

t Biol. Centralbl., xxiii. (1903) pp. 634-9 (1 map).

X Amer. Jouru. Physiol., ix. ((1903) pp. 26-34 (2 fi<rs.). See Zool. Centralbl. xi.
(1904) p. 33.

§ Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Ixxv. (1903) pp. 327-90 (2 pis.).

|| Arch. Eutwickmech., xv. (1903) pp. 638-68 (26 figs.). Sec Zool. Centralbl. x.
(1903) pp. 878-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 185

such chains may be separated off mechanically, and may give rise to
asexually reproductive individuals. These usually differ from the normal
individuals in the number of pairs of setose bundles. Their progeny was
followed with care, but the normal number always re-appeared.

Nematohelminth.es.

Filaria immitis.* — G. Noe gives some details in regard to the passage
of this parasite through the medium of a mosquito (Anopheles) from
host to host.

Filaria perstans in relation to Sleeping Sickness. f — G. C. Low,
after studying the distribution and the pathological conditions of this
disease, comes to the conclusion that Filaria perstans has nothing to do
with it, its occasional presence being only a coincidence, as is the presence
of AnTcylo stoma duodenale, Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichocephahis dispar,
and Bilharzia hmnatobia. The worm probably produces no pathological
-symptoms whatever.

Platyhelminth.es.

Oscillatory Movements of Convoluta roscoffensis.J — Georges Bohn
describes the behaviour of this Turbellarian. There are two main
movements. When the tide comes in they bury themselves in the sand ;
when the tide is out they form green patches on the sand. They avoid
the two dangers of being swept away and of being dried up. Their
movements are synchronous with those of the sea, like those of the
Annelid Hediste diversicolor, and are not referable to the influence of
light, as they occur as precisely at night as during the day.

Revision of Classification of Polyclad Turbellarians.§ — F. F.

Laidlaw suggests a revision based mainly on the characters of the vagina
and prostate gland. He gives a diagnostic key for the Acotylea and
Cotylea, and a grouping of the Acotylean genera in eight families.

Structure of Mesostoma nasonoffii Graff.|| — W. Zykoff gives a
description of this Russian Turbellarian, allied to M. obtusum, which
has not been adequately diagnosed hitherto.

Cysticercus cellulosae on Dog's Brain. f — Ball and Marotel re-
cord what is a rare occurrence, the presence of numerous (30) bladder-
worms on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres of a dog. The
characters of Cysticercus celluloses were unmistakable. The parasitism
was fatal.

Cestodes of South American Marsupials.** — F. Zschokke, following
up H. von Ihering's suggestion, calls attention to the occurrence of
Oochoristica and Linstowia in these forms. The former never occurs
except in the old autochthonous forms ; its presence is, as it were, one

* Atti. (Rend.) R. Aocad. Lincei, xii. (1903) pp. 476-83 (3 figs),
ft Roy. Soc. Rep. Sleeping Sickness Comm., ii. (1902) pp. 64-9.

% Comptes Rendus, exxxvii. (1903) pp. 576-8.

§ Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc, xlviii. (1903) No. 4, p. 16 (5 figs.).

|| Bull. Sue. Imp. Nat. Moscow (1903) pp. 183-7 (1 pi.).

Tf Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, lxxxix. (1903) pp. 55-6.
** Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 290-3.

April mh, 1904 °

186 SUMMARY OF CURRENI RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of their insignia. The genus Litistowia is restricted to Marsupials and
Monotrernes ; its exclusive occurrence in American and Australian
Aplacentalia points to a remarkable similarity in the parasitic fauna of
the autochthonous inhabitants of the two continents.

Parasites of Ural Birds.* — "W. Clerc collected 408 birds from the
Ural, and found parasites in 246. In 233 there were Cestodes, repre-
senting 57 species, of which ten are new. Nine species of Nematodes,
three of Acanthocephala, and eight of Trematodes were also found.
The present memoir contains descriptions of the Cestodes.

Incertee Sedis.

Lohmannia catenata g. et sp. n.f — E. Neresheimer found in the
gonadial cavity of FriUllaria, a remarkable mesozoon parasite. It
consists of an anterior portion with branched pseudopodia, and a chain
of segments without pseudopodia. There is but one layer of cells, and
the boundaries are not very clear. The anterior nuclei are larger
than the rest and otherwise different. To each of them a pseudopodium
seems to be associated.

The young form is like a gastrula, and diploblastic. The internal
layer grows actively, and the external layer is reduced to delicate mem-
brane except at the anterior end, where the nuclei are associated with
the pseudopodia. The segments formed by the internal body are
liberated, bursting the outer membrane, and the anterior region then
forms new ones.

Rotifer a.

Excretory Organs in the Family Melicertidae.J — Stan. Hlava
has studied these in Lacinularia socialis, Megalotrocha albojlavicans,
Melicerta ringens, and Limnias ceratophylli, and finds that these organs
conform essentially to the same plan which has been known in
Asplanchna. The paired thick-walled lateral canals, forming com-
plicated knots in the head region, are accompanied on each side of the
body by a fine thin-walled tubule which alone bears the vibratile tags,
of which there are five on each side. The two thick-walled canals
unite posteriorly into a single short tubular piece which corresponds to
the contractile vesicle of other rotifers, but which has no power of
contraction. Valentine's statement that this tube opens outward by
an independent poms in Lacinularia is not confirmed. The narrow
thin-walled tubules, bearing the tags, open into the thick-walled canals
in two places — in the twisted knot in the head, and posteriorly just
before these canals unite. The thin-walled tubules give off small
branches bearing the flame-cells at their ends. An additional feature
in Lacinularia and Megalotrocha is a fine connecting tubule between
the two sides in the corona. In addition to the flame-cells the author
has observed three fine vibratile cilia within the lumen of the thick-
walled canals in Lacinularia and Megalotrocha.

In the same note the author establishes a new genus, Conochiloides,

* Rev. Suisse Zool., xi. (1903) pp. 241-368 (4 pis),
t Biol. Centralbl., xxiii. (1903) pp. 757-00 (3 figs. .
J Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 247-53(4 figs.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 187

for the reception of Seligo's Tubicolaria (Conochilus) natans and Gono-
chilm dossuarius of Hudson.

Echinoderma.

Study of the Nucleolus in the Maturing Ovum.* — K. Guenther
has made a detailed study of the history of the nucleolus in Holothuria
tubulosa and Psammechinus microtuberculatus. It arises in the ripening
ovum as a drop or as several drops excreted from the nuclear frame-
work. Into this or these the chromatin of the nucleoplasm penetrates
intimately. After a time the chromatin emerges and is re-distributed
in the nuclear framework, or it postpones its emergence until the forma-
tion of the directive spindle where it takes the form of chromosomes.
In both cases there is a residue (Hacker's " metamicleolus "), which is
either a product of metabolism or superfluous chromatin. This residue
may be immediately dissolved, or it may persist for a considerable time.
In short, " the nucleolus represents a drop excreted from the nuclear
framework ; into it the chromatin penetrates, and prepares for division.
There may be an intense metabolism involved between the chromatin
and the nucleolar fluid."

Development of Echinus miliaris.t — Hjalmar Th^el gives a pre-
liminary account of this, dealing in particular with the water-vascular
system and with Aristotle's lantern, but including many figures relevant
to other parts of the body.

Sea-Urchin Ova Fertilised by Starfish Spermatozoa.^ — Jacques
Loeb finds that in certain solutions, not described, the ova of Strongylo-
centrotus purpuratus can be fertilised with the sperm of Asterias ochracea,
though this hybridisation will not occur in ordinary sea water. About
half of the ova, thus cross-fertilised, developed to some extent, and
some formed not only blastulae and gastrula?, but lived for more than
a week, and showed a differentiation of the gut, but at most a rudi-
mentary larval skeleton.

Ova of Sea-Urchins.§ — A. Krassuskaja and E. Landau find that
the space between the vitelline membrane and the surface of the ovum
is occupied by a delicate gelatinous substance, secreted after fertilisation,
which absorbs water and swells up so as to remove the vitelline mem-
brane from the ovum.

Parthenogenesis induced by Carbon Dioxide. || — Yves Delage has
shown that the ova of starfishes will develop parthenogenetically if sub-
mitted to the influence of carbon dioxide during the formation of the
polar bodies. The ova of sea-urchins (Paracentrotus = Strongylo-
centrotus) give off their polar bodies in the ovary, and are not sus-
ceptible normally to the influence of carbon dioxide as a stimulus to
parthenogenesis. But it is possible to make them so susceptible by

* Zool. Jahrb., xix. (1903) pp. 1-2S (1 pi.").

t Bihang. k. Svensk. Vet.-Akad.-Handl., xxviii. (1903) Afd. iv. No. 7, 9 pp. and
3 pis.

% Univ. California Publications (Physiology), i. (1903) pp. 1-3. See Zool. Cen-
tralb)., x. (1903) p. 885. § Biol. Centralbl., xxiii. (1903) pp. 613-8.

|| Comptea Rendue, oxxxvii. (1903) pp. 473-5.

O 2

188 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

shaking them and warming them at the same time. By combining
these two methods there is induced a " nuclear lability," which renders
these eggs susceptible to the influence of carbon dioxide as a provocative
of cleavage. Stages with thirty-two blastomeres were produced.

Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Ova of Echinoderms.*— C. Viguier
finds that this influence does not uniformly act, as Delage has asserted,
as a temporary poison. Like some other re-agents, it has a variable
influence ; it is sometimes favourable and sometimes injurious ; it acts
differently on nearly related types and even on eggs of the same species,
according to their condition at the time.

New Genus of Diadematidse.f — Th. Mortensen describes Lisso-
diadema lorioli g. et sp. n. — a small Bchinoid from the Bay of Amboina
which was previously regarded by de Loriol as a young specimen of
Asthenosoma varium. Re-examination shows that the form is an in-
teresting new type of the family Diadematidge, with a near relative in
Echinotlirix.

Habits and Life-History of Stichopus japonicus.J— K. Mitsukuri
notes that the breeding season of this holothurian ends with the latter
half of July. Then the individuals crawl out into dark places under
rocks and cease to take food, passing into an inactive state which may be
called " summer sleep." The alimentary canal becomes reduced to a
slender, almost thread-like tube. In autumn the animals crawl out
again, and begin to feed. The branches of the dendritic gonads elongate
quickly, and are ripe about the middle of May ; the height of the re-
productive season lasting till the middle of July.

Mitsukuri thinks that the genital tubes ought to be regarded simply
as local lateral growths of the strictly germinal area/ which is lodged in
the median line of the dorsal mesentery. A certain number of tubes are
produced as each year's crop. Some of the next year's crop may be seen
as delicate and slender tubes in front of the enlarged and fully-grown
tubes of a given year. After the genital products are shed, the tubes
seem to be gradually absorbed.

It seems that Stichopus japonicus reaches the adult condition in two
whole years ; and that after reaching this it goes through a regular
spawning season only at the end of another year, i.e. the third year from
the beginning. Some probably live for five years. Some hints as to
protecting, propagating and increasing these holothurians are given, e.g.
by providing piles or dykes of loose stones for the summer retreat, and
for the shelter of the larva?. After making this suggestion, the author
found that the plan had been tried in the somewhat out-of-the-way island
of Oki for a hundred years or more.

Variation in Ophiocoma nigra.§ — D. C. Mcintosh has studied in
this brittle star the most general shape of the disc, the shape and size of
the coloured patch (if any) on the disc, the correlation between arm-
length and disc-breadth, the percentage of specimens with an abnormal

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxvi. (1003) pp. 1687-90.

t Revue Suisse Zool., xi. (1903) pp. 393-8 (4 figs.).

j Annot. Zool. Japon., v. (1903) pp. 1-21 (4 figs, and tables).

§ Bionutrika, ii. (1903) part 4, pp. 463-73 (8 figs, and 5 tables).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 189

number of rays, and the number of madreporic plates. The shape of
the disc is in general pentagonal, but tends to become circular in more
fully developed, individuals. Over ,75 p.c. had a coloured patch, which
varied in shape with its size — from circular to pentagonal. In the first
thousand specimens there were five with six rays ; in the second thousand
there were four with six rays, and one with four rays ; in the third
thousand there were three with six rays. Out of 3000 specimens, thirty-
nine had two or'more of the plates so like the madreporite, that one could
not tell the real madreporic plate — a confirmation of what Prof. Jeffrey
Bell says, that " in ophiurods the stone-canal ends in one or several
of the mouth shields." The paper affords a good illustration of the
variability of a familiar animal.

Coelentsra.

Medusa from Victoria Nyanza.* — Ch. Gravier calls attention to
Ch. Alluaud's discovery of a freshwater medusa in this lake. It seems
to be identical with Limnocnida tanganyim, discovered in Lake Tangan-
yika by Bohm in 1883, and studied in 1893 by R. T. Gunther — a relict
of the fauna of the ancient Jurassic sea which once covered the centre
of Africa.

Sagartia paguri Verril.f — J. Play fair McMurrich describes this
interesting sea-anemone, which adheres to the chela of the pagurid
Diogenes edwardsii (De Haan). It was previously described briefly by
Verrill in 18G0, but without any details of structural characters. These
are now supplied. The habits of this form suggests its reference to the
genus Adamsia, but the arrangement of the mesenteries clearly indicates
it as a member of the Sagartiinse, and it is to be assigned to the genus
Sagartia.

Modification of Hydroid Colonies by (Movements in the Water.J
Madame S. Motz-Kossowska has made many observations and some
experiments which show that Plumularia obliqua, Aglaophenia myrio-
phyllum, Eudendrium ramosum, etc., are modified by the movements of
the surrounding water. Changes of thickening in the perisarc, increased
flexibility or rigidity, may be referred to direct environmental influence.
The mechanical action of contact with solid bodies is also discussed .
The perisarc of a, free stolon is much more delicate than that of the fixed
hydrorhiza, and the growth of the stolon is far more rapid than that of
the hydrorhiza.

Alaskan Corymorpha-like Hydroid. § — S. F. Clarke calls attention
to a large coral-red Alaskan Hydroid, for which he previously created the
genus Rhizomma, which he now finds, however, to be a species either of
Lampra or Corymorpha. To settle this it will be necessary to find speci-
mens with well-preserved gonophores. He notes the unusual thickness
of the supporting lamella between the ectoderm and the endoderm.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 867-9.

t Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxvi. (190;?) pp. 427-8 (2 figs.).

% Comptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 863-5.

§ Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxvi. (1903) pp. 953-8 (7 figs).

190 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

New Ceratella.* — S. J. Hickson describes from the Zanzibar col-
lection made by C. Crossland, Ceratella minima, a new, species of the
remarkable family Ceratelladrc. The colony is probably erect, branch-
ing irregularly andl not very profusely, 'but strictly in one plane.
The mains terns and all the branches are invariably cylindrical in
form. The surface is free from spines and relatively smooth, although
the hydrophores form very slight ridges. The skeleton consists of
longitudinal horny fibres united by numerous loops and bands, which in
the larger branches give a slightly spiral ribbed appearance to the surface.
The zooids are numerous, bearing usually nine capitate tentacles. They
are arranged slightly to one side of the plane of branching either
alternately or in pairs.

Septa of Rugosa.f — N. Yakovleff gives a stricter and more complete
definition of the primary counter septum of Rugose corals. It is that in
relation to which the contiguous septa are arranged in a parallel direction,
and which has adjoining primary interseptal chambers, containing no
secondary principal septa. Duerden is not correct in stating that the
main septum and the counter septum lie respectively on the convex and
on the concave side of the coral, independently of the arrangement of the
contiguous septa.

Protozoa.

New British Freshwater Rhizopods.J — Gr. S. West records the
occurrence of numerous forms, especially from the west of Scotland and
the outer Hebrides. He describes the following new species : Nuclearia
conspicua, Hyalosplienia platystoma, H. inconspicua and Sphenoderia
puJcheUa. The two genera Vampyr&lla and Nuclearia should be removed
from the Proteomyxa and placed in a separate order, Yampyrellida.

Nosema anomalum Monz.§ — W. Stempell gives a brief account of
the development of this parasite, which he found encysted in the sub-
cutaneous connective tissue, body-cavity, alimentary canal, and more
rarely in the ovarian eggs of Gasterosteus acuhatus. In one case he
found it in the skin of Gobius minutus. The development turns out to
be more complicated than Thelohan supposed, but we may wait for
the detailed account which the author promises.

Trypanosoma in Birds. || — W. Hanna found two different species of
Trypanosome in the Indian domestic pigeon and in the Indian crow..
He describes these, and gives measurements for future use. A summary
is given of the occurrence of Trypanosomes in animals other than
mammals — in frogs, fishes, and oysters. Their occurrence in the blood
of birds has not been hitherto recorded ; and Eberth's report of a
Trypanosome in the intestine of birds appears to refer to a totally dif-
ferent parasite from those found by Hanna.

* Proc. Zool. Soc, 1903, pp. 113-6 (1 pi.).
+ Ann. Nat. Hist., xiii. (1904) pp. 114-7 (2 figs.).
X Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxix. (1903) pp. 108-17 (I pi.).
§ Zool. Anzei«:., xxvii. (1!)04) pp. 293-5 (5 figs.).
|| Quart. Joum. Micr. Sci., xlvii. (1903) pp. 433-8 (I pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOKOSCOPY, ETC. 191

Trypanosoma in Sleeping Sickness.* — Aldo Castellani describes a
species of Trypanosoma which he found in the cerebro-spinal fluid of a
marked case of sleeping sickness. He suggests as a working hypothesis
that the disease is due to this parasite, aud that at least in the last stages
there is a concomitant streptococcus infection.

Developmental Forms of the Trypanosome found in Sleeping Sick-
ness.f — Aldo Castellani finds a number of forms structurally different — ■
typical adult forms, atypical adult forms, forms in different stages of
longitudinal division, Rabinovitsh-Kempner bodies and Plimmer-
Bradford amoeboid forms. It seems likely that the multiplication of
longitudinal division is not the only mode of reproduction.

Coccidia in Sheep.J — Moussu and Marotel describe a rare occurrence,
the presence of Coccidia in the wall of the small intestine of the sheep.
Four cases have been previously reported. The disease is a new one,,
and the authors propose to call the parasite Coccidium faurei sp. n.

* Roy. Soc. Rep. Sloeping Sickness Coium., i. (1903) pp. 1-10.

f Op. cit, ii. (1903) pp. 9-13.

X Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, lxxxix. (1903) pp. 73-4 (1 pi.).

-*«^>+-—

192 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Structure and Development.
Vegetative.

Anatomy of Seedlings of Labiatse.* — R. Yiguier, who has investi-
gated the structure of the seedlings of Lamium album and other
members of the order, describes the following general results. The
stem structure is independent of that of the hypocotyl, and there is
properly speaking no transition from root to stem. The cotyledons in
Lamium album and other Labiates such as Leonurus Cardiaca, Nepeta
Cataria, Hyssopus officinalis, etc., show very plainly an alternate arrange-
ment of the phloem and sylem bundles. The adventitious roots
originating below the cotyledons are two in number, and arise in a
plane perpendicular to that of the primary wood bundles of the
hypocotyl.

Adventitious Endogenous Buds.| — C. de Candolle has studied the
morphology of the adventitious buds arising on the trunk and branches
of trees and shrubs. These are always endogenous, arising in the tissue
round about the cambium. The actual layer from which they take
origin has not been precisely determined except in a few dicotyledons,
where it is the pericycle, but the origin is probably the same in other
plants of the same class. The shoots formed by these buds always
show at first the vegetative characters of the seedling of the same
species. They are never exactly like the axillary shoots of the same
tree, and sometimes differ from them in a striking manner. They
repeat the course of evolution of the leaf on the plant, if we except the
cotyledons ; that is to say, where the form characteristic of the adult is
only gradually assumed in the development from the seedling, the
juvenile stages are reproduced in the development of the adventitious
shoot.

The author discusses in detail the various species which he studied ;
they include Eucalyptus globulus, the Walnut, Oak, Ivy, Hornbeam,
and Horse-chestnut. In every case the buds are clothed with scales
on their appearance, and this would seem to be a general character of
endogenous buds, occurring even in species such as those of Pterocarya,
where the axillary buds have no scales, and also where, as in the Chestnut,
the seedling does not bear basilar scales. Phyllomes resembling the
cotyledons are never found at the base of the adventitious shoot ; these
seem peculiar to the embryo, and the adventitious shoots reproduce only
those phases of individual evolution which are subsequent to the coty-
ledons. In this respect they are intermediate between the embryos

* Comptes llendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 804-5.
t Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xvi. (1902) pp. 50-70.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 193

— which, like themselves, are of endogenous origin — and the exogenous
vegetative axes of the plant.

Degeneration of the Potato.* — G. Delacroix discusses the tendency
of potatoes to produce long slender shoots in place of the normal de-
velopment. Such tubers when planted show no distinctive characters,
and may be softer or harder than usual ; when examined microscopi-
cally, there may be found, but not necessarily, Bacillus solanincola,
B. caulivorus, and the saprophytic Fusarium Solani. As these or-
ganisms may be absent, the abnormal development cannot be caused
by them. The true cause rests in the inferior vitality to which many
varieties of potato have been reduced as a result of the continued vege-
tative and the absence of sexual reproduction. This has reduced to a
minimum the power of originating variation, which can therefore only
arise in response to the external medium, soil or atmospheric agencies.
If the latter are unfavourable, unfavourable characters are induced
which become hereditary in successive generations, and the injury by
organisms which in the normal state are without effect, becomes possible.
Starting the germination of the tuber in the light, will eliminate the
slender shoots, and this, followed by a rational culture, serves as a pallia-
tive, but the tendency will reappear at the end of several generations.
The only certain method of cure is to start from the seed and select
carefully. The problem is one not of plant pathology, but of agri-
culture.

Reproductive.

Development of Gametophyte and Embryo of Ruppia rostellata.f
Murbeck has investigated the development of the pollen, the embryo-
sac, and the embryo in this form. He finds that in the anther the
initials arise as a sub-epidermal layer, and from this layer on the inside
the primary archesporial cells are cut off. The pollen-mother-cells show
a well-marked synapsis and dolichonema stage in their nucleus, which
exhibits eight chromosomes, the vegetative number being sixteen. The
cells of the tetrad become separated from one another, and before they
are fully developed, each cuts off from one end a small generative cell.
By further growth of the pollen-grain the generative cell comes to lie
about the middle of the grain near the vegetative cell. Like Potamo-

i * i

geton, and the other genera of the Helobieas and Spadicifloraj which
have been investigated, the generative- cell divides while the pollen-
grains are still in the anther.

In the ovule a sub-epidermal initial cell appears and cuts off a
tapetal cell above which divides to form a single layer of four to six
tapetal cells. The lower part becomes the embryo-sac-mother-cell, the
nucleus of which soon shows a heterotypic division with synapsis, doli-
chonema stage and e^ght chromosomes. The daughter-cells thus formed
soon divide again, but the planes of division are not parallel to one
another ; the two lower cells of the four being placed under each other,
the two upper obliquely side by side. This lends support to the view
that the division of the embryo-sac-mother-cell is a tetrad division

* Comptes Rcndus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 1006-7.

t Bihang. K. Svensk. Vet-Akad. Hand!., xixvi. (1903) pp. 1-21 (3 pi.).

194 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

exactly comparable with that of the pollen-mother-cell. The lowest of
the four cells becomes the embryo-sac, which develops in the typical way,
the two polar nuclei fusing together before pollination. From the
author's study of embryo development the views of Wille, as against
those of Ascherson, are supported.

Embryology of Juncaceae.* — M. Laurent gives the following account
of the development of the embryo. The fertilised egg divides trans-
versely into two unequal cells, the upper and larger of which constitutes
the greater part of the embryo ; the lower or suspensor cell divides
transversely. The upper of the two daughter-cells again divides in
the same sense, and from the uppermost of the three suspensor cells
is formed by vertical walls a plate, which separates the developing
embryo-cell proper from the two lower suspensor cells, which increase
considerably in size. Further development consists in the formation of
a large cotyledon from the embryo-cell, a radicle from the upper portion
of the suspensor, while the two large suspensor cells completely dis-
appear. The plumule appears at the base of the cotyledon above the
radicular meristem. The hypocotyl is suppressed.

Goebel and other authors have referred to the embryo of Juncus as
undifferentiated. M. Laurent, however, has studied the development
here described in several species of Juncus and also in Luzula. The
suspensor plays an important part : reduced at first to a few cells, it
develops tardily, but subsequently becomes the chief centre of cell
activity and forms the radicle. The cap does not develop till after the
exfoliation of the two or three lower elements of the suspensor.

Poindexter, C. 0. — The Development of the Spikelet and Grain of Corn.

[As a preliminary to the study of xenia in maize, the author describes the
development of the pistil and fruit.]

Ohio Naturalist, iv. (1903) pp. 3-9 (2 pis.).

Physiology.
Nutrition and Growth.

Influence of Potassium on the Morphology of Sterigmatocystis
nigra.f — M. Molliard and H. Coupin are of opinion that data as to the-
influence of culture media on the growth of fungi have not been accu-
rate enough to be of scientific value. They have therefore selected
potassium, one of the ingredients in an artificial solution, and tested
the effect of its presence or absence on the morphological development
of Sterigmatocystis. The absence of the salt, potassium carbonate, had
an immediate effect, especially on the fertile hyphrc. The sterigmata
instead of bearing conidia grew out into mycelial filaments, and on
these were formed secondary smaller conidia-bearing heads. Forms
resembling Aspergillus and Penicillium were also developed, and the
conidia when formed in the absence of the potassium Avere invariably
small and the wall less cutinised. Also the conidia germinated readily
in situ and produced chlamydospores.

* Comptes Eendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 532-3.
t Rev. Gen. Bot., xv. (1903) pp. 401-5 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 195

Function of the Starch-Sheath.* — F. Tondera concludes from his
investigations of internodes of various members of the order Cucurbi-
taceag that the function of the starch-sheath is not statolithic. The
position of the starch-grains on the cell-wall is not a constant one, nor
is their distribution in the layer and on the cell-wall such as we should
expect on Haberlandt's Statolithic theory of Geotropism. Nor is the
starch-sheath to be regarded as the path for plastic material, but as a
store-house for nutrient matter required in the immediate neighbour-
hood ; observation shows that the starch-grains are used up in the
thickening of the cellulose walls of the sclerenchymatous ring. No-
starch-sheath was found in the following three species, Bryonia dioica,
Luffa acutangula, and Trichosanthes colubrina. This is explained by
the large size of the vascular bundles, the sieve-tube area of which,
comes to lie close to the thickening ring, which is thus fed directly from
the bundle, and obviates the;necessity of a temporary storage of starch
in a starch-sheath.

Influence of the Nature of the Soil on the Organic Composition of
Plants.j — A. Hebert and E. Charabot find, as the result of experiments
with peppermint, that in mature plants the proportions of ash, of organic
substance and of the elements which compose the latter — carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen — show very little variation when different
salts are added to the soil. This fact is very evident when the per-
centage composition of dried plants is examined. Thus in the aerial
organs the ash varies from 8-6 to 11, organic matter from 81 to 91 '4 •
while of the component elements of the latter carbon varies from 44 • 6 to
46 • 5, hydrogen from 5 ' 6 to 5*8, nitrogen from 1 • 2 to 1 • 6, and oxygen-
from 86 to 40. Calculated in numbers of atoms, the variation is —

C H N 0 C H N 0
4-1 6-1 "09 2-5 to 4 6'6 "08 S3

for aerial organs, and

C H N 0 C H NO
8-7 G -05 2*8 to 4 6*6 '08 3

for roots.

Irritability.

Relation between Light Intensity and Energy of Assimilation
in Plants belonging to different Biologic Types.! — Fr. Weis has ex-
perimented with plants of Marchantia polymorpha, Polypodium vulgarey.
and Oenothera biennis, exposing them to light of different degrees of
intensity under conditions in which the amount of oxygen evolved and
carbon dioxide absorbed could be determined. In experiments in direct
sunlight the tubes containing the plants were placed under bell-jars
with double walls, between which passed a continuous current of cold
water to absorb the heat rays of the sunlight. The plants were exposed
to direct sunlight and light ^ and ^ the intensity of direct sunlight.
The intensity was estimated by the time taken by photographic paper

* Bull. Internat. Acad. Sci. Cracov. CI. Sci. Math, et Nat., 1903, pp. 512-6 (1 pi.),
t Comptes Eendus, cxxxvii. (190:!) pp. 799-801.
% Tom. cit., pp. 801-4.

196 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

to assume a predetermined tint. From the experiments, M. "Weis con-
cludes that Oenothera biennis is a well-marked sun-plant, which in direct
solar light and at a temperature favourable to assimilation, assimilates
about three times as much carbon dioxide as in diffused light. On the
other hand, Polypodium vulgare assimilates with slightly more energy
in diffused light, and notably more than does Oenothera. Marchantia
•occupies an intermediate position between the other two plants. The
author points out that it would be interesting to conduct such a series
of experiments with the plants which fight for the light in our fields
and woods.

Hydathodes in the Leaves of Woody Plants* — W. Edelstein has
investigated about seventy species of woody plants, and finds that
only in fourteen are hydathodes absent ; among the latter are Quercus
pedunculate, Q. Ilex, Rhamnus Frangula and cathartica, Spindle tree,
Ash, Acer platanoides, Beech, and Horse-chestnut. The structure of
the hydathode is as described by Haberlandt and others in herbaceous
plants. The physiological investigations were made with well-rooted
pot-plants, or cut branches with use of artificial pressure on the lines
employed by Moll.

The author finds that cut branches, in the absence of any pressure,
retain the capacity of absorbing and excreting water for three to four
days without loss of intensity. In a series of experiments undertaken
to show how far the hydathodes shared in this process, the author
covered either all the leaves or only the hydathodes with vaselin,
albumin, or Cacao-butter. In neither case was any influence shown on
the absorption of water. The hydathodes were now removed by cutting
off the leaf-edges ; water-absorption went on as before, while great
drops of water appeared on the cut edges of the nerves. On the other
hand, absorption was almost completely stopped by etherising the
branch, and by removal of all the leaves. The author is unable to
explain the relation between absorption and excretion of water ; his
■experiments show at any rate that absorption is not influenced by the
presence of the hydathodes.

General.

Ecologic Study of the Flora of Mountainous North Carolina.! —
J. W. Harshberger gives a detailed account of the factors determining the
character and the nature of affinities of the flora of this region. The
area embraces several mountain ridges with the associated valleys, the
former often attaining heights between 4000 ft. and 5000 ft. The effect
of the physiographic changes which have occurred in the history of the
geologic formation of the area on the distribution of the plants is dis-
cussed. Four kinds of plants, with reference to their phenologic distri-
bution, may be distinguished in the vegetation of the forests of eastern
North America, viz. — plants of boreal genera (Arctic, Hudson ian and
•Canadian species) ; plants of temperate genera (Alleghanian and Caro-
linian) ; plants of warmer temperate climate ; and neotropic genera.

* Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Pt-tersb., xvii. (1902) pp. 59-64.
t Bot. Gazette, xxxvi. (1903) pp. 241-58.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 197

Upon the retreat of the ice-sheet, that portion of the continent north
of the terminal moraine was tenanted again by plants migrating north-
wards which were adapted to a cold temperate climate. Many of these
came from the southern Appalachians, where they had remained un-
disturbed during the long Ice Age ; these mountains served as a centre of
distribution from which a considerable area in the south-eastern states
was populated. A study of the principles underlying the distribution of
plants in eastern America, shows the great antiquity of the flora of the
mountains of western North Carolina. The presence of so many peculiar
types of plants not found elsewhere in America, and having their closest
relations in eastern Asia, makes it more certain that groups now broken
up and detached were once continuous, and that fragmentary groups and
isolated forms are but the relics of widespread types, which have been
preserved in a few localities where the physical conditions were especially
favourable, or where organic competition was less severe. Evidence of
this antiquity is found in western North Carolina in the large size of the
trees, the close commingling in a dense forest of a great variety of
species, the graded-down appearance of the land surface, and the rounded
contour of the mountains, all suggesting that the country has been sub-
jected through long ages to the continued action of climatic forces.
The deep soil in the North Carolina mountains, rich in organic detritus,
points to the long occupation of the territory by dense forests, the most
magnificent (excepting those of the Pacific slope) to be found anywhere in
the Western Hemisphere.

The characteristic features of the vegetation are found in the broad-
leaved species of which it is largely composed, associated with deciduous-
and evergreen shrubs, while lianes stretch from tree to tree, and herbs
grow beneath the dominant forest species, or clothe the natural meadows
of the higher mountain summits and the alluvial bottoms of the prin-
cipal mountain streams. The association of these plants in the forest is
due largely to their relation to light, soil and moisture. Ecologically, the
following formations may be distinguished :

1. Mixed deciduous forest formation, 2000-5000 ft.

2. Coniferous forest formation, 5000-G700 ft.

3. Sub-alpine dwarf tree-shrub formation, about G000 ft.

4. Sub-alpine treeless formation, above 6000 ft.

Polar Climate in Time the Major, Factor in Evolution.* — Gr. R„
Wieland, as a result of the study of the facts of distribution, concludes
that climatic changes of a character affecting life must in the course of
time be of minimum amount at the equator, and increase towards the
poles, where the maximum amount of such change occurs. Hence the
nearer a given locality to either pole, the greater the seasonal vicissitudes
to which its life is subjected. The origin of life probably took place at
the north, or both the poles, though the possibility of a supplementary
or extra-terrestrial origin requires consideration. The Palaeozoic period,
from climatic and other reasons — such as freer circulation of oceanic
waters, and the greater number of aquatic animals, and lowly organised
or spore-bearing plants — must have been one mainly of generalised

* Amer. Journ. Sci., xvi.|(1903) pp. 401-30.

198 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES DELATING TO

origin. Hence there can be slight stratigraphic record of the distributory
movements of faunas and floras in the Palaeozoic, though even then
polar climates were probably the most important of evolutionary factors.
From the origin of life down to the Mesozoic the north and south polar
areas may have played a nearly equal part in creating a certain south-
ward and northward stress, together with a sort of breaking up of species
in the tropics. But from the Mesozoic to the Glacial period, evidence
points to the polar origin, and continuous outward dispersion from the
north polar area of most of the great plant and vertebrate groups. The
similarity in successive unrelated and diverse faunas synchronously
appearing on both sides of the Atlantic cannot be accounted for through-
out long periods of time on the basis of lateral interchange. The record
of the post-Palaeozoic flora is in all essentials the complement of the
vertebrate record, and far more complete. Moreover, the outward move-
ment, especially of Conifers and Dicotyledons, from the Arctic area for
long periods of time, has frequently been recognised. Some traces of
this movement are still evident in the present strikingly homogenous
circumboreal flora, although its main development was obscured and
partially checked by the appearance of glacial conditions. It seems con-
clusive that all the factors of climate — and, therefore, the main alterna-
tive potentialities producing organic evolution — have been in the highest
degree variant in the polar areas. This being true, the grouping of the
continents about the north polar area would render it probable, were
there not abundant direct evidence pointing to the fact, that the northern
circumpolar area has probably been, ever since the older Palaeozoic at
least, the main evolutionary centre from which animal and plant life
has radiated. This view is supported by overwhelming proof that it is
from the Arctic area that the greatest waves of change have swept out
to lessen and disintegrate in the more static conditions of the tropics.

Racial Variation.* — Witmer Stone, who has for a number of years
studied racial variation amongst terrestrial vertebrates, and its relation
to environment and climatic conditions, has recently investigated the
genus Viola in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia on the same lines.
His studies, while throwing little light on the relation of variation to
conditions of environment, have enabled him to give a fairly complete
account of the variations shown by the locali violets, which may be a help
to those interested in the genus. The author emphasises his view of
the advantage of the trinominal for denoting races. Among terrestrial
vertebrates racial variation corresponds closely to geographic environ-
ment, and in many groups it is easy to recognise the effect of the
environment on several different life-areas in producing recognisably
distinct races from the same type. As is well known, trees and shrubs,
as well as other plants in a less degree, conform with more or less exact-
ness to the same general laws of geographic distribution that pertain to
animals ; and the ranges of many species are limited by the life-zones
established originally from a study of birds and mammals. When, how-
ever, a genus is represented by different forms in several life-zones, they
are usually very distinct species, and not closely related variants which

• Proe. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelph., 1903, pp. 65C-99 (9 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 199

have obviously been differentiated from a common parent-type by pre-
vailing environmental conditions in the several life-areas in question,
such as is so often seen among vertebrates. At the same time, many
closely related variants do exist among plants, differentiated to the same
varying extent as in the geographic races of birds and mammals, but all
occurring in the same life-zone, and often side by side. They are, more-
over, quite constant in their racial characters, and are not cases of
individual variation. The agency responsible for this differentiation is
in many cases to be found in the varying soil conditions and other local
peculiarities not strong enough to affect higher animal life. Owing to
the fixed nature of plant life, such conditions may have a very marked
effect in producing local forms ; to these the author would apply the
trinominal nomenclature, to distinguish them from the clearly defined
species. The author points out at the same time that nomenclature
becomes absurd when applied to variants which can only be recognised
by one or two specialists, who have devoted years to the study of the
group, as has happened in the genus Gratagus.

The species of Viola fall into two groups, the caulescent and the
acaulescent ; those of the former show but little of the tendency to
racial variation which characterises the latter group. Three types of
colour — blue, yellow and white — occur in each group; parti-coloured forms
also occur in the caulescent. The blue-flowered acaulescent species
show by far the greatest racial and individual variation, and it is upon
these that the author bases his general statements. Leaf -form supplies
the most striking character. There is often a marked similarity in the
general shape of the early leaf in a number of species, which is more
or less entire, passing later into a lobing characteristic of the species.
Starting from the most primitive type, the cordate leaf, the author
indicates various racial variations, tending in the one direction towards
extreme lobing or leaf-division, in the other towards the triangular and
narrow sagittate-leaved forms. There seems to be a tendency towards
narrow leaves in many wet-ground species. Variation also occurs in the
degree of pubescence of the leaf. In using the relative length of petiole
and scape comparison should explicity be made with either the first or
second set of leaves, as the flowering period often covers the growth
of the second leaves, so that early flowers are longer than the leaves,
while later ones are shorter. The length and character of the peduncle
of the later cleistogamic flowers is an important specific character ;
except that in all wet-meadow species it is erect, no correlation is
possible between this character and the nature of the habitat. In floral
characters there is a great amount of individual variation. The extent
of pubescence on the petals is an important specific character.

As regards geographic distribution of the forms found, both acaule-
scent and caulescent, in eastern Pennsylvania and southern New Jersey,
six are characteristic boreal species ; three others also occur in the
higher Alleghanies. Another group seems to be decidedly southern.
The other forms range indiscriminately over the intervening country.

The author gives a clavis of the species (thirty in number) and
forms, based on the above-mentioned characters ; this is followed by
descriptions, including the range and habitat of the individual species
and forms.

200 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Studies in the Cyperacese : the Grouping of the Carices.* —
T. Holm criticises the various sub-divisions of the genus Carex, which
have been proposed from the time of Linnasus onwards. He attempts a
classification of the two groups, Vignece (with two stigmas), and Carices
genuince (with three stigmas), which he considers must be maintained,
in accordance with the principles suggested by Drejer. The author
considers the two to be parallel groups evidently sprung from certain
monostachyous types, and branching out in several more or less re-
stricted "greges." He gives a synopsis of the characters of these
" greges " and the species assigned to them, placing first the simplest
species (when such are represented in the shape of monostachyous
species) as Hebetated, then the supposed central types, and thirdly as
JDesciscentes, certain species which cannot be placed in direct sequence
with the centrales, and which to some extent show transition to other
"greges." Thirty-nine greges are maintained, fifteen under Vignece,
and twenty-five under Carices genuince ; many of these are established
for the first time by the author.

Association of Chalk-loving and Chalk-avoiding Species.f —
S. Aubert describes a remarkable association of Calluna vulgaris and
Vaccinium uliginosum, two well-marked calcifuge species with an other-
wise typical chalk-loving flora, in a dry chalky grassland on the high
Jura. The predominating species in the area, which formed a rectangle
of about 200 by 30 metres, sloping to the south-east at an elevation of
1090 metres, was Calluna vulgaris. The other dominant plants were
Alchemilla vulgaris, Potentilla Tormentilla, Phyteuma orbiculare, San-
guisorba dictyocarpa, Carex glauca, and Hypericum quadra nguhwi. In
a turf-pit, several hundreds of metres to the east, Calluna vulgaris
grew in abundance, and this may have been the source of the Calluna
found on the chalk-soil. It is affirmed that the latter had been
dominant on the area in question for fifty years. The author gives the
result of a chemical analysis of the soil, and discusses at length the
question of calcicolous and calcifuge species, but is fain to admit that
he can find no explanation for the fact which he describes in the present
case. "It is simply a fact of observation which shows how little
general theories are verified by local facts, and how little is the advance
we have made in the knowledge of the intimate relations between the
different elements of the soil and the vegetation which it supports."

American Plants Naturalised in Spain.J — D. L. Aterido describes
the extensive growth near Santander of Stenotaphrum americanum, an
American grass which occurs also in West Tropical Africa and at the
Cape. Associated with it are other American plants, such as Agave
americana, Nothoscordum fragrans, Cyperus vegetus, and another grass
Digitaria piaspcdoides. The author also gives a list of nearly sixty plants
of American origin which have become established in the peninsula,
among which we note Lepidium virginicum, five species of Oenothera,
including (E. biennis, seven species of Opuniia, Solidago canadensis,
four species of Datura, and eight of Amarantus.

* Amer. Journ. Sci., xvi. (1903) pp. 445-64.
f f Bull. Soc. Vaudois Sci. Nat., xxxix. (1903) pp. 3139-84.
X Bolet. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat., iii. (1903) pp 326-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 201

Australian Botany.*— F. Turner gives an account of the Botany
of two districts in New South Wales, namely, New England and the
Darling river country. Besides a systematic list of the plants (flower-
ing plants and ferns), the author gives notes on the climate and soil
of the districts, and also a general descriptive account of the vegetation,
and a statistical comparison with the flora of New South Wales as a
whole. In the New England districts several genera of orchids are
well represented (including Dendrobium, Pterostylis and Caladenia) and
also the ferns and fern-allies ; while in the Darling river country only
one orchid is recorded — an epiphyte, Cymbidiwn canal iculatum, and five
Acotyledons, including two species of Azolla and Marsilea Drummondii.
Apropos of the orchid, the author remarks that " it was of some slight
food value to the aborigines, who used to eat its pseudo-bulbs, which
contain a small amount of starch."

Arechavaleta, J. — Flora Uruguaya. (Tom. ii.)

[Contains a synopsis of the series, cohorts and natural orders of polypetalous
dicotyledons, according to the arrangement of the Genera Plantarum of
Bentham and Hooker, an historical introduction, and an elaboration of the
orders from Saxifragaceae to Begoniaeeae inclusive.]

Anal. Mus. Nation. Montevideo, v. (1903).
Fl. Uruguaya, ii., xlviii. and 160 pp.
Oramas, D. P. — Algunosdatos massobre el tancelebre Drago de Orotava. (Some
facts about the celebrated Dragon-tree of Orotava.)

[A few points of historical interest on the growth of this famous tree.]

Bol. Soc. Esp. Nat. Hid., iii. (1903) pp. 324-6.

Schappner, J. H. — Poisonous and other injurious plants of Ohio.

[Contains notes of some interest on the nature of the poison and its effects
on man and other animals in a large number of plants found in Ohio,
including fungi and seed-plants.]

Ohio Naturalist, iv. (1904) pp. 16-19, 69-73.

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

Vascular System of the Rhizome and Leaf-trace of Pteris Aqui-
lina and P. incisa.f — A. G. Tansley and R. B. Lulham give a detailed
account, illustrated by numerous diagrammatic figures, of the course of
the bundles in these two ferns. In Pteris incisa the stele of the inter-
node is a solenostele, rather flattened in the horizontal plane, and wavy
on the ventral side, from which roots are- given off ; but as the node is
approached complications arise, which are explained by comparison with
the vascular structure previously described by Gwynne-Vaughan in
Hypolepis as referable to a false dichotomy of the stem. The vascular
structure of the rhizome of Pteris Aquilina is well known, but the con-
nexion of the petiolar strands of the base of the petiole with those of
the rhizome, has never been previously accurately described. This is
now done in detail, and the authors conclude that the vascular system of
this fern is a dorsiventral dictyostele of the Polypodiwn type, with an
internal system of accessory strands developed in connexion with lateral
elaboration of the leaf -trace.

* Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, xxviii. (1903) pp. 276-31 1,406-42.
t New Phytolog., iii. (1904) pp. 1-17 (59 small figs.).

April 20th, 1904 p

202 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The authors point out in conclusion, that the probability of the
modification of vascular structure at the node of the plant — in relation to
an alteration of the leaf -trace — and the effect of leaf -traces in modifying
stem-structures generally, has been noted in one form or another by
nearly all recent writers on vascular morphology. The principle of the
decurrency of such a new structure from the node into the internode
below, and its eventual establishment throughout the internode, to join
a similar structure at the next node below, is evidently one of very wide
application in the Filicinean series. The particular instance of it
described in the present paper is of special interest, since it brings before
us a mode of origin of an internal system of rhizomic vascular strands,
differing from that described by Gwynne-Vaughan in a number of types.
Whereas the internal ridges and strands in Dicksonia, Ct/athea and Pteris
elata arise at the node as a local thickening of the leaf-gap, those of the
plants here described arise as lateral elaborations of the leaf -trace itself.

Germinating Spores in a Fossil Fern.*— D. H. Scott figures
a section of a fern-sporangium cut from a nodule obtained from the
Halifax Hard Bed. In the multiseriate structure of its wall, the
sporangium resembles those of the Eusporangiate Ferns ; there is also
evidence of the existence of an area of enlarged cells, comparable to the
group which discharges the functions of an annulus in the Osmundaceae.
This accords with the close agreement pointed out by Bower between
certain carboniferous sporangia and those of this recent family.

The sporangium contains a considerable number of spores, approxi-
mately spherical in shape, many of which had begun to germinate
within the sporangium. Several of the latter are figured, and show a
close agreement with the stages of germination in recent fern-spores.
The author refers to germination of spores as being not uncommon in
recent Ferns when effectual dehiscence has been hindered, and remarks
on the interest of his observations — as showing that some at least of the
Carboniferous Ferns followed the same course of development as their
recent allies. The agreement with corresponding stages in the develop-
ment of fern-prothalli at the present day, leaves little doubt that in this
Carboniferous Fern also the spores produced the sexual generation in the
way familiar to us. It is uncertain to what Fern the sporangium be-
longed ; a frond of the Sphenopteris type occurred in the same prepara-
tion, but there is no evidence to connect it with the sporangium.

Two Megasporangia in Selaginella.j — F. M. Lyon figures a longi-
tudinal section of a megasporophyll of SelagineUa rupestris, showing two
sporangia in nearly median longitudinal section. They are not placed
side by side, as in the Lycopodium described by Bower, but as if the
additional sporangium was developed in the line connecting the normal
megasporangium with the ligule. The figure also shows the normal
reduction of the megaspores to one or two, so common in SelagineUa
rupestris.

Ferns of the Philippines.^ — L. M. Underwood publishes a summary
of our present knowledge of the ferns of the Philippines, giving an

* New Phytolog., iii. (1904) pp. 18-23 (2 figs.).

t Bot. Gazette, xxxyi. (1903) p. 308 (1 fig.).

j Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxx. (1903) pp. 665-683.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 203

historical account of travellers, collections and literature. In all, 105
genera and 633 species have been recorded from the islands ; the
Isoctales and the Matoniacese are at present unrepresented. To facilitate
research, a series of simple synopses of the genera is given. The
arrangement adopted approximates to that employed by Diels in Dk
Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Suggestions are added as to the parts oi
the plants that should be collected, and as to the points that should be
noted in the field.

American Ferns. — B. D. Gilbert* gives a list of 53 species and
12 varieties of ferns, and 23 species and 7 varieties of fern allies, that
occur in the State of New York ; and adds notes upon their distri-
bution and the geographical characteristics of the region. The flora i?
a large one, owing to the mingling of northern and southern types
W. N. Clute f publishes some Fernwort Notes. Nephrodvum molle being
reported as growing in Florida, he inquires whether it is really native,
and points out the characters by which it is distinguished from J\r. patens.
He quotes four instances of exotic ferns which have become naturalised
in the States, and adds another record in Lygodium japonicum, which
seems to have escaped from a greenhouse in Georgia. He gives reasons
for regarding Nephrodvum spimdosum var. intermedium as a mere form
of a variable species. He quotes J. B. Flett's opinion that Lycopodium
Selago may be regarded as an alpine or arctic form of L. lucidulum, but
by no means as a xerophytic form. A. A. Eaton,! in publishing his
fifteenth paper on Equisetum, treats of the varieties of E. hiemale. He
describes in detail eleven varieties, three of which are new, and gives
their distribution. "W. N. Clute,§ having studied carefully the ternate
forms of Botrychium, gives his views about the classification of these
difficult and variable plants.

Doca mp, L. — Note sur l'acclimatation de l'Azolla filiculoides Lam. dans le Nord de
la France. (Note on the acclimatisation of Azolla filiculoides Lam. in the north of
France.) Bull. Acad. Internat. Geogr. Bot., xii. (1903) p. 488.

Eaton, A. A.— Additional notes on Botrychium tenebrosum.

[Description of this common but little known North American species, with
critical notes upon the characters that distinguish it from B. simplex and
B. matricarixfolium.] Bhodora, v. (1906) pp. 274— (i (1 pi.).

„ „ Three new varieties of Isoetes.

[Descriptions of three Massachusetts plants, with critical notes.]

Op. cit., pp. 277-80.

Freeman, G. F. — Lycopodium Selago on Mount Holyoke, Massachusetts.
[Second record of this species in Massachusetts.]

Bhodora, v. (1903) p. 290.

Luisiek, A. — Apontamentos sobre a Flora da Regiao de Setubal. (Notes on the
flora of the district of Setubal.)

[List of 16 Portuguese ferns in a total of 1004 plants.]

Bolet. Soc. Broter., xix. (1903) pp. 172-274.

M a x on, W. E. — A Fern new to the United States.

[Asplenium auritum Sw., a central American species, which has been found
in Florida.] Torreya, iii. (1903) pp. 184-5.

Straw, C. E. — Ferns of Smugglers' and Nebraska Notches.

[Field notes.] Plant World, vi. (1903) pp. 180-1 (1 pi.).

* Fern. Bulletin., xi. (1903) pp. 97-105. t Tom. cit, pp. 105-107.

X Tom. cit., pp. 108-114. § Tom. cit., pp. 115-117.

P 2

204 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Waters, C. E. — Asplenium ebeneum proliferum.

[A. note on the conditions that cause proliferation in this species.]

Bhodora, v. (1903) pp. 272-3 (tig. in text).

Wells, W. E. — Adaptability in Ferns.

[A list of 28 ferns from very varied habitats successfully acclimatised in a
simple fernery.] Ohio Naturalist, iii. (1903) pp. 358-9.

Wooton, E. O. — The Terns of the Organ Mountains.

[List of 20 species and a variety gathered in New Mexico.]'

Torreya, iii. (1903) pp. 101-4.

Bryophyta.

Mosses of Java.* — M. Fleischer publishes the first volume of the
mosses of the Flora of Buitenzorg, including all the mosses of Java,
with many of the species of the Malay Archipelago, Polynesia, Australia,
Ceylon and India, which are included for the sake of critical comparison.
Every species is fully described, many novelties are inserted, and keys to
the genera and species are supplied. The author is so convinced of the
systematic importance of the characters of the capsule and especially
of its peristome, that he makes these the foundation of his classification,
and attaches far less value to such vegetative characters as the acro-
carpic-or pleurocarpic position of the inflorescence, the distichous or
spiral arrangement of the foliage, the areolation of the leaves, etc. His
long residence of five years at Buitenzorg enabled him to make a
thorough study of the peristome, as well as of the development and
anatomy of the mosses, and to investigate biological and phylogenetic
details, e.g. the curious dicecism of Maeromitrium, the water-sacs of
Cyatkophorum taitense, the formation of gemmaj in an inflorescence or
at the foot of a sporogonium, the emission of rhizoids from a seta ;
and he discovered the sporogonium of the protonematoid Ephemeropsis.
The beautifully illustrated " Bryologia Javanica " (1855-70) of Dozy
and Molkenboer has now fallen behind the times, and subsequent papers
on the subject are very scattered. Fleischer's work adds much to what
was previously known, and is on quite modern lines. The first volume
contains the Sphagnales and the Haplolepideas, with descriptions of
194 species. It is entirely in German.

Danish Species of Amblystegium.t — A. Hansen publishes a re-
vision of this genus, redescribing the species, fourteen of which occur
in Denmark. Three of these are new to science : A. paludosum, A.
saxicola and A. atrovirens, and their descriptions are given both in
Danish and English. A key to the species is supplied, based chiefly
upon the presence or absence of a leaf-nerve, the transverse section, and
the breadth and the length of the nerve, the shape of the leaf -apex, and
the character of the leaf-cells and basal cells. The author describes
also another new species, A. littorale, from the Faroes, previously
regarded as a variety of A. serpens.

American Mosses.— M. F. Miller | publishes a note on Pogonatum
urnigerum, describing how the calyptra gradually is turned inside out

* Die Musei der Flora von Buitenzorg, i., Leiden, 1904, xxxi. and 386 pp., 71 figs,
in text. t Bot. Tidsskrift., xxv. (1903) pp. 387-408 (11 fias. in text).

\ Bryologist, vii. (1904) pp. 4-5 (with figA

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 205

and stands straight up from the point of the operculum before it is
cast off by the mature capsule. A. J. Grout * gives a list of twenty-one
additions to the Vermont moss flora, including a new variety, or perhaps
species, of Grimmia. J. M. Holzinger f discusses the genus Hymeno-
stomum, 'and claims that H. rostellatum occurs in the States and is
practically identical with Systegium (Astomum) ludovicianum Sulliv.,
the differences in the size of the spores and the length of the operculum
being but slight. E. G. Britton \ discusses PapiUaria nigrescens, and
shows how it is to be distinguished from Leptodon tricltomitrion, which
has been confounded with it. The former is a tropical American species
and its record from Lake Huron is suspicious. She believes that the
Floridan var. Donnellii, when compared with the type, will prove to be
specifically distinct.

LeucobryaceaB of the East African Islands.§ — J. Cardot publishes
a monograph of the Leucobryacea? of Madagascar, and the other African
islands of the Indian Ocean. Five genera are concerned. Ochrobryum
contains one species, Leucobryum twelve, Leucophanes six, Cardotia one,
Octoblepharum one. Seven species and some varieties are described for
the first time, and most of the rest are redescribed, and critical notes
are added.

Oil-bodies in the Jungermanniales.|| — A. J. M. Garjeanne gives
an account of the observations previously published on this subject,
and describes his own researches. His conclusions are that the oil-
bodies arise from vacuoles ; the oil-drops lie probably in a seini-liquid
medium ; the oil-bodies possess a proper envelope — the original tono-
plast ; they multiply in the young stages by division, and when mature
remain unaltered ; their envelope is an artificial product, and consists
probably of tanned albumen ; the possibility of movement of the drops
within the oil-body is a proof of the semi-liquidity of the contents ; in
secondary meristem several oil-bodies always arise.

Explosive Discharge of Antherozoids in Hepaticae.l — F. Cavers
has made a series of experiments with thalloid hepatics to ascertain the
force with which the antherozoids are ejected, the mechanism by which
the process is effected, and the conditions which influence it. The
phenomenon is a mechanical and not a vital one ; for explosive dis-
charges were obtained when plants, which had been dehydrated in
absolute alcohol, were moistened with warm water. With living plants
the discharges were quite as active in darkness as in full sunlight.
When the plants were well sprayed with water, the jets of antherozoids.
reached a height of 10 or 12 cm. in many cases.

Exogenous Antheridia in Anthoceros.** — E. Lampa made a
laboratory culture of Anthoceros dicJiotomus, and observed that, while
the majority of the plants produced normal endogenous antheridia, a

* Bryologist, vii. (1904) pp. 5-7. t Tom. cit., pp. 8-10.
X Tom. cit., pp. 14-15 (fig. in text).

§ Bull. Herb. Boissier, iv. (1904) pp. 97-118.
I! Flora, xcii. (190.3) pp. 457-82 (18 figs, in text).
\ Torreya, iii. (1903) pp. 179-83.

* Oesterr. Bot. Zeitsehr.. liii. (1903) pp. 436-8 (figs, in text).

**

206 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

few etiolated thalli bore exogenous antheridia which were otherwise quite
normal in structure and development. While a differentiated parietal
layer is necessary to an exogenous antheridium, its presence in the
endogenous antheridia which are peculiar to Anthoceros has been a
matter of speculation ; and Waldner's theory, that the antheridia of the
ancestral Anthoceros may have been exogenous formations, receives
support from this discovery. The laboratory culture appears to have
produced some reversions to an original type.

Chemistry and Biology of Hepatics.* — C. E. J. Lohmann dis-
cusses the question of what are the protective substances that render
hepatics distasteful to slugs and other animals, giving a resume of the
work done by Stahl and others. Several hepatics have a strong aromatic
smell, or a sharp or bitter flavour, which are capable of being extracted
by alcohol ; and, until this has been done, these plants are avoided by
slugs. The author describes his attempts to determine the chemical
nature of these protective substances ; how he analysed the ashes and
found that silica affords no mechanical protection ; and how he deter-
mined that the immunity is not due to indigestible proteids nor to alka-
loids, but mainly to the ethereal oils as previously indicated by Stahl.
He details his analysis of these volatile oils, and describes the composi-
tion of the oil-bodies, etc. Ethereal oils are present in hepatics, absent in
mosses ; they appear in the early stages of growth, and have an aplastic
nature ; they are absent from spores and rhizoids (which are not easily
attacked), and tend to abound in peripheral positions. These are facts
that point to the protective function of ethereal oils, as also does their
absence from Anthoceros and Stasia, in which occur colonies of Nostoc
— an alga distasteful to slugs.

Structure of some North American Hepatics.t — W. C. Coker
publishes some notes on the structure of Dumortiera, Blasia and Sp/uero-
carpus. Dumortiera hirsuta is of semi-aquatic habit, and if sufficiently
inundated has no air-chambers in its thallus ; but if less irrigated it
produces air-chambers which mostly disappear with age, and in snbdned
light its upper surface may produce a number of unicellular papilla?.
No trace of mycorhiza was found in the thallus. In Blasia pasilla it
was found that the No stoc -colonies are pervaded by a remarkable tree-
like out-growth of the thallus, which serves to abstract nourishment
from the alga. This ramifying hair appears to arise from the sub-
sequent growth of the original slime-secreting cell of the air-cavity.
This is explained by figures. In the sporangium of Splmrocarpus
terrestris occur peculiar sterile cells conspicuous for their bright green
chlorophyll-granules, which persist until the spores are ripe. They pro-
bably are the homologues of elaters, but are strikingly different. Their
function is photosynthetic.

Odontoschisma in North America. $ — A. W. Evans gives the history
of the genus Odontoschisma. It contains about fourteen species, and

* Beih. z. Bot. Centralbl. xv. (1903) pp. 215-56.

t Bot. Gazette, xxxvi. (1903) pp. 225-30 (figs, in text).

X Tom. oit , pp 321-48 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 207

five of these occur in North America. One of the generic characters is
the postical origin of the branches ; but some of the American species
vary markedly in this respect, and deviate also with regard to the mouth
of the perianth and the development of the under-leaves. The author
considers that the genus is distinct from both Anomodada and Cepha-
lozia, and regards the position of the branches as liable to be influenced
by the environment of the plant. The trigones and the thickenings of
the cell-walls are characters of generic and specific importance. The
under-leaves present peculiarities which have been much overlooked
hitherto, especially the slime-secreting papilla? on the margins. Under-
leaves occur in all the American species. The apical thickening of the
female branch after fertilisation is another character that deserves more
attention. The gemmiparous branches are of use in specific discrimi-
nation. The author gives the distribution and synonomy of the five
North American species, with full descriptions of 0. Macounii, 0.
Gibbsice (sp. n.) and 0. prostratum, also of 0. portoricense, an exotic
species which resembles Anomodada mucosa.

Hepaticse of Puerto Rico.* — A. W. Evans also gives a critical ac-
count of the four genera Harpahjunea, Cyrtolcjeanea, Eiwsmolejeanea, and
Tradiyhjeunea, based upon material gathered by himself and by Heller
in Puerto Rico. He restricts HarpaUjeunea to Spruce's well-marked
section Cardiostipa, and describes two new species (//". subacute and
H. heterodonta). Cyrtolejeunea is a new genus established for the recep-
tion of C. holostipa, a species about whose systematic position great
diversity of opinion has been expressed hitherto. In all, the paper treats
of eight species, with full descriptions and figures, and comparative notes
on allied species and genera.

Pallavicinia Flotowiana.f— F. Cavers gives a detailed morpho-
logical description of this plant which grows in Coatham Marshes, Yorks.
It belongs to the subgenus Mordcia, and is synonymous with P. hibernka
var. Wilsoniana. The most interesting feature in its structure is the
presence of two lateral strands of water-conducting tissue ; their func-
tion was easily demonstrated in living plants ; but these strands were
not differentiated in plants which had been cultivated in moist covered
dishes — a modification which the writer has observed in laboratory
cultures of other thalloid hepatics. The sexual organs and the de-
velopment of the sporogonium are described.

Fegatella conica.J — F. Cavers also describes in detail the structure
and biology of FegaUtta conka under the following headings : Apical
growing-point and branching ; Air-chambers ; Ventral tissue ; Ventral
scales ; Rhizoids ; Mycorhiza ; Asexual reproduction ; Sexual organs ;
Sporogonium ; Germination of the spore. The high degree of differen-
tiation attained by the thallus is indicated by the evaporation-tissue in
the air-chambers and the mucilage-organs in the mid-rib. The presence
of the symbiotic mycorhiza is indispensable for the normal development

* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, nx. (1903) pp. 544-G3 (3 pis.).
t Naturalist, 1903, pp. 441-4, 451-5 (1 pi. and 5 figs, in text).
% Ann. Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 87-120 (2 pis. and 5 figs, in text).

208 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of the thallus, and supplies a semi-sapro phytic mode of nutrition. The
antheridia! receptacle is sessile, and, with its four to eight growing-
points, each producing acropetal rows of antheridia, represents a branch-
system. The antheridia are usually solitary in each cavity, but sometimes
occur closely joined in pairs. The antherozoids are larger than in other
Marchantiaceaj, and are ejected explosively. The archegonial receptacle
also represents a branch-system ; each of the five to nine growing-
points produces a single archegonium. The stalk of the receptacle
suddenly lengthens out when the sporogonia are mature. The cover-
cell of the young archegonium splits into four and takes no part in the
growth in length of the archegonium. The young sporogonium usually
shows an octant-stage, and does not grow by means of an apical cell.
The large, green, thin-walled spores begin to germinate within the
capsule. The elaters are short and often branched. The capsule
dehisces by the separation of an apical disc, followed by longitudinal
splitting into four to eight valves. Fegatella occupies an intermediate
position between the two highest series of the Marchantiaceaa. The
process of fertilisation can be readily followed in Fegatella owing to the
large size of the antherozoids. A bibliography is supplied.

British Hepaticae.* — P. Ewing gives a list of the hepaticae of the
Breadalbane mountains, 133 species. The determinations have been
made or checked by S. M. Macvicar. Fourteen are additions to the
British Flora, and twenty-two are new to the district. W. H. Pearson f
gives some field-notes upon eighteen hepatics gathered at Aysgill Force
and Hardraw Scour in Yorkshire. W. Ingham $ records the gathering
in 1897 of the recently described Martinellia calcicola Am. and Pers.,§
intermixed with Ditriehum flexicaule and Trichostomum tortuosum, on
magnesian limestone at Tadcaster, Yorks. He translates the original
description of the plant.

Census of Scottish Hepaticae. || — S. M. Macvicar is collecting
materials for a definitely localised hepatic flora of Scotland, and pub-
lishes a list of 205 species with their distribution according to counties,
so far as he has been able to ascertain it hitherto from a personal
examination of the specimens preserved in public and private herbaria.
He adds a few critical notes upon Eiccia, llarsiqiella, etc.

Irish Hepaticae. IT — D. McArdle publishes a list of the Irish hepaticae,
containing 172 species and 63 varieties, with full records of their geo-
graphical distribution so far as it is known. The last previous trust-
worthy list was D. Moore's report published in 1876 ; it contained
137 species. The author gives a short account of the earlier Irish col-
lectors, of the physical features of the country, of the peculiarities of
the Irish hepatic flora, and a bibliography of the principal papers on
the subject.

* Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist, 1903. pp. 235-43.

t The Naturalist. 1903, pp. 403-4.

j Kev. Bryol., 1904, pp. 11-12. § Op. cit., 1903, p. 97.

|| Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1904, pp. 43-52.

i Proc. Hoy. Irish Acad., xxiv. E. (1904) pp. 387-502.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 200

Bloom field, E. N. — Hepaticae of Norfolk.
[A list of 47 species, with localities.]

Trans. Nor/, and Noriv. Natur. So>-.. vii. (1903) pp. 552-7.

Bijotherus, V. F. — Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien von Engler und Prantl, i. 3V
Lief. 219, Musci, Leipzig, 1904, pp. 577-624, figs. 434-72.

Camus. F. — Catalogue des Sphaignes de la Flore Parisienne.

[Beginning with an historical sketch of publications on the subject, he gives
a detailed key to the species, with descriptions, and then sets forth the
full distribution and synonymy of each species, adding critical notes.]

\Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1. (1903) pp. 239-52, 272-89.

„ „ Notice sur M. Em. Bescherelle.

[An account of his bryologieol work, and a detailed list of his publications.]

Tom. cit, pp. 227-39 (portrait).

Cakdot, J. — Le genre Cryphaeadelphus.

[A new North American species, C. robustus.]

Rev. Bryol, xxxi. (1904) pp. 6-8.

Cardot & Thekiot — The Mosses of Alaska. „ , .. . /1AnoN 00 „

Bryologist, vi. (1903) pp. 83-G.

Cakdot & Renauld — New Mosses of North America. Tom. cit., pp. 86-9.

Claasen, E. — On Discelium nudum Bridel.

[This inconspicuous mosn, regarded as very rare in tlie United States, occurs
abundantly in Cuyahoga County, Ohio.]

Ohio Naturalist, iii. (1903) p. 361.
,. ., On the occurrence of Fossombronia cristula in Ohio.

[Measurements of plant.] Op. cit., iv. (1904) p. 58.

Corbiere, L. — Sur quelques Muscinees de Maine-et-Loire.
[Notes on two mosses and two hepatics.]

Bev. Bryol, xxxi. (1904) pp. 8-13.

Dismier, G. — Le Lejeunea Rossettiana Mass. dans le Dauphine. (Lejeunea Bosset-
tiana in DaupbiDe'.)

[An account of a successful search for this rare species at the Grande-
Chartreuse, and of other Muscinese found in the neighbourhood.]

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1. (1903) pp. 2S9-90.
Dixon, H. N.— Supplementary list of Norfolk Mosses.

[Twenty-one species are added to the county list, bringing the total number
hitherto recorded to about 190.]

Trans. Norf. and Noriv. Natur. Soc, vii. (1903) pp. 558-65.

Douin, I. — Jungermannia alicularia De Not. et Calypogeia ericetorum Raddi.

[Notes on these species, which ore indistinguishable in the sterile state, save
by the odour and by the soil; the former plant is calcicolous. the latter
silioicolous.] Bev. Bryol. xxxi. (1904) pp. 1-4.

„ „ Nardia silvrettse (Gottsche) en Auvergne.

[Occurrence of this species and other hepatics at Mont-Dore. in Auvergne.]

Tom. cit., pp. 4-5.
Gozzaldi, H. T. J — Thomas Potts James.

[Obituary of the American bryologist, part author of the Manual of North
American Mosses.} Bryologist, vi. (1903) pp. 71-4 (portrait).

Herzog. T. — Die Laubmoose Badens ; eine bryogeographische Skizze. (Bryogeo-
graphical sketch of the mosses of Baden.)

Bull. Herb. Boissier, ser. 2, iv. (1904) pp. 137-52.

H i l l, E. J. — Branched Paraphyses of Bryum roseum.

[Protonemic character of these paraphyses.] Tom. cit.. pp. S0-1 (fig. in text).

Holzinger, J. M.— Fabroleskea Austini in Europe.

[Identity of this North American species with the Caucasian Leskea grandi-
retis Lindb.) Bryologist, vi. (1903) pp. 74-5.

210 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Kindbekg, N. C. — Note snr les especes scandinaves du genre Bryum. (Noteonthe
Scandinavian species of the genus Bryum.)

[List of more than 100 species, most of which occur in the Dovrefjeld.]

Uev. Bryol., xxxi. (1904) pp. 13-14.

Lengtel, B. — Uber das Vorkommen eines seltenen Lebermooses in TJngarn. (Upon
the occurrence of a rare Liverwort in Hungary.)

[Fertile specimens of Hypenantron fragrant, an addition to the Hungarian

flora, have been discovered in limestone clefts on the Turulberg near

Banhida.] Mag. Bot. Lapolc, ii. (1903) pp. 182-3.

Limpricht, K. G.,j & W. — Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Flora von Dentscbland,

Osterreich und der Schweiz. IV. iii. Leipzig, 1904. Die Laubmoose (Mosses),

Lief. 41, pp. 33-79.

[End of the work: index of synonyms, bibliography, title-pages, and preface.]

Lindbebg,H. — Stereodon plicatulus Lindb.

[Characters which distinguish it from S. revolutus Mitt.]

Bryologist, vi. (1903) pp. 82-3 (1 pi.),

Migula, W. — Thome's Flora von Deutschland, Osterreich und der Schweiz.

v. (Gera, 1903) Lief. 15, Cryptogamen, pp. 385-400 (5 pis.).

Boll, J. — Beitrage zur Moosflora der Transsilvanischen Alpen. (Contributions to
the moss-flora of the Transsylvanian Alps.)

[An annotated list of mosses gathered in July 1900, with descriptions of one
new species and sixteen new varieties.]'

Hedwigia, xlii. (1903) Beiblatt, pp. 297-305.

Both, G. — Bedentnng der Moose fur den Waldbau. (Significance of mosses in
forestry.)

[Value of the information afforded by mosses as to moisture, climate, soil, etc.,
in connection with the planting of trees suitable to a given district.]

Allgem. Bot. Zeitschr., 1903, pp. 122-3.

Stephani, F. — Species Hepaticarum.
[Monograph of Plagiochila.']

Bull. Herb. Boiss.,ser. 2, iv. (1904) pp. 18-32. 153-08.

Stow, S. C. — Mosses at Grantham. The Naturalist, 1903, p. 265.

Torka, V. — Bryologische Beitrage. (Bryological notes.)

[Field notes on Cinclidium stygium and its spore-ripening, and on Bacomi-
trium patens var. crassifolium, a new variety found in the German plain.]

Allgem. Bot. Zeitschr., 1903, pp. 145-G.

Thallophyta.

Algae.

Phytoplankton of the Volga.* — Bolochonzew details the results of
his investigations into the plankton of this river. He divides his paper
into three chapters. The first contains a list of organisms found by
him, arranged under special headings : — (1) True plankton, which is
principally adapted for existing in a condition of suspended life ; (2)
Oround plankton, which occurs most frequently in the flora of the
bottom or on the shore ; (3) Casual plankton, i.e. those organisms
which really belong to the bottom or littoral flora, and occur only by
chance among true plankton, when brought by waves or currents,
sooner or later sinking to the bottom ; (4) Passive plankton organisms,
which fasten on to other plankton. The author also takes into account
a portion of the Volga which is almost entirely cut off from the main
stream, and he points out the gradual change in the plankton species.

* Jahrb. Biolog. Wolga-Station, Ssaratow, 1903 (1 pi). See also Bot. Central!)!,
xcv. (1904) pp. 83-0.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 211

In the open river AsterioneJla was most abundant, and, speaking
generally, the plankton of the Volga consisted mainly of diatoms. The
second chapter is devoted to a systematic account and geographical
distribution, together with descriptions of new species. The third
chapter contains a tabulated comparison of the plankton of the main
river, and that of ponds and other waters cut off from it.

Plankton of the Elbe.* — E. Volk publishes his report on the
biological conditions of the Elbe and its tributaries in the neighbour-
hood of Hamburg. The paper deals with the animal life of the river
plankton, as well as the phytoplankton, which includes 159 species of
Chlorophyceas and of Rhodophyceaj, 267 of Diatornacete, and 45 of
Schizophycea3. The chemical composition of the water is discussed, and
the methods of work are described. An analysis of the phytoplankton
is presented in the form of a table showing the occurrence of each
species according to season and locality.

Atlas of Diatoms.f — Heiden, of Rostock, has brought out the
61st fascicle of A. Schmidt's Atlas, comprising plates 241—4. Many
species of Stauroneis and Navicula are figured, belonging to the sections
humeroscc and granulate. Eleven new species are figured, as well as
some new varieties.

Diatoms from the Jura.J — P. Prudent gives a list of diatoms collected
in two lakes of the Jura, Nantua and Silans. The flora of both are
very similar, and the total number of species amounts to 152. The
most interesting records are : — Gymbella Loczyi Pantocs., C. affinis
Kiitz., with an undulated dorsal margin, Galoneis rupestris var. inflate
Pantocs., Fragilaria muiabilis var. trinodis n.v., and Nitschia angustata
var. producta Pantocs.

Cultures of Diatoms.§ — P. Miquel continues his researches into the
physiology, morphology and pathology of diatoms, and describes his
cultivation of Nitzschia linearis. After a successive series of ten cultures,
each new one being made from the last one, he found that the size of
the frustule diminished 17 /*, namely, from 115*2 /* to 98*1 /a. The
greater number of frustules contained in the ten cultures were of
medium size ; those showing either extreme in size were excessively
rare. The author notes that in Melosira and Gyclotella those individuals
which formed auxospores were far from being of the smallest size.

Caulerpa anceps.|| — K. Yendo adds some interesting facts to our
knowledge of this alga. A plant was collected in Japan by Prof. Okamura,
and at first identified by him as G. brachypus Harv., but subsequently
corrected to G. anceps. K. Yendo found a plant on a small reef at
Misaki, in October, 1888, and identified it as G. br achy pus, but on the
same reef he found in summer G. anceps. Feeling doubtful whether

* Julirb. Hamburg. Wissensch. Aristalt., xix. Beih. 2 (1903) pp. 65-154.

f Atlas der Diatomaceenkunde, Leipzig, 1903J Heft. 61. See also Nuov. Xotar.
xt. (1904) p. 47.

\ Contrib. a la flore diatomique des lacs de Jura, Lyon, 1903. See Nuov. Notar.
xv. (1904) p. 38.

§ MicrograpbePre'parateur, xi. (1903) pp. 174-9 (figs, in text).

|1 Bnt. Mag. Tokyo, xvii. (1903) pp. 153-7 (6 figs, in text).

212 SUMMARY OF CURRi'Ni' RESEARCHES RELATING TO

two species of Caiderpa grew on this one small reef, he made collections-
himself by diving in January, April, July, August, October, and
December. He has no longer any doubt that his plants are of the same
species, which assumes different appearances according to the season.
Both forms are described in this paper, and it is suggested that C. Stahlii
Web. v. B. may be synonymous with the Japanese species. A great
characteristic of Yendo's plant is the inflation of the short pedicels.
If this character occurs in C. Stahlii and also in the types of 0. anceps
Harv. and G. brachypus Harv. (to which types the author has unfor-
tunately not had access), the three species would lose any character
which could distinguish them from one another.

A New Species of Hedophyllum.* — K. Yendo also describes and
figures a new species of this genus, under the name of H. spirale, col-
lected by him at the island of Shimushu, Kurile Islands. A form, Tcamts-
chatlcensis, is also described from the shorts of Yavina, Kamtschatka.
The plant is common on the reefs at Shimushu. It differs from H. sub-
sessile Setch. in having a spiral rolling of the margins of the lamina at
the transition region. The author has also studied the development of
Thalassiophyttum and Arthrothammis, and finds he can add nothing to
the description of the former as given in Setchell and Gardner's " Alga?
of N.W. America." But of the development of Arthrothammis bifidus,
nothing has hitherto been published, and the author therefore describes
it here. He states also that in A. kurilensis the entire plant is erect,
and, consequently, the dorsiventrality of the stems is not clearly
manifested. The primary stem and holdfast are persistent, and the
successive holdfasts or rhizomes are not normally found. Otherwise,
the development is the same as that of A. bifidus. Comparisons are
drawn between Hedophyllum, Thalassiophylhim, and Arthrothanmus,
which greatly resemble each other in their mode of branching. As
regards the systematic position of Hedophyllum, the author places it
near to these two genera on account of the erosion of the primary
lamina, the spiral rolling and the differentiation of the dorsiventrality
in H. spirale; and if the first of these characters be omitted there is
also a likeness to Agarum. As regards the genus Eisenia the author
suggests that it should be detached from the subtribe Ecklonia? and
placed near Arthrothanmus and Hedophyllum, if it be granted that
erosion of the primary lamina is a character of importance.

Halimeda Fuggeri.t, — This fossil alga was described by J. L. von
Liburnau in 18D7, and the same author now adds further details as the
result of an examination of several fresh specimens which have been
found in the same locality, Muntigl near Salzburg. They are preserved
in the Salzburg museum. Careful comparisons are made between these
fossil plants and recent specimens of Halimeda, and the points of dis-
similarity are fully dealt with. They are small in themselves, consisting
of an apparent scaliness of the surface in the fossil alga, a want of
incrustation, the breadth of the mid-rib, the length of the internodes,
the much-lengthened, rod-like, unjointcd end to one of the specimens,

* Bot. Mag. Tokyo, xvii. (1933) pp. 167-"1 (1 pi A

+ SB. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien., cxi. (190 i) p,>. (585-712 (2 pis. 9 Sgs. in text).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY. ETC. 2L3

and the lack of all branching of the thallus. Taken singly, none
of these variations from existing types of Halimeda would separate
H. Fuggeri from that outwardly variable genus, but taken together
they constitute in the author's opinion a sufficient reason for placing
H. Fuggeri in a new genus Halimedides.

JUgagropila Sauteri.* — C. "Wesenberg has made a special study of
this alga as it appears in the Lake of Soro in Denmark, where the form
of the balls is absolutely regular and the size that of a fist or a child's
head. The author reviews shortly some of the literature on the subject,
and declares himself almost entirely in accord with F. Brand. A de-
scription is given of Lake Soro, with details concerning the geological
composition of its beds, the temperature of the water, the plankton, etc.
Then follows an account of the different forms of the thallus of ~E.
Sauteri, which appear in the lake : (1) individual separate plants ;
(2) adherent thallus ; (3) globulous thajlus, (a) balls resting on the
bottom of the lake, (b) floating balls ; (4) felty masses. The author
then deals with the origin and mutual dependence of the different
forms of thallus of jE. Sauteri, treating each form separately. He
discusses the question of the rising and falling of the floating balls,
and the possibility of a connection between this phenomenon and the
presence of a rich plankton and much detritus. He believes, with
Brand, that much light is prejudicial to JE. Sauteri. The formation
of the balls is, in his opinion, caused by the incessant destruction of the
terminal filaments which are directed outwards, this destruction causing
the formation of new adventitious filaments. The beating of the
waves and the friction against the bottom cause the globular shape,
which becomes more pronounced in proportion to the hardness of the
earth.

Fucus serratus in America.f — C. B. Robinson has studied the
distribution of this species in America, and finds that it grows plenti-
fully in the district lying between Pugwash in Nova Scotia and Eastern
Harbour on the west side of Cape Breton. It also occurs at the
extreme south-east of Prince Edward Island, in the neighbourhood of
Murray Harbour and Cape Bear. On the coast of Pictou Island it is
nowhere wanting.

Sphacelaria cirrosa.J — C. Sauvageau gives a resume of part of his
long paper on the different genera of Sphacelariaceas, which is appearing
in the Journal de Botanique. This resume deals with Sphacelaria
cirrosa, and the species which have from time to time been regarded as
synonyms and forms of it. S. Hystrix is regarded by the author as
quite distinct from the cirrosa group, and the life-history of this para-
site of Cystoseira ericoides is described. The early stages of the plant
bear well-developed sexual organs in plurilocular sporangia, and these
disappear in May to make room for long and numerous filaments which
bear the propagula. It is in this latter stage that the plant has been
mistaken for S. cirrosa. During the winter no trace of it is to be
found, and in what form it passes through this period of rest is not yet

* Overs, k. dansk. Vidensk. Selsk. Forh. ii. (1903) pp. I6S-203.

t Torreva, iii. (19(18) pp. J 32-4.

% Mem.'Soc. Sci. Phys. et Nat. Bordeaux, iii. (1905) 11 pp.

214 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

known. S. Harveyana Sauv. is regarded as the southern homologue
of S. Hystrix. The author re-establishes S. bipinnata Kiitz., a parasite
of Halidrys siliquosa and Gystoseira fibrosa. This species bears numerous
unilocular sporangia, but the propagula are very rare. Plurilocular
sporangia of one size only occur. S. fusca is also revived as an inde-
pendent species. The only reproductive organs hitherto known for this
plant are trif urcated propagula bearing cylindrical or gradually attenuated
rays. The real S. cirrosa is very variable as regards its propagula, and
as a result of prolonged study the author divides the forms into septen-
trionalis, meridionalis, and mediterranean Between these forms are, of
course, many intermediate ones, but the extremes are markedly cha-
racteristic. The author describes the chief points, and gives the general
distribution of each of the three forms. The paper closes with some
interesting remarks concerning the modes of reproduction in the specie3
mentioned. Those species which are parasitic show much more per-
fectly developed organs of , reproduction than those which are inde-
pendent and free. For example, S. Hystrix and S. furciyera, two
parasitic species, possess well-developed plurilocular sporangia of two
kinds, probably oogonia and antheridia ; and S. bipinnata, also a para-
site, has plurilocular sporangia of one kind pointing to the possibility
of isogamy, while its propagula are very rare. On the other hand,
S. cirrosa, a free plant, appears to have lost its sexual reproduction and
multiplies by means of propagula, and so far as is known of S. fusca
the same facts hold good. The difference between the effect of para-
sitism on Sphacelaria and on the higher plants is remarkable : in the
former case it acts as a stimulant, in the latter it leads to degeneration.

Kelps of Juan de Fuca.* — C. McMillan gives a general account of
the LaminariaceEe of this region. Seventeen out of the twenty-five
genera of this order are represented in the Straits of Fuca, and of
many of them the author has made a special study. His results are
presented here in a more or less generalised form, and the paper closes
with a description of the external characteristics of each genus.

Alternation of Generations in the Dictyotacese.f — L.Williams
gives a short abstract of a paper which is to appear in full in the
Annals of Botany. In this group the asexual cells are borne on plants
distinct from those that bear the sexual cells. Cytological evidence
has been obtained showing that the cells of the tetraspore-bearing
plants contain twice as many chromosomes as those of the sexual plants.
The mother-cell of the four tetraspores shows synapsis, has all the
characters of a heterotype division and shows sixteen chromosomes.
In the male plant of Dictyota the reduced number is present in all the
divisions of the antheridium, and in the female plant the division
which cuts off the stalk-cell of the oogonium also shows the reduced
number. The fertilised egg-cells show, naturally, the double number.
There is thus complete cytological evidence for the alternation of
gametophyte and sporophyte, though experimental cultivation from
spore to spore has hitherto been unsuccessful.

* Postelsia, 1902, pp. 195-220 (5 pis.).
t New Phytologist, ii. (1903) pp. 184-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 215

Hair-like Growths of the Rhodomelaceae.* — L. K. RosenvLnge
has made a special study of these organs, which he calls trichoblasts,
on the thallus of Rhodomelacere, and describes his results under seven
different headings : — (1) branching of the trichoblasts ; (2) tricho-
blasts of aberrant structure ; (3) function of the trichoblasts ; (4) are
there any species of Polysiphonia without trichoblasts ? (5) forms
intermediate between stems and trichoblast ; (6) position of the sexual
organs in Rhodomela ; (7) communication between the basal cell of the
branch with the trichoblast, in Polysiphonioe with axillary shoots. The
mode of ramification is essentially the same throughout the order, but
the degree of branching varies considerably, sometimes even in the
same species. Several functions have been assigned to these trichoblasts
by various authors, but Rosenvinge is inclined to believe they serve for
absorption or respiration. Although it has been stated that certain
species of Poly siphon ia are without trichoblasts, it is here shown that
every species possesses at least fertile trichoblasts. Sterile trichoblasts
are capable of being transformed into stems. The sexual organs of
Rhodoinelacese are more generally attached to the trichoblasts than has
been admitted by Falkenberg. The paper closes with some interesting
remarks on the pores between contiguous cells.

Lithothamnia from the Indian Ocean.f — M. Foslie publishes a
report on the species of Lithothamnia collected by J. Stanley Gardiner
during his Expedition to the Maldive and Laccadive islands in 1899-
1900. The species are nine in number, and constitute the first authentic
record of these algae between the Red Sea and the East Indies. General
observations are made on the distribution of Lithothamnia and on the
conditions of their growth. The author finds that Lithophyllum
craspedhim plays a prominent part in reef -building in general, and is
therefore well represented in certain atolls of the Maldives, at Funafuti,
and at Onoatoa, Gilbert islands. Goniolithon frutescens is the next
most abundant species in the Maldives, and LitlwphyUum oncodes
appears to act as a kind of cement. Three new forms are described
of species already existing, and critical remarks are appended to each
species' name. Two large plates give reproductions of most of the
species in natural size.

Marine Algae of Iceland. $— H. Jonsson publishes Parts III. and IV.
of this Flora, consisting of Chlorophyceae and Cyanophycese respectively.
Critical and interesting notes are appended to the species-names, and
there are nineteen figures in the text, to show various details of structure
described. Acrosiphonia flabelliformis is described as a doubtful new
species. The Cyanophycese, six in number, were determined by
J. Schmidt.

Marine Algae from Sicily.§— A. Mazza publishes the first part of
a list of marine algae from this island, with critical notes on many of
the species. The plants recorded were either gathered by himself or

* Overs, k. DaDsk. Vidensk. Selsk. Forh., 1903, pp. 439-71 (16 figs, in text),
t Fauna and Geogr. Maldive and Laccadive Arckip., ed. J. S. Gardiner, i. (1903)
pp. 460-71 (2 pis.). % Bot. Tidsskrft., xxv. (1903) pp. 337-81 (19 rigs.).

§ Nuov. Notar., xv. (1904) pp. 5-30.

216 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

were sent to him by other botanists. All sides of the island are repre-
sented, and the locality of each species follows the record of its occur-
rence. The present paper includes fifty-seven algas, belonging to
Florideas. Many of the notes deal with questions of nomenclature.

Arctic Algae.* — J. Palibin reports on the botany of the south-east
portion of the northern island of Nova Zembla, and gives a short list
of marine algae, all of them characteristic of the Arctic region. The
collection was made during the Expedition of the Ermak, during the
summer of the year 1901. A few fresh-water species were found above
Cape Flora on Franz Josef Land. The report is in Russian.
F. R. Kjellmanf gives a list of 22 alga? from the coasts of this
island, among which are several new records for the locality, including
Halosaccion pubesems, hitherto only known on the Norwegian coasts.

Marine Algae from the Red Sea.| — Th. Reinbold publishes a list
of 82 species, collected at Tor on the Sinai Peninsula, of which four
species have not hitherto been recorded from the Red Sea. In the
case of the more interesting specimens, critical notes are added. The
material was collected on coral reefs at a depth of about 1-3 metres.

Indian Ocean Algae. § — E. S. Barton publishes a list of 27 species
of marine algas from the Maldive and Laccadive islands. They were
collected by J. Stanley Gardiner, and form the first published record
from these islands. Among the species is Ralfsia ceyJanica Harv., till
now a nomen nudum, though authentic specimens exist in herbaria.
Ectocarpus spongiosum Dickie is recorded in fruit, and the original
description of the plant is here supplemented by an account of the
plurilocular sporangia. It is interesting to note that the fruits occur
on the original specimens of E. spongiosus in the British Museum and
Kew herbaria, but they were overlooked by the author. A new species,
Liebmannia Laccaclivarum, is described.

Marine Algae from the Gulf of Manaar.|| — E. S. Barton also gives
a list of 25 species collected in this region by Herdman when ex-
amining the Pearl Oyster Fisheries in 1902. The most interesting
record is that of Halimeda gracilis in fruit, which has not been
described up to the present. Sporangia are borne in a kind of loose
raceme on sporangiophores, and these arise from the filaments of the
central strand which have branched to form lateral strands. The tufts
of sporangiophores are limited to those points of the margin of a joint
at which the lateral strands issue, and in this manner differ from the
fruits of H. Tuna, in which the sporangiophores are said to form a
fringe round the upper margin of a joint.

Three New Japanese Algae. f — K. Yendo describes a new Caulerpa,
C. Tateyamensis, which resembles C. sedoides, but is distinguished from
it by the stipitated cylindrical ramules and the character of the branch-

* Bull. Jard. Imp. Bot. St. Petersb., iii.(1903) pp. 29-48, 135-67.
t Arkiv. Bot. Stockholm, i. (1903) pp. 1-6.
% Hedwigia, Beibl.. xlii. (1903) pp. 227-32.
\% Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., xxxv. (1903) pp. 475-82 (1 pi.).
|] Beport to Govt. Ceylon on Tearl Oyster Fisheries, Royal Soc, 1903, pp. 163-7
(3 figs, in text). J Bot. Mag. Tokyo, xvii. (1903) pp. 99-104 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 217

lets. Hirome undarioides represents a new genus closely allied to
Undaria, from which it differs in having no ligule at the transition-
point, and by the shortness of the stipe. The principal characteristic
of the plant lies in the position of the sori on the costal area of the
lamina, the sporophyll being often absent. In Undaria pinnatifida, on
the other hand, the sporophyll is the principal soriferous area, though
in certain forms this area is continued into the lamina. Hirome
undarioides is collected in large quantities and sold in the market.
Champia expansa differs externally from the other species of the genus.
It approaches most nearly to C. bifida Okam., but is distinguished from
it by the regular dichotomous branching, and the broad, much com-
pressed segments.

Uses of Marine Algae in Japan.* — K. Yendo also gives an account of
the preparation of various algaj for food and decoration, as well as for
laundry and other purposes. Species belonging to 23 genera are enu-
merated, with the special method employed for each. A table of statistics
shows that the export of Laminaria for commercial purposes is large, and
it is stated that not less than 11,232,900 sheets of Porphyra, each sheet
being the final edible production from the alga, were manufactured in
one year. This paper is illustrated by three Japanese prints.

Distribution of Marine Algae in Japan.f — The same author divides
the algal region of Japan into the following sections : (a) Pacific side : —
1. From Kurile islands to Kinkwa-san island. 2. From Kinkwa-san
island to the southern end of Kin-shu island. 3. From the southern
end of Kin-shu island to Formosa, (b) Japan Sea side : — 1. From Iki
Island to Ojika Peninsula. 2. From Ojika Peninsula to the north. In
these various sections of the coast area the character of the algas varies
from subarctic to tropical, according to whether the section in question
is washed by the cold currents originating at Kamschatka or by the
main north equatorial stream. The principal species characterising each
section are enumerated.

North American Alg33.| — F. S. Collins continues his notes on
North American algee. He definitely adds Gracilaria confervoides to
the list of species found in that country, having collected it himself at
Mattapoisett, Mass. Actinococcus peltaeformis Schmitz has been found
on the coast of Maine, growing on its host-plant Gymnogongrus nor-
vegicus. Codiolum pusillwm Foslie occurs at Cutler, Maine, in all stages
of variation, from the typical European form to that known as forma
americanum. A new variety, triplicata, is described for Spirogyra
decimina ; Plectonema Battersii Gom. is now recorded from three locali-
ties in Massachusetts, Microcoleus tenerrimus Gom. from Maine, and
Xenococcus Kerneri Hansg. from Cohasset, Mass.

Cell-growth and Plant-form in Marine Algae. § — F. Tobler pub-
lishes further details of his researches in this connection, dividing his
paper into the following sections : (1) The material and its treatment ;

* Postelsia, Yearbook Minn. Seaside Stat.. 1902, pp. 1-18 (3 pis. 3 prints).
t Tom. cit... pp. 17U-02 (3 pis.). % Rhodora, v. (1903) pp. 231-4.

§ Jahrb. wiss. Bot., 1903, pp. 527-80 (I pi.).

April 20th, 1004 Q

218 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(2) Habit and characteristics of the forms ; (?>) Unequal growth (Epi-
nasty and Hyponasty) ; (-4) Manifestations resembling etiolation ;
(5) Adventitious formations and deformities ; (6) Decay ; (7) Repro-
duction and general remarks. A bibliography is appended.

Brunnthaler, J. — Phytoplankton aus Kleinasien. (Phytoplankton from Asia
Minor.) SB. Alcad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-Nat. KL, cxii. Abt. i.

(1903) pp. 289-93.

Chalon. J. — Quelques Algues de mer recoltees a RoscofF (Finisterre) en 1903.
(Some marine algfe collected at lloscoif (Finisterre) in 1903.)

[A list of 42 species.] La Nuov. Kotar., xv. (1904) pp. 1-4.

Cleve, P. T.— Report on Plankton collected by Thorild Wulff during a voyage to
and from Bombay.

[Forty- two species of Diatomacese are recorded, and 64 species of Peridiniales,
among which are the new species Goniodoma (?) bipes and Steiniella (?)
complanota. The latter is figured.]

Arhiv.fur Zool. K. Svenska Vetensk., i. (1903) pp. 329-81.

G aidukov, N. — Ueber den braunen Algenfarbstoff. Phycophae'in und Phycoxanthin.
[Concerning the brown colouring matter of alga?.]

Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxi. (1904) pp. 535-9.

Gabparis, A. de — Le algue delle argille pleistoceniche di Taranto. (The alga? of
the pleistocene clays of Taranto.)

llendic. Accad. Sc.fis. et Matem. Napoli, 1903, p. 228.

Lagerheim, G. — TJntersuchungen iiber fossile Algen, I., II. (Investigations of
fossil algae.) Geol. Foren. Fork. Stockholm, xxi v. (1903) pp. 475-500.

Lohmann, H. — Neue TJntersuchungen fiber den Reichtum des Meeres an Plankton.
(New investigations of the riches of the sea in plankton.)

Wiss. Meeresuntersuch. Abt. Kiel, N.F. vii.

„ „ TTntersuchungen fiber die Tier-und Pflanzenwelt, sowie fiber die

Bodensedimente des Nordatlant Oceans zwischen 38° und 50° N. Br. (Investiga-
tions into the animal and plant world, as well as into the sedimentary deposits of
the North Atlantic Ocean between 38° and 50° north latitude.)

SB. Kgl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1903, pp. 560-83.

Magnin, A. — Les microphytes des lacs du Jura, notamment les Diatomees du Lac
de Chalin d'apres Prudent et Roescb. (The microphyta of the Jura lakes,
notably the Diatomacese of the lake of Chalin after Messrs. Prudent and Roesob.)

Arch. Flore Jurats, 1903, pp. 108-10.

Pro tic, G. — Peti prilog poznavanje flore okoline Varesa n Bosni. (Fifth contribu-
tion to the knowledge of the flora of the surroundings of Vares in Bosnia.)
[A list of diatoms is included among the other cryptograms.]

Glasnik. Zernalj muz za Borne i Herceg., xv. (1903) pp. 273-318.
See also Bot. Centralbl., xcv. (1904) p. 71.

Fungi.

Phytophthora infestans.* — L. Matruchot and M. Molliard have
made a series of cultures of this fungus. They found that on a slice
of living potato it grew freely, also on cucumber and Spanish melon.
On the two latter it grew after they had been cooked, but not on the
potato. Probably the starch of the potato had swelled to an extent
that prevented the mycelium from penetrating the tissues. Spores
were produced normally only on living material, and in no case were
©ogonia or chlamydospores formed. The writers conclude that the
fungus persists by means of the mycelium. They find also that the

* Ann. Mycol., i. (19D3) pp. 540-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY. ETC. 219

rotting of tubers attacked is not directly due to the fungus, but to
accompanying Bacteria. They note also in this fungus the absence of
differentiated haustoria, a peculiarity confined to this one member of
the Peronosporeas, it being also the only one that can live as a
saprophyte.

The Genus Harpochytrium in the United States.* — G. F. Atkinson
describes in detail the plant that forms the basis of his paper, which he
found growing on Spirogyra. The organism is composed of a long
slender more or less fusoid and usually curved sporangium. It is
pointed at the base where it pierces the wall of the host-cell. Zoospores
are formed in the parasite which escape at the tip, and after swarming
attach themselves to the host. After the zoospores have escaped, a new
sporangium grows out within the old one from the sterile basal part.
Atkinson found that the plant belonged to the genus Harpochytrium
Lagerh. He considers also that the genus Fulminaria Gobi is syno-
nymous, and that the plant RhaMium acatum of Dangeard is also a
member of the same genus. He gives his reasons at length for this
grouping. There are three species known, two of them found also in
Europe. They are all parasitic on some green alga.

Structure and Classification of the Phycomycetes.f — C. E. Bessey
holds that the Phycomycetes do not form a natural group, that they are
derived though fungal modification from different algal types, and that
in any scheme of classification the algae must be considered first. He
claims that they come from three different groups of algae : the Synchy-
triacea? from the Protococcoideaa ; the Chytridiacese from or near the
Botrydiaceaa, in the order Siphonese ; and the Saprolegniaceaa from or
near the Vaucheriaceae, also in the order Siphoneas. The other members
ef the Phycomycetes are derived from the Saprolegniaceaa, with the
exception of Monoblepharis, which suggests the (Edogoniaceae. In all
these classes the fungi or " hysterophytes " are parasitic or saprophytic,
and show more or less morphological degradation. Bessey follows the
order laid down ; he gives the key to the combined families of algas and
fungi, and gives a descriptive account of each of the fungal genera.

Critical Notes on Exoasceae.J — P. Sadebeck reviews the species of
Taphriaa and Exoascus, noting the points in which they differ and the
variations within the different species. Points to be noted are the per-
sistence of the mycelium in the host from year to year, the formation
of a hymenial layer, the depth to which the hyphae penetrate the leaf,
and the different forms of the asci and of the basal cells. He makes
a comparison between these genera and Endomyces.

Mould Yeasts.§ — M. Hartmann experimented with a species of
Torula which he isolated from colonies of Mucor amylomyces, where it
formed slight elevations on the surface of the Mucor growth, and which
he named T. colliculosa. Young cultures could not ferment maltose,

* Ann. Myco1., i. (1903) pp. 479-502 (1 pi.).
t Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc, xxiv. (1903) pp. 27-54 (1 pi.).
X Ber. Deutscli. Bot. Ges., x. (1903) pp. 5S9-46.

§ Wochenschr. f. Braueri, xx. (1903) pp. 113-14 (5 figs.). See al6o Ann. Mycol.,
i. (1903) p. 567.

Q 2

220 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

but at a later stage not only maltose, but cane, grape and fruit sugars
and raffinose, were quickly fermented.

W. Henneberg* isolated two moulds from brewers' yeast, which he
terms Mycoderma («) and {IS). He made a series of experiments to test
if these yeasts would have an injurious influence on the fermentation
process. He proved that they did no harm.

0. Hinsberg and E. Ross f examined the yeast of beer to determine
some of the chemical constituents of the yeast cells. Among other
substances, acids, etc., they detected an ethereal oil with a hyacinth
odour.

Disease of Currant and Gooseberry 4 — 0. J. J. Van Hall describes
a disease that has wrought great havoc on currant and gooseberry
bushes in Holland. The first evidence of attack is the wilting of the
leaves, and examination shows that the stem is affected close to and
under the ground. The tissues were found to be full of a delicate
mycelium. Cultures were made to induce fruit formation, which were
unsuccessful, until accidentally they were subjected to a severe frost.
With a higher temperature the fungus revived and perithecia were
formed, which have been determined to be Cytosporina Ribis n. sp.
The fungus forms a black stroma, which contains a labyrinth of spore
chambers. The spores are thread-like and bent, and escape by one or
more openings in a yellowish mass. The author gives his reasons for
placing the fungus in the genus Cytosporina, and discusses other fungi
that attack species of Ribes. This fungus, like other subterranean forms,
is difficult to eradicate. Some hints are given as to the best means of
prevention or cure.

Disease of Cultivated Mushrooms.§ — G. Cuboni and G. Megliola
have determined this disease to be due to the ravages of a Hyphomycete
already described as Monilia fimicola. In July, when the first fruiting
forms of the mushroom should appear, a number of little white points
are visible on the surface of the bed, which increase, and look like a
covering of chalk powder. After the invading fungus has exhausted
itself towards the end of September, a few diminutive mushrooms make
their appearance. The authors are of opinion that the fungus belongs
to the genus Oospora rather than to Monilia, on account of the small
development of hyphas and the minute dimensions of the spores. It
is not parasitic on the mycelium of the Agaric, but does harm by with-
drawing the nourishment intended for the higher fungus. They do not
recommend any cure except the careful destruction of damaged spawn.

New Helminthosporium.|| — P. Magnus names the new species H.
Diedickei. It was found growing as a parasite on the leaves of
Ophioglossum vulgatum, forming dark-brown spots. The conidia are
3-septate and bent. The mycelium spreads between the cuticle of the

* Wochenschr. f. Braueri, xx. (1903) pp. 137-9, 178-80. See also Ann. Mycol. i.
(1903) pp. 567-8.

t Zeitschr. Physiol. Cbemie., xxxviii. (1903) pp. 1-16. See also Ann. Mycol. i.
(1903) p. 569. % Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) pp. 503-12(1 pi.).

§ Atti. RealeAccad. Lincei, ccc. (19u3), pp. 440-3.

|| Hedwigia, xlii. (1903) pp. 222-5 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 221

leaf, and the epidermal cells and hyphal branches pass down between the
cells and permeate the intercellular spaces.

Phellomyces Sclerotiophorus.* — T. Johnson records an attack of
this fungus on potatoes. It forms minute sclerotia on the skin of the
tuber ; the mycelium penetrates the cortical cells, giving the skin a
scabbed appearance ; in a more advanced stage it causes dry potato-rot.
The cells of the potato are killed, but the starch-grains remain essen-
tially unaltered, and a white dry powdery substance appears in the
tuber. The author recommends the soaking of seed tubers in a weak
solution of formalin or other fungicide before planting. This treatment
was found by experiment to have destroyed the fungus without injuring
the potato.

American Uredinese.t — John M. Bates notes the finding of the
tecidia of Puccinia Phragmitis in Nebraska on four different hosts,
three species of Rumex and one of Rheum.

W. A. KellermanJ summarizes the infection experiments and their
results, conducted by him during the past year. He worked with the
teleutospore, and in nine cases he records the successful growth of the
tecidia on a separate host-plant. In some cases there was more than
one host discovered for the recidial stage. He records also the failures
to induce infection, a long and equally instructive list.

The same author commences an index to Uredinous culture experi-
ments, with list of species and hosts for N. America. In a preliminary
note he gives an account of work done on the life histories of rusts. He
carries the host list alphabetically down to Euphorbia.

On the Fertilisation, Alternation of Generations, and General
Cytology of the Uredinese.|| — V. H. Blackman publishes a preliminary
statement as to the result of his research on Uredineje. He reviews the
opinions held on the sexuality of the Uredineae and proceeds to record
the results of his own observations. After careful examination he finds
that the spermatia, though now functionless, have all the characteristics
of male cells. He verifies the bi-nucleate condition of the cells, both of
hyphas and spores, from the gecidium stage onwards to the teleutospore,
which is also bi-nucleate in the young stage, and uni-nucleate when
mature. He does not accept this fusion as sexual, but rather considers
it a reduction-process as in the spore-mother cells of the higher plants,
and followed in both cases by the tetrad division — in the teleutospore
the production of the four sporidia. These are uni-nucleate, as are
also the cells in the early stage of the gecidium. The bi-nucleate con-
dition is reached by the passage of a nucleus from a vegetative cell into
the spore-mother cell of the gecidium. Blackman considers this cell to
be the female fertile cell, and looks on this association of two nuclei as
an act of fertilisation. They do not fuse until the teleutospore is
formed. His view is that formerly the ascidia were fertilised by the

* Econ. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc, i. (1903) pp. 1G1-5.

-I- Journ. Mycol., ix. (1903) pp. 219-20. ' % Tom. oil,., pp. 225-38.

§ Tom. cit., pp. 244-57. U New Phytologist, iii. (1904) pp. 23-7.

222 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

spermatia, and that there is now only a reduced process of fertilisation,
which is mid-way between the normal process and that discovered in
the case of apogamy in ferns, where the acting male and female cells
are ordinary vegetative cells. He gives some notes on nuclear division
as observed by him in the Uredineae. A fuller account is promised at
an early date.

Cultures with Rusts.* — H. Klebahn gives the results of his various
cultures, and notes the points of interest in connection with the infec-
tions. He found that Nemesia versicolor was extremely susceptible to
Cronartium asclqriadum, and he concludes that a fungus may suddenly
choose a new host. Specialisation may proceed from many hosts to
one (plurivore fungus), or from living on a single host (univore) the
rust may develop a capacity to infect several. He finds, also, that in
the course of several generations the power of infecting hosts other than
the one on which the fungus has been cultivated, gradually declines.

Ag-aricinese on Trees.f — P. Hennings has gone carefully over the
species found in Germany on stumps, roots, stems and branches. He
notes those that are parasitic. The largest number is recorded on the
Alder. He does not give many that grow on Conifers, as trees of that
order were rare in the district examined. He found none on Ash trees.
Armillaria mellea causes much damage in the woodlands, and attacks a
large number of trees, Conifers as well as deciduous trees.

Polyporaceae of North America.^ — "W. A. Murril continues his
studies of this great group, and deals in the present paper with the
genus Polyporus. He confines the name mostly to species of " small
dark-coloured plants attached to fallen branches and other decaying
wood on or near the ground." They are all furnished with a stipe
centrally or variously attached. There is the usual shifting of names
to establish priority. Polyporus brumaUs becomes P. polyporus Murril,
as it was described as Boletus Polyporus by Retz in 1760. The author
records twenty-three species of the genus as understood by him for
North America.

Merulius lacrymans as a cause of Cancer.§ — A. Klug has given
much attention to this subject. He claims to have found in the secre-
tions from cancer a form of yeast-spores identical with some stages in
the development of dry-rot. He calls these cells " Meruliocyten." The
fungus would thus be a dangerous parasite to men and animals.

Spore-formation in Naucoria nana.|| — L. Petri reviews the work
done on the basidiospore by Maire, Wager and other writers. He finds,
the two nuclei (the synkarion) present in the hyphae of the trama, as
described for other hymenomycetes ; they are of extremely minute
dimensions. Fusion takes place in the basidium in the spirem stage,.

* Jahrb. Hamburg. Wiss. Anst., 1902, 3 Beiheft., 56 pp. Hamburg, 1903. See
also Bot. Zeit., lxi.(1903) pp. 322-4.

t Hedwigia Beibl., xlii. (1903) pp. 233-40.

t Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 29-44.

§ Freih. Johannisbad, Sebbstverlag, 139 pp. (42 figs, and 1 pi.). See also Ann.
Mjcol., i. (1903) pp. 4i;G-7.

|| Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital. x. (1903) pp. 357-71 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 223

true fusion occurring between the nucleoli. The secondary nucleus thus
formed surrounds itself with a membrane. At the same time the cyto-
plasm of the basidium shows a longitudinal fibrillar structure in the
upper part. Petri gives a detailed account of the different phenomena
noted in the cell and the nucleus, which divides in two, corresponding to
the two sterigmata of Naucoria nana. In conclusion, he examines the
theory of sexuality. He does not think that the synkarion has the value
of a fecundation, but rather that it represents the origin of a sexual
difference limited to the nuclei.

Polyporus fraxinophilus.*— Hermann von Schrenk describes the
mischief wrought by this fungus on the white ash in North America.
The mycelium penetrates to the heart wood of stem and branches, so
destroying the tissue that the tree falls to the ground. The fruiting
form makes its appearance not far from the place of infection. The
author gives a careful description of it and of its occurrence on dead
wood, and suggests methods of curing the disease in the early stages.

Oidium Tuckeri.| — Appel found that the fungus passed the winter
as mycelium in the tissue ;of the new wood of the vine. Numerous
haustoria were formed, and in the early part of the year a normal
mycelium was developed with conidia that again infected the growing
vines.

American Mycology.! — A. P. Morgan records some interesting
fungi for British Columbia. He writes also a note on Corticium leuco-
thrix. J. B. Ellis and B. M. Everhart describe a series of new species
from various localities in the United States, and W. A. Kellerman
begins a series of mycological notes — new observations on forms already
recorded.

Subterranean Fungi in Italy. § — 0. Mattirolo writes a short treatise
on the growing importance of these fungi in view of their connection
with the mycorhiza of the higher plants, and then proceeds to give a
detailed account of many of the forms. The whole forms part of a
complete monograph of these fungi now in progress. His survey
includes Tuberaceae, Hymenogastrea?, an unusual type of Lycoperdacete,
Gastrosjjorium gen. nov., which grew among the roots of grasses, and
some other forms, such as Onygena equina found on the decaying hoof
of an ox, which he includes in his underground series.

Mycorhiza of Conifers. || — A. Moller has attacked the problem of
mycorhiza, and the results of his researches contradict the conclusions
come to by Frank and other workers. The pines of one and two years
growth developed well in sandy soil, more especially under a top cover-
ing of leaves ; but this was due to the protection against drought and
not to mycorhiza. He found no fungus developed on the tips of the

* U.S.Dept. of Agric. Bureau of riant Industry, Bull. No. 32 (1903) 20 pp. 5 pis
See also Centralbl. Bakt., x. (1903) pp. 799-801.

t Centralbl. Bakt., xi. (1903) pp. 143-5.

% Joum. of Mycol., ix. (1903) pp. 161-2, 104-8, 169-70 (1 pi.).

§ Mem. Reale Accad. Sci. de Torino, liii. (1903) pp. 331-66 (1 pi.).

II Zeitschr. Forst. u. Jagduesen, litft 5 (1903). fee also But. Zeit., lxi. (1903)
pp. 329-30.

224 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

main roots ; and on the other rootlets, its growth was more luxuriant
in soil free from humus. He made a series of experiments to deter-
mine the species of the fungus ; he does not find that it is identical
with any form of Mucor.

Sporangioles of Endotropic Mycorhiza.* — L.Petri criticises the
term sporangiole as applied by Janse to small protuberances on the
hyphae of endotropic mycorhiza. They have no connection with the
production of spores, and Petri proposes to call them " prosporoidi "
for morphological reasons. He examined them in the roots of a number
of plants, and was able to produce them on various moulds in artificial
cultures, when grown deep down in the substratum. They arise, he
holds, on the hyphas, where, in normal conditions, the spores would
originate. The contents break up into granules, which in the roots
escape into the surrounding protoplasm ; the cells of an old tubercle are
full of them ; in cultures they showed no sign of germination. They
are formed from the contents of the prosporoid by the agency of a
proteolitic enzyme. The writer gives a long account of his observations
on endophytic mycorhiza. He has identified the fungus inhabiting the
tubercles of Podocarpus as a hyphomycete, Thielaviopsis Podocarpi sp. n.,
and has cultivated it successfully. It forms two kinds of fructification,
macrogonidia— dark-brown gonidia in chains something like a Torula, —
and microgonidia, which are produced endogenously in upright hyphge.

Diseases of Yellow Pine.f — H. von Schrenk describes two forms
of fungus disease both following on the attack of a beetle, Dendroclonus
ponderosce. The first, causing a bluing of the wood tissue, is due to a
Pyrenomycete, Ceratostomella pilifera. Much greater damage is done
by the attack of a Polyporus, which causes the wood to turn red.
Schrenk considers it a new species, P. ponderosus.

Injury by Frost followed by Fungoid Attacks.:}: — Sorauer de-
scribes the cases in which plants have succumbed to frost and the fungi
that are to be found on such plants. Very often they are merely after-
growths and have nothing to do with the death of the plant. He gives
an account of forms of Alter naria, Ascochyta, Septoria and Cladosporium,
which occur in every field of cereals. Fusarium he considers can grow
either as a parasite or a saprophyte, and attacks plants under snow.
He further discusses the conditions that tend to make frost a danger to
the crops.

Wood-destroying Fungi.§ — P. Hennings writes an account of all
the forms that have been found to attack the wood-work of our dwell-
ings. Merulius lacrymans is the most frequent and the most harmful,
but Polyporus vaporarius is, he says, almost as destructive and as
wide-spread. He describes a considerable number that do more or less
damage ; nearly all of them Hymenomycetes. There are one or two
Ascomycetes in his black list, notably Xylaria polymorpha, and a small

* App. al Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital., x. (1903) pp. 541-62 (5 figs.), and pp. 582-4
;2 figs.).

t U.S. Dept. of Agric, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. No. 36 (1903) 40 pp. and
14 pis.). See also Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) pp. 464-5.

1 Landw. Jalnb., xxxii. pp. 1-titS (4 pis.). See also Centralbl. Bakt., x. (1903)
j p. 806-8. § Hedwigia, xlii. (1903) pp. 178-91.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 225

Pyrenomycete, CeratostomeUa pilif&ra. He records a new species of
Coniothyrium, which he found on damp boards, and describes it as
C. domesticum. Many kinds of fungi make their appearance in damp
cellars, etc. ; but he has only taken into account those that have wood-
destroying properties.

Notes on German Fungi.* — P. Hennings describes a variety of
Boletus granulatus, the pores of which were covered with small crystal-
like cushions, white, then brown. These were composed of small tufts
•of clavate paraphyses. A specimen of Colhjbia platyphylla was collected
with a very long rooting rhizomorph. The young tips of the mycelium
were faintly phosphorescent. He describes also an abnormal form of
Tricholoma conglobatum and a peculiar species of Corlinarius.

Seed-fungus of Lolium temulentum.f — E. M. Freeman has ex-
amined this fungus. He finds that it spreads outside the aleurone
sheath — through the scutellmn up to the vegetative apex of the embryo.
It develops anew with the seed and is found in the stalk, at the base of
the leaf, and in the flower. No spore-formation could be detected.
Probably there is a condition of symbiosis between the parasite and the
host, as the seed is not injured by the fungus.

Disease of Coco-Palm.f— M. Hollrung examined diseased material
from New Guinea, where great damage had been done to the Palms.
Much of the injury was found by him to be due to insects, but there
were present the pycnidia of a fungus which could not be determined.
He found also Pestalozzia palmarum, but the author is rather of the
opinion that these fungi were saprophytes, and had not caused the
•disease.

Biological Test for the Presence of ArsenicJ— A. Maassen has
worked over Gosio's results on this important subject. He found that
not only Penicillium brevicaule but other moulds and also bacteria
•absorb soluble arsenic, selenium, tellurium, etc., giving out at the same
time a characteristic odour. The author explains the chemical reaction
that takes place. He discusses also the reducing and other properties
of the cell. He entirely confirms the value of Gosio's discovery of the
biological test for the detection of arsenic.

Morphological Researches.! — W. Magnus has directed his attention
to the capability of fungi to recover from injury. Renewal of tissue is
always more or less retarded by the reproductive activity of the plant,
•but there is a strong tendency to renew the original form, though in
many cases hymenial gills may be replaced by teeth, pores, or a reticu-
late form. This is due to mechanical conditions of growth.

Harmful Fungi.^T — Julius von Istvanfh* describes the damage done
'by Ithyphallus impudicus to the vines in Hungary on a loose sandy soil.

• Hedwigia, xlii. (1903) pp. 2H-17 (1 pi. and 2 figs.).

t Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, ser. B, cxcvi. (1903) pp. 1-27 (3 pi.).

J Zeitsehr. f. trop. Landwirtsch., vii. (1903) p 136. See also Ann. Mycol., i.
K'1903) p. 559.

§ Arbeit. Kaiserl. Gesundheits., xviii. (1902) pp. 475-S9. See aleo Ann. Mycol.,
i. (ia03) pp. 569-70.

II Ber. Deut-ch. Bot. Ges.,xxi. (1903) pp. 129-31. See also Ann. Mycol., i. (1903)
P- 665. ^ Zeitsehr. Magyar, bot. Lapok., ii. (.1903) pp. 133-4.

226 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The pale-red mycelium of the fungus had penetrated the tissue of the-
root and caused the death of the vine. The fungus fructification*
appeared in the vineyard in May and August.

The same writer* has studied the best methods of destroying
Botrytis and MoniUa. A solution of calcium bisulphide was found to*
be most effectual. He tested the influence of cold and heat on the
spores, and other conditions that would influence their vitality.

Vegetable Pathology.f — Under this heading P. Yiala and P.
Pacoltet give the results of their culture of the fungus, Guignardia-
Bidicellei, which causes black rot of the vine. After isolating the-
fungus they tested its growth on various media. They found as a result
of these experiments- that its vitality depended on the amount of acid
and of sugar in the culture, and also in the host plant at the time of
attack. It flourishes most luxuriantly after a fall of temperature, and
at the stage before the fruit ripens. This also explains why some fruits
are more susceptible than others to the attack of this fungus.

The Action of Fungi on Woody Cells.! — It has been stated by-
various workers that the action of parasitic fungi on trees is to delignify
the vessels and fibres of the wood. M. C. Potter found that boiling, or
prolonged immersion in water, had the effect of destroying the lignin
and leaving a layer of cellulose. He found the cellulose layer present
in the wood vessels of a number of living trees that were unattacked by
any fungus. He comes to the conclusion that the extraction of the-
lignin and consequent exposure of the cellulose is due in many
instances to the method employed for sterilizing the wood used in
experiments, and that where the cellulose layer is present in the living
tree, it probably represents a stage of arrested development.

Annual Record of Plant Diseases.§— In the yearly volume for 1902,.
which has just been issued, M. Hollrung, the editor, has introduced
several new features. He gives more attention to the manifestation of
disease, and he has associated with him a number of coadjutors in hi&
work. In the different sections he gives abstracts of the more im-
portant papers bearing on the subject under discussion, and also a
bibliography of all recent papers connected with it. The subjects
treated in order are general Phytopathology and Pathological Anatomy ;.
the cause of disease, whether the parasite be plant or animal, discussedi
generally, and then with reference to definite hosts ; plant hygiene,,
including considerations of climate, soil, immunity, etc. ; and, finally,
the various methods of combating disease, organic and inorganic.
Organic methods may be illustrated by the attempt to infect locusts
with the fungus Empusa Grylli, which is fatal to the grasshopper tribe.
Inorganic includes all the chemical and mechanical appliances that have-
been found useful in this warfare. A copious subject index adds to the
value of the book.

* Zeitschr. Magyar, bot. Lapok., ii. (1903) pp. 132-3. See also Ann. Mycol., L
(1903) p. 559.

t Comptes Eendns, cxxxviii. (1904) pp 306-S.

I Annalsof Botany, xviii. (1901) pp. 121-40 (1 pi.).

§ Jahrcsb. Pflauzenkrank., v., Berlin, 1904, viii. and 408 pp.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 227

French Mycology.* — L. Rolland describes Inocybe re-panda, which
had been placed in Entoloma by Berkeley on account of the reddish
tinge of the spores. Rolland has found that the colour varies between
red, green and brown. He discusses several other forms of Inocybe,
and notes the change of colour that may be looked for, and also the
change in odour at different stages of development.

N. Patouillard f publishes a note on the genus Paurocotylis Berk.,
which has been classed among the Gasteromycetes. Careful re-examina-
tion shows that the spores of P. pila, the typical species, are arranged
as if in asci, and that, with other characters, places it among the Ascomy-
cetes, near to Hydnocystis. The other species P.fulva belongs to the
genus Endoyone.

G. Delacroix % has studied a disease affecting the mulberry trees in
Madagascar. The under sides of the leaves were covered with a white
coating of mycelial filaments. Conidia are produced singly at the apex
of the conidiophores. Delacroix considers it to be a new species,
Ovulariopsis moricola. With it is associated a species of Phoma, which
he considers also belongs to the life cycle of the fungus.

Delacroix § has also published notes on Stromatinia Linhartiana, of
which the conidial form Monilia Linhartiana grows on the leaves and
twigs of Primus Padus, and which he finds to be identical with Ovularia
necans. The Peziza form grows on the mummified fruits in the
spring of the year, and is intermediate between Sclerotinia Padi and
S. Aucuparw. A fungus |j that grows on the bark, leaves and fruit of
the pear, apricot, etc., has been described in America as Sphccropsis
malorum. Delacroix finds that it is identical with Diplodia pseudo-
Diplodia. Macrophoma malorum he considers is another stage of the
life-cycle of the fungus. Dothichiza IT populea has been described as a
saprophyte on dead poplar branches. The wrriter has proved it to be
a wound parasite which kills the tree or branch when it has completely
circled it. He also discusses* the rottenness of potatoes caused by
Phytophthora infestans. He contrasts the mycelium and especially the
haustoria with those found in the fruits of a tomato attacked by the
same disease. He describes the effect produced by other diseases, such
as scab and gangrene caused by Bacillus caidivorus. Fusarium Solani
he considers to be a saprophyte, attacking tubers already invaded
by the mycelium of Phytophthora. Finally, he examines the cases of
immunity from disease and the influence of the soil on the growth of the
potato-disease.

New British Fungi.f — The mycological members of the Yorkshire
Naturalist Union have been successful in adding no less than seventeen
species of fungi to the British Flora, and of these nine are new to
science. Diagnoses and notes of all the species have been published,
and a special account given of an interesting form, Symphosira parasitica
Mass. and Crossl. It somewhat resembles a very large species of Stilbum,

* Bull. Soc. My col. France, xix. (1903) pp. 333-8.
t Tom. cit., pp. 339-41. t Tom. cit., pp. 342-6 (4 figs.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 347-9. || Tom. cit., pp. 350-2.

If Tom. cit, pp. 353-5 (3 figs.). *• Tom. cit., pp. 356-76 (2 figs).

ft The Naturalist, 1004, pp. 1-S (1 col. pi.).

228 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the head being formed of conidia in chains. It was found on the
fallen mericarps of Conium maculatum, and in one instance on Heradeum
Sphondylium. Healthy plants of Conium were successfully inoculated
with the fungus by depositing conidia on the stigma of the host-plant.
The diseased mericarp was found to be filled with a dense mass of
colourless hyphos. It fell to the ground when fully developed, and
produced conidiophores in about ten days. Only one other species of
Symphosira has hitherto been recorded. It occurs in Germany, and is
not a parasite.

American Mycological Notes.* — F. L. Stevens records his personal
experience after eating a small portion of uncooked L&piota Morgani Pk.
The poisoning was very severe.

AV. A. Kellerman f supplies notes on the different species of Calostoma
found in America. He also records the finding of large cniantities of
Darluca filum on carnation rust.

Brown-rot of Swedes.^ — M. C. Potter notes the outbreak of this
-disease within recent years in the North of England. It is well-known
and has been fully described in America, where the injury has been
traced to the presence of a bacterium, Pseudomonas campestris. It
attacks the plant by the leaves or by the roots and spreads through the
tissues by way of the vascular bundles. The disease has been already
recorded in this country on cabbage ; it seems to attack any cruciferous
plant. Methods of avoiding infection are recommended.

Arthur, J. C. — New Species of TTredineae, III.

[An account of 16 new species of unrelated forms from the States or from
Porto Rico.] Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 1-8.

Beck, Gunther vo n — Ueber das Verkommen des auf der Stubenfliege lebenden
Stegmatomyces Baerii Peyr. in Bbhmen. (On the occurrence of Stegmatomycet
Baerii Peyr. on house-flies in Bohemia.)

[The author finds that it is restricted to a limited area round Vienna and
Graz, and that it is not to be found in either neighbourhood except in the
vicinity of the railway.]

SB. Deuttch. Nat. Med. Ver. Bohmen, xxiii. (1903) pp. 101-2.

See also Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) p. 550.

Constantineau, J. C. — Contribution a l'etude de la flore mycologique de la
Roumanie, II.

[This paper deals entirely with Uredinese.]

Ann. Sci. Univ. de Jamj, ii. (1903) pp. 212-30.
See also Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) p. 550.

Diet el, P. — Eine neue Puccinia auf Senecio.

[The new Puccinia was found in Tasmania. JEcidia were developed on the
same host as the teleutospores.] Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) p. 535.

Ellis, J. B., & Everhart, B. M.— New Species of Fungi.

[Microfungi found on various leaves and branches throughout North America.]

Journ. Mycol, ix. (1903) pp. 222-5.

Hennings, P. — Biatorellina P. Henn, n. g. Patellariacearum.

[A new genus found growing on wood, described at length.]

Uedwigia, xlii. (1903) Beibl., p. 307 (5 figs.).

* Journ. Mycol., Ix. (1903) pp. 220-2. + Tom. cit., pp. 238-9.

% Journ. Board Agric, x. (1903) } p. 314-1S (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 229>

II en kings, P.— Squamotubera P. Henn. n. g. Xylariaceamm.

[A subterranean fungus from New Caledonia, in form of a tuber with a white
coating of conidia, bearing hyphae and fusiform, simple spores.]

Hedioigia, xlii. (1903) Beibl., pp. 308-9.

„ „ Ein stark phosphoreszierender javanischer Agaricus, Mycene illu-

minans P. Henn.
[A new example of phosphorescent fungi from the tropics. 1 he writer also-
draws atteution to other fungi with the same property.]

Tom. cit., pp. 809-10..

„ „ Ein Sklerotien-Blatterpllz, Naucoria tuberosa P. Henn, n. sp. ad.

inter.

[An addition trom Russia to the small number of Hymenomycetes that arise

from Sclerotia.] Tom. cit., pp. 310-12 (4 rigs.).

„ „ Eine neue deutsche Clathracee.

[An account of this fungus was published some time ago. It now appears
that it was recorded in 1S06, also from the same district in Germany.]

Naturioissensch. Wochensehr., xix. n.l. pp. 10-12 (8 tigs.)..
See also Hedioigia, xlii. (1903) Beibl., p. 3 IS.

„ „ Einige im Berliner Botanischen Garten 1903 gesammelte neue Pilze.

[A number of new microfungi found on the leaves, etc., of plants in the Berlin.
Botanical Garden.] Hedioigia, xlii. (1903) pp. 218-21..

Hohnel, Franz v. — Mycologische Fragmente (Fortsetzung).

[Notes on various fungi, with diagnoses of new forms. The new genera-
recorded are BresadolcIIa, Myxolibertella, Sporodiniopsis, Cirrhomyces,
and jEgeritopsis.'] Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) pp. 522-34.

Hollos, L. — Glasteropsis n. g. (Hungarian).

[The habit of this plant recalls that of Welwitsehia mirabilis.']

Bot. Sec. Kgl. Ungar. Naturwiss. Gesellsch., ii. (Budapest, 1903>
pp. 72-5 (5' figs.). See also Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) p. 551.

„ „ Two new species of Lycoperdon (Hungarian).

Tom. cit., pp. 75-G (1 fig.), See also Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) p. 557.
Magnis, r.— Bemerkungen zur Benennung einiger Uredineen in P. und H. Sydow's.
' Monographia Uredinearum.'

[Magnus criticises the nomenclature of some of the species in the
monograph.] Hedioigia, xlii. (1903) Beibl., pp. 305-6.

„ ,. Ein von F. W. Oliver nechgeweisener fosiler parasitischer Pilz.

[Oliver detected the fungus on Alethopteris aquilina. Magnus considers it
to be near Uropldyctis, and has named it Urophlyctites Oliverianus. The-
genus Urophhjctis thus dates back to the Carboniferous era.]

Ber. Deutsch, Bot. Ges., xxi. (1903) pp. 24S-50.

Malencovik, B.— Zur Hausschwammfrage. (Study of dry-rot.)

[The writer discusses the best means of sterilising the wood, and rendering
the development of the fungus impossible.]

Centralbl. lies. Fordwes., xxix. (190::) pp. 281-95.
.See also Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) p. 566..
Morgan. A. P.— A new species of Berlesiella.

[The genus is characterised by the setulose perithecia. B. hispida sp. n
was found growing on bark.] Joitrn. Mycol, ix. (1903) p. 217.

Neger, F. \V.— Uber die geographische Verbreitung der Meliola nidulans Cooke.
(On the geographical distribution of Meliola nidulans.)

[The writer found the fungus on Yaccinium Vitis Llaea, as far north a&
Sweden.] Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) p. 513.

Oudemans, C. A. J. A., & Koning, C. J.— Sclerotinia Nicotianae Oud and Kon.

[A new Sclerotinia injurious to the cultivation of tobacco. The sclerotia,.
about 10 X 5 fx in size, grow on the stems and leaves of the plant.]

Kon. Akad. Wetemch. Am*t., 1903, pp. 48-58, 85-6 (2 pis.,.
See also Hedivigia, xlii. (1903) Beibl., p. 320.
Patouillaro, N. et Hariot, P.— Une algue parasitee par une Spheriacee. (A
fungus parasitic on an alga.)

[The Alga Stypocaulon tcoparium was attacked by Zignoella enormis sp. n.]
Juarn. de Bot. xvii. (1903) p. 228. See also Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) p. 552

230 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Popovici, Al. P. — Contribution a l'etnde de la flore mycologique du Mont Ciahlan.
[The list includes a large number of species ; the larger forms are more par-
ticularly dealt with.]

Jassy, Imprimerie 'Daci'a,' P. Iliescu and D. Grossu, 1903, 06 pp.

See also Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) p. 553.

Rehn, R. — Die Discomyceten-Gattnng Alenrina Sacc. (The genus Aleurina.)

[The writer thinks that the brown colour of the spores is not distinctive
enough as a generic character. He has drawn up a synopsis of the genus.]

Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) pp. 514-6.

Rostrup, E. — Islands Swampe.

[A list of 513 species of fungi from Iceland, with diagnoses of a number of
new species.] Botan. Tuhskr., xxv. (1903) pp. 281-335.

See also Hedioigia, xlii. Beibl. p. 320.

Rostrup, E,& Masse e, G.— Fungi in Schmidt: I. Flora of Koh Chang.

[Contributions to the knowledge of the vegetation in the Gulf of Siara. A
number of new species are recurded by the authors.]

Botan. Ti.hshr., xxiv. (1902) pp. 205-17.

Spegazzini, C. — Notes synonymiques.

[The author revises the nomenclature of a number of species, and finds
several identical forms described under different names.]

Ann. Mus. Nation. Buenos Ayres, ser. 3a, ix. (1903) pp. 7-9.
See also Hedtcigia, xlii. (1903) Beibl., p. 321.

Sydow, H. & P. — Ein Beitrag znr Pilzflora Portugals.

[The authors record 84 fungi, of which three specie3 are new to science.]

Broteria, ii. (1903) pp. 149-55. See also Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) p. 554.

„ „ TTrophlyctis hemisphaerica (Speg.) Syd.

[The species was describedias, Uromyces hemisphstricaby Spegazzini, and since
then has been redescribed under various other names. It causes galls on
the stems. Bowletiatenera in South America and in Europe is found on
Carum Carvi and Pimpinella magna.] Ann. Mycol., i. (1903) pp. 517-S.

Sydow — Mycotheca germanica, Fasc. I. (Nos. 1-50.)

[Diagnoses ot the six new species are given.] Tom. cit., 519-21.

„ Mycotheca germanica, Fasc. II. (Nos. 51-100).

[The second fascicle contains also six new species.] Tom. cit., pp. 536-9.

Lichens.

Lichen Flora of Heidelberg.*— W. Ritter von Zwackh-Holzhausen
published in 1883 a Flora of this region. Since that date he had added
largely to his collection, and was arranging for the publication of the
new list, when he died. Hugo Gluck has taken up the task, and pub-
lishes the revised and enlarged list compiled from von Zwackh's
notes. The species number 559. Nylander's classification is followed
throughout.

Contributions to our knowledge of the Chemistry of Lichens.t
O. Hesse has studied the constituents of Lichens, and gives an account
of the various substances he has found in the different forms. A
number of these are new discoveries : Pannarol, Areolatin, Areolin,
Poronin and Talebraracid, etc. He gives the chemical formula? of
these and of some of the other substances. In Evernia furfuracea he
found a new constituent Furevernacid, but he failed to find Everniol
or Olivetoracid.

* Hedwigia, xlii. (1903) pp. 192-213.

t Journ. prakt. Cliemie, Neue Eolge, lxviii. (1903) pp. 1-72. See also Ann.
Mycol., i. (1903) p. 571.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 231

« W. Zopf * also contributes a paper on the same subject, and gives
the substances found in a series of Lichens. He records several new
bodies. Strepsilin, which becomes bright olive-green on addition of
•chloride of lime, is the cause of the colour reaction of Gladenia strepsilis.
Destrictinacid, a colourless substance, was found in Cladonia destricta,
and Leiphamacid in Hcematomma leiphamum ; and in Usnea hirta, a
substance which is termed Hirtellacid.

Hasse, H. E.— Contributions to the Lichen-flora of the Californian Coast Islands.

Bull. South Calif. Acad. Sci., ii. (1903) pp. 33-5.

„ Additions to the Lichen-flora of Southern California.

Tom. cit., pp. 52-4, 58-60, 71-3.

„ „ The Lichen-flora of San Clemente Island.

Tom. cit., pp. 54-5. See also Ami. Mycol, i. (1903) pp. 573-4.

[In these three publications the author gives contributions to a Lichen-flora
of California. There are several new species determined by Nylander.]

Sen ft, E. — Beitragzum Vorkommen von Flechten auf offizinellen Rinden. ii. Cortex
Cascarillae.

[The author gives an account of the most characteristic Lichens found grow-
on medicinal bark. He has discovered one new species, Arthonia Voglii.]

Apoth.-Ver., 1903, No. 32, pp. 891-9 (S figs.).
See also Ann. Mycol, i. (1903) p, 575.

Zahlbruckneb, A. — Vorarbeiten zu einer Flechten flora Dalmatiens, II.

[The author has worked on Lichen material collected by several botanists.
A number of new species are described.]

Osterreich. Bot. Zeitschr.,\iii. (1903) pp. 147-9, 177-85.

239-46, 285-9, 332-6.

Schizophyta.
Schizophyceae.

Schizophyceae in Marine Plankton.f — N. Wille publishes a resume
of the forms of Schizophycere hitherto met with among marine plankton,
as an introduction to Brandt's Nordisches Plankton. Among other
novelties in the systematic treatment of the Myxophyceaj, he places the
genus Chroothece Hansg. in Glaucophycere (Bangiales) ; Heliotrichium
radians Wille is identified with Trichodesmium Thieoautii Gomont, and
a more complete and accurate description of Xanthothricum contortum
Wille is given under the name of Trichodesmium contortum Wille. All
the genera are illustrated by figures taken from the works of Kiitzing,
Bornet and Thuret, Gomont, Mobius, Schiitt, J. Schmidt, and others.

Schizomycetes.

Slime Bacterium from the Peach, etc4 — R. Greig Smith has
separated from the peach, the almond, and the cedar, races of an
organism, Bacterium fKrsica. This is an aerobic, spore-bearing non-
motile rod, measuring 1 ■ 2-3 ■ 6//., or even 7 • 5/z in hanging drop pre-
parations, and decolorised in parts by Gram. It produces a slime when
grown upon solid media or in fluid media containing saccharose. When
grown upon solid media the saccharose can be replaced by many other

* Ann. Chem. cccxxvii. (1903) pp. 317-54. See also Ann. Mycol., i. (1903)
pp. 576-7.

t Nordisches Plankton. K. Brandt, Leipzig, 1903. See Nuov. Not., xv. (1904)
p. 45. % Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxviii. (1903) pp. 338-48.

232 SUMMARY OF OURKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

carbohydrates and by glycerin. The essential carbohydrate of the
slirne is soluble in water, but upon drying it becomes readily altered to-
an insoluble modification. The carbohydrate hydrolyses to arabinose
and galactose, the latter predominating. Besides forming galactan-
arabinian gum, the organism inverts the saccharose, producing ethyl-
alcohol, carbon dioxide, lactic, butyric, and traces of succinic, formic
and acetic acids.

Presence of Cilia in the Genus Bacterium.* — D. Ellis, having
formerly demonstrated the presence of cilia in the Family Coccacecc,i has
set himself to show that the members of the genus Bacterium also-
possess cilia, although Migula classifies them as being destitute of these
organs. The author made his investigations with Bad. hirtum (Henrici),
Bad. tomentosum (Henrici), Bad. filamentosum (Klein), Bad. rugosum
(Henrici), and Bad. cervinum (Henrici). The author suggests that
in classification the genus Bacterium be omitted, and only the two
genera Bacillus and Pseudomonas retained, as follows : —

Family Baderiacp.ee.

Cylindrical forms. Organs of motion in the form of cilia.

Endospore formation common.

Genus Bacillus. Forms with peritrich cilia.

Genus Pseudomonas. Forms with polar cilia.

Bacillus carnis.* — E. Klein has obtained from a putrid meat infu-
sion a very virulent essential anaerobe, and has grown it under strictly
anaerobic conditions. It is a slender motile bacillus, 1 ■ 5-2 * 5/a by 0 • 6/x,
with rounded ends. It stains with the usual dyes and is positive to Gram.
Its motility is marked in young cultures, and in the exudate in animals
after subcutaneous injection, and is due to the presence of peritrich
flagellar The microbe forms large oval spores. Spore formation can
be well observed by sucking into capillary tubes the exudate above
mentioned, sealing the ends and incubating at 37° C. B. camis grows
well in all media. It is gas-forming. It does not liquefy gelatin.
Guinea-pigs and mice succumb after subcutaneous injection in about
10 hours, one drop being a lethal dose for the former. Intra-
peritoneally it is much less virulent, and doses of 0*25-0 "5 c.cm. have
very little effect.

Bacterium cyprinicida (n. sp.).§ — M. Plelm describes a bacterium
obtained from carp and tench suffering from red disease (Rotseuche).
1 c.cm. of a 10 times diluted bouillon culture, introduced into the stomach
by the mouth, or 0*2-0 ' 3 c.cm., injected intra-peritoneally, produced the
disease in healthy carp and tench. The bacterium was pathogenic also
to the Salmonidse. It is a capsule-forming, slime-producing organism,
about 1(jl by 0*8/x, neither spore-forming nor motile, but positive to
Gram. It stains best with carbol-thionin, which dyes the capsule red-
dish, and the bacterium itself blue-violet. It is aerobic. It grows on

*

Centralbl. Bakt. 2" Abt., xi. (1903) pp. 241-5.
t See this Journal, 190o, p. 109.
% Centralbl. Bakt., 1" Abt., xxxv. (1904) pp. 459-61.
§ Tom. cit., pp. 461-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 233

the ordinary media, and best at 10" C.-20° C. Its growth is stopped
at 87° C.

Two new Fluorescent Denitrifying Bacteria.* — H. R. Christensen,
in the course of studies on earth bacteria, has come across two new
denitrifying bacteria which differ from Bac. pyocyaneus and Bac.
fliiorescens liquifaciens in not liquefying gelatin. As culture media he
used the following : — (1) Nitrate and nitrite bouillon : 5 gr. Liebig's
extract ; 5 gr. peptone (Merck, Darmstadt) ; 2 gr. KN03 or KN02 ;
1000 cc. tap water. (2) Meat peptone bouillon : 5 gr. Liebig's extract ;
5 gr. peptone ; 1000 cc. tap water. (3) Meat peptone-gelatin or agar :
5 gr. Liebig's extract ; 5 gr. peptone ; 120 gr. gelatin or 10 gr. agar ;
1000 cc. tap water. All the media were made slightly alkaline with
Iv2C03. The first form, named by the author Bac. denitrificans
fliiorescens a, when grown on agar or gelatin, measures 0*5-1 "25/4
by 0 • 5-0 * 75/*. It is larger, however, when grown in bouillon, and in
anaerobic cultures takes the form of a large ovoid with polar staining.
It is enveloped in a mucus capsule. There is very slight or doubtful
movement. The organism stains well with carbol-fuchsin, but not with
Gram. It does not liquefy gelatin, but imparts to it a bright green
tinge. Anaerobically the growth is very slow.

The second form, Bac. denitrificans fliiorescens f3, measures 0" 5-1* 5ft
by 0 • 5-1//. from agar, more from bouillon. Many are spherical. It has a
zig-zag or twisting movement. It stains readily with carbol-fuchsin,
but not with Gram. It does not liquefy gelatin, but imparts to it a
brown tint. It also grows anaerobically, but slowly.

Both decompose the nitrate or nitrite with the evolution of free
nitrogen.

Anaerobes and Symbiosis. f — Bienstock has carried out numerous
experiments on the question of a natural symbiosis of putrefactive
anaerobes with aerobic bacteria. Using as a representative of the former,
chiefly B. putrifict/s (Bienstock), he cultivated it with a large number of
different aerobes, in the following manner : Shreds of fibrin, well washed
and sterilised in Uschinsky's fluid, were inoculated with the aerobe, and
after some days B. pidrificus was added. It was observed that amongst
aerobes there were some which favoured the development of the anaerobe
and also the putrefaction of the fibrin ; on the other hand others, while
not preventing the development of the organism, retarded putrefaction.
Several other anaerobes were used with similar results. Search was also
made in cultures of many aerobes for the ferment suggested by
Kedrowsky as the essential for the aerobic growth of anaerobes. The
cultures were filtered, and killed in various ways ; but the results with
over thirty species were, except in the case of B. pyocyaneus, uniformly
negative. B. pidrificus neither grew nor caused putrefaction, as with
living aerobes. If, however, fibrin, in Uschinsky-Fraenkel fluid con-
taining 1*2 p.c. sugar, is inoculated with B. pyocyaneus, it shows after
some days change in texture, it loses its white colour, and from being
firm becomes flabby ; if now the culture be killed by heat to 100° C,

* Centralbl. Bakt. 2" Abt.. si. (1903) pp. 190-4.
t Ann. Instit. Past., xvii. (1903) pp. 850-G.

April 20th, 1004 R

234 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and then inoculated with B. putrificus, growth of the latter and putre-
faction is produced in two or three days, and this under non-anaerobic
conditions. Sterile ascitic fluid gave the same results. The presence
of coagulated albumen, however, seemed essential in both cases, for when
this was removed the results were negative. All experiments were
checked by many controls.

Resistance to Heat of Bacillus anthracis.* — A. Mallock and
A.M. Davis from the results of 113 experiments are of opinion that the
heat-resisting power of B. anthracis and its spores is much less than is
generally supposed : indeed, they rarely found any survival of living
matter in fluid which had been raised to a temperature of 100° C,
even for as short a time as 20 to 30 seconds. Their method was to
inoculate sterilised tubes of distilled water from a broth or agar culture
of the bacillus. Within 2 to 3 hours the tubes were sealed at the top
with heat, and submitted to different degrees and durations of heat in
a special apparatus furnished with a steam boiler. This done, the tops of
the tubes were filed off and the contents sown into broth with the least
possible delay. The authors relied on the following appearances as
indicating growth of B. anthracis.

Nutrient broth at 37° C. — After 24 to 48 hours, whitish deposit and
presence of small flocculent masses in upper part of tube, which fall
down on shaking ; the broth itself remains clear : absence of any
pellicle.

Agar stroke at 37° C. — Whitish, thin defined growth along the stroke,
with irregular edges, not spreading widely.

Microscopic appearances. — Rods, threads and felted masses, with
spores either free or lying within the rods. Rods non-motile.

Fat of Tubercle Bacilli.f — K. J. Krisling has found that the dry
substance obtained from tubercle bacilli in the preparation of tuberculin
contained 3 '94 p.c. water, 8 '57 p.c. N, 38 '95 p.c. fat, and 0'97 p.c. of
other organic substances not containing nitrogen. The fatty substances
extracted by chloroform melt at 46° C., have an acid number 23*08,
Reichert-Meissl number 2*01, Hehner number 74*23, saponification
number 60*70, ester number 37*62, and Hiibl iodine number 9*92.
They contain 14*38 p.c. of free fatty acids, 77*25 p.c. of neutral fats
or esters, 39*10 p.c. of alcohols extracted from the esters and melting
at 43*5° C. to 44° C, 0*16 p.c. of lecithin, and 7*3 p.c. of substances
soluble in water. 25 * 76 p.c. of substances soluble in water are extracted
after the complete hydrolysis of the fats.

Composition of Tubercle Bacilli derived from Various Animals. {
E. A. Schweinitz and M. Dorset found the following amounts of ether,
alcohol and chloroform extracts in (1) bovine, (2) swine, (3) horse,
(4) avian, (5 and 6) attenuated and virulent human tubercle bacilli,

* Proc. Eoy. Soc, lxxii. (1903) pp. 493-9.

t Chem. Oentr., i. (1903) p. 1153. See also Journ. Chem. Soc.,cccclxxxix. (1903)
p. 504.

X Journ. Chem. Soc.,xxv. (1903) pp. 354-8. See alsoJourn. Chem. Soc.,cccclxxxix.
(1903) p. 504.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 235

after washing out any adherent culture-media and most of the con-
stituents soluble in water.

(1)

(2)

(3)

00

(5)

(6)

Ether extract .

17-70

12-56

23-38

17-36

28-27

20-31

Alcohol extract

8-13

7-83

8-18

13-27

7-36

7-22

•Chloroform extract .

0-49

0-20

0-20

0-02

1-33

0-48

The acid values of the ether and alcoholic extracts, the total ash and
the phosphoric acid, were also determined.

It is suggested that the virulent human, bovine, horse, and swine
tubercle bacilli, which contain less harmless matter than the attenuated
human tubercle bacilli, produce greater amounts of poisonous proteids.

It was previously shown* that cultivations of human tubercle
bacilli contain a very virulent acid-like necrotic substance. This, being
readily soluble in water, would not be included in the above extracts.

Decomposition of Cellulose by Aerobic Micro-organisms.t — G. van

Iterson has studied the decomposition of cellulose by denitrifying
bacteria. He experimented with Swedish filter paper and found that
the cellulose is broken down by the action of denitrifying, non-spore-
forming, aerobic bacteria, provided that there is a limited supply of air.
If nitrates be present in the nutritive medium, only nitrogen and
carbon dioxide are evolved.

Amongst the aerobic, non-spore-forming bacteria which attack cellu-
lose, the brown pigment bacterium, Bact. ferrugineus, is predominant.
A chief cause of the brown colour in humus is a pigment formed by
the action of bacteria or moulds on cellulose. The aerobic destruction
of cellulose accounts for the fact that wood or rope partly immersed in
water become weak at the place of contact of water and air.

* Centralbl.Bakt., lte Abt., Orig., xxii. (1903) pp. i., 209.

t Proc. K. Akad. Witensch. Amsterdam, v. (1903) pp. 685-703. See also Journ.
Ohem. Soc, cceclxxxix. (1903) p. 50o.

R 2

230

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c*
- (l);Stands.

rrrRoss' Improved No. 2 "Standard" Microscope. f — This instru-
ment (fig. 24) is constructed upon the basis of the original Oberhauser-
Hartnack model, and claims to have important improvements not

Fig. 24.

embodied in any other instrument. The very best workmanship has
been introduced throughout, and special care has been bestowed upon

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optica
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous.

f Ross' Catalogue of Latest Improvements in Microscope Construction, 190:>.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY. ETC.

237

the exact fitting and working of the wearing parts, so as to secure per-
fection of alignment in the optical parts. When the Microscope is
used vertically, the stage is extremely rigid under manipulation even
with the highest objectives, and in this position the stage rests upon
the step-like supports of the pillars. The mirrors are mounted with
a swinging bar on an exceptionally strong focussed slide-bearing, the
swinging bar being provided with a " clock " for indicating central illumi-

Fig. 25. ,

nation. For facilitating rapid work of a variable nature, such as occurs
in general medical work, a special and unique substage fitting (fig. 25)
can be supplied, the condenser being hinged to the mounting of the
upper dome-shaped iris diaphragm, so that it can be instantly swung
downwards, leaving this iris in situ, the distance of this diaphragm
from the stage being readily varied by the substage screw. The con-
denser can be immediately reinserted by a single movement without
disturbing the position of the instrument, and thus altering the lighting.
The mechanical stage can be attached or removed in a few
seconds, and is so constructed that it will always register to the
exact position it previously occupied, in order that an object can be

238

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

readily found by means of the vernier. Both rectangular movements
are attained by smoothly-working diagonal racks-and-pinions of superior
workmanship. The pinion-boxes are automatically self-adjusting to

Fig. 26.

take up wear. The range is sufficient to allow the systematic search
of a very large slide, and the fixed stage itself is of corresponding
dimensions. The milled heads are extra large, to secure perfect control

Fig. 27.

over the movements with high-power objectives. Fig. 26 shows the
general view of the mechanical stage, and fig. 27 gives a side view.

Watson and Sons' New " Argus " Microscope.* — This instrument
has a tripod foot with a spread of C| in. The coarse adjustment is.

* W. Watson & Sons' Supplemental Catalogue, (M 190:^.

ZOOLOGY xVND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC.

2:59

Fig 28.

240

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

effected by means of a helical rackwork and pinion of a new design,

and the fine adjustment by the rotation of a direct-acting screw. The

stage and body are of brass, and the height of the instrument when

placed vertically is lOf in. All the fittings are of the universal size,

and compensating screws enabling the working parts to be adjusted are

provided (fig. 28).

Hitchcock, R. — The ideal projecting Microscope.

Joum. New York Micr. Soc. Annual, 1902 (1904) pp. 19-23.

(3) Illuminating' and other Apparatus.

•?v-Heele's Heliostats.* — These are shown in the accompanying illus-
trations. Fig. 29 is of Silbermann's construction with accurate clock-

Fig. 29.
* Catalogue, pp. 21-3, Nos. 83-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

241

Fig. 30.

Fig. 31.

Fro. 32.

242 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

work, escapement and compensation balance. The size of the mirror is
2\ by 4 in. Fig. 30 is an instrument with Heele's modifications. The
size of the mirror is 3 by 5 in. Fig. 31 is of simpler form. The clock-
work is contained in a mahogany case. The instrument is fitted with
spirit-level and levelling screws. Fig. 32 is of still simpler construction.

D owdt, S. E. — Microscope condenser fitting.

[Describes how an effective condenser can be cheaply improvised.]

English Mechanic, Ixxix. (1904) p. 50.

(4) Photomicrography.

Photographing Microscopic Crystals.* — W. Bagshaw shows that
a combination of transmitted and reflected light is necessary to throw
objects like microscopic crystals into relief and impart a pleasing and
faithful representation. The transmitted light, subdued so as not to
dominate the reflected light, ensures the outlines in their finest rami-
fications, whilst the reflected light casts the shadows.

The How and Why of the Lippmann Colour Process.! — T. A.
O'Donohoe reminds his readers that the Lippmann film is usually a
very thin transparent film of gelatin containing a very small proportion
of perfectly emulsified silver bromide. The glass support must be
between the film and the lens, and the film must be backed by mercury
to form the reflecting surface. Suppose fig. 33 to represent a section
of the film ; A B the glass surface in • contact with the film, and C D
the mercury, also in contact with the film. Let R be a ray of mono-
chromatic light passing through the film in a sinuous unbroken line,
and impinging at right angles on the surface of the mercury. At the
moment of reflection it loses half a wave-length, and according to
Young its phase is reversed, so that it returns in the form of the dotted
sinuous line, interfering more or less in its course with the entering
wave. The two systems of waves are now, as it were, locked np in the
film, and are called " stationary waves," because they have lost their
forward motion and can only move up and down within the film.
They rise and fall with incredible rapidity and act chemically, all the
time producing the greatest effect where their motion is greatest, and
the least or no effect in the nodal planes where the two waves intersect.
In the figure the planes of highest chemical activity are represented by
lines max, and from these to the shorter lines min, where there is no
chemical effect, there is a gradual waning of actinic power. There are
thus alternate planes parallel to the mercury, showing the maxima and
minima of chemical action, and should the theory be correct, a trans-
verse section of such a film should, after development and fixation, show
these maxima and minima by alternate bands of black, where the deposit
of silver bromide is greatest, and of white bands, where the deposit
of silver bromide is little or none. Other colours of the spectrum will,

* Amateur Photographer, xxxix. (1904) p. 69 (4 figs.).
t Photogram, x. (Sept. 1903; pp. 271-4 (6 figs.).

Journ. R. Micro. Soc. 1904.

PI. VIII.

A
->

\

~N

,''"

/""

, *

"

'»„

1 -

.3

ir.

*".

Fig. 33.

Figs. 34, 35. x 1000.

Fig. 36. x 1000.

[To face p. 242.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

242-

of course, be acting similarly. The action, moreover, is continuous
during exposure, the red waves impressing their forms in the film at
the rate of 38,000 to the inch, and the blue at 52,000 to the inch.
Prof. Lippmann did not advance beyond the theory, but last year
E. Senior photographed a spectrum, and by the aid of collodion stripped
the film from the glass support. W. B. Randies imbedded this film in
paraffin and after cutting sections mounted them in Canada balsam.
Figs. 34 and 35 show the results under high-power magnification,
and are photo-micrograms of the red part of the spectrum in which
the alternate bands are distinctly visible through the entire thick-
ness of the film. Fig. 36 is a photo-microgram of the blue part of
the spectrum under the same magnification. The portion of the film
acted on by the blue light was not quite so thick as that of the red
owing to the difficulty of making a perfectly plane film. The strata of
the blue are, as they should be according to theory, much closer together
than the strata in the red. Thus it will be understood that, after
development and fixation, each part of the film will reflect only the
light whose wave-lengths exactly coincide with the impressions already
made in the film.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Ultra-microscopic Objects.* — A. Cotton and H. Mouton, in repeat-
ing the experiments of Siedentopf and Zsigmondy on the visibilty of
finely-divided particles in certain media, have found the following
arrangements very convenient for studying liquids. A very oblique
beam of light, diagrammatically represented in fig. 37, is projected on

Fig. 37.

to one of the sides of an oblique parallelopiped A B C D with rectangular
top and bottom faces, and reflected upwards from the base through the
object-slide and cover-slip. A thin layer of the liquid to be examined

* Revue Ge'neralc des Science.*, xxiii. (Dec. 15, 19D3) pp. 1184-91 (G figs.)-

244

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

is placed between the slide and cover-slip, and the under surface of the
slide is moistened with a drop of liquid of same refraction-index as the
glass. If the angle of incidence of the beam is suitably chosen, the
interior beam meets the cover-slip at the angle of total reflexion, and
throws no light on to the objective. Any ultra-microscopic particles
present in the liquid become, however, diffractive, and therefore self-
luminous. The effect on the objective is to render these bodies visible
on a dark ground. In the figure the angle of the parallelopiped was
about 51°.

The authors consider that their method has the great advantage of
using a large percentage of the light emitted from the source. The
experiments must be conducted in a darkened room. A view of the
actual apparatus is given in fig. 38, where it will be noticed that the
light issuing from the condenser of a small inclined lantern is con-

Fig. 38.

-centrated by a lens on to the parallelopiped. The lamp on the left is
used when it is desired to view the liquid as a transparent object.

The examination of Lippmann's films liquefied showed that the
ultra-microscopic particles of silver bromide are in a state of Brownian
movement. The authors suggest that this fact may have a bearing on
photography in colours. A thin solution of Chinese ink behaved
similarly. A preparation of ferrocyanide of copper was examined as a
specimen of a colloid, and highly exhibited the Brownian movement ;
but, when a minute quantity of alum solution was added, the motile
particles instantaneously disappeared, and granular masses of ordinary
precipitated ferrocyanide of copper were produced. The property
possessed by colloids of diffusing light is probably due to the presence
of very minute particles, and the authors think that their experiments
are very suggestive to biologists who wish to study the action of saline

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

24S

solutions and diastases on the numerous colloids found in living-
organisms. It would seem that the minuteness of many bacteria is an
insufficient test of their identification, and that more difficult characters,
such as peculiar motility, tactism, agglutination, must be looked for :
possibly sensitiveness to different kinds of coloured illumination may
be found. In the examination of a living culture in bouillon of the
microbe of a bovine peripneumonia totally reflected light revealed
numerous brilliant corpuscles animated by a movement indistinguishable
from Brownian. Great care was taken to ensure that the observations
were not tainted by any accidental inequalities or defects in the glass
used.

Horder's Clinical Case. — Fig. 39 shows an improved form of the
clinical case exhibited at the November meeting.* The modification
consists in an alteration in the size of the case, which now measures

Fig. 39

141 mm. by 100 mm. by 31 mm. The increased capacity of the case
allows the inclusion of additional requisites such as pipettes, haiina-
cytometer counting chamber, rack for drying cover-glasses, and some
other additional articles.

* See this Journal, 1903, p. 7S2.

.246

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Heele's Miniature Spectroscopes.* — One form of these instruments,
•catalogued as No. 32, is shown in fig. 40. It has a symmetrical adjust-

Fig.40.

Fig. 41.

able slit, comparison prism, achromatic lens and photographic micro-
meter scale for determining the position of the lines. The same
instrument, in a simpler form, with adjustable slit and achromatic lens,
is shown in fig. 41.

B. Tech.nique.+
(1) Collecting' Objects, including- Culture Processes.

Simple Method for Clearing Nutrient Agar without Filtration.^
H. Fischer recommends the following plan : A glass funnel of suitable
size is plugged with a cork just where the cone joins the tube, and
placed in an iron ring. Into this the boiling hot agar solution is
poured. It is then covered and placed in the cool. After some hours
the mass is found to be hardened, and all the turbidity is quite at the
bottom of the glass. The funnel is then inverted, and the agar with a
little help falls out. It is caught in the hand or a dish, and the turbid
part at the apex of the cone removed with a knife. The rest is then
remelted and poured into culture tubes. The method is not suitable
!for gelatin.

Blood Cultures in Typhoid Fever.§— L. M. Warfield takes 10 to
15 c.cm. of blood in the usual manner from the arm, and distributes
it among four or five flasks containing 250 c.cm. of bouillon each, and
two or three containing the same quantity of litmus milk. The flasks

* Catalogue (pp. 8-9), Peter Heele, London.

t This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
«esses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes :
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous.

% Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt., xxxv. (1904) p. 527.

§ Bull. Ayer. Clin, l^ib. Pa. Hosp., 1903, No. l,pp. 77-80.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 247

are incubated at 37 • 5° C. If organisms be present, a clouding of the
bouillon and blackish discoloration of the blood at the bottom of the
flask gives evidence of their growth within 24 to 48 hours. Occasionally
the signs of growth do not appear for four or five days. The bacilli are
afterwards identified on the ordinary media and by the agglutination
test. Cultures made early in the disease give a much higher percentage
of positive results than those made during the third or fourth week.

Method of Concentrating Plankton without Net or Filter.* — .
B. L. Seawell describes the following procedure for concentrating
plankton. The samples are collected by dipping or by the use of a
plankton pump without the filter. A measured quantity, say 500 c.cin.,
is placed in a conical flask of, say 750 c.cm. capacity, 5 c.cm. of 40 p.c.
formaldehyde added, and the two well mixed at once. The planktonts
soon die and settle at the bottom. After about a week the supernatant
fluid is siphoned off till only 150 c.cm. remain. The residue is poured
into a conical flask of about 150 c.cm. capacity, and allowed to settle
for another week. The siphoning is repeated and the residue poured
into a 75 c.cm. flask. This flask has a base so small in diameter that
all but about 20 c.cm. can be safely siphoned off, and this last sediment
filled into two 10 c.cm. phials. If kept for future study it may be
advisable to add a small quantity of glycerin.

(2) Preparing Objects.

Bleaching Reagents.f — S. E. Dowdy remarks that hydrogen per-
oxide when used as a bleaching agent should be employed fresh and of
full strength. Chlorinated lime in freshly prepared solution, to which
a drop or two of dilute acid is added, makes a much more satisfactory
bleacher.

Formol-sublimate Fixing Fluids.:}:— R. Pearl recommends the fluids
devised by D. C. Worcester for fixing and killing. One of these is a
saturated solution of sublimate in 10 p.c. formalin. The other consists
of nine parts of the foregoing and one part of glacial acetic acid.
The first fluid is especially adapted for fixing and killing Protozoa ; the
second for fixing teleost eggs, and embryological material in general.

(3) Cutting:, including- Imbedding- and Microtomes.

Pleuel Microtome. § — In this instrument which has been improved
by Kaplan, the movement is given to the knife-carrier through the
continuous turning of a handle, to the crank of which a connecting-
rod is attached in the desired degree of eccentricity. This rod is at its
other end connected with a sliding block, to which it gives a to-and-fro
movement. The sliding block is joined to a metal band, which in its
turn is loosely connected to the knife-carrier by means of a double-
hinge joint. The extent of the to-and-fro movement of the knife-

* Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc, xxiv. (1903) pp. 17-19.
+ English Mechanic, lxxix. (1904) p. 63).
% Journ. Applied Micr., vi. (1903) pp. 2451.
§ P. Thate's Catalogue, Berlin, 1903.

248

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

carrier thus varies directly with the degree of eccentricity of the
attachment of the connecting rod. The working of the micrometer-
screw is automatic and can be adjusted by means of a peg on the
knife-carrrier. The advantages claimed are :

1. Mechanically ensured movement of the knife-carrier exclusively
in the course of the sliding track.

2. Simplicity of construction without cogged wheels.

3. Variability in the extent of the movement of the knife-carrier.

4. Automatic working of the micrometer-screw.

5. Adaptability of the apparatus to other sliding microtomes.

Rotation Microtome.*- — P. Krefft has devised a microtome, named
by him " Herzberge," of which the knife (fig. 42) is the special feature.
This is semicircular in form with an outer cutting edge, and it rotates

eccentrically round a selected point
lying somewhere in its diameter.
During such an eccentric rotation
the distance becomes constantly and
gradually increased between the ro-
tation point and the cutting point
of the advancing edge, which ad-
vances to just double the extent of
the eccentricity. The knife is fixed
to a holder on the top of a vertical
axis, on the head of which is a milli-
FlG- 42- meter scale for the setting of the

knife to the required eccentricity,
which should be equal to half the broadest diameter of the prepara-
tion to be cut through. The knife-holder grasps the whole back of the
knife, and so any elastic spring is avoided. Across this axis passes a
rod which can become fixed in the required position and serves for the
regulation of the automatic block-raising apparatus : during the half
of the revolution, in which the semicircular knife runs free, i.e. does
not cut, a lever fixed to the chief axis pushes the rod to one side, and
at the same time by means of a catch takes hold of and moves the
toothed micrometer-screw, and so causes the block to be raised. During
the second half of the revolution, in which the knife cuts, the lever is
out of reach of the rod. The whole is worked by a handle, which by
means of a cogged wheel acts on the chief axis.

For the cutting of paraffin ribbons a straight-edged knife can be
substituted for the semicircular one. The advantages claimed for this
microtome are :

1. The absence of elastic spring.

2. The course of the knife is uniform and sure.

3. The manipulation is easy.

4. The sections are uniformly regular.

Stebbins, J. H. — New and cheap Haematoxylin Stain.

Journ. Kew York Micr. Soc. Annual, 1902, pp. 1-6.
„ „ Goldhorne's Double One-dip Bloodstain. Tom. cit., pp. 6-7.

Zeitscb. wiss. Mikr., xx. (1903) pp. 7-11 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 249

(4) Staining and Injecting:.

New Modification of the Romanowsky-Ruge Method for Staining1
Blood-Spores.* Berestneff recommends the following. Stain No. 1 :
0 • 5 p.c. watery solution methylen-blue (med. puriss.). Stain No. 2 : 1 p.c.
watery solution methylen-blue and 0 ■ 3 p.c. crystalline soda, heated for
three hours in a water bath and then filtered. Stain No. 3:0*5 p.c.
watery solution eosin (extra B.A.). Four parts of No. 1 are mixed with
one part of No. 2, and to 5 c.cm. of this 2 "25 c.cm. of No. 3 are added.
The preparation is fixed in absolute alcohol, and then stained for 10 to
30 minutes (crescents require at least 35 minutes). The preparation is
then dried with filter-paper, or quickly washed with water, differentiated
in a mixture of 100 parts alcohol and 2 parts 5 p.c. acetic acid for a
few seconds, washed quickly in water and dried.

Demonstrating Presence of Cilia in Bacteria.f — D. Ellis used
ordinary agar, " spirillum agar," and peptone-beef broth, and his method
was to keep on continually transferring the organism to a fresh medium
as soon as growth was perceptible. He was successful in demonstrating
cilia in all these species. The following staining method was employed : — ■
Three small drops of water were placed on an absolutely clean slide. A
portion of the material was then, with a platinum loop, mixed with the
first drop. A loopful of this drop was then mixed with the second, and,
lastly, a loopful of the second with the third. From the third drop the
cover-glass preparations were made. The smears were then fixed by
being kept at 37° C. for 4 minutes, then mordanted for 3^-7 minutes
with —

10 c.cm. of a 20 p.c. sol. of Tannin,
8 c.cm. of a cold sat. sol. FeS04,
1 c.cm. of a sat. sol. of Fuchsin in Abs. Ale. ;

and, lastly, stained for 5 minutes with —

1 grm. Saure violett (Griibler & Co. 6 B),
75 c.cm. Absolute Alcohol,
75 c.cm. water.

Resistance of Tubercle and other Acid-fast Bacilli to Decolorising
Agents.* — C. A. Coles submitted the bacilli of tubercle, smegma,
Timothy grass, grass bacillus ii. and mist bacillus to various decolorising
agents, after staining with Ziehl-Nielsen for seven minutes. The most
important results are that tubercle bacilli can resist 25 p.c. sulphuric
acid for 72 hours, while pseudo-tubercle bacilli are decolorised in
16 hours or less. Tubercle bacilli resist Pappenheim's solution [1 part
corallin (rosolic acid) in 100 parts of absolute alcohol, to which methylen-
blue is added to saturation ; this mixture is further treated with 20 parts
of glycerin] for 52 hours, while pseudo-tubercle bacilli are decolorised
at the end of four hours.

The author suggests a modification of Pappenheim's solution, finding

* Centralbl. Bakt, V Abt. Ref., xxxiv. (1904) p. 296.

t See ante, p. 232.

X Repr. from Journ. State Med., Feb. and March, 1904, 20jpp.

April 20th, 1 90 4 3

250 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

that the omission of methylen-blue gives better pictures. The films
are afterwards contrast stained for a minute or so in weak aqueous
solution of methylen-blue.

For differential diagnosis it is advised to immerse the stained slide in
the decoloriser for not less than four and not longer than twelve hours.
If 25 p.c. sulphuric acid be used, the slides should be left in the acid
for at least sixteen and not more than twenty-four hours, and after
thoroughly washing with water they are contrast stained with aqueous
methylen-blue, dried and mounted.

•C5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, etc.

V ill agio — Modern Mounting Methods, continued.

English Mechanic, Ixxix. (1904) pp. 13, 14, 83-4.

x ' (6)1 Miscellaneous.

Iodine-Calcium Nitrate, a new reagent for Cellulose.* — E. L.
Seeliger recommends the following for the recognition of woody ma-
terial in paper : Iodine 0 • 1 ; potassium iodide 0*5; calcium nitrate
(Ca(N03)2+4H20) 30 '0, and. water 50 -0. By this, cellulose in its
purity is stained light to dark blue, linen dark red, and Avoody material
and woody fibres (as jute) yellow brown. By this reagent, also, can be
distinguished the cellulose of conifers from that of other trees — the
former staining reddish, and the latter blue. The cellulose of conifers,
if bleached, takes on a violet tinge, and if unbleached, a yellowish one.

The Agglutinoscope, an Apparatus for facilitating the Macro-
scopic observation of Agglutination in the Test-tube.f — H. Jaeger has
devised the following apparatus. Three boards of wood are taken, and
two of them are joined to the ends of the third by hinges. These two
meet in the form of a roof-edge, but one of them is made to overtop the
other by a hand's breadth, the latter resting on a ledge on the former.
This arrangement screens the daylight from the observer, as he works
desk-wise at the lower board. Extending transversely across this, is a
slit 3 mm. wide, and about the length of a test-tube. Underneath the
slit-opening is fixed an elliptical electric lamp, the long axis of which is
parallel with the slit, and through which it sends a very bright beam of
light. The test-tube containing the solution to be studied is held by a
clamp almost horizontally above the slit, being thereby brightly illumi-
ned, and the observer, by means of lens fixed to the board, can readily
see even the smallest clumps.

Prevention of Pedetic or Brownian Movements.! — For the purpose
of photography, or for measurement and counting, it is very objection-
able to have minute particles in constant motion. For preventing this
movement, J. H. Gage uses a 10 p.c. solution of gelatin, filtered through

* Zeitsch. angew. Mikrosk., ix. (190:0 pp. 249-50.

t Ceutralbl. Bakt. V Abt. Orig., xxxv. (1904) pp. 521-3.

X Trnns. Amer. Micr. So?., xxiv. (1903) p. 21.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

251

filter-paper. A drop of the solution and a drop of milk are placed on a
slide and thoroughly mixed. A cover-glass is put on and squeezed down,
and then the gelatin is set by putting the slide on ice. This method,
which is quite suitable for other liquids containing particles in suspension,
gives very satisfactory results.

Cover-glass Cleaner.* — S. E. Dowdy describes an appliance for
cleaning cover-glasses as follows. Procure a 1 oz. wooden pill-box, a
small piece of thick felt and a strip of chamois leather. Cut or punch
out a sufficient number of circular discs of the felt to fill up the bottom
part of the box, which should be first smeared inside with seccotine to
hold the discs in position. Xow line the inner part of the box-lid with
a piece of chamois leather in the same way, taking care to get it tightly
stretched across, free from creases. The thickness of felt and leather
must be so arranged that when the lid is fitted on the box their surfaces
just touch. In use, place the cover-glass flat on the felt surface, put
on the box-lid, and, holding the box sidewise, rotate its two portions in
opposite directions. In this way the thinnest cover-glass may be cleaned
without risk of breaking. As a rule, fresh cover-glasses are easily freed
from the thin film of adherent grease by soaking them in a little dilute
ammonia, afterwards rinsing in distilled water, and either drying at
once on a piece of silk or placing them in absolute alcohol, which
removes the water and is itself got rid of by evaporation.

Metallography, etc.

Watson and Sons' Metallurgical Auxiliaries.! — 1. Universal
Metal-holder (fig. 43). — This combines in itself a metal-holder with the
means of levelling the specimen. Two clamps with rotating jaws grip

Fig. 43.

Fig. 44.,

the specimen C, and if its plane is not at right angles to the objective,
it can be tilted exactly to the desired position by means of the adjusting
screws A and B, B'. This fitting is usually made to interchange with
the levelling stage plate on the main stage of the Microscope, and for
rapid and precise work is of great importance and convenience.

* English Mechanic. Ixxix. (1904) p. 14.

t W. Watson & Sons' Catalogue of Micro-Outfits for Metallurgy, pp. 8, 9, 11.

252

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

2. Levelling Super stage (fig. 44). — It has hitherto been usual for
this superstage to be made with levelling screws working from the
upper surface, but it will be seen that this new and improved form
works from the sides by means of screws operating on wedge-shaped
pieces of brass, which, slowly tilting, cause the upper part to tilt, and
reaction is obtained by springs attached to the lower plate and grasping
the lower one on its upper surface.

3. Scop Bullseye Stand Condenser (fig. 45). — This is fitted with
centring adjustments and iris diaphragm. The lens is 2\ in. diameter,.

Fig. 45.

and is of a suitable power for work with a vertical illuminator. With it
a very small point of light of intense brilliance can be secured.

4. Scop Bullseye with Mechanical Adjustments (fig. 46). ■ — When
examining metal specimens, constant necessity arises for the minutest
possible alteration of the position of the bullseye lens, sometimes laterally,
sometimes vertically. Messrs. Watson have specially constructed this
bullseye, which optically is the same as the preceding, to meet this
inconvenience. It is mounted upon a pillar, on which is a rackwork,
with which adjustments can be made to the finest point by turning the
pinion milled head. Laterally, similar slight movements can be effected

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

2 53

T)y means of a spiral screw. The foot is an exceedingly substantial flat
tripod.

Elastic Limit of Metals.*— T. K. E., in an abstract of M. Fremont's
carefully-reasoned article, contributed to the Bulletin de la Societe
d"1 Encouragement pour I Industrie Nationale,\ describes the author's
chief experiments and results as obtained by microscopic methods. He
states that M. Fremont has proved : — ■

1. That the theoretical elastic limit is the mean charge per unit of
section on which the real elastic limit is locally attained at a point of the
piece tried. It is not the elastic limit of the metal, but of the particular
piece of metal under the special conditions employed.

2. That the proportional elastic limit is still more fortuitous. Owing
to compensating error, the line showing the relation between stress and
strain may continue to be fairly straight even above the theoretical limit.

3. That the apparent limit is the mean charge per unit of section
when the real elastic limit is reached in all regions where it had not
previously been reached.

4. Finally, that there is only one elastic limit of a metal, the " real
elastic limit," as determined by the method he indicates. The real limit
alone has the characters of a physical constant. The other so-called
limits depend upon the appearance of discontinuous deformations, the

* Nature, No. 1786[(Jan. 21, 1904) pp. 276-

f September, 190:!

254 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

presence of which is almost inevitable in practice, although their cause
is purely accidental.

Influence of Sulphur and Manganese on Steel.* — J. 0. Arnold
and G. P. Waterhouse conclude : —

(1) That sulphide of iron is deadly in its effect upon steel, whilst
sulphide of manganese is comparatively harmless.

(2) That the above facts are due to the fusibility, the high contrac-
tion coefficient, and the tendency of sulphide of iron to form cell-walls
or enveloping membranes surrounding cells of ferrite, whilst sulphide of
manganese is much less fusible, segregates whilst the iron is at a high
temperature, and so collects into rough globules and very seldom into
meshes.

(3) That manganese retards the segregation of iron and hardenite,.
and that what is called pearlite in a normally cooled manganese steel is
really a mixture of granular pearlite and unsegregated ferrite.

(4) That the complete segregation of the ferrite in a manganiferous-
steel can be brought about by very slow cooling, but that such annealing
injures the mechanical properties of the steel by lowering the maximum
stress, and the reduction of area per cent, registered by the unannealed
steel.

Segregatory and Migratory Habit of Solids in Alloys and in Steel
below the critical points. f — J. -E. Stead concludes : —

1. That at certain temperatures near to, but below the eutectic point
of the iron-phosphorus eutectic, the two constituents when quite solid
are capable of migrating from one part to another.

2. That there is evidence that the large crystalline masses in solids;
have an attractive force for the smaller particles of the same kind, and
under suitable conditions draw them to themselves (" crystallic attrac-
tion ").

3. That in the ordinary or primary eutectic referred to, if the whole
mass is of eutectic composition — the constituents being equally distri-
buted and in juxtaposition — the attractions are balanced, and as long as
the condition of equilibrium is maintained there is no segregation, at
least not during heating for 48 hours to a point just below the eutectic
melting point.

4. That active secondary segregation occurs when the eutectic exists
in isolated areas, and is surrounded by masses of substance of the same
kind as one of its constituents. As there is no equilibrium or balance of
the crystallic attractions between the particles of a like kind, both con-
stituents draw together or segregate, and cease to be eutectic in character.

5. That in the secondary eutectic pearlite, at temperatures below the
eutectic point, there is the same tendency for the constituents to migrate
and segregate.

6. That in annealing steel the main softening effect takes place in the
zone G90° C. to 670° C. It is, however, in this zone that the elastic
limit of the steel is most rapidly reduced.

*

Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., ii. (1901) p. 234 et seq. ; Metallographist, vi. (Oct.
1903) pp. 302-13(9 figs.).

t Iron and Steel Metallurgist, vii. (Feb. 1904) pp. 139-59 (10 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 255

Recent Investigations in Cast Iron.* — A. E. Outerbridge, jim., ha*
investigated the changes in volume produced by the repeated heating and
cooling of cast iron. In some cases the expansion amounted to as much
as 40 ' 98 of the original volume. He thinks that these changes must be
connected with the mobility of the molecules of the cast iron.

Hall, J. L. — The Microscope in Engineering: its widening use in studying th3
Structure of Metals.

[An interestinn", historical and practical paper.]

Iron and Steel Metallurgist, vii. (Jan. 1D04), pp. 45-55(7 rigs.).

* Journ. Franklin. Inst., clvii. (Feb. 1904) pp. 121-40 (3 pis. of six figs.).

!50

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the 17th of February, 1904, at 20 Hanover Square, "W.
Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

g|The Minutes of the Anniversary Meeting of the 20th of January,
1904, were read and confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman.

The Chairman said he regretted to have to announce the indis-
position of the President, who had written to the Council to explain the
cause of his absence, and asked the Fellows present at the Meeting to
accept his expression of the great regret he felt at being unable to be
with them. Dr. Scott had also written to ask him to act as his substitute
on that occasion, and he had much pleasure in complying with this
request, although he, of course, greatly regretted the necessity for so
doing under the circumstances.

The List of Donations to the Society, exclusive of exchanges and
reprints, received since the last Meeting, was read, and the thanks of the
Society were voted to the Donors.

From

Thirty-first Annual Report of the Local Government Board, ,\

1901-2. Supplement in continuation of the Report of the

Medical Officer for 1901-2. On Lead Poisoning and Water

Supplies. Vol. ii. (8vo. London, 1903)

Kitton, F. G., Frederic Kitton, a Memoir. (8vo, London, 1895) ' The Author.

An Old Microscope by Bate Mr. E. B. Stringer.

The Local

Government

Board.

The Secretary read a description of an old Microscope by Bate, which
had been presented to the Society by Mr. Stringer. He then called
attention to two direct-vision Spectroscopes exhibited in the room,
and read a description of these instruments by Mr. Peter Heele to the
Meeting.

The thanks of the Society were voted to the authors of these com-
munications.

Mr. C. L. Curties exhibited and described a portable Microscope,
which was a modification of one shown some time since, being made with
a folding stage of larger dimensions than before, and adapted to carry a
full-size 1 J-in. condenser, and removable mechanical stage. The leather
•case into which the instrument was packed also contained space for two
eye-pieces, three objectives, one of Dr. Horder's storage boxes, thin
glass squares for specimens of blood or sputum collected in making in-
vestigations whilst travelling, and his aluminium frame for carrying
the same on the Microscope stage.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 257

Mr. Stringer's paper, i' On a new method of reading the lines in the
Spectroscope,' was read by the Secretary, and an instrument fitted as
described was exhibited.

The Chairman called the attention of the Fellows present to a number
of specimens of marine objects mounted by Mr. Waddington, which were
exhibited in the room under microscopes by Mr. C. L. Curties, to whom
the thanks of the Society were unanimously voted.

Mr. E. M. Nelson's papers, 'On the Vertical Illuminator,' and
' On the influence of the Antipoint on the Microscopic image shown
graphically,' were, in the absence of the author, read by the Secretary.

Mr. J. "W. Gordon did not suppose he coidd add anything of interest
to Mr. Nelson's paper, because it seemed to him to be completely self-
explanatory. The only thing which could possibly add to its clearness
would be the figures sent in illustration. (He then drew upon the board
the hair in question, as seen upon a black and upon a bright ground, and
pointed out the difference in the apparent breadth as seen under these
two kinds of illumination.) The peculiar interest in the matter was in
the fact that the measurements as given in Mr. Nelson's correction table
and those made by observation practically agreed. He did not like to
suggest that he could draw these figures accurately enough to serve as
the basis for the very refined measurements referred to in Mr. Nelson's
paper. It should be understood that Mr. Nelson had himself compared
the drawings with the object as seen in the Microscope, and had come to
the conclusion that they were accurate enough for the purpose. Mr.
Gordon pointed out the interesting circumstance, that in the middle of
the dark object they had a bright line, due to the overlapping of the
antipoints from either side.

Mr. Eheinberg said he should like to ask Mr. Gordon if he considered
that the relative results (i.e. the comparative width of the bright image
on the dark ground to that of the dark image on the bright ground)
were for practical purposes always the same under different intensities of
illumination, and whether this had been experimentally tested. It was
well known that a bright edge always appeared to encroach more or less
■on neighbouring dark parts, as exemplified by the experiment of holding
a card between the eye and a small bright source of light, when, accord-
ing to the brightness of the source, the card appears more or less indented
at the portion of it just opposite. Having regard to the important
results established by the paper which had been read, it would be of con-
siderable interest to know whether the ratio in width between the bright
and the dark images held good for every intensity of illumination.

Mr. Beck presumed that this particular hair was of comparatively
small size ; but he should like to know whether the objective was used
with its full aperture, or if it was stopped down to increase the size of
the antipoint, so as to get an exaggerated effect.

Mr. Gordon said, with regard to Mr. Rheinberg's point, this was one
of extreme interest and of very great importance, and he thought there
■could be no doubt that the apparent size of the antipoint was very

258 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

materially affected by the degree of illumination, varying according as it
was high or low. (He then by means of diagrams on the board further
discussed the point, and explained that in Mr. Nelson's table, already
referred to, the visible antipoint was taken to be rather less than one-fifth
of the breadth of the theoretical diameter of the false disc, and that this
result had been experimentally reached with illumination of the intensity
ordinarily used in high-power microscopy. As regarded the size of the
aperture, concerning which Mr. Beck had asked a question, he did not
himself inquire of Mr. Nelson what the adjustment was, but he thought
that probably Mr. Nelson's paper accompanying the table in the Journal
of the R.M.S. contained the data asked for. The two drawings appeared
to be made to the same scale, but the black object appeared to be just
a little longer than the bright one. This might probably be due to.
faulty draughtmanship, but, on the other hand, it would naturally happen
that intruding antipoints from the bright field would, to a small extent,
affect the visible length as well as the visible breadth of a narrow dark
object, and so cut it down in one direction as well as in the other.

The thanks of the Meeting were voted to Mr. Nelson for his commu-
nications, and to Mr. Gordon for his remarks.

Mr. Keith Lucas read a paper ' On a Microscope with Geometric-
Slides,' which he illustrated by a wooden model and by numerous photo-
graphs shown upon the screen.

The Chairman, in expressing the thanks of the Society to the author
of this paper, said that he would no doubt be very glad to hear remarks,
upon it from any persons present who were so good as to offer any

suggestions or criticisms.

Mr. Beck said he should not like to express any opinion as to the-
merits of this instrument, without first having had an opportunity of
carefully examining it. He thought, however, that the writer was pro-
bably in error in supposing that the expense of making dovetailed bars
was much greater than that of parallel tubes, because with the machinery
used for the purpose dovetails could be made absolutely accurate, and at
a cost which was not as great as that of parallel tubes, the latter being
difficult to make perfectly true. He failed, however, to understand why
this arrangement should be called "geometric slides," as mechanical
equivalents of the geometric slides were in use in all directions.

Mr. J. E. Barnard thought the subject of this paper opened up a
question Of great interest, for he felt sure that unless anyone had tried
an instrument made on the geometric slide principle, it would be im-
possible for him to appreciate the great advantage which it offered. He
had not himself applied this to the Microscope, but he had done so to a
table spectroscope, and he felt sure that if any maker would take up this
method of construction for the Microscope, it would be found of very
great advantage.

Mr. Gordon said he could understand that Fellows of the Society
who were competent to do so would feel a little delicacy in making any
critical remarks upon a paper of this kind. There were, however, one or
two points which struck him, and upon which he should be glad to have
some further information. In the first place, he did not understand how
the coarse adjustment was held clamped in the place in which it was put.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 2591

The propelling power was obtained by a steel wire passing round a shaft,
but he did not know what was the strain upon this, as it appeared to
depend upon a spring which kept it taut. If so, he thought it could not
sustain any considerable weight of accessory apparatus — such, for ex-
ample, as polarising and analysing prisms. Another point was as to the
arrangement made for the focussing screw of the substagc. Mr. Lucas
said this was in a very convenient position, and, if regard was had to the
substage motion only, that was no doubt so ; but it seemed to him that
if they wanted to mount either a mechanical stage or a revolving stage
upon the fixed stage, the substage screw would be inconveniently in the
way. He should like to add his personal tribute to the ingenuity of the
design, and to say how much interest he had himself felt in the applica-
tion of this idea. He thought the supporting pillar looked rather weak,
for although the instrument was a very heavy one, the pillar was of a
somewhat narrow " scantling," and the rigidity of a Microscope stand
was not so much a question of strength against heavy strains, but of
strength against vibration, and, judging by the construction, he should
think this instrument was likely to prove a little sensitive to such dis-
turbances.

The Chairman was sure that it would be felt by all that Mr. Lucas
was a very bold man to have brought a Microscope of his own construc-
tion to a meeting at which so many experts were present, and it spoke
well for his courage that he was not afraid to submit it for criticism.
He begged to thank the author for coming that evening to exhibit this
new instrument and to explain its merits so fully, and he felt sure that
the remarks made upon it Avould not be without value, either for the
writer of the paper or those who had heard it read.

In reply to the questions which had been raised, Mr. Lucas pointed
out that the form of slide adopted in lathes was no guide to the best
form for the Microscope, the geometric principle being necessarily
sacrificed in the former owing to the need for large surfaces to meet the
heavy stresses involved. With regard to the friction between the wire
and barrel of the coarse adjustment, the tension on the latter was, in the
case of the instrument before them, between 5 lb. and G lb., whilst the
breaking strain of the wire was ~1'1 lb. It would not, therefore, be
possible to further increase the tension of the wire Avithout using one
which was thicker, and a thicker wire would pass its elastic limit owing
to the small size of the barrel. It was, however, amply sufficient to
support any weight which the tube might have to carry. The coarse-
adjustment tube was extremely light, so that with any ordinary apparatus
attached to it the weight would not be great. He had tested it by
setting it up upon a table at which he was working, and had focussed it
carefully with an immersion objective of 1 • 4 N. A, and after leaving it
for five hours under these conditions, he found that the focus had re-
mained perfectly unaltered. He might also point out, that as regarded
the position of the focussing screw of the substage, this was such that no
part of it which came down to the level of the stage projected further
forward than the front of the limb. The screw could not, therefore,
interfere with anything which might be placed on the stage. As to the
strength of the pillar, it was made of solid brass, \\ in. by % in., which,
he thought should be sufficient to prevent vibration.

260 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

The Chairman said that the Council had given their consideration to
the suggestion made at the last Meeting with regard to giving early
notice to the Fellows as to what would take place at the succeeding
Meeting, and had decided to accede to the proposal, by arranging that if
those Fellows who were desirous of receiving the information monthly
would send stamped envelopes to the Assistant Secretary, addressed to
themselves, he would send them as much information as he possessed at
the time of posting. It was not always possible to say beforehand all
that would come before the Meeting, as it often happened that interest-
ing exhibits' or short notes were- only sent in at the last moment. It
was assumed that only a small number of the Fellows would need to have
this information sent to them, but in any case the experiment would be
tried.

i Mr.- Vezey said it might be well to remind the Fellows that announce-
ments of the subjects for the Meetings, as far as known, were made in
several of the daily and weekly papers.

The following Objects, Instruments, etc., were exhibited : —

Messrs. C. Baker : — A New Portable Microscope.

Mr. C. L. Curties, for Mr. H. J. Waddington : — Protozoa : Acinetas,]).
.(Marine), Xoctiluca miliar is. Ccelenterata : Cladonema radiatum, Oono-
thyrcm sp., Tar r is sp. Polyzoa : \Bowerban1cia sp., Pedicellina sp.,
Lopltopus erystallinus. Crustacea : Gaprella erethizon, Mysis sp., show-
ing otocysts and pigment. Tunicata : Perophera Listen'.

Dr. R. G. Hebb : — Two woodcuts in illustration of Mr. Nelson's
paper ' On the Influence of the Antipoint on the Microscopic Image
shown Graphically.'

Mr. Peter Heele : — A Direct- Vision Spectroscope incase, and a larger
form on stand.

Mr. Keith Lucas : — Nine Lantern Slides, in illustration of his paper
4 On a Microscope with Geometric Slides ' ; a model illustrating the
principle of the geometric slide ; and a Microscope as described in his
paper.

Mr. C. F. Rousselet : — Statoblasts of Freshwater Polyzoon, Pectina-
. tell a magnified, (Leidy).

Mr. E. B. Stringer : — A Direct-vision Spectroscope with an attach-
ment for reading the lines of the Spectrum.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows : —
Messrs W. Griffiths and F. A. Mason.

Prof. J. D. Everett writes us as follows : —

I regret to find that the letter e has been omitted in lines ?> and 5
of page 27 of the February Number, in which my paper appeared.
The omission is so obvious that I cannot think how I overlooked it in
correcting the proof. The correct formulas are :

2 77 • , 2 7T . ■ , • s

€ sin a and — — e (sin a -J- sin y)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 261

MEETING

Held on the 16th of March, 1004, at 20 Hanover Square, W.
Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., etc., President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of February 17, 11)04, were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The following Donation to the Society was announced, and the
thanks of the Society voted to the donors.

From
Hutton, F. W., Index Faunae Novae Zealandice. (8vo, London, 1904) TJte Puhlisherg.

Prof. A. E. Wright communicated the purport of his paper, ' On
some new methods of measuring the magnifying powers of the Micro-
scope, and of its separate elements,' illustrating his remarks with a
lantern diagram of a new piece of apparatus termed the Eikonometer,
and by numerous drawings on the board.

Mr. J. W. Gordon said this paper had no doubt conveyed to most of
the Fellows present a very comprehensive view of the available methods
of ascertaining the magnifying power of the Microscope, and they would!
certainly have appreciated the extreme simplicity of some of these. But
with regard to the point which Prof. Wright had touched upon in dis-
cussing the second method described — he adverted to the question as to
at what point it was proper to divide up the Microscope into sections for
obtaining the separate values of each — Prof. Wright's view seemed to be
that there was no need to pay any attention to the view plane of the
image itself, and it seemed perfectly clear that for the purpose of arriving
at the magnifying power it is unimportant at what stages they made the
rests in dividing up the instrument into parts. Prof. Wright said it was
convenient to consider the objective by itself, and then the eye-lens and
the field-lens, and to estimate their magnifying powers and to put these
together. It seemed to him it was convenient also for another reason,
that they knew very approximately what was the power of the objective,
and they were usually much more at home with this than with the
ocular, which was a much stranger portion of the instrument than the
objective which they had more frequently to make choice of. On the
other hand, it occurred to him that there were certain conveniences in
being able to determine the magnifying power in the view plane of the
instrument. The reason was, that for some purposes, especially for the
purposes of photography, they had to get rid of the magnifying power of
the eye-lens altogether, and in that case it was a manifest advantage to
be able to tell the magnifying power of the real image formed in the
instrument itself.

With regard to the new instrument which had been shown to them

262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

that evening, he had been afforded an opportunity of making a rough
experiment with it, and so far as he had tried it the results appeared
to be strictly exact. One did not always realise the exactness with
which lenses were made, and he had been surprised to find with what
precision the result was obtained. He should like to ask with what
degree of precision it was capable to obtain results by different methods
which Prof. Wright had described to them — how in this respect the
various methods compared with one another. He had listened with
very great interest to this communication, and was very much obliged to
Prof. Wright for bringing it before the Society.

Mr. Beck said he wished to join Mr. Gordon in thanking Prof.
Wright for bringing the subject before the Society, and he had no doubt
there were many points in it which were entirely new to those present.
'There was one suggestion he should like to make, and that was that
for the most accurate measurement the micrometer might have a
ground-glass surface, because a lens of this kind would be found to have
a considerable depth of focus. In a somewhat similar apparatus used
for another purpose, the micrometer is engraved on a mother-of-pearl
surface. They would, of course, naturally appreciate the anatomical
simile which had been applied to the Microscope. He dissented, how-
ever, from the conclusion drawn, because microscopists had a way of
beheading a Microscope, and of putting the head of one on the body of
another, and also of extending the trunk ; it was, therefore, essential that
they should obtain the magnifying power of the portions into which they
divided it, that is to say, the magnifying power of the complete eye-
piece and the magnifying power of the object-glass, because if too much
power were put into the eye-piece, and too little into the objective, they
would get inferior resolution. The greater part of the work should be
done by the objective and not by the eye-piece to obtain the best results,
and they must have the means of knowing not only the magnifying
powers of the two ends of a system, but also the length of the body.
There was no difficulty in giving the standard power to the eye-piece,
which always gave the same power under all circumstances, but with
regard to the object-glass this was not so easy, because it was giving
different magnifying powers according to the length of the body. Any
method that tried to give fixed magnifying power for an object-glass
led one into a hopeless quagmire when different forms of eye-pieces
and tube-lengths were employed. With regard to the instrument which
had been described, he could not of course judge fairly of its merits
without having used it, but it appeared to l)e most excellent for taking
the magnifying power of the complete instrument, though there was
likely to be an error in taking the magnifying power of the object-glass
separately. It also appeared to have the great merit of being a very
rapid and easy means of measuring the actual size of a microscopic
object. He felt sure the Fellows present must also have been extremely
interested in the diffraction method which had been brought before them
by Prof. Wright.

Prof. Wright expressed his thanks to the Society for the very
cordial manner in which his remarks had been received. In reply to

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 263

Mr. Gordon's question as to what degree of accuracy was obtainable by
his arrangement, he was unable to say exactly, not having given special
attention to the point. The question was obviously one as to whether
;any practical difficulty presented itself in connection with the construction
of the apparatus proposed, or in connection with the making of the
necessary observations. With regard to the latter point, it would, he
thought, be clear to everyone who tried the apparatus that there was
no difficulty in making the readings with exactness. With regard to
the former point, he would only say that, working as he had been doing
with diffraction gratings constructed by Messrs. Sanger Shepherd, and
with an eikonometer constructed by Messrs. Beck, he had found the
error in the measurements he had made was one which might be
altogether neglected. He had no doubt that the ground-glass screen
which had been suggested by Mr. Conrad Beck would get over any
difficulty in the matter of depth of focus, but he had not had practical
experience of such a difficulty. He still, after hearing Mr. Beck, was of
opinion that the balance of practical convenience was in favour of the
method of ascribing a fixed magnifying power to the objective, and a
variable magnifying power to the ocular in the case where the tube-length
was subject to modification.

The President then proposed a hearty vote of thanks to Prof.
Wright for his extremely important and interesting communication,
which being put to the Meeting was carried unanimously.

A Note by Mr. E. B. Stringer, ' On the Separation of Ultra-Violet
Light,' was read by Dr. Hebb.

On the motion of the President, the thanks of the Society were voted
to the author.

Mr. A. Platters exhibited upon the screen a series of about sixty
hand-painted lantern slides illustrating botanical histology. These slides
were photomicrographs taken from the actual sections under the Micro-
scope, and coloured to represent the results of staining ; the great beauty
of many of the sections shown, and the fidelity and accuracy of the
colouring, were greatly admired and appreciated by the Meeting.

The President said that anyone who, like himself, had spent a good
deal of time over the anatomy of plants, could not fail to be greatly
pleased with this extremely interesting exhibition. A number of points
of great botanical interest had been brought before them. The sections
from which the slides were taken must have been exceedingly good ones,
and the manner of showing the effect of double staining was most
successful. The accurate colouring of the photographs must require not
only great skill, but also considerable botanical knowledge. He noticed
one section in which the cambium appeared to have taken up a different
stain from the phloem, and he should like to know how this result was
obtained ; he should also like to ask under what circumstances the false
annual rings shown in a slide of pines were produced. The most
beautiful of the whole series was certainly the one showing the pollen-

264 PROCEEDINGS OF THE -SOCIETY.

tube of the wheat on the stigma — he did not think this had been'
demonstrated before on the screen, so as to show the double staining.

Mr. Flatters thought the reason for the difference in staining was
because the phloem was vascular tissue, which took up the malachite
green very readily, whilst the cambium was cellulose. It stained much'
deeper in some plants than in others, and also in the same plant in
different stages of growth. Specimens collected during the next few
weeks, when the new tissue was forming, would be found to take up the-
stain more rapidly than those collected in December, so that to stain
properly it was necessary to know the age of a section and the time of
year it was taken. Then they could not stain these just what they liked,
each would select its own stain and take up what it required, and then
the colour had to be reduced in strength until the required tint was
obtained. Tissue took up stain much more readily than celloidin.

The thanks of the Society were, on the motion of the President,
cordially voted to Mr. Flatters for his exceedingly interesting and'
beautiful exhibition.

The following Objects, Instruments, etc., were exhibited : —

Mr. Abraham Flatters —

1. Entire plant of Duckweed, Lemna minor. Showing root-caps and
developing roots from the secondary platelets.

2. Transverse section of root, Pinus sylvestris. Cut ^vim Stain,.
hasmatoxylin and safranin.

3. Transverse section of root of Buttercup, Ranunculus acris. Cut
rl6 Stain, hematoxylin and gossypimine (cotton red). The starch
grains having taken up the gossimine.

4. Transverse section of root of Yellow Iris, Iris pseudo-acdrus*
Cut tItj Stain, hamiatoxylin and safranin. Secondary rootlet is
being developed from three xylem bundles.

5. Transverse section of root of Zea mays (Indian Corn). Cut -(ilT}
Stain, carmine and malachite green. Throwing off several secondary
rootlets.

G. Transverse section through radical end of a grain of Barley..
Showing the development of primary and four secondary rootlets,
surrounded by nucleated tissue of the endosperm.

7. The primary of tap-root from the last preparation. Enlarged tc*
show the disposition of cells to form vascular system of root.

8. Longitudinal section through apex of aerial root of Monstera
deliciosa. Cut 7oVo by the cold paraffin method. Stained with brazilin,
to show nucleated tissue and elongated or needle raphide cells.

9. Enlargement of No. 8 to show the raphides (in situ).

10. Transverse section of hypocotyl of Bean, Faba vulgaris. Cut
7^, immediately below cotyledons. Stain, carmine and malachite
green.

11. Transverse section of stem of Clover, Trifolium repens. Cut

7TOT5"

Stain, carmine and malachite green.

12. Transverse section of stem of Bog Bean, Menyanthes trifoliate..
Aquatic type. Cut ?£tj Stain, carmine and malachite green.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 265

13. Transverse section of stem of "Wound-wort, Stachys sylvatica.
Cut Tt^ Stain, carmine and malachite green.

14. Transverse section of stem of Birthwort, Aristolochia clematilis.
Cut irro- Development of primary and secondary bundles. Stain,
carmine and malachite green.

15. Transverse section of stem of Dracsena, Cordyline rubra. Cut
t^o To illustrate the formation of bundles from Cambium zone.
Stain, carmine and malachite green.

16. Portion of a transverse section of stem of Lime-tree, Tilia
europcea. Cut t^W Stain, carmine and malachite green.

17. Longitudinal tangential section passing through bast area of
last slide. Showing bast fibres and connective tissues. Cut -j-^
Stain, hematoxylin and safranin.

18. Longitudinal tangential section passing through xylem elements
of same. Cut ^V 0 Stained as last slide.

19. Transverse section of stem of Sunflower, Helianthus annum.
Cut 4^5- Showing primary and secondary bundles. Stain, carmine
and green.

20. Longitudinal tangential section of last slide, passing through the
inner margin of a primary bundle. Cut T^V<r Stained as above.

21. Longitudinal median section through apex of developing pine-
stem. Showing meristem tissue in active state of division. Cut TrgVo
Stain, brazilin.

22. Transverse section of stem of Pinits, one inch below growing
point. Cut ToVir Stain, aniline blue and gossypimine. Showing
formation of xylem plates to primary bark.

23. Transverse section of same stem four inches below growing point.
Showing commencement of secondary thickening, and development of a
lateral branch. Stained as above.

24. Longitudinal (radial) section of same, throwing off a lateral
branch.

25. Transverse section of a resin passage of same. Showing the
thickened strengthening band of sclerenchymatous tissue.

26. Transverse section of Old Pine Wood (timber), after completion
of secondary thickening.

27. Radial longitudinal section of same.

28. Tangential longitudinal section of same.

29. Transverse section of stem of Indian Corn, Zea mays. Cut ■$%■$
Stain, carmine and green.

30. Longitudinal section of same. Cut -^^ Stained as above.
Passing through the annular vessel.

31. Transverse section of a bundle rhizome of Fern, Pteris aauilina.
Cut 4^ Stain, carmine and green.

32. Longitudinal section of same.

33. Transverse section of stem near apex, Horsetail, Eyuisetum
telmatia. Cut yi^ Stain, carmine and green.

34. The same. Enlarged bundle.

35. Transverse section of vegetative bud of same. Showing develop-
ment of leaves from the axis.

April 20th, 1904. t

266 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

36. Longitudinal section of apex of stem passing through apical cell.

37. Transverse section of stem of Wheat. Hollow type. Cut Tl-T
Stain, carmine and green.

38. Transverse section of stem of Wheat. Solid type. Cut ^J^
Stain, carmine and green.

39. Entire flower of Wheat. Stain, carmine, x 10 diam.

40. One shaft of stigma of Wheat, covered with pollen-grains. One
pollen-tube penetrating stigma.

41. The same pollen-tube more highly magnified.

42. Longitudinal section of a grain of Wheat (unstained). Cut ^J^

43. Transverse section of portion of above, more highly magnified.

44. Longitudinal section of embryo of Wheat. Cut T2V^ Stain,
brazilin.

45. Plumule of last slide, more highly magnified.

46. Radicle of same, ditto.

47. Embryo-sac, with suspensor cells, of Wheat, before fertilisation.

48. The same, after fertilisation. Showing disposition of cells to
form new grain.

49. Transverse section of leaf of Orchis, Cypripedium sp. Cut -j^
Stain, carmine and green.

50. Transverse section of leaf of Pine, Pinus sp. Cut ^^ Sto-
mata, resin passages, etc.

51. Cuticle of leaf of Araucaria imbricata. Stained with brazilin.

52. Sting from midrib of young Nettle. Stain, carmine and green.

53. Transverse section of phylodium of Acacia decurrens (Wattle
Bark). Cut 7oW Stain, aniline-picrate and gossypimine.

54. Transverse section of leaf-bud of Beech-tree (celloidinised).
Cut -t-jtj- Showing arrangement of leaves in embryo.

55. Transverse section of leaf-bud of Ash-tree (celloidinised). Cut
r;J-tf. Showing arrangement of young leaves, leaf -scales, etc.

56. Transverse section of leaf-bud of Sycamore (celloidinised). Cut
T£7. Showing arrangement of leaves in embryo.

57. Longitudinal section of stem, leaf -stalk, and leaf -bud of Syca-
more. Cut ^--J-jj Stain, carmine and green. Showing the "absciss
layer " of cork-cells, cutting of the leaf -stalk.

58. Transverse section of flower-bud of Poppy, Papavcr rhaas (cel-
loidinised). Cut ^o Passing through base of stigmatic cap and apex
of ovary.

59. Flower of Dandelion. Showing bud in dotted outline, — the
stage from which sections are prepared.

60. Transverse section of flower-bud of Dandelion (prepared by the
celloidinising method). Cut T^ Stain, carmine. The fine un-
stained elements surrounding the florets is the pappus. Note the
unlocking of the surrounding bracts, by the expansion of the bud x on
slide.

Prof. A. E. Wright. — Diagram : Construction of the Eikonometer.

Exhibit 1. — Arrangement for measuring the magnifying power of
the Microscope by means of the eikonometer. A Microscope focussed
upon a stage micrometer, and, placed in position on the top of the

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 267

ocular, an eikonometer furnishing an image of the stage micrometer
focussed upon a measuring scale.

Exhibit 2. — Arrangement for measuring the magnifying power of
the ocular. A Microscope with dismounted objective, with a measuring
rule placed athwart the open extremity of the barrel ; and another
measuring rule disposed in the plane of the Ramsden disk of the eye-
lens.

Exhibit 3. — Arrangement for measuring the magnifying power of a
pocket-lens by the aid of the eikonometer. A Zeiss pocket-lens magni-
fying 6 diameters is disposed so as to give, at its full focal distance, an
image of a millimetre scale disposed upon the table. Arranged above
•the pocket-lens an eikonometer showing the. image of the millimetre
scale covering G (millimetre) divisions of the measuring scale.

Exhibit 4. — Arrangement for measuring the magnifying power of a
lens by means of a median intercostal line developed by the aid of a
diffraction grating.

A. A diffraction grating ruled 400 lines to the inch is taken before
the eye, and is held with its rulings parallel to the lines inscribed upon
■a sheet of paper placed at 10 in. from the eye. The lines on the paper
being in each case ruled in pairs placed at different distances apart,
there is furnished by each of the lines (except in the case presently to
be considered) a series of six lines, viz. two principal or dioptric images
each flanked on either side by two diffraction images. In the case where
the object lines are placed at an appropriate distance apart, the centrally
disposed diffraction images are shown to coincide in position, giving
■origin to a single conspicuous median intercostal line, instead of, as in
the case where the lines are placed too near together, or too 'far apart,
two separate and less conspicuous median lines. The distance between
the object lines which furnish the conspicuous single median intercostal
line is measured off by means of a millimetre rule.

B. Everything is maintained in position except in the following
respects, (a) A system of more closely interspaced paired lines is sub-
stituted for that previously employed, {b) The lens whose magnifying
power is to be measured is taken in hand, and is so disposed as to yield
the largest possible erect image of the object lines. A search is then
instituted among these paired lines until a pair is found which yields
a single conspicuous median intercostal line.

By the aid of a millimetre scale the interval between the pair of
lines which yields the intercostal line in question is now measured.

The quotient obtained by dividing the linear distance measured in
A into the linear distance measured in B corresponds to the magnifying
power of the lens. In the case of the Zeiss pocket-lens ( x C diameters)
employed, the quotient is found to be 6.

Exhibit 5. — Arrangement for measuring the magnifying power of
the Microscope by means of the median intercostal line.

A Microscope is focussed upon an Abbe diffraction grating, the
wider interspaced lines of the central ruling appearing in the field of
"view.

A diffraction grating ruled 400 lines to the inch is interposed
between the eye and the eye-lens of the Microscope, and the grating
is rotated until the diffraction images of the object lines fuse together

268 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

to make in each case a central intercostal line. The orientation of the
grating being maintained unchanged, a series of paired lines is now
viewed with the unaided eye, the search being continued until a pair of
lines is found which again vields a median intercostal line.

The linear interval between the paired lines in question is measured
and is divided by the linear interspace between the lines on the Abbe
diffraction grating. The quotient gives the magnifying power of the
Microscope.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows : —
Messrs. Frederic John Cheshire, Kenneth Weldon Coadby, Cyril Francis
Hill, Dr. John Eennie, and Rev. Carlos Zimmermann.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

JUNE 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

VI. — The Influence, of the Antipoint on the Microscopic Image

shoivn Graphically.

By Edward M. Nelson.

CRead February 17th, 1904.)

It was stated in the Journal* that if one of the minute spinous hairs
on the delicate membrane of a blow-fly's tongue were examined
on a bright ground, the image would present an unreal tenuity and
sharpness, whereas if the same hair were viewed with dark-ground
illumination, it would have a swollen
or thick appearance; also, that the
difference between the two images of
the same object was caused by anti-
points, and that the true image lay
between these two pictures ; a table
was also given showing the amount
to be added to the micrometric mea-
surement of an image on a bright
ground to bring it up to its true
value.

Mr. Gordon has made a most
excellent drawing of these two
images (figs. 47 and 48); a careful
examination of them will bring the
importance of the antipoint effect
home to those microscopists who do
not care to wade through physical optics and dry mathematical
tormu se. These drawings have been most carefully compared
with the original, as seen in the Microscope, and were found to be

Fig. 11

Fig. 48.

June 15th, 190J+

* Journal R.M.S., 1903, p. 579.

U

270 Transactions of the Society.

sufficiently exact to be made a basis for measurement (see calcula-
tion below *).

It is interesting to note that the breadth of the hairs in these
drawings is in the ratio of 65 to 45, and that by equating this
ratio to the value given in the table, the true size of the hair agrees
with the actual measurement of the apparent size of the hair, viz.
•000033 in., by an oil immersion -fa, with a W.A. of *9 + the
correction given in the table.

Thus : -000033 + -000004 = -000037 = ^j^i in-> tllis bein§
12 p.c. greater than its apparent size.

A difference in the apparent size of objects, when viewed on a
bright or a dark ground, was recognised many years ago, but neither
the absorption nor the diffraction images of the Abbe theory afforded
the least clue to an explanation of the phenomenon. But at last
the riddle has been unlocked by Mr. Gordon's admirable antipoint
theorem, which clears up this, as well as other hitherto unanswered
questions, in the interpretation of microscopical images.

Since this paper was read Mr. Merlin has most kindly measured,
with his own apparatus, a hair upon another blow-fly's tongue,
both on dark and bright grounds, with the following results : —

Dark ground, W.A. -858= -0000418 m.
Bright „ „ -570 = -0000287 in.

Equating from these data the size of the antipoint and applying
the correction, we find the thickness of the hair to be -0000366 in.

* Data : — (1) From Mr. Gordon's drawings on bright and dark grounds, with
^-in. objective : W.A. = "45. The measurements are 4i and 6J respectively, by a
certain scale which need not be specified.

(2) Measurement of apparent size of hair, dark on bright ground, with oil immer-
sion T\j (W.A. = -9)= -000033 in.

Let a = actual size of hair.

6 = apparent size at -45 W.A.J Mcasuml Jaik on bright gromul.

x = visible antipoint at ■ 9 W.A.
2x = „ „ -45 W.A.

Then a = b + 2x \

a = B+ x f
x = B- b = -000033 -6 . . . . (i)

As the drawings measure G£ and 4J, the size of the antipoint is half the difference
between them, and therefore on this scale

and x — J,

but b = 4£, therefore b = 9a;.

Putting this value in (i) x — • 000033 - Ox

x = -0000033,
and « = B + x = -000033 + "0000033 = -0000363.

By table on p. 581 Journal E.M.S. 1903,

a= -000033+ -000004 = -000037.
T he difference being -0000007.

Hie Influence of the Antijpoint, By E. M. Nelson. 271

With my own apparatus the identical hair drawn by Mr.
Gordon (figs. 47 and 48) gives these results : —

Dark ground, W.A. '97 = -0000394 in.
Bright „ „ '47= '0000275 m.

The thicknessof this hair obtained from these data is * 0000356in.

The antipoint value for W.A. 1*0 derived from Mr. Merlin's

measurement of the hair is '000004486, that from my own

measurement is * 000003776, and that published in my " Table "

Journ. E.M.S., 1903, p. 581) is -00000404— this last being obtained

from data given by the extinction of a " black dot."

The mean of these three values, viz. ■ 00000410, may be accepted
as being very near a true value for practical use, and the accompany-
ing Table is calculated upon this assumption.

It is remarkable that there should be so close an agreement in
the values of antipoints calculated from data obtained from such
different sources.

The amplifier described by Mr. Merlin was used in the measure-
ment of the hair.

Table showing the Amount of Correction to be applied to the
Apparent Measurement of Minute Microscopic Objects.

The correction for objects measured on a bright ground is +

dark „ —

W.A.

White Light,
45,300.*

Screen,
50,000.* J

Photography,
63,500.*

inches.

M

inches.

M

inches.

M

•1

•0000410

1-041

•0000371 0

•942

• 0000292

0-741

•2

» 205

0-521

„ 185

•470

„ 146

•371

•3

„ 137

•34S

„ 124

•315

•00000973

•247

•4

„ 103

•262

•00000928

•236

„ 730

•185

•5

•00000820

•208

„ 742

188

„ 584

•148

•6

„ 683

•173

„ 618 >

157

„ 487

•124

•7

„ 586

•149

,, 530

135

„ 417

•106

•8

„ 513

•130

„ 464

118

„ 365

•0927

•o

„ 456

•116

„ 412

105

„ 324

•0823

1-0

„ 410

•104

., 371

0942

„ 292

•0741

1-1

,, 373

•0947

„ 337

0856

„ 265

•0673

1-2

„ 342

•0868

„ 309

0785

„ 243

•0617

1-3

„ 315

•0800

„ 285

0724

„ 225

•0571

1-4

„ 293

•0744

„ 265

0673

„ 209

•0531

1-5

„ 273

•0693

„ 247

0627

„ 195

•0495

* Number of waves to the inch.

U 2

272

VII. — On a Microscope ivith Geometric Slides.
Bv Keith Lucas.

[(Read February Yith, 1904.)

The instrument with which this paper deals represents an attempt
to replace the usual planed slides of the Microscope by geometric
slides. The application can hardly be considered new, since geo-
metric slides are commonly used on measuring Microscopes, yet I
am not aware of the existence of any other Microscope suitable
for biological work in which such slides are used.

The arrangement of geometric slide which has been found most
suitable for the focussing movements is a tube, concentric with the
optic axis of objective and eye-piece, sliding in two V-guides placed
near its extreme ends. This arrangement has the advantage of
ensuring that rotation of the tube within its V-guides shall not
displace the optic axis ; consequently the means adopted for pre-
venting this rotation may be of the roughest nature, may, in fact,
be only sufficient to prevent such a degree of rotation as would
damage the focussing mechanism. Unfortunately the necessity of
conforming to the proportions of Microscopes commonly in use
has rendered such an arrangement impossible in the case of the
slide which carries the condensing lenses. In this case the axis of
rotation of the guide-tube has been considerably displaced from the
optic axis.

The photograph reproduced in fig. 49 will serve to indicate the
general arrangement of the instrument.

The main casting, or limb (A, figs. 49-53), is carried further
forward than is usual, so as to partially embrace the large body-
tube (B, figs. 49, 50, 51), and carries four projections, two at its
upper, and two at its lower end, which form the V-guides, in which
that tube slides. This slide forms the coarse adjustment. The
means adopted to hold the tube against its four guides, and to
prevent it from rotating about the optic axis, will be considered later.
The large body-tube carries two rings, one (C, figs. 50, 51) inside
its upper, and one (C, fig. 51) inside its lower end. Each of these
rings has two projections upon it, against which the long narrow
inner tube (D, figs. 49, 50, 51) is held. Thus are formed the
V-guides of the coarse adjustment.

The two upper guides of the fine adjustment, and of the coarse
adjustment, and the two concentric tubes which slide in these guides,
are shown in fig. 50. The substage is carried by a long stout tube

Oil a Microscope with Geometric Slides. By Keith Lucas, 273

(E, figs. 49, 52), which passes up inside the limb, and has two
guides at the level of the stage, and two, consisting of adjustable
screws (F, figs. 49, 52, 53), at a higher level.

The detailed arrangement of the body tubes and focussing
mechanism is shown in fig. 51, which is a vertical section passing
through the limb and tubes. The long coarse-adjustment tube (D)
passes right through the shorter and wider fine-adjustment tube (B).
At each end of the latter there is a ring (C, C), which carries the
guides of the coarse-adjustment tube. Between the two tubes
there lies a long leaf-spring (G), whose middle point presses back-

Fig. 49. — Side Elevation of Microscope.

A, limb; B, rine-adjustnieut tube; D, coarse-adjustment tube; E, guide-
tube of substage ; F, aligning screws of substage ; L, ring carrying bear-
ings of coarse-adjustment barrel ; O, nut retaining fine-adjustment
tube against guides ; S, substage bracket ; T, focussing screw of sub-
stage ; W, spring retaining substage ring against centring screws.

wards upon the coarse-adjustment tube, holding it firmly against
its four guides. A piece of smaller tube (H), fixed parallel to the
back of the coarse-adjustment tube, and passing through a slot in
the upper bearing-ring, prevents the tube from rotating about its

long a

The next point for consideration is the means adopted for
moving the coarse-adjustment tube to obtain focus. This is effected
by means of a wire and barrel (J and K, fig. 51). The two ends of
the wire are anchored to the extreme ends of the coarse-adjustment

274 Transactions of the Society.

tube, and lie inside the two small tubes which are attached to the
back of that tube. The upper one of these small tubes has already
been mentioned as the guide which prevents rotation of the coarse-
adjustment tube. The lower end of the wire is fixed rigidly, the
upper through a spring held in tension. At about its middle point
the wire takes one turn round the cylindrical barrel. The barrel
has its bearings in a ring (L, fig. 51), which embraces the large fine-
adjustment tube. To the outer ends of the barrel are screwed the
milled heads of the coarse adjustment. The friction of the wire
upon the barrel is sufficient to cause the coarse-adjustment tube to
move up or down when the barrel is rotated. The reasons for
adopting this device in preference to the usual rack-and-pinion are
two : first, the relatively small cost of manufacture, and, secondly,
the fact that its action upon the tube is only a direct pull in the
direction of the desired movement. It exerts no side thrust, such
as is caused by a rack-and-pinion. The absence of teeth causes the
motion to be extremely smooth and regular. The wire is made of
hardened steel, silver-plated, and is protected, when the instrument
is put together, by the small tubes in which it lies.

The four guides in the limb, in which the fine-adjustment tube
slides, have been already described. It remains only to deal with
the means by which the tube is held against those guides, and
prevented from rotating about its long axis. Both these ends are
secured by means of a rod (M, fig. 51), hinged to the ring which
surrounds the fine-adjustment tube, and passing backwards through
a hole in the back part of the limb. A spring (N, fig. 51), held in
compression between the limb and a nut (0, figs. 51, 53) screwed
on to the end of the rod, pulls the fine-adjustment tube against its
four guides. The hinged joint, whose axis is horizontal, allows the
fine-adjustment tube to move up and down through a small distance,
moving the rod in or out of the hole in the limb as it moves ; at
the same time it does not allow rotation of the tube against its
long axis.

Fig. 50. — Section through Upper Part of Limb and Body Tubes.

C, ring carrying guides of coarse-adjustment tube.
Other letters as in fisr. 49.

There is a spring (P, fig. 51) in tension between the upper part
of the fine-adjustment tube and the more remote end of the rod.
This spring performs two functions. In the first place, it ensures

On a Microscope with Geometric Slides. By Keith Lucas. 275

that the upper part of the tube shall be firmly held against its
guides, and, secondly, it pulls the whole tube downwards against
the end of the lever by which it is moved.

Fig. 51.— Section through Limb and Body Tubes.

C C, rings carrying guides of coarse-adjustment tubes ; G, leaf spring retain-
ing coarse-adjustment tube against guides; H, small tube which pre-
vents tube D from rotating ; J, wire of coarse-adjustment ; K, barrel ;
L, ring carrying bearings of K ; M, rod, and N, spring retaining lube B
against its guides ; P, spring forcing tube B downwards against tbe
fine-adjustment lever; Q, fine-adjustment lever. Other letters as in
figs. 49, 50.

This lever (Q, figs. 51, 52), which transmits the motion of the
fine-adjustment screw to the body-tube, is of the bell-crank type,
with its axis of rotation running from back to front of the limb.
It is moved by a fine-threaded screw (E, figs. 52, 53), which passes
through the left-hand side of the limb, a short distance above
the stage. The arrangement of the lever is partially seen in fig. 51
and partially in fig. 52, which is a section passing through the back
part of the limb, viewed from the front.

The essential parts of the substage are : a long tube (E, fig. 52),
sliding in geometric guides inside the limb, and a bracket (S, fig. 52)
attached to this tube, extended laterally to encounter the focussing-
screw (T, figs. 52, 53), and forwards to carry the centring ring, into
which the condenser is fitted. The lateral extension also carries
a rod (U, fig. 52), mounted parallel to the tube, and preventing
rotation about the long axis of the latter. The whole substage is
forced upwards, against its focussing screw, by a long spiral spring
(V, fig. 52), anchored to the limb at its upper end, and passing down

276

Transactions of the Society.

inside the tube (E, fig. 52), to which it is attached at its lower end.
Since the upward pull of the spring and the downward pressure of
the focussing screw are not in the same line, there results a couple,
tending to rotate the whole substage and tube in a vertical plane

Fig. 52. — Part Section through Lower Part of Lime, showing
Substage, viewed from Front.

11, fine-adjustment screw; S, bracket of substage; T, focussing screw of
substage ; U, rod which prevents rotation of E ; V, spring of substage.
Other letters as in figs. 49, 50, 51.

about the lower end of the focussing screw. Advantage is taken of
this couple to hold the tube against its geometric guides, the upper
and lower pairs of guides being placed on opposite sides of the tube.
The upper pair of guides is formed by two adjustable screws (one
shown at F, figs. 52, 53), which serve to procure perfect alignment of
the substage slide with the slides of the body-tube. By this device
it is possible to secure the alignment of the body-tube optically
instead of mechanically, so that far greater accuracy is obtainable.

As has already been pointed out, rotation of the guide-tube of
the substage about its long axis is prevented by means of a rod,
which passes through a hole in the stage. This rod makes no
attempt to fit in the hole through which it passes, but presses on
one side of it only. The rod is prevented from leaving this side of
the hole by the device of winding up the long spring (V, fig. 52),
which lies inside the guide-tube. This spring has, consequently, a
tendency to rotate the substage about the long axis of the tube, in
such a direction as to hold the rod against the side of the hole.

The long spiral spring, enclosed within the guide-tube, is thus
seen to be the key to the whole substage mechanism. It causes the
substage to follow its focussing screw without backlash, holds the
tube against its four guides, prevents rotation of the tube about its
long axis, and allows of the alignment of the substage slide with
the body-tubes.

On a Microscope with Geometric Slides. By Keith Lucas. 277

A few other points about the substage demand attention. The
position of the focussing screw (T, fig. 53), above the stage on the
right-hand side, is a very convenient one. Moreover, since the nut
in which the screw works is fixed to the stage, and the connection
between the screw and substage is flexible — being effected by a long
pointed pin which passes up inside the screw — alterations of focus
can be obtained without fear of any other derangement of the
illumination.

The substage bracket is not a complete ring, as is the usual
practice, but a fork (S, fig. 52), open at the front. This enables the
centring ring to be readily removed. When in place, this ring is
held against its two centring screws by a spiral spring (W, fig. 49),
stretched between the two prongs of the fork.

The range of the substage movement is amply sufficient to
enable it to take condensers of either the substage or understage
pattern. The absence of milled heads and slides below the stage
renders the condenser accessible from every side.

Fig. 53. — Elevation : Microscope in Vertical Position.
Lettering as in figs. 49, 50, 51, 52.

The advantages claimed for the instrument are the following : —
(1) Cheapness of manufacture, the turning of the tubes, and the
filing of the guides being less expensive work than the planing of
dovetailed slides. The alignment of the various slides also involves
very little expense, being obtained without careful workmanship.

278 Transactions of the Society.

(2) It is impossible for the movements to become shaky from wear,
since every movement is held up by a spring. (3) The alignment
of the several slides is obtained optically.

These are the essential advantages. There are also some in-
cidental points, namely, easy removal of the fine-adjustment tube
for cleaning ; possibility of replacement of any part without the
need of special fitting — for example, it would be possible to replace
a fine-adjustment tube, whiclrcarried a sliding coarse adjustment,
by one carrying a mechanical movement, without skilled work ;
convenient position of the substage focussing screw ; accessibility
of the condenser ; and the shape of the limb, which enables it to
be finished entirely by machinery.

Of all these points, those which make for cheapness appear to
me to be of the greatest importance. This was the primary object
with which the instrument was designed.

The particular instrument from which the photographs re-
produced with this paper were taken, was made throughout with
the roughest of workmanship. In spite of this, i the movements all
worked smoothly, and without shake, a result which could certainly
not have been obtained with similar workmanship in a Microscope
of the usual pattern. This fact affords the strongest proof of the
£ uperiority of the geometric slide.

279

VIII. — On certain New Methods of Measuring the Magnifying
Power of the Microscope and of its Separate Elements.

By A. E. Weight, M.D.

(late processor of pathology, army medical school, netley ;
pathologist to st. mary's hospital, paddington, w.)

(Bead March 16th, 1904.)

The methods of measuring the magnification of the image which
are ordinarily in use in connection with the Microscope are the
following two.

1. A micrometric scale placed upon the stage of the Micro-
scope is viewed with one eye through the Microscope ; an ordinary
scale placed at the standard distance of 10 in. is viewed with the
other eye ; and by an intellectual effort the images in the two eyes
are combined into a composite image.

2. By a suitable arrangement of reflectors the system of rays
proceeding from a scale placed at 10 in. from the observer is
brought across in such a manner as to form an unmagnified image
in the eye, which is viewing the magnified image of a micrometric
scale furnished by the Microscope.

Both these methods involve the simultaneous observation of
two scales, and as a pre-condition of such simultaneous observation
a careful balancing of the light which falls into the eye from the
two sources.

I do not propose to concern myself with either of these methods
to-night. I propose with your permission to consider four other
methods of measuring the magnification of the microscopic image.
The first and last of these are, so far as I know, novel in principle ;
and all four have, I think, certain advantages over the methods
commonly in use in connection with, the Microscope. Before pro-
ceeding to the discussion of these methods I may enumerate them.

Method 1. — A lens functioning as the counterpart of the re-
tracting system of the eye is placed above the eye-lens of the
Microscope, in such a manner as to bring the image of a micro-
metrical ruling to focus upon a measuring scale, which occupies
a position corresponding to that normally occupied by the retina
of the observing e}Te. The dimensions of the image which is
furnished by the Microscope (working in- conjunction with the
focussing lens) are read off upon this measuring scale by means of
an eye-piece.

Method 2. — The magnifying power of the objective and ocular
are separately measured, and the magnifying power of the Micro-

280 Transactions of the Society.

scope is arrived at by multiplying together the magnifying powers
of these separate components.

Method 3. — The angular aperture of the transmitted beam is
measured (a) as it enters the aperture of the objective and (b) as it
leaves the aperture of the eye-lens. The magnification is arrived
at by dividing the first measurement by the second.

Method 4. — By the exploitation of a fiduciary phenomenon,
which is obtained by the aid of a diffraction grating, an observa-
tion is made which furnishes the distance between the lines of a
micrometrical ruling as imaged upon the retina by the aid of the
Microscope or other magnifying system. This observation made,
a series of paired lines is viewed through the grating by the
unaided eye from a distance of 10 in. The observer — taking to
aid the fiduciary phenomenon before referred to — now seeks out
that pair of rulings which furnishes upon his retina an image
exactly similar to that obtained with the assistance of the magni-
fying system employed in the first observation.

The magnification is now obtained by measuring the interval
between the pair of object lines which complies with this condition,
and by dividing this measurement by the interval between the
lines of the micrometrical scale.

Measurement of the Magnification by bringing the Pencils
of Parallel Pays which emerge from the Microscope to
focus ufon a Measuring Scale, and reading off the
Dimensions of the Image thus formed by means of an
Eye-piece.

The image I now throw on the screen (reproduced in Fig. 54)
exhibits the construction of the simple piece of optical apparatus
— we may denote it the eikonometer — which allows of the dimen-
sions of the microscopic image being read off at a glance.

At A is disposed a plano-convex lens, which, like the refractive
system of the eye, brings to focus the pencils of parallel rays
which emerge from the eye-lens of the Microscope.

In the case of the instrument which I have placed upon the
table, a focal length of 1 in. has been given to the focussing lens.

Such a lens furnishes upon its principal focal plane an image,
whose dimensions are ten-fold smaller than those of the imao;e
which is projected outwards from the retina to the conventional
distance of 10 in.

In the principal focal plane, just spoken of, is placed a micro-
metrical scale ruled in tenths of millimetres. These have, for the
purpose of the measurement of the image furnished by the focussing
lens, the same value as millimetre divisions, applied to the image
projected outwards from the eye to a distance of 10 in.

The Measuring Power of the Mi&roscojpe. By A. E. Wright. 281

At the back of the micro-metrical scale there is mounted a
Eamsden eye-piece. This eye-piece serves for reading off the
dimensions of the image. It is manifestly open to us to employ
in this situation any magnifying power which may happen to be
convenient. In the instrument upon the table the eye-piece has
a magnifying power of 10 — that is to say, a magnifying power
which exactly balances the ten-fold minification before spoken of.
We obtain by this means, on placing the eye at the eye-lens of the
eikonometer, placed in position over the eyepiece of the Microscope,
an image of precisely the same dimensions as that obtained on look-
ing into the microscope in the ordinary way. On looking through
the eikonometer at a distant object we obtain in like manner
an image of the same dimensions as in ordinary unassisted vision.

To complete the description, it may be pointed out that, in
addition to the focussing arrangement for the eye-piece, provision

B

Fig. 54.

A, focussing lens, 1 in. focal length ; B, micronxetric scale (divided
into tenths of a millimetre) ; C, Ramsden eye-piece, magnifying
10 diameters ; D, stud working in spiral groove in E, outer sleeve"

is

made for bringing the focussing lens into the plane of
the Eamsden disc of the eye-lens. When this is done we obtain
in the eikonometer as extensive a field of view as in the Micro-
scope when the Eamsden disc of the eye-lens is, as is normally the
case, disposed in the pupil of the observing eye.

In the arrangement adopted, the tube of the eikonometer moves
up and down in an outer sleeve — the movement being regulated
by a stud fitting into a spiral slot.

In addition to measuring the magnifying power of the Micro-
scope the eikonometer will render services —

(a) In the case where we desire directly to measure the magni-
fying power of the objective, or any other lens or combination of
lenses, which furnishes a system of pencils of parallel rays.

(b) In the case where we desire to arrive at the magnifying
power of an optical element by subtracting from the cumulative

282 Transactions of the Society.

magnifying power of the system the magnifying power of a com-
ponent optical element.

Example I. — Where we desire to measure the magnifying power of a
pocket lens, we view through the lens in question a millimetre scale, dis-
posing this last at such distance from the lens as to give the largest possible
erect image. Holding the lens in position, we now place the eikonometer
between the eye and the lens and read off the number of divisions of its scale,
which are covered by one millimetre division on the object scale. The munber
of divisions covered corresponds to the magnifying power.

Example 2. — Where we desire to measure the magnification of an objective,
we place a micrometrical ruling upon the stage, remove the ocular from the
Microscope tube, and focus down with the objective until we obtain the
largest possible erect image of the ruling. We now place a slip of glass over
the upper open end of the Microscope tube, and place upon the top of this
the eikonometer, and then read off the value of the divisions of the stage
micrometer upon the measuring scale.

Example 3. — Where, knowing the magnifying power of the ocular, we
desire to measure that of the objective by the indirect method, we measure
by means of the eikonometer the total magnifying power of the Microscope,
and arrive at the magnifying power of the objective, taken separately, by
dividing the total magnification by the magnification which is referable to
the eye-piece component.

Measurement of the Magnification of the Microscope by
the separate determination of the magnifying power
of the Objective and the Ocular.

The possibility of arriving at the magnifying power of the
Microscope by the measurement of that of the optical components
of the Microscope taken separately, has already been adverted to in
the introductory section. In exploiting this principle of measure-
ment, we may leave altogether out of account what I shall venture
to call the " optical anatomy " of the Microscope. We may, in
other words, ignore the fact that the objective works in com-
bination with the field-lens of the ocular, and that the eye-lens of
the ocular works in combination with the optical system of the
eye ; and we may assume instead that the objective works in con-
junction with the optical system of the eye, and that the field lens
works in conjunction with the eye-lens. This will, if I may, for
the purpose of exposition, resort to a rough analogy from human
anatomy, be equivalent to taking together for purposes of measure-
ment, (a) the legs and the head and neck, and (b) the chest and
abdomen, instead of taking together, in the proper anatomical
order, (a) the legs and lower half of the trunk, and (b) the upper
half of the trunk and head and neck.

We have in the previous section illustrated the method of
measuring the magnifying power of the objective working as a
doublet with the optical system of the eye. Here we may deal
with the method of measuring the magnifying power of the ocular
working as an independent optical element.

The Magnifying Power of the Microscope. By A. E.Wright. 283

Measurement of the Magnifying Power of the Ocular.

The total magnifying power of the Microscope corresponds to
the total angle through which the most obliquely incident ray is
refracted in its passage from the object plane on the stage of the
Microscope to the retina of the observer's eye. The magnifying
power of the ocular which we are here concerned to measure cor-
responds, as reflection will show, to the angle through which the
ray in question is refracted while in passage between the aperture
of the objective and the aperture of the eye-lens.

In order to obtain our measurement we must be clear, on the
one hand, as to the situation of the apertures which are in question,
and, further, we must have some means of locating in the respec-
tive apertures the points of origin and arrival of the rays from
which we have to take off in making our measurements.

Position of the Apertures which come into consideration: — The
true aperture of a lens is positioned where the beams which are
transmitted through it mutually interfuse and overlap. This
interfusion disc (variously denoted the " Lagrange disc," the
Eamsden disc, and the " pupil of entrance," or, as the case may be,
" pupil of exit ") is positioned, in the case of the objective, in
close proximity to the posterior surface of the back lens of the
combination, and in the case of the eye-lens, at a little distance
superficial to the upper surface of the eye-lens.

Method by which the Points of Origin and Arrived of the Rays
which arc transmitted from Aperture to Aperture can be located. —
It is manifestly impracticable to identify an isolated ray, or to
recognise the point of origin or arrival of such an isolated ray.
What is impracticable in the case of the isolated ray is, however,
eminently practicable in the case of any beam. We can readily,
in case of a beam, identify its point of origin and its point of focal
impact. By this means we can, in the case where a particular ray
passes through the radiant point (pole of origin) of a beam and
again passes through the focal point (terminal pole), identify its
position at two points of its course.

Taking this principle as our guide, and bearing in mind that the
aperture of the objective is everywhere traversed by rays which
intersect with each other to form radiant points ; and bearing in
mind, further, that the rays diverging from these radiant points will
in each case re-intersect in the aperture of the eye-lens, consti-
tuting as they do so focal points ; we can manifestly re-identify in
the image of the objective-aperture, which is formed in the Eamsden
(Use of the eye-lens, the position of any ray which has emerged
from a radiant point in the aperture of the objective.

The position of the rays which pass through the extreme margin
of the aperture of the objective can manifestly most readily be

284 Transactions of the Society.

identified for the purposes of measuring the interval which separates
them.

Procedure. — Take a low-power lens, preferably one whose back
lens is flush with the back of the mount,* measure the diameter of
its back lens, and fit it to the Microscope tube. Focussing the
objective upon the focal plane of the condenser, and opening up to
its fullest extent the iris diaphragm in the substage, project a beam
of light upwards through the Microscope. Take in hand now a
pocket lens and a millimetre rule. Bringing the former up quite
close to the eye, and disposing the latter in the neighbourhood of
the bright Ramsden disc, seen on looking down from a distance
upon the upper surface of the ocular, bend down over the Micro-
scope, until an image of the illuminated back surface of the objective
comes clearly into view. Now readjust the position of the milli-
metre scale in such a manner as to bring it accurately into the focal
plane occupied by the image of the objective aperture. Eead off
the diameter of the image, and divide this measurement into the
measurement previously obtained by the direct application of the
rule to the back lens of the objective. The quotient represents the
magnifying power of the ocular.

Measurement of the Magnifying Power of the Microscope
by the Determination of the Restriction undergone by
the Beam in passing through the Microscope.

The magnifying power of an optical system can, as is well
known, be determined by measuring the total angle through which
the most obliquely incident ray is refracted in its passage through
the system. Put otherwise, the magnifying power corresponds to
the diminution in the numerical aperture of the beam which is
effected in its transmission through the system. A word or two
may be in place in connection with the application of this system
of procedure to the Microscope.

Determination of the Numerical Aperture of the Beam which
enters the Objective. — The determination of the numerical aperture
of the beam which enters the objective involves (a) the measure-
ment of the linear diameter of the aperture of the objective, or, in
the case where the objective is not fully filled, of the linear diameter
of the illuminated area of the back surface of the objective, (b) the
measurement of the focal length of the objective, and (c) a know-

* Where a lens of this kind is not available, we may, in conformity with a sug-
gestion made to me by Mr. Gordon, drop upon the back lens of the objective a square or
a triangle of paper, whose sides measure, say, exactly 1 mm. By the procedure de-
scribed above, we now apply our measurements to the image of this triangle or
square. An even simpler method of procedure is to dispense with the objective, and
to take as our object the vacant lower aperture of the barrel of the Microscope tube,
and to apply our measurements to the image of this aperture.

The Magnifying Power of the Microscope. By A. E. Wright. 285

ledge of the refractive index of the medium which bathes the front
surface of the objective.

The former measurement (a) may be obtained, where the back
lens of the objective is fully filled, and where it is directly accessible
to measurement by the application of a millimetre scale to the
objective. In the case where the back lens is sunk, or where it is
only partially filled by the transmitted beam, we obtain the measure-
ment required by measuring, by the procedure explained in the last
section, the Eamsden disc of the eye-lens, and multiplying by the
magnifying power of the ocular.

The focal length of the objective is arrived at most simply by
measuring its magnifying power by means of the eikonometer, and
dividing this magnifying power into 250 mm. or 10 in.

From these measurements and a knowledge of the refractive
index of the medium which bathes the front face of the objective,
we obtain the numerical aperture of the beam which enters the
objective in accordance with the formula

» » _ semi-diameter of beam x refractive index of the immersion medium

focal length of the objective

Determination of the Numerical Aperture of the Beam, which
is furnished to the Eye by the Eye-lens of the Microscope. — The
numerical aperture of the beam, which is furnished to the eye by
the eye-lens of the Microscope, is obtained by dividing the semi-
diameter of the Eamsden disc of the eye-lens, measured as
explained in the last section, into 250 mm. or 10 in.

The magnifying power of the Microscope is obtained from the
numerical apertures of the opening and closing beams in accordance
with the formula

Mao-nifvins1 Dower — numer*cal aperture of beam which enters the objective

numerical aperture of the beam furnished to the
eye by the eye-lens.

Measurement of the Magnifying Power of the Microscope
by the Exploitation of a Fiduciary Phenomenon obtained
by the Aid of a Diffraction Grating.

The method of measuring the magnifying power of the Micro-
scope, which I am about to suggest to you, is a direct outcome of
Mr. Gordon's critical study of the Abbe theory of microscopic
vision, which was laid before this Society some time ago. You
will remember that Mr. Gordon's paper dealt with the phenomena
of diffraction which come into view when lines and rulings are
viewed with the Microscope, or as the case may be, with the
unaided eye, through restricted apertures, and in particular through
slit apertures and diffraction gratings. Let me recall to your
memory the following: —

Jane 15th, 1904 x

286 Transactions of the Society.

1. A radiant point is never brought to focus in the image as a
point, but always as a diffraction figure — conveniently styled by
Mr. Gordon an " antipoint."

2. Where a radiant point is viewed through a circular aperture
that antipoint consists of a central false disc, surrounded by a
system of alternately dark and bright rings.

We may for our particular purposes leave out of consideration
all but the innermost of these rings.

3. When a point is viewed through a slit opening the anti-
point obtained corresponds to an optical section of the antipoint
referred to in (2). It consists, in other words, of a dash — the
optical section of the false disc— flanked on either side by a faintly
luminous point, corresponding in each case to the optical section
of the first bright ring.

4. Where a diffraction grating takes the place of the simple
slit aperture, the outlying elements of the antipoint are emphasized
at the expense of the central elements. We obtain, in other words,
as the antipoint of a point, a less conspicuous central dash flanked
on either side by a brighter point.

5. When a line, or file of points, is viewed through a diffraction
grating we obtain a composite antipoint pattern, consisting of a
central or principal line furnished on either side by a flanking
line.

6. The elongation — meaning thereby the distance between the
principal line and flanking line — is determined (a) by the periodical
interval of the diffraction grating, and (b) by the distance between
the aperture of the lens and the screen upon which the image is
brought to focus.

Having recalled to mind these preliminary points, I am 'in a
position to make my suggestion intelligible. This suggestion is
that we should use the elongation of the flanking line as a mea-
suring staff for the determination of the distance at which the
principal images of the two lines lie apart in the retinal image.
We can use this measuring staff to advantage, in particular, in the
case where the elongation of the flanking line corresponds exactly
to half the distance between the principal lines. When this con-
dition is fulfilled, the flanking lines which fall into the interspace
between the principal lines merge and furnish a single well-marked
intercostal line.

Having called your attention to the fiduciary phenomenon
which is furnished under these conditions, it will be manifest to
you upon consideration that we can exploit this phenomenon in
the following manner.

We can place before us at a distance of 10 in. a series of
paired lines ruled at progressively increasing intervals, and view-
ing them through a diffraction grating held, let us say, with its
rulings parallel to the object lines, select that particular pair of

The Magnifying Power of the Microscope. By A. E. Wright. 287

lines which furnishes to us a median intercostal line. We can
then by the application of a scale measure the linear distance
between this pair of lines.

We can now place before us another series of paired lines,
lying at distances apart smaller than the paired lines previously
considered in the ratio which will, we estimate, correspond to the
magnification achieved by the use of lens. We can again select from
among this series of paired lines that pair of lines which furnishes
as viewed through the diffraction grating, held at the same angle
as before, a median intercostal line.

Inasmuch as the pair of lines which is seen by the unaided
eye from a distance of 10 in., and the pair of lines which is seen
through the magnifying system yield in each case retinal images of
precisely the same dimensions, it will be obvious that the magni-
fying power of the optical system will be arrived at by dividing
the interval between the object lines, which have been viewed
through the magnifying system, into the interval between the lines
which have been viewed by the unaided eye.

While the procedure as described above is admirably adapted
to the measurement of the magnifying power of pocket-lenses and
such like, it would, if applied without modification to the measure-
ment of the magnifying power of the Microscope, involve the
employment of a special stage micrometer with lines ruled at
progressively increasing intervals.

The difficulty which has just been adverted to can be evaded.
As an alternative to varying the linear distance between the rulings
to conform to the elongation of the flanking line, we can accom-
modate the elongation of the flanking lines to the periodical
interval of the rulings of the stage micrometer, and to the
magnifying power of the optical system through which we view
those rulings.

The required accommodation of the elongation of the flanking
lines can be effected by employing, as the case may be, a more finely
or more coarsely ruled diffraction grating, or, more simply, by rota-
ting the grating in such a way as to bring — according as we desire to
increase or diminish the elongation — the long axis of the slit aper-
tures of the grating into parallelism with the rulings, or, as the case
may be, with the normal to the rulings. Having regulated in this
way the elongation of the flanking lines until we have achieved the
doubling of the ruling by the intercalation of an intercostal line
between every two principal lines, we proceed in all essential
points as before. In other words — maintaining the orientation
of the diffraction grating, which gives a central intercostal line
between the ruling of the stage micrometer — we view through this
with the unaided eye a series of paired lines placed at a distance of
10 in., and we arrive at the magnifying power of our optical system
by dividing the linear distance between the rulings on the stage

x 2

288 Transactions of the Society.

micrometer* into the linear distance between the lines which give,
as viewed by the unaided eye, a retinal image of similar dimensions.
In conclusion, I desire to express my thanks to Messrs.
R. and J. Beck, to Messrs. Swift and Sons, and to Messrs. Sanger
Shepherd, for the eikonometers and the diffraction gratings (ruled
400 lines to an inch) which have served for the illustration of the
methods I have brought before you.

* The more widely interspaced lines of the central ruling of an Abhe diffraction
grating furnish a very convenient stage-micrometer for the procedure here described.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICKOSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

«« Embryology, f

Nutrition and Sex Determination in Man. J— R. C. Punnett finds
that if the population of London be divided into three portions exhibit-
ing graduated poverty, the proportion of male to female infants is
lowest in the poorest portion, highest in the wealthiest portion, inter-
mediate in the intermediate portion. The proportion of male infants
is highest of all in a number of births taken from Burke's Peerage.

Alternative conclusions may be drawn : that more favourable con-
ditions of nutrition (1) result in a large proportion of male births, or
(2) have no effect on the proportion of the sexes, or (3) may even
result in a relative preponderance of female births ; but that in the
last two cases the effect is masked by other factors which affect different
strata unequally. Such factors are shown to exist in a differential
infant mortality, a differential birth-rate, and probably also in a dif-
ferential marriage-age. These factors all tend to diminish the propor-
tion of males in the poorer portions of the population, and thus render
the first of the alternative conclusions improbable. Whether the second
or third is to be accepted cannot be decided until we are in a position
to estimate the quantitative effect of the factors noted above. Punnett's
opinion is that their combined effect would not be sufficiently great to
mask a preponderance of female births due to better nutrition, and
consequently he is inclined to believe that in man at any rate the deter-
mination of sex is independent of parental nutrition. In any case its
influence can be but small.

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and tliey
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or havo
not been previously described in this country.

t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and allied subjects.

X Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc, xii. (1904) pp. 262-76.

290 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Sex of Mice.* — S. M. Copeman and F. G. Parsons publish a record
of fifteen months' experimental work, undertaken with a view to deter-
mining the extent, if any, to which the relative proportion of the sexes
is capable of being influenced by varying conditions of age, nutrition,
interbreeding, etc. The work is still in progress, but the results for
this period arc published with a view to inviting criticism on method
and suggestions for the future, and also to indicate to other breeders
clues which may appear worth following up. Some interesting conclu-
sions are that there is a hereditary tendency in certain males to beget
a markedly large proportion of males, and in others of females. The
evidence for a similar tendency in does is not so conclusive. Inbreed-
ing between a male and his offspring is borne for five generations,
without loss of fertility or any apparent bodily degeneracy. In large
litters the proportion of females is greater tban in small ones ; more
males are produced by does over six months than by does under that age.

Heredity of Pigmentation in Mice.j — L. Cuenot concludes as the
result of crossing grey, black, yellow, albino, and other mice, that
Mendel's law holds both as regards dominance and disjunction in
gametes. In the germ-plasma there must be four sorts of non-corre-
lative determinants completely independent, because they can be inherited
separately.

Fertilisation and Hybridisation 4— Hugo De Vries gives a lucid
account of his views as to the material basis of inheritance. He accepts
Boveri's conclusions as to the individuality of the chromosomes and
Hacker's hypothesis of the " Doppelkern." It is characteristic of his
position that he regards the mingling of parental contributions as of
subordinate importance as regards the children, but of fundamental
importance as regards the grandchildren. The actual mingling takes
place immediately before the formation of the sex-cells of the individual
in question.

Maturation of Germ-Cells and Mendel's Law.§ — E. B. Wilson
reports that in his laboratory two independent investigations, one
botanical (by Cannon), and another zoological (on spermatogenesis in
Brachystola, by Sutton), led to the same general conclusion, that in the
maturation of the germ-cells there is a segregate transference of paternal
and maternal contributions to different cells, which would make Mendel's
law more intelligible. To this, Cook objects,)! on the ground that the
small number of chromosomes in the above cases implies that there is
not a separation of individual hereditary qualities, but of whole groups
of qualities.

Interstitial Testicular Gland and Secondary Sex Characters.^ —
P. Ancel and P. Bouin infer from a study of a unilateral cryptorchid
pig, in which the testis remained embryonic, while the interstitial gland

* Proc. Roy. Soc, lxxiii. (1904) pp. 32-48.

f Arch, de Zool. Exp., ii. (1904) Notes et Revue, pp. xlv-lv.

% See Zool. Centralbl., xi. (1904) p. 161.

§ Science, xvi. (1903) pp. 991-3.

|| Popular Science Monthly, 1903, p. 88. See Zool. Centralbl., xi. (1904) p. 16&

II Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 168-70.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 291

was hypertrophied, and all the external characters of an entire animal
were exhibited, that the development of the secondary sex characters
is dependent on the condition of the interstitial testicular gland.

Interstitial Testicular Gland.* — P. Bourn and P. Ancel cut the
vas deferens between two ligatures in young guinea-pigs and rabbits.
In the former the testes developed normally ; in the latter, in some
cases, the characters of castrated animals were exhibited. This last
result was probably due to the destruction of the plexus, whose ramifi-
cations accompany the vas deferens. Noteworthy in these rabbits was
the degeneration of the interstitial testicular gland, and the authors
believe that the inhibition of masculine characters and the production
of testicular infantilism is due to the absence or degeneracy of this
gland.

Relation of Secondary Sexual Characters to an Internal Secre-
tion by the Testicle.j— S. G. Shattock and C. G. Seligmann record the
results of some experiments on Herdwick sheep and common fowls,
which were designed to test the suggestion previously made by one of
them, that the interstitial cells of the testis yielded an internal secretion,
and to discover whether this secretion, absorbed into the circulation,
induces the metabolic changes that reveal themselves as secondary
sexual characters. The experiments consisted in ligaturing the vasa
deferentia in the young, the expectation (not confirmed) being that
atrophy due to the pressure of the products would result in the tubuli,
while the interstitial cells of the stroma might remain intact. The
conclusions arrived at are that occlusion of the vasa does not inhibit
the full acquirement of secondary male characters, nor is the discharge
of the sperm necessary. It seems clear also that they are not due to
metabolic changes set up by a nervous reflex arising out of the mere
physical function of the sexual mechanism, for the characters developed
in males, partially castrated, whose sole representative of testis consisted
of grafts entirely disconnected from their proper nervous relations.
The suggestion of an internal secretion of the testis is confirmed,
although the authors cannot as yet state what particular cell elements
are concerned in its production.

- Testicle and Spermatic Ducts of Lemurs in Captivity 4 — A.
Branca states that amongst animals in captivity it is not rare to find
a stoppage of spermatogenesis in full-sized testicles. As a result of his
investigations on captive lemurs he has found that the seminiferous
canaliculi are as wide as usual, the wall shows none of the alterations
observed in ectopia, the connective tissue is not hypertrophied, and there
are no vascular lesions. The excurrent ducts are normal, but the gland
cannot make spermatozoa. He finds four conditions : (1) with epi-
thelial covering represented by cells of Sertoli only ; (2) with Sertoli
cells and spermatogonia ; (3) the elements represented in second type-
plus spermatocytes of first and second generation ; and (4) with the
elements present in third type plus spermatids, and with spermatic cord

* Comptes Rendus, exxxviii. (1904) pp. 231-2.

t Proc. Roy. Soc, lxxiii. (1904) pp. 49-58.

t Journ. Anat. Physiol., xL (1904) pp. 35-72 (2 pis.,.

292 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

complete. The testicle degenerates without the ejaculatory apparatus
apparently exhibiting any appreciable modification ; its atrophy seems
determined by the time the animal has been in captivity. The elements
break down in inverse order of their genesis.

Transmission of Acquired Characters.* — Max Morse discusses
afresh this much discussed question, and gives an answer in the negative.
He defines an acquired character as a modification of an organism in
its ontogeny produced by reactions to external stimuli. Without adding
anything new to the discussion he considers the pro's and con's in a
fair way, and concludes that it is difficult to imagine how some specific
change in a remote part of the body can be registered on the germ-cell,
with "the result that the offspring has reproduced in it the same specific
modification.

Gastrulation in Lizards.j — Karl Peter communicates a sixth paper
on the embryology of lizards.

The structure known as the " embryonic shield " is of different
morphological value at different times. To begin with, it consists of
the two germinal layers, — both uniformly thickened. Afterwards, be-
sides the uniform area, there is a zone in which only the inner layer is
thickened. After the retrogression of the endodermic cushion, the
ectoderm-plate alone appears on surface view. The mesoderm never
coalesces with the endodermic substratum. The notochord is wholly
mesodermic in origin, and owes its origin to the mesodermic head-
process which proliferates in front of the primitive plate. _

It is not easy to summarise an intricate embryological paper like
this, but we would give prominence to the author's conclusion that the
primordium of the notochord is mesodermic.

Carnivorous Fowls and their Fecundity.! — F. Houssay submits
the following table of fecundity for the first year of four sets of fowls.

Number of Weight of Average WTeight

Generation. Eggs Hen of Egg.

Graminivorous . . 97 5*360 kgm. 55 grm.

1st carnivorous . . 148 8'674kgni. 58 grm.

2nd carnivorous . . 167 10-270 kgm. 61 grm.

3rd carnivorous . . 145 8 '426 kgm. 58 grm.

In attempting to rear a fourth generation, Houssay obtained from
eighty eggs in six sets, fourteen developments, and only seven chicks.

°f Alimentary intoxication influences the gonads, and tends to sterility
and arrested development and premature death of offspring. It is
cumulative in its effect and tends to a preponderance of males.

Corpus luteum of Dasyurus viverrinus.§ — F. P. Sandes communi-
cates the results of researches on the corpus luteum, with observations
on the growth and atrophy of the graafian follicle. His results show

* Ohio Naturalist, iv. (1903) pp. 25-30.

t Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxiii. (1904) pp. 659-700 (2 pis. and 2 figs.).

t Comptcs Rendus, cxxxvii. (1908) pp. 934-6.

§ Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, xxviii. (1903) pp. 364-405 (15 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 29

Q

that the cliaracteristic cells of the corpus luteum are formed by hyper-
trophy of the cells of the membrana granulosa. The theca interna
folliculi is rudimentary, and forms only the vascular connective tissue of
the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum is probably a gland with an
internal secretion of use in the organism. It has the function of stopping
ovulation during pregnancy, and at the cestral periods.

Problem of Form Regulation.*— S. J. Holmes propounds a theory
according to which the process of form regulation does not necessarily
involve the preservation of favourable variations among the vital units,
although it may involve one factor of that process, viz. the tendency of
parts to increase as fast as circumstances permit. He conceives that the
checking process by which regulation is effected, is brought about not by
the selection of certain vital units, but through the symbiotic relation in
which the parts of the organism stand. The whole process of develop-
ment may occur without the elimination of vital units of any kind,
whether they be biophors, determinants, or individualities of a higher
order, such as cells or organs. The parts of an organism are engaged in
a struggle for existence, but as the parts are mutually dependent, the
struggle leads to an adjustment to a norm instead of the elimination of
some parts and the survival of others.

Regeneration of Bone and Cartilage.! — Wendelstadt has made
numerous experiments on newts and axolotls. When there is regenera-
tion of bony tissue, there must be a return to the primitive cell-forms.
The bony tissue itself cannot form new bone nor cartilage. There must
be a re-habilitation of those elements which were active in embryonic
life, and these are retained in the periosteum. They form, first, cartilage
cells, and then these are transformed into osseous elements.

Development of the Sense Organs of the lateral line in Am-
phibia.}:— R. G-. Harrison finds experimentally that the path of the
lateral line organs may be varied, and that the path characteristic of a
particular species is merely to be considered as the line of least resist-
ance to growth. The stage of development used in the experiments was
that when the tail bud just appears, and at this stage the causes con-
ditioning that certain cells belong to the lateral line appear to have been
active at an earlier period of development.

Development of Lymph Glands in Man.§ — C. A. Kling, in a series
of studies of human embryos, has made out, amongst others, the follow-
ing points. The axillary lymph vessels have developed an abundant
plexus before the gland proper arises. In the third foetal month, in the
meshes of the lymph-vessel plexus cellular and vascular tissue is differ-
entiated, showing an irregular trabecular arrangement. Such an area
corresponds to each of the gland groups in the axilla, and may be termed
lymph-gland centres of origin. Through division of these are formed
the single glands. The division appears to be caused by the ingrowth
and dilatation of the neighbouring lymph vessels. Lymph sinuses in the

* Arch. F.ntwickelurigsmecl]., xvii. (1903) pp. 265-305.
t Arch. Mikr. Anat., Ixiii. (1004) pp. 766-95 (6 pis.).
X Turn, cit., pp. 35-119 (3 pk.).
§ Op. cit., Ixiii. (1903) pp. 575-G10 (2 pis).

294 SUMMAEY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATIKG TO

gland are in the beginning usually lymph vessels. The reticulum cells
in their lumen appear only secondarily, and are descendants of the lymph
vessel endothelium. The special lymph-gland buds are from the be-
ginning onwards of different size. Some reach during intra-uterine life
their definite structure, others remain in a low stage of development.
The small, often microscopic glands which one finds in the adult are
rudimentary forms, which under special circumstances may develop
further, even in the adult. Owing to incomplete separation of the gland
centres, twin or other malformations of lymph glands arise.

Origin of the Vitreous Humour.* — A. v. Szily finds in the early
stages of development thread-like fibrils, which are extensions of the
intercellular bridges of the cells of the adjacent epithelial layers. They
are connected with the protoplasm of the cells by means of a " skittle-
shaped" structure (Jcegelformigen), which resembles the "basal-skittles"
of the lens cells discovered by v. Lenhossek. If the fibres arise near
where mesenchyme cells are abundant, they unite secondarily with these,
the mesenchyme dominating the form ; in cell-free areas the fibres pre-
ponderate during the whole of life. Whether they belong genetically
to the retina or to the lens is an unimportant factor. Owing to the
independent development and subsequent union of these elements of the
vitreous humour, the products of the different germ layers cannot be
distinguished, so that no decision as to what is ectoderm and what
mesoderm can be arrived at.

b. Histology.

Zoological Distribution, Mitoses, and Transmissibility of Cancer.f
E. F. Bashford and J. A. Murray adduce evidence tending to show that
the wide zoological distribution, the character of the mitoses, and the
transmissibility of cancer, are nearly related phenomena with a common
basis.

Malignant new growths have been found in a large and varied series
of animals, not only in domestic animals, but also in animals living in a
state of nature : wild mouse, codfish and gurnard.

A complicated sequence of cell-changes has been found to be charac-
teristic of carcinoma and sarcoma alike. This sequence is the same as
that which initiates the origin of the sexual generation in plants from the
asexual, and is terminal in the history of the sexual cells in animals. It
must be noted, also, that all the cells of the malignant new growths do
not undergo the reducing division ; a certain number^ differentiate in
the direction of the tissue among which they have arisen, and in the
secondary growths when present ; somatic mitoses occur in the growing
margin, which is also a feature in the growth of cancer when transferred
to a new host. Cancer is an irregular and localised manifestation of a
process otherwise natural to the life-cycle of all organisms. Successful
transplantation experiments have been made, e.g. with mice, in which
malignant new growths were transferred from one animal to another of
the same species.

* Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1903) pp. 417-28.

f Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Ixxiii. (1904) pp. 66-76 (1 pi. and 8 figs).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 295

Conjugation of Resting Nuclei in an Epithelioma of the Mouse.*
E. F. Bashford and J. A. Murray draw attention to the fact that the
power of cell proliferation, which has been proved to occur in an epi-
thelioma of the mouse (Jensen), is a phenomenon unparalleled in the
mammalia. A mass of tumour, 16 lbs. in weight, has been produced by
artificially transplanting portions of the original growth and its descen-
dants. When portions of the tissue are transplanted to new sites, the
tumours which arise are the genealogical descendants of the cells intro-
duced, and the growth was studied at successive stages of 24 hours. In
a tumour removed on the eighth day, and less than half a split pea in
size, conjugation of resting nuclei has been observed. To take a specific
case, the nuclei of two adjacent cells are continuous through the cell-
wall by a tube-like bridge, in the middle of which a strand of nucleolar
substance, with fusiform swellings, in either cell is visible. The cells of
this particular case are adjacent to the stroma, and close to the outer
surface of the young tumour.

Behaviour of the Protoplasm in Monocentric Mitoses.f — T. Boveri
describes certain peculiarities in the behaviour of the protoplasm of the
eggs of sea-urchins which have been shaken after fertilisation. In many
cases the effect of this treatment is to inhibit the division of the sperm
centrosome, so that the egg contains not an amphiaster with equatorial
plate, but a large monaster, to which the chromosomes are joined in a ball-
like form. The succeeding behaviour varies, but in the majority he
finds that the surface of the egg furthest removed from the sphere shows
a very distinct amoeboid movement, which is more marked in proportion
to the eccentricity of the latter. All the rest of the surface is com-
pletely smooth. In the case of eggs deprived of their yolk-membrane,
elongation takes place in the direction of the spindle axis, and, without,
a narrowing at the equator division occurs with amoeboid processes be-
tween the blastomeres similar to those of monaster eggs. From a con-
sideration of these and related phenomena, he inclines to the view that
the appearance of the equatorial plates in normal cell division is due to
the slight influence of the centrosomes in this region — a negative and not
a positive effect.

The Morphology of the Glands of Bartholin in Mammals.! —
H. Rautmann has investigated the occurrence and nature of the glands
of Bartholin in ox, sheep, horse, cat and dog, as well as the human
subject. He failed to find these in both sexes of the Canidas, a fact not
to be explained as due to disappearance during development, for theyfare
absent in the embryo. In the human female, as in the cow, sheep and
cat, they occur in pairs, and relatively strongly developed. In the sheep
they are poorly developed, and may be absent on one side or altogether.
In the mare, ass, mule and sow they are present in all individuals, in
numbers subject to great variation, and arranged in rows in a longi-
tudinal direction. The author cannot as yet, owing to the too limited

* Proc. Roy. Soc. London, lxxiii. (1904) p. 77-

t S.B. Phys. med.-Ges. Wurzburg, 1903, pp. 12-21.

X Arch. Mikr. Anai, lxiii. (1903) pp. 461-511 (1 pi.).

296 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

field of observations, pronounce definitely on their use or exact signifi-
cance in copulation.

Peptic Glands of the Superior Region of the (Esophagus in
Man.* — M. Gliriski has studied the occurrence and nature of these
glands in man. He asserts that, though existing at least in every
second person, they are not present in all cases. In from 3 to G p.c. of
cases they are macroscopic masses, perfectly visible ; in the rest their
presence can only be demonstrated microscopically. They are equally
frequent at all ages, and are commoner in males than females. They
are usually placed between the level of the cricoid cartilage and the
fifth tracheal ring, but occur exceptionally on other parts of the gullet.
The large groups may appear lens-like surrounded by a wall, and lying
deeply in the gullet, or in round or irregular masses, which may be
merged to form larger aggregates, and are slightly raised above the
mucous membrane of the gullet. They are usually in two symmetric
groups, lying in the side folds ; rarely, in the right side fold a single
group occurs. Lying usually on the mucous membrane, they yet some-
times penetrate the muscularis mucosa, never the submucosa. Their
stroma is a loose lymphoid tissue, which here and there forms lymph
nodules. He discusses their significance from a pathological point of
view, and suggests that their lymphoid tissue may form the place of
entrance of tubercle bacilli.

Studies in the Retina.f — H. M. Bernard continues these studies,
adducing evidence for the continuity of the nerves through the verte-
brate retina, through the medium of internuclear connecting filaments
between the nuclei of the different retinal layers. This " protomitomic "
system has been demonstrated to be continuous with the primitive
nerve-fibrillae of the retinal nerve strands. The outermost fringe of
the retinal protomitomic system runs down the rods, which are the end
organs of the retina as an organ of vision, while the proximal fringe of
the same system is continuous with the nerve fibrils. The paper is a
very full one, in which the characters of this system are described, as
also its relations to the other retinal constituents and to the chromatin
of the nuclei.

Islets of Langerhans of the Pancreas.} — H. H. Dale has studied
the pancreas of dog, cat, rabbit, and toad, with reference to the "islets
of Langerhans." Laguesse has described a perpetual change of secretory
tissue into " islets " and vice versa, the islets being, in his view, pan-
creatic tissue in an internally secreting stage, and representing also the
stage during which growth takes place. From this view of the normal
transformation of the tissues, however, he has resiled, though Dale seems
unaware of this. Dale's experiments leave the question of the function
of the islets undecided, but the results of occlusion of the duct are in
favour of Laguesse's view that they represent an internally secreting
stage in the life of pancreatic tissue.

* Bull. Acad. Sci. de Cracovie, 1003, pp. 740-57.

t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.. xlvii. (190b) pp. 302-62 (3 pis.).

I Proc. Roy. Soc, Ixxiii. (11)04) pp. 84-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC.

297

c General.

Influence of Light and Darkness.* — Armand Vire has continued
his experiments in the subterranean laboratory in the " catacombs " of
Paris, under the Jardin des Plantes. In the darkness, Gammarm
fluviatilis exhibited some marked modifications, e.g. gradual disappear-
ance of pigment and hypertrophy of olfactory and tactile setae. In an
eel, kept in darkness for five years, the eye was almost doubled in
volume, though " the optic nervous system " was reduced. Six gold-
fish assumed a pale whitish rose colour, and were in two years smaller
by a half than a similar number, equally fed, but living in the light.

Some subterranean animals were kept in the light, e.g. Niphargus
plateaui, Vireia burgunda, V. berica, and Proteus anguinus. All showed
by their behaviour that the illumination was disagreeable to them, pro-
bably through its influence on the pigment-forming cells. After some
months, Proteus showed much pigmentation, except beneath the head
and belly. The Crustaceans have not as yet shown more than slight
black patches on the integument.

Origin of Primates.f — H. C. Chapman has been led from an
anatomical study of Tupaia, in which no caecum was found either in
T.ferruginea or in T.pictum, to a speculative essay on the origin of the
Primates. His views may be inferred from the following scheme.

Gorilla Chimpanze

Homo

Pithecanthropus -
Catarrhinse

-Gibbon Orang

Aretopitheca

Kodentia

I

OhiromjB

Chiroptera
Galeopithecus

Platyrrhiiite

Lor is

Insectivora

I

Tarsius

Lemuravidse
AdapidsB "
Hyopsodinae

Tegumentary Colorations.} — H. Mandoul has made a very ex-
haustive analysis of the types of tegumentary coloration in animals.
He distinguishes three, kinds dne to structure : (1) simple reflection,
(2) interference, (3) diffraction ; and of pigmentary, intrinsic elaborated
within the organism, and extrinsic which are of various origins. Re-
flection may give a white colour, or a satin or velvety aspect, and may
be due to air, uncoloured liquids or solid pulverulent matter. For
interference effects a very thin lamellar structure is necessary, and they

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 706-8.

t Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1904, pp. 148-56.

\ Ann. Sci. Nat., xviii. (1903) pp. 225-468 (2 pis.).

298 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

are favoured by the presence of a subjacent pigmentary layer. The
blue of most vertebrate animals is produced by phenomena identical
with those manifested by disturbed media. The physical constitution
is the same in both cases. The pigments are bodies varying in pro-
perties and composition. Changes of colour are most frequently due
to impressions on the retina. The pigmentary granules of the chromo-
blasts are set in motion by the chromato-motor nerves. The chromatic
apparatus shows graded degrees of development in the various forms
showing rapid changes of colour. Among the vertebrates having this
apparatus in perfection (Batrachians and Reptiles), the blue colour
seems connected with the state of dilatation of the black chromoblasts
(temporary structural coloration). Bodies showing phenomena of color-
ation are in final analysis excretory products manifested under different
forms (pigment, cuticle, etc.). According to their optical properties,
it is determined whether it is to be the play of light (structural colour)
or phenomena of absorption (pigment) by which they appear. Thus
the aspect of coloration is the direct consequence of the state in which
the excretory products present themselves.

Supra-cricoid Cartilage in Man.* — J. Citelli has found in certain
subjects a small cartilage above the cricoid, and between the two inter-
arytenoid muscles. This, he states, is not simply an anatomical varia-
tion, it is the homologue of the " procricoid " of Dubois, which is
present in Amphibians, Reptiles, Monotremes, Marsupials, all Carnivora,
except hyaena, some Ungulates, etc. It is rare in higher orders.

Occipital Region of Cerebral Hemisphere in Man and Apes.f —
(I. E. Smith calls attention to a means not only of checking the evidence
of mere surface anatomy, but also of absolutely demonstrating the
homology of the sulcus lunatus of the human brain with the Affen-
spalte. This new criterion is afforded by the study of the distribution
of the stria Gennari in the occipital cortex. This white line is so
sharply defined in part of the occipital cortex in man and the apes, that
the stria-bearing region can be mapped out in sections of the fresh
brain with absolute exactness. The homology of this area can be
assumed in all Primates. The author further emphasises the presence
of a definite sulcus prrestriatus in most human brains (as well as in all
Prosimiae, Carnivora, Ungulata, and many other mammals) ; the absence
or subsidiary importance of this sulcus praestriatus (vel calcarinus pro-
prius) in all apes — Hapalidae, Cebidae, Cercopithecidas, and Simiidaa ;
the definite limbic relation of the margins of the occipital operculum
(overhanging the sulcus lunatus) and of the inferior occipital operculum
(overhanging the sulcus infrastriatus) to the lateral area striata ; the
presence in most human brains (and occasionally in those of the apes)
of superior and inferior limiting sulci of the mesial part of the area
striata ; and the series of intrastriate sulci, which extend along the
axis of the area striata both in its mesial and its lateral parts. The
author adopts a new nomenclature in order to emphasise the distinctive
relations of the various occipital sulci to the cortical area containing the
stria Gennari ; and to call attention to the bewildering misuse of terms

* Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1903) pp. 289-96. f Tom. cit., pp. 436-51.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 299

in reference to the occipital region of the brain. Certain misleading
suggestions of homologies are also treated in the paper.

"- Mandibulo-auricular Muscle.* — J. Chaine finds in the parotid
region in the Badger a small vestige of this muscle, which he regards as
homologous with the depressor mandibuli of lower vertebrates. He con-
siders that various muscles described in this region inserted upon the
articular bone are nothing but separate fascia of the same muscular for-
mation, and that the mandibulo-auricular is only a representative of
some of the fascia of this depressor.

Dentition of the Elephant.f — W. Mitchell has had published a
number of fine photographs illustrating the normal dentition of the
elephant, injuries resulting in encysted bullets, pathological develop-
ments due to injuries to the pulp, and sometimes expressed in fantastic
external shapes. He also figures a case believed to be a true necrosis,
which is rare.

The Phylogeny of the Boidae.J— F. E. Beddard discusses a number
of points in the circulatory system of Python, Eryx and Boa, which
support the view based upon other evidence that the Boidae occupy
phylogenetically a place at or near the base of the Ophidian series.

Infectious Exophthalmia of Freshwater Fishes.§ — J. Audige de-
scribes the course of a peculiar disease observed at the piscicultural
station of the University of Toulouse— a unilateral exophthalmia affect-
ing the Californian salmon (Oncorhynchus quinnat), and also Idus
or/us Cuv. and Squalius cephalus L., both young and old. The disease
is contagious and progresses rapidly, but in darkness no fatal effects
result. The eye becomes opaque, but a spontaneous cure is effected.
In the warm months the disease was at its height, in autumn it gradually
dwindled. We may call attention in passing to the frequent occurrence
of a condition approaching exophthalmia in carp kept in slightly
abnormal conditions.

Limbs of Holocephali and Dipnoi.]] — Armand Sabatier continues
his study of the paired fins of fishes, developing his theory of the dis-
tinctness and independence of what he calls mains des ceintures, and
mains terminates des membres.

Other contributions by the same author f elaborate his own some-
what surprising conclusions as to the comparative morphology of the
paired limbs of fishes. We defer further notice until we see an illus-
trated exposition of Sabatier's interpretations.

Paired Fins of Fishes.** — R. Hamburger gives a detailed anatomical
account of the skeleton and musculature of the pectoral and pelvic fins
of Squalus, Trigla, PeriopMhalmus and Lophins.

* Proc.-Verb. Soc. Sci. Bordeaux, 1902, pp. 54-5.
t Brit. Dental Journ., xxv. (1904) pp. 284-9G (34 figs.).
J Ann. Nat. Hist, xiii. (1904) pp. 233-G.
§ Comptes Rendus, cxxxvii.(1903) pp. 936-8.
|| Op. cit.cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 249-52.
t Op. cit., exxxvii. (1903) pp. 893-G.
** Revue Suisse Zool.. xii. (1904) pp. 71-148 (2 pla.).

300 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Myology of Chondropterygian Pishes.* — J. Chaine calls attention
to a muscular layer on the ventral surface of the cephalic and branchial
regions, which is remarkable for its many points of insertion in different
parts of the skeleton, and for its different arrangements in the various
species. He homologises it with the " transverse jugular " of the other
vertebrate Classes.

Sub-Orders and Families of Teleostean Fishes.f — G. A. Boulenger
gives a very welcome synopsis of these groups, in which his aim has been
to build on phylogenetic lines. The most important character dis-
tinguishing the Teleostei from the Holostean Ganoids appears to be the
presence of an ossified supraoccipital bone. Remnants of primitive
characters, such as Ganoid scales, fulcra, rudiments of a splenial bone,
spiral valve to the intestine, multivalvular bulbus arteriosus, are still
found in some lower Teleosteans, but no longer in that combination which
characterises the preceding order. Although Albula is exceptional
among all Teleosteans in having two transverse series of valves to the
bulbus arteriosus instead of one, no Ganoid has fewer than three. The
order Teleostei, thus defined, is divided into thirteen sub-orders, whose
characters are fully indicated. Brief definitions of the several families
are given under their respective sub-orders.

Glands of the Mouth-Cavity of Petromyzon.J— W. Haack describes
the musculature, development, and histological structure of these glands.
They are a pair of minute multicellular glands, about 3 mm. long and
0*5 mm. in diameter, having the form of an oval sac, constricted in its
hinder third in a dumb-bell like form. They are imbedded in the
ventral surface of the basilaris muscle. There is a long slender efferent
duct opening in the mouth-cavity. The gland shows a structure quite
different from a salivary gland, its secretion has a weakly acid reaction,
and no diastatic ferment can be found in its contents.

Japanese Myxinoids.§ — Bashford Dean describes Homea ( = Bdello-
stoma) burger i, H. olcinoseana sp. n., the largest known Myxinoid, and
Paramyxine atami g. et sp. n. He throws doubt on the conclusion of
Nansen and Cunningham, that Myxine exhibits protandric hermaphro-
ditism. It is necessary to collect large numbers throughout the year
to reach a well-established conclusion on this point.

Japan seems to be the most favourable region for the study of
Myxinoids. " In an especially conservative locality, as at Misaki, we can
still catch a glimpse, so to speak, of the better days of the Myxinoids, for
here there are living side by side three distinct genera represented by at
feast four species." The author directs attention to the wide range in
the variational characters of species.

Thames Fisheries.! — James Murie reports on the physical forma-
tion, fauna, and fisheries of the Thames estuary, incorporating a wealth

* Proa-Verb. Soc. Sci. Bordeaux, 1902, pp. 18-19.
f Ann. Nat. Hist., xiii.(1904) pp. 161-90.
% Zeitsch. wiss. Zool., lxxv. (1903), pp. 112-46 (2 pis.).
§ Journ. Coll. Sci. Univ. Tokyo, xix. (1904) art. 2, pp. 1-23 (1 pi. and 4 figs.).
|| Report on Sea Fisheries and Fishing Industries of the Thames Estuary. Kent
and Essex Sea Fisheries Committee, 1903. See Ann. Nat. Hist., 1904, pp. 325-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 301

of material largely based on original observation. We select two items :
Whitebait, believed to consist mainly of young herrings, is a very mixed
collection of small fishes, and Dr. Murie adds 20 to the 11 species which
were listed by Frank Buckland in 1879 ; the White Gaby, Aphia pellu-
cida, supposed to be rare in the district, is very abundant in March and
April, and Dr. Murie throws doubt on Collett's conclusion that it is an
annual fish, which dies after breeding.

Adipo-hepatic Function in Invertebrates.* — C. Deflandre gives
the results of investigations on a series of types. The leading points
seem to be as follow. In Worms the existence of fat-droplets in the
cells of the " stomach intestine " indicate the existence of this func-
tion in a simple state. In Echinoderms the function is correlated with
that of the genital organs. In the Starfish, near the reproductive
period, the hepatic cseca diminish iu volume and liberate their reserve
products, which probably aid in the development of the genital ele-
ments. The fat abundance corresponds to these variations. When the
genital organs have atrophied, the hepatic tubes are hypertrophied,
and occupy the whole of the arm. In Urchins there is a thickening
of the walls of the middle intestine, and the cells of this part in con-
taining fat-droplets show an adipo-hepatic function. In Molluscs the
hepatic gland appears to possess secretory and digestive functions like
that of the pancreas. It stores all the materials of which the organism
has need — iron, lime, glycogen, and fat. In this it is like the liver.
It also shows seasonal variations in quantity of fat, e.g. Mytilus, In
the Oyster, from November to March (the reproductive period) there
is no fat, while from March to November fat is abundant. In Crus-
tacea the gland possesses digestive, excretory, absorbent, arrestive, and
anti-coagulative functions. There is a large supply of fat, of which
there is a seasonal variation, which is constant in a species.

Tunicata.

Development of Branchial Apparatus in Tunicata.f — Charles
Julin has studied this in numerous types, and has reached a number of
important conclusions bearing upon the phylogeny of Tunicates. He
finds that Distaplia is a Tunicate provided with two pairs of branchial
clefts, subdivided secondarily into several (four) transverse rows of
branchial stigmata. As in Appendiculariae, the branchial apparatus of
Salpa exhibits only one pair of branchial clefts, which remain un-
divided throughout the whole of life. In Pyrosoma we have also to
deal with a Tunicate with one pair of clefts subdivided, and the same
is probably true of the Doliolidaj. As in Distaplia, so in Clavelina and
Perophora there are two pairs of branchial clefts, subsequently sub-
divided into several rows of branchial stigmata. In all the simple
Ascidians whose development has been studied there are three pairs
of branchial clefts.

Polymorphism of Dolchinia.|— A. Korotneff describes a colony of

* Joum. Anat. Physiol., xl. (1904) pp. 73-110. \

t Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxvi. (1904) pp. 544-611 (42 figs.).
\ Biol. Centralbl., xxiv. (1904) pp. 61-5.

June 15th, 1904- y

302 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Dolchinia which he has found in cylindrical pieces up to 40 cm. in length.
On each piece there is a groove in which buds arise, which passing
round the cylinder appear on the dorsal side as fully-developed organisms.
These represent a second sexless generation, and bear secondary buds
of different sizes. There are three generations in the life cycle : (1)
a solitary nurse form, with stolon and tail, (2) nurse generation, fixed
to the tail, and (8) a free sexual generation. The main difference
from Doliolum consists in the presence of lateral buds on the cylinder,
which the author considers are respiratory animals without nutritive
function.

IN VERTEBR AT A .

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

New Type of Gastropod.* — Heinrich Simroth describes a peculiar
form — Ostracolethe fruhstorferi g. et sp. n. — from Tongkin. There is a
rudimentary shell with a calcareous plate pressed into the intestinal
sac, a large thin conchin membrane, and an apex visible through a cleft
in the mantle. The jaw-plate is delicate, the radula has an extraordi-
narily large number of uniform teeth, with two points and a coiled
papilla at each side ; the oral disc is circular. The seminal filter is
segmented into a number of muscular discs, and there are many other
peculiarities.

Simroth discusses the affinities between Ostracolethe and the Janellida?,
and the Hedylidre. Subsequent sections are devoted to the origin of
the iEolidiEe, the probable pedigree of the Holohepatica?, the origin
of the Prosobranchs, hermaphroditism in Molluscs, geographical con-
siderations, and a survey of Gastropods from an evolutionist point of
view.

Abyssinian Slugs.f — H. Simroth gives a descriptive account of a
collection of twenty-one slugs from Abyssinia, including a new genus
Varania. The slug fauna of this region is extraordinarily rich and
peculiar ; it includes the phyletic root of Umax arborum, — the transi-
tion between Agriolimax and Lehmannia ; the Urocyclid fauna of
Abyssinia has nothing in common with that of Cameroon : it is rather
linked (by Spirotoxon) to that of German East Africa. The peculiarities
of the Abyssinian slugs, as to coloration, gut-coils, penis, etc., are dis-
cussed, and are interpreted in terms of the author's " Pendulations-
tlieorie." Interesting notes are made on the coloration. There is a
close connection between the pigments and the uric concretions — both
nitrogenous excretions of the hamiolymph, which may in diverse ways
replace one another both internally and in the skin. The excretion of
concretions instead of pigments seems to be prompted by the warm
climate, and is predominant in Africa, both on the skin and in _the
blood-vessels.

* Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxvi. (1904) pp. 612-72 (1 pi.).
f Zool. Jahrb., xix. (1904) pp. 673-726 (4 pis. and 4 figs).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. .'303

Nepionic Stage in the Gastropods.* — H. L. Kesteven discusses
different types of transition from embryonic to neanic shell structure,
as seen in Melo in dims, Lotorium abbotti, and Triphora. He arrives at
the following definition of the nepionic stage, "That stage during
which the velum undergoes degeneration and disappears," and main-
tains that " where no varix is thrown up at the conclusion of the
embryonic shell, no conchylaceous record of the nepionic stage has
been left by the mollusc." He admits that the pseudoprotoconch may
be the homologue of the embryonic varix, and that it is likely that
some pseudoprotoconchs are nepionic.

Inverse Symmetry in G-astropods.f — E. Gr. Conklin finds that
inverse symmetry may be traced from the first cleavage of the egg,
which in such cases is found to be inverse, and he considers that this
must be preceded by an inverse organisation of the unsegmented egg.
No inverse organisation can be detected in the ovarian eggs of sinistral
snails, and it is, therefore, probable that it arises about the time of the
maturation or fertilisation of the egg.

Maturation and Fertilisation in Cymbulia Peronii.J — A.Nekrassoff
describes the phenomena observed by him in the maturation and fertili-
sation of this species. In particular his results do not support Boveri's
view of the origin of the " segmentation centrosomes." His conclusion
is that they arise de novo. There is no connection, he thinks, between
them and the egg centrosome which has disappeared much earlier, nor
can they owe their origin to the sperm. " They originate through the
mutual relations of the nucleus and the plasma."

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Secretion of Pearls.§ — R. Dubois has made for years a study of
pearl-formation in Margaritana, Unio, Anodonta, Pinna, 3/gtilus, and
Morgaritifera, and formulates four conclusions. The formation of the
pearl and of the nacre cannot be compared to an ordinary simple
secretion. The organic basis and the carbonate of lime cannot be
secreted by the same element. The apparently diverse structures of
pearls are readily explicable as due to the passage of migratory calci-
ferons elements through a fenestrated epithelium secreting the con-
chyolin. The nacre, though the result Qf rougher work than the fine
pearl, is produced by essentially the same mechanism. Some details of
the complex secretory process are given.

Detection of Pearls by means of X-Rays.|| — Raphael Dubois has
been successful in detecting the presence of pearls, even of small size,
by means of the X-rays. If this method is readily practicable — and
it has been used in Ceylon — it will save much useless destruction of
pearl-oysters, etc., and will also economise time.

* Proc. Linu. Soc, N.S.Wales, xxviii. (1903) pp. 443-52.

t Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1903, p. 753.

X Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 119-27.

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 710-2.

|| Tom. cit. pp., 301-2.

Y i

304 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Development of the Gill in Mytilus.* — E. L. Rice gives a pre-
liminary abstract of inquiries on this subject. He notes specially an
interesting parallel in the development of the inter lamellar connections.
This connection in its finished form is a simple bar containing a blood
channel, and connecting the two branches of one and the same filament.
In an early stage the two branches are connected by a continuous plate
of tissue extending from the bend of the filament upwards for a short
distance. This is the adult condition in Area, and Modiola. Later a
perforation appears in the plate, and the portion above the perforation
is transformed into the characteristic bar-like connection.

Orientation of Tridachnids within their Shells.f — Anthony
corroborates the observations of Lacaze-Duthiers which showed that
there is not, as is often asserted, any torsion of Tridacna and Hippopus
within their shells. There has been a remarkable shortening of the
antero-posterior axis and an elongation of the dorso-ventral and trans-
verse axes, in adaptation, probably, to the mode of life and the massive-
ness of the shells.

Arthropoda.

Excretion in Arthropods.} — L. Bruntz gives an account of the
excretory apparatus in Arthropoda, of which he has examined a very
representative series. Of kidneys opening directly to the exterior there
exist antennary, maxillary, labial, podal, and coxal forms. These are
organs consisting of two essential parts, a sacculus or terminal vesicle
with epithelium, whose cells have the property of eliminating ammo-
nium carminate injected into the coelome, and a labyrinth bringing
the sacculus into communication with the exterior. In the majority
the labyrinth was proved functional by its elimination of injected
indigo-carmine. Excretory organs opening by the intermediary of the
digestive tubes are Malphigian tubes, cseca of mid-gut and liver. The
liver tubes of all higher Crustacea were found to eliminate aniline
colours. A third type is the closed organ which accumulates or trans-
forms the waste products. This is represented (1) by the nephrocytes.
These are variable in form, groups of cells consisting of fibrillar or
vacuolar cytoplasm containing masses of excretory products, upon which
carminate may be deposited, or it may appear as granules in the cyto-
plasm.

Generally in one species, there is one kind of nephrocyte, which
may be isolated, or grouped into a dense tissue. They are always on
the track of the blood currents, they may be ventral or dorsal, in the
head (Amphipods), cephalothorax (Arachnids), thorax (Copepods), or
on various situations on the appendages. The third type of excretory
organ — the closed organ — is also represented (2) by the uric cells of
the fatty bodies. These eliminate vesuvin around the granules of
sodium urate.

* Ohio Naturalist, iv. (1904) p. 51.

+ Comptes Kendus, exxxviii. (1904) pp. 296-8 (2 figs.).

% Arch, de Biol., xx. (1903) pp. 217-422 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 305

a. Insecta.

Influence of Environment on Caterpillars.*— A. Pictct has made
many experiments showing that changes in the environment (diet and
humidity) of caterpillars may result in changes in the adults. An
aberrant form of Abraxas grossidariata, known in nature, was evoked
after two generations of dieting on Euonymits ; the variety urticoides
of Vanessa urticce, was obtained by feeding the caterpillars on the flowers
instead of on the leaves of the nettle. The influence of humidity on
coloration seems very marked, especially during the transition period
between larval and pupal life.

Influence of Humidity on Caterpillars. f — Arnold Pictet finds that
humidity has a marked influence on coloration. When the caterpillars
of Vanessa urticce and Pohjchloros are fed for ten days with moist leaves,
the resulting butterflies have characteristic black markings on the wings.
The same kind of result is obtained when the caterpillars are kept in an
atmosphere saturated with moisture : then the nervures in V. urticce, are
strongly marked in black and the margin of the blue spots is densely
black and has invaded the normal area of these spots, which are, there-
fore, very small, though extraordinarily brilliant. In short, humidity
is a factor in inducing partial melanism, and modifications in this direc-
tion are common in nature after rainy periods. It should be noted that
when the larvas of V. urticce, are exposed to humid conditions during the
transition moult between the caterpillar and pupa state, there result
light coloured butterflies with a broad yellow band, crossing the anterior
wing and continued in a triangle on to the posterior wing.

Metamorphosis of Insects.! — Jules Anglas points out the close
relations that obtain between the development of the trachea} and the
phenomena of metamorphosis (histolysis and histogenesis). Active
centripetal growth on the part of the trachea? leads to an insinuation
of their terminal cells into the muscle-fibres, for instance, where these
tracheal cells play an important role in histolysis, — a role partly me-
chanical, probably also chemical, but unaccompanied by phagocytosis.

Digestive Function in Insects.§ — A. Porta has examined a
number of species of various orders, and concludes that the most im-
portant agents in the digestion of insects are the glandular folliculi of
the gastric cells, of the villous region, and of the mid-gut folds. These
possess both a pancreatic and an hepatic function, and are consequently
hepato-pancreatic glands. Their secretion acts by the transformation
of albumen into true peptones, by the breaking up of neutral fats into
glycerin and fatty acids, by the solution of fatty acids directly broken
up by bile, forming an acid liquid capable of emulsifying.

Biology of Stingless Honey-Bees of Brazil. || — H. v. Ihering com

* Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., xvi. (1903) pp. 585-8.

t Op. cit., xvii. (1904) pp. 110-2.

X Comptes Eendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 300-1.

§ Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 97-111.

|| Zool. Jahrb., xix. (1904) pp. 180-287 (13 pis.).

306 SUMMARY OF CUKRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

municates many interesting facts concerning the habits and structure of
these bees. A comparison of representatives of the genera Melipona
and Trigona with Apis m&llifka shows,riin addition to the characters
common to all Apidse, such as the existence of drones, queens and
workers, swarming, collection of honey and pollen, and the use of wax
for building, two important structural differences, viz. the rudimentary
nature of the sting, and the formation of the wax-plates on the dorsal
side of the abdomen. These differences have led the author to con-
stitute the genera in question a separate family from the Apiche. These
bees build their nests mostly in the stems or branches of trees ; they
choose trees that rot easiest ; but some build in the earth, as deep as
four metres, with a perpendicular, slanting or spirally twisted tube to
the surface. The nests and the structural peculiarities are well illus-
trated in the plates.

Notes on Ants.* — Adele M. Fielde gives supplementary notes of
experiments designed to ascertain whether any of the rays of light to
which the ants are exposed in seeking food, so affect their metabolism
as to produce that difference of odour, which, as a result of previous
experiments, she believes is the cause of hostility between colonies of the
same species and variety, and which is co-incident with difference of
age in the individuals composing the colony. Incidentally it was found
that while at first they instinctively sought shelter from the ultra-violet
rays, after ten months' exposure to these, while still sensitive to them,
the ants appeared to have learned that they were innocuous and adjusted
their behaviour accordingly. On the main quest, however, the results
were negative.

Myrmecological Notes. t — Auguste Forel contributes a miscellaneous
series of notes on ants. He submits facts which point to a hitherto
unheard-of occurrence, — a spontaneous slave-capturing, pillaging ex-
pedition undertaken by Strong ylognathus christophi v. rehbinderi. He
Teports on ants from Kairouan in Tunisia, from Biskra, from Jerusalem,
Cashmir, Brazil, and elsewhere, and on Gamponotas universitatis sp. n.,
from near Geneva.

Oviposition in Bombyx mori.ij: — Jules Gal points out that the
silk- moth lays eggs whether inseminated or not. But while females
which have had complete copulation lay their eggs quickly, those
which are virgin or which have had their copulation interrupted retain
their ova longer. Moreover, while the inseminated females live on
an average 1) • 3 days after oviposition, the ' virgins ' live for 11 • :> days
thereafter.

Wings of Beetles.§ — W. L. Tower has made a careful investigation
of the origin and development of the wings of Coleoptera. He de-
scribes the wing primordium, the formation of the larval wings and the
tracheal system of the wings. The chief conclusion arrived at is, that

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, lv. (1903) pp. 491-5.

t Revue Suisse Zool., xii. (1904) pp. 1-52 (1 fig.).

t Couiptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 932-4.

§ Zoo/. Jahrb., xvii. (1903) pp. 517-72 (7 pis. and 8 figs.).

911-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 307

the whole of the evidence points to Yerson's view that the wings of
Coleoptera are derived from the spiracular rudiments of the meso- and
meta-thorax. He then states the objections to the Midler-Packard
theory of lateral or dorsal prolongations of the tergum, and gives, as
two strong objections to the tracheal-gill theory of Gegenbaur, that
the ancestry of Pterygota points to a terrestrial, not to an aqtiatic form ;
and that tracheal gills are secondary adaptive structures, and so of no
phylogenetic significance.

Destruction of Winter Ova of Phylloxera by Lysol.* — G. Cantin
gives an account of very successful experiments in which, by using
lysol, he destroyed the winter ova of the Phylloxera without in any
way hurting the vine.

New Scale-Insect from India.j — E. P. Stebbing describes the life-
history of Mtjiwpldebus stebtingi Green, abundant on the valuable Sal
trees. There are many interesting facts concerning this pest : their
sugary exudations can be heard dropping from the tall trees like rain-
drops after a smart shower ; the female has the power of dropping from
great heights without harming itself ; the female lays between 400 and
500 eggs, and after the egg-laying, which seems to last from a fortnight
to three weeks, both the male and female insects disappear from the
forest. The author also discusses the life-history of a Coccinellid.
Vedalia guerinu, predaceous on M. stebbingi, and contributes some
general remarks on the Monophlebinse of the Indian region.

Notes on Rhynchota.f — W. L. Distant gives, in a concluding paper,
summaries of the generic characters of the Capsidge contained in the
British Museum.

Luminosity of Lampyridae.§ — J. Bougardt has investigated the
structure and relation to the tracheal and nervous systems of the
luminous organs in this family of beetles. Their physiology he has
studied experimentally by subjecting the insects to a variety of abnormal
chemical and physical conditions, such as immersion in carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, oxygen, etc., warming, drying, placing in vacuo. It appears
that luminosity persists some time after death, although it ceases tem-
porarily under the foregoing conditions. It is not certain whether
oxygen is used in the production of light.

Structure of Pediculidse.y — N. Cholodkovsky gives some notes
on the development of Pedkulas. In particular he describes at the
blunt end of the egg, a spherical body of large cells with a cavity within
and surrounded by an amnion-like envelope. It appears to be con-
stricted off from the posterior end of the germ streak. Eventually it
is surrounded by yolk and gradually comes to lie on the ventral side of
the embryo under the posterior end of the central nervous system.
Later, by differential growth, it lies in a hollow on the lower side of

* Comptes Rendns, exxxviii. (1904) pp. 178-9.

t Jourii. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxix. (1904) pp. 142-61 (3 pis.).

I Ann. Nat. Hist., xiii. (1904) pp. 194-206.

§ Zeitschr. viss. Zool., Ixxv. (1903) pp. 1-45(3 pis.).

|| Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 120-5.

308 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the alimentary canal. It is the organ described by other authors in
adult Pediculi, and peculiar to them, as an abdominal gland of unknown
function.

5. Arachnida.

Development of Scorpions.* — I. Poljansky gives some notes on
the yolk and embryonal envelopes, including the relation to the mother
during intra-uterine life, in Scorpio indicus. At first, while in the uterus,
the embryos are semi-transparent, and do not appear to have so much
yolk as other scorpions. The embryo after a certain time becomes
detached from the mother through the gradual separation of the inner
layer of the uterus from its attachment. The passage of the nutritive
material continues by osmosis, a process which is aided by the presence
of folds upon the dorsal and lateral regions of the body, which increase
the absorptive surface.

Two new forms of Trombidium parasitic in Man.f — F. Heim and
A. Oudemans have found in several consecutive summers three specifi-
cally distinct larval forms of Trombidium parasitic in man. One of
these larval forms is referable to T. gymnopterorum ; the others to new
species, T. poriceps and T. striaticpps. Their salient characters are de-
scribed. The new species have been found also in various mammals,
birds and insects. The three species may occur together in the human
skin. All the observations relate to the same locality in France (Bure-
la-Forge, Meurthe-et-Morelle) .

Comparative Anatomy of Mites.| — Thor completes an elaborate
account of the comparative anatomy of prostigmatic Acarina, in which
he deals with the skin, the endosternite, the connective tissue, the
leucocytes, the respiration, the digestive apparatus, the cutaneous and
salivary glands, the excretory organs, the nervous system, the sensory
organs, and the gonads.

e. Crustacea.

Proportion of Sexes in Shore-Crab.§ — R. C. Punnett has studied
in reference to Mendel's law the proportion of the sexes in Carcinus
manias. From his data, which relate to 3583 crabs — 80 '6 males to 100
females — Punnett thinks it may be fairly concluded that (1) during the
early stages of growth the proportion of the sexes is equal, and that
(2) the approach of sexual activity is accompanied by changes of habit
and disposition which, by exposing the males to greater risks, lead to
an increased mortality during later stages of growth in this sex, as
compared with the females.

If we assume that the death rate in the larval and early post-larval
stages is equal for the two sexes, then the former of the above two
conclusions is in accordance with the view that Mendel's law applies to
sex heredity in the crab. The second conclusion suggests the danger
of drawing any conclusion as to the relative numbers in which the

* Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) No. 2, pp. 49-58.

t Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 704-G (9 figs.).

X Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.), xix. (1904) pp. 1-190 (9 pis. and 59 figs.).

§ Proo. Cambridge Phil. Soc, xii. (1904) pp. 293-0.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 309

sexes are produced from the proportion of the sexes at later stages of
growth. It further points at a possible connection between sexual
dimorphism and a different sexual mortality rate. But until more cases
of a similar nature have been investigated, it would be unprofitable to
dwell on this point.

Sex Recognition among Amphipods.* — S. J. Holmes has deter-
mined experimentally that neither sight nor smell are probable factors
in enabling the males of HyaMla to recognise the females. It appears
that accidental contact in their random movements is the initial factor
which effects the union of the sexes. The male has a strong instinct
to seize and carry other individuals of the same species, while the female
tends to lie passive when touched, and especially so if she is seized.
Mutilated males, which could not resist, were carried about for hours
by other males, but dead specimens of either sex were not so carried.

New Hyperiid Amphipod.f— A. Senna describes a remarkable new
genus, Thaumonectes, from the Caraibic Sea, which must be placed near
Thaumatops, among the Hyperiid Amphipods.

Holopedidae.J — Th. Stingelin discusses this divergent family of
Cladocera, in which the second antenna} are uniramose. In addition to
Holopedium gibberum Zaddach, which occurs in North Europe and North
America, he describes H. amazonicum sp. n., from the mouth of the
Amazon. He gives a revised diagnosis of the genus and the family.

Winter Eggs in Copepods.§— E. Wolf has proved the existence of
winter eggs in two species of Diaptomus, viz. D. cceruleus and D. castor.
He found, e.g. D. cceruleus in muddy holes containing stagnant water in
August, which remained dry through the winter. In April of the fol-
lowing year he moistened a small part of the mud, and in two days
nauplii were to be seen, whose development was followed till their
Diaptumus nature was quite clear. Subsequently, he found the eggs in
the mud, enclosed within a double envelope.

Annulata.

Cephalisation and Metamerism in Annelids. || — ■ A. Malaquin has
studied this problem with especial reference to Tomopteris, and comes
to the following conclusions. The cephalic segment of Annelids had
primitively a locomotor function, like the trunk segments, but this has
given place to more specialised sensorial functions. The cephalic seg-
ment may bear true setigerous outgrowths, homologous with parapodia.
Cephalisation has been effected in Annelids by the transformation of a
single metamere bearing the buccal orifice.

Nematode in Smooth Muscle-Cells of Nephelis.f— A. Schuberg

* Biol. Bull., v. (1903) pp. 288-92.

t Bull. Soc. Entomol. Ital., xxxv. (1903) pp. 93-o (1 fig.).

j Revue Suisse Zool.. xii. (1904) pp. 53-64 (1 pi.).

§ Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 98-108.

|| Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 821-4.

•j Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxvi. (1904) pp. 509-21 (1 pi.).

310 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING

and A. Schroder describe Myenchus bothryophorus g. et sp. n., which
occurs in Nephelis vulgaris, especially within the smooth muscle-cells.
It was also found in the connective tissue and in the cocoon of the same
leech. There is only one previous record of a Nematode parasitic in
leeches (in the body-cavity of Glossiphonia stagnalis or Clepsine oculata),
and the occurrence inside smooth muscle-cells is also remarkable. The
new form, which is marked by the possession of a ventral groove, comes
nearest to Tylenchiis and ApMlenchus, but neither of these genera has
any representative parasitic in animals.

Platyhelminthes .

Development of Planaria simplissima.* — N. M. Stevens finds that
in Planaria simplissima the division of the chromosomes in both
maturation divisions is longitudinal ; that the number of chromosomes
in the maturation divisions varies from three to six, but is usually three ;
that there is nothing corresponding to a typical blastula or gastrula ;
that after several segmentations the blastomeres form an irregular group,
embedded in a syncytial yolk-mass which forms a part of the embryo.

Some of the blastomeres form the embryonic pharynx ; others
wander through the syncytium. The embryonic layer which covers the
secondary yolk taken in by the embryonic pharynx, in no way cor-
responds to the ordinary gastrula-stage. The solid embryo has, by
sucking in yolk through its pharynx, become a hollow ball filled with
secondary yolk-cells. It consists of a single layer of syncytial yolk-
material, containing scattered blastomeres which feed on the primary
yolk-material and multiply until they occupy the whole space previously
filled by the primary yolk. Then the inner embryonic cells begin to
serve as endoderm-cells to absorb the secondary yolk.

The axial gut and its principal branches are formed as ingrowths
from the embryonic layer, dividing up the central space which is filled
with secondary yolk. Ectoderm, endoderm, permanent pharynx, eyes,
nervous system, gonads, glandular cells and muscle-cells, are all formed
by direct differentiation of the embryonic cells of the one embryonic or
germ-layer. There is no formation of two or three distinct germ-layers,
nor are any of the organs formed by folding, as in most other forms.
Altogether it is a remarkable story.

Early Development of Fresh-water Dendroccelida.f — E. Mattiesen
confirms the results of earlier observers who held that the syncytium
.surrounding the blastomeres arises by the fusion of the yolk-cells. He
observed the process in Planaria torva. He further notes that the
embryonic mesenchyme contains elements of all the three germ layers,
which explains the origin of diverse organs from it. The development
has hardly anything in common with that of marine polyclads, which
retain primitive characters. The various modifications in the fresh-
water forms are mainly due to the development in the centre of a yolk-
cell mass.

* Troc. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 1904, pp. 2C8-20 (4 pis. and 5 figs.),
t Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 81-87.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 311

Structure and Development of Distomum cirrigerum.* — E. Warren
gives an account of this parasite, which appears to have a secondarily
acquired monogenetic life-history. The sexual form can develop from
the egg within the crayfish host, and a cercaria-cyst stage occurs,
generally before any cell differentiation has taken place in the embryo.
After the blastomeres have divided into quite small cells it seems to be
a matter of indifference how many of them are enclosed in the thick
cercaria-cyst ; the excluded cells perish, the enclosed mass will develop
into the embryo. Hence up to this period there is no sorting out of
hereditary tendencies (except that sometimes the primordium of the
cirrus-sac appears quite early) into separate cells, but they reside in the
mass as a whole. The author is inclined to minimise the importance of
the cell as a unit. There are points, too, in the development which
tend to weaken the morphological significance of the usual conception
of germ layers.

Incertse Sedis.

Pelmatosphaera.f — Maurice Caullery and Felix Mesnil describe a
new organism — which they call Pchnato splicer a polycirri — found as a
parasite in the body-cavity of an Annelid, Polycirrus Jmmatodcs Clap.
It is a spherical, abundantly ciliated organism, apparently allied to
Orthonectids, giving rise by endogenous multiplication to asexual
progeny.

Echinodernia.

Fertilisation and Parthenogenesis in Echinoderms.f — A. Sehuek-
ing has made many experiments bearing on the physiology of fertilisa-
tion and development in Asterias glacialis, Stromjijlocentrotus lividus,
Arbacia pustidosa. The mass of ova, with an acid reaction (due to
phosphates of potassium and sodium), exerts a fatal, or a paralysing, or
an agglutinating, or an exciting and attractive effect on the spermatozoa,
according to its amount and duration of influence. The head of the
spermatozoon serves for attachment to the ovum, not for boring into it.
The spermatozoon is drawn in by a hyaline protuberance of the ovum-
protoplasm. The essential event is the union of the two cytoplasms,
which seems to be abetted by the centrosomes at the apex of the sperm.
In fertilisation an interlamellar splitting of the vitelline membrane
allows water to enter, and development then begins.

Schucking was able to induce parthenogenetic development to an
abnormal (delaminate) gastrula stage by the most diverse stimuli,—
chemical, thermal, electrical, and luminous. The paper is full of
interesting experimental data.

New Genus of Spatangoids.§ — F. Jeffrey Bell describes a new
genus, Eobrissus, of Prymnodesmid 8patangoids, with apex almost
central and the anterior ambulacrum flush with the test ; the antero-

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc, xlvii. (1903) pp. 273-301 (3 pis.),
t Comptes Retidus, exxxviii. (1904) pp. 217-9.

•J Piiiigers Archiv. Ges. Physiol., xcvii. (1903) pp. 58-97 (1 pi.). See Zool. Cen-
tralbl., xi. (1904) pp. 161-2.

§ Ann. Nat. Hist., xiii. (1904) pp. 230-7.

312 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

lateral ambulacra are directed forwards, and not at right angles to the
long axis of the test ; there is an open circumanal fasciole as in Metalia.
This last feature has generally been regarded as a recent acquisition ;
its co-existence with the archaic position of the apex is of interest.

Regeneration in Starfish.* — Sarah P. Monks, in studying regenera-
tion of Phataria (LincJcia) fascialis, cut arms at different distances from
the disc, and a number of the single rays produced new bodies, while
the rest of the star-fish produced a new ray. There was little difference
i m the rate of growth of each. The cut edges heal and draw clown
towards the oral side of the starfish, then small knobs appear at the
end, which grow into rays in which the ambulacra! furrow soon appears,
with the small mouth in the centre of the rays.

Coelentera.

Devonian Medusa.f — F. Kinkelin gives a description of Broohsella

rhcnana sp. n., closely allied to Walcott's Broohsella alternata from the
middle Cambrian. Kinkelin's discovery is of special interest because
it is the first Medusa found in the Devonian. It was found near
Laurenburg on the Lahn, by Ludwig Petry.

New Cerianthid.J — L. Roule describes Pachycerianthus benedeni.
The mesenteries are short, only two reaching the base ; the directive
mesenteries are thick, giving the directive chamber the form of a
cvlindrical tube ; there is an alternation of fertile mesenteries with
acontia and sterile mesenteries without acontia, but with mesenteric
filaments ; the endodermic musculature is scarcely developed ; the wall
of the column is thick and substantial owing to the development of the
longitudinal musculature and the mesogloea. Apart from the size of
the single specimen (British Museum) and the number of mesenteries,
there is a suggestion of the characters of the acontiferous larval forms
of Cerianthids. It seems, therefore, that there are non-tubicolous
Cerianthids, free-living for at least a large part of their life, which
retain some of the larval characters of the ordinary tubicolous types.
Roule also notes that there is a marked resemblance between Pachy-
c&riantlms and some Antipatharia, especially Stichojmthes.

Porifera.

Spermatogenesis in Porifera and Ccelentera.§ — W. Gorich finds
that there is a close correspondence in the spermatogenesis of Spongilla
fluviatilis and Amelia aurita. In both, the central corpuscles give rise
to the intra- and extra-cellular axial filament and to the middle-piece of
the ripe spermatozoon. In both, there is a typical apical portion, and
the long tail is formed from the protoplasm of the spermatid. The
general result is to show that the processes of spermatogenesis in the
lowest Metazoa are closely parallel to those in higher forms. Some

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, It. (1903) p. 351 (1 fig.).

t Ber. Senckenberg. Nat. Ges., 1003, pp. 89-96 (1 pi.).

t Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 708-10.

§ Zeitschr. -wise. Zool., Ixxvi. (1904) pp. 522-43 (1 pi. and 4 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 313

notes on oogenesis in Sycandra raphanus, etc., confirm the results of
F. E. Schulze. The ova arise from small amoeboid cells, and, as in
Tubularia and Pennaria, there is an absorption of adjacent amoeboid
cells by the growing ova.

Protozoa.

Reproductive Cycle in Protozoa, Volvocineae, and Dicyemidse.*
M. Hartmann gives a very full comparative account of the life-cycle in
these groups, with special reference to the elucidation of the Mesozoa.
He concludes that both Dicyemids and Orthonectids can come under
the plan of primary metagenesis, such as we are acquainted with in the
Protozoa and Volvocineas. The paper is accompanied by a tabulated
comparative statement of the different stages in the life-history of
Coccidiwn, Volvox, and Dicyema.

New Type of Suctoria.f — S. Awerinzew describes Astropl/rya
armaria g. et sp. n., a suctorial Infusorian from the plankton of the
Volga. It is enclosed in a massive shell of fine sandy particles and
plant-remains agglutinated with a clear brown substance. There is an
irregular central chamber (145-188 /*), with eight lateral processes
(86-190 /x), from the ends of which the suckers emerge. Its position
is probably near the family Dendrosomina.

New or Little Known Miocene Foraminifera.1: — A. Silvestri de-
scribes from the Miocene of Piedmont a number of new or imperfectly
described forms, e.g. EUipsopleurostomella schlichti sp. n., E. rostrata
sp. n., E. pleiirostomrfla sp. n., Lagena ventricosa sp. n., Ellijisobulimiaa
segmmai sp. n.

Trypanosoma and Trypanosomiasis. § — W. E. Musgrave and M.
T. Clegg report exhaustively on an inquiry conducted with special re-
ference "to Surra in the Philippines. The work discusses fully the
geographical distribution, classification, modes of transmission of the
parasite, modes of infection, animals infected, treatment, etc. Only a
brief indication of some of the points brought out in this important
paper can be given. Trypanosoma is distributed over large areas of
the tropical and subtropical world, corresponding closely to the malarial
zones. Its life-cycle is as yet unknown, but is believed to be completed
within living animals. Infection with the parasite is through wounded
surfaces, in which biting insects, particularly flies and fleas, serve as the
principal agents. Statements concerning the infection of pastures and
water, and transmission through sound mucous membranes, have nothing
to support them. All methods tried for treatment of the disease have
been without results of practical importance or significance.

Trypanosoma in Indian Birds. || — W. Hanna gives notes of the
occurrence of this parasite in the blood of the domestic pigeon and

* Biol. Centralbl., xxiv. (1904) pp. 18-61.

t Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 425-6 (1 fig.).

% Atti. K. Acad. Sci. Torino, xxxix. (1904) pp. 4-15 (7 figs.).

§ Report Dept. of the Interior U.S.A., 1903, pp. 1-248.

|| Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xlvii. (1903) pp. 433-8 (1 pi.).

314 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Indian crow. They appear to differ from the only Trypanosoma hitherto
described as occurring in birds, and from each other.

Coccidia in Lamellibranchs.jl — L. Leger describes a monozoic
parasite which is extremely common in renal epithelium, branchiae, etc.
of mussels at Calvados. It occurs also in Mactra, Donax, Tapes, and
Tellina. The oyster is not infected by it. The branchiae may be riddled
by the ripe sporocysts, yet apparently without fatal effect. The parasite
belongs to the genus Nematopsis, and appears to be closely related to
the form inhabiting the mantle of Solen.

Piroplasma donovani.f — A. Laveran and F. Mesnil give some
details in regard to this parasite, found by Leishman and Donovan in
the blood of the spleen of individuals from India, suffering from
irregular remittent fever.

* Comptea Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 1003-6.
t Tom. cit., pp. 187-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ET< . 315

BOTANY.

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Cytology,
including: Cell-Contents.

Bivalence of the Chromosomes.* — J. P. Lotsy discusses, with the
aid of diagrams, the question of the behaviour of the chromosomes in
the reducing divisions of animals and plants. He concludes that there
is a true qualitative reducing division, since while the somatic cells have
bivalent, the sexual cells have only univalent chromosomes.

Amitosis in Plants. — W. v. Wasielewskif and B. Nemec| have
investigated the effects of chloral hydrate in dilute solution upon the
division of the nucleus, especially in the roots of seedlings. Both find
that treatment with this reagent causes very abnormal nuclear divisions
and even multinucleate cells, but that if the treatment is not prolonged,
the nuclei and cells return later to their normal state and divide in a
typical way. Wasielewski believes, however, that the abnormal divisions
are real direct divisions (amitoses), while Nemec is of the opinion that
they are merely abnormal mitoses in which, however, the processes of
chromosome formation and splitting still occur. Nemec found that by
fusion of the abnormally produced nuclei, there were produced nuclei
with a double number of chromosomes ; presumably a reduction-process
occurs later, for such double numbers soon ceased to be seen.

Reduction Division in Ferns.§ — R. P. Gregory has examined the
early stages in spore-formation in various members of the Polypodiaceaj,
and finds that the essential features of the reduction-phenomena recently
described by Farmer and Moore are present in ferns. The author de-
scribes the details of the reduction division in the spore-mother-cells.
The result is a transverse true reduction division of the bivalent chromo-
somes which characterise the heterotype division. He then proceeds to
a discussion of the significance of the reduction division in connection
with Mendelian segregation. Viewed from this standpoint the occur-
rence of a qualitative reduction in plants, as well as in animals, is
extremely important as affording a possible provision for that purity of
the gametes, in respect of allelomorphic characters, which is demanded
by Mendel's hypothesis.

Formation of Anthocyan.|j — T. Ichimura has studied the formation
of this pigment to which are due the different shades of red and blue
found in plant organs, for instance, in the skin of many ripe fruits, in
some young shoots, and in various flowers. The object studied was the

* Flora, xciii. (1904) pp. 65-86 (19 figs.).

t Jahrb. wiss. Bot., xxxix. (1904) pp. 581-606 (figs, in text).

j Tom. nit., pp. 645-730 (figs, in text).

§ Proc. Roy. Soc, lxxiii. (1904) pp. 86-92.

|| Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, xviii. (1903) art. 3, pp. 1-18 I pi.).

o

16 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

petaloid calyx of Hydrangea Hortensia var. japonica, which was especially
suitable because of the slowness with which anthocyan passes through
its different phases of development in this plant, and also because of
the long duration of its blossoming period. The different phases are as
follows :

Colourless protanthocyan

Yellow anthocyan

/ \

Reddish anthocyan Bluish anthocyan
Deep red anthocyan Deep blue anthocyan

\ /

\ iolet anthocyan in crystals

When the flowers open the petaloid calyx is yellowish or slightly
greenish, the colour being due not to chlorophyll but to the cell-sap.
At this stage protanthocyan is already formed, and at a later stage passes
into yellow anthocyan which colours the sap of the epidermal cells.
Chemical reactions indicate that protanthocyan and yellow anthocyan
are allied compounds of tannin or modified phenol compounds. In the
second phase (July 1-20) the sepals of the open flowers became coloured
red, when exposed to sunlight, by development of red anthocyan, the
colour spreading from the apex towards the base. Acids do not produce
any marked change in the colour of red anthocyan, but alkalis turn it
green. In the third phase (July 20 to August 1) most of the flowers
tend to nutate, each sepal becoming turned upside down, when the
lower side turns red from the base towards the periphery. The colour
is less bright than on the upper face. Microscopical examination shows
an increasing number of red epidermal cells on the upper face, while
some bluish cells are often met with in the hypodermal layer. On the
lower face the red cells occur mainly as irregular idioblasts in the hypo-
derm. Chlorophyll grains begin to appear at first in the hypodermal
cells on both aspects of the leaf, extending later to the middle of the
mesophyll. In the last phase (August 1 to September 1) erect flowers
can no longer be found. The red colour of the lower face of the sepals
becomes darker, chiefly clue to the mixing of the epidermal deep red and
the hypodermal blue anthocyan. In this phase microscopic examination
reveals violet or bluish crystals in the outer layers of the leaf on both
faces. Their chemical reactions agree with those of the blue or violet
cell-sap, and they must, therefore, be regarded as anthocyan crystals.
They dissolve in acids to form a red solution, in potash to form a pale
green solution, and in chloral hydrate without any special change of
colour. They are doubtless identical with Zimmermann's "pigment
secretion " and Kroemer's violet chromatophore. A refractive globule
is found in each epidermal cell in this last phase, which closely resembles
those described by Kroemer in the coffee-berry ; it is probably a proteid
combined with fatty bodies.

Farmer, J. B. — On the interpretation of the Quadripolar Spindle in the Hepaticae.

Bot. Gazette, xxxvii. (1904) pp. 63-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 317

Strvicture and Development.

Vegetative.

Persistence of the Alternate Structure in Cotyledons.* — G.
Chauveaud refers to an interpretation of the relation between collateral
and radial bundles, which formed the subject of a previous note in the
Comptes Bendus, 1901. The collateral structure characteristic of the
leaf is not primary to the same degree as the alternate arrangement
which characterises the root. It represents the last phase of evolution
of the conducting apparatus, the alternate arrangement representing the
first phase, and the two being connected by an intermediate phase. In
all the roots of the higher plants where the conducting apparatus under-
goes a complete evolution, there appear (1) the alternate phase, (2) the
intermediate, (3) the superposed pbase. If instead of following the
development in the root wTe ascend the plant axis, we find a greater or
less acceleration of the development, which at a certain level finds ex-
pression in the suppression of the two first phases. When development
is greatly accelerated, as in the haricot, the suppression occurs suddenly
in the neighbourhood of the neck. When on the contrary it is less
rapid, as in onion and Pinus maritima, the earlier phases persist not
only in the tigellum but also in the cotyledons. That is to say there
appear in a leaf the same phases already indicated in the root :
(1) alternate, (2) intermediate, (3) superposed, a proof that the super-
posed arrangement in the leaf represents only the last phase of evolution
of the conducting apparatus. In a recent note,f the presence of the
alternate arrangement has been described in the cotyledons of several
Labiatre. In Lamium album and other members of. the order, the two
primary wood bundles of the radicle pass into the cotyledons, remaining
in the same plane, that is, the plane of symmetry of the cotyledons.
The bundles' do not divide, and no rotation occurs. At a later stage,
the first formed elements disappear and only superposed elements are
found.

Lignification of Subterranean Organs in Plants of High Re-
gions. J — A. Dauphine describes some peculiarities in the structure of
the wood of the roots and rhizomes of some herbaceous plants, which
when adapted to an alpine climate show a considerable development,
living for many years and forming organs of reserve during the period
when aerial growth is suspended ; successive layers of wood are formed
each year. In many families, Ranunculacese, Caryophyllaceae, Rosacea,
Compositge, G-entianaceae and others, the lignification of the secondary
wood is irregular. Thus in Cherleria sedoides the wood forms a con-
tinuous ring surrounding a very reduced pith ; the vessels, which are
very numerous and of small calibre, are scattered in a cellulose paren-
chyma, and have but slightly thickened membranes which show no
trace of lignification ; the medullary rays and the annual layers are not
evident. A similar arrangement occurs in the rhizome and root of

* Comptes R'-n lus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 768-72.

t Op. cit., cxxxvii. (1903) p. 804.

t Op. cit., cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 592-3.

June 15th, 1904 z

318 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Silene acaulis and Gentiana acaulis, in the root of dandelion, and in
numerous rhizomes. Sometimes the pith is more developed, and the
vessels do not form a continuous ring. In Phyteuma hemisphericum
the pith is obsolete, but the medullary rays are very well developed, and
the vessels, which alone are lignified, form, in transverse section, narrow
radial lines accompanied by a parenchyma with thin cellulose walls.
Trifolium alpinum, Lotus corniculatus and others, show a structure
which may be regarded as intermediate between the preceding case and
a normal lignification of the secondary wood. The vessels are arranged
in radial threads, while the accompanying cellulose parenchyma includes
also supporting elements, consisting of elongated fibres of very small
diameter and considerably thickened walls, the middle lamella of which
shows the lignin reaction, while the internal thickening consists of
cellulose, showing sometimes a slight tendency to lignification.

Reproductive.

Morphology of Elodea canadensis.* — R. B. Wylie has studied the
morphology of this plant, which is one of the most specialised members
of the Helobiales. He describes in detail the development of the pistil-
late flower ; the long floral tube between the ovary and sepals is directed
towards the surface of the water by virtue of its low specific gravity
brought about by three rows of air spaces. In the male flower, which
is much simpler, the receptacle instead of pushing up into a floral tube,
becomes merely conical, and gives rise in turn to sepals, outer stamens,,
inner stamens, and very much later the corolla, which is not prominent
and may be quite rudimentary. Four megaspores are usually formed,
but in one instance six were observed ; the embryo-sac early develops
a pouch, in which the antipodal group of nuclei is formed ; the polar
nuclei approach one another at an early stage, and may remain for a
long time side by side ; their fusion was not observed before fertilisation.
The stamens produce two microsporangia each ; the pollen-grains adhere
in tetrads, and have a greater specific gravity than that of water. It
is of interest that the microspores, though borne by one of the most
specialised of submerged aquatics, entirely devoid of cutinised walls in
all its vegetative parts, have a strongly cutinised extine and a well-
developed intine. In Najas and Zannichellia on the contrary no extine
is developed. The extine in Elodea possesses spines which hold back
the surface film and imprison sufficient air to keep the spores afloat.
The microspore nucleus divides long before the grain has reached its
full size ; the generative cell is at first crescentic in outline ; after its
passage into the cytoplasm of the tube-cell it is for a time spherical,
but subsequently becomes much elongated, and just before its division
into the male cells is curved and may extend nearly across the spore.
The tube nucleus shows considerable irregularities in outline during its
existence. The formation of male cells occurs long before the pollen-
grains are shed ; they remain joined together by their elongated ends,
while in the pollen-grain they show marked cell-structure ; about the
nucleus is an extensive mass of cytoplasm differing considerably from
the contents of the spore and closely invested by a limiting membrane.

"When the staminate flower is mature a bubble of oxygen forms at

* Bot. Gazette, xxxvii. (1904) pp. 1-22 (4 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 319

the tip, becoming nearly as large as the flower ; the buoyancy of the
enclosed gas, aided by the low specific gravity of the flower, overcomes
the weakened attachment, and the flower darts to the surface. The
bubble then disappears, and the sepals snap back quickly, forming three
floats, which support the sporangia above the water ; the pollen how-
ever is nearly all discharged at the moment the flower comes to the
surface, the snow-white tetrads being quite conspicuous floating on the
water. The pistillate flower is impervious to water and so produces a
depression in the surface film. Pollen-grains floating near are brought
into contact with the stigmas by means of gravity operating through
the declined surface film. The large pollen-tubes penetrate the long
floral tube and pass directly through the ovarian cavity to the upturned
micropyles. Tubes which have failed to enter ovules often swell up
into cyst-like enlargements in the ovary, in which the distinct male cells
can be seen. Fertilisation takes place in the usual manner, and the
second male cell unites with the endosperm nucleus. The primary
endosperm nucleus does not divide until a two-celled embryo has been
formed ; the pollen-tubes persist until the embryos are well developed.
The suspensor cell of the embryo becomes enormously enlarged, and
the synergid often increases in size. The primary root is probably
functionless, and secondary roots are developed in the seed from the
lower parts of the stem.

Pollination of Buckwheat.* — P. P. Richer finds as a result of
experiment with Polygonum Fagopyrum, a heterostyled dimorphic plant,
that the flowers are always quite sterile when self -pollinated, or with
pollen from flowers of the same form on the same plant. They are
very slightly fertile after illegitimate cross-pollination between flowers
of the same form on distinct plants. They are, on the contrary, highly
fertile after legitimate cross-pollination between flowers of different
form on distinct plants. It seems evident, therefore, that the two forms
of flower owe their fertility solely to reciprocal crossing, and conse-
quently that almost all the seeds produced naturally are the result of
legitimate union.

Physiology.

Nutrition and Growth.

Nitrogen-assimilation of Fresh-water Algae. t — J. Reinke de
scribes a symbiosis between Volvox and Azotobacter, associated with an
increase in the amount of combined nitrogen in the solution. He
suggests the importance of the latter as a means for obtaining nitrogen
from the atmosphere in the case of fresh water as well as of marine
organisms. The author adduces in support of his hypothesis the
observation of Gerlach and Vogel, that 10 to 12 p.c. of the dry weight
of Azotobacter consists of nitrogen ; it is therefore eminently qualified
to act in symbiosis as a nitrogen-assimilator for other plants.

Irritability.

Chemotropism of Roots.J — F. C. Newcombe and A. L. Rhodes find
that the roots of Lupinus alius are positively chemotropic towards solu-

* Coroptes Eendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 302-4.

t Ber. Deutsch. But. Gesell., xxi. (1903) pp. 481-3.

j Bot. Gazette, xxxvii. (1904) pp. -23-35.

Z 2

320 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tions of disodic phosphate, and that no concentration of the solution
will produce a negative curve. Stronger solutions (1*5 p.c.) cause first
a curving toward the salt and then death. The death of the roots may
he due to the osmotic strength of the surrounding medium. The
particular attractive component of the salt was not determined ; it may
be either the sodium or the phosphoric acid ion ; the work of Stange
and Buller suggests that the P04 ion is the active one. Roots of
Cucurbita Pepo are indifferent towards chemicals, a fact which suggests
that sensitiveness to chemicals may vary in the same way as sensitive-
ness to light ; that is to say, roots may be either chemotropic or non-
chemotropic. None of the roots tested gave any indication of osmo-
tropism ; the experiments suggested that osmotropism and hydrotropism
are not identical.

General.

Endophytic Fungus of Orchids.* — Noel Bernard, continuing his
investigations on this subject, has endeavoured to cultivate the endo-
phytic organisms of different Orchids. He finds in the case of a hybrid
Cyprlpedium, that the fungus, a hyphomycete morphologically identical
with that previously isolated from seedlings of Cattleya, penetrates the
embryo always at the pole turned towards the micropyle. The large
fleshy roots of Spiranthes autumnalis yielded a hyphomycete indistin-
guishable from the preceding. The results of experiment suggest that
the same endophyte can impregnate different Orchids ; that is to say,
we are dealing, as in the case of the Rhizobium of the Leguminosge,
with a parasite characteristic of the family.

Mechanics of Seed-dispersion in Ricinus communis.! — J. B.
Dandeno finds that as the carpels begin to separate in the ripe fruit,
one of the three is so placed that the angle of projection of the seed is
that which gives theoretically the greatest range ; the other two carpels
are in a less favourable position. The fruit splits septicidally from the
base till a point is reached about 3 mm. from the apex, and meanwhile
the carpels also separate from the central column, which bears three
projecting processes upon which they are finally suspended. The carpel
with its dorsal side uppermost has the most sun exposure and dries
most quickly ; this is also the one which has the best position for pro-
jection. After the carpels are entirely free from the central column,
the contraction of the dorsal wall continues until the carpel gives way
at its weakest point. This is at the apical end, where are three pairs
of tooth-shaped arrangements meeting at a line about 3 or 4 mm. long.
Each carpel splits apart at this line with some violence ; this acts as a
spring suddenly relaxed, and the carpel is projected ; the seed, though
projected with the carpel, is at this time or soon after, released.

As the result of a calculation the writer finds that the ground
covered by the seedlings from a single plant would be approximately
105 acres in 100 years. This calculation is based upon the considera-
tion of the fruit as a projectile alone, and takes no account of other

* Compti'S Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 828-30.
f Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 89-92.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 321

means for distributing the seed, such as washing away by water or
transportation by wind or animals.

Triadenum virginicum, Rafinesque.* — T. Holm adduces evidence
based on morphological and anatomical characters in support of Ra-
finesq ue's view of the generic distinction of Linnasus's Hypericum
virginicum. Rafinesque separated his genus from Hypericum solely on
the floral glands and reddish flowers, but a study of the plant from the
seedling and of the subterranean organs in connection with an ana-
tomical investigation of the vegetative organs compared with those of
other species of Hypericum, has convinced the writer that Triadenum
shows sufficient morphological and anatomical characters to entitle it to
generic distinction. Its more or less tuberous stolons with scale-like
leaves, are not met with among the species of Hypericum proper ; and
the subterranean organs offer several points of interest in which the
proposed genus shows a marked deviation from Hypericum. The vena-
tion of the leaves is also peculiar and characteristic ; the veins are very
prominent on the lower face of the blade, and the secondaries are more
numerous but shorter, and proceeding from the mid-rib under an angle
that is much broader than is observable in the leaves of Hypericum.
In the latter the secondaries proceed, as a rule, from below the middle
of the mid-rib, while in Triadenum they are noticeable almost to the
apex of the blade.

The author gives a somewhat detailed account of the anatomy of
the vegetative organs, and points out certain differencies as compared
with species of Hypericum. The disposition of the ducts seems cha-
racteristic of the genus Triadenum as compared with the other
Hypericaceas.

Hairs of Aquatic Plants, f — E. Barsali discusses the significance
of the hairs of aquatic plants. He cites on the one hand the opinions
of Stahl and Schrenk, that muciparous hairs protect the young organs
from the attacks of animals, and of colonies of alga3 and bacteria ;
and on the other hand the opinions of Goebel and Schilling, that these
hairs remove the young leaves from immediate contact with water.
From his own researches, he comes to the conclusion that the sole
object of the hairs, whether muciparous or not, is to protect and defend
the young organs from external influences.

Development of Stamens in the Interior of the Ovary of Melan-
dryum.J — F. Buchenau describes some abnormal flowers of Melandryum
rubrum found near Marburg, which at first sight appeared to be
apetalous female flowers. Examination showed them to consist of a
single whorl of rive leaves, which showed in a manner varying con-
siderably in different specimens the character partly of sepals and partly
of carpels. The members were united to form a chamber more or less
open at the top ; from the lower part of the chamber sprang a whorl
of stamens of normal form, generally six to nine in number, sometimes
ten. On one occasion a row of ovules was found on the united edges

* Anicr. Journ. Sci., xvi. (1903) pp. 369-7G (figs, in text).

t Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1903, pp. 301-7.

X Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. xxi. (1903) pp. 417-24 (1 pi.).

322 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of two adjacent carpel-like members of the outer series. There was
never any trace of a central placenta, and the author regards the
appearance of the ovules in the unique case as a proof of the origin of
the central placenta in normal flowers from the united edges of the
carpels.

Monstrosities in Foliage Leaves.* — L. Geisenheyner describes and
figures some abnormal leaf-forms. On shoots of Deutzia crenata bearing
leaves of normal form, other leaves were found showing various stages
of union ; the author figures a shoot showing a terminal " compound "
leaf derived from the union of four displaced simple leaves. He also
describes pitcher-formations, involving the whole or part of the leaf
in Magnolia Yulan, and cases of forking of the mid-rib in leaves of
the common Ivy, accompanied with a greater or less indentation or
lobing of the central leaf -segment.

Mobius, M. — History and description of the Botanic Garden at Frankfort-on-the
Main. Ber. Senckenb. Naturf. Ges. in Frankf.-a.-M., 1903,

pp. 117-51 (2 pis. and 2 figs, in text).

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

Development of Vascular Cryptogams.! — G. Chauveaud, as a result
of his researches into their embryology, states that the stem of vascular
cryptogams is a complex structure. The first divisions in the quadrants
of the egg of a fern form a primary meristem, which by differentiation
yields a foot, a primary root, a primary leaf, and an undifferentiated
portion. The primary root and the primary leaf constitute a primary
plantlet, connected with the prothallus by the foot. Between the foot
and the primary leaf is the undifferentiated portion, forming a tiny
growing point which, when the first leaf has almost reached its complete
development, divides actively and forms a second meristem which, on
differentiation, gives a continuation of the foot, a second root, a second
leaf, and an undifferentiated portion. The second root and leaf form a
second plantlet similar to the first, and also connected with the preceding
structures by the continuation of the foot. When the second plantlet
has reached a certain development, the undifferentiated growing point
between the leaf and the foot again divides, and a third plantlet is pro-
duced— in short, the fern is built up by a succession of elementary
plantlets, consisting of root and leaf, connected by the foot. This
mode of formation becomes gradually less evident, owing to rapidity
of development resulting in the greater or less fusion of the successive
plantlets. The number of cells is also increased in each new generation,
and hence these generations, arising at levels less and less distinct,
cause a very rapid transverse growth of the structure formed by the
fusion of their parts. This body is what we know as the stem, the
structure of which becomes increasingly complex with the increasing
age of the plant. Thus the stem of ferns represents a fusion of dif-
ferent parts, the number varying according to the level of the section.

* Ber. Daufscb. Bot. Gesell., xxi. (1903) pp. 440-51 (1 pi.).
f Comptes Itendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 511-13.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 323

Antithetic versus Homologous Alternation.* — D. H. Campbell
discusses the main arguments put forward in favour of the two rival
theories as to the origin of the Bryophyta and Pteridophyta, Accord-
ing to the Antithetic theory, the ferns originated from forms very
similar to the simpler existing liverworts, the leafy sporophyte being
an elaboration of the non-sexual sporophyte. The Homologous theory
maintains that the Bryophytes and Pteridophytes arose quite indepen-
dently of one another from Algal ancestors — a hypothesis first suggested
by the alga-like protonema of the mosses, and the somewhat similar
prothallia of certain ferns, especially Trichomanes. These filamentous
structures the author, a supporter of the Antithetic theory, regards as
merely secondary developments. He insists upon the obvious resem-
blances in the gametophyte of ferns and hepatics, especially the structure
and development of the archegonium, and the early stages of the sporo-
phyte and the extraordinarily uniform method of spore-production.
The sporophyte of Anthoceros in many ways offers the nearest approach
to the Pteridophytes, as the author shows. Apogamy is the strongest
argument in favour of homologous alternation, but, as it has only been
observed in the leptosporangiate ferns (i.e. the most recently evolved and
most specialised members of their class), and only in their cultivated
forms, apogamy appears to be a pathological phenomenon and not a
primitive function. Hence it is difficult to accept the homologous
theory that the sporophyte probably arose from the gametophyte as a
vegetative outgrowth. The author proceeds to reject this view for other
reasons. He gives reasons also for rejecting the view that the sporo-
phyte arose asexually from the gametophyte in response to a call for
increased chlorophyll activity. Purely vegetative shoots are of course
so produced ; but that these gave rise to the leafy sporophyte requires
evidence which is not forthcoming. Apospory and apogamy may be
compared to adventitious budding. The real explanation of the pecu-
liarities of the leafy sporophyte must be sought in the conditions of
water-supply. The bryophytes have never succeeded in emancipating
themselves from the aquatic habit. Their rhizoids are inadequate to
supply a plant-body of large size. The sporophyte, aerial in habit, by
means of its foot draws its water from the gametophyte ; and it was not
till a root of unlimited growth was evolved, that the sporophyte was
enabled to lead an independent existence and attain large dimensions.

Californian Ferns.t — S. B. Parish gives an account of the pterido-
phyta of California, a State which, stretching 600 miles from north to
south, presents great diversity of climatic conditions in latitude, altitude,
temperature and rainfall. The latter varies from 60 inches annually in
the north to 5 inches or less in the southern deserts. Yet the flora
amounts to no more than 76 species. There is a lack of the moist
equable warmth which the ferns require for their best development.
In the north there is an abundance of a few species, mainly bracken ;
in the arid south the xerophytic genera — Pellim, Notholana and Chei-
lanthes — exhibit the greatest development. There is a mingling of
ferns of a northern and southern type, and it is the latter which are the

* Amer. Naturalist, xxxvii. (1903), pp. 153-69.
t Fern Bulletin, xii. (1904) pp. 1-15.

324 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

more interesting and characteristic. The present list is partly a com-
pilation, but is probably correct. Its special interest lies in the records
of the distribution of the species within the State.

Baesecke, P. — Bsitrage zur Pteridopliytenflora des Rhein und Nahethales. (Con-
tributions to the Fern-flora of the Rhine and Nahe Valley.)
[Variations of Scolopendrium an>i Ceterach~\

Deutsch. Bot. Monatsschr., xx. (1902) pp. 65-69;
xxi. (1003) pp. 54-6, 76-80.
Bolcs, H., & A. H. Wolley-Dod — Ferns of the Cape Peninsula.

Trans. South African Phil. Soc, xiv. (1903) pp. 363-5.

Borbas, V. — Aspidium Thelipteris var. brachytomum Borb. var. nov.

Mag. Bot. lapok., ii. (1903) p. 256.

Chacveai'd, G. — Recherches sur la mode de formation des tubes cribles dans la
racine des Cryptogames Vasculaires et des Gymnospermes. (Researches on the
mode of formation of sieve tubes in the root of the Vascular Cryptograms and
Gymnosperms.) Ann. Sci. Nat., xviii. (1903) se'r. 8, pp. 165-279 (9 pis.).

Chiovenda, E. — Sul nome di alcune felci nostrali. (On Ihe rames of some native
Italian ferns.)

\_Phyllitis is a prior' name to Scolopendrium, as also is Polystichum Roth to
Aspidium Sw. ; and Cystopteris fragdis should be corrected to C. Jilix-
fragilis, Linnseus having called the plant Polypodium Filix-fragile~\

Ann. di Bot. Pirotta, i. (1903) pp. 208-10.

Christ, H.— Can Scolopendrium Lindeni Hook, be separated from S. vulgare Sm. ?

Fern Bull. xi. (1903) pp. S6-7.
„ ., Filices Cavalerianae.

[List of 48 pteridophyta from Kouy-Tehoou or Kwei-Chou province, in South
China, collected by L. Cavalerie, with 13 new species.]

Bull. Acad. Interned. Gtfogr.Bot, xiii. (1904) pp. 105-20

(9 figs, and 1 pi ).

„ ., Les fougeres de la Galicia Espagnole. (The Ferns of Spanish Galicia.)

[Annotated list of ferns collected by Rev. J. B. Merino, including some new

varieties.] Tom. <it., pp. 76-81.

Clos, D. — Sur une nouvelle localite francaise de rHymenophyllum tunbridgeuse,
(On a new French station for H. tunbridgeuse.)

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1. (1903) pp. 592-4.

Clcte, W. N. — A new species of Equisetum.

[fi1. Fcrrissi, resembling E. hyemale, but differing in measurements of sttm and

internodes and number of grooves.] Fern Bulletin, xii. (1904) pp. 20-3.

„ „ The measurement of variation in Equisetum.

[Comparative measurements of a large number of mature specimens of B.

robustum and E. hyemale, leading to the conclusion that the former is only

a stout form of the latter.] Tom. cit., pp. 15-8.

Coker, W. C. — Equisetum arvense L.

[Illustrated note on the young prothallia.]

Bot. Gazelle, xxxvii. (1904) pp. 69-1 (figs, in text).
Eaton, A. A. — The genus Equisetum in North America. XVI. E. variegatum.

Ftrn Bulletin, xii. (1904) pp. 23-5.

Field, H. C. — Note on Hybrid Ferns. Trans. Proc. Neio Zealand Inst.,

xxxv. (1903) pp. 372-3.

Geze, J. B. — Note sur la piesence de l'Asplenium viride Huds. dans les environs de
Toulouse. (Note on the presence of A. viride in the neighbourhood of Toulouse.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1. (1903) pp. 481-2.

Gilbert, B. D. — A new Fern from Bermuda.

Amer. Botanist, iv. (1903) pp. 86-7-
Gwynn-Vaughan, D. T.— Observations on the Anatomy of Solenostelic Ferns.

Ann. Bot, xvii.(1903) pp. 689-748(3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 325

W. H— Kcw Notes. Rare Ferns. Gard. Chron., 1901, p. 140 (fig ).

Hey, W. C. — Asplenium adiantum-nigrum in East Yorkshire.

Naturalist, 1904, p. 32.
Hill, E. J. — Remarks on some Fern- worts of Western New York.

Fern Bulletin, xii. (1901) pp. 18-20.
Hiekonymus, G. — Selaginellae novae.

[Descriptions of three new West Indian species.]

Urban's Symbolse Antillanse,\\\. (1903) pp. 524-7.
„ „ Selaginellarum species novae vel non satis cognitae. II. Selagi-

nellae e subgenere (vel sectione; Heterophyllo. (Species of Selagindla which sire
new or insufficiently km.wn. Part II. Species of the sub-genus or s-ection
Beterophyllum.)

[A continuation, giving full descriptions of 44 species, with ciitic.,1 notes.

Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 1-65.
Johnson, T. — Tyloses in the Bracken Fern (Pteris aqnilina L.).

Froc. R. Soc. Dublin, x. (1903) pp. 101-3 (1 pi).
Krieger, W. — Die Formen nnd Monstrositaten von Polypodium vulgare L. in der
Umgebung von Konigstein (Konigreich Sachsen). (The forms and monstrosities
of P. vulgare in the environs of Konigstein, Saxony.)

Iledwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 74-7.
Kuhn, M., & others— Flora portoricensis. Pteridophyta.

[Systematic enumeration of the pteridophytes of Poito Rico, 254 specks.]

Urban's Symbolse Antillanse, iv. (1903) pp. 1-70.

Leveille, H. — Quelques fougeres anormales du Maine. (Some abnoimal ferns of

Maine.) Bull. Soc. Agric. Set. Art. Sarthe., ser. 2, xxxi. (1903) p. 176.

Ltjerssen, C. — Botanische Ausbeute einer Reise durch die Sinaihalbinsel von

A. Kneucker. Pteridophyta. (Botanical results of A. Kneucker's journey through

the Sinai peninsula. Pteridophytes.)

[Contains a description of a new form of Equisetum.']

Allg. Bot. Zeitschr., 1903, pp. 184-5.
Macloskie, G. — Pteridophyta (collected in Fuego and Fatagonia by J. B. Hatcher).
[Forty-three species determined by L. M. Underwood.]

Princeton Unicers'ty Exped. to Patagonia, viii. (1903) pp. 127-38.
M axon, W. R. — A study of certain Mexican and Guatemalan species of Polypodium

Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb., viii. (1903) pp. 271-89 (2 pis.).
Poole, H. S. — On a polished section of Stigmaria, showing an axial cellular struc-
ture. Troc. Trans. Nov. Scot. Inst. Sci., x. (Halifax, 1903) pp. 345-7 (2 pis ).

R[ouy], G. — Sur l'habitat des Hymenophyllum tunbridgense Smith et unilaterale
Bory.

[The geographical distribution of these two species.]

Rev. But. Syst. Geogr. Bot, i. (1904) pp. 186-9.
Stopes, M. C— The Epidermoidal layer of Calamite Roots.

Ann. Bot., xvii. (1903) pp. 792-4 (fig.).
Traislt, L. — Sur la presence de l'lsoetes setacea Bosc. en Portugal. (On the
presence of /. setacea in Portugal.) Bull. Soc. Bot. France, li. (1904) p. 28.

Underavood, L. M. — Four recently described Ferns from Jamaica.

Jamaica Bull. Dept. Agric, 1903, pp. 136-8.
Waters, C. E. — Ferns: a Manual for the North-eastern States.

[A popular work, containing keys based on the fibrovascular bundles of the
stipes ]

New York, Holt, 1903, xi. and 302 pp., with over 200 process figs.
Weber, E. A. — Der Duwock (Equisetum palustre L).

Arb. Deutsch. Landw. Get., Heft. 72 (1933) 71 pp. (3 pi.).
Wittmack, L. — Geschichte und Beschreibung des Adiantum Farleyense Thomas
Moore. (History and description of A. Farleyense.)

Gartenflora, lii. (1903) pp. 631-4, 643-4.
Zeiller, K. — Hymenophyllum tunbridgense dans la region de Cambo.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1. (1903) pp. 590-2.

32G SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Bryophyta.

Origin of Moss-Archegonium.* — Gr. M. Holferty discusses the de-
velopment of the archegonium of mosses, and especially of the axial
cells, basing his views upon a study of Mnium cuspidatmn. After a
short historical account of previous researches, he describes the early
stages of the archegonium, the behaviour of the terminal cell and the
canal cells, the division of the central cell, the peripheral cells. He
attempts to establish the homology of archegonia and antheridia by
showing the homology (1) of the early stages ; (2) of the cells of the
axial row ; and (3) of the axial row series and sperm mother-cells. He
thinks that both archegonia and antheridia may have had a common
origin in the asexual multilocular terminal zoosporangium of some
primitive extinct genus of Chlorophycese.

Critical Notes on Muscinese.f — V. Schiffner begins a series of critical
notes on new or little known mosses and hepatics, with remarks on their
distribution, morphology and biology. He gives a detailed description
of Scapania n&palensis Nees, and discusses its affinity. He has examined
the original specimen of Gymnoscyphus repens Corda, and finds it to be
parocious and identical in structure with Aplozia pumila. Hence the
genus Gymnoscyphus, a long-standing puzzle, must be suppressed. He
discusses Lepidozia reptans forma laxa Jaap, an interesting plant which
must be regarded either as linking L. reptans with L. Pearsoni, or as
a new species, L. intermedia. He describes Cephaloziella Jaclcii var.
Jaapiana, an interesting instance of modifications caused by change of
environment. He gives the chief characteristics of C. byssacea var.
verrucosa Jens., and is inclined to regard the plant as a mere form.

Rhynchostegium litoreum.J — H. N. Dixon discusses the systematic
position of this moss, which occurs along the Mediterranean coast and
also in the south of England. He has received specimens from Algiers,
the first record for Africa. Its affinity he considers to be with R. temllum
rather than with R. curvisetum, for reasons which he states in detail. As
an alternative, he raises the question whether R. litoreum may not be a
hybrid of the other two species.

Tyrolean MuscineseJ — K. W. v. Dalla Torre and Ludwig Graf von
Sarnthein have issued the fifth volume of their flora of Tyrol, Vorarlberg
and Liechtenstein, containing a list of 182 hepatics and 731 mosses,
with numerous varieties. A complete account of the distribution in the
several botanical provinces is given, with the collector's name, substratum,
altitude, and references to the literature where the record is to be found.
Limpricht's classification has been employed for the mosses, and assistance
has been obtained from Matouschek, Schiffner and Stephani. A chapter
on the history of bryological research in Tyrol and a copious index are
added.

* Bot. Gazette, xxxvii. (1904) pp. 106-12G (2 pis.).
t Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., liv. (1904) pp. 52-8, 102-4.
% Rev. Bryol., xxxi. (1904) pp. 21-3.

§ Flora von Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Liechtenstein. V. Die Moose. Innsbruck, 1904,
liv. and 671 pp. (1 portrait).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 327

North American Mosses.* — J. M. Holzinger discusses the external
structure of Anacolia, and amends Scbimper's description of the genus
by the admission of a rudimentary peristome in certain cases, thus
bringing within the generic limits two North American species pre-
viously placed in Bartramia and Giyphocarpus. J. Cardot f publishes
notes on eight North American mosses. J. F. Collins % corrects some
erroneous citations made by Limpricht, Schimper and others, from Nees
and Hornschuch's Bryologia Germanica, concerning Weisia and Hymeno-
stomum. P. M. Towle and A. E. Gilbert § give some notes on the
fertilisation of Polytrichum at Vermont. The antheridia and arche-
gonia reach maturity in April ; and fifteen months later the spores in
the sporophyte are ripe for dispersal.

Patagonian and Fuegian Mosses. |] — P. Dusen gives an account of
the 71 mosses collected by J. B. Hatcher in 1896-7, near Rio Chico,
etc., including 24 new species. The latter are fully described and
figured. Two long lists follow : consisting of (1) described species ;
(2) species named, but not yet described in print. The same writer
also gives an account of the leading features of the vegetation of
western Patagonia from his own experience, and conveys therein much
information about the habitats and distribution of the Muscinea?.

Hawaiian Mosses. IT — E. Levier gives an historical account of the
collections of mosses which have been made in the Sandwich Islands,
and of papers published upon them. Having submitted to V. F.
Brotherus a set of specimens gathered by D. D. Baldwin, he gives a
list of the determinations, comprising 163, of which 74 are new species.
14 are new to the archipelago, and 75 had been previously recorded.
The total number of species recorded for the islands is now 254, and
that of the genera is 86. The island of Maui yields the richest moss-
flora.

Morphology and Biology of Ricciocarpus natans.** — J. F. Garber
describes the life-history of Ricciocarpus natans under the headings :
material and methods ; the thallus ; the sex-organs ; fertilisation ; the
sporophyte ; biology. When fruiting (in spring) the plant floats on
the surface. The plant is monoecious and bears the sex-organs in
definite groups, the antheridia preceding the archegonia. The earliest
division of the sporophyte is transverse or oblique ; and the early sub-
sequent divisions are irregular. Much nutritive material is excreted
into the capsule. There is no indication of elaters or of a sporophyte
foot ; but a structure, which is the physiological equivalent of a foot,
is developed from the basal cell of the archegonium. The gametophyte
number of chromosomes is four ; that of the sporophyte is eight.
Plants stranded on wet soil take root and lose their ventral plates, but
if inundated again are unable to resume the floating; condition unless

*

Bryolosist, vii. (1904) pp. 23-9. t Tom. cit , pp. 30-1.

% Tom. cit., pp. 32-3. ' § Tom. cit. pp. 35-6.

j| Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, viii. (1903) pp. 1-33; 63-125 (7 pis.; figs,
in text).

1 Bull. Soc. Dot. Ital., 1901. pp. 7-25.
** Bwt. Gazette, xxxvii. (1901) pp. 161-77 (2 pis. and figs.).

328 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the young apices manage to break away to the surface of the water.
The apices have great plastic capacity. The sporophyte is liable to
attack by an Ustilagineous fungus.

Mycorrhiza of Liver-worts. — Anton J. M. Garjeanne* has examined
the mycorrhiza found in the rhizoids of a great many hepatics, and
concludes that they are more of the nature of parasites than of symbionts.
The fungus penetrates the rhizoid from the soil, and the invaded cells
become more or less disorganised. Many examples were found to be
entirely free from hyphae and yet growing vigorously. The author thinks
that in these lower plants mycorrhiza is of less importance than in the
higher forms.

B. Nemecf discusses the relation of the mycorrhiza to its host in
Calypogeia trichomanis. He points out that it is found only in the short-
lived rhizoids, that it enters them from the outside and never from the
hepatic thallus, that it forms pscudoparenchymatous swellings in the
rhizoid initials, and may throw out haustoria into neighbouring cells but
spreads no further, being kept at bay by the vitality of the host. Its
presence in, or absence from, the hepatic appears to depend upon the
habitat of the latter. While the mycorrhiza benefits by the symbiosis,,
the hepatic appears neither to benefit nor to suffer by its presence, so far
as the author can determine.

Patagonian Hepatics.!— A. W. Evans gives an account of the
53 hepatics gathered by J. B. Hatcher on the south coast of Tierra del
Fuego, and in Patagonia by J. B. Hatcher in 1896-7. Two new species
and some rare and incompletely known forms are described and com-
mented upon. A supplementary list of all known hepatics from the
region of the Magellan Straits is added.

Barker, T. — Note on Tortula rigida Schrad. and Tortula brevirostris Hook, and
Grev.

[A doubt as to whether these are really distinct species.]

Bev. Bryol., xxxi. (1904) p. 23.

Bauer, E.— Musci Europaei exsiccati, series I. Prague, 1903, 16 pp.

Ben a, M.— Die Laubmoosfiora des Ostrawitzatbales. (Moss-flora of the Ostra-
witzathal.)

[An annotated list of 240 species, 10 of which are new to Moravia and Silesia.]

Verh. naturf. Ver. Briin>\ xli. (1903) pp. 3-27.

Blind, C. — Note complementaire sur les Sphaignes de la region jurassienne.
(Supplementary note on the spbagna of the Jura.)

Bull. Soc. Nat. Ain, 1903, pp. 16-18.

Bottini, A. — I primi Muschi delle isole Eolie. (The first Mosses of the ^Eolian
islands )

[Filty-eigU species.] Bull Soc. Bot. Ital,, 1903, pp. 294-9.

Brotherus, V. F.— Musci Hawaiici, quos legit D. D. Baldwin. (Mosses of the
Sandwich I.-lands, collected by D. D. BaldwiD.)

[List of 163 species, of which 74 species and 5 varieties are new.]

Op. cit., 1904, pp. 14-25.

* Beih. Bot. Centralbl., xv. (1903) pp. 471-82 (10 figs.).

t Op. cit., xvi. (1904) pp. 253-68 (.1 pi.).

X Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, viii. (1903) pp. 35-62 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 329

Brotherus, V. F. — Musci novi Dassiani. (New mosses collected by Duss.)
[Descriptions of 20 new species from Martinique and Guadeloupe.]

Urbaris Symbolx Antillange, iii. (1903) pp. 421-9

Brown, R. — On the Musci of the Calcareous Districts of New Zealand, with
descriptions of 35 new species.

Trans. I'roc. N. Zeal. Inst., xxxv. (1903) pp. 323-42 (6 pis.)

Bruckner, Familler, and others — Flora exsiccata Bavarica. Bryophyta.
Lf. 9-12, Nos. 201-300.

Mitt. Bayer. Bot. Ges. Erf. Heim. Flor., 1904, pp. 348-9.

Brunnthaler, J. — Ueber die Wachsausscheidung von Ditrichum glaucescens.
(On the secretion of wax in D. glaucescens.)

Oesterr. Bot. Zeitsclir., liv. (1904) pp. 94-6.

"Camus, F. — Muscinees recueillies en Corse en maiet juinl901. (Muscinese gathered
in Corsica in May and June 1901.)

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1. (1903) pp. cli-clxxv.

Cardot, J., et I. Theriot — Mousses de Kouy-Tcheou (Chine). (Mosses of the
Chinese province Kwei-Chau.)

[Contains 16 species, collected by E. Bodinier, two of which are new.]

Bull. Acad. Internat. Geogr. Bot., xiii. (1904) pp. 81-4 (1 pi.).

Corbiere, L.— Contribution a la flore bryologique de l'Algerie. (Contribution to
the mo.-s-flora of Algeria.)

[A list of 104 mosses and 34 hepatics, of which 11 mosses and 24 hepatics are
additions to the flora.] Rev. Bryol., xxxi. (1904) pp. 31-42.

Cufisi, L. — Contributo alia Flora Briologica del Canada. (Contribution to the
moss-flora of Canada.)

[List of 33 British Columbian mosses]

Bull. Soc. Bot. Hal., 1903, pp. 287-90.

Culm an, P.,. und J. Weber — Verzeichnis der Laubmoose des Kantons Zurich.
(List of the mosses of Canton Zurich.)

Milt. Nat. Ges. Winterthur, 1903, pp. 3-SO.

Da vies, J. H. — Moss notes from North Ireland.

[List of 47 speck's, 6 new to Ireland.] Irish Naturalist, 1904, pp. 15-21.

Dieckhoff, H. — Beitrage zu einer Mossflora von Geestenuinde. (Contributions
towards a moss flora of Geesti-miinde.)

Aus. d. Heimatf. d. Heimat, 1903, pp. 3-16.

Dixon, H. N — Discelium nudum Brid. in Northants.

[A new, and the southernmost British record for the species.]

Journ. Bot, xlii. (1901) p. 55.
j, „ Pottia Heimii Fiirnr. inland.

[Records the occurrence of this distinctly maritime moss in Northamptonshire.
It has also been recorded from other inland districts in Kent, Yorkshire,
Somerset, and Hereford.] __ Turn, cit., pp. 55, 89.

„ „ & W. E. Nicholson — Bryological notes on a trip in Norway.

Nyt Mag. Naturv., xlii. (1904) pp. 91-6.

Geheeb. A. — Botanische Ausbeute einer Eeiser durch die Sinaihalbinsel von
A. Kneucker. Bryophyta. (Botanical results of A. Kneucker's journey through
the Sinai peninsula. Bryophytes.)

[Includes 20 species, 14 of which are new to Sinai, among them being two new
to science, two hitherto known only from Kurdistan, and one recorded only
from New Zealand ] Allg. Bot. Zeitschr. 1903, pp. 185-9, 203-4 ;

1904, pp. 4-5.

Hagen, J. — A propos de l'inflorescence du Bryum pallescens. (The inflorescence of
Bryum pallescens.) Rev. Bryol., xxxi. (1904) p. 30.

„ „ Sur la position systematique du Dicranum molle.

[A claim that this moss should be put into the Scopnria group, and not into
Arctoa.~\ Tom. cit., pp. 28-9.

330 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Handel-Mazzetti, H. ton — Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Moesfloravon Tirol. (Con-
tribution to our knowledge of the moss-flora of the Tyrol.)

Verh. K. K. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, 1904, pp. 58-77.

Herzog, T. — Die Laubmoose Badens. Eine bryogeographische Skizze. (The mosses
of Baden. A bryogeographical sketch.)

[Continuation. Distribution and main characteristics of 51 species.]

Bull. Herb. Boissier, iv. (1904) pp. 241-56.
Jensen, C. — Cephalozia striatula, nova sp.

[Description of a new Danish hepatic]

Rev. Bryol., xxxi. (1904) pp. 25-7 (figs.).
„ ., Hypnum (Brachythecium) validum, nova sp.

[Description of a new Danish moss.] Tom. cit., p. 24 (fig.).

Langeron — Les Mousses sociales du Palatinat. (Moss associations of the Palati-
nate.)

[A study of the Harpidia and other social groups of mosses.]

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1. (1903) pp. 430-58.
Laubinger, C— Laubmoose von Niederhessen (Cassel) und Miinden. (Mosses of
Lower Hesse (Cassel) and Miinden.)

Abh. Ver.f. Nat. Cassel, xlviii. (1903) pp. 1-80.

,, „ Lebermoose in nSrdlichen Reg.-Bezirke Kassel und Miinden. (Liver-

worts in the northern parts of the Kassel and Mtinden district.)

Abh. Ber. Ver. Naturk. Kassel, 1903, pp. 88-96.

Litschaeer, V. — Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Moosflora Algiers. (Contribution to
a knowledge of the moss-flora of Algiers.)

[A re'sume of previous publications on the subject, together with the beginning
of a revised list of the species.]

Oesterr. Bot. Zeilschr., liv. (1904) pp. 104-12.

„ „ Beitrag zur Kentnis der Moosflora Tirols. (Contribution to our

knowledge of the moss-flora of Tyrol.) Op. cit., liii. (1903) pp. 370-6.

Macvicar, S. M. — New British Hepaticae.

[Records the occurrence of Lophozia guttulata and Odontoschisma Macounii in
the Highlands, and adds some brief notes.]

Journ. Bot., xlii. (1904) p. 88.

Matotjschek, F. — Additamenta ad Floram bryologicam Hungariae. (Additions to

the Hungarian moss flora.) Mag. Bot. Lapok., ii. (1903) pp. 205-8.

„ „ Aeltere und neuere Mcosfunde aus Niederosterreich. (Old and

new records of Muscinese in Lower Austria.)

Deutsch. Bot. Monatsschr., xx. (1902) pp. 110-14.
„ „ Beitrage zur bryologischen Floristik von Rajnochowitz und

dessen weiterer Umgebung. (Contributions to the bryological flora of Rajno-
chowitz and its more extended environs.)

Zeilschr. Mdhr. Landesmus, iii. (1903) pp. 113-22.

„ „ Beitrage zur Moosflora von Karnthen. II. (Contributions to

the moss-flora of Carinthia. Part II.) Carinthia, 1903, pp. 93-100.

„ „ Bryologische-floristische Mittheilungen aus Bohmen. (Commu-

nications regarding the bryological flora of Bohemia.)

Mitt. Ver. Naturfreunde, Beicheribach, 1902, pp. 44-8;

1903, pp. 60-74.
„ „ Das Bryologische Nachlassherbar des Friedrich Stolz. Ein

Beitrag z. bryolog. Floristik von Tirol und dem angrenz, Italien, v. Bayern,
Krain u. d. Kustenlandern. (The moss-herbarium of the late F. Stolz. A con-
tribution to the moss-flora of Tyrol and the adjoining parts of Italy, Bavaria,
Carniola, and the maritime provinces.)

Ber. Naturic. Med. Ver. Innsbruck, 1903, 184 pp.
Migula, W. — Thome's Flora von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz.

[Finishes the mosses, 916 of which have been described, and begins the
hepatics.] Bd. v. Lief. 1G (Gera, 1904) pp. 401-48 (6 pi.)

Paris, E.G. — Index Bryologicus. Ed. II. Fasc. 1-5.

Paris: Hermann, 19D3-4, pp. 1-320.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 331

Pa his. E. G. — Muscinees de l'Afrique Occidentale francaise. (Muscineaeof French
West Africa.)

[A list of 32 mosses and 2 heputics ; 19 of the mosses are new, and are de-
scribed.! Bev. Bryol, xxxi. (1904) pp. 42-9.
Peklo, J. — Einiges iiber die Mycorrhiza bei den Muscineen. (Concerning the
occurrence of Mycorrhiza in Mnscineae.)

Bozpranz Abh. d. Bbhm. Ahad., xii. (1903) No. 58, 22 pp., 1 tab.

Peterfi, M.— A Catherinea nndulata rokonsaga. (Catberinea undulata and its
relationship.) Magyar But. Lap., ii. (1903) pp. 46-55.

„ Az erdelyi Fissedensekrbl. (On the species of Fissidens of Sieben-
biirge.) Tom. cit., pp. 64-S9.

„ „ Adatok Erdely lombos Mohflesajaboz. (Contributions to the moss-

flora of Siebenbiirge [Transsylvania].) Tom. cit., pp. 288-98.

,, „ Bryologiai Kbzlemenyek. (Bryological communications.)
[Contains two mosses and a variety new to Hungary.]

Nuvenytani Kbzlemenyek, ii. (1903) pp. 173-6.

„ „ TJeber die ungarischen Weissia-Arten. (On the Hungarian spe.-ies
of Weissia.) Nov. KbzL, 1903, pp. 24-5.

Quelle, F. — Gottingens Moosvegetation. (Moss-vegetation of Gottingen.)

Inaug. Diss., 1902, 163 pp.

Koll, J. — Beitrage zur Laubmoss- und Torfmoos-Flora der Hohen Tatra. (Contri-
butions to the moss- and sphagnum-flora of the Tatra Mountains.)
[A list of 114 mosses and of 45 varieties of Sphagnum.]

Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 132-9.

IIoth, G. — Die europaischen Laubmoose. (The mosses of Europe.)
[Completion of first vol. of the flora.]

Bi. i. Lief. 5 (Leipzig, 1904) pp. i-xiii., 513-98 (14 pis.).

Schiffnek, V. — Kritische Bemerkungen iiber die Europaischen Lebennoose mit
Bezug auf die Exemplare des Exsiccatenwerkes Hepaticae europaeae exsiccatae.
Series III. (Critical remarks on the European liverworts, with reference to the
specimens of the author's Hepaticx europx.se exsiccatse).

Sitz. ber. Deutsch. Naturw. Med. Yer. " Lotos." Prag.y

xxiii. (1903) pp. 215-77.

„ „ TJeber Riccia Baumgartneri n. sp. und die mit dieser Nachstver-

wandten Formen. (On a new species, Ii. Baumgartneri ', and its nearest allies.)

Oesterr. But. Zeitschr. liv. (1904) pp. 88-94 (S figs.).

Stephani, F. — Marsupella olivacea. Op. cit.,\iii. (1903) pp. 340, 311.

Theriot, I. — Mousses de la Nouvelle-Caledonie. (Mosses of New Caledonia.)
[Contains nine species, collected by Dr. De la Combe; three are new.]

Bull. Ahad. Internat. Geogr. Bot., xiii. (1904) pp. 85-6 (1 pi.).

Valenovski, J. — Iatrovky ceske. (Hepaticae of Bohemia.)

Bozpr. Akad. Prague, 1902, 24 pp. 4 pis.

Waddell, C. H. — Jungermannia capitata Hook, in Co. Down.

Irish Naturalist, xii. (1903) p. 219.

„ ,, Thuidium delicatulum in Co. Down. Loc. cit.

Warnstorf, C. — Neue europaische und exotische Moose. (New European and
exotic mosses.)
[Descriptions of 12 mosses and 5 exotic sphagna.]

Beth. Bot. Centrulbl., xvi.(1904) pp. 237-52 (2 pis.).

Winkles! ann, J. — Ein Beitrag zurMoosflora Ober-Baierns und Tirols. (Contribu-
tion to the moss-flora of Upper Bavaria and Tyrol.)
[List of 35 hepatics and 58 mosses of Alpine type.]

Deutsch. Bot. Monatsschr., xxi. (1903) pp. 10G-10.
Wollnt, E. — Eine fur Deutschland neues Lebermoos. (A new German liverwort.)

Mitt. Bayer. Bot. Ges. Erf. Heim. Flor., 1904, pp. 341-2.
Zschacke, W. — Weitere neue Miosfunde aus Anhalt. (Further new moss-records
for Anhalt.)

[Contains three corrections of records in a former paper, with several
additions.] Deutsch. But. Monatsschr., xxii. (1904) pp. 3-6.

332 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Thallophyta.

Alg-ae.

Points of Algological Nomenclature.* — R. Chodat publishes notes
on the nomenclature of certain genera, as to which he differs from other
authors. He first deals with the question as to whether Wille is right
in considering Sphccrocystis Chod. a synonym of Glwococcus A. Braun.
The author considers there is no justification for this course, since
Glfxococcus is a palmelloid condition of some alga unknown, while
Sphcerocystis is characterised by its colonies of microscopical, free-
swimming cells, which are quite spherical. The latter plant has been
often found, while no one but "Wille has ever been able to recognise
Glaococcus. In the second note, the author discusses SphcereUa and
Ghlamydomonas, and shows that though SphcereUa nivalis scarcely
differs from a Chlamydomonas, still the name SphcereUa should be
maintained. S. lacustris should be S. Wranyelii Sommerfelt. In the
next note, the differences between Pteromonas nivalis Chod. and Astasia
nivalis Shuttlew. are pointed out. Finally, the new genus Ghionaster
Wille is stated to be a synonym of the fungus Gerasterias nivalis Bohlin,
which is the same as Tetracladium De Wildeniann.

Colour of Algae and of Water.f — N. Gaidukov summarises the
work of former writers on the relation between the colour of algse and
the rays of light which reach them at their various depths. Hehas
himself experimented on Oscillatoria sancta and 0. caldariorum, and
finds that the colour of these species alters under the influence of dif-
ferently coloured lights, and he compares his results and conclusions
with those of other writers on the subject. The depth of the water
through which the sun's rays have to pass affects the quality of the light
which reaches the plants, and the colour of the alga accommodates itself
.accordingly. Water, however, varies in colour according to the season,
the condition of the sky, etc. ; and irrespective of these variations there
are many other influences which affect the distribution in depth, and the
colour of the alga?. But, speaking generally, the most important
factor in the distribution in depth, and the colour of alga?, is the
quality of the sunlight — the source of energy. In fact, the author
sums up the whole question as follows : In the process of photosyn-
thesis, therelitions between certain rays and the work performed by
them can only be quantitative. The view concerning the harmful
or beneficial effect of this or that ray of light on the processes of photo-
synthesis is without justification, as is also the view that chlorophyll is
the only assimilative colouring matter in those chromophyll-containing
algee growing in deep water ; and both these views are contrary to the
great natural law — the conservation of energy.

Sexual Reproduction in Ceratium.J — E. Zederbauer has observed
for the first time sexual reproduction in the Peridineee. In Ceratium
hirundinella, a fresh-water form, two individuals become fixed together
by a mass of slime ; from each there then grows out of the longitudinal

* Bull. Herb. Boiss., iv. (1934) pp. 233-40.

t Hedwigi;i. xliii. (1904) pp. 96-118.

J Bcr. Deutsch. But. Ges., xxii. (1904) pp. 1-8 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 333

furrow a conjugation-tube. The two tubes unite and the cell-contents
pass into the tubes and there become fused and form a zygospore.
Such a method of sexual reproduction strongly supports the view of
the relationship of the Peridineas with the Conjugates and Diatoms.

Siphonese Studies. * — A. Ernst publishes a continuation of these
studies, of which No. II. is entitled " Contributions to a knowledge of
Codiaceas." He begins by describing a plant from Posilipo as a new
species of Udotea, and calls it U. minima, comparing it with U. Des-
fontainii, the well-known Mediterranean species. It is characterised by
the absence of the peripheral filaments, which occur as a rule in U.
Desfontainii. A section of this paper is devoted to a consideration of
this latter species, and another to its regenerative power in connection
with external injury. This power it possesses to a considerable degree.
The " Phylogeny and System of Codiaceaa " forms the next subject,
and is followed by remarks on the genus Godium, which is placed by
the author with Pseudocodium in sub-family Codieas, as distinct from
sub-family Udoteae, in the family Codiaceas. The nine families of
Siphoneaa are enumerated, as also the four of Siphonocladeaj, and the
question of reproduction in this group is discussed. The author is
strongly of opinion that the so-called zoosporangia of Udotea, figured
in certain works, are merely foreign bodies, and have no connection
with the plant. He has often searched for sporangia on specimens of
Udotea, and has tried to grow plants of his new species with a view to
the development of fruit, but without success. He thinks it, however,
premature to assume that although in the past many of the genera of
Siphoneag may have had sexual reproductive organs, they are now
reduced to methods of vegetative propagation only. This conclusion
can only be reached after years of growth under inspection in native
habitats. The paper is illustrated by three plates.

The third of the Siphoneaa studies is devoted to the morphology
and physiology of the reproductive cells of the genus Vaucheria. The
author begins by a chapter on the formation of sporangia and aplano-
spores in Vaucheria piloboloides Thur., in which he gives a short resumi
of work done on the zoospores of Vaucheria, and then goes on to
describe the asexual spores of V. piloboloides, which he considers occupy
an intermediate position between the zoospore of V. sessilis and the
aplanospore of V. geminata. The formation of both sporangium and
spore in V. piloboloides occupies only a few hours, and the process is
described in detail, as well as the subsequent escape of the spores. The
free spores of V. piloboloides are distinguished from those of any other
species of Vaucheria by their elongated club-shaped form, which is pre-
served even after germination. This process is also described. The
conditions of spore-formation in V. piloboloides are then discussed. In
contrast to the fresh- water species of Vaucheria, V. piloboloides develops
under conditions more or less stable, and the period of its vegetation
lasts at Naples about two months. Successful attempts were made to
grow it under observation, and the best methods are given for arousing
the formation of zoospores. Various experiments were tried in con-

* Beih. Bot. CentralbL, xvi. (1904) pp. 199-236 (3 pte.); pp. 367-82 (1 pi.).
June 15th, 1904 2 A

334 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

nection with the formation of aplanospores, and the details with the
respective results are here set forth.

Genus Spirotsenia.* — J. Lutkemiiller continues his studies on Spiro-
tamia, begun in 1895, describing new species and giving observations
on others already known. For the limitation of species he considers
that the form of the cells and the form and arrangement of the chloro-
phores are of importance. The chlorophores are either parietal or
axile ; in the latter case the pyrenoids are always found lying along the
longitudinal axis of the cells. In parietal chlorophores the breadth of
the band, the number and narrowness of its windings, and the angle
of the spiral curve are to be noted. The author gives indications as
to what constitutes a broad or a narrow band, as well as a gentle or
sharp angle in the spiral curve ; and alludes to further details of im-
portance in species having axile chlorophores. Diagnoses and notes
are given of thirteen species, of which three are new.

New Species of Ecballocystis.t — K. Yendo describes three new
marine species of this genus, which has till now only been recorded
from fresh water. Two of the new species are from the coasts of
Japan and one from Port Renfrew, B.C. Zoosporangia have been
observed in two of the new species. All three are minutely described,
and their relationship with EugUnopsis, Prasinocladus, Chlorangium,
and Collins ietta is discussed.

Transmutation of various Stages in Diatomaceae.:}: — C. Meresch-
kowsky formulates a law to explain the variation in diatoms and their
genealogy. In a previous paper § he enunciates what he calls the Law
of the endochrome, the principle of which is that the endochrome of
immobile diatoms has a tendency to cover the surface of the frustule in
such a way as to leave uncovered so far as possible the raphe and other
openings in the walls, in order that the protoplasm may come into
contact with exterior objects, and thus aid the movement of the diatom.
This law does not, however, provide an explanation for many of the
phenomena connected with the endochrome, and the author, therefore,
bases a second law on the results of his wide study of the subject. This
he terms the law of transmutation of the stages in diatoms, and briefly
stated explains it thus : the passing and temporary stages of develop-
ment of an organism may gradually become permanent, and thus cause
an accelerated evolution by producing sudden and considerable changes
in the structure of an adult organism. He explains this law by giving
first a theoretical illustration, and then one taken from the genus
SurireUa. He figures and describes the various stages which lead to the
division of S. Capronii, and he shows that each of the various forms
through which this species passes corresponds with the permanent form
of some other species of the genus SurireUa, as known and described.
He believes that the species of diatoms may have been developed from
some one form, in which various temporary stages have by degrees

* Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., liii. (1903) pp. 396-405, 483-8 (1 pi.).
t Bot. Mag. Tokyo, xvii. (1903) pp. 199-206 (1 pi.).
I Journ. de Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 17-29.
§ Script. Bot. St. Petersb., xix.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 335

become of longer and longer duration, till they became the permanent
stages ; and be is inclined to think that the whole genus Surirella
may have had its origin from some species of Auricula — following the
law of transmutation which is here for the first time formulated. The
paper is illustrated by text figures, and is to be continued.

Pure Cultures of Diatoms.* — 0. Richter has succeeded in isolating
and studying two species of diatoms, Nitzschia Paha W. Sm., and
Navicula minuscula Grim. He grew them in gelatin and in agar, and
gives the details of his results. He finds that diatoms, like Scenede-
s unes acutus, have the effect of liquefying gelatin, and that both his
species dissolve agar, forming deep grooves into which they sink. The
rate of multiplication depends on the species and the medium em-
ployed for cultivation. Strong sunlight injures the cultures, bleaching
them and sometimes destroying them. Agar has a marked effect on the
form of the diatom, altering according to the strength of the medium.
The diatoms showed themselves to be phototactic. As regards nutrition,
it was seen that magnesium is absolutely necessary for the diatoms, 1 ut
it is probable that Nitzschia PaUa does not require calcium.

Sphacelariaceae.f — C. Sauvageau has issued a reprint of his 4 Remarks
on the Sphacelariacege,' so far as they have already been published in
the Journal de Botanique. The remainder of his work will continue to
appear in parts in the same Journal. After a short introduction, the
author gives an interesting chapter on what he terms Generalities. The
general structure of the plants of the order is described, and references
are made to the work of Geyler and Magnus ; the conclusions of the
latter with regard to the sympodial branching of Sphacelariaceai, though
ignored or disbelieved for so long, are shown by Sauvageau to be correct.
As regards the relationship between Sphacelariacea? and Ectocarpacese,
the author recognises, of course, that such exists, but he points out
certain characteristics peculiar to Sphacelariacese only. One of these is
the black or black-green coloration of the thallus by eau-de-Javelle.
The reacting substance in the cells is as yet unknown. Other characters
not shared by Ectocarpacese are the presence of chromatophores in discs
or in grains, never in plates or in ribbons ; the almost constant presence
of tannin ; and the endogenous growth of the hairs, solitary, in pairs,
or in a tuft. The plurilocular sporangia of Sphacelariaceae show an
independent dehiscence for each loculus, lout the dehiscence is generally
simultaneous. It takes place by means of a dissolution of the wall,
and not by tearing. A possible exception to this mode of procedure is
Sphacelaria olivacea. A description is given of the antheridia of the
order, about which bodies there had been much doubt and discussion.
The author has not yet, however, seen copulation nor a fixed zoospore
with two red spots. The male nature of the plurilocular sporangia with
small loculi is established, but the nature of the other plurilocular
sporangia still remains doubtful ; and the author is inclined to think
that a study of those genera usually supposed to have no propagula,

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., xxi. (1903) pp. 493-506 (1 double pi.).
t Journ. de Bot , xiv., xv., xvi., xvii., 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903, sep. copy, 320 pp.,
62 figs, in text.

2 A 2

336 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

i.e. HaJopteris and Gladostephus, might produce satisfactory results.
Comparisons are drawn between Sphacelariaceas and neighbouring
genera. The division of the genus Sphacelaria into autonomous and
parasitic species is pronounced artificial, and it is shown that one and the
same species may be parasitic, or may penetrate merely, or live epiphyti-
cally on animal, vegetable, or mineral substrata. In the case of parasi-
tism, the use of eau-de-Javelle is recommended as a rough guide to the
extent of the host-plant which is attacked. The remainder of the book
deals with various genera and species, new and old. The illustrations are
many and most instructive.

Corallineae of Japan.* — K. Yendo gives a list of the Corallinaceae
hitherto recorded from Japan, which number 68, and include species of
Choreonemua, Melobesia, Mastophora, Litkothamnion, Lithophyllum,
Goniolithon, Amphiroa, Gheilosporum and Gorallind.

Bang-ia atropurpurea.f — G-. B. De Toni has compared authentic
specimens of certain species of Bangia, and finds that B. sericea Bory. is
identical with B. atropurpurea Ag., and that B.fuscopurpurea Lyngb. is
the marine form of that species. Synonyms of B. atropurpurea Ag.
forma fuscopurpurea are B. condensata Zan., B. oceUata Zan., and B.
dura Zan. Other species are mentioned as being closely allied to
B. atropurpurea.

Byssus purpurea.* — G. B. De Toni and A. Forti have succeeded
in establishing the identity, synonomy and relationship of Byssus pur-
purea Lightfoot, which they found themselves in Iona last year, and
have compared with types and authentic specimens of other species.
They find that B. purpurea is a good species of Rhodocorton, and has
for synonyms Byssus rubra Huds., Gailithamnion purpureum Harv.,
and Ghantransia coccinea Ktitz. A diagnosis is given of the species,
and a list of known habitats. No fruit has ever been recorded, and
the authors think this may be attributed to the aerobic habit of the
plant.

Phytoplankton of Fresh Water.§ — ■ H. Bachmann publishes a
resume of our knowledge of fresh-water plankton under the following
headings : (1) Definition, in which the various terms regarding habitat
and depth are defined. (2) Methods of investigation. (3) Constituents
of phytoplankton. (4) Quantity of plankton. (5) Periodicity. (6) Sta-
tistics of variation. (7) The flowering of water. (8) Horizontal dis-
tribution. (0) Vertical distribution. (10) Conditions of life in the
lakes. (11) Floating capability of phytoplankton. (12) Classification
of waters according to their phytoplankton. (13) Origin of plankton.
(14) The importance of plankton to the animal world. The paper
closes with a fairly long list of the literature on the subject.

A Fountain Alga.|| — L. Beesley describes his successful cultivation
of a new fresh-water alga, which resembles certain species of Gongrosira

* Bot. Mag. Tokyo, xvi. (1902) 12 pp.

t Att. Pontif. Accad. Rom. Nuov. Linc.,lvii. (1904) 4 pp.

J Att. R. 1st. Veneto., lxiii. (1904) pp. 205-10.

§ Bot. Zeit, lxii. (1904) pp. 82-106.

|| New Phytolcg., iii. (1904) pp. 74-82 (1 pi. and 2 figs, in text).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 337

in the general shape of the thallus, and the form of the chloroplast as
a parietal plate. It differs, however, from that genus in having no
encrustation of lime — indeed, the natural substratum is a siliceous one.
The zoospores also are not formed in terminal and swollen zoosporangia,
as in the GTongrosireae. The author describes and figures his apparatus
for cultivation of the alga, and gives an account of the life-history
which he was able to watch in every detail. Neither the formal
diagnosis nor the name is given to this new alga. Its chief charac-
teristics are as follows : It is silicicolous in habit and grows in running
water of low temperature, forming an irregularly-branched, star-shaped
or circular thallus, the cells of which are longer than broad, containing
a parietal chloroplast and no pyrenoids. By continuous division, be-
ginning always at the centre of the thallus, the cells break up into
zoosporangia, from which issue four zoospores. The thallus may pass
into a palmelloid condition, and in this condition the cells divide at
once to form (a) zoospores, or (b) daughter-cells which repeat the
process. The zoospores are bi-ciliate and pear-shaped, with basin-
shaped chloroplasts, red eye-spot and colourless anterior portion. They
germinate, without any period of rest, to form a new plant. No sexual
stage is known. It is subject to attack by a Chytridiaceous fungus.

German Fresh-water Algae.* — A. A. Pascher gives a list of the
algae from the forest-land of South Bohemia. This first part of his
work includes the Florideae, Phasophyceae, Chlorophyceae, and Schizo-
phycefe. Diatoms and plankton will follow later. The number of
species determined is 476, of which 54 are new to Bohemia. The
localities are carefully recorded and critical remarks are often appended.

M. Schmidt t publishes a dissertation on the algal flora of the Lime-
berg heath, which does not claim to enumerate all* the species, but is
nevertheless a useful addition to the botanical flora of the district.
Seventeen new species, forms and varieties are described ; and remarks
are made on topographical distribution, on the morphology and biology
of Desmidiaceaj, and on the system of the Conjugate. Plates of
desmids are siven.

&*

Algse of the Gulf of Spezia.J — A. Preda proposes to publish a list
of the marine algas of this gulf from Capo Corvo to Portovenere, in-
cluding the records of past collectors as well as those of his own
gathering. He divides the area into four zones of depth, defining the
limits of each. The names of the few botanists are given who have
worked at the algae of this district, with the titles of their works. The
present paper deals only with the Florideae, of which 73 species are
recorded. Topographical notes are added to each record.

Bahaman Algse.§ — M. A. Howe describes a new species of Neomeris,
N. Cofceri, from Eleuthera, as well as a new variety, var. laxus, of
Coccortadas occidental is from Nassau. Seven other species of algae are
recorded, which are either rare or of special interest, and critical notes

* SB. Deutsch. Nat.-wiss.-med. Ver. Bbbmen. " Lotos," xxiii. (1903) pp. 161-211.
t Grundlagene. Algenflorad. Liinebergen Heide, Hildesheim, 1903, 98 pp., 2 pis.
% Malphigia, xviii. (1903) pp. 76-93.
§ Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 93-100 (1 pi.).

338 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

are appended to each species-name. A useful key to the three species
of Neomeris is given.

Adams, J. — Distribution of Vaucheria in Ireland.

[A note recording Vaucheria senilis from Antrim. The author remarks that
seven freshwater species of this genus are receded from Co. Dublin ami
Co. Wicklow in the Guide to the County of Dublin, published for the British
Association Meeting in 1878.] Irish Naturalist, xii. (1903) p. 218.

Artari, A. — Zur Frage uber die Wirkung der Mediums auf die Form und Ent-
wickelung der Algen. (Concerning the influence of media in the form and de-
velopment of algae.) Sep. Mitteil. Moskau Techn. Schule (1903).

93 pp., 5 photos.

Atkinson, G. F. — A new Lemanea from Newfoundland.

Torreya, iv. (1904) p. 26.

Chalon, J.— Projefc de Liste des Algues marines comprises entre l'embouchure de
l'Escart et La Corogne (inch iles Anglo -Normandes). (Sketch-list of marine algae
occurring between the mouth of the Escait and La Corogne.)

Namur, 1904, 19 pp.
CfSHMAN, J. A. — "Desmids from South-western Colorado.

[Seventeen species and varieties, of which four varieties are new.]

Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 161-4.

F o u r n i e r. — Phycologie francaise. Chlorophyceae. Catalogue des algues vertes d'eau
douce observees en France. (Catalogue of grt en freshwater algae observed :'n
France.) La Ft utile des Jeunes Naturalistes, 1903, pp. 4-10.

Gomont, M. — Sur la vegetation de quelques sources d'eau douce sous-marines de la
Seine-Inferieure. (On the vegetation of several freshwater submarine springs in
Seine-Infe'rieure.)

[A note on ihe marine flora in the neighbourhood of seven springs situated
between Saint- Vale'ry-en-Caux and Etretat. Fucaceaj and Corallineao are
entirely absent, and the species found aie mainly estuarine ; but certain
Floridae attain unusual development.]

Comptes Bendus, exxxviii. (1904) pp. 221-3.

Kreissler, K. von — Einige Planktonfange aus dem Erenn-See bei Feld in
Karnten. (Some plankton hauls from the Brenn Lake near Feld, in Carinthia.)
[A 6hort list of 12 species, with remarks.]

Oesterr. Bot. Zeitsehr., liv. (1904) pp. 58-60.

Lauby, A. — Eapport sur les depots diatomiferes de Neussargues. (Report on the
diatomaceous deposits of Neussaruues.)

Bull. Acad. Int. Gc'og. Bot, xiii. (1904) pp. 62-3.

Ma cm ill an, C. — Cumaphytism in Alaria.

[Note en the adaptation of Alaria nana Schrad. to existence in sea-surf, and
the marked resemblance which it assumes to Postelsia.]

Bot. Gazette, xxxvii. (190-1) pp. 147-9 (2 figs.).

Schmidle, W. — Botanische Ausbeute einer Reiser durch die Sinaihalbinsel von
A. Kneucker. Algae. (Botanical results of A. Kneucker's journey through the
Sinai peninsula. Algae.)

[List of 29 freshwater algae, including a new variety and a new form.]

Allg. Bot. Zeitsehr., x. (1904) pp. 6-8 (fig.).

Schmidle, W., & A. Kneucker — Algen von Aegypten, Frankreich und Ober-
italien. (Algae from Egypt, France and Upper Italy.)

[A list of 12 species of freshwater algae, with the localities.]

Tom. cit., p. 3.
Tobler, Fr. — Eigenwachstum der Zelle und Pflanzenform. Vorlaufige Mitthei-
lung uber fortgesetzte Studien an Meeresalgen. (Special growth of the cell and
plantf< rm. Preliminary communication of further studies in marine algae.)

Bergens Museums Aarbog, 1903, No. 11 (6 pp.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 339

Fungi.

Cytology of Araiospora pulchra.* — C. A. King gives an historical
resume of the species of Araiospora, with a more particular description
of A. pulchra. The main part of the work is devoted to the account
of the development of the sexual organs of this species. The oogonia
arise singly or in umbels at the distal ends of certain segments, which in
turn produce special segments on which the antheridia are borne. The
oogonium contains thirty-five to fifty-five nuclei, which migrate to the
periphery, where cells are formed each with one or more nuclei. The
further changes in the protoplasmic structure are followed in detail ;
when mature there is a deeply staining fine-meshed mass of protoplasm
in the centre, and one nucleus. No antheridial tube is formed. The
passage between the two organs is oogonial in structure. After the
male nucleus has entered the oosphere, the central mass radiates out
into the peripheral ooplasm. The two nuclei put out beaks toward
each other, which in some cases come in contact. The nuclei may
remain pointed until the oospore wall is partly formed. The later
stages of fertilisation were not seen ; fusion probably takes place at a
later stage. King concludes from his studies that Araiospora should
be placed between Pythium and the Saprolegniaceas.

Peronosporese.j — A monograph of these fungi was prepared by
A. X. Berlese before his death, and has now been issued. He divides
the species of Peronospora into three groups distinguished by the
form of the branchlets of the conidiophores. A short historical account
of the genus is given, and full descriptions of each species. The rnono-
typic genus Bremia is also included in the monograph ; and a biblio-
graphy of the literature on the subject is given, with an index of the
species.

Spinellus chalybeus and the Spinellus Group.} — Paul Yuillemin
has found that a fungus growing on a decaying agaric is identical with
a species described in 1845 as Ascophora chdlybm, and which has not
been encountered since that date. It is characterised by the aerial fila-
ments which gradually become brown, by the swollen base of the
sporangiophore and the dilated apophysis, and by the evanescent wall
of the sporangium. Yuillemin finds that the spinous mycelium which
gave the name to the genus is not a generic character. He connects
the three genera Spinellus, Dicranophora and Sporodinia closely together ;
they form ^jjlujlum in the genealogical sense.

Sexual Reproduction of Basidiobolus.§ — Z. Woycicki has rein-
vestigated the development of the zygospore in B. ranarum. He finds
that the nuclei which enter the zygospore do not fuse directly, but each
undergoes an amitotic division. Two of the four nuclei so produced
become disorganised, while the other two fuse in course of time to form
the single nucleus of the zygospore. He compares this with the process

* Pruc. Bost. Soc.Nat. Hist., xxxi. (1903) pp. 211-45 (5 pie.).

t Kevista Patol. Ve*., x. (1904) pp. 1S5-29S (69 figs.;.

% Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 01-69 (1 pi.).

$ Flora, xciii. (1904) pp. b7-97 (1 pi.).

340 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

described by Chmielevsky for Spirogyra, and considers that Basidiooolus
must be related to that alga.

Conidial Stage of Morchella.* — Gaston Bonnier gives the results
of his experimental cultures of various species of Morchella. The asco-
spores were easily made to germinate, and formed a sterile mycelium
very similar in the different species tested. No conidial formation could
be induced in the artificial cultures, but when the spores were sown on
suitable soil a further growth was induced, and a conidial form closely
similar for several species of Morchella was grown, and was found to be
identical with a Hyphomycete discovered and described by Matruchot
as Costantinella cristata.

Development of the Perithecium.f — P. A. Dangeard contributes
some observations made on Saccobolus violaceus, Ascophanus ochraceus,
and Aspergillus glaucus. In all of these he finds both an ascogonium
and pollinodium, but there is no fusion between the two. He finds
also that the development of Ascophanus more nearly resembles that of
Pyronema than of Saccobolus, and he thinks that such facts might be
useful in tracing the affinities of these fungi, and in following the
development of the aerial Ascomycetes from the aquatic Siphomycetes.

Notes on Ceratostoma juniperinum.l — P. Baccarini has examined
the tubercles that occur on the branches of the juniper, and on which
Ceratostoma has been constantly found growing. The perithecia are
always on dead tissue, but the mycelium of the fungus penetrates to
the living cells and causes the distortion of the branch. He did not
find bacteria in the tubercles, as did Cavara. He considers the injury
to be due to Ceratostoma alone.

Specialisation of Parasitism in the ErysiphaceaeJ — E. S. Salmon
publishes a preliminary paper on this subject. He had already pub-
lished his experiments proving the existence of " biologic " forms in the
Erysiphacea?. He has now carried his research further and finds that
there are bridging host species that enable the parasite to pass from one
to another. For instance, the mildew on Bromus racemosus is incapable
of infecting B. commutatus, but it never fails to infect B. hordeaceus,
and the fungus after growing on B. hordeaceus infects B. commutatus.
There is no morphological difference to be detected in the fungus on
these various grasses. He finds further that there are biologic species
or races in the host-plant also without any morphological distinction.
The spores of Oiclium from several species of Bromus infected B. hor-
deaceus, a Russian form of B. mollis ; the two grasses being morpho-
logically identical, while they would not infect the native B. mollis,
proving some physiological distinction between the forms.

The same || writer records still another discovery made by him
during his investigation of this subject ; that " under certain methods
of culture in which the vitality of the host-leaf is interfered with, the
restricted powers of infection, characteristic of ' biologic forms,' break

* Comptes Eendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 416-17. f Tom. cit., pp. 642-3.

t Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital. xi. (1904) pp. 49-52.
§ New Pliytolog., iii. (1904) pp. 55-60 (3 ficrs.).
1 Proc. Roy. Soc, lxxiii. (1904) pp. 116-18.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 341

down." The conidia of the Erysiphe fungus were induced to grow on
plants otherwise immune to their attacks by previously injuring the
leaves. The fungus growth thus produced could then readily infect
an uninjured surface of the same host. Plants are subject to many
accidents, and Salmon holds that by the aid of such injury, a fungus
may get hold of a host otherwise safe from attack, and this may account
for sudden outbreaks of disease. It may also explain the nature of
wound fungi, such as Nectria, etc., which infect the host only through
wounds.

Cultural Experiments with the Barley Mildew, Erysiphe gra-
minis D.C.* — E. S. Salmon had already demonstrated the existence of
biologic forms of this fungus with species of Bromus as host-plants.
He has made a further series of cultures on Hordeum, to find whether
any species or variety of barley of economic importance would show a
difference as regards susceptibility to the attacks of the parasite. He
chronicles in several instances cases of what he terms sub-infection,
when one out of many inoculation experiments would alone be suc-
cessful, and cases where a very modified infection took place. The
latter instance he explains by the fact that several haustoria have pene-
trated one epidermal host-cell, and the enzyme present in the cell failed
to kill them all, so that the fungus succeeded in producing a modified
growth. As a result of his observations he judges " that immunity
and susceptibility are due to constitutional (physiological) peculiarities
and not to any structural ones." He concludes that some varieties
are, under natural conditions, more resistant to attacks of the disease
than others. Detailed tables are given of the various experiments.
He also tried the effect of copper sulphate as a fungicide when applied
to the roots of the cereals. He found that even when solutions strong
enough to distort the plants were applied to the soil, the leaf-cells still
remained susceptible to the fungus. When he grew the seedlings in a
water solution with the same strength of copper introduced as that with
which he had watered the soil, they all died off. The control cultures
in pots of soil watered by a copper solution grew into robust plants,
each with a powdery patch of mildew.

Forms of Saccharomyces.t — Alb. Klocker publishes a new species,
Sacch. Saturn us, the spores of which are distinguished by a distinct
band round the centre, and by a somewhat citron shape. He was able
to grow them on plaster blocks and by various other methods. The
new yeast ferments dextrose, levulose and raffinose ; it inverts saccha-
rose and then ferments the inverted sugar. Along with the fermentation
an ether is produced. The species was found on soil from the
Himalayas. One somewhat similar has been noted in Danish and
Italian soil.

Saccharomycopsis.J — This new genus of Yeasts was isolated from
soil collected near the St. Gothard Pass by H. Schionning. It is

* Ann. Mycol. ii. (1904) pp. 70-99.

+ Comptes Rendns, Lab. Carlsberg, 190o, pp. 84-91 (6 pis.).

t Tom. cit., pp. 101-25 (5 figs.).

342 SUMMARY OF CUEEENT EESEAECHES RELATING TO

characterised by the massive vegetative development composed of my-
celium and spores — the mycelial growth being much more pronounced
than in any known form of Saccharomyces. The form of the spore is
also very characteristic : it possesses an exosporium which divides into
valves on germination, something like a capsule, hence the specific name
capsularis. The new yeast causes the fermentation of maltose, dex-
trose, etc. The writer describes at length the different cultures and
experiments he made. He has placed another species, guttulatus, also
in the genus. It has endospores of a similar character.

Classification of Penicillium.* — In several species of this genus,
the ascomycetous form has been found. Alb. Klocker has discovered a
new species which he names P. Wortmanni, and he suggests a new classi-
fication for the forms of which the full fructification is known. The
familiar P. glaucum forms sclerotia in the interior of which the asco-
spores are produced ; he would therefore place it in a genus by itself in
the Perisporiacege near to the Tuberacea3. The other forms that have
a fructification similar to Gymnoascus should form a new genus, or be
included in Gymnoascus itself. The new species is described as a
Penicillium, although the ascus fruit bears a strong resemblance to
Gymnoascus flavus. The conidial form marks the difference between
the two fungi. The author describes his methods of culture and the
means whereby he induced a growth of the higher fruit form.

Trichothecium roseum.f — K. S. Iwanoff found this fungus to be
the cause of bitterness in fruit. He found it first on plums, which
were red in colour and had a very bitter taste ; the exterior was beset
with small wart-like prominences. Examination showed the presence
of mycelium, and by suitable cultures the Hyphomycete Tricliothecium
was developed, an upright conidiophore bearing a succession of two-
celled pear-shaped spores at the tip.

Botrytis Disease of Tulips4 — H. Klebahn has made a prolonged
study of this disease caused by Botrytis parasitica, an account of which
has already been published by Eitzema Bos. He does not agree with
the latter in attributing the outbreak of the disease in new localities to
infected soil ; but considers from the history of various cases that it
has been conveyed with the bulbs. He made many culture experiments,
all tending to prove that the Botrytis was a specialised form and would
not cause disease on any other plants. He also tried to infect tulips
with several other forms of the fungus collected from various sources,
but without result. The results of the experiments are described in
detail, and advice is given as to methods of preventing disease.

Wintering of Oidium Tuckeri.§ — There have been many theories
as to the means whereby this fungus is perpetuated in the absence of
perithecial fruits. Gy de Istvanfi finds that the mycelium lives on the
twigs during the winter and gives rise to the new fungus growth. He
recommends treatment of the plants during the winter with fungicides.

* Coniptes Rendus, Lab. Carlsberg, 1903, pp. 92-102 (1 fig.).

t Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xiv. (1904) pp. 36-40 (7 figs.).

\ Tom. cit., pp. 1S-36 (1 pi.).

§ Coniptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 596-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 343

In a further note he repeats and emphasises his observations, that
the perpetuation of mildew of the vine is due to mycelium in a resting
condition rather than to spores. He gives an account of the observa-
tions that have led him to this conclusion.

Parasite of Stigmarian Rootlets.* — F. E. Weiss found in the
section of a rootlet from the Halifax hard bed, a condition of tissue that
he thinks can only be explained by the supposition that the rootlet had
been invaded by a parasitic fungus. In the middle cortex there occurs
a mass of more or less regular secondary cells, and towards the outside
there is a patch of compressed disorganised tissue which cannot be
identified, but which may be fungal. A large cylindrical cell arises
from the outer secondary tissue and passes outwards, and in this cell
there is a fairly large spore-like body with indications of other similar
bodies. Weiss concludes that these are the spores of a Urophlyctis,
and should his surmise prove correct he would suggest the name of
Urophhjctites Stigmarke.

Uredinopsis. t — P- Magnus contributes a paper on this genus
originally founded by himself. He gives a history of the different
species, all of which grow on ferns. There are two forms of Uredo-
spore enclosed by a peridium, the teleutospores are two- to four-celled,
and the intercellular mycelium does not form haustoria. Four species
of this genus come from America ; only two have been found in
Europe.

Notes on Uredinese. % — P. Dietel describes two members of Melam-
psoracea?. The first, Pucciiuosteh mandschurica, grows on Astilbe
chinensis in Manchuria. It has two forms of teleutospore. The second
of these develops in autumn in spore-chains. He found a second
fungus on the same host, which he makes the type of a newr genus
Klastospoi'a. The teleutospores are one-celled and are also produced
in chains. In both these genera the teleutospores fall to the ground
leaving an empty, hollow7, crater-like bed.

Phthiriosis of the Vine.§ — This fungoid disease due to a symbiotic
association between the cochineal insect and the mycelium of a fungus
had hitherto been found underground on the roots of the vine, where
the cochineal had burrowed for the sake of moisture. A very wet
season in Syria has induced an aerial growth of the mycelial masses,
which enveloped the branches of the vine ; and L. Mangin and P. Yiala
record their observations on the new development of Bornetina corium.
The change in form and structure resembles the effects already obtained
by them in artificial cultures.

Eriksson's Mycoplasma Hypothesis.! — G. B. Traverso gives an
account of Eriksson's theories as to the propagation of rust in cereals
and the objections that have been raised against it. He thinks that
the controversy remains undecided, and that more research and more

* New Phjtolog., iii. (1004) pp. 63-8.

+ Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 119-25 (2 pis.).

% Aiie. Mycol., ii. (1904; pp. 20-6.

§ CompttB Reudus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 529-31.

|| Bull. Slc. Eot. Ital., 1903, pp. 311-18.

344 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

workers are needed. He desires especially that agriculturists should
everywhere take note of the existence of alternative hosts, such as the
Barberry, etc., and of their influence on the propagation of rusts.

Taxonomic Importance of the Spermogonium.* — J. C. Arthur
disclaims any intention of deciding as to the true nature of the spermo-
gonium in Uredineae. He considers it a "problematical organ sui generis,
and that all the other rust spores are of a conidial or asexual character."
He traces the life-cycle of the Uredinea? as worked out by certain
writers, beginning with the teleutospore in which the fusion of the two
mycelial nuclei has taken place. The bi-nucleate character, he states,
is again established in the sporidium to continue through all the forms
onward to the teleutospore. Arthur describes the various spore forms
and notes that the spermogonium, which always appears at the beginning
of the life-cycle, never repeats itself. In reference to its taxonomic
value he insists that it should always be described by collectors, and the
spore-generation with which it is associated ; if, for instance, it is accom-
panied by uredospores, it can at once be concluded that there is no
fecidium in the life-cycle. Position, form, colour and size are also
characters worth recording, though of minor importance. They have
all more or less specific value and aid in identification.

On the Origin of Parasitism in Fungi .f — George Massee claims
to have proved that parasitism in fungi is an acquired habit. Though
the spores of the parasite germinate on any moist surface, they do not
continue to grow unless on the particular species of plant of which they
are known to be the parasite. This selective power of the fungus is
due, Massee says, to chemotaxis ; and he made a large number of ex-
periments to find the substances that were favourable to the develop-
ment of the parasite. Fungi that are saprophytic can be induced to
penetrate the host-plant, by injecting into it a substance that is posi-
tively chemotactic to the germ tube of the fungus. He found that
infection took place more readily during the night when the cells were
more turgid, and more sugar and other chemotactic substances were
present in the cell-sap.

New and Interesting Californian Fungi.J — Edwin Bingham Cope-
land describes new species of Coprinus, Battarrea and Podaxon, and
gives careful notes of some Californian Morels. A large number of
these were gathered, and he found that they all had transition forms
from one to the other. They fell into three groups referable to M.
conica, M. esculenta and M. hybrida. Copeland does not consider,
however, that these represent but one species. He agrees with European
mycologists that some parent type has given rise to several distinct lines
of descendants, and the differences are now constant.

He gives notes on the function of Coprinus cystidia, which in C.
fuscosporus sp. n., certainly act as props and braces to hold the moist
gills apart and allow the spores to fall out.

* Bull. Torr. Bot. Club., xxxi. (1904) pp. 113-25.
t I'roc. Roy. Soc, Ixxiii. (1904) pp. lhS-19.
X Ann. Mveol., ii. (1904) pp. 1-8(2 pis).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 345

Coffee Disease.* — F. G. Kohl traces the disease to the attack of a
Hyphomycete, Stilbella flavida, which is not confined to the coffee-
plant but grows on several other hosts. The writer does not think that
the fungus in question has any connection with other fungi recorded on
coffee ; and he thinks that the Stilbella has not yet entirely adapted
itself to its new host. The conidia alone failed to infect, and growth
was only obtained when the whole head of the Stilbella was inserted
in the host-plant. He recommends various methods of combating the
disease.

Parasitic Fungi. f — A. Volkart describes a new species of Exoas-
cacere on the leaves of a composite. Although the mycelium is sub-
epidermal, the author includes it in the genus Taphrina, placing it
alongside another species of the genus in which the mycelium pierces
the epidermal cells. He found a Pyrenomycete, Mycosphcerella Aronici,
associated with Fusicladium and Phyllosticta on the leaves of Aronicum,
and considers them to be stages of one life-history. He found another
Hyphomycete, Cercosporella, and still another Phyllostieta on the same
host, but he has not identified them with any Ascomycetous forms.

Occurrence of Fungus Spores in the Atmosphere. $ — K. Saito has
undertaken a research on this subject to determine the number of spores
present in the air and variations due to the time of year. He wished
also to determine the genera and species of the spores and to find how
these varied in space and time. He omitted bacteria and yeasts from
his work. Soya gelatin was employed as the basis of the culture media
and a week was allowed for incubation. He tested the spore contents
of the air for several different localities in or near Tokyo, and for all the
months of the year. In the air of the garden the maximum of spores
was in July, the minimum in March. The same result was found in the
air of the streets. In a high wind the number was greatly increased ;
after rain or snow, fewer of these organisms were present in the air.
The author gives a list of all the species that he found, forty-six in all,
Cladosporium herbarum, Penicillium ylaucum and Epicoceum purpuras-
eens being the most frequent.

Mycorrhiza.§ — (1. F. L. Sarauw has published a long dissertation on
the symbiosis of fungi with the roots of the higher plants. He criticises
the deductions made by Frank from his experiments with forest trees,
and inclines to the belief that the mycorrhiza is not so essential to the
health of the higher plants as Frank considered it to be. The vigour
of the fungus is determined by the presence of humus in the soil, and
is therefore more largely developed in woods than in carefully cultivated
ground. As to the species of fungus that enter into symbiotic relations
with the roots, he considers Cladosporium and Hehnintkosporium to be
the most usual forms, and he rather throws doubt on the idea that

* Beih. zum Tropenflanzer, iv. (1903) pp. 61-77. See also Ann. Mycol. ii. (1904)
pp. 120-3.

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., xxi. (1903) pp. 477-81 (1 pi.). See also Ann. Mycol.,
ii. (1904) p. 115.

% Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, xviii. (1904) 58 pp. (5 pis.).

§ Rev. Mycol., xxvi. (1904) pp. 1-19.

346 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

truffles, agarics or puff-balls take any share in forming the mycelial
sheaths round the young roots. He concludes that though the mycor-
rhiza is harmless it is of no positive advantage to the host-plant.
Nemec * has studied the same question as regards the hepatics.

British Mycology.t — An account of the autumn fungus foray of
the British Mycological Society is given by Carleton Rea, with a list
of the fungi collected during the foray week in Savernake Forest.
W. L. W. Eyre gave the presidential address on "Mycology as an
instrument of recreation." Arthur Lister contributes an account of the
mycetozoon Echinosteliwn mimdum which was collected by a member of
the Society at Hereford, the first record for Britain.

A. Lorrain Smith describes two new forms of disease caused by
fungi : Glaosporium Tilm, which attacked the petioles of the leaves of
the lime, causing them to fall in the early summer, and Septoria fraga-
rice, which had passed from the strawberry leaves to the fruit, and spoiled
a whole crop. She also publishes notes on imperfectly described micro-
fungi. Carleton Rea chronicles the finding of two new Phalloidere in
Europe, Lysurus austral iensis, found in Worcestershire near a mill
where refuse and dirt from Australian wheat-bags had been thrown, and
Anthurus borealis, which was found in a field of asparagus at Mecklen-
burg, in Germany. The same author, with A. Lorrain Smith, publishes
the list of fungi added to the British flora during the preceding year.
Diagnoses are given of species not previously published, or that have
been only imperfectly described.

French Mycology.f — Em. Boudier describes a new genus of Myri-
angiacece, Guillermondia, a minute fungus measuring about ^ mm. in
diameter, occurring as little black points on horse-dung. The spores
become dark coloured when mature, and remain in groups of eight after
the ascus has disappeared.

The same writer § describes a sterile form of Hijdaum erinaceum.
No hymenium was formed on the teeth. Sporules, or conidia, were
found, but they were not borne on basidia.

Paul Vuillemin |] describes a new genus SpineUa, which he places
among the Mucorinese near to Dispira. The fungus, which seemed to
be parasitic on Mucor, forms a swollen head at the top of an upright
sporophore from which arise elongate spore-like projections, each bearing
a spore of similar appearance. The whole plant is colourless or
yellowish.

M. Prillieux^f describes the dehiscence of the perithecia of Kosellinia
necatrix, a dangerous parasite of the roots of the vine. The paraphyses
and asci become mucilaginous, and the spores escape in drops of mucilage
by the splitting of the perithecial walls at various points.

B. Souche ** has observed a new form of Ganthardlus cibarius. It
is paler in colour than the well-known species, the cap is thinner, the

* See ante-, p. 328.

t Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc.for season 1903 (1904) 67 pp., 3 col. pie.

{ Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xx. (1904) up. 19-22 (1 pi.)

§ Tom. cit. pp. 23-5. || Tom. cit., pp. 2G-33 (1 pi.).

% Tom. cit., pp. 34-8 (2 pis.). ** Tom. cit., 39-49.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 347

gills less decurrent, and the stalk more slender. The writer also gives
details of various fatal cases of poisoning due to eating fungi. He has
been careful to describe the symptoms and the remedies applied to the
patients. Several species of Amanita had been eaten.

American Mycology.* — A. P. Morgan describes a new species of
JStrothecium found growing on wood. CI. G-. Hedgcockf has proved by
repeated culture experiments that the Phyllosticta found on the leaves
of the beet, and the Phoma found on the root of the beet are the same
fungus. The name Phoma has the priority. J. C. Arthur \ gives the
fourth of his reports on the cultures of plant-rusts during the preced-
ing year. He has succeeded in tracing the life-history of a number of
species. W. A. Kellerman § continues his index of Uredinous culture
experiments, with lists of species and hosts for North America.

Appel, Otto & Strunk, H. F. — TIeber einige in Kamerun auf Theobroma cacao
beobachtete Pilze.

[The completion of a descriptive list of new fungi found growing on Cacao.
New genus Corymbomyces (Verticilliese). ]

Centralhl. Bakt, xi. (1904) pp. 632-7 (4 figs.).

Baupisch, F. — Notizen uber Septoria parasitica, Fusoma Pini nnd Allescheria
Laricis.

[A description of fungi dangerous to young forest trees.]

Centralbl. Forstwesen, xxix. (1903) p. 461.
See also Ann. Mycol, ii. (1904) p. 123.

Bubak, Fr., & J. E. Rabat — Mycologische Beitrage.

[Diagnosis of 12 new species of inicrofungi found in Bohemia.]

SB. K. Bbhm. Gess. Wiss., No. xi. (1903) 7 pp.

Bubak, Fr. — Ein Beitrag zur Pilzflora von Montenegro.

[A record of the fungi of Montenegro. Many of the species of microfungi are
new to science. Op. cit., No. xii. 22 pp.

Deunhardt, Rud. — Ueber eine nene Pestalozzia-art (verwandt mit P. Hartigii)
und Kiinstlicbe Ziichtung ihrer Konidien auf Getreidearten. P. bordeidestrna.
[The author made artificial cultures of the Pestalozzia, and reinfected young
plants of barley with fatal results.]

Ber. Deutxch, Bot. Ges., xxii. (1904) pp. 175-6.

Griffiths, D a v i d. —Concerning some West African smuts.

[Diagnoses and descriptive notes of new species of Sorosporium, Ustilago,
Tilletia and Tliecaphora. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904)

pp. 83-8 (10 figs.),

Hecke, L.— Beizversuche gegen Hirsebrand.

[An account of methods employed to destroy the Rust of Millet.]

Zeitschr. landw. Versuchswesen Oesterr., n. (1903) pp. 765-75.
See also Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) p. 125.

Hennings, P. — Zweites Beitrag zur Pilzflora des Gouvernments Moskau.
[The list includes several new species of fungi.]

Eedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 66-73.

„ „ Fungi fluminenses a. cl. E. Ule collecti.

[The fungi were collected in the neighbourhood of Rio de Janeiro ; there are
a considerable number of new species.] Tom. cit., pp. 77-95.

* Journ. Mycol., x. (1904) p. 1. t Tom. cit., pp. 2-3.

X Tom. cit., pp. 8-21. § Tom. cit., pp. 26-45.

348 SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Hohnel, Franz v. — Mycologische Fragmente. Fortsetzung.

[Descriptions of new species and notes on previously recorded forms. The
new genera are Sirozythia (Nectiioideee) and Conioscypha (Dematiese).

Ann. Mycol, ii. (1904) pp. 38-60.

Lister, A. — Notes on Mycetozoa from Japan.

[A description of 18 species of already known forms.]

Journ. Bot., xlii. (1904) pp. 97-9 (1 pi.).

Maire, R, Dumee, P., & Lutz, L. — Prodrome d'une flore mycologique de la Corse.
[The list includes a number ( f new species, mainly of microfungi.]

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, pp. 179-297, pi. 48 (1901), and pis. 13-14 (1903).
See also Ann. Mycol, ii. (1904) p. 112.

Peck, Ch. H. — Report of the State Botanist, New York State Museum.

[The report includes the diagnoses of a considerable number of new species of
fungi.] Bull., No. 67 (1903) 194 pp., 5 pis.

See also Ann. Mycol, ii. (1904) p. 113.

Penzig, O., und Saccardo, P. A. — Icones Fungorum Javanicorum, Text.

[Diagnoses of genera and species from Java already published in Malpighia.~]

E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1904, 124 pp.

„ „ „ Icones Fungorum Javanicum, Tafeln.

[Contains 80 plates, each with four drawings of fungi, natural habit and
microscopic details.] E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1904.

Petri, L. — Osservazioni sul genere Tylostoma Pers.

[A general account of the genus, and diagnoses of all the different species.]
Nnovo Giorno Bot. ltdl, xi. (1904) pp. 53-69 (12 tigs.).

„ „ Naucoria nana sp. n.

[Diagnosis and complete description of a minute agaric.

Ann. Mycol, ii. (1904) pp. 9-11 (2 figs.).

Rehm, H. — Ascomycetes Americae borealis.

[An account of 16 new species, most of them described for the first time.]

Tom. cit., pp. 32-37.

Saccardo, P. A. — Notae Mycologicae.

[Notes on a lar^e number of species, a few of them new to science. There is
only one new geuus, Oncopodium, akin to the genus Sporodesmium among
the Deniatiese.] Tom. cit., pp. 12-19 (1 pi.).

Sydow, H. und P. — Neue und kritische TJredineen.

[Nine new species of LJredineae are described from Africa and from California.]

Tom. cit., pp. 27-31.

Lichens.

Growth-Forms of Lichens.* — Max Britzelmayer has made a study
of several forms of Gladonia. He finds that in many cases varieties
that have been described as such are merely due to accidents of habitat.
He traces the different growths of V. furcata, which grows best on chalk
or loamy sandy soil. In less favourable localities it is found as vars.
subulata and tenella with a much more slender growth ; in damp woods
the form regalis is found with well-developed podetia and no thallus.
He notes also changes of colour due to locality in this and other
CJadonuB : brown moor-inhabiting forms change to light green in damp
shady woods.

Development of Lichen Fruits.j — Otto Metzger selects several
types of Lichens that have not yet been properly worked out in order to
further our knowledge of this subject. In all the cases examined he

* Htdwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 126-31.

f Beitr. Wiss. Bot., v. (1903) pp. 108-44 (7 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 349

found the ascogonial initial cells, such as have been described by Stahl
and others, in the very early stages of growth, and his aim has been to
determine their significance. He found that the young apothecium in
Solorina saccata took rise in the lower part of the algal layer, and that
there was no trace of fertilisation, nor formation of trichogynes. The
ascogonial cells were not multinucleate ; they gave rise by branching to
a complex growth of hyphaj from which the asci were developed. The
paraphyses had a different origin and were formed before the asci.
There are no spermogonia developed in Solorina. Very similar results
were found in Acarospora glaucocarpa. No trichogynes are formed, and
no spermogonia are present. The apothecium arises more in the middle
of the algal layer. In Verrucaria calciseda it took origin underneath
this layer ; here also there were ascogonia formed, but no trichogynes,
though spermogonia and spermatia were present. The development of
the fruit was entirely non-sexual. In Imbrkaria physodes the asco-
gonium was composed of three initial cells produced by branching from
the ordinary hypha?, on the upper side of the green layer. No previous
copulation of the initial cells could be detected and no trichogynes were
formed, though spermogonia are present. The many black points so
characteristic of this Lichen were found to be apothecia degenerated at
an early stage. Metzger examined Peltigera canina, and found here
also vegetative or non-sexual development only ; spermogonia are rarely
developed. He gives an account of the best methods of treating the
thallus to ensure the detection of the early stages of the apothecium.
He found benzine derivatives especially useful, as they possess the pro-
perty of reacting with oxidising agents, to form coloured substances,
and thus marking off the tissue surrounding the ascogonium, which
contained some oxidising agent that was absent in the ascogonium
itself.

Erwin Baur * has also published the results of his researches on this
subject. He begins by reviewing the work that has been already done,
and emphasises its importance from a systematic point of view. He
gives details as to his methods of examination, and then gives the
results of his work on the different forms. In Parmelia Acetabulum he
finds that an immense number of carpogonia and spermogonia are
formed similar to those of Collema, but very few apothecia are matured ;
cross fertilisation may be necessary to ensure further growth or the
carpogonium may develop apogamously. He thinks that probably more
than one series of initial ascogonial cells is included in each apothecium.
He found the same type of carpogonium in Anaptyehia, Endocarpon,
Gyrophora, Lecanora and Cladonia, all of which he considers to be
sexual in their mode of development. In Anaptyehia and Endocarpon
especially, he observed spermatia at the apex of the trichogyne, though
the further stages of fertilisation have not been followed. In Cladonia
the carpogonium arises at the base of the fruit, the podetium is there-
fore not a modified apothecium, as Krabbe supposed it was. Several
other genera, Solorina, Peltiyera, Peltidea and Nephromium are probably
non-sexual ; the carpogonia have become non-sexual, no trichogynes are
formed, and the spermogonia are absent or poorly developed.

* Bot. Zeit,,lxii. (1904) pp. 21-44 (2 pis.).
June 15th, 1904 2 b

350 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Anatomy of Crustaceous Lichens.* — Eugen Lang contributes a
series of studies on the nature of the seemingly insignificant thallus
growth of some Lichens. Sarcogyne simplex, which grows on granite,
has been repeatedly described as almost or entirely wanting in thallus.
The specimen examined by Lang grew on dolomite, and nothing was
visible except the fruits, but after decalcifying the substratum a quite
substantial endolithic thallus was laid bare ; cortex, gonidial layer and
hyphas, which, in the lower parts of the stone, contain oil, and, mixed
with them, abundant spheroid cells. A specimen that grew on silicate
of lime showed no spheroid cells, but bundles of " oil " hyphre with
rather deficient oil-contents were present. The presence of " oil " in
the hyphas depends on the presence of carbonates in the substratum.
An examination of S. pruinosa yielded the same results : an abundant
thallus imbedded in the stone, and, after decalcification, the " oil " hyphaa
and spheroid cells were found in the deepest rhizoid layers. In both
these species he found the gonidial layer thinner when the lichen had
penetrated deeply into the stone. The growth of S. latericola was
entirely superficial, the gonidial layer was well developed, and no
trace was found either of " oil " hyphae or of spheroid cells. Several
other crustaceous lichens examined afforded the same results, proving the
influence of the substratum on the development of the gonidia and of
the specialised hyphae. Thus a different habitat entirely altered the
characters of the thallus. The writer notes the presence of fungi and
of their tendency to invade the lichen fruits, where there is evidently
more abundant nourishment to be had.

Schizophyta.
Schizomycetes.

Production of Acetylmethylcarbinol by Bacteria of the Bacillus
mesentericus G-roup.f — H. Desmots grew Bacillus mesentericus vulgatus,
B.fuscus, B.flavus, B. niger and B. ruber in media containing 2 p.c. of
peptone and of calcium carbonate, and with an addition of glycerin, man-
nite, glucose, dextrin or inulin, etc. The action is slow, but the sugar dis-
appears altogether. The formation of acetic and valerianic acids can be
demonstrated, and also of ethylic alcohol in small quantities. The
distillate has besides special properties : it reduces Fehling's solution
in the cold ; it rotates the plane of polarised light to the left ; it does
not restore the colour of fuchsin treated with bisulphite ; iodoform
is not formed if it is treated with iodo-potassic-iodide solution and am-
monia ; it is not precipitated by mercuric sulphate with heat. With
phenylhydrazine, crystals of osazone are formed, having a melting point
of 243° C. If this osazone is treated with oxidising agents, e.g. potas-
sium bichromate and acetic acid, long needle-shaped crystals are obtained
soluble in alcohol and ether, and having a melting point of 151° C.
These can be reconverted into osazone by the addition of phenyl-
hydrazine. The substance responsible for these reactions is acetyl-

* Beit. Wiss. Bot., v. (1903) pp. 162-88 (13 figs).
t Comptes Kendus, cxxxviii. (1901) pp. 581-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 351

ruethylcarbinol, CH3 — CO — CHOH — CH3. The author has found this
substance produced also by certain other bacteria, e.g. B. subtilis and
Tyrothrix tenuis.

Reduction of Sulphates by Bacteria.* — ■ A. van Delden, working
with Microspira desulfuricans, found that it grew best at 25° C. to 30° C.
The organic matters usually present in polluted waters are suitable for
the reducing organism. Lactates, malates and succinates are the most
suitable organic salts, whilst nitrogen is assimilated in the form of
asparagin, peptone and ammonium salts. Nitrates hinder the reduction.
Sulphate reduction takes place in canal and river water after a little
potassium phosphate, sodium lactate and asparagin have been added ; it
is suggested that the reduction might be utilised, in conjunction with
an iodometric titration, for estimating the amount of sulphate present
in water. Cultivations in gelatin containing hydrogen sulphide produced
sulphur at the surface to a depth of about 1 • 5 cm. A bacterium was
isolated which does not reduce sulphates, but reduces sulphites and thio-
sulphates, and, with limited access of oxygen, oxidises the hydrogen
sulphide to sulphur. The bacterium resembles Microspira desulfuricans,
and differs from Bacterium Jiydrosulphureum pontican in not growing in
air. The author experimented also with Microspira cestuarii, cultivating
it in various solutions containing magnesium sulphate and suitable
nutrient material, and estimating the amount of hydrogen sulphide
produced. The effect obtained was similar to that with Microspira
desulfuricans. The reduction of sulphates by Microspira desulfuricans
and Microspira cestuarii is a process which is possible, under anaerobic
conditions, only in a medium which contains, in addition to sulphates,
some suitable organic nutrient material. Sulphate reduction, like de-
nitrification, can be effected in the absence of free oxygen.

Microbe Pathogenic to Rats (mus decumanus and mus ratus).f
J. Danysz, during an outbreak of spontaneous disease in field mice,
isolated a cocco-bacillus pathogenic to rats. Difficulty was experienced
in maintaining the virulence of the organism, as by passing the microbe
a certain number of times from rat to rat its pathogenicity was much
weakened. This difficulty, however, was got over by making experiments
on series of twenty or thirty rats at a time, when it was always found
that from the bodies of one or two of these animals a sufficiently virulent
culture could be obtained, and that the virulence of this culture might
be maintained for two or three months. Such cultures have been used
successfully in the destruction of rats on farms, warehouses, etc., and
even in a large town like Odessa. The cultures were made in bouillon,
and crusts of bread were dipped in it as a bait. In the author's opinion
there is in these procedures no. risk to human beings or to other
animals.

Bacteriology and Histology of Mud obtained at a depth of
10 m. from a Roman Funereal Pit at the Necropolis of Bernard
(Vendee)4 — M. Baudouin, who conducted this investigation, regarded

* Centralbl. Bakt., 2,e Abt., xi. (1903) pp. 81-94, 113-9. See also Journ. Chem.
Soc, ccccxcv. (1904) ii. pp. 67-8. t Brit. Med. Journ., (1904) i. p. 947-9.

J Comptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (1904) pp. 1001-3.

2 B 2

352 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the pit as dating back to the second century. It was about 10 '4 ni.
deep, and from about 3 ' 5 m. from the surface downwards was filled
with calcined earth, along with divers objects which had been placed in
the pit. This calcined earth had beeu converted into mud by water
filtering either from the surface or laterally. Some of this mud was
obtained at a depth of 10 • 1 m. with aseptic precautions. It was found
to be destitute of diatoms, and therefore not comparable to the mud of
the neighbouring marshes. There were present in it, however, certain
animal spicules, which were attributed to Acarina parasitic on the fleeces
of domestic animals thrown into the pit. A bacteriological examination
of the mud demonstrated the presence of numerous micro-organisms.
The majority of these were found to be Bac. coli. There were besides
strepto-, staphylo-, and diplococci, as well as tetragenous forms. Anae-
robes were also present.

The author is of opinion that these organisms were introduced with
the bodies of animals into the pit, and had been preserved there as in a
closed vessel during eighteen centuries.

Hemorrhagic Septicaemia in Animals.* — P. G. Woolley and J.
W. Jobling have issued a report on an outbreak of hemorrhagic septi-
caemia occurring in a herd of cattle (Caraboas) arriving in Manila from
Shanghai. In the cases observed they found three pathological types :
the pulmonary type, in which the lesions resemble those of broncho-
pneumonia ; the rapidly fatal septicemic type, with few macroscopic
changes ; and the glandular and suppurative type, which terminates in
general infection. In all types there were more or less wide-spread
hemorrhagic lesions. From all similar organisms have been isolated,
of which the characters are as follows : short bacilli, with rounded ends,
polar staining, occasionally encapsulated and non-motile, non-liquefying,
non-Gram-staining, growing invisibly on potato, not producing gas, not
coagulating milk or reducing litmus, producing indol and nitrites, and
not forming spores.

Some Pulmonary Lesions Produced by the Bacillus of Hemor-
rhagic Septicemia of Caraboas.f — P. G. YToolley describes three cases,
two in Caraboas and one in a native horse, of invasion of the lungs by
the bacillus of hemorrhagic septicemia. One of the two former he
regards as a pure case of the infectious type of pleuro-pneumonia ; the
other two presented appearances similar to those of broncho-pneumonia
in the stages of red and grey hepatisation and suppuration. The author
suspects that the pulmonary invasion was subsequent to a bronchitis in
all ihree cases, and that the bacilli gained access to the lungs from the
upper air passages. He regards it also as certain that in all of the cases
death was the result of a terminal septicemia, incident to the entrance
into the blcod-stream of the organisms which were present in the lesions
of the lunsrs.

■a'

Bacterial origin of the forms of the Arabin Group : the Par-
arabin form of Sterculia (Bact. pararabinum, sp, n,).| — P. Greig Smith

* Report, 1903, No. 12, Dept. Interior Bureau Govt. Lab. Manila, 1904.
f Op. cit., No. 9. % Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxviii. (1903) pp. 541-52.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 353

found that gum drops oozing from the seed capsules and twigs of
StercuUa diversifolia consisted of a mixture of arabin and pararabin.
The arabin is produced by Bad. acacice. Another organism — Bad.
pararaUnum, sp. n. — was isolated from the gummed fruits, etc. Upon
solid media and in solutions containing saccharose, dextrose, levulose,
galactose, mannite or glycerin, a slime is formed. By appropriate treat-
ment this yields a soluble pararabin gum, which upon dehydration
becomes insoluble, and this modification is soluble in dilute acid and
insoluble in dilute alkali. It is not hydrolysed by dilute acid, but
strong acid converts it into arabinose and galactose. The bacterium
does not secrete invertase, and in solution of saccharose it forms gum,
ethyl-alcohol, carbon dioxide, succinic, lauric, acetic, butyric and
formic acids.

354 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c*

, CI) Stands.

01d]: Microscope by; Bate. — This Microscope (fig. 55) by Bate,
kindly presented to the Society by Mr. Stringer, was exhibited at the
February Meeting of the present year. It is apparently a late form of

Fig. 55.

Ellis's Aquatic Microscope, described by Adams in his Essays on the
irirroscope, published in 1787.

Adams says, " In the representation of this Microscope the pin D is
delineated as passing through a socket at one side (really the back)
of the pillar A, whereas it is usual at present to make it pass down a
hole bored through the middle of the pillar."

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 355

Further on he says, " These Microscopes are sometimes fitted up
with a toothed rack and pinion for the more ready adjustment of the
glasses to their proper focus."

These two modifications constitute the principal differences between
the Bate Microscope and the one named after John Ellis, and used by
him in 1752-4 when preparing his work, An Essay towards a Natural
History of CorraJines. Ellis there says the Microscope was made by
Cuff, and he gives a figure and description. The figure was used by
Adams in his Essays, and on a reduced scale may be found in Dallinger's
edition of Carpenter on the Microscope.

Cuff's Microscope is evidently the forerunner of many modern
dissecting Microscopes.

The date of this (Bate) Microscope is doubtful, but there is reason
to believe that Bate's instruments were produced somewhere about the
early part of the last century.

It scarcely requires any further description, beyond mentioning that
there are four lenses, the two higher powers being provided with
Lieberkiihns.

Old Microscope by Plossl, of Vienna.— This Microscope, which was
exhibited at the Society's Meeting on January 20, and is represented in
fig. 56, resembles in general character the old Microscope by Schiek,
figured by Quekett in his Practical Treatise on the Use of the Microscope,
2nd ed. 1852, fig. 50, p. 102.

It is an early example of a Continental Achromatic Microscope, and
its date may be given approximately as 1845.

The brass body, 10J in. long, is supported on a short curved piece,
which slides on a triangular steel bar by rack-and-pinion movement.
The teeth of the rack are let in on the under surface of the steel bar,
and the latter is fixed by a compass joint to a solid, upright brass pillar,
which stands on a folding tripod with levelling screws at each end.
Three brass discs are provided, on which the sharp points of the levelling
screws rest.

The stage is movable, for fine adjustment focussing, on the same
triangular bar by means of a fine screw fixed at the end of the bar.
Another screw at the back serves to clamp the stage in any position.

The stage has mechanical motion in two directions ; a fine screw on
the right gives lateral motion to the extent of about | in. On the left
lower side a screw, acting on a lever, and with the stage plate pressing
against a spring at the top of the stage, gives up-and-down motion. A
horse-shoe shaped piece on the stage holds the object slide, and can be
lifted by pressing against a spring below the stage.

In addition to these movements there is on the right side a large
drum micrometer screw, with divisions reading to 0*00001 of a Vienna
inch, and also some divisions on silver at the bottom of the stage. The
screw works against a spiral spring enclosed in a small brass cylinder on
the other side of the stage.

The single mirror on a swivel, fixed to the steel bar, is concave, and
provided with blackened brass diaphragms to partly cover the mirror
when less light is desired.

There are four Huyghenian eye-pieces and one large positive eye-
piece, having two large "plano-convex lenses, the convex sides turned

356

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

towards each other. The six object glasses all screw together, one on
the top of the other ; they are intended to be nsed singly or in com-
binations of two or three, as indicated by the table of magnifications.

Fig 56.

A bull's-eye condenser is provided, and also a rectangular condensing
prism with two convex surfaces, mounted on an extending rod with
compass joint, to be fixed on the front hg for illumination above

the stage.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

357

The following table of magnifications, compiled by the makers,
accompanies the instrument : —

Eye-pieces.

Objectives.

Apl.

I.

II.

III.

IV.

No. 1

11

24

36

1+2

26

54

89

, ,

1+2 + 3 .. ..

41

84

126

2 + 3 + 4 .. ..

01

108

16)

3 + 4 + 5 .. ..

68

131

205

450

4 + 5 + 6 .. ..

103

206

300

720

1080

Baker's Diagnostic Microscope No. 1.* — This instrument (fig. 57)
is a modification of the one designed at the suggestion of Major Ronald

Fig. 57.

Ross, F.R.S., for the special use of officers of the Indian Army Medical
Department for the diagnosis of malarial fever, etc.

* See this Journal, 1902, p. 98.

358

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

It has diagonal rack-and-pinion coarse movement, micrometer screw
fine adjustment and draw tube, as in the original instrument, but a
larger stage, ?>£ in. by 2| in., which folds to facilitate packing, and is
held in position by a strong clamp screw, a substage fitting of 1^ in.
diameter carrying a full size Abbe condenser and iris diaphragm, and
larger plane and concave mirrors, viz. 1^ in. diameter, have been added.

Fig. 58.

A removable mechanical stage with 1 in. movement in both direc-
tions has also been fitted, as this greatly facilitates the examination of
blood spreads, etc.

It is mounted on a folding tripod foot, and is supplied in a solid
leather case. The size of case is 10^ in. by 5i in. by 3 in., and it will
carry the following apparatus : — Microscope stand, two eye-pieces, three

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

359

objectives, bottles for stains, Horder's storage box for cover-glass pre-
parations, and the special aluminium frame to carry the latter.

Mineralogical Microscope.* — This is shown in fig. 58, and is a
strongly constructed model, inclinable, with a stage 85 mm. square.
The Nicol's prisms have rectangular surfaces ; the polariser can be
removed, and the analyser behind the objective inside the tube can be
easily slipped to one side. The object under examination does not
turn : the Nicol's prisms being turned together by means of cog-wheels
worked by a screw-button ; this arrangement is something like the
Allan-Dick model made by Swift. A graduated circle, with a vernier
reading to one minute, indicates the position of the polariser with
regard to the object. Rapid change of parallel light into converging light
is effected by lenses mounted on a slide. The variation of the focus pro-
duced by the Nicol's prism is corrected by a lens. There is an opening
behind the objective for the introduction of mica or quartz lamellae, etc.

Fig. 159.

Fig. 59a.

The instrument has the quick-changing nose-pieces. The position of the
oculars with respect to the Nicols is determined by shades.

The lenses for this series of Microscopes are all supplied by Messrs.
Seibert and Kraft, of Wetzlar.

Travelling Microscope.t — This is shown in fig. 50. It is described
as "large size," but is reduced to a small bulk by the easy dismounting
of its component parts. The instrument can also be used as a simple
Microscope for dissection (fig. 59a). The present form seems an im-
provement on the earlier model, which was described in this Journal.!

* Catalogue Soc. Genevoise pour la construction d'instruments, de physique et de
me'canique, No. 2485 (1900) p. 102.

t Op. cit., No. 2430 (1900) p. 101. X Journal E.M.S., 1884, p. 437.

360

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Leitz' New Binocular Loup.* — This instrument, which was exhibited
at the December meeting (1898) of the Royal Microscopical Society,,
is shown in fig. GO. The usual principle of the ordinary binocular
Microscope is not adopted, inasmuch as that principle involves a

partition of the beam of

light proceeding from
an object, and a conse-
quent diminution of the
brightness of the image.
But this instrument
consists of two indepen-
dent Microscopes, just
as an opera-glass is
formed of two separate
telescopes, and the two
images are combined
by a mental process.
The arrangement allows
a greater freedom in the
choice of objectives than
in the ordinary binocu-
lar Microscope. The
instrument contains two
of Briicke's loups, whose
fields of view accurately
superpose. The eye-
distance from the pre-
paration-plane is about
250 mm., the field is large and flat, and the magnification about four
diameters. The binocular loup admits of horizontal and vertical ad-
justment, and can be secured in any position by clamping-screws. The
fine adjustment is by rack-and-pinion.

Fig. GO.

Dowdy, S. E.

-Sliding Stage for the Microscope.

English Mechanic, Ixxix. (1904) p. 21S (1 fig.).

(4) Photomicrography.

Dowdy, S. E. — Amateur Photomicrography.

English Mechanic,]xx\x. (1904) p. 172-4 (5 figs.).

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Absorption and Emission of Air and its Ingredients for Light of
Wave-lengths from 250 /x to 100 /x.f — After describing a photographic
vacuum Spectroscope designed and made by himself, with lenses and
prism of fluor-spar, and with arrangements for maintaining the same
pressure throughout the body of the instrument, as in the Geissler tube
(used end on), V. Schaudinn states his results.

* Zeitsch. f. Ang. Mikr., ix. (Feb. 1904) pp. 291-2 (1 fig.).

t Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, xxxix. (1903) No. 1413, 30 pp., 4 pis.
and 10 figs, in text.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 30 1

Photographs of the ultra-violet spectra, beyond 185 /*, of the fol-
lowing substances were made : — Nitrogen ; Oxygen ; Water ; Carbon
monoxide ; Carbon dioxide ; Hydrogen.

Nitrogen. — Emission spectrum : beyond 185 //. no bands. Absorp-
tion spectrum : very transparent, even beyond 162 /*, but absorbed par-
ticular wave-lengths energetically.

Oxygen. — Emission spectrum : three continuous maxima at about
185 /a. Absorption spectrum : rays absorbed in the neighbourhood of
185 /a in a series of well-defined groups, fourteen in number.

Hgdrogen. — -The author states that none of the spectra beyond 185 //.
with which he is acquainted emits such a wealth of lines or extends so
far as this. Hydrogen reaches its highest photographic efficiency at
162 jjl, and extends to approximately 120 /x ; but as such wave-lengths
have not yet been measured, it is impossible to give the exact limit. A
single plate of fluor-spar at the lower limit reduced the photographic
effect to one-half. Hydrogen is extremely transparent.

Air. — The absorption effect of strata of the following thicknesses
was tried : 15, 14, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0 ' 5, 0 • 25, 0 ' 1 mm. With the same time of
exposure and same width of slit, the greater thicknesses stopped the
spectrum entirely at 178 yu., but a stratum of 4 mm. allowed the first
band at 170 /x to appear. With a stratum of 0 ' 5 mm. the spectrum runs
to the end of the plate, corresponding to 163 jjl, and with the lesser
thicknesses of air still further. Attention is drawn to the profound
effect caused by introducing such a thin layer of air at atmospheric
pressure into the path of the rays.

The paper is throughout illustrated by photographs of spectra.

In connection with V. Schaudinn's interesting experiments, J. W.
Oifford observes that, with fluor-spar and the melted quartz now
available, there is no doubt that object-glasses could be made, and a
vacuum Microscope constructed for use with these very remote rays.
In which case, the present resolving power of the Microscope (other
things being equal) would be increased, roughly speaking, sevenfold.
This means that objects could be separated when the interval between
them was no greater than one nine-hundred-thousandth of an inch =

•02-S2;U.

Note on the Diffraction Theory of the Microscope as applied to
the Case when the Object is in Motion.* — According to the Abbe
theory of microscopic vision, says R. T. Glazebrook, when a grating is
placed on the stage of a Microscope and illuminated by plane-waves,
diffraction images are formed in the focal-plane of the object-glass,
and the images in the view-plane result from these — and this is un-
doubtedly true. The following difficulty has, however, been raised :
if the grating be moved in its own plane in a direction perpendicular
to the ruling, the diffraction images do not change ; those seen in the
view-plane move : how then can the latter images be due to the
former ? The answer lies in the fact that in the above argument the
effect of the differences of phase among the diffracted images has been
neglected. The diffracted images are not all in the same phase, their

* Proc. Physical goo., 1904, p. 162.

362 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

relative phases are altered by shifting the grating, and the image pattern
in the view-field is altered in consequence. A simple case is considered
in the paper, and it is proved that the image in the view-plane may
change without an alteration in the position of the diffracted images.

Light Waves and their Uses.* — Although this work is of little
assistance to us in solving those intricate microscopical problems which
depend on the wave theory of light, it is nevertheless a most fascinat-
ing book. More than this, it will be useful to those of our Fellows,
who, not having studied physical optics, are desirous to understand
something about the fundamental principles by which the Microscope
image is formed.

The drawback to all books on this subject is, that if they are worth
anything at all, they are crammed full of mathematics, and, therefore,
intelligible only to those acquainted with that form of hieroglyphic
writing ; if, on the other hand, the treatment is popular, they are
generally so inaccurate as to be valueless.

Here we have a book by one of the highest authorities, written
with hardly a mathematical symbol, and in a peculiarly pleasant style.

The author, A. A. Michelson, speaking of wave-motion, says that
it " is one of the most fascinating, not only of the department of
science, but of human knowledge. If a poet could at the same time
be a physicist, he might convey to others the pleasure, the satisfaction,
almost the reverence, which the subject inspires."

The chapter succeeding that upon Wave Motion and Interference,
deals with the Resolving Limits for the eye, the Telescope and the Micro-
scope. It is shown that the resolving power of the eye is about ^^ in.
at 10 in., and that this amount is augmented five-hundredfold by a 5 in.
telescope and four-hundredfold by a Microscope.

The larger part of the book is occupied by showing how quantities
(linear and angular), far smaller than any that can be dealt with either
by the telescope or Microscope, can be measured by means of the
Interferometer — an instrument, as its name suggests, for measuring
interference phenomena.

Those who have studied mathematical instruments will be much
interested in the description of the harmonic analyser, as well as in the
woodcut showing some of the wonderful curves it has drawn.

Some idea of the accuracy gained in measurements made by the
Interferometer may be obtained from the following example.

A standard metre, measured by three different observers at different
times, separated by whole months, was found to be equal in length to
310678 '48 red waves of light. The greatest difference between the
three measurements was only one-fifth of a single wave-length.

There are three plates giving excellent coloured representations of
spectra, and the book is well illustrated by woodcuts throughout.

Simple Method for the Observation of Ultra-Microscopic Par-
ticles.!— E. S. London demonstrated to the Microbiological Society of
Petersburg (November 8, 1903) a new apparatus of Siedentopf and

* Decennial Publications of the University of Chicago. University of Chicago
Press, 1903, 8vo, 166 pp , 3 pis. and 108 figs.

f Centralbl. Bakt., Eef., xxxiv. (1904) pp. 433-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 363

Zsiginondy for ultra-microscopic observations. Its constituent parts were
(1) a carbon arc light, (2) a condenser, (3) a vessel filled with alum
solution for the absorption of the heat rays, (4) a diaphragm, (5) a
Microscope, and (6) a specially constructed camera. The first four were
taken from the large microphotographic apparatus of Zeiss. The Micro-
scope was also by Zeiss. The special camera was a four-sided metal
receptacle, 2 cm. by 0 • 8 cm. by 1 • 8 cm., in which there were five round
openings 0 ■ 3 cm. in diameter. The opening in each; of the smaller
surfaces was prolonged into a metal tube. The openings in the narrow
surfaces were placed opposite each other. The fifth opening occupied the
middle of the broad upper surface. The middle point of the three last
lay in one plane. The light passing through the condenser, the alum-
containing vessel and the diaphragm, entered the anterior opening of the
camera, which latter was placed on the Microscope object-wise. The
illuminated contents of the camera can then be studied through the
upper opening. By means of this apparatus various objects were
demonstrated, and among them the Bacillus dysenteries (Shiga) in
normal saline solution, with a magnification of only 31 diameters.

Filtration of Ultra- Violet Rays through a Selection of Jena
Optical Glasses.* — H. A. Kriiss has investigated this subject in con-
nection with samples of glass supplied him by Schott and Co. These
samples represented the kinds of glass most frequently used in optical
instruments, and comprised the catalogue numbers 3004, 2000, 2090,
304G, 1800, 2572, 3111, 3013, 2563, 2625. Each sample was, more-
over, supplied in the three thicknesses. The results are tabulated in
the following manner : for glass of 1 mm., A = 309 to 384 ^ • for
glass of 10 mm., X = 309 to 434 fi/i ■ for glass of 100 mm., A = 309 to
480 /xfx. A full account of the method, apparatus and theory is given,
as well as an introductory bibliography.

Optical Properties of Vitreous Silica.t — J. W. Gifford and W. A.
Shenstone point out that the properties of vitreous silica suggest that
it is not unlikely to play an important part in optical work. Its com-
position is definite, that is to say, it is not liable to those minute
variations which make it impossible to produce with certainty two
meltings of glass, which exhibit no sensible difference in their optical
properties when tested by a first-rate spectrometer. Hardly any cor-
rosive fumes, except those of fluorine -and hydrogen fluoride, attack
silica, and it is indifferent to most ordinary solvents. It is as trans-
parent to ultra-violet radiations as quartz, but is not doubly refracting
like that substance. Although it is a little difficult to prepare vitreous
silica in large masses, this difficulty can be surmounted, and the supply
of the substance is not limited like that of fluorite. In short, vitreous
silica places at our disposal a really standard glass. Its refractive index
is low, and its dispersive power is sensibly greater than that of quartz.

The authors describe the method of manufacture, which involved a

* Zeit. f. Instrumentenkunde, xxiii., July 1903, pp. 197 207 ; August 1903
pp. 229-39 (7 figs.).

t Proc. Koy. Soc, Ixxiii., No. 491, pp. 201-8 (3 figs.).

364

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

prolonged use of the oxy-hydrogen gas furnace, and the satisfactory
results from the testing of a series of prisms. They give tables of :

1. The refractive indices of vitreous silica.

2. The focal lengths in metres of a compound lens of fluorite and
vitreous silica, achromatised for wave-lengths 7050 and 1852.

3. Partial and proportional dispersions of fluorite and vitreous silica.
The second of these is quoted below in extenso.

Radii :— R = 0-38733; S = 0-20351 ; R' = S ; S' = ao.

R, S, R', S' refer to the fciirfaces of the two lenses.

Wave-length.

Focal Length.

Wave-length.

Focal Length.

Wave-length.

Focal Length.

7950

1-00000

3962 H'

0-99743

2194

0-99120

7682 A'

1-00010

3611

0-99653

2144

0-99151

7066 B'

1-00045

3303

0-99558

2099

0-99174

6563 C

1-00070

3034

0-99409

2062

0-99205

5893 D

1-00086

2749

0-99250

2024

0-99258

5607

1 ■ 00059

2573

0-99113

1988

0-99360

5270 E

1-00017

2446

0 99054

1933

0-99490

4861 F

0 ■ 99983

2313

0 99055

1852

1-00000

4341 G'

0-99874

2265

0-99078

Theories of the Resolving Power of a Microscope.* — Geometrical
optics in its relation to instruments has, says R. T. GT.,f been studied to
great advantage abroad ; we in England have of recent years somewhat
neglected the subject, with the result that only a small share in the
recent advance in lens construction has been ours. The books and
papers under review tell us of the advance.

It was in 1878, in his report on the London International Exhibition
of Scientific Apparatus, that Prof. Abbe first directed attention to the
fact that the further perfection of the Microscope as an optical instru-
ment depended on the advance of the art of glass making. With the
glasses then at their disposal it was not possible for opticians to get rid
of the secondary spectrum of their object glasses ; while a glass could
be made achromatic for two wave-lengths, the differences in the relative
dispersion of the two ends of the spectrum were such that there was an
outstanding amount of colour which prevented the attainment of the
highest perfection of the image. It was to this fact that the establish-
ment of the now celebrated firm of Schott and Company was due, and
the results of Abbe's own work on Microscope lenses are summed up in
the first volume of his collected papers, which has recently appeared.

' Gesarumelte Abhandlungen.' Von Ernst Abbe.

' Das Zeisswerk und die Karl Zeiss-Stiftung in Jena.'

' Zur Tbeorie der Mikroskopiscken Bild-erzeugung.' By Victor Grunberg.

'The Helmholtz Theory of the Microscope.' By J. W. Gordon.

' The Theory of Optical Images.' By Lord Rayleigh (Joiiru. R.M.S., 1903).

Nature, Ixix. (1904) pp. 497-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 365

The well-known paper, Contributions to the, Theory of the Microscope
and of Microscopic Perception, which forms the basis of his work, is here
reprinted, and it will be interesting to consider some of the points
it raises.

But first let us contrast what is now possible so far as achromatic
correction is concerned with what was possible, say twenty years ago.
In those days the ordinary flint and crown glasses only were available.
In the case of a telescope object glass with a focal length of one metre
for the D line, the variation in focal length will, with such glasses,
amount to 1 ■ 4 mm. for A' and 2 ■ 2 mm. for G-'. In an object glass
using modern glass, such as that designed by Mr. H. D. Taylor, these
errors are reduced respectively to — O'l mm. and +0*3 mm.

These figures are enough to show how much the optician owes to
the art of the glass maker.

Turning now to some theoretical matters connected with the micro-
scope which are dealt with by Abbe in his papers, let us consider first
the term " numerical aperture " in its relation to the resolving power of
the instrument. We owe to Abbe the introduction of this term, and the
realisation of its importance as defining, in certain circumstances, the
resolving power of the instrument. By numerical aperture is meant
the value of the quantity //, sin a, where //. is the refractive index of the
medium in which the object is placed, 2a the vertical angle of the cone
subtended at the object glass by the point in which the axis of the
instrument meets the object. Let us suppose, then, that an object is on
the stage viewed by transmitted light, and to simplify matters let us
suppose the source of light at some distance.

Then, according to Abbe* and his followers, in considering the image
formed in the focal plane of the eye-piece, we are not to start from the
object as a self-luminous source and consider where the image of such a
source would be if formed by the laws of geometrical optics ; we are to
start from the source itself, to consider its image formed in the focal
plane of the object-glass, and to treat this image as a self-luminous
source of light in the microscope tube from which arises the image we see.

If the object be small, the focal image will be modified by diffraction
due to the object, and according to the views enunciated in the paper
before us, it is on the nature of the diffraction images and the number
of them which are formed that the definition depends.

We will return later to the question whether it is necessary thus to
consider our problem.

At present let us develop it and examine whether it affords us a
satisfactory solution of the problem of resolving power.

Suppose, now, the Microscope has been focussed on some object on
the stage and then this object has been removed ; the parallel rays from
the source are brought to a focus in the focal plane of the object glass,
forming there a circular patch of light ; rays diverge from each point of
this, and reaching the eye produce the sensation of a uniform luminous
field.

Now let the field in the focal plane be limited by diaphragms

* It was stated recently by Dr. Czapski (Proc. K.M.S. August, 1903, p. 569)
that it would be a mistake to suppose that Prof. Abbe had merely given a grating
theory of the Microscope ; he has treated the matter more fully.

June 15th, 1904 2 c

366 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

pierced with a series of small apertures. The distribution of light in
the focal plane of the eye lens, the view plane, will no longer be
uniform ; we shall see the diffraction pattern formed there by the
apertures.

If, for example, there be but one aperture, a single narrow slit, the
field will still be uniform ; light diverges from the slit uniformly in all
directions, and no structure is seen.

If we have a number of equidistant slits the view plane will be
crossed by a series of equidistant dark and light bars. The distance
between these bars and the distribution of light between them will
depend on the distance between the slits of the diaphragm and the
distribution of luminosity among the slits. If this be known, the dis-
tribution of light in the view plane can be calculated. If, for example,
the distance between the slits be doubled, the distance between the
maxima in the view plane will be halved, that is to say, the number of
bright bars in a given interval will be doubled. The distribution in the
view plane depends on that in the focal plane, and can be calculated
from it ; this is quite certain.

But now, instead of producing a variable distribution in the focal
plane of the object glass by means of diaphragms, we can do it by
means of the diffraction effects of small objects on the stage.

Thus, if we put on the stage a grating consisting of a series of
equidistant spaces, and if e be the grating distance, then, taking homo-
geneous light, a series of narrow bands of light, the diffraction images
of the source, will be produced in the focal plane with darkness between
them ; the central image will be on the axis, and if Qx 62 . . . be the
angular distances between the images, then sin 9X = X/e, sin 02 = 2X/e,
etc.

It may be shown that the image in the view plane produced by this
series of diffracted images is the ordinary geometrical image of the
grating. It should be observed that in this proof there is no discussion
of the distribution of light in the interspaces between the maxima, and
it is on this distribution that the question of resolving power depends.
It is clear, of course, that if we modify the number of spectra in the
focal plane we modify the image, and this is done in an ingenious way
in some of the experiments arranged by Prof. Abbe's pupils to illustrate
the theory.

If we cut out all but the central image the view field is uniform, no
structure is visible ; if we allow the first image on either side of the
central one to become effective, the bands appear in the field in their
proper positions, and so on. It is said to be the fundamental result of
Abbe's theory that the object, the grating, can be fully resolved if one
diffraction image is formed on either side of the central one. It is clear
that in this case there will be variations of intensity in the view plane ;
we shall see later what they amount to.

Now the number of spectra is limited by the fact that some of the
diffracted light may be so obliquely diffracted as not to enter the object
glass. If 2a be the angular aperture of the object glass measured from
the axial point of the stage, then the nth. diffracted image will not appear
if sin 0n is >sin a, but sin 6„ = nX/e.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 367

Hence, for the nth. image to be excluded, nX/e must be greater than
sin a, but according to Abbe, for resolution the first diffracted image
must appear, and hence resolution is just possible if \/e is equal to sin 6.

It has been assumed that air is the medium on either side of the
object glass ; if on the object side we have a medium of refractive index
fi, then it is easy to show that we must replace sin 0 by /x sin 0, and the
condition of resolution is that e should be equal to A///, sin 0, or intro-
ducing the term numerical aperture for the quantity /x sin 0, we have
the result that a grating is resolvable if the space between the lines is
not less than the result found by dividing the wave-length of light by
the numerical aperature.

Now, while the truth of this result can in certain cases be estab-
lished, the reasoning given in the books under consideration is
insufficient to prove it.

In order to decide if the grating can be resolved we must establish
the law of variation of intensity in the view plane, and then consider
whether these variations are such that they can be detected by the eye.
This has been done by Lord Rayleigh. The images formed in a Micro-
scope are, like all other images, produced by interference ; in considering
resolving power we have to consider diffraction effects, it is true, but the
diffraction which concerns us mainly is that due to the aperture of the
object glass, and only indirectly that due to the object viewed.

Neither is it necessary, if we know completely the distribution of the
light over the stage, to go back to the source in our consideration of the
problem ; having given the distribution over the stage both in amplitude
and phase, we are potentially able to determine that in the view plane
without reference to the source. Difficulties of calculation may stop us,
it is true, but that is another matter.

Let us take, again, the case of a grating illuminated by plane waves,
their plane being parallel to that of the grating ; we have to consider
the effect due to a series of equidistant lines of light ; these differ,
however, from a series of independent equidistant linear sources in that,
with the grating, the phases of the various sources are the same ; we
have therefore to remember that interference will take place between
the light from the different lines, while with a series of independent
lines there is no relation between the phases ; we can calculate the
intensity due to each source separately, and superpose the whole.

Lord Eayleigh's solution of the problem, which is presented when
a narrow double line in a spectrum is viewed through a telescope, or
when the attempt is made to resolve two close double stars, is better
known than his equally valid solution of the grating problem, and as it
is simpler it will be useful to indicate it first.

The intensity in the view plane for a single linear source, assuming
for the moment that we are dealing with a telescope with a rectangular
aperture, is given by a certain curve. If we assume a second independent
source parallel to the first we get a similar curve alongside the first. The
resultant intensity is found by adding the corresponding ordinates of
the two curves, and the lines will appear as double when the drop in the
resultant intensity curve is sufficient to be detected by the eye.

2 c 2

368 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Lord Eayleigh suggested that in his case the drop would be just
distinguishable when the maximum of intensity due to the second curve
was superposed on the first minimum due to the first, and experiment
has borne this out. In this case the two halves of the aperture send
light in opposite phases to the first minimum, and the angular deflection
of the minimum is the angle subtended by the wave-length of light at
the distance of the breadth of the aperture. Two lines which subtend
a greater angle than this can be resolved.

Similar methods were applied by Lord Rayleigh in 1896 to the
Microscope, and additional results have been given in his recent com-
munication to the Royal Microscopical Society, which follows Mr.
Gordon's interesting paper on Helmholtz's theory of resolving power in
the Journal of the Society. In his paper Mr. Gordon discusses in detail
Helmholtz's theory, and points out how far it is from fully explaining
all the difficulties of Microscopic vision.

In Lord Rayleigh's earlier paper he deals with (1) two independent
linear sources viewed through a Microscope, and shows that they can be
resolved if the distance between them is half that given by Abbe's
theory ; (2) two sources which are always in the same phase ; in this
case resolution is impossible if the distance is that given by the theory.

If, instead of having two sources, either cophasal or independent, we
have a long series, the problem is more complex, but the method is the
same. An expression is found for the variations of intensity in the
view plane, and the question is considered whether or no these varia-
tions are sufficient to be noticed by the eye.

In the paper the question of the visibility of a dark bar on a uniform
field is dealt with, and here again a distinction must be drawn between
the case in which the field is self-luminous and that in which it is due
to a distant source. In the latter case it appears that the image of the
bar would be marked by a perceptible darkening across the field, even
when the breadth of the bar was but ^ of that given by Abbe's theory,
though the breadth of this shadow would not be a measure of that of
the bar ; in the former case the fall in intensity over the geometrical
image is only one-half of what it is in the latter. Moreover, we are
certain to arrive at erroneous consequences if we apply results obtained
from the case of a grating of a large number of parallel slits to a case
such as that of a single small aperture through which light is coming or
a single small obstacle obstructing the light ; the diffraction pattern due
to such an obstacle is entirely different from that due to a grating, and
the conditions of resolution will be different also.

It appears, then, that while Abbe's theory of Microscopic vision is
undoubtedly correct in that a small object or objects on the stage pro-
duce diffraction patterns in the focal plane of the object glass, and the
illumination in the view plane can be inferred from these diffraction
images, still this method of regarding the question is not the only
possible one, neither is it necessary to go back to the original source if
we know the distribution in the object plane. By proceeding, however,
in the way indicated by Lord Rayleigh, we can evaluate the distribution
of intensity in the view plane, at any rate in certain cases, and obtain
thus a numerical estimate of the resolvability.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 369

(6) Miscellaneous.

Gage's Microscopy.* — S. H. Gage's The Microscope : cm Introduction
to Microscopic Methods and to Histology has recently passed into the ninth
edition, and while retaining all its previous excellent features and well-
known characteristics it has been revised throughout, and important
changes have been effected in certain parts, e.g. those relating to serial
sections and to micro-chemistry. The chapter on the Projection Micro-
scope has been entirely re- written and much more fully illustrated.

B. Technique. t
(1) Collecting Objects, including: Culture Processes.

New Culture Medium made with Helix Pomatia.J— Delia Rovere
has employed the following culture medium for the purpose of deter-
mining whether certain micro-organisms retained longer on it their
virulence and reproductive power, than when grown on horse-liver or
horse-flesh bouillon, a medium considered the best for their growth.
300 grm. snails, freed from their shells and finely minced, are set in
1000 c.cm. of water, and to this are added 10 grm. Witte's peptone and
5 grm. sodium chloride. From this bouillon or agar is prepared. The
author concludes that such bouillon is the most suitable for B. coli,
B. icteroides and B. murisepticus. He found that the virulence of
B. coli remained for a long time, and that the reproductive power of
B. coli, B. icteroides, B. murisepticus and B. anthracis remained for a
longer time than in cultures in horse-flesh bouillon. He holds that
the characteristic of his bouillon is due to the fact that it contains an
important quantity of grape sugar developed through a natural reduc-
tion of glycogen.

Bacterial Diagnosis of Typhoid by means of the v. Drigalski-
Conradi Medium and Agglutination^ — B. Lipschiitz, from the results
of an experimental research on this subject, comes to the following
conclusions :

1. The v. Drigalski-Conradi medium simplifies the cultivation of
typhoid bacilli from faeces, urine, etc., but the characteristic behaviour
of the typhoid bacillus on this medium, and the identification of the sus-
pected colonies by means of agglutination, do not furnish a certain
guarantee for the accuracy of the bacterial diagnosis, and therefore a
wider cultural investigation is advisable.

2. It is desirable in the investigation of suspected colonies by
means of agglutination to employ the so-called ' end-dilution ' ( Wasser-
mann). If there is suspicion of para- typhoid (or dysentery) the

* Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, New York, 1904, vi. and 299 pp., 230 figs-

t This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cuttiug, including Imbedding and Microtomes ;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous.

% Gazetta degli Ospedali e della Cliniche, 1904, No. 139. See also Centralbl.
Bakt., Orig., xxxiv. (1904) p. 562.

§ Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt., xxxv. (1904) pp. 798-811.

370

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

agglutination of the colonies in question must be investigated with the
specific serum of this disease.

3. Agglutinin and agglutinating substances are not bodies of con-
stant composition and nature ; they appear rather as biological products
to differ within certain limits, and this renders desirable the special
judging of agglutination results in each case.

4. The immobilisiug inlthe agglutination of typhoid or coli bacilli,
depends on the nature of the specific serum as well as on that of the
employed bacteria.

Capsule Formation by Diplococcus Pneumoniae in Culture.* —
M. H. Gordon demonstrates the capsules by the following procedure :

Fig. 61.

Boil for 30 minutes, 1 lb. of minced beef in 1 litre of distilled water.
Filter and add 12 p.c. of yellow gold table gelatin, 1 p.c. pepton and
| p.c. salt. Make faintly alkaline to litmus paper with liquor potassae
(B.P.). Add white of egg, and steam for 30 minutes. Filter, pour
into tubes, and sterilise in the steamer for 30 minutes on two successive
days.

A drop of the fluid gelatin culture, after incubation at 37°, is re-
moved with a loop and spread over a cover-glass, dried over the flame,
allowed to stand in alcohol for a minute, and then without drying
transferred, film downwards, to a wTatch-glass containing Ziehl-Neelsen's
carbol-fuchsin. After staining for 1 to 3 minutes the cover-glass is
dipped lightly in water. The moisture is then removed from the upper
side, and the preparation is then examined in water.

Permanent specimens showing the capsules are difficult to obtain by

* Brit. Med. Journ. (1904) i. p. 659 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 371

this method, unless the film be deeply stained and washed very slightly
in water.

New Anaerobic Apparatus.* — A. R. Laing has devised an apparatus
which consists of a glass jar (fig. 61) with a constriction near the base,
and surmounted with a closely fitting lid. Near the top is a short tube
for connection with an exhaust pump. Below the constriction is another
opening, through which passes a glass tube kept tight by means of a
rubber cork. The upper end of the tube has two arms, one having
a reservoir for caustic potash, the other leading to the hydrogen supply.
Both arms are furnished with stop-cocks.

To work the apparatus, a sufficiency of pyrogallic acid is first put
into the reservoir below the constriction ; upon the latter is placed a
perforated porcelain plate, on which the cultivation vessels rest. The
glass lid is smeared with vaselin and pressed firmly down, and the gap
between the lid and the jar filled with paraffin soap. The air is then
exhausted and the apparatus filled with hydrogen, this process being
repeated six times to ensure a complete hydrogen atmosphere. A little
of the hydrogen is removed by means of the exhaust, in order to have
slight negative pressure within the vessel. Potash solution is then
run in.

W.J.S. — Collecting and preparing Diatoms. English Mechanic, lxxix. (1904) p. 84.

(2) Preparing Objects.

Preparing Small Dried Insects for Microscopical Examination.!
G. Enderlein claims good results from the following treatment of such
dried material. The insect is placed carefully in a mixture of 1 part
moderately strong caustic potash solution and 8 to 10 parts water. If
winged, these appendages are best first removed. If, however, the
insect is a very delicate one, the wings may be left on, and a weaker
solution of the alkali employed. According to the size and delicacy of
the object, it remains in this solution from 10 minutes to 1 hour, until
indeed the natural form has been regained. It is then placed in water,
being carefully watched the while, lest undue swelling take place. The
larger air-bubbles are now removed with a fine brush, and the object
again placed for a short time in dilute caustic potash, transferred to
water, and then taken gradually into 96 p.c. alcohol, when the remaining
air-bubbles are removed as before. In 96 p.c. alcohol it can be kept.
If a microscopic preparation is desired, as much as possible of the body
contents are removed by pressure with a fine brush. The object is
then arranged suitably, passed through absolute alcohol and cedar oil,
and mounted in Canada balsam. If one is dealing with very thin
chitinous structures, e.g. delicate abdominal walls, it is well to mount the
specimen in glycerin directly after water.

The author makes permanent glycerin preparations by fixing the
cover-glass, on which no glycerin should be allowed to flow over, to the
slide by means of a ring of wax. This being done, Canada balsam or

* Lancet, i. (1904) p. 515 (1 fig.).
1 f Zool. Anz., xxvii. (1904) pp 479-80.

372 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

other cement is applied to the edges. In many cases it is worth while
to preserve a dry wing between cover and slide, a simple ring of wax
being sufficient. Except with larger and more markedly chitinous
insects, such as beetles, heating of the caustic potash solution is not
advised.

Demonstrating the Structure of Corpus luteum of Sheep.* —
F. H. A. Marshall placed freshly excised uterus and ovaries in 10 p.c.
formalin, and after six days at least pieces of the uterine wall were
excised. These were then washed in water for about twelve hours, and
afterwards passed through alcohols of increasing strength. Sections,
made by the paraffin method, were stained with hsematoxylin and iron-
alum, hematoxylin and eosin, anilin-blue and borax-carmin. The
ovaries were generally treated in the same way, but sometimes were
fixed with sublimate.

Demonstrating Presence of Seed-Fungus in Darnel.f — E. M.
Freeman placed the grains in a germinating chamber, and dissected out
the embryos or seedlings at various stages. The fixatives used were
Flemming's fluid and chromic acid (1 p.c. and \ p.c). An ilin- water
safranin and Heidenhain's hematoxylin were found to be the most
effective stains. In some cases chloral hydrate, potassium hydrate, and
lactic acid were used. For demonstrating the starchy endosperm the
sections were made with an ether-freezing microtome.

Fixation of Infusoria.:}: — P. de Beauchamp recommends the follow-
ing procedure for fixing in the extended condition contractile animal-
cules, especially Vorticellae. The principal feature of the method
consists in slowly anaesthetising the animals, placed between a slide and
cover-glass. The use of the cover-glass prevents a too hasty action of
the reagent and avoids diffusion currents. The preparation is supported
on a couple of wedges placed inside a glass vessel containing a little
alcohol. The duration of the anaesthesia varies from \ to J of an
hour, according to circumstances. The animals are then fixed by
running a drop of the fixative under the cover-glass. The author used
only saturated solution of sublimate for fixing, which requires copious
and prolonged washing in order to get rid of it, but suggests that osmic
acid would act equally well. The preparations may now be stained
say with picrocarmin, and afterwards mounted in glycerin.

Demonstrating the Tubular Reticulum in the Cytoplasm of
nervous and epithelial Cells of the Earthworm. § — S. Ramon y Cajal,
after calling attention to the existence of a tnbuliform apparatus in the
cytoplasm of the nervous and epithelial cells of the earthworm, gives the
following method for demonstrating the reticulum. The pieces of earth-
worm, which should not exceed 3 to 4 mm. in thickness, are incubated
for two to five days at 35° to 40°C. in 1*5 p.c. solution of silver nitrate
in distilled water. In certain cases stronger or weaker solutions may
be used with advantage, but it is always advisable to employ a large
quantity. When removed from the silver solution, the pieces should

* Phil. Trans., cxcvi. (1904) p. 55. t Tom. cit., pp. 3-4.

% Bull. Soc. Zool. de France, xxix. (1904) pp. 26-7.

§ Bol. Soc. Espaiiola Hist. Nat. iii. (1903) pp. 395-8 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 373

be washed for a few seconds in distilled water, and then transferred to
the following reducing medium : — Pyrogallic acid 1 grm. ; formalin
5 to 10 grm ; distilled water 100 grm., for 24 hours. After a rapid
wash the pieces are placed at first in 36 p.c.;alcohol and then in absolute,
previous to imbedding in celloidin or paraffin.

The author * adopts the same procedure for staining nerve-fibrils.

Preparing Planarian Worms.!— Gr. Marpmann places the worm on
a slide by means of a pipette, and then narcotises it with 0 • 5 p.c. eucain.
When it no longer responds to the stimulus of a needle, it is killed by
pouring over it the following solution : — Sublimate 1 ; salt 1 ; glacial
acetic acid 5 ; water 100. The specimen may be stained with picro-
carmin and then cleaned up in pure carbolic acid, the latter being re-
moved by means of xylol previous to mounting in balsam. These
worms are well adapted for showing nerve ramifications when stained by
appropriate methods.

Demonstrating the Structure of Cardiac Fibres.:}: — In his researches
on the structure and development of the cardiac fibres in theVerte-
brata, F. Marceau fixed the tissue in acetic acid sublimate, using chiefly
Zenker's fluid. After from 4 to 24 hours, according to the size of
the heart or of the pieces taken, the tissue was transferred to alcohols
(30, 50, 70, 80 p.c.) for 2 to 6 hours, and then paraffin sections made.
The sections were usually stained with iron hematoxylin, and afterwards
contrast-stained with eosin or Bordeaux red. It was found advisable to
mordant the sections for 12 to 24 hours in iron alum. In reference to
the after-staining with eosin, the writer notes that it is better to use a
weak solution and employ it when the iron staining is halfway through,
and finish off the iron staining afterwards.

Heidenhain's hematoxylin and vanadate of ammonia method was
also used, but only in a few instances, as there are many difficulties con-
nected with it. The hematoxylin and chloride of vanadium method
recommended by Wolters was found to be far more easy ; the results
were good, but did not differ materially from those of iron hematoxylin.

In order to obtain good preparations of heart-muscle of birds and
mammals, it was found better not to fix the material until three-quarters
of an hour had elapsed after the animal was killed.

For teasing out the fibres 20 p.c. nitric acid was far superior to
caustic potash or chromic acid ; the fibres were easily dissociated, and
when washed in water, alcohol and glycerin would make excellent per-
manent preparations.

(3) Cutting:, including- Imbedding- and Microtomes.

New Method for Sticking Celloidin Sections to the Slide.§ — R.
Fischel recommends linimentum exsiccans for sticking celloidin sections
to the slide. This adhesive is composed of 5 parts tragacanth, 2 parts
glycerin, to 100 parts distilled water, and is put up in collapsible tubes.

* C. R. Soc. Biol, de Paris, lv. (1903) pp. 1565-8.
t Zeitschr. angew. Mikrosk., ix.(1903) pp. 328-9.
j Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool., xix. (1904) pp. 235-9.
§ Zeitsch. wiss. Mikr., xx. (1904) pp. 2S8-91.

374 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

A piece about the size of a pea is placed between two slides ; by squeez-
ing these together two thin even films are produced. Upon the films
are arranged the celloidin sections. Upon these are placed several folds
of blotting paper, and firm but gentle pressure applied.

Instead of the foregoing procedure, some of the liniment may be
mixed with distilled water to a syrupy consistence, and a film made on
the slide with a camel's-hair brush. In any case, it is always necessary
to make the smears immediately before arranging the sections, as the
linimentum dries very quickly.

The slides covered with sections are then placed in a vessel contain-
ing 96 p.c. alcohol for a quarter to half an hour before they are exposed
to any after-treatment, such as staining or mounting.

If it be desired to remove the celloidin, the slides are immersed in a
solution of equal parts of alcohol and ether for half an hour or more,
and then transferred to 96 p.c. alcohol.

Method for Sticking Paraffin Sections to the Slide.* — H. Michaelis
places the section in warm water (45°) and removes it thereform on a
slide. After removing the superfluous water with blotting-paper, a
piece of smooth writing-paper is pressed firmly on the section. On
carefully lifting the paper the section is removed along with it. The
paper is then cut off all round the section, care being taken not to have
any piece projecting beyond the edge of the section. A slide is now
covered with a layer of glycerin albumen, and upon this the section is
laid, paper side uppermost. After pressing the section firmly down, the
albumen is coagulated in the flame. When the paraffin is dissolved out
in xylol the paper falls off.

(4) Staining and Injecting.

New Method of Staining with Iron Hsematoxylin.f — A. Paine,
in a communication made to the Pathological Society of London,
recommended the use of iron and hematoxylin in one solution, not
in separate and consecutive solutions as in the methods of Heiden-
hain and Benda, and without subsequent decolorisation. Such a solution
he prepares by adding in certain proportions a 5 p.c. solution of hgeina-
toxylin (Grubler) in absolute alcohol, to a weak solution of perchloride
of iron, e.g. 1 to 1000 of the B.P. liq. ferri perchlor. fort. Convenient
proportions were found to be 5 to 10 drops of the former to 10 c.cm.
of the latter solution. This stain can be used after alcohol, mercury or
bichromate fixation, but the best results followed fixation in 3 p.c.
potassium bichromate and 5 p.c. glacial acetic acid added at the time of
using.

Staining of Bacteria difficult to Stain (Glanders and Typhoid
Bacilli, Gonococci, etc.) in Sections of Skin and other Organs.^ —
K. Zieler recommends for sections, to be stained with polychrome
methylen-blue, a preliminary staining with acid orcein solution. By

* Centralbl. allgem. Pathol, au. pathol. Anat., xiv. (1903) pp. 264-5.
t Lancet, i. (1904) pp. 435-6.

t Centralb. allg. Path., xiv. (1903) p. 561. See also Centralbl. Bakt., xxxiv.
(1904) p. 462.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 375

this a considerable alcoholic firmness is obtained, and also a differentia-
tion of the nuclear and protoplasmic structure, and a staining of the
elastic fibres. Glanders bacilli [appear dark on an unstained ground,
and typhoid bacilli intensely red-violet. The proceeding is as follows :
(1) Fixing and hardening, best in Miiller-formalin, and embedding in
paraffin or celloidin. (2) Sections are stained overnight in orcein D
(Griibler), 0 ' 1 ; officinal nitric acid, 2*0; 70 p.c. alcohol, 100 ' 0. (3) A
short washing in 70 p.c. alcohol. (4) Water. (5) Staining in poly-
chrome methylen-blue for 10 minutes to 2 hours. (6) Distilled water.
(7) Differentiation in glycerin-ether mixture, 1 ; water, 2 to 5, until the
sections appear bright blue. (8) Distilled water, 70 p.c. alcohol, abso-
lute alcohol, xylol, balsam.

Is there a " Vital " Staining ? — Under this heading R. Krause* dis-
cusses the question as to whether vital staining is really possible, meaning
thereby a staining of the cell organs while the cells themselves suffer
no loss of function, or whether such staining is not merely staining
intra vitam, and associated with loss of function and approaching death
of the stained tissue elements. The author inclines to the former sup-
position from the results of observations on the ciliated cells lining the
vestibule of the labyrinth in Petromyzon, their function being of course
observable microscopically. He injected into the heart or posterior
cardinal vein of the living animal a few cubic centimetres of a 2 p.c.
solution of crystallised, chemically pure methylen-blue (Hochst) in
normal saline solution. At the end of the injection the auditory
capsule was laid bare, and then by means of a good knife horizontal or
vertical sections were cut. These were studied in normal saline solution. .
The cells at first appeared unaffected, but soon their constituent parts
underwent a differential staining, the continued unchanged movement
of the cilia contra-indicating any impairment in the functional activity
of the cells.

Staining Trypanosoma. f — W. E. Musgrave and M. T. Clegg ap-
prove of "Woolley's method of staining Trypanosoma. The blood films
are fixed for 10 minutes in absolute alcohol, and then stained with the
following solution : — (A) Eosin, 1 grm. ; distilled water, 1000 c.cm.
(B) Polychrome methylen-blue, Unna's formula. (C) Methylen-blue,
1 grm. ; distilled water, 100 c.cm. (D) Solution B, 2 parts ; solution C,
1 part. 1 c.cm. of A is mixed with 4*5 c.cm. of D. The preparations
are stained for 20 to 40 minutes, are then washed, and afterwards stained
with solution A for 2 to 5 seconds.

Method for Intra-vitam Staining of the Protoplasmic Granules
of the Cornea 4 — G. Colombo makes a saturated solution of Bismarck
brown in 92 p.c. sodium chloride. This is filtered while hot and after-
wards when cold. The solution is sterilised in a water bath and then
dropped into the conjunctival sac of a frog. About 5 drops are instilled
four times a day. In 3 or 4 days the cornea becomes yellowish brown.
A piece of the excised membrane may now be examined in physiological
salt solution.

* Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 400-3.

t Publications of Dep. Int. Bur. Govt. Lab., Manila, 1903.

t Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xx. (1904) pp. 282-8 (1 pi.).

376 SUMMAEY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

In order to fix the pigment granules in situ the whole eye should be
immersed for about eight hours in the following solution. Saturated
solution of sublimate in 1 p.c. sodium chloride, 2 c.cm. ; 1 p.c. solution
of osmic acid, 2 c.cm. ; 1 p.c. acetic acid, 1 c.cm. The eye is then
transferred to Midler's fluid for 16 hours, after which the cornea is
excised and washed in running water for 1 or 2 days. The material
may then be dehydrated in absolute alcohol, and, having been cleared
in origanum oil, examined on the flat, or sections may be made by the
paraffin or celloidin methods.

Triple Staining of Vegetable Tissue.* — L. Petit stains sections
of vegetable tissue with iron chloride and ferrocyanide of potash,
whereby the cellulose and collenchyme are coloured blue. The cork
and cuticula are stained with alkanna and woody tissue by means of an
aqueous or alcoholic solution of iodine green. In this way a triple stain-
ing is obtained.

Vital Staining of Corethra plumicornis.t — W. Kolmer, after trying
to stain the larvae of Corethra plumicornis with methylen-blue but with-
out success, hit on the following ingenious device. In the fluid con-
taining the larvae and the methylen-blue he placed a colony of Stentor
cceruleus. The infusoria soon perished, and methylen-blue granules were
freely deposited on their bodies. These were greedily eaten by the larva?,
the stain passing from the alimentary canal to other parts of their
anatomy, so that the structure of the animals was easily observed.

New form of Section-Lifter 4 — S. E. Dowdy bends a piece of wire
gauze to the shape of a funnel. A circular cover-glass is placed inside
the hopper. After the funnel is immersed in the fluid the section is
washed off into it. On raising the funnel, the section is left stranded on
the cover-glass. The latter is then easily removed. By this procedure
thin and delicate sections may be secured and mounted without risk of
injury.

Dowdy, S. E. — Thickness of cover-glasses.

English Mechanic, Ixxix. (1904) p. 81.

„ Ditto. Tom. cit., p. 123.

F.R.M.S.— Ditto. Tom. cit., p. 104.

G ribbon, W.— Ditto. Tom. cit., p. 194.

Holmes, Edwin— Ditto. Tom. cit, p. 104.

Mietek, Millie— Ditto. Tom. cit., p. 123.

Treadle— Ditto. Tom. tit., p. 240.

Verinder, A. — Mechanical finger.

English Mechanic, Ixxix. (1904) pp. 88, 153 (1 fig.).
(See this Journal, 1879, pp. 951-3.)

Villagio — Modern Mounting Methods— continued.

English Mechanic, lxxix. (1904) pp. 13, 83, 149, 240;

lxxviii. (1904) p. 534.

* Proc. Soc. Amis Sci. Nat. de Rouen, 1903.

t Biol. Centralbl., xxiv. (1904) pp. 221-3.

J Pharmaceut. Journ., lxxii. (1904) p. 263 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 377

(6) Miscellaneous.

Mounting Diatoms.*— J. Gr. E. Powell gives the following method
for mounting filamentous diatoms so as to display them in that beauty
of pattern which they lose by boiling. They are mounted between two
thin covers, so that they can be examined either as transparent or opaque
objects. The slips for this purpose are made of card, wood slips being
more costly.

Cut 3 in. by 1 in. blanks, in one set punch f in., in the other about
\ in., and gum together. When thoroughly dry ring the hole with
black sealing-wax varnish, and cement in a f cover, ringing on a
varnish cell of about \ in. These slips, with their cells, are" best pre-
pared at odd moments in advance. The filamentous diatoms are found
as waving chocolate-coloured wisps in running streams, ditches, drains,
and springs. They should be lifted carefully out into a small, wide-
mouthed bottle with distilled water, and brought home with as little
skake as possible. Transfer them gently to a saucer of distilled water,
have ready some clean covers (say ^ No. 2), each cover with a drop of
distilled water on it. Cut off a tiny portion of the filament, and let it
settle on a cover in the drop, removing the superfluous water when
it has settled. Dry the covers thoroughly, and then burn them. Place
these diatoms upward on a flat slip of platinum or a bit of very thin
tin, and gently lower them into the flame of a Bunsen burner till
all vegetable matter is destroyed. Now very lightly retouch one of
the prepared cells with cement, and lay on the cover diatoms down-
ward, sealing down after a few hours. This last is a ticklish job, as the
cement has a tendency to run in and spoil the mount. The cement
should be thick, and only just touched. Brown's cement is good for the
first layers. Slides so mounted are glorious objects under incident light,
one side being best for this purpose ; and the other, on which the diatoms
are in optical contact with the cover, is better for transmitted light.
But this method obstructs the light for Lieberkuhn and paraboloid.
The burnt cover may be mounted on a ring of Canada balsam or
dammar in chloroform. These gums, separate or mixed, dry quickly,
are not so liable to run in, and do not obstruct the light. If the diatoms
on the cover are rather crowded, the cover may be fastened to a slip,
diatoms upward, with a tiny drop of ordinary balsam, heated till not
quite hard, and then the cover gently melted down. Then a tin ring of
proper size can be cemented just outside it, and a f or f cover put on,
One or two mounts of the burnt covers should be put up in the ordinary
balsam method. Run a drop of spirit of turpentine on to the diatoms,
followed by a tiny drop of ordinary balsam, and give them time to mix.
Then lay the cover on the thin slip, balsam upwards, heat gently over
say a benzoline lamp till the balsam when cool is not hard. Care ;is
needed to avoid bubbles. Centre a glass slip with an ink dot, touch the
other side with a very little fresh balsam, lay the cover balsam down-
ward, and warm gently till the two balsams mix, and run under the whole
cover. If the mounter has been successful, the cover when cool will
stand rubbing, and no finishing is required. Label with plain inch

* English Mechanic, lxxix. (1904) p. 123.

378

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

squares of note paper, letting the writing run the long way of the slide.
Card shoes require no labels, and can be stacked one on the other.
Suitable cells may be cut of any depth from compo gas piping, and
fastened with marine glue.

Beck's Safety Cedar Wood Oil-Bottle. — In shape this bottle (fig.
62) resembles a cone. The metal cap is fitted with a flexible wire looped

at the end for holding a drop of the oil. The
central tube is ground into the main bottle to
form a good joint. The bottle is filled by re-
moving the tube.

New Method for neutralising Carmin
Injection-Masses.* — P. Konaschko states that
he is able to get good injection masses by the
following method. Ammonia carmin is added
to gelatin solution in the ordinary way. The
neutral reaction is determined, as usual, by the
disappearance of the odour of ammonia, and
then any trace of ammonia is detected by means
of dialysing the mass through animal membrane.
If the carmin mass will not diffuse through
such a membrane, it will not permeate blood
vessels. The membrane used is the septum cisternse of the Frog. The
membrane is taken up with a forceps, the blades of which are flat and
perforated. On one side of the membrane is placed a drop of the
warm mass, on the other side a piece of writing paper moistened with
physiological salt solution. If the mass is sufficiently neutralised the
paper remains unstained after one to two minutes. As it is possible to
oversaturate the mass with acetic acid, which would precipitate the
carmin, it is advisable after each addition of acid to examine the injection-
mass under the Microscope.

Fig. 62.

Metallography, etc.

Microscopic Analysis of Metals.f — The metallographic work of
Floris Osmond is so well known and so universally appreciated, that the
appearance of a text-book by him on the microscopic analysis of metals
will be welcomed by all who are interested in this aspect of the subject.
The volume is edited, and presumably englished, by J. E. Stead, a fact
which affords an additional recommendation. The style is most lucid,
and the illustrations copious and excellent.

In the first part metallography is considered as a method of assay.
Under this heading the author deals with the subject in three sub-
divisions : the anatomical, or the identification of individual constituents ;
the biological, or the transformations which occur in the life of metals
and alloys under the influence of heat and pressure ; the pathological, or

* Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xx. (1904) pp. 280-1.

t London, Charles Griffin & Co., Ltd., 1904, x. and 178 pp., with diagrams and
90 photographic illustrations.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 379

the diseases of metals, represented by incipient fractures, slag inclusions,
planes of weakness, and metals in which weakness has been produced by
improper treatment.

The second part contains the general methods for the micrographic
analysis of carbon steels. The first two chapters are devoted to the
technique for obtaining suitable surfaces for microscopical examination.
The next chapter describes the primary constituents of carbon steels, and
the fourth is occupied with the micrographic identification of the various
constituents. Then follows a detailed examination of selected steels, and
the influence of annealing and quenching. The last chapter gives the
author's theoretical and practical conclusions.

To this English edition are added two special appendices, one on
the apparatus and the method for photographing the metallic surfaces,
the other on the relative softness of austenite.

The volume is well got up, and the index sufficient.

Influence of Structure upon Strength under Sudden Stresses.§ —
R. Job gives an interesting instance of a driving-wheel tyre which
fractured in service, while in apparent good condition as to size and
extent of wear, and without any indications of internal flaws. Neither
analysis nor tensile tests suggested any faults, but microscopic examina-
tion of an etched surface from a central section revealed that the
structure was excessively coarse and open, thus proving that thorough
working of the steel had ceased while the metal was at a high tempera-
ture. The material was therefore capable of but relatively small
resistance under sudden stress.

Notes on the Structure of an Alloy which on Freezing Separates
into Solid Solutions and a Eutectic.|| — J. E. Stead reproduces a large
scale photograph used by Sir William Roberts- Austen in his " James
Forrest " lecture, before the Institution of Civil Engineers, April 23,
1902, on the structure of phosphorus and iron compounds. Dark
octahedral spines represent the unsaturated portions which first solidified
and merged into the saturated or white parts surrounding the " land-
locked " eutectic itself.

* Iron and Steel Metallurgist, vii., March 1904, pp. 324-5 (1 fig.).
t Tom. cit. pp. 258-9 (1 fig.).

380

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the 20th of April, 1904, at 20 Hanover Square, W.
Dr. Henry Woodward, F.E.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of the 16th of March, 1904, were
read and confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman.

The List of Donations to the Society, exclusive of exchanges and
reprints, was read, and the thanks of the Society were voted to the
Donors.

From
Cowan, T. W. The Honey Bee. 2nd edition. (8vo, London,-! mi . .,,

1904) I The Author.

Gage, Simon H. The Microscope. 9th edition. (8vo, Ithaca, •> —, . J7

1904) r Author.

I The Committee of the

Tank Microscope, by Thos. Ross ■; Quekett Microscopical

1 Club.

The Secretary called attention to a copy of the ninth edition of
Gage's Work on the Microscope, which he considered to be one of the
most useful treatises dealing with the subject. It was a work which
should be in the hands of anyone desirous of becoming thoroughly
acquainted with the manipulation of the Microscope and with micro-
scopical technique. He then referred to a book on the Honey-bee,
presented by T. W. Cowan, a Fellow of the Society.

A Tank Microscope, by Ross, presented to the Society by the Quekett
Microscopical Club, was exhibited in the room, and the thanks of the
Society were unanimously voted to the club for this interesting
donation.

Mr. Karop said that the instrument had been presented to the
Quekett Microscopical Club, by Mr. Thos. Ross, as far back as 1870.
What may have been the circumstances of the gift he could not say,
but years before (1870), the keeping of marine aquaria had been a
popular mania, and one knew that Microscopes had been devised for
use in connection with them, such as, for instance, Warington's, de-
scribed in the first edition of Carpenter, p. 91. In any case this
particular instrument was a beautifully made and highly finished piece
of work, having nearly every conceivable adjustment ; and although it
did not possess much scientific or any value at the present time, and
was useless except, perhaps, for exhibiting such objects as small flowers
and so forth at soirees, yet it was certainly a beautiful specimen of the
optician's art, and, therefore, worthy of a place in the Society's collection.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 381

The Chairman said that a very excellent exhibition of living aquatic
objects had been arranged for that evening, and he would ask those
Fellows who were not exhibitors themselves, to pass a special vote of
thanks to those who were. Their thanks were also due to Members of
the Quekett Club who had kindly brought their Microscopes, and were
exhibiting examples of pond life.

The vote of thanks having been put from the Chair, was carried
unanimously.

The Chairman said that they had no formal papers to be read at
the Meeting, and he, therefore, now had only to invite those present to
examine the objects exhibited, which he was sure would prove to be of
very much interest to all.

The proceedings were then adjourned to May 18th.

The following Objects, Instruments, etc, were exhibited : —

The Society : — Large Tank Microscope, by Thos. Ross.

Mr. F. W. Chipps : — Floscularia ornata.

Mr. J. D. Ersser : — Hydra vulgaris.

Mr. A. E. Hilton : — Fredericella sultana .x 40.

Mr. E. Hinton : — Lophopus crystaUlnus.

Mr. K. I. Marks : — Anurcm brevispina ; Melicerta rinyens ; Synchata
pectinate ; S. oblonga ; S. tremula.

Mr. W. J. Marshall : — Larva of Ephemera.

Mr. J. Milton Offord :— Vorticella and Hydra.

Mr. D. Powell : — Tadpole, ventral aspect, showing the heart and
circulatory system.

Mr. T. H. Powell -.—Volvox ylobator.

Mr. H. T. Rogers : — Volvox ylobator.

Mr.C. F. Rousselet : — Floscularia ornata ; Melicerta rinyens ; Rotifera,
various ; Steplianoccros Eichhorni.

Mr. D. J. Scourfield : — Alona quadrangular is,

Mr. C.J. H. Sidwell : — Alona quadrangular is ?, showing olfactory
seta?, heart in motion, and mandibles.

Mr. C. D. Soar : — Limnesia histrionica.

Mr. H. Taverner : — Brachypoda versicolor, and various nymphs,
Hydryphantes sp.

Mr. Geo. Tilling : — Lophopus crystallinus.

Messrs. W. Watson and Sons : — Rotifera.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows : —
Messrs. Morgan Isaac Jones and Joseph Parrott.

June loth, 1904 2 d

382 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the 18th of May, 1904, at 20 Hanover Square, W.
Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., etc., President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of April 20, 1904, were read and con-
firmed, and were signed by the President.

The List of Donations to the Society, exclusive of exchanges and
reprints, received since the last Meeting, was read.

From
Osmond and Stead, Microscopic Analysis of Metals. "I rpjie puins]iers

(8vo, London, 1904) .. .. /

Harriman Alaska Expedition. Vols. VIII., IX., Insects;! T7 p,,/?-.;,.,..

Vol. X., Crustacea. (8 vo, New York, 1904) ,. . ./ ine ^wmners.

A Ladd's Student's Microscope Mr. Wynne E. Baxter.

An old portable Microscope Dr. C.St. Avbyn Farrer.

Descriptions of the Microscopes presented to the Society by Mr.
W. E. Baxter and Dr. Farrer, contributed by Mr. Rousselet, were read to
the Meeting.

The thanks of the Society were voted to the donors, and to Mr.
Rousselet for his communication.

Mr. F. W. Watson Baker exhibited and described three new devices
which had recently been brought out by Messrs. AVatson & Sons. The
first of these was a new objective changer, consisting of two rollers linked
together, and having a jaw on each The rotation of these rollers by
means of a handle caused the inversion of the jaws, leaving a clear open-
ing for the insertion of the objective. On releasing the handle, the
rollers and jaws were carried back to their previous position by the action
of a coil-spring, in doing which the objective threads were gripped and
the shoulders brought together. In consequence of the variations in the
pitch of the screw-thread used by different makers, it was found necessary,
in order to secure accurate working, to supply small rings to fit on the
objectives for use in this changer. Two special features were claimed for
the changer : one was its thinness, the increase in the length of the body
by its use being only ^ in. ; the other its light weight, it being con-
structed of magnalram.

The second item exhibited was a mounting device, designed by
Mr. W. Pcosenhain, for microscopic specimens of irregular shape, such
as metal sections. The description read to the Meeting was, that for
microscopical examination it was necessary to mount metal specimens
in such a way as to ensure that the polished face was accurately adapted
for the optic axis of the Microscope. This was sometimes secured by
the use of a levelling stage, but the device shown consisted of two

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 383

horizontal] plates, the upper one capable of vertical movement, though
always remaining parallel to the lower one. The specimen to be
mounted was placed face downwards on the lower plate ; a glass slip
was carried by the upper plate, which had a large hole in it through
which the back of the specimen could be seen. Having obtained the
proper position the irregular back surface of the specimen was filled up
with some suitable mounting medium, the upper plate being then
lowered until the glass plate pressed firmly upon it. The two plates
were then clamped together until the medium had set. In this way the
specimen was attached to the glass in a position which ensured that the
polished surface was exactly parallel to the surface of the slip. A piece
of washleather tightly stretched upon the lower plate avoided all risk of
the polished metal face getting scratched during the process.

The third exhibit consisted of glass troughs designed by Mr.
Kingsford for use as aquaria for infusoria, or for containing coloured
fluids to act as light filters. They were formed of two circular plates of
glass held firmly by a metal band lined with india-rubber, and kept in
position by binding screws. A sufficient opening at the top was pro-
vided for the introduction of liquids. The great advantage of this form
of apparatus is that it can be taken to pieces with facility for the pur-
pose of cleaning or for replacing the glass if broken.

Mr. Kingsford said that another merit of these troughs was that they
would stand any variations of temperature without becoming leaky.
To test this he had repeatedly boiled water in one, and after pouring
this out had immediately filled up the cell with cold water, and found
that it showed no signs of leakage afterwards, neither was the glass
cracked.

Mr. A. A. C. E. Merlin's note on Mr. Nelson's new formula Amplifier
was read by the Secretary.

Mr. Karop said that, so far as he understood from the paper, the
method appeared to be the principle of the Barlow lens applied to the
Microscope, viz. a negative lens interposed between objective and ocular
to increase the magnification. This device was not, he believed, a success
in the telescope, but of course might very well be so for the purpose
intended here.

The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Merlin for his com-
munication.

• ' Mr. E. M. Nelson's paper upon the visibility of Mr. Grayson's rulings
of 120,000 lines to the inch was read by the Secretary.

The President thought this was a very interesting communication.

Dr. Hebb remarked that he saw this plate exhibited at the recent
conversazione of the Royal Society, and though it was easily resolved,
his impression was that some of the lines were more strongly marked
than others.

Mr. E. E. Hill pointed out that the ruling shown at the Royal
Society was only under an objective of 1 • 1 numerical aperture.

The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Nelson for his paper.

384 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

The Secretary read a list of persons who had been nominated by the
Council for election as Honorary Fellows of the Society, and who would
be submitted for ballot at the ensuing Meeting.

Notice was also given on behalf of the Council, that at the close of
the next ordinary Meeting of the Society it would be made special for
the purpose of altering Bye-law No. 25, by omitting the word "future."

A letter was read from the Selborne Society, inviting the assistance
of the Fellows of the R.M.S. as exhibitors at the conversazione to be held
at Burlington Gardens on May 27.

Attention was called to an exhibition of flower seeds under a number
of Microscopes in the room, provided by Mr. C. Beck.

New Fellow. — The following was elected an Ordinary Fellow : —
Mr. John Stevens.

The following Objects, Instruments, etc, were exhibited :—

The Society : — A Student's Microscope by Ladd, date about 18G4 ;
an old portable Microscope (possibly by Gary).

Mr. F. AV. Watson Baker : — A New Objective Changer ; a Mounting
Device for specimens of irregular shape ; Glass troughs for use as aquaria
or as light filters.

Mr. Conrad Beck : — Flower Seeds : Amaranthus, Calampelis, Digi-
talis, Linaria, Loasa aurantiaca, Oxalis rosea, Petunia, Rhododendron,
Salpiglossis, Sihne pendula, Whitlaiva, and Fern Spores.

Mr. C. F. Rousselet : — Statoblasts of Cristatella mucedo and Pectina-
tella magmfica.

JOUENAL

OF THE

EOYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

AUGUST 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

IX. — A Direct Proof of Abbes Theorems on the Microscopic

Resolution of Gratings.

By Prof. J. D. Everett, F.R.S.

(Bead June 15th, 1904.)

Suppose the Microscope to be adjusted for viewing a transmission
grating laid on its stage, illuminated by a source so placed that
the incident light may be regarded as consisting of a single train
of plane waves travelling in a direction perpendicular to the
rulings. Diffraction spectra will be formed in the focal plane of
the objective, and will consist, for light of given wave-length X,
of bright points, all of them lying in the plane drawn through the
axis perpendicular to the rulings. The optical paths which we
shall have to discuss lie in this plane.

Let the spectrum of zero order be called C, the two spectra of
the first order Ax ~B1} the two of the second order A2 B2, and so on.
It will be necessary for us to consider the optical paths from an
incident wave-front (in a fixed position) to points midway between
successive bars of the grating and thence to the spectra, These
paths increase or diminish in arithmetical progression as we pass
from each middle point to the next, increasing for the spectra on
one side of C, and diminishing for those on the other side. The
common difference of the progression is zero for C, + A for Ax
and Bl5 + 2 \ for A2 and B2, and + n \ for the two spectra of
order n.

The optical disturbance at a fixed point P, in the image-plane
conjugate to the plane of the grating with respect to the objective,
is the sum of the disturbances due to the different spectra. All
these disturbances have the periodic time T characteristic of light

Aug. 17th, 1904 2 E

386 Transactions of the Society.

of wave-length X ; and the disturbances due to C, Al} B1} A2, B^
are represented by the expressions

t

C COS 2 IT „

T

aY cos 2 it (^ + ax ) ; a2 cos 2 7r ( ~ + a2) 5

lh cos 2 w (^ - &J ; Z>2 cos 2 ?r (^ - A ) ;

c, «1; l>i, a2, b2 being constant coefficients ; and a1} /3j, a2, /32 con-
stants depending on the position of the grating.

Now consider the effect of a small displacement x of the
grating in its own plane, perpendicular to the bars. As all the
points P, 0, Alt Bx, A2, B2 are fixed, there will be no changes in
the distances of the spectra from P. Let s denote the grating-
interval, and let M be the middle point between a selected pair
of consecutive bars. If the grating were displaced through the
distance s, the optical path through M from the incident wave-
front to A j. would be increased or diminished by \, and an equal
and opposite change would be made in the path to Bx. For A2
and B2 the changes would be ± 2 \. The change of path for
Aj and Bx due to displacement x is, therefore, \ x/s, giving 2 nr x/s-
as the difference in phase ; with twice this difference for A2 and Ba.
The expressions for the five disturbances are thus altered to

o t

C COS 2 IT 7p 5

ax cos 2 7T in -i 1- «i) ; «2 cos 2 tt (~; + — + a2J ;

h COS 2 7T T^ -~s~ £l) ; &2 COS 2 7T (T - -^ - £2J J

the signs being chosen on the convention that a positive value of x
increases the path to Ax.

Writing <£ for 2 it t / T, all these expressions are of the form
F cos ((f) + e) ; and to find their sum we may use the well-known
formula (applicable to finding the resultant of coplanar forces at
a point) :

F0 cos (<f> + e0) + Fj cos ((f) + ei) + F2 cos (<f> + e2) + . . . .

= E cos ((f) + E),
-ith

with

B2 = F02 + Fx2 + F,2 + . . . . + 2 F0 Fx cos (e0 - e,)
+ 2 F0 F2 cos (e0 - e2) + 2 Fx F2 cos (e x - e2) + ....

Abbe's Theorems. By Prof. J. D. Everett. 387

Iu the present case R2 measures the luminous intensity at P;
and the expression for it, as due to the five spectra above included,
will consist of five coDstant terms, together with ten terms which
are simple-harmonic functions of x.

If we include only one of the five spectra, R2 is constant, and
the intensity at P does not vary as the grating moves. The field
is therefore uniform, with no trace of lines.

If we include only C and Au we have

R2

= c2 + ax- + 2 c «j cos 2 7r (- + aA;

showing that the intensity goes through one complete cycle of
values as x increases from 0 to s. There is therefore one line in
the image for one line in the grating.

If we include only Ax and B1? we have

R2 = ai2 + h2 + 2 «! lx cos 2 ir (2y + ai + &) ;

showing that the intensity goes through its cycle while x increases
from 0 to \ s, and goes through two cycles while x increases from
0 to s. There are therefore two lines in the image for one line in
the grating.

If we include only Ai and B2 (the two intervening spectra
C and Bx being stopped out), we get

H2 = ax2 + b,2 + 2 «! b2 cos 2 ir (— + ax + /32) ;

showing that there are three lines in the image for one in the
grating.

With any five consecutive spectra included, we shall have
xjs, 2 xjs, 3 x/s and 4 x/s in the arguments of the cosines ; and
the expression for the intensity will be reducible to a Fourier
series containing four periodic terms, of periods s, % s, | s, % s.

388

NOTES.

On the Influence on Images of Gratings of Phase Difference
amongst their Spectra.

By Julius Bheinbeeg.

It is my privilege to bring an experiment to your notice this
evening * which illustrates very well the effect on the image of a
grating which is produced by alterations of phase between the
spectra which it forms in the back focal plane of the objective.

In Prof. Everett's interesting paper we have heard how it
occurs, that when a grating is moved in its own plane at right
angles to the lines, a change of phase is brought about amongst
these spectra, and that this change of phase accounts for the lines
shifting in the image, although the spectra in the fecal plane do
not shift their position. Similar results have, I think, recently
been arrived at by Dr. E. T. Glazebrook.

Now it occurred to me, that if the shifting of the lines in the
images were caused by change of phase amongst the spectra, we
ought to be able to make the lines in the image of the grating move
without moving the grating on the stage at all, by the expedient
of introducing a difference of phases amongst the spectra in the
back focal plane.

This is the experiment I have to show you. The arrange-
ments are as follows. The Microscope used is one of the so-called
" Demonstration " microscopes specially designed by Prof. Abbe
many years ago for his experiments showing the relation between
diffraction effects and image formation. I am indebted for the
loan of this apparatus to the firm of Carl Zeiss. Without entering
into details about the many ingenious arrangements in this instru-
ment, it suffices our purpose that the back focal plane of the
objective is readily accessible, and that the spectra formed there
and the resulting image in the view-plane can be alternately
examined with rapidity and ease.

The grating is placed on the stage of the Microscope. In the
substage condenser we use a narrow slot, and in the back focus of
the objective, where the grating forms the spectral images of this
slot, we introduce an Abbe Glass Wedge Compensator.! We

* See account of the Proceedings of the June Meeting at end of this Number.

t To understand the action of the compensator, think of a square slab of glass,
the faces of which, instead of being accurately plaue parallel, are very slightly wed^e-
ehaped. Imagine the square of glass cut in half, and that we have two similar

Notes. 389

arrange this so that the contact edges of the two halves of the com-
pensator just come between the zero maximum (or dioptric beam)
and the maximum of the first order (or first spectrum) on the one
side. We next cover up all the maxima except these two. Then,
looking through the Microscope, the image of the grating is seen,
and as we turn the micrometer-head of the compensator, thereby
altering the phase of the one maximum, the lines in the image
travel across the field.

It is rather important that, under the conditions of this experi-
ment, with the admission of two contiguous spectra only, the actual
practical extent of the movement of any individual line is confined
to about twice its own width. This can be shown by studying the
effect of an isolated bright line, and it is desirable to bring the fact
out, because apparently any particular line of the grating moves
right across the field.

But in this effect we have nothing more than a rather remark-
able optical illusion, by which the analogy between the shifting of
the lines when the grating is moved bodily, and the shifting when
the phase-difference is introduced by a compensator, becomes greater
than is actually the case.

We can best understand this by regarding the image of any line
as the bright visible portion of a diffraction pattern. The pattern
may be represented by an intensity curve, and this curve would
show t hat besides the chief bright line there is a narrow bright line
on either side — almost unobservable under ordinary circumstances.

Now when the grating is shifted on the stage, this intensity
curve representing the image is shifted "about bodily in the view
plane, i.e. the region in the view plane where the maximum occurs
may move from one portion of the field to another, whilst the con-
figuration of the diffraction pattern remains unaltered. When,
however, a phase difference is introduced by the compensator, there
is no change of region in the view plane where the visible portion
of the diffraction pattern is produced, but the configuration of the
intensity curve itself undergoes alteration. The narrow faint line
shifts along, becoming broader and brighter ; the central bright line
shifts along, becoming narrower and less bright, and a certain position
is arrived at where both lines are equally bright and equally
broad. This is the state of things when half a phase difference is

wedges. Now think of these two halves being laid alongside of one another again,
with their edges in contact, so that the square slab is re-formed. It is evident that
the glass is of equal thickness in the two halves in any diameter drawn at riglit
angles to their contact edge. But if the one glass be slid against the other, then in
all such diameters the glass on one side will be slightly thicker or thinner than the
glass on the other.

In the compensator the one glass wedge is therefore made immovable, whilst to
the other a movement is imparted by a micrometer-screw sufficiently gradually that
we can readily alter the relative thickness of the two halves by fractions of a wave-
length of light, thereby obtaining our difference of phases.

390 Notes.

reached. If continued further, a new line makes its appearance on
the one side just as the line on the other is going to disappear.
Now when we have a grating on the stage, it can be shown that in
the image the diffraction patterns, due to neighbouring lines in the
object, overlap, and interference occurs in such a way that as any
image line loses in brightness from one object line, it gains in
brightness in just the same proportion from the neighbouring object
line. Thus the brightness as seen remains constant, and so far as
appearance goes it is the same line which travels right across the
field.

My intention this evening was only to bring some visual
evidence in connection with the interesting matter which Prof.
Everett has brought to our notice. I fear I have been explaining
my experiment at too great length ; if so, my excuse is that I was
desirous to bring out not only the points of similarity, but also the
points of dissimilarity which may result from creating difference
of phase amongst the spectra by different means.

"When the above note was written, I thought the experiment
was an entirely new one, but I have since found that a somewhat
similar one was made by Abbe, and referred to in a catalogue of
optical measuring instruments issued by the firm of Carl Zeiss in
1893.

In Abbe's experiment the chief maximum is blocked out, and a
phase difference created between the two maxima of the first order,
and it is pointed out that, under these circumstances, the number
of lines in the image is doubled, and that the strife wander.

An Attachment for reading the lines in a direct-vision SiKctroscope
By E. B. Stringer, B.A., F.E.M.S.

This attachment (fig. 63) may, perhaps, be of interest to the Society,
since an arrangement of the same kind might easily be made for
a micro-spectroscope. It affords a more accurate means of reading
the lines than the reflected scale which is generally used, whilst it
is even more convenient, as the scale does not require independent
illumination.

It consists of a light and rigid arc of phosphor bronze, of about
40 degrees, and 6| in. radius, cast in one piece with the broad ring
by which it is firmly clamped to the body of the instrument. The
arc carries a millimetre scale, which is divided in white upon a

Notes.

391

black ground, so that it may easily be read in a dim light. A
vernier reading to tenths is carried above the scale by the telescope
itself, and immediately beneath the eye-piece is a magnifying lens,
which follows the vernier in its movement, and through which the
scale and vernier may be read with the greatest ease, without any
change of the observer's position. The eye-piece has cross wires of
the usual kind.

It will be seen that the radius of the arc is much greater than
that of the table in most table spectroscopes, so that much finer
readings are possible ; also, that as the vernier is carried by the
telescope itself instead of by a separate arm, there is less chance of
inaccuracy.

Fig. G3.

The telescope is carried round by means of a screw, which bears
-against a lug clipped upon the tube, and works through a small
boss cast on one arm of the arc, the opposing spring being attached
to the opposite arm and bearing on the opposite side of the lug, an
arrangement which altogether relieves the telescope from any lateral
strain. The screw has two milled heads ; the smaller is rapidly
rotated between the finger and thumb in order to move the
telescope quickly through a large distance to another part of the
spectrum, whilst the larger is for exact adjustment upon any line it
may be desired to read. A blackened screen of sheet metal protects
.the eyes from direct light.

The instrument itself was made by Browning.

392 Notes.

On a Method of Obtaining Monochromatic Ultra-violet Light.
By E. B. Stringer, B.A., F.R.M.S.

In a paper read before the Society at the April meeting last year,*
I pointed out the advantage of using the electric arc itself as a
source of light in photomicrography, and showed how a mono-
chromatic violet light might be obtained, by isolating the violet
band of the arc spectrum by the use of solutions of ammonia
sulphate of copper and quinine. I have since found a means of
separating the two ultra-violet bands from the visible rays ; and
also of isolating one of them so as to obtain monochromatic ultra-
violet light.

A solution of uranic sulphate is completely opaque to the
visible violet band of the arc spectrum, whilst freely transmitting
the two ultra-violet bands ; so that if this be used with the
ammonia copper solution instead of the quinine, we get the ultra-
violet rays alone. A solution of uranic acetate, on the other hand,
transmits only the first or less refrangible ultra-violet band; this,
therefore, gives monochromatic ultra-violet light — as one may be
allowed to call it, though of course it has no colour, appearing on
the screen of a pale grey or neutral tint.

Lenses corrected so as to work with it would be a considerable
gain, and might easily be used ; the focal adjustment being made
by the visible violet rays, before the introduction of the uranium
solution. Its mean wave-length is about 3760, that of the visible
violet band being 4190.

Of course the prism is not used when actually working with
the Microscope, the troughs of solution being placed in the path
of the direct beam from the arc. Such a comparatively weak
source of light as the arc itself cannot be used well, without the
concentration afforded by the condensing system which I described
in a previous paper.

In order to get both bands with the uranic sulphate it is better
to use a solution of methylen-blue to which copper sulphate has
been added, instead of the ammonia copper solution. The object
of the copper sulphate is to cut off the extreme red which the
methylen-blue transmits. This solution may also be used with
Ihe acetate, and is better than the ammonia copper for both
purposes.

Using a quartz prism and lenses, a trough having quartz sides,
iind a fluorescent screen of uranic phosphate, both the uranium
solutions are found to cut off all the rest of the ultra-violet

* See this Journal, WW, p. 270.

Notes. 393

spectrum beyond the bands above mentioned. This is still the
case when this part of the spectrum is rendered much more
intense by the use of iron, instead of carbon poles.

The ultra-violet carbon spectrum falls off very much in in-
tensity beyond the second band, there being only one other band
(at about its middle) at all comparing in brightness with the first
two. These two bands, however, reach the limit transmitted by
most glasses.

On Grayson's 120,000 Band-Plate.
By Edward M. Nelson.

Through the kindness of Mr. Beck I have been enabled to examine
a Grayson Test-Plate, which contains a band ruled at the rate of
120,000 lines to the inch (= -21 /a). This band was strongly
resolved by an apochromatic oil-immersion £ 1*43 1ST. A. (for the
long tube) and a 5 eye-piece. With 12 and 24 eye-pieces the
resolution was quite as strong as the transverse stripe of the
Amphipleiira pellucida appear in good photomicrographs.

This band was also resolved by a semi-apochromatic ^ 1*3 N.A.
(for the long tube) with a 5 eye-piece. A friend even saw the lines
with a 4 eye-piece, though I could not do so myself.

It was also resolved by an old achromatic water-immersion
TT2 1 ' 2 1ST. A. by Powell and Lealand ; but in this case the lines
appeared to have irregularities in their ruling. A long tube
apochromatic dry 4 mm. Q) • 97 N.A. resolved the 90,000 band
( = • 28 fi) quite easily ; the same band was also resolved by a
long tube dry apochromatic } • 96 N.A. with some difficulty.

It may be remarked, in passing, that the latest books on
Physical Optics, used by our Universities and schools, state that
ao,"Voo m- (or '28 /a) is the theoretical limit for microscopic vision !

A Zeiss apochromatic 12 mm. (£) for the long tube -66 N.A.
resolved the 60,000 band (= *42 /a) quite strongly, but there was
not the slightest appearance of its resolving the 70,000 band. The
resolving limit of this very fine lens is probably about 65,000
(= '39 /a). A short tube semi-apochromatic I *84 N.A. resolved
the 80,000 band ( = • 32 /a), and a short tube semi-apochromatic
i -76 N.A. resolved the 70,000 band (= -36 /a). The bands were
examined with many other lenses, but nothing worthy of note was
observed.

Piuled lines are more difficult to resolve than diatoms of equal
fineness ; we may go further, and say that ruled lines mounted in a

394 Notes.

dense medium, such as realgar, are more difficult to resolve than
diatoms of equal fineness mounted in quinidine, and much more
difficult than diatoms mounted dry on cover.

Before a lens fails to resolve a band, the next lower band appears
to be irregularly ruled, but these apparent irregularities of ruling
disappear when the band is examined by a lens of greater aperture.
When, therefore, some lines in a band appear strongly ruled, and
others faint or missing, the observer knows that the limit has been
reached. He may, by improving his illuminating conditions, or
by altering his lens-adjustment, remove all appearance of these
irregularities of ruling, but then they are sure to reassert themselves
in some higher band. The best screen for microscopical work of
this kind is made by dissolving acetate of copper crystals in
distilled water, until a saturated solution has been obtained. This
solution must be filtered many times, then to it should be added a
very small quantity of methyl blue. It appears that acetate of
copper will hold only a certain amount of blue, the surplus, there-
fore, will be thrown down. Sunlight with a heliostat was used,
and the light made oblique, in one azimuth, by an achromatic oil-
immersion condenser N.A. 1 ■ 4.

The theoretical resolving limit for oblique light may roughly
be taken to be 100,000 times the N.A. of the objective, and the
practical at something a trifle short of this ; but 100,000 N. A. is a
convenient form for a " memoria technica."

In conclusion, might I be allowed to suggest that the labour of
ruling these bands would be considerably lightened if fewer lines
were ruled in each band ?

It is, perhaps, a mistake to have all the bands ruled upon one
plate ; for a complete set of test bands four plates would be
preferable. The first might contain bands from 1000 to 10,000
per inch; the second, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 thousand
per inch; the third, 50 to 100 thousand; and the fourth, 90, 110,
120, 130, 140, 150, 160 thousand per inch.

The first plate would be suitable for loups and very low-power
lenses, the second for lenses up to §, the third would carry us on
from that point up to a dry lens of maximum aperture, and the
fourth from thence to the limiting power of the Microscope, as at
present constituted. ,

In the fourth plate, the 90,000 band is inserted as a strong
band to adjust the lens upon.

This band-plate is a beautiful specimen of Mr. Grayson's un-
rivalled ruling's.

o-

Since the above Note was written, I have received from Mr.
Grayson two more examples of his rulings. The lines in these
plates are ruled with marvellous accuracy. Just at this time a
new screen was obtained, giving results superior to any as yet

Notes. 395

tried, and the sun having obligingly shown himself steadily for a
few hours, I am able to give some fresh details, which may be of
interest.

On one of these plates, under these new conditions, I saw
the 120,000 (-21 fi) band clearly resolved, with the cheap oil-
immersion y1^ (long tube) of 1*3 N.A., and the 4 eye-piece.
Previously I had failed to see this, although a friend had done
so. This band was also resolved by a Powell and Lealand water-
immersion -j^ N.A. 1 • 2, and a 5 eye-piece.

The semi-apochromatic \ N.A. ■ 76 resolved the 80,000 (-32 p)
band ; some years ago attention was directed to the remarkable
resolving power of this objective.

The 90,000 ('28 p) band was resolved by a Powell and
Lealand apochromatic dry J, with the 12 eye-piece.

While the instrument and heliostat were in position, it occurred
to me to try the dry front of the Powell and Lealand water-
immersion y^, when, to my astonishment, the 100,000 ("25 /*)
band was plainly and well resolved.

This lens is one of the series that used to be known as Powell's
new formula water immersions. It was introduced by that firm in
December 1874; the I appeared first, and became very celebrated ;
afterwards a y*g was produced, the y1^ came later, probably about
1877. These lenses were the finest extant before the advent of the
oil immersions.

Being so successful with this dry y^th, I next tried two old
y^-ths, one by A. Ross, N.A. *81, and the other by Powell, N. A. '93,
both being constructed upon Lister's formula, with triple fronts
and backs, and doublet middles.

The A. Eoss showed the 80,000 (*32 /n) band very strongly, and
the 90,000 ( ■ 28 /*) as an exceedingly difficult image.

The Powell did the 90,000 band quite easily, and, strange as it
may appear, the 100,000 band ("25 fi) was certainly resolved,
although the image was a difficult one.

It was a great surprise to find a Microscope objective, made
more than half-a-century ago, resolving a 100,000 (*25 //,) band.

In all cases oblique light in one azimuth was used from an
achromatic oil-immersion condenser.

It is clear, therefore, that with this new screen the limit of
100,000 times the N.A. of the objective (mentioned in my previous
Note) is fully established for practical work.

Mr. Grayson having placed test band-plates, properly ruled and
properly mounted, within our reach, it remains for microscopists
to make the best use they can of them, and to endeavour that their
practical work shall lag behind the theoretical limit as little as
possible.

396 Notes.

On Nelson's New Formula Amplifier.
By A. A. C. Eliot Merlin.

A few months ago, when endeavouring to effect some delicate
microscopical measurements, it was found that the magnification
afforded by even y1^ and y1^ in. objectives used in conjunction with
the low-power eye-piece of Powell's screw micrometer, was in-
sufficient always to insure the greatest possible accuracy. It is-
obvious that for such work a very high magnification is advan-
tageous, as then an entire revolution of the divided drum, and
consequent considerable movement of the spider line, represents a
very minute real interval, and therefore small errors in bringing
the "wires" into exact contact with the margins of the object to
be measured are reduced to a minimum. In ordinary cases, for
visual purposes, it is an easy matter to obtain any useful amount
of enlargement that may be required with a given objective by the
simple expedient of employing an ocular of suitable power ; but
with the screw micrometer any great augmentation of power at
the eye end of the instrument must inevitably cause the spider-
lines themselves to appear coarse and thick, a consequence which
certainly would not tend to increase the accuracy of results obtained
under such conditions.

In the circumstances I appealed to my friend, Mr. E. M. Nelson,
asking him whether it would not be feasible to employ some suit-
able kind of amplifier over the back combination of the objective,
thus insuring a sufficient increase of power with various lenses
without affecting the apparent fineness of the micrometer spider-
lines. In response, Mr. Nelson most kindly computed for me a
simple form of amplifying lens, which has proved so satisfactory
in practice that I venture to draw the attention of Fellows of the
Society to its capabilities.

The lens is negative, plano-concave, and in use is placed in my
instrument (Powell's No. 1) on the top of the fine-adjustment
tube, at a distance of about three inches above the back combina-
tion of the objective, and in that position increases its initial
magnifying power 2 ■ 52 times. The effect of the amplifier is also
to increase the working distance of the objective and thus disturbs
its corrections for critical work ; but this disturbance can be com-
pensated by means of the correction collar, and therefore adjustable
objectives are preferable for use with the amplifier in order to
obtain the best possible definition. When, however, the objective
is in a fixed mount, the necessary correction may be effected by
lengthening the tube as for decrease in thickness of cover-glass.

Notes. 397

Personally, I have found that the new amplifier yields especially
good results when employed in conjunction with a Powell y1^ in.
oil immersion of measured N.A. 1*27, this lens being provided
with collar adjustment. With the combination specified, 13 '18
revolutions of the micrometer drum equal ygW *n-> an(l tne defini-
tion proves remarkably sharp, both with a large solid axial illu
minating cone and also with oblique light from a wide-angled oil
immersion condenser. By the latter arrangement I have been
enabled not only easily to " step " and count the tranverse stripe
on A. pcllucida running at 94,000 to the inch, but have also suc-
ceeded in " stepping " those of an extremely finely marked small
species of Nitzschia (mounted in realgar), which count 112,000 to
the inch. The last proved a very delicate and difficult task, owing
to the faint resolution obtainable by lamplight.

Although primarily intended for micrometrical purposes, the
new amplifier would doubtless prove most useful for students'
stands, if mounted on an arm so as to allow it to be brought into
working position through a slot cut in the body of the instrument.
In this manner a great increase of magnifying power could be
quickly and easily obtained, and the resultant slight disturbance
of the objective correction would be quite negligible, and indeed
not discoverable, when the Microscope is set up in the ordinary
rough-and-ready fashion inculcated in the medical schools, while
more careful manipulators could readily obtain really critical
images with a little skill in the adjustment and choice of the
objectives employed. To many workers also who prefer shallow
eye-pieces, yet do not possess objectives of very high initial magni-
fying power, the new arrangement would probably be welcome.

Through Mr. Nelson's kind permission I am enabled to annex
hereto the formula of the new amplifier.

Formula of Amplifier.

Plano-concave Borosilicate glass v = 64 • 0 (0 • 144 No. 5, Jena

Catalogue).
Ptadius of concave = 1*0.
Diameter =0*7.
Focus = 2-0.

Thickness at centre = 0*05.
Measurement is in inches.
Plat side of lens to face objective.

SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA,
a. Embryology, f

Occurrence of Parthenogenesis.} — Everett F. Phillips gives a useful
summary of the most important work done on this subject. The case
of the honey-bee is fully discussed, not because the author considers it
of most importance, but simply as a basis for the subsequent treatment,
which covers the whole field of doubtful as well as undoubted instances,
from Trematodes to Mammals. Some of the facts made clear in this
review may be briefly stated. It is evident that parthenogenesis has
had a separate origin in many places in the animal scale. All that is
necessary in the maturation of a parthenogenetic egg is that the normal
n amber of chromosomes shall be retained, and this may be brought
about by the retention of the second polar body, by fertilisation by the
second polar body, or perhaps by the division of the chromosomes with-
out the corresponding cell-division. Parthenogenesis is generally asso-
ciated with, and probably caused by the necessity of the appearance of
a great many individuals suddenly at a certain period of the year or
of the life -cycle. There may be a need for females, e.g. Aphis, or for
males, e.g. Honey-bee, or it may be that the habits of the animal make
the chance of the occurrence of a sexual union too small, and in con-
sequence the females have acquired the agamic method of reproduction.
Cercaria offers a good example of this. The relation of the problem
of the determination of sex to that of parthenogenesis is dealt with in
the paper. The views put forward by various writers that the sex is
determined before the ova leave the 'ovary appear to receive support
from the facts of parthenogenesis.

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial "we," and they
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and allied subjects.

% Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, xlii. (1904) pp. 275-345.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 399

Development of Veins of the Liver in the Rabbit and Sheep.*
C. Bonne has studied these in a series of embryos from C mm. in
length to full term. His main results are : (1) In man, rabbit and
cat the right umbilical vein ceases early to share in the hepatic circula-
tion, and serves exclusively for circulation in the right abdominal wall,
leading down to the left umbilical vein, where it joins the blood from the
allantois. In sheep both veins are equal in size, and unite beneath the
liver into a common median trunk, which lasts till the pulmonary circu-
lation is established. At the 7 mm. stage this trunk gives off numerous
branches to the abdominal wall : these disappear later. The fusion
of the two veins takes place first in the interior of the liver, or at its
level, and progresses downward. The canal of Arantius is continuous
at the lower extremity with the common trunk of the two umbilicals.

(2) The common vitelline trunk is for a long time much smaller than
tihat of the hepatic veins ; at 14 mm., as the intestinal develops, it be-
comes larger. The vein of Spiegel's lobe first ends in the vitelline, later
in the sinus of the portal vein or in a vein of the right lobe. Some
veins from the right and Spiegel's lobes go direct to the vena cava.

(3) In man, rabbit and cat the canal of Arantius is early distinct from
the sur-annular segments of the two vitellines ; it exists before they
have lost their connection with the proximal ring. It is separated
from them by a thickness of hepatic tissue traversed by capillaries.
This occurs later in the sheep, viz. after the proximal ring has disap-
peared. Then the canal of Arantius gets smaller, to the advantage of
the inferior vena cava, which collects the sur-hepatic veins. (4) The
efferent veins are at first represented by the terminal trunks of the
two vitelline veins. The left vitelline has a communicating orifice
with the right efferent vein, which also communicates with the sinus.
All this is transitory ; at 8 mm. the two sur-hepatics connect with
the great trans-hepatic, not the sinus. Physiological considerations are
also discussed in the paper.

Nephridial Canals in Guinea-Pig. f — R. Meyer finds that the
primitive nephridial canals in the guinea-pig have a communication
with the coelome, but this seems rather a re-opening of a previous con-
nection between the median and lateral plate than a fresh invagination.
The openings seem comparable to the secondary nephrostomata in
Amphibians, except that those of the guinea-pig are transient.

Lens Development under Abnormal Conditions.! — A. Schaper
has studied the development of the lens in the embryo of Rana after
extirpation of the central nervous system. The new lens rudiment he
finds grows downwards from its point of origin in such a way as to
suggest an " attempt " to get into a normal place with reference to the
eye vesicle, which may be, the writer thinks, due to some sort of tropism
between eye and lens rudiment.

Structure and Development of the Middle Ear in Man and
Mouse. § — L. Driiner discusses in this paper the question of the homo-

* Jonrn. Anat. et Physiol., xl. (1901) pp. 225-67 (3 pis.).

t Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 25-30 (4 figs.).

% Tom. cit , pp. 305-26. § Tom. cit., pp. 257-86.

400 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

logy of the malleus-incus articulation in mammals with the quadrato-
articular of other vertebrates. He holds that there are insuperable
morphological and physiological difficulties in accepting such homology,
and proves the homology of the lower jaw articulation in mammals
with that of the lower vertebrates. As an illustration of the evidence
adduced may be taken the relations of the trigeminus to the lower jaw
in Urodeles, which have no parallel in the malleus-incus articulation of
mammals.

Early Development of Desmognathus fusca.* — H. H. "Wilder sup-
plements an earlier paper on this subject by an account of the develop-
ment during the first three days. The segmentation is at first almost
typically holoblastic, although in the later relation of embryo to yolk
it greatly resembles that of meroblastic embryos.

b. Histolog-y.

Ciliary Movement.f — E. A. Schafer refers to the theory of ciliary
movement which he stated in 1891. If cilia are hollow extensions of
the cell, occupied by hyaloplasm and invested by a delicate membrane,
thickened (or at any rate less extensible) either along one side or in a
spiral line, any tendency of the hyaloplasm of the cell to flow into or
out of such a hollow process — in other words, to increase or diminish
the tension within it- — must result in a bending movement if the line
of less extensibility were a straight one, or in a circular or corkscrew
movement if the line were a spiral one. And since the amoeboid
movements of cell protoplasm are in all probability due to local changes
in tension at the surface of the cell, this assumption regarding the
structure of cilia would at once bring their action into line with that
of other more general contractile manifestations of protoplasm.

Prof. Schafer defends this theory against the interpretations recently
put forward by Dr. Piitter.J

Structure of Mammalian Blood-vessels.§ — Baum and Thienel
point out the lack of definite knowledge which exists on the subject of
the microscopic structure of different types of blood-vessels. They have
made a comparative study of the arteries and veins in the region of the
axilla in horse, ass, ox, calf, sheep, pig and dog, the results of which are
detailed in the present paper.

Nerve-endings of Human Skin.|| — A. S. Dogiel in a very full
paper confirms and extends the work of Ruffini on this subject. Some
new facts of interest are brought out. The nerve apparatus minus
capsule can be divided into two groups, that enclosed in connective
tissue and that in epithelium. To the apparatus of the first kind
belong the Ruffini corpuscles, the tree-shaped end branchings, the un-
encapsuled end ganglion, intra-papillary endings, ribbon-form bundles,
and nerve-fibre network (vaso-motor nerves in papillaj-Ruffini, and the

* Anier. Naturalist, xxxviii. pp. 117-25.

t Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 497-511.

% Asher and Spiro. Ergebnisse der Physiologie, ii. Abth. 2.

§ Arch. Mikr. Anat.. lxiii. (1903) pp. 10-31 (1 pi.).

|| Zeitschr. wis*. Zool., lxxv. (1903) pp. 46-111 (10 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 401

papillary fascialc of Riiffmi). The sub-papillary nerve-web composed
of medulla-less branches and threads, the uuencapsuled ganglion, the
ribbon-form bundles and the intra-papillary network have one and
the same source. They represent the end-branchings of the axis-
cylinder of those relatively thick medulla-containing fibres which sepa-
rate themselves from the bundle of nerve-fibres of the superficial
network. The fibres mentioned, after losing the medulla-sheath, break
into smaller branches passing not only to one but to several papilla?.
A certain number of branches and fibres penetrate the typical (possibly
also the modified) Meissner's bodies, and form in the same a more or
less close network. Finally, fibres which penetrate the epithelium and
end in the same, arise from the aforesaid network and also from the
unencapsuled ganglion, from the bundles, and the inter-papillary net-
work.

Olfactory Organ of the Lamprey.* — E. Ballowitz has made a
precise study of this interesting organ in Petromyzou fluviatilis, which
includes an entrant duct, a complex nasal sac, and a naso-palatal canal
which ends just above the oesophagus. He gives an account of the
histological peculiarities of the different regions, and corroborates
Johannes Muller's observation that the most posterior part acts like
an aspiration bladder in a spray-syrinx, being rhythmically compressed
and enlarged in association with the respiratory movements.

Histological Studies on Cerebral Localisation.! — A. W. Campbell
seeks to further the establishment of a correlation between function and
histological structure, and gives his results on the central gyri, the occipital,
temporal, and limbic lobes. The normally existent topographic varia-
tions in arrangement of cortical nerve-cells and medullated nerve-fibres
have been adopted as a standard criterion in forming judgment on
points bearing on localisation. The examination of the disposition of
these elements over the entire cortex of human and anthropoid apes'
brains, both normal and pathological, constitutes the groundwork of this
research, of which the present paper is an abstract.

Histology of the Light Organs of Photinus marginellus.f — A. B.
Townsend finds that the light organs are composed of two distinct layers,
lying above the ventral body-wall of the fifth and sixth abdominal
segments. The dorsal layer consists of polygonal cells with large nuclei,
and with cytoplasm almost entirely replaced by a granular secretion. A
similar secretion occurs in the fat-cells of the same region of the body.
The ventral layer is composed of two elements, parenchyma cells and
cylinders. The former are irregular in shape and size, and their
granular secretion is finer than that of the dorsal layer cells, and appears
to be different chemically. The cylinders are masses of tissue surround-
ing the vertical tracheal ^sterns and their branches. There is no change
in the structure of the trachea? until near the periphery of the cylinder,
where each fine tracheal twig breaks up into tracheoles. These have no
spiral thickening. Photogeny occurs in that portion of the tissue where

* SB. K. Preuss. Akad. (1904) pp. 671-6.

t Proc. Eoy. Boo., Ixxii. (1903) pp. 488-92.

J Amer. Naturalist, xxxviii. (1904) pp. 127-51.

Aug. 17th, 190 Jf 2 p

402 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the trackeolar network is found, and where there is consequently the
most abundant supply of oxygen.

c. General.

Arboreal Adaptations.*— L. I. Dublin reviews these in Mammalia.
He distinguishes (1) partially arboreal — including the majority of the
carnivores, insectivores, and rodents and Dendrohyrax ; (2) strictly
arboreal, subdivided into (a) modified for running on branches — arboreal
marsupials and lemurs ; (b) modified for suspension from branches —
sloths and bats ; (c) modified for swinging by fore limbs, hind limbs on
the marsupial type — remaining arboreal primates. The special features
characteristic of each type are briefly described.

Seventy New Malayan Mammals.f — Gerrit S. Miller, junior, reports
on four large collections of Malayan Mammals made by Dr. W. L. Abbott
— rich in slightly differentiated insular forms of rats and squirrels, and
including peculiar insular species of porcupine and flying lemur, a dwarf
siamang, a member of a new monkey genus, Simias, and so on. The
title of the paper, " Seventy new Malayan Mammals," indicates how far
we are from having exhausted even the mammalian fauna.

Seventh and Eighth Sternal Ribs in Man.J — J. D. Lickley dis-
cusses the significance of the occasional presence of an eighth true rib in
man, and of variations in the mode of sternal attachment of the seventh.
He considers that the caudal end of the thorax is degenerating, as is
shown by the diminution in the number of ribs which unite with the
sternum in man and the higher primates as compared with the lower
monkeys. The eighth rib has undergone so much degeneration that it
rarely joins in the sternum, and falls short of the middle line. When
degeneration has been partly arrested, it reaches the middle line without
becoming incorporated in or joining with the sternum. A similar de-
generation is affecting the seventh rib, which may not join or be incor-
porated in the mesosternum, but meet its fellow of the opposite side. A
further change brings the seventh in a few cases into the same position
as the eighth normally occupies, viz. it fails to reach the middle line, and
terminates by a secondary connection with the sixth.

Asymmetry of Skull in Toothed Whales.§ — 0. Abel finds that
this is greatest where the nostrils are most highly elevated upon the
head, e.g. Platanista and Xiphinae, whilst in forms with the nostrils
nearer the front there is either no deviation from bilateral symmetry
(Zeuglodon), or only a trifling one (Phocc&na).

Ear of Toothed Whales. || — G. Boenninghaus has made an exhaustive
study of the ear and related structures in Phocmia and other Cetacea.
From the great similarity of the rudimentary external ear to that of
the seal he assumes that when functional it acted similarly. In the

* Anier. Naturalist, xxxvii. (1903) pp. 731-6.

f Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, xlv. (1903) pp. 1-73 (19 pis. and 1 fig.).

j Anat. Aczeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 326-32.

§ SB. Akail. Wiss. Wien, cxi. (1902) pp. 510-26 (1 pi.).

H Zool. Jahrb., xix. (1904) pp. 1S9-360 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 403

water the ear of the seal is closed by the external pressure, and opened
by muscular action in air. When the whale remained always in the
water, and its body had undergone such transformation that in the
usual position of repose on the surface its external ear lay below the
water line, the necessity for opening the ear to receive sound waves
through the air ceased, with the result that the ear muscles have become
rudimentary. In the toothed whales there occurred a twisting and
elongation of the anterior sphenoid, with the result that the external
nasal opening lies on the upper surface of the forehead. Through this
modification of the fore-part of the skull the eustachian tube has been
shifted towards the roof, and the tubo-palatal muscles have disappeared.
Other modifications have also taken place here, with the result that,
except when the act of swallowing takes place, the tube is closed, but
■the conduction of sound is not impeded. These and other peculiarities
are all referable to the alteration in structure of the whole skull adapted
to secure the possibility of breathing in the horizontal position of
repose at the surface of the water.

Photographs of Living Finback Whales from Newfoundland.* —
F. W. True publishes the first photographs of living whales in American
waters. They all represent the common finback, Balcmoptera phy solus
(L.). Under ordinary circumstances the finback rises and sounds
obliquely, the flukes are not thrown out, and the spout is vertical. The
actions of the animal as regards the length of time it remains below
•the surface, the distance it travels while submerged, and the number of
times it spouts in succession, are irregular. The spout is shown to be
single in the finbacks, for the two columns of vapour-laden breath unite
■so close to the head that they appear as one.

Affinities of the Pygopodes.t — R. W. Shufeldt gives a detailed
statement of the affinities between the grebes (super-family Podici-
poidea) and the loons (super-family Urinatoroidea). He adheres to the
•conclusion which he maintained in 1884, that our existing grebes and
loons are derived from, or are the descendants of the great toothed
■divers (Hesperornithidas) long since extinct. The grebe-stock was an
earlier offshoot than the loon-stock from the great toothed diver stock.

Comparative Osteology and Phylogeny of the Columbiformes.f —
Rudolf Martin makes an important contribution to the taxonomy of
the pigeon-like birds. He gives a comparative account of the skeletal
structure of pigeons, noting the main lines of evolution and the
secondary changes. He pays particular attention to Didunculus strigi-
rostris. The order Columbiformes includes two sub-orders : Didi, with
the families Dididas and Pezophabidas ; and Columbaa, with the families
€olumbidae, Peristeridas, Treronidas, Carpophagidse, and Didunculidre.

;j Reclassification of the Reptilia.§ — H. F. Osborn, as the result of
a searching study of the problem of the diphyletic origin of the reptiles,

* Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, xlv. (1903) pp. 91-4 (3 pis.).
t Amer. Naturalist, xxxviii. (1904) pp. 13-49 (1 pi.).

Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 167-352 (2 pis. and 9G figs.).
§ Amer. Naturalist, xxxviii. (1904) pp. 93-115.

F 2

404 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

designates the two groups as the sub-class Synapsida, or primitively
single-arched reptiles, and Diapsida, or primitively two-arched. All
the most primitive Diapsida are placed in the super-order Diaptosauria,
a group equivalent in taxonomic rank to the Squamata or Dinosauria.
He describes the reptiles falling within these two groups. He concludes
that the birds probably originated from a group of Diaptosauria,.
identical with or closely related to that which gave rise to the Dino-
sauria. It is not true that birds have descended from Dinosaurs, but
there is very strong evidence that birds and Dinosaurs are descended
from a common stock. There is no question that the mammals are
affiliated with the sub-class Synapsida, as is seen in their skull and
shoulder-girdle structure, and in phalangeal formula. As to their
nearer relationships, they appear to be with the super-order Anomodontia.
The divergence of the mammal stem from these typical reptiles will
probably be found to have occurred in the Permian or Lower Trias of
South Africa. In fact, Broom has recently described what he believes
to be a mammal jaw (Karoomys) from the Karoo Beds of South
Africa.

New European Lizard.* — M. G. Paracca describes from Sardinia
Avhat seems to be a distinct species (L. sardou sp. n.), allied to L. oxy-
cephala, but yet quite separate from it and allied species.

Notes on Reptiles.f — Franz Werner has made a careful comparison
of the scales in two young Boids (Epicrates angulifer) and in their
mother. In regard to twenty-five points there was a lack of complete
hereditary resemblance, and in some cases the variation was very
marked.

In a second note he discusses the symptoms of approaching natural
death as exhibited in peculiar attitudes, in colour-change, in the look
of the eye, etc., in snakes, lizards, and other reptiles.

Vegetarian habits are exhibited by more reptiles than is usually
supposed, e.g. by many Chelonians and lizards. There is perhaps no
single reptile which altogether rejects animal food, and, with the ex-
ception of the land tortoises and the leguans, most of the vegetarian
forms are so only occasionally. In all the families of lizards the largest
and most massive species are vegetarian.

The author also discusses variability in reptiles, with especial reference
to scales and coloration, e.g. in Zamenis gemonensis and Lacerta muralis.

An Abnormal Tortoise.! — B. Wandolleck describes in detail a
monstrosity of a tortoise, which had been called Testudo marginata, but
turned out to be T. gneca, with a hump on its back and all sorts of
abnormalities in the vertebral column, ribs, carapace, and scales. There
must have been some remarkable inhibition of the normal growth : that
is all that can be said.

Existing Genera of TrionychidaB.§ — 0. P. Hay reviews critically
the genera of the Trionychidaj as founded by various authors. He

* Bull. Mus. Torino, xviii. (1903) 3 pp., 1 fig. See Zool. Centralbl. xi. (1904)
p. 156. f Biol. Centralbl., xxiv. (1904) pp. 332-48 (1 fig.).

X Zool. Jalirb., xx. (1904) pp. 151-66 (4 figs.).
§ Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xlii. (1903) pp. 268-74.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 405

disagrees with Baur regarding the types of some of the genera of that
author, and particularly on the value of some of these genera.

Phylogeny of the Teleostomi.* — C. T. Began gives the following
classification of the Teleostomi, the relations of the different orders
being indicated thus : — •

Teleostei

Dipneusti Placodermi

Crossopterygii

Chondrostei

The Chondrostei and Crossopterygii correspond to the groups usually
so named ; the Dipneusti comprise the Sirenoidei only ; the Placodermi
include the Arthrodira, Antiarcha, and Osteostraci ; and to the Teleostei
the Ganoidei Holostei are added.

Oral Breathing-Valves of Teleostei.f — E. G. Mitchell has studied
these in a large number of species. They are sheets of membrane com-
posed of elastic connective tissue, covered with a mucous membrane con-
tinuous with that lining the mouth. They are situated in the mouth-
cavity behind the maxillary and mandibular teeth, and their function is
to prevent regurgitation of the water through the mouth in the act of
breathing. Their size and shape are dependent on the size and shape of
the mouth. In fishes with inferior mouths the upper valve is well
developed, while the lower is reduced or absent ; terminal-mouthed fishes
have upper and lower valves nearly equal, while in upwardly directed
mouths, e.g. Echeneis naucrates, the maxillary valve is the smaller.

Gill-Arches of Muraenidae.J — Canna M. L. Poppa gives a careful
account of the structural characters of the branchial arches in Anguilla,
Conger, Ophicthys, Murama, and other eel-fishes, and shows that the
peculiarities are specifically diagnostic. This is of value, but, as the
author points out, the study is incomplete without an interpretation of
the structural peculiarities in reference to the peculiarities in mode of
life, especially as regards diet.

Fresh-water Fishes of Mexico.§ — S. E. Meek notes that in Mexico
there are four quite distinct fish faunas, and though they overlap at the
borders, the region of each may be fairly indicated on the map. The
origin of the fish is given, approximately, as from the Colorado river,
from the Rio Grande, from the Lerma, and from Central America. The
paper contains interesting notes on viviparity, which seems to be the
rule amongst the tropical Pceciliidre. It appears that in the tropical

* Ann. Nat. Hist., Ixxvii. (1904) pp. 329-49.

t Amor. Naturalist, xxxviii. (1904) pp. 153-G4.

J Ann. Sci. Nat., xix. (1904) pp. 367-90 (20 figs.). 3

§ Amer. Naturalist, xxxvii. (1903) pp. 771-84.

40G SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

fresh-waters of America there is much more provision made for the care
of the young than in the cooler waters of the northern continent.

Sub-Species of Mustelidae.* — G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton describes a
number of examples of various species so differentiated as to merit rank-
ing as sub-species. In the pine-marten he finds a tendency to deeper
coloration, and a brighter throat-patch in the southern representatives of
the species. Among the polecats in the south the tendency is to assume
yellow under-fur and face markings, while in Central Europe the face
markings are more extensive, and both they and the under-fur are whiter ..

Fauna of New Zealand.f — F. W. Hutton has edited a valuable
' Index Faunas Novas Zealandiae,' in which, with the help of numerous
collaborateurs, he has furnished a list of the animals inhabiting New
Zealand and the neighbouring seas. It has been a labour of love for all
concerned, and will doubtless have its reward in an increased knowledge
of the fauna of New Zealand. These balance-sheets are of the greatest
value, and the editor deserves congratulations. In the introduction there
is a discussion of the elements of the fauna, and sufficient evidence is
adduced to show, if that were necessary, that New Zealand is not an
oceanic island.

Plankton of Gulf of Trieste. J — A. Steuer notes the following as
distinctive features : — larval stages of worms and crabs, plankton forms
limited to coast regions ; medusa swarms in more or less abundance ;
absent or sporadic in appearance : — Noctiluca, Thalasskola, colonial
Eadiolaria, Sapphirinaa, Ostracoda, Hyperiae, Pteropoda, Salpidas, which
are common or more frequent in the South Adriatic. The presence of
Pteropoda and Salpaa is due to periodical swarms in the South Adriatic
or to the perennial plankton of the south.

Tunicata.

Self-Fertilisation and Cross-Fertilisation in Solitary Ascidiansi
S. Gutherz has made experiments with Phallusia mammillata and Ciona
intestinal is, and finds that in the former artificial autogamy is successful
in all or almost all eggs, while in the latter it succeeds in only a small
percentage of cases. In both cases [cross-fertilisation was almost in-
variably successful. In natural conditions cross-fertilisation must be the
rule in Ciona, and autogamy exceptional ; in Phallusia the opportunities
for natural autogamy seem to be much greater.

INVERTEBRATA.

Mollusca.

Egg-Envelopes of Cephalopods and Chitonida3.|] — A. Schweikart
finds that in five species of Chitonidaa the ovum is first surrounded by

* Ann. Nat. Hist., Ixxvii. (1904) pp. 388-95.

t Index Faunas Novre Zealandise. Published for the Philosophical Institute of
Canterbury, New Zealand. London (1904) 372 pp.
% Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1903) pp. 145-8.
§ Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxiv. (1904) pp. 111-20.
|| Zool. Jahrb., 1904, Supplement, Band iii. Heft 2, pp. 353-406 (4 pis. and 2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 407

a chorion membrane, which is a secretion of the pellicular epithelium,
and secondly by the vitelline membrane, which is formed by a hardening
of a peripheral zone of the egg-cytoplasm. In Sepiola and Loligo the
chorion is also secreted by the follicular epithelium. Particular attention
is paid to the formation of the micropyle.

y. Gastropoda.

Natural History of Haminea solitaria Say.* — W. M. Smallwood
has studied this Tectibranch mollusc with especial reference to its life-
history. The egg-laying period extends from the middle of June to
the end of August, during which time the adults migrate from the deep
water at Wood's Hole into shallow ponds and lagoons. The eggs are
laid in a gelatinous mass, spherical in form, attached to eel-grass, algae,
stones and sticks. The eggs pass from the one-celled stage to the free-
swimming embryo in seven days. In its method of segmentation,
Haminea solitaria is in close agreement with other molluscs. No
positive results were obtained from attempts to produce abnormal
segmentation.

Nematocysts of iEolids.f — Gr. H. Grosvenor brings forward as
evidence that the nematocysts of iEolids are derived from their prey,
the following : Not only are nematocysts of iEolids and Ccelenterates
identical in plan of construction and mode of discharge, but each of
several distinct types occurs in both groups. A single type of nema-
tocyst does not occur uniformly throughout a species, but different
individuals of the same species may have quite different nematocysts ;
moreover, a single individual may have nematocysts of several different
types, found in as many distinct species or groups of Ccelenterates.
When it is known on what Ccelenterate an 2Eolid has recently been
feeding, the nematocysts of the two are found to be identical. Also
the nematocysts from the faeces of an iEolid, which are generally
admitted to be derived from their food, are always identical with at
least some of the nematocysts from the cnidosacs. Those Solids
(Janidse, Fionidae, and Calma glaucoides) which habitually feed on
animals other than Ccelenterates, have no nematocysts. No plausible
account of the development of nematocysts in iEolids has been given,
though several attempts have been made. This view affords a satis-
factory explanation of the function of the ciliated canal through
which nematocysts and other indigestible bodies have been observed to
pass from the gastric diverticulum to the cnidosac. Strethill Wright's
experiments have been confirmed. In one case three Rizzolia peregrina,
having only small pip-shaped nematocysts in their cnidosacs, were fed
on Pennaria cavolinii, the nematocysts of which, after a month, had
almost entirely replaced the original pip-shaped ones.

Palaeozoic Pteropoda.J — F. Chapman describes a number of fossils
of genera Styliola, Tentaculites, Hyolithes, etc., from Palaeozoic forma-
tions in Victoria. Their characters as Pteropoda are considered, the
author classing them in this group with a certain amount of reserve.

* Amer. Naturalist, xxxviii. (1904) pp. 207-25 (16 figs.).

t Proc. Roy. Soc, lxxii. (1903; pp. 462-86.

X Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, xvi. (1904) pp. 336-42 (1 pi.).

408 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Larval Eye of Chitons.* — Harold Heath has studied the ocelli m
Ischnochiton magdalensis, Trachydermon raymondi, Nidtalina thomasi,
etc. As Kowalewsky stated, the eyes of the larva? become clearly
defined about the time of the first appearance of the shell ; they are
situated immediately behind the velum half-way up the sides of the
body ; they are characterised by the pigment deposited about a clear
central body. Under no circumstances does the eye of the forms men-
tioned become sub-epithelial. In at least eight species they persist as
long as the shell and mantle are sufficiently transparent to allow light
to penetrate. Histologically they resemble Annelid-trochosphere eyes,
and their early development is almost identical.

Heart of Solenogastres.f — H. F. Nierstrasz finds that the Soleno-

gastres have a spacious pericardium which may be prolonged distally ;

that the heart is well-developed, except in Myzomenia and Dondersia,

and consists of an auricle and a ventricle ; that the auricle arises by

invagination of the dorsal and ventral walls of the pericardium, or of

the dorsal wall only ; that the ventricle is always a dorsal invagination.

There are almost always two auriculo-ventricular openings with

sphincters. The heart is open dorsally and distally, as follows from its

mode of origin, but there is a more or less complete closing in by a

connective-tissue sheath. Ciliated bands, Pruvot's " bourrelets cilies "

occur on the walls of the pericardium. Except in Myzomenia and

Dondersia, the heart of Solenogastres, e.g. Neomenia, Proneomenia, etc.,

is by no means a rudimentary organ. Full details of many forms are

given.

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Origin of Tine Pearls. % — L. Boutan has made a study of this
subject, and criticises the views of Jamieson and others as to the place
of origin of pearls. He is emphatically of opinion that fine pearls are
secreted by the external epithelium of the mantle. They have funda-
mentally the same origin as the so-called " nacreous pearl " and nacre
itself.

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta-

Gall-Formation. §! — H. Eossig has made many observations and
experiments in order to determine what organs in Cynipid larva? stimu-
late the formation of galls. He deals at length with the salivary glands,
the cenocyte groups of cells, the Malpighian tubules, and the epithelium
of the hind-gut. It seems certain that the gall is induced by a chemical
stimulus, by a fluid, by a product of the larval metabolism which is
exuded very early. It seems clear that the stimulus is not in the
vascular fluid, nor in the salivary secretion. Rossig believes that the
evidence points to the secretion of the Malpighian tubules, probably with
co-operation from the cenocytes. But his results are more conclusive
as to what does not cause the stimulus, than as to the actual cause.

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Philadelphia, 1904, pp. 257-9 (1 fig.).

t Verh. K. Akad. Wetenschappen Amsterdam, x. (1903) No. 2, pp. 1-52 (3 pis.),

% Arch. Zool. Exp., ii. (1904) pp. 47-90 (1 pi.).

§ Zool. Jahrh. xx. (1904) pp. 19-90 (4 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 409

Male Terminal Segments and Armatures in the Hymenopterous
Genus Colletes.* — F. D. Morice, with a view to rendering the recogni-
tion of species of this genus easier, has constructed a table of the
copulatory armatures which yield remarkable specific characters. Notes
are given on thirty-five species, and their armatures figured.

Natural History, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Honey-Bee.f
T. W. Cowan, in response to a call for a new edition of his hand-book
on the Honey-bee, has issued one revised and corrected, upon which
" no expense has been spared to make it the most perfect on the subject
of which it treats." The work contains chapters on partheno-
genesis, metamorphosis, and hermaphrodite bees, in addition to those on
anatomy and physiology, of which there are twenty-one.

Australian Lepidoptera.J — A. J. Turner, in a much-needed revision
of the Geometrida?, sub-family Hydriomenina?, has increased the number
of recognised species by one-half. The work is so tabulated that by
means of it species can be worked out, and is of value on this account.

The Endoderm of Lepidoptera.§ — F. Schwangart has investigated
a number of developmental points in connection with the endoderm,
and has made out, inter alia, that the gland structures of the gut arise
out of parts of the lower layer of the fore- and hind-gut, which are
pushed downwards with the blind ends of the stomo- and proctodamm.
In Endromis early separation of endoderm and mesoderm does not take
place.

Aberrations of Lepidoptera.]] —Under this title P. I. Lathy de-
scribes and figures forty-five notable variations. Two examples may be
given. (1) A specimen of Melincea mauensis from Demerara, which is
gynandromorphous, the left side being female and the right male. It is
not definitely stated whether the note refers to external features only or
not. (2) A male of Amathnsia andamanensis, with three ocelli on the
hind wings below.

Mosquitoes of Para.f — Emilio A. Goeldi has made a number of
experiments on the mosquitoes of this region, with especial reference to
Stegomyia fasciata and Culex fatigans, which appear to have considerable
hygienic importance.

Reduction of the Head in Dipterous larvae.** — N. Holmgren gives
comparative notes, with homologies, on the head-parts of the larvse of
Chironomus, Phalacrocera, Microdon, and Musca. One point dwelt upon
is the relation of the T columns seen in a cross-section of the mouth-
cavity of Musca, with cavities in the two-layered cuticula of the mouth of
Phalacrocera, which are lined with a chitinous layer, and which though
different in appearance are shown to be the same structure.

* Trans. Entom. Soc. London (1904) pp. 25-G3 (4 pis.).

t Hculston & Sons, London, 2nd ed. (1904) 220 pp.

X Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, xvi. (1904) pp. 218-84.

§ Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxvi. (1904) pp. 167-212 (2 pis.).

|| Trans. Entom. Soc. London, 1904, pp. 65-70 (1 pi.).
f Bol. Mus. Goeldi, iv. (1904) pp. 1-69.
** Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 343-55.

410 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Anal Gills in larva of Glossoma boltoni and some Hydropsychidae.*
A. Thienemann describes in the larva of Glossoma boltoni small, white
finger-like prolongations, similar to the anal sac of certain Tipida larvse,
which contained tracheal branches, and which he regards as tracheal
gills. Similar appendages in the Hydropsychidse, he finds, are blood-
gills ; he thinks it probable that the anal sacs of the Rhyacophilidse are
tracheal gills also.

Mealy- Winged Flies of California.f — Florence E. Bemis describes
the characters of the Aleyrodidaa — small or minnte insects infesting
plants, oviparous, with incomplete (?) metamorphosis, with immature
stages, quiescent, attached by sucking mouth-parts to the leaves, with
adults free and active, covered with granules of white wax. A table is
given of all the known American species of Aleyrodes, and the systematic
descriptive catalogue of the Californian forms includes no fewer than
sixty-six species.

Oriental Aleurodidse.J — H. W. Peal makes contributions towards a
monograph of the Oriental Aleurodidas — a family of Homoptera, which
are allied to the scale-insects. He describes eight new species from
Calcutta and Behar, and discusses preventive measures.

Egg-Cases and Early Stages of some Cassididse.§ — F. Muir and
D. Sharp describe these in certain South African species. The eggs are
placed in a case built of membranes formed of a peculiar substance. In
Cassida muriana and allied forms there is an extremely small and im-
perfect ootheca covered with excrement. The ootheca is of various
degrees of perfection, in accordance with the species that forms it ; and
in the ootheca of Aspidomorpha puncticosta the structure is so elaborate
and perfect that it surpasses even the combs of bees and wasps. The
paper records new observations on the extraordinary nature and habits
of Cassidid larvse.

Life-History of Gongylus gongyloides.|| — C. E. Williams gives a
number of interesting notes on the structure and habits of this Mantis
of the tribe Empusides. It is a floral simulator, in which the ventral
aspect is modified in form and colour, chiefly with a view to the attrac-
tion of prey, while the dorsal surface and wings are free of conspicuous
colours and markings. As in Idolum, there is a peculiar purple pigment
for the production of petaloid colouring in various parts of the body.
This insect, which is found in many parts of India, Ceylon, etc., feeds on
various Lepidoptera. These frequent the creepers and flowering shrubs,
upon which it displays its whole body and limbs at the end of a twig or
spray, or on a spike of flowers, maintaining this inverted position exposed
to the' full sunlight without any serious risk from its enemies.

Phagocytic Organs in Gryllidge.1T — C. Dawydoff describes as pha-
gocytic organs certain paired structures of triangular form which occur

* Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1903) pp. 125-9.
t Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxvii. (1904) pp. 471-537 (11 pis.).
X Joum. Asiatic. Soc. Bengal, ixxii. (1903) pp. 61-98 (5 pis.).
§ Trans. Entom. Soc. London (1904) pp. 1-23 (5 pis.).
II Tom. cit., pp. 125-37.
If Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 589-93 (3 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 411

in the abdominal region in close association with the heart in various
Orthoptera (Gryllus, Nemolius, GryllotaJpa, Bracliytrypus, Gymno-
grilhts). He believes that these organs — two pairs in Gryllus and
Nemobius, four pairs in GrgUotalpa, and so on — are homologous struc-
tures in Orthoptera.

New Copeognatha.* — Giinther Enderlein reports on some forms of
these remarkable insects, collected by Fr. Dahl in the Bismarck Archi-
pelago, e.g. the new genus \Soa, in the family Lepidopsochidas. He also
notes that the function of the so-called " stigma-sac " on the under side
of the anterior wing of all Copeognatha is to hold the wings together in
the resting position.

New Mallophaga.f — Vernon L. Kellogg gives an analytical key to
the two sub-orders and the genera of this interesting but little studied
order of parasitic insects. In the order, as at present known, there are
about 1500 species, comprising 23 genera. The small number of genera
is striking in itself, but it is made more amazing when it is remembered
that eleven of the genera comprise but thirty of the species, leaving
nearly the whole bulk of the species in the twelve remaining genera.
The addition of two new genera— Philoceanus from Procellaria tethys,
and Nesiotinas from Aptenodytes longirostris, is therefore rather notable
in the development of our knowledge of this order.

Mallophaga from Hawaiian Islands.! — Y. L. Kellogg and B. L.
Chapman report on a collection of twenty species of biting lice obtained
by R. C. MacGregor, from twelve species of birds shot in the Hawaiian
islands. We note the paper because it reports on the first collection of
Mallophaga from this area. Of the twenty species fourteen are named
and described as new, four are named and described as varieties of pre-
viously known species, while but two can be considered typical repre-
sentatives of already known species. Of the twelve hosts, four are
peculiar to the Hawaiian islands, and the parasites of these birds are all
new species, except the two taken from the Hawaiian coot, Fulica alai.

Thanasimus in the Himalayas.§ — E. P. Stebbing reports the dis-
covery of Thanasimus (near T. nigricottis) in the north-west Himalayas,
a beetle belonging to the family Clerida?, which is of great importance
because it is predaceous upon several ^wood-boring and bark-boring
Scolytidae, detrimental to the coniferous forests of the north-west
Himalayan area.

/3. Myriopoda.

Sense of Smell in Myriopods.|| — C. Hennings finds that the
antenna?, and these alone, function as organs of smell. The strength of
this sense varies noticeably in different forms ; it stands in no visible
connection with the length of the animals, but more probably has

* Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 105-12 (1 pi.).

t Biol. Bulletin, v. (1903) pp. 85-91 (3 figs.).

% Joum. New York Entomol. Soc., x. (1902) pp. 155-70 (3 pis.).

§ Joum. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, lxxii. (1903) pp. 104-10.

y Biol. Ceutralbl., xxiv. (1904) pp. 274-83.

412 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(ecological significance. The most sensitive olfactory organs are found
in two representatives of the Diplopoda, viz. Glomeris and Polyzonium.

New Genera of Scutigeridse.* — F. Silvestri describes Scutigerides
g. n., and Scutigerina g. n., both allied to Scutigera, and each repre-
sented by a species from the Transvaal and Cape Colony respectively.
He also describes three new species of Paralamyctes from the same

region.

5. Arachnida.

Structure of Heart and Origin of Blood-Cells in Spiders.| —
V. Franz states that the ring musculature of the spider's heart consists,
as in other Arthropods, of semicircular constituent parts, touching
each other at their ends above and below. It lies outside a delicate
layer of longitudinal fibres, upon which, in many forms, lie isolated
longitudinal fibres, and over these an adventitia. The wall of the heart
breaks up interiorly into blood-cells. An intima, such as was earlier
supposed to exist, is not present in spiders.

Wing-like Lateral Organs of Solifugse.j: — R. Heymons make? a
careful study of these peculiar structures, discovered by Croneberg in
1887, and comes to the conclusion that they belong to the category of
embryonic lateral organs, arising from the embryonic lateral plates, as
in other types of Chelicerata. They have nothing to do with wings,
and instead of pointing to any affinity with insects, they corroborate
the Arachnoid character of the Solifusse.

"■o*

Spiders of the Sub-Family Erigoninse.§' — F. P. Smith proposes
a classification of the family Linyphiidae. He establishes two sub-
families, the Linyphiinge and the Erigoninge, and in an introductory
communication gives the distinctive characters of the latter division.
It contains three natural groups : (1) the Nercene, comprising a number
of genera with the sternum at least as broad as long, and the elevation
of the male caput, when present, so placed as to have practically no
effect upon the position of the eyes ; (2) the Diplocephali, with caput
elevation of male, such that position of eyes is affected ; (3) the
WalcJcenmra, with sternum considerably longer than broad, the cepbalo-
thorax somewhat elongate, and the tibia of the male palpus furnished
with prominent apophyses.

e. Crustacea.

Modification of Eye-Peduncles in Cymonomus.|| — E. Ray Lankester
has examined the material of the " Porcupine " collection of the genus
Cgmonomus, a species of which C. (Ethusa) granulata, has hitherto
been reputed to exhibit a series of types, from forms with well-developed
eyes and living at the surface, through others with eye-stalks but
apparently blind, from deeper water, to a third form not only blind

* Redia, i. (1903) pp. 253-8.

t Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 192-204.

% SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Berlin (1904), pp. 282-94 (2 pis.).

§ Journ. Queketf Micr. Club., 1904, pp. 9-20 (1 pi.).

1 Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xlvii. (1903) pp. 439-63 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 413

but with eye-stalks modified as sharply pointed rostra. Examples of
the first type were not found in the collection, but Lankester believes
that "there is no doubt that such a shallow water form has existed,
and very possibly still exists." He further quotes evidence for believing
that the form with rostriform eye-peduncles has a geographical and
not merely a bathymetrical correlation, and ranks it as a distinct species,
naming it C. normani.

Breeding Habits of American Crayfish.* — E. A. Andrews gives
an interesting account of the breeding habits of Cambarus affinis.
Though his observations were made upon individuals kept in confine-
ment in the biological laboratory at Baltimore, they probably indicate
in some measure what occurs in nature. Field observations remain
" much to be desired."

In two lots the females were decidedly in the majority, 26 : 14 —
39 : 14. In a third lot they were 41 to 39 males. Even when the
females are more abundant than the males, there is no probability of
the eggs going without fertilisation, since one male may unite with
several females.

Sexual union was observed in February, March and April, but there
is an autumnal pairing, in place of or in addition to the spring pairing.

The spermatozoa are transferred from the male to an external
seminal receptacle upon the female, where they are stored till the time
that the eggs are laid. There is no copulation or use of intromittent
organs as in crabs, nor any such vague attachment of spermatophores
as has been described in the European crayfish, Astacus ; in captivity
the union lasts from two to ten hours, and either the male or the
female may repeat the process with other individuals.

The somewhat intricate sexual union is described in detail ; the result
is the storing up of spermatozoa within the annulus or sperm receptacle
in the female. The annulus in Cambarus affinis may be described as a
calcified region on the ventral side of the thorax, between the sterna
of the somites bearing the fourth and fifth legs. The evidence strongly
favours the view that the seminal matter received into the annulus is
that which subsequently fertilises the eggs. Perhaps spermatozoa re-
ceived in autumn may be used to fertilise ova laid in spring.

After sexual union many of the crayfishes died, and it was found
that the males died in larger numbers than did the females. In several
cases the males died within a few hours after union.

After union there is quite a long period before the eggs are laid, —
often some weeks. In preparation for laying the females tend to hide
in dark corners and are very excitable. These days are taken up with
great and peculiar activity, resulting in a thorough cleaning of the
ventral side of the abdomen. This is also described in detail. The
eggs are usually deposited at night, and the liberation is preceded by
the exudation of the secretion of the " cement glands." Thus the
eggs pass from the oviducts into a basket formed by the bent-up
abdomen and full of glairy secretion which protects them from contact
with the water.

* Amer. Naturalist., xxxviii. (1901) pp. 165-206 (10 figs.)-

414 SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

By turning about from side to side the female gives the eggs every
opportunity to become fastened to the pleopods. The mode of fertili-
sation has not been made out, but probably the sperm passes out from
the annul us after laying.

A short account is given of the development. The young continue
to crawl about upon the pleopods for about a week after hatching, and
the liberated larvge return again and again to the mother.

Sexual instincts and organs mature long before the maximum size
is reached. Little specimens were seen uniting in pairs when but four
months old and 50 to GO mm. in length, but as yet it is not known
that they lay before they are twenty-three months old and 75 mm. long.

Mutations of Certain Atyids.* — E. L. Bouvier asserts that the
new species of Ortmannia, — 0. lienshawi recently established by M.
Rathbun, is a form of Atya bisulcata, which has the curious character
of recalling the immediate ancestral form of Atya. It is not a case of
ordinary dimorphism, sexual, or produced by season or locality ; in both
forms there are the same variations of size and sex. He considers that
the Atya is the direct descendant of Ortmannia, and that in the case
of certain species, this derivation is not yet a definitely accomplished
fact. Atya bisulcata and Atya serrata are in a condition of unstable
equilibrium, where the same creature may indifferently present the form
of the past or of the future. In Ortmannia americana, the primitive
form alone exists ; in Atya brevifrons de Man, the primitive form seems
to have disappeared, bequeathing a very marked stamp to its descendant,
which, like Ortmannia, is small and provided with locomotor feet of
feeble power.

British Fresh-water Entomostraca.f — D. J. Scourfield concludes,
in a third paper, his synopsis of these Entomostraca. The paper deals
with the Ostracoda, Phyllopoda, and Branchiura, including new records
of rare species of Cladocera and Copepoda. A tabular statement showing
the distribution of the Ostracoda is given.

Annulata.

Regeneration of Trunk and Head Segments in Lumbricus varie-
gatus.J — P. Iwanow finds that the intestine in regeneration is formed
in the new segments of the trunk and head in a similar way through
the outward growth of the old intestine. In most cases the growing part
breaks outward through a small proctodseal, or stomodseal fold. The
new growing epithelium is early differentiated, and along with it there
are large epithelial " germ-cells," which take up a place in the ventral
half of the body-wall, and later on the dorsal side also. The nerves and
ectodermal muscles, as well as gut, are formed in essentially the same
way in both regions, but important differences are met with in the forma-
tion of the elements of the ccelomic mesoderm. In the head segments a
great part of the longitudinal muscles is formed through direct growing
in of the muscle fibres of the old trunk musculature lying near, the other
longitudinal muscles of the head segments along with all other mesodermal

* Ann. find Mag. Nat. Hist., Ixxvii. ser. 7 (1904) No. 77, pp. 377-81.
t Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, 1904, pp. 29-44 (1 pi.).
X Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxv. (1903) pp. 327-390 (2 pie.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 415

tissues arise from the cell elements of the old coelomic mesoderm. The
greatest part of these wandering mesodermal elements is formed by
cells of the longitudinal musculature which have separated off from
their contractile substance, and have at the same time undergone certain
alterations in the structure and size of the nucleus. The mesoderm
of the trunk segments arises from certain indifferent " germ-cells,"
which give origin to various tissues and organs. The special way in
which the mesodermic structures of the head segments arise, the author
notes, is paralleled in the ccelomic mesoderm of the head vesicle of
Polygorclius, which according to Hatschek is an outgrowth of the part
of the trunk mesoderm adjacent to it.

Digestive Apparatus in Polychseta.* — L. Brasil has made an ex-
haustive study of this subject, the leading results of which may be stated.
At the entrance to the digestive tubes in many Polychetes there are
claviform glandular cells, which arise by degenerative changes of the
superficial cells of the epithelium. In the intestine of Lagis koreni
there are formations analogous to those described by Eisig in the Capi-
tellidge under the name of " lymphatic cell diverticula." These are the
seat of intense and continuous renovation. The ferment cells may con-
tain fat. The secretion of ferments begins with nuclear expnlsions, to
which the nucleolus contributes. Nuclear degenerations may occur by
pycnosis, karyorhexis, or chromato lysis. The old cell may be totally
expelled (nucleus in chromatolysis), or it may atrophy (nucleus in
pycnosis or karyorhexis). The epithelium is the seat of a continual
renovation whose intensity is in relation to the secretory activity of the
region in question. The renovation goes on by mitosis, which gives
rise to elements some of which become digestive cells (trophocytes), while
others retain the embryonic character. These alone retain the power of
mitotic division, and from their subsequent divisions result trophocytes
and " multiplying cells " as before. The amitoses observed in the intes-
tine give rise to pluri-nucleate cells, whose nuclei all degenerate. The
mid-gut of Lagis secretes amylase, trypsine, and probably lipase. The
oily-looking corpuscles so often described in the middle intestine of
Polychcets are not a digestive secretion, but nutritive reserves — fat,
localised in the intestinal epithelium ; glycogen is absent. Intestinal
excretion does not occur in Lagis. The differentiation of specialised
diverticula for a single secretion (Arenicvla), for secretion and excretion
{Aphrodite), marks progress towards the " liver " of molluscs.

Revision of Annelid G-enera.f — Albert Soulier continues his careful
revision of the genera of Annelids from the region of Cette, discussing
Potamilla, Sabella, Branchiomma, Myxicolla and Polydora. His results,
if made available to other workers on marine Annelids, will be of much
value.

Minute Structure of Nerve-cells and Epithelial Cells in Earth-
worms.J — Santiago Eamon y Cajal describes in these elements of
Lumbrkus a tubuliform structure in the cytoplasm.

* Arch. Zool. Exp., ii. (1904) pp/91-255 (5 pis).

t Mem. Acad. Sci. Montpellier, iii. (1903) pp. 193-278 (12 figs.).

X Bol. Soc. Espafiola Hist. Nat. iii. (1903) pp. 395-8 (2 figs.).

416 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Splanchnic Musculature in Oligochseta and Hirudinea.* — N.
Livanow notes that the general statement in regard to the musculature
of the intestine is, that the internal layer consists of circular fibres and
the outer of longitudinal fibres. In Branchiobdella varians and Haplo-
taxis gordioides (syn. Phreorgctes menlceanus) the arrangement is the
reverse. The same is true of Acanthobdella, but in Lumbriculidse,
Enchytrreidas, and terricolous Oligochseta, the circular muscles are in-
ternal and the longitudinal external. Livanow comments on the possible
theoretical import of the two types of muscle-arrangement.

Nematohelminthes.

Cerebral Ganglion and Body-Cavity of GordiidaB.f — Max Runther
finds that in architectural plan and in the minute structure of the
various systems, the genus Gordius betrays remarkable affinities with the
Archiannelida, especially as regards cuticular structure, nervous system,
musculature, parenchyma, and gonads. He deals especially with the
cerebral ganglion and the body-cavity, and the general result is that
Gordius is nearer to Polggordius than to typical Nematodes.

Radially Striated Ganglion Cells in Ascaris.J — R- Goldschmidt
describes these remarkable and characteristic cells, which occur through-
out the nervous system of Ascaris. The ganglion cell is surrounded by
a glia-capsule, externally bounded by a firm lamella, and consisting of
numerous extremely fine concentrically-disposed membranes traversed by
equally fine radial lamella;, like an intricate spider's-web. From the
capsular wall numerous radial processes penetrate into the cytoplasm in
the direction of the nucleus, and end in the internal finely vacuolar
plasma. In the cytoplasm the processes run in fine tubes.

As to the physiological meaning of this intricate structure, Gold-
schmidt thinks that a trophic function is improbable, and inclines to
attribute to it a mechanical role. It makes the cell more sensitive to the
vibrations and oscillations which affect the body generally.

Platyhelminth.es.

Development of Turbellarians.§ — E. Bresslau gives a large number
of facts regarding the development of the Winter and Summer eggs of
Mesostomum ehrenbergi, M. lingua, etc. The Winter eggs of all the forms
are very numerous : they have abundant yolk-cells, and are enclosed in a
thick brown-coloured shell. The yolk-cells blend into a thick yolk-mass,
in the midst of which the germinal material lies. The epiderm has a
paired origin ; the gut and schizoccele arise by indifferent cells of the
embryo laying themselves around cavities which have previously appeared
in the yolk-mass. The Summer eggs of 31. ehrenbergi have a very small
number of yolk-cells, which contain only minimal yolk-masses. The
egg-membrane is thin, transparent and colourless. The yolk-cells dif-
ferentiate into enveloping and vacuole cells, while the germinal substance

* Zool Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 585-9.

t Tom. cit., pp. 606-14 (4 figs.).

% Iliol. Centralbl., xxiv. (1904) p 173-82.

§ Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxvi. (1904) pp. 213-332 (7 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 417

lies ventrally close to the egg-menibrane. The gut and schizoccele arise
as a result of the melting in of the vacuole cells through cells of the
still undifferentiated embryo.

Trematodes from Canadian Fishes.* — J. Stafford gives an account
of fifty-eight of these, a number of which are new genera or species.
Of these, the fresh-water fishes yield such a large proportion as to suggest
an unworked fauna.

Cestode with Separate Sexes.j — 0. Fuhrmann describes the male
and the female of a remarkable cestode, Dioicocestus acotylus, which was
found in Ardeiform and Colymbiform birds, Plegadis guarauna, Podiceps
griseigena, and P. dominicus. The male, which differs externally from
the female, has double copulatory organs, while the genitalia of the
female are single and have no vaginal aperture. In the case of each of
the three known species of Dioicocestus, only one male and one female
occurred in each host. Perhaps, as the author suggests, one pro-scolex
gives rise to two scolices, male and female. But the intermediate hosts
are unknown. The peculiar musculature and the absence of a female
aperture, force Fuhrmann to refer these remarkable forms to a special
family, Acoleinas — short-jointed, thick cestodes with two longitudinal
and three alternating tranverse layers of muscles in the parenchyma of
the strobila. In D. acotylus there are no suckers, and the rostellum is
degenerate.

Fresh-water Representative of a Marine Genus of Turbellaria.f
0. Fuhrmann describes from deep water in the Neuenburger-See an
almost colourless Turbellarian, a millimetre in length, with a remarkable
chitinous copulatory apparatus. He calls it Hyporhynchus neocomensis
sp. n., and its special interest is, that it seems to be a representative of
the marine genus Hyporhynchus, differing only in the strong develop-
ment of the proboscis and in the absence of chitinous parts in the
bursa seminalis.

Polyzoa.

Fresh-water Polyzoon from Rhodesia. § — C. F. Rousselet describes
a new form, LophopodeUa thomasi g. et sp. n., whose special character
appears to be the structure of the statoblasts. These differ distinctly
from those of Pectinatella, the only form having features approaching
the new type. The statoblasts are elliptical in shape with truncated
ends, each bearing normally five spines beset with numerous minute
closely set curved hooks.

Tertiary Polyzoa of Victoria. || — C. M. Maplestone gives a descrip-
tive list with synonyms of the species of family Selenariida3, a work
which appears to have been much needed owing to the confusion exist-
ing in the naming of the members of this group. The paper includes
an account of new species, both fossil and recent.

* Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 481-95.

t Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 131-50 (8 pis.).

% Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 381-4 (3 tigs.).

§ Journ. Quekett Micr. Club., 1904, No. 54. pp. 45-56 (1 pi.).

|| Proc. Eoy. Sue. Victoria, xvi. (1904) pp. 207-17 (2 pis.).

Aug. 17th, 1904 2 c

418 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Incertae Sedis.

Body Cavities and Nephridia of Actinotrocha.* — R. P. Cowles
has found in two Actinotrochge from Beaufort, North Carolina, that
there is au incomplete mesentery between the preoral lobe and the
collar cavities, and a complete one between the collar and trunk cavities.
The trunk cavity contains a ventral mesentery, and in one species,
indications of a dorsal mesentery ; but there is no sign of a dorsal
mesentery, such as Masterman describes for the collar cavity. The
mesoderm was not found to arise from archenteric diverticula. The
anterior and lateral borders of the blastopore are most active in giving
rise to mesoderm cells, which in the gastrula stage form a definite sac.
This sac anteriorly becomes the lining of the preoral lobe, while its
posterior wall becomes the lobe collar mesentery. The preoral lobe and
the lobe collar mesentery are lost during metamorphosis ; the collar
cavity and its lining become the ring vessel of the adult ; the cavity
of the mesodermal sac between the mesodermal lining of the collar
cavity and the ventral ectoderm becomes the supra-septal cavity of the
adult ; the trunk cavity, including the cavity of the ventral pouch, is
transformed into the infra-septal body cavity, and the mesentery between
the collar and trunk cavities becomes the transverse septum of the adult.
The author's observations on the nephridia confirm the work of Goodrich
in nearly every detail.

Regeneration in Phoronis Miilleri.f — E. Schultz discusses in a
third paper on regeneration phenomena the results of his experiments
on Phoronis. The animals were cut by means of scissors at various
levels, — through the tube, and above it with head expanded. In every
case, whether severed only through the tentacles, through the first part
of the oesophagus, at a point where spontaneous breaking away of head
goes on, or still lower down, normal animals resulted. The notable fact
here brought out, that the most protected parts within the tube, — not
likely in the ordinary course to suffer injury, — regenerated as well as
the exposed portions, suggests that regeneration has not arisen through
natural selection, but is a primary peculiarity of living substance.

Ptychodera flava funafutica.^ — J- W. Spengel gives an account of
a form of Ptychodera flava from Funafuti (Ellice group), and emphasises
especially the differences between it and Pt. fl. caledoniensis of Willey
and Pt.fl. laysanica.

Development of Blood- Vessels and Blood-Corpuscles in the Actino-
trocha Larva.§ — R. P. Cowles discusses this difficult question. The
Actinotrocha, which has just completed its metamorphosis, has only one
ring-vessel (larval collar-cavity), but the young Phoronis, when it is
twelve hours old, possesses both the recipient and distributing vessels.
These, the author believes, arise by the fusion of the walls of the single
ring-vessel in the metamorphosing Actinotrocha, and by the subsequent

* Johns Hopkins University Circular, 1904, No. 2, pp. 28-37.
t Zeitsclir. wiss. Zool., lxxv. (1903) pp. 391-120 (2 pis.).
X Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 1-18 (2 pis.).
§ Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 598-906 (7 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 419

separation of the two parts along the line of fusion. The red blood-
corpuscles of the adult Phoronis make their appearance in the young
Actinotrocha ; and when the latter become fully developed, they are
usually present as one or two pairs (according to the species) of con-
spicuous red masses in the larval collar-cavity. But this only indicates
the general tenor of the author's observations.

Lohmanella catenata.* — E. Neresheimer describes this mesozoon
parasite from the body of species of Fritillaria. The two-layered young
form possesses a marked resemblance to a gastrula. But here the cell-
complex which would correspond to the inner layer shows nothing com-
parable to a true endoderm, since almost the whole material is used up
for the formation of (probably asexual) reproductive bodies, whilst the
material corresponding to the ectoderm takes on the function of diges-
tion. He believes that this formation arises, not by invagination, but by
overgrowth. From a study of stages in the life-history of Ammbophrya,
which are analogous to those seen in Lohmanella, the author proposes to
group these genera together under the name Blastuiloidea, placing this
division in the same rank as those of the Planuloidea and Mesenchymia.

Rotatoria.

Rotatoria and Gastrotricha of Ploen.j — In this work of 178 pages
Max Voigt gives the results of his investigation of these animals,
which he has prosecuted for about twenty months in the lake region of
Ploen in Holstein. Altogether 217 species of Rotifers were observed,
of which the following four are new species : Cordylosoma perlucidum,
Codopus uncinatus, C/i'lopus rousseleti, Distyla ploenensis ; and one,
Anurma aculeata var. cochlmris, a new variety, though all these have
already been mentioned by the author in a short descriptive account,
without figures, in the Zool. Anzeiger in 1902. The most interesting
new species is undoubtedly Cordylosoma perluciduni, for which a new
genus had to be created, intermediate between the Floscules and the
Philodinasa, with a strange combination of characters.

The author gives an exhaustive account of the occurrence of the
various species in the different large and small lakes and pools of the
region, as well as of the appearance of the males and the production
of resting eggs.

In a second division an account of "twenty-three Gastrotricha found
in the region is given, of which ten are described as new.

A third division enumerates five parasites found in the body-cavity
of various Rotifers. Seven plates, with thirty-nine figures of Rotifers
and seventeen figures of Gastrotricha, accompany this memoir.

A Monograph of the Rattulidae.} — H. S. Jennings has ren-
dered a great service to all students of the Rotifera in producing this
excellent monograph, which is a thorough revision up to date of the
Rotatorian family Rattulidas. The author has very carefully sifted the

* Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Ixxvi. (1904) pp. 136-63 (2 pis.).

t Stuttgart (1904) 178 pp. and 7 pis. Will appear abo In vol. xi. of Forech. Ber.
biol. Stat. P16n.

X Bull. U.S. Fish Com. for 1902, pp. 273-352 (15 pis.).

2 G 2

420 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

synonymy, and has taken pains to give an accurate description and good
figure of each species, so that it ought not to be difficult in future to
determine the animals of this family met with in lakes and ponds.
This revision has necessitated a number of changes in classification in
order to bring the generic and specific names into consonance with the
recognised rules of nomenclature. In accordance with these rules the
family is divided into the two genera, Diurella and Raitulus, as having
historical precedence over the names of Caclopus, Raitulus and Masti-
goc&rca, which they replace. The genus Diurella comprises those
Rattulidae having two equal, or nearly equal toes which were formerly
called Raitulus and Ccelopus, whilst the genus Rattulus contains those
animals having a single long toe with usually some small sub-styles, and
formerly called Mastigocerca, Though these changes in names are
troublesome, and may at first produce a little confusion, they are
historically correct and must be accepted. One can only regret that
the late C. T. Hudson did not avail himself of the unique opportunity
of putting the nomenclature right when writing his great work, The
Rotifera. In the present monograph thirty-six species are recognised
as good, of which two are described as new, and a list of seventeen
doubtful or insufficiently described species is added at the end. The
two new species are named : Diurella weberi and D. dixon-nuttalli.

Echinoderma.

Parthenogenetic Larvae of Asterias glacialis.* — Yves Delage
obtained parthenogenetic larvae experimentally by the action of carbon
dioxide on unfertilised eggs. They attain a stage approaching meta-
morphosis, exhibiting rosette and apical disc, and having five lobes
representing the five arms, containing terminal plates having the form
of broad fenestrate laminae. Their development was very slow — it lasted
for more than three months. The few survivors which reached this
stage were lost by accident when they were full of life, and there was
no reason to suppose they were not in a state to reach complete develop-
ment. Artificial feeding with a pure culture of Chlorellse, enabled
the author to attain the success he reached.

Parental Care in Echinoderms.f — H. Ludwig recalls attention to
a case described by Th. Mortensen.} In Hgpsiechinus coronatus, a deep-
water North Atlantic Echinoid, the eggs and embryos are sheltered by
spines around the apical disc of the female.

Ccelentera.

Medusae from Maldive Islands. § — H. B. Bigelow concludes, from
the results of a collecting trip to these islands, that the fauna as repre-
sented in the Medusae, though showing a general resemblance to that
of the Tortugas in the Atlantic and Fiji in the Pacific, has no recent
relationship to either of these. The general resemblance of the three

* Arch. Zool. Exp., ii. (1904) pp. 27-42 (1 pi.).

t Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) p. 423.

% Danish Jngolf Exp., iv. (1!)03).

§ Bull. Mua. Compar. Zool. Harvard, xxxix. (1904) pp. 245-G9 (9 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 421

is to be explained on the ground that they are all of the " coral-reef "
type. The striking thing in the Maldives is that of forms known to
he " local " in their distribution, nearly all found were new, and not
only so, but they are separated from their nearest allies by divergences,
which amount often nearly to generic importance. The writer concludes
that the Maldives are an area of geographic isolation which has lasted
for a considerable period.

Porifera.

Spermatogenesis in Porifera and Coelentera.* — W. Gorich finds
that division goes on within the spermatocyst of Spongilla so actively
that nuclei can hardly be found in a state of repose — even when the
nucleus of the spermatid has not reached this state, the centrosomes, one
larger than the other, may be seen beside it. A further stage is : both
centrosomes move toward the periphery — the smaller one nearer the in-
side. The latter next moves towards the nucleus, and in doing so forms
a delicate thread extending towards the larger body. Almost at the
same tims the tail is formed. On the opposite side of the nucleus a
minute highly refractive granule appears at this stage, whose origin was
not traced, though the author believes that it arises from the centrosome.
Somewhat similar phenomena were observed in the sperm-development
of Aurelia aurita.

Protozoa.

Demonstrating Discharge of Contractile Vacuoles.! — H. S.
Jennings points out that it is possible with the greatest ease to demon-
strate that, in Paramecium and similar forms, the contents of the con-
tractile vacuoles are discharged to the outside. The method consists
in mingling a large quantity of finely ground Indian ink, or Chinese
ink, with the water containing the animals. The clear fluid from within
the vacuoles passes into the black and opaque surrounding water, where
it is absolutely conspicuous, as a white and shining spot.

Using this method, Jennings has observed the discharge of the
contractile vacuoles in Parametrium, NassuJa and Oxytricha, and also
in various Rotifers.

Trypanoplasma of the Minnow.* — Louis Leger gives a description
of Trypanoplasma borreli — a Flagellate from the blood of the minnow
(Phoxinus tern). It is also known in the Red-Eye, and is adjacent to
T. cypriai Plehn from the carp.

* Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1903) pp. 64-70.

t Tom. cit. pp., 656-8 (1 fig.).

% Comptes Kendus, exxxviii. (1904) pp. S24-5.

-»-=^=-H

422 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

GENERAL,
Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Structure and Development.
Vegetative.

General View of the Genus Pinus.* — M. T. Masters adds another
useful memoir to those which he has previously published on the
Conifers. He draws special attention in the present instance to histo-
logical characters, especially those of the leaf, and their values for
systematic purposes. The integrity or subdivision of the fibrovascular
bundle affords an excellent character. The position of the resin-canals
is more variable ; they are not always present, and in some cases vary
in position on the same branch. The difference in general form of the
leaf section is well known, but Dr. Masters points out that the shape of
the meristele does not always correspond with the general leaf -shape,,
tnough it nevertheless affords a good means of distinguishing certain
species. The number and size of the endoderm-cells were also found
to afford good characters. The thickness of the hypoderm or stereome
layers varies in different species, and even in the same species under
varying conditions. "When the tree is much exposed to wind, the hypo-
derm-cells are likely to become thicker if not more numerous than in
the same species growing under less exposed conditions. The occasional
presence or absence of a layer of thin-walled cells, presumably water-
containing, just beneath the epidermis, should also be noted, as well as
the position and number of the rows of stomata.

The histological structure of the temporary foliar members, such as
the cotyledons, is less highly developed than in the more permanent
foliage. Certain characters which are common to all the species in
their juvenile state may sometimes continue in adult life with com-
paratively little modification. Thus the unbranched bundle, which is
a common characteristic of the cotyledons and the primordial leaves, in
some species remains in the fully developed adult foliage, while in
others the bundles become branched. It is probable, therefore, that
the species with branched bundles are derived from those of a simpler
form, an assumption which is supported by other characteristics,
such as the nature of the bud-scales and peculiarities of the cone-scales.

There is usually no distinct palisade layer in the leaves of Pinus,
the structure differing in that respect from that of the leaves of Abies
and other flat-leaved genera.

As regards the value of histological characters for taxonomic pur-
poses, the author regards them as useful but not infallible guides. For
the most part they are of a physiological or adaptive nature, and there-

* Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) xxxv. (1904) pp. 5G0-G59, (4 pis. and figs, in text).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 423

fore likely to vary according to varying conditions to a much greater
extent than other characters less dependent on existing circumstances,
and more fixed in the long course of descent.

The species are grouped in two divisions : Tenuisquam^e, with thin
cone-scales ; and Crassisquam^e, where the cone-scales are notably
thickened towards the apex and are more woody than in the preceding
group. Division I. includes two sections : Strobus, with resin-canals,
marginal, and seeds winged ; and Cembra, with resin-canals median, and
seeds nearly or quite wingless. Division II. contains eight sections-
which fall into two sets, one in which the bud-scales are deciduous,
loosely imbricate and membranous, the other in which they are per-
sistent and coriaceous. The sections are differentiated by the number
of leaves in a tuft, the shape of the leaf and of the meristele in section,
the entire or serrulate margin, and the marginal or median resin-canal.
Nearly eighty species are enumerated.

Morphological Peculiarities of the Nymphaeacese and Helobise.*
J. H. Schaffner discusses the position of Nymphaeacege in a natural
system of classification, basing his remarks partly on the result of a,
recent study of various species. He refers to the well-known mono-
cotyledonous character of the vascular bundles of the Nymphseaceae,
which are of the " closed " type. The bundles of the flower stem
of Nelumbo closely resemble the grass type. Of superficial characters,
the similarity of habitat, the rhizome habit, the striking agreement of
some of the leaf-forms, and the general character of the flowers suggest
a relationship with the Helobife. A precis is given of the results of
the study of a few representative species of Naiadales and Nymphasaceae ;
" it is certainly much easier,1' says the writer, " to read Monocotyl
characters into the flowers than Dicotyl." Thus, if we regard the so-
called petals of Nymphma advena as staminodes, the perianth becomes
typically trimerous with three sepals and three petals. In Castalia
there are sometimes four petals, but in C. odorata there are normally
three in a cycle, but sometimes by the expansion of the receptacle one
of the segments of the second cycle is partly or nearly completely
brought to the outside. This tendency of the floral organs to fall into
sets of four is seen in Potamogeton and other Helobiae. The transition
from comparatively simple flowers to those with great numbers of parts,
as appears in passing from Cabomba to Nijmplma is also characteristic
of the Alismaceae ; the extreme numbers doubtless represent multi-
plication or augmentation. The superficial placentation of Butomus
and Vallisneria finds a parallel in Nymphcm and Castalia. Coalescence
and epigyny also occur in both groups.

Lyon's investigation of the embryo of Nehimbo suggested a mono-
cotyl type, and the affinity of Nynrphaeaceas with the Helobiae. Cook
also found that in the young embryo of Nymplum the cotyledon is at
first not lobed ; later there is a rapid development at the two sides,
resulting in a two-lobed structure. The writer finds that the embryo
of Castalia odorata must be regarded as of the same type as Nijmplwa
and Nelumbo. He compares the embryo of the Nymphaeaceae with the

* Ohio Naturalist, iv. (1004) pp. 83-92, (3 pis. and 2 figs, in text).

424 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

raacropodous embryo of the Helobise ; the so-called cotyledons of
Nelumbo, Nymplwa and Castalia represent hypocotyledonary expan-
sions homologous to the expansions found in Zoster a and other genera
of the Helobire. In fine, there are several types of embryo in Angio-
sperms, which approach each other at various points in widely separated
orders. The division line between Monocotyls and Dicotyls is not very
distinct. Although Angiosperms are far removed from all other plants,
they represent so vigorous a modern group that there has not been
time for the extinction of intermediate forms. "With the removal of
a few connecting groups it would be easy to recognise six or seven
classes of Angiosperms instead of two. With our increasing knowledge
of the embryogeny of Angiosperms it is becoming more and more
apparent that the mere difference in the character of the embryo is not
sufficient to determine the position of a genus or family. The writer
refers to a former conclusion which he based on palajontological studies
that Monocotyledons did not come from Dicotyledons nor the latter
from the former ; that the Angiosperms do not represent two sharply
defined classes, but that there are a number of lines of development
from some common stock ; and that on this account there are frequent
independent duplications of important characters in quite distinct series
of forms.

Byblis gigantea.* — A. G. Hamilton describes the habit and struc-
ture of this West Australian member of the insectivorous order Dro-
seraceas, from observations of fresh specimens. The plant grows along
with Drosera in swamps which are deficient in nitrogenous matter. The
glandular hairs, which occur on the stem, leaves, flower-stalks and calyx
do not differ essentially from those found in many other plants, such as
Plumbago or Primula. The writer confirms Darwin's suggestion as to
its method of capturing insects, solely by the aid of the viscid secretion.
When an insect is caught by the stalked glands, these collapse under
the weight and pour out secretion ; the insect rests on the sessile glands
which add to the flow of liquid. This gradually dissolves the solvent
portions, and the solution runs down the channels in which the sessile
glands are seated and is absorbed by them. After all the solvent parts
have been removed the glands cease to secrete, and the undigested parts
dry up and drop off. The leaves are triangular in section ; inside the
epidermis is a layer of palisade and spongy tissue of three or four rows
of cells. The centre of the leaf contains a mass of large-celled pith ;
there are five vascular bundles, one small and one larger in the angles
of the side facing the stem, while at the outer angle of the leaf is one
bundle much larger than any of the others. Towards the base of the
leaf there are more than five bundles ; the leaf has a nearly circular
outline there, and serial sections show the bundles widening out, so that
at the axil they form an incomplete ring. In the stem the bundles
also form an incomplete ring. The writer suggests that the leaves are
really branchlets which have taken on the functions of leaves.

Regeneration in Lentibularieae.| — K. Goebel has studied the
phenomenon in members of this order, the leaves of which show a

* Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, xxviii. (1903) pp. 080-4 (1 pi.).
t Flora, xciii. (1904) pp. 98-126 (17 figs, in text).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 425

remarkable tendency to form adventitious shoots. These appear in
Pinguicula caudata and P. alpina at the leaf-base, in Utricularia either
diffusely or in definite places. In the aquatic species of Utricularia
they arise at the forking of the leaf or on the stalk of the bladders,
according to the species. In U. exoleta, which normally develops
adventitious shoots on the stalk of the bladder, such shoots arise in
the leaf -fork of isolated portions of the leaf bearing no bladders ; the
winter leaves of U. minor behave in the same way, while in the summer
leaves the adventitious shoots appear only on the base of the bladder.
In the leaves on the young shoots of U. inflata the leaf -forks are also
the place of origin. In U. exoleta development on the leaves is induced
by removal of all the growing-points ; a fact which suggests an ex-
planation of the phenomenon of regeneration. The leaves restore
what has been removed, namely, growing-points of shoots.

Physiology.
Nutrition and Growth.

Respiration of Filamentous Fungi.* — S. Kcstytschew recalls the
theory that " intramolecular respiration of plants is identical with
alcoholic fermentation," and that the latter is a case of anaerobic
growth— fermentative life without oxygen. As the latter theory had
been disproved, he undertook a research to examine the former theory,
and for the purposes of the inquiry he used the Phycomycetous fungi
Mucor stolonifer and Aspergillus niger. He finds that the absorption
of oxygen and the giving off of carbonic acid are in part at least due
to a specific enzyme, which is not identical with Buchner's zymase.

Influence of External Media on Mineral Constituents and Or-
ganic Composition of Plants. — A. Hebert and (I. Truffautf give
comparative tables of the mineral constituents of a number of different
plants grown with and without manures. The results show that the
application of manures does not induce any change in the character of
the mineral constituents of a plant, although it may affect the pro-
portion in which particular constituents occur. That is to say, merely
the rate of assimilation and not the nature of the substances assimilated,
is influenced by manures.

A. Hebert and E. Charabotlj: determined the amounts of carbon,
hydrogen and nitrogen in the upper parts, and also in the roots of
plants of peppermint. They find that the percentage results were very
similar, notwithstanding the diversity of the salts applied as manure.

Mycorhiza of Vanilla. § — H. J. de Cordemoy describes the existence
of a mycorhiza, which is both ectotropic and endotropic, between the
aerial roots of the cultivated Vanilla and the support to which the roots
adhere. The endophyte has a branched mycelium, which penetrates the

» Ber. Deutsch. But. Gesell., xxii. (1904) pp. 207-15.

t Bull. Soc. Chim.. iii. (1903) xxix. pp. 1235-39. See also Journ. Cheui. Soc,
lxxxvi.-ii. (1904) p. 140.

X ComptesRendus,cxxxvii.(1903) pp.799-S01. See also Journ. Chem. Soc. loc. eit.
§ Op. cit., cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 391-4.

426 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

root-hairs and thus establishes a close relation between the orchid and
its support. The author suggests that this morphological connection is
the expression of a symbiotic association, and that the fungal hyphte
convey nutritive matter to the orchid. He also assumes that similar
facts will be discovered in connection with other orchids, and also in
other climbing plants.

Resistance of Certain Seeds to the Action of Absolute Alcohol.*
P. Becquerel concludes as the result of experiments that whereas the
testa of a damp seed allows osmosis and is permeable to absolute
alcohol, when it has been dried to a certain degree osmosis does not
take place, and the seed-coat is quite impermeable to the anhydrous
liquid. Consequently in this condition, if the coat form a complete
covering, anhydrous poisons, such as bichloride of mercury, when
added to the absolute alcohol, have no effect on the power of
germination.

Permeability to Gases of Certain Dried Seeds.f — The same
author, experimenting with seeds of pea, lupin and Gleditschia, showed
that the dried seeds are impermeable to dry air and dry carbonic acid
gas, but permeable when these gases are charged with water vapour.
These results explain the absence of all respiratory interchange of gases
when quite dry seeds are plunged into a rigorously anhydrous atmo-
sphere. But we cannot conclude that all the phenomena of respiration
in the seed are at a standstill. The plantlet, enclosed in its dry testa as.
in a hermetically sealed chamber, may respire imperceptibly at the
expense of oxygen stored in its cells. As soon as the reserve gas is
used up or a sufficiently large amount of carbonic acid gas is produced r
the embryo must die either of inanition or by asphyxiation. This will
explain the marked decline in germinating power which has always been
observed in such experiments which have lasted from 7 to 16 years, for
instance, those of Jodin and Giglioli.

Niclocx, M. — Sur le pouvoir saponifiant de la grain de ricin. (On the saponifying
property of the castor-oil seed.)

[The author shows that the active lipolytic suhstance in the seed is the
cytoplasm, to tbe exclusion of all the other elements in the seed.]

Comptes Hendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1175-7.

General.

Pollination of the Primrose.:}: — E. Bell, the author, under the
nom de guerre " A Field Naturalist," of " The Primrose and Darwinism,"
in which Darwin's theories on the relation between heterostyly and
cross-pollination by insects were attacked at some length, criticises some
remarks by Prof. Weiss in a pamphlet on the "Pollination of the
Primrose." He maintains that of the very few insects which have
been observed visiting the flowers of the primrose, the proboscis is with
two exceptions too short to reach the nectar. The visits of the latter
are, however, so extremely rare, as to preclude their efficiency as agents

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1179-81.

t Tom. cit., pp. 1347-9.

j Nature Notts, xv. (April 1904) pp. 63-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. * 427

for cross-pollination. Darwin's suggestion of night-flying Lepidoptera
as agents is not supported by any evidence. In brief, the testimony of
the various observers " affords no evidence but the contrary," in support
of the theory that one form of Primula must unite with the other
form in order to produce full fertility, and much less does it support the
theory that the two forms stand in the reciprocal relation of different
sexes to each other.

Randia Lujae : a New Myrmecophyte and Acarophyte.* — E. de
Wildeman gives an account of a new species of the genus Randia
(Rubiaceas) from the Sankaru forest in the Congo, which affords shelter
both to ants and acari. The acarodomatia are found at the angles of
the veins on the back of the leaves and are hollowed out in the tissue
of the nerves. The ant-shelters occur in the internodes which are
hollow at a part only of their length ; the internodes are fusiform, and
the domatia in the part at the greatest diameter where there are one
or two openings which at first are circular, but in the older and woody
shoots become elongated and may reach a length of 3 cm.

Caulifloria.t — L. Buscalioni discusses the phenomenon of caulifloria
or the production of flowers and fruits along the branches and trunk,
as well as in the normal axillary or terminal positions. He gives a
table of 127 cauliflorous species, belonging to 77 genera and 34 families,
which have been studied by several previous authors. A subsequent
list shows that 22 of the above 34 families go back to the Cretaceous
times, and that certain of their genera were cauliflorous. From the
long series of facts which he records, the author draws the conclusions
that caulifloria is a disposition inherited from geological times, and is
preferably manifested in damp tropical regions ; that it chiefly occurs
in plants of antique and less specialised type ; that it serves to protect
the flower and fruit from excessive moisture and heat ; that it is accom-
panied by other factors which aid in this protection ; that the causes
for it assigned by Wallace, Johow, Haberlandt and others do not
explain its antique origin ; that experimental study of water distribution
bears out the author's views ; and that the condition is closely com-
parable with geocarpy as a biological means of protecting the seeds-
froni external influences. A bibliography is added.

Classification of Flowering Plants, vol. i. Gymnosperms and
Monocotyledons.^ — A. B. Rendle gives a general morphological and
systematic account of these two groups of Seed-plants. The book opens
with a historical introduction in which the gradual evolution of a
natural system is traced. Starting from the herbals of the sixteenth
century, a brief review is given of the more important systems, and of
the influence of individual workers, including John Ray, Linnaeus, the
Jussieus and De Candolles, Robert Brown, Lindley, Eichler, Bentham
and Hooker, Van Tieghem and Engler. The system adopted for the

* Comptes Rend us, cxxxviii. (1901) pp. 913-4.

t Malpighia, xviii. (1904) pp. 117-77 (2 pis.).

% The Classification of Flowering Plants. By A. B. Rendle. Vol. i. Gymno-
sperms and Monocotyledons. 8vo, pp. xiv. 403, tt. 187. Cambridge University
Press, 1904.

428 'SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

arrangement of the Angiosperms follows, with some modifications, that
of Engler, which in turn is based on that of Eichler. In the account
of the Gyrnnosperins an attempt has been made to arrange the fossil
and recent forms in one system. A general account of the Angiosperms
precedes the systematic treatment of the Monocotyledons. The latter
are arranged in eight series, beginning with the presumably most
primitive forms, and closing with the most elaborate, as follows :
(1) Pandanales (including the orders Typhaceas, Sparganiaceae and
Pandanaceae) ; (2) Helobieae (including Najadacea3, Potarnogetonaceae,
Alismaceaa and Hydrocharideas) ; (3) Glumiflora3 (Gramineae and
Cyperaceas) ; (4) Spadiciflorge (Palmaceas, Aroideaa and Lenmaceae) ;
(5) Farinosae (Restiaceaa, Eriocaulaceaa, Commelinaceaa, Bromeliacese,
Pontederiaceae) ; (6) Liliifloraa (Juncaceas, Liliaceae and allied orders) ;
(7) Scitamineaa ; (8) Microspermas (Burmanniaceae, Orchidaceaa).

Under each order the author gives a general morphological account
of the vegetative organs, the flower, fruit and seed, followed by a
review of its systematic subdivision in the case of the larger orders.
The volume concludes with a general review of the series and orders
with suggestions as to their phylogeny. The book is included in the
Cambridge Biological Series, of which A. E. Shipley is the editor.

Relation between the Cryptogams and Higher Plants.* — B.
Renault from a brief review of some recent work in fossil botany
suggests that the Cryptogams had several points of contact with
Phanerogams. Thus t'olpoxylon has affinities with both the Cycads
and the Ferns ; Arthropitys recalls both Equisetaceas and Conifera3,
while the seeds of Gnetopsis suggest those of the recent Gnetaceas.

Chinese Flora.f — The last instalment of Forbes and Hemsley
enumeration contains the conclusion of the genus Car'ex by C. B.
Clarke. This genus is represented by no less than 150 species,
several of which are described for the first time, and is probably the
largest, as regards number of species, in the flora ; the contribution
includes various critical notes. The same issue contains the first part
of the Gramineas by A. B. Rendle, and includes an enumeration of the
two large tribes, Paniceas and Andropogoneaa. Henry's collections,
especially those from Formosa and Yunnan, supply several new and
interesting species, and novelties have also been described from the late
Dr. Hance's herbarium. A curious case of geographical distribution is
found in Digitaria setifolia which, hitherto only known from South
Africa, is recorded from the Island of Hongkong and the mainland
near Canton.

Ash Analysis of Acacia salicina.J — A. J. Higgin finds an extra-
ordinarily large percentage of lime (40*7), and sulphuric anhydride
(30 " 09) in the ash of the leaves of this plant, indicating the presence
of a large percentage of calcium sulphate. The presence of the lime

* Comptes Rtmlus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1237-9.

t Jouru. Linn. Soc. (But.), xxxvi. (1904) pp. 297-376.

X Trans. Rov. Soc. S. Australia, xxvii. (1903) pp. 202-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 429*

explains the use of the ash by the natives of Australia for mixing with
Pituri, — the dry leaves and twigs of Dubosia Hopwoodi, for mastication.
The effect of the alkali is to liberate the alkaloid piturine, the physio-
logical action of which has been shown by Langley and Dickenson to
be identical with that of nicotine. Dubosia belongs to the natural order
Solanaceae.

Bobzi, A. — Produzione d'indolo e impollinazione della Visnea Mocanera L. (Pro-
duction of indol and pollination of VUnea Mocanera.)

[An account of the experiments made to determine the nature of the un-
pleasant scent which attracts hies to the inconspicuous flowers of this plantr
and of the methods employed to demonstrate that the odoriferous substance
belongs to the indol group.]

Atti. R. Accad. Line. Roma, xiii. (1904) pp. 372-5.

King, Sir G., & Gamble, J. S. — Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula
— continued.

[Contains an account by Mr. Gamble of the few species belonging to the order
Caprifoliacese which have been collected in the Malay Peninsula and
adjacent islands ; and a joint account by the authors of those species of
the order Rubiaceae which have more ovules than one in each cell of the
ovary.) Journ. Asiatic Society Bengal, lxxii. (1903) pp. 112-229.

Pantanelli, E. — Studi sull' albinismo nel Regno Vegetale. IV. Sul turgore delle

cellule albicate. (Studies on albinism in the vegetable kingdom. IV. On the

turgidity of the colourless cells.) Malpighia, xviii. (1904) pp. 97-105.

Pizzetti, M. — Sulla localizzazione dell' alcaloide nel Nuphar luteum Smith e nella
Nymphsea alba. (On the localisation of the alkaloid in Nuphar luteum, and
Nymphxa alba.)

[The alkaloid is protective, and occurs more or less in all parts but the seed.]

Malpighia, xviii. (1904) pp. 106-9.

Schaffner, J. H. — Ohio plants with extra-floral nectaries and other glands.

[A review of the various kinds of extra-floral glands known to occur on Ohio
plants, with a list of the plants on which they occur, and suggestions as to-
their use.] Ohio Naturalist, iv. (1904) pp. 108-0.

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta .

Structure of Leaves of the Bracken Fern in Relation to En-
vironment.*— L. A. Boodle gives the -results of his observations on
the structure of the leaf of the bracken in different natural habitats.
He finds that in dry exposed situations the leaves are xerophytic and
have a hypoderm, while in well sheltered and shaded habitats they show
the characters of delicate shade-leaves, having no hypoderm, and either
weakly developed or no palisade tissue. This range of structure may be
shown by different leaves on the same plant, or by different parts of the
same leaf when opposite external conditions are sufficiently localised.
A plant grown first in a damp green-house and then in the garden, pro-
produced shade-leaves in the former and sun-leaves in the latter. The
leaves developed in the green-house showed reduction of the indusia.

* Journ. Linn. Soc. (Boh) xxxv. (1904) pp. 659-69 (figs, in text).

430 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The mature type of structure is not determined at an early stage in the
growth of the leaf. The amount of illumination is probably not the only
factor which determines the leaf -structure.

Burnham, S. H. — Ferns of Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Fern Bulletin, xii. (1904) pp. 50-1.

Bkitton, E. G. — The Jenman collection of Ferns.

[Note on the collection of ferns of the late G. S. Jenman, acquired by the
New York Bot. Garden, with a biography of the collector.]

Joum. New York Bot. Garden, iv. (1903) pp. 85-6.

•Cltjte, W. N. — New or rare ferns from the South-west.
[Three species added to the United States Flora.]

Fern Bulletin, xii. (1904) pp. 43-5.
Curtiss, A. H. — The Fern flora of Florida.

[A list of 74 species and some varieties, with notes on the conditions of
growth offered by Florida.] Tom. cit., pp. 33-8.

Davenport, G. E. — Miscellaneous notes on New England Ferns. VI.

lthodora, vi. (1904) pp. 31-3.

De Toni, G. B.. & H. Christ — La Pteris longifolia L.presso il lago Lario? Nota.

(Xote ou occurrence of Pteris longifolia near Lake Lario.)

Atli B. 1st. Veneto, lxii. (1903) pp. 561-5.
Duss— Les Lycopodes des Antilles Francaises. (The Lycopodiums of the French

Antilles.) Lons le-Saunier, 8vo, 1903.

Eaton, A. A. — The genus Equisetumin North America.
[E. variegatum and E. scirpoides. Continuation.]

Fern Bulletin, xii. (1904) pp. 39-43.

„ ., A preliminary list of Pteridophyta collected in Dade County, Florida,
during November and December, 1903.

[A list of 37 species, with notes.] Tom. cit., pp. 45-8.

Fischer, H. — Die Fame im Hohen Venn. (Ferns of the Hohe Venn.)

Sitz. Niederrhein. Ges. Bonn, 1904, p. 73.

Gillot, X., et Durafotjr — Repartition topographique de la fougere Pteris
aquilina L. dans la vallee de la Valserine. (Distribution of the fern Pteris
aquilina L. in the valley of the Valserine.

Bull. Soc. Nat. de VAin, 1904, pp. 8-22.

Holm, T. — Linnaeus' work on Ferns. Torreya, iii. (1903) pp. 187-8.

Kalbfleisch, A. S. — Polystichum acrostichoides and some insects that infest it.

Fern Bulletin, xii. (1904) pp. 48-50.

Lamic — Une plant rare de la flore francaise. (A rare plant of the French flora.)
[Eymenopli yllum tunbridgense.']

Soc. Eist. Nat. Toulouse, xxxvii. (1904) pp. 28-9.

Schmidt, J. — Die Pteridophyten Holsteins in ihren Formen und Missbildungen.
(The Pteridophyta of Holstein, their normal and monstrous forms.)

Hamburg, 1903, Svo, 75 pp.
Trelease, W. — The Ferns and Fern Allies of Alaska.
[List of 54 species and 16 varieties.]

Harriman Alaska Ezped., v. (1904) pp. 373-98 (1 pi. and 1 fig.).

Trabut — Sur la presence de l'Isoetes setacea Bose en Portugal. (On the presence
of Isoetes setacea in Portugal.) Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, li. (1904) p. 28.

Underwood, L. M. — Four recently described Ferns from Jamaica.

Bull. Dep. Agric. Jamaica, i. (1903) p. 136-8.

„ „ Account by L. M. Underwood of explorations in Jamaica.

[Account of a fern-collecting expedition. 400 species were collected.]

Joum. New York Bot. Gard., iv. (1903) pp. 109-19.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 431

Bryophyta.

Biology of Hepaticae.* — F. Cavers publishes a contribution to the
biology of the four thalloid genera, Targionia, Reboulia, Preissia,
Monoclm, which he has had under cultivation for the past three years,
and brings out several points which have been overlooked or left obscure
by previous writers. He describes for each of the genera the external
features of the thallus, the epidermis, air-chambers, pores, ventral
scales, rhizoids, the antheridia and archegonia with their receptacles, the
sporogonium, capsule, spores and elaters, accompanying his account with
several illustrations. Monoclm was obtained from a nursery garden in
York, and the details of its morphology and biology are the most com-
plete that have yet been published.

Hepaticae of Atlantic type in Scotland/)- — S. M. Macvicar discusses
the distribution of the Atlantic species of hepaticae in Scotland, that is
of certain species which are characteristic of the west coast of Europe and
the Atlantic islands, a few of them occurring along the Mediterranean
and in America. Having referred to the importance of moisture,
•equable temperature and condition of the soil, and having shown that
the main watershed of Scotland is not of much importance in the distri-
bution of these plants, the author divides the Atlantic species into groups,
showing that sixteen occur only on the western watershed ; two occur
only on the east coast, but not inland ; five cross a little way over into
the eastern watershed ; seven, common in the west, cross over to the
east, but are rare ; seven, of Alpine type, are common to the western
watershed and the eastern Grampians. Further, ten Scottish species are
not found in England ; six not found in Ireland ; one English and eight
Irish species are absent from Scotland. All the Atlantic species are found
in the British Isles, but thirteen British species are absent from the east of
Europe, and these are of tropical affinity ; seven are common to Norway
and France ; eleven occur in Norway but not in France ; and seven in
France but not in Norway. The origin of the Atlantic species in our
■country cannot be traced to any known geological period.

Plagiothecium piliferum.^ — L\ A. Jones adds to the British moss-
fiora Plagiothecium piliferum, gathered in fruiting state by Duncan on
Ben Lawers in Aug. 1902, and gives its synonymy and a translation of
Schimper's description of the species. Only one tuft of the plant was
found. It grows on granite mountains in the north and south of
Europe.

Hepaticae of Puerto Rico.§ — A. "W. Evans gives a detailed account
of the genera Odontolejeunea, Gyclolejeunea, and Prionolejeunea. The first
of these is represented by two species in Puerto Rico, the second by four,
and the third by five, four of which are new. The genus Cydolejeunea is
new, and is separated from Odontolejeunea, from which it differs in its
leaves and underleaves, and in its vegetative reproduction by means of

* Leeds, 1904, 8vo, 47 pp., 12 figs.

+ Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist.. 1904, pp. 119-25.

\ Journ. of Bot., xlii. (1904) pp. 156-7.

§ Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1901) pp. 183-22G (5 pis.).

432 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

marginal gemmae, and not by leafy propagnla. The processes of vege-
tative reproduction in these two genera are discussed at some length.
The specific descriptions are exhaustive, fully illustrated, and accom-
panied by an abundance of critical remarks.

A New Irish Hepatic* — I. Douin describes Addanthus dugortiensis,
a new and remarkable hepatic gathered by H. W. Lett in Achill Island.
Its affinity is with A. unciformis, which occurs at the Cape of Good
Hope, Madagascar, and Cape Horn. It is a further instance of the
survival in Ireland of remnants of a flora usually with tropical affinities,
and, as is usual with these survivals, it is sterile.

Mosses of Korea.f — J. Cardot publishes a list of 98 mosses gathered
by the Abbe Faurie in seven localities in Korea. No previous list has
ever been published. Descriptions and figures of 27 new species are
given. Though the climate of Korea has been stated to resemble that of
China and Manchuria, the moss-flora approximates to that of Japan,
50 of the species being common to Korea and Japan, while only 20 are
found in China. The bryology of Manchuria is almost unknown. In
Korea are found 12 species of North American type, 10 of them occur-
ring east of the Rocky Mountains — a curiosity of distribution which
applies to several Japanese mosses.

North American Mosses. — A. J. GroutJ continues his notes on the
peristome, treating specially of the structures found in Encahj2Jta and
the affinity shown to Georgia, Webera, and Tortula. He also calls atten-
attention § to W. Gardiner's " Twenty Lessons on the British Mosses '*
(Dundee, 1847), a little book very rare in the United States, but important
as an early contribution to the development of nature study. The same
author || urges American bryologists to examine hundreds of specimens
of the common species of Brgum, and to keep a record of the varia-
tions in the arrangement of the archegonia and antheridia ; for he is
confident that far too many species in the genus have been based upon
the character of the inflorescence, which may not be so constant as has
been supposed. For instance, Corbiere has found that B. pallescens
may be either monoicous, dioicous, or synoicous. J. M. HolzingerlF
describes Rhacomitrium Fletii, a new species collected near a steam-jet
in the crater of Mt. Tacoma, in the Cascade Mountains, at an altitude
of 14,500 ft. In another article** he gives instances of the occurrence
of species in localities so widely separated (e.g. Caucasia and North
America) as to be suggestive of the evolutional and geological history
of our floras. E. G. Britton ff publishes notes on nomenclature with
reference to species of Brachelgma, Papillaria, Pilotrichella, Ectropo-
thecium, and Homalotkeciwn.

i* Eev. Bryol., xxxi. (1904) pp. 53-5 (fig.).

t Beih. Bot. Centralbl., xvii., (1904) pp. 1-44 (27 figs.).

% Bryologist, vii. (1004) pp. 37-9 (1 pi. and fig.).

§ Tom. cit , pp. 39-40. j| Tom. eit., pp. 50-1.

«|f Tom. eit., pp. 41 (with fig.). ** Tom. cit., pp. 42-3.

*t Tom. cit., pp. 4S-50.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 433

Andrews, A. Le R. — Some interesting mosses from a southern Vermont peat-bog.

Mhodora, vi. (1904) pp. 43-4.
Blind, 0. — Les Hepatiques de la region jurassienne. (The hepatics of the region
of the Jura.)

[A list of 1 1 1 species, with their distribution according to regions — plain,
mountain, lake, marsh, etc.] Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Ain, 1904, pp. 31-6.

Brdnard, A. — Contribution a Tetude des Mousses du departement de l'Ain. (Con-
tribution to the study of the mosses of the Department of the Ain.)

Tom.cit, pp. 26-31.

Calderon, S. — Nota preliminar sobre la turba y los turbales de EspaHa. (Pre-
liminary note on the peat and peat-bogs of Spain.)

[A discussion on the features of the peat-bogs in various parts of Spain, the
causes of their formation, and the value of their contents for fuel.]

Bol. Soc. Espaiiol. Hist. Nat., iii. (1903) pp. 417-28.

Cardot, J., & Theriot, I. — The Mosses of Alaska.

[List of 281 mosses, 125 new to Alaska, 46 new to science.]

Harriman Alaska Exped., v. (1904) pp. 251-328 (11 pis.).

Carestie — Muscinees des environs de Saint-Amour. (Mosses of the environs of
Saint- Amour in the Jura.) Arch. Flore Jurass., 1904, pp. 9-10.

Dusen, P. — Sur la Flore de la Serra do Itatiaya au Bresil. (On the flora of the
Serro do Itatiaya, in Brazil.)

[Contains six new species of hepaticse named by Stephani. A number of
Andine species occur in this high range.]

Arch. Mus. Nation. Bio de Janeiro, xiii. (1903).

D v s s — Enumeration methodique des Muscinees des Antilles Francaises. (Systematic
enumeration of the mosses and hepatics of the French Antilles.)

Lons-le-Saunier, 1903, Svo, 82 pp.
Evans, A. W. — Hepaticae of Alaska.

[List of 82 species, 40 new to Alaska.]

Harriman Alaska Exped., v. (1904) pp. 339-72 (3 pis.).

Familler, I. — Zusammenstellung der in der Umgebung von Regensburg und in
der gesamten Oberpfalz bisher gefundenen Moose. (List of all the mosses hitherto
found in the neighbourhood of Regensburg and the entire Oberpfalz.)

Denhschr. K. Bot. Ges. Begensburg, viii. (1903) pp. 1-54.
Grout, A. J. — Mosses with Hand-lens and Microscope. Part II.

[A non-technical handbook of the commoner mosses of the north-eastern
United States ; freely illustrated. Includes Dicranaceaa, Grimmiacese,
Tortulacese.] New York, 1904, pp. 87-166.

L i n g o t, F. — Appel aux botanistes de l'Ain, et la genre Polytrichum. (Appeal to the
botanists of the Ain ; and [a list of the species of] Polytrichum [found in that
Department]). Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Ain, 1904, pp. 24-6.

Matouschek, F. — Bryologisch-floristiche Beitrage aus Mahren und Oesterr.-
Schleisen. III. (Moss contributions from Moravia and Austrian Silesia.)

Verh. Naturf. Ver. Briinn, xlii. (1904) 24 pp.

Paris, E. G. — Quelques nouvelles pleurocarpes japonaises et tonkinoises. (Some
new pleurocarpous mosses from Japan and Tonkin.)

[Descriptions by Brotherus and Paris of 22 new species gathered by Faurie
and others.] Bev. Bryol., xxxi. (1904) pp. 56-65.

Pauk, H. — Beitrag zur Moosflora Oberbayerns. (Contribution to the moss-fiora of
Upper Bavaria.) Mitt. Bayer. Bot. Ges. Erf. Heim. Flor., 1904, pp. 366-72.

Roth, G. — Die europaischen Laubmoose. (The mosses of Europe.)

Lief. 6 (Leipzig, 1904) 128 pp. 10 pis.).

Sohiffner, V. — Bryologisch-Fragmente. (Notes on Muscinese.)

[Continuations.] Oesterr. Bot, Zeitschr. liv. (1904) pp. 102-4, 128-34.

Schinnerl, M. — TTeber den gegenwartigen Stand der Labermoosforschung in
Oberbayern. (On the present condition of Hepaticology in Upper Bavaria.)

Ber. Bayer. Bot. Ges., Erf. Heim. Flora, ix. (1904) pp. 1-49.

Aug. 17th, 1904. 2 h

4o4 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Step han i, F. — Species Hepaticarum. (Species of Hepaticse.)
[Continuation of monograph of Plagiochila.~]

Bull. Herb. Bois, ser. 2, iv. (1904) pp. 345-61.

Tokka, V. — Bryum uliginosum Br. et Sch. Alg. Bot. Zeitsehr., 1904, pp. 84-5.

T release, W. — Alaskan species of Sphagnum.

[List of 22 species with 19 varieties ; two species are new to North America.]

Harriman Alaska Exped., v. 1904, pp. 329-337.

Z schacke, W. — Weitere neue Moosfunde aus Anhalt. (Further new moss records
for Anhalt.) Deutsch. Bot. Monatsschr., xxii. (1904) pp. 3-6.

Thallophyta.

Algse.

Plankton of Certain Alpine Lakes.* — Brelim and Lederbauer
publish the first part of their paper on this subject, and analyse the
plankton of certain lakes in North Tyrol, ranging in height from
915 m. to about 2400 m. above sea level. They intend to examine also
certain lakes in South Tyrol, Carinthia and upper Austria. They propose
to deal with several questions of general interest in the matter of dis-
tribution, which they will discuss in the last part of the paper when the
flora of the individual lakes has been described.

Morphology of Diatoms.f — C. Mereschkowsky embodies many of
the results of his large experience in the study of Diatoms in a book
with the above title. It is divided into two parts : (1) Historical, and
classification of Diatoms ; (2) the endoclirome of Diatoms. A complete
resume is given of the literature dealing with morphology of diatoms,
and this is followed by a treatment of classification on his own new
system. He divides Diatomacese into two classes : (1) the mobile, or
llaphidiophorese or sexual ; (2) the immobile, or Anaraphideae or
asexual. The former is characterised as follows : with raphe ; mobile ;
endochrome almost always plate-shaped ; the auxospores formed sexually.
The latter is defined thus : without raphe ; immobile ; endochrome
generally granular ; auxospores formed asexually. Each of these main
groups is divided into respectively, Raphidese, Carinataj, Archaidese
and Bacilloidea3, Centrales, with sub-divisions. A table of the system
shows the phylogenesis of Diatoms. The second part of the book
contains a detailed description of the endochrome (chromatophores)
and its contents. The author maintains that endochrome serves as a
systematic character, since in most cases it remains constant in form
and position. The elaioplasts are also constant in many species.

Diatoms from Madagascar.^ — P- Petit enumerates the diatoms
collected at Fort Dauphin by Ferlus, and at Nosi-be by Corre, form-
ing together a fairly representative list of Madagascar species. A
novelty in distribution is Actinojrtychas splendens var. californica, pre-
viously recorded from San Francisco. Many descriptions of already
existing species have been corrected or completed, and ten species are
figured.

* Ver. K. K. Zool.-bot. Gesell. Wien, liv. (1904) pp. 48-58 (3 figs.).

t Kasan, 1903, 427 pp., Gcol. pis.

% Assoc, franc,. Avancem. Sci., 1902, 10 pp., 1 pi. Paris. 1903.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 435-

Uses of Diatoms.* — M. Lanzi considers the diatoms from a bio-
logical point of view, and mentions some of the uses to which they may
be put. Besides the function which they exercise in common with
other algae — that of assimilating nitrogen in one form or another — they
help to form food for certain animals in both salt and fresh water.
They are found in Peruvian and other guanos, showing that they have
been devoured by birds ; and in certain parts of the world, notably, on
the shores of the Orinoco and in Italy, a fossil flour containing diatoms
is used as food by the human inhabitants. The paper closes with two
lists of thirty-two and fifty-two species found in the stomach and
intestines of two fish, Leuciscus muticellus and Chrysophrys auratir
respectively. Diatoms are also employed as objects for testing the
powers of definition of a Microscope lens.

Transmutation of Various Stages in Diatomacese.f — C. Meresch-
kowsky continues his explanation of the law which governs the forms
of certain diatoms. As stated in the account of the first part of his
paper, he calls it the law of translation of stages in Diatoms. In thisr
the concluding part, he gives several instances of genera and species
Avhich show certain markings hitherto not to be explained, but easily
accounted for if the existence of his law be granted. The longitudinal
sinus or fissure in the plaque of Pyrenophoreas is thus the crystallisation^
so to speak, into a permanent form, of an otherwise passing stage of
development. The same explanation holds good for Catenula, Neidiinx
and certain species of Nitzschia, for example, N. angular is and var.
({(finis, and N. distans. In the same way transverse fissures are seen in
species which divide transversely, as Navicula digitoradiata, and certain
species of Gyrosigma and Caloneis. This law does not explain, however,,
such transverse fissures as those of Cymbella, Rhoicosphenia, etc., which
divide longitudinally. The author gives other instances of peculiarities
which may be explained by his law, and suggests that not only specie*
but also genera may have originated in a short time from the arresting
of certain stages in the development of a species. He thinks that the
same law may possibly hold good among Hydroids, Crustaceans, Infu-
soria, and even Fungi.

Alga Related to Raphidium polymorphum.J — M. G. Raymond!
describes the life-history of an alga from the pools in clay soil at
Trappes in France. It is closely analogous to Raphidium polymorphum .
It lives at the bottom of shallow pools fed by rain-water, and cultures
of it are destroyed by the addition of calcareous water. It possesses-
but slight mobility, and strong sunlight destroys cultures of it in a
short time. The gametes appear after the cessation of the severe cold ;
the zygotes, which result from copulation, sink to the bottom and give
rise to : (1) A first generation of zoospores, which form large zoo-
sporangia, from which issue, as a rule, four new zoospores. (2) The
zoospores of the second generation reproduce themselves by transverse
division. (3) This third generation gives rise to the gametosporangia,

* Att. Pont. Accad. Rom. Nuov. Lincei, lvi. (1903) pp. 129-41.
t Journ. de Bot, xviii. (1904) pp. 76-83 (3 figs, in text).
% Miorogiarhc preparateur, xii. (1904) pp. 11-19.

2 it 2

436 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which pass the winter at the bottom of the water. In the species
studied here, the daughter nuclei in the zoosporangia are disposed
alternately along the main axis of the body. In another and closely
allied species the division of the primitive nucleus takes place in an
equatorial plane, and the individuals are grouped in the zoosporangium
in a parallel spiral bundle.

Myriactis Areschougii and Coilodesme californica.* — M. Rath-
bone describes briefly the work hitherto done on M. Areschougii Batters,
especially that of Mons. Sauvageau. She has been unable to trace the
infection of the host-plant or the early stages of the parasite, as in the
early months of the year the thallus of the host- plant, Himanthalia
lorea, is invaded by the filaments of numerous penetrating algae.
M. Sauvageau suggests that infection takes place by means of zoospores
which germinate in the cryptostomata or conceptacles ; but the author
finds no connection between these bodies and the mature plants of
M. Areschougii. The rhizoids travel for long distances in the tissue
of the host and probably act as stolons for propagating the plant, as in
M. stellulata. In fresh material the rhizoids are easily distinguished by
their pinkish-brown colour, and in spirit material they stain more deeply
with Hoffman's blue than do the host-cells. Active cell-division of the
host-cells is often seen below and around the tufts of the parasite, and
these host-cells take a rather different stain with Hoffman's blue from
that of the surrounding tissue. Mucilage occurs chiefly at the base of
the hairs and round the assimilating filaments, but is also found far
down in the cushion of the parasite. The penetrating rhizoids of
Coilodesme californica Kjellm., are also described, which have hitherto
been overlooked in descriptions of the plant. These rhizoids form a
dense mass in the substance of the cell-walls of the host, and seen in
longitudinal section they have a curiously opaque and ribbed appearance.
Figures are given of the rhizoids of both plants, and also of the pluri-
locular sporangia of Myriactis stellulata, figured and described by
Harvey in his Phycologia Britannica as " paranemata."

Sphacelariacese.f — C. Sauvageau continues his treatment of this
order and deals with Halopteris Novce-Zelandioe Sauv., of which he
gives a long description, the formal diagnosis and figures. He also
describes and figures H. obovata Sauv. = Sphacelaria obovata Hook, fil-
et Harv., and H. platycena sp. n., which he describes and figures.

New Genus of Corallinacese.J — F. Heydrich has succeeded in
finding the antheridia of Lithophyllum expansnm Phil., and since these
occur on different plants from the cystocarps or tetraspores, the author
founds for this species a new genus, Stereophyllum. He recognises two
forms, f. stictceformis Aresch. and f. agariciformis Hauck., of which he
gives short diagnoses. The principal characteristic of the vegetative
thallus is the absence of a " co-axile stratum," the cells of the entire
thallus ascending in straight lines to the surface. This constitutes a
difference between Stereophyllum and other species which resemble it in

' * Journ. Linn. Soc. fBot.) xxxv. (1904) pp. 670-5 (1 pi.).
t Journ. de Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 88-104 (5 figs, in text).
% Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell, xxii. (1904) pp. 19G-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 437

external appearance. The male and female conceptacles and tetraspores
are described.

Chinese Marine Algae.*— E. S. Gepp publishes a list of twenty-
seven marine alga from Wei-hai-wei and Swatow. Two of them are
new species, Chordaria firma and Ceramhmi Boydenii. The original
diagnosis of Polysfphonia japonica is quoted, as it has been omitted
from J. G. Agardh's Species Ah/arum, and De Toni's Sylloge Algarumy
and the original place of publication is difficult of access. This plant
is figured, together with the two new species.

Alaskan Algae.f — The algae of the Harriman Alaska expedition
were edited by A. Saunders, and the list of them which was originally
published in the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
1901, is now republished in a volume dealing with all the cryptogamic
collections of the expedition. The algas have been named by various
experts, and form an imposing list of 380 species, of which nine are
new to science and 240 are new to Alaska. The author makes some
interesting remarks on the general distribution of algae along the
Pacific coast of North America, dividing it into three distinct regions.
The first, or southern, extends from Point Conception southwards to
the equator, and is characterised by Nereocystis giganteus, Sargassum
agardhimium, Taonia Lenneb acker ce, Zonaria Toumefortii, and other
tropical species. The second, or Californian, region extends from Point
Conception on the south to Puget Sound on the north, and is charac-
terised by forms like Dictyoneuron, Postelsia, Laminaria Sinclairii, L.
Andersonii, etc. The northern region begins at Puget Sound and
extends northwards to and including Bering Sea. It is characterised
by Odonthalia ahvtica, Pohjsiphonia bipinnata, Enthora cristata, Rhody-
menia pertma, etc.

Ambeeg, O.— Biologische Notiz uber den Lago di Muzzano. (Biological Note on
Lago di Muzzano.) Forschvngsber. Biol. Stat. PWn, x. (1903; pp. 74-85.

„ „ TTntersuchung einiger Planktonproben aus demselben vom Sommer
1902. (Examination of several Plankton-samples from the same lake collected
in the summer of 1902.) Tom. cit., pp. 86-9.

Bergon, P. — Etudes de la flore diatomique d'Arcachon et des parages voisins.
(Studies on the diatom-flora of Arcachon and the adjacent distiicts.)

Lab. Biolog. Bordeaux (1903) 64 pp., 2 pis. col.
Geza, Entz, Jun.— Adatok a Balaton plaktoujanak ismeretehez. (Contributions to
a knowledge of the plankton of Platten-Luke.)

A. Balaton, tudom. laimlm. eredm.,\i. supp. 2,-pt. I.
(Budapest 1903) 26 pp., 48 figs., 9 pis.

Gomont, M.— Sur la vegetation de quelques sources d'eau douce sous-marines de la
Seine-Inferieure. (On the vegetation of certain fresh-water submarine springs of
the Department Seine-Infe'rieure.)

[The complete paper, of which a preliminary notice had been published in
Comptes Rendus, and was noticed in the last Number of this Journal.]

Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, li. (1904) pp. 36-55.

Gran, H. H.— Diatomaceae from the Ice-floes and Plankton of the Arctic Ocean.

Nansen's Norwegian North Polar Exped., iv. (1904) No. 1 1 .

* Journ. Bot., xlii. (M)04) pp. 161-5 (1 pi.).

t Harriman Alaska Expedition, v. (New York, 1904) pp. 155-251 (20 pi.).

438 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Hinze, G. — 7eb3r Schwifeltropfen im Innsrn von Ojcillarien. (Concerning drops
of sulphur in Oscillaria.)

[Djscribes the investigation of a species, n3ar Otcillatoria tenuis, the cells of
which contained certain drops which proved to be sulphur.]

Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell, xxi. (1903) pp. 394-8 (2 figs, in text).

Howe, Marshall A. — The Museum Exhibit of Sea-weeds.

Jour n. New York Bo!. Garden, v. (1994) pp. 56 -6 4, figs. 9-12.

„ ,, The Pike Collection of Algae. Tom. cit., pp. 86-7.

Keller, K. — Das Lsben des Meeres. Tier- und Pflanzenwelt des meeres, ihr Leben
und gegenseitige Beziehung. (The life of the sea. Animal- and plant- world of the
sea, their life and mutual relations.)

St. Petersburg (1901) 4to, 141 pp., pt. 2(16 pis., 10 col., 30 woodmts).

Kafoid, C. A.— The Plankton of the Illinois River, 1894-1893, with introductory
notes upjn the Hydrography of the Illinois and its Basin. Part I. Quantitative
investigations and general results.

Campaign, III. : Ball. St. Labor. Nat. Hist. (1903) 535 pp., 50 pis.

L argaiollt, V. — Le Diatomsedel Trentiao. XV. Lago di Nambino. (The diatoms
of Trentino. XV. Lake Nambino.)

Tridentum, vi. (1903) Fasc. 6-7, pp. 270-4.
Maosis, A.— Les Diatomees des laos da Nantua et de Sylans. (The diatoms of
Lake Nantua and Lake Sylans.)

Arch. Flore Jurass., xliii. xliv. (1904) pp. 24-6.

Marsson, M. — Die Fauna und Flora des verschmutzten wassers unl ihre Beziehuig
zur biologischen Wasseranalyss. (The fauni and flora of fouled water an I its
relation to the biological analysis of water.)

Forschungsber. Biol. Stat. Plon, x. (1903) pp. 60-73.

Mazza, Angelo — Tin manipolo di Alghe marine della Sicilia. (A handful of
marine algse from Sicily.)

[Continuation of the list begun in a previous Number. Records 84 species,
bringing the total to 139. Critical and topographical notes are appended.]

Nuov. Notar., xv. (1904) pp. 49-75.
Miquel, P. — Eecherches experimentales sur la Physiologie, la Morphologie, et la
Pathologie des Diatomees. (Experimental researches on the physiology, mor-
phology and pathology of diatomaceae.)
I [A continuation, dealing with the re-establishment of the so-called sporangial
form of Nitzichia palea.~] Micrograplie preparateur, xii. (1904)

pp. 32-7 (4 figs, iu text).
Mob i us, M. — TJeber den gegenwartigen stand der Algen-forschung. (On the
present condition of the study of algae.)

Ber. Deutsch. Bot. (resell, xxi. (1901) General versamml.-Heft,

pp. (135)-(146).

Muller, O. — Bacillariaceen aus dem Nyassalanie und einigen benachbarten

Gebieten. (Bacillariaceaj from Nyassaland and some of the surrounding districts.)

Engler's Bot. Jahrb., xxxiv. (1901) pp. 9-38 (2 pis., 5 figs, in text).

Ostenfeld, C. EL, & Paulsev, O v e — Planktonprover fra Nord-atlanterhavet,
c. 58°-60° N. Br., samlede: 1899 af Dr. K. J. V. Steenstrup. (Plankton-samples
collected iu the North Atlantic Ocean, lat. 58n-60° N., in 1899, by Dr. K. J. V.
Steenstrup.)

[Describes results obtained with new apparatus.]

Medd.om Grbnland. Copenhagen, xxvi. (1904) pp. 143-210.

Ost wald, W. — TJeber eine neue theoretische Betrachtungsweise in der Planktologie.
(On a new theoretical treatment iu Planktology.)

Forschungsber. Biol. Stat. PlSn, x. (1903) pp. 1-49.

Snow, J. W. — The Plankton Algae of Lake Erie, with special reference to the
Chlorophyceae. U.S. Fish Commission Bull., 1902 (issued 1903)

pp. 369-94 (4 pis).

Wesknberg-Lund, C. — Studier over de danske Sbers Plankton. (Studies on the
plankton of the Danish lakes.)

Spec. Bel, Copenhagen (1904) 232 pp., 8 maps, 10 pis., 9 plankton-tables.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 439

Fungi.

Membrane of Zygospores.* — Paul Vuillemin publishes the results
of a research as to the nature and origin of the zygospore layers in the
Mucoraceas. He distinguishes five of these, the innermost being the
matrix of the membrane, closely united to the protoplasm and having
a formative function. The other four layers are : from within outwards,
the cartilaginous layer, the median cuticle, the carbon layer (Assise
ckarbonneuse), and the external cuticle. All these are protective layers.
The author finds that they are not peculiar to the zygospore, but that
they are also present in a modified form in the suspensors. He con-
cludes that the zygospore is not formed endogenously, but that it is
covered by a unique membrane of remarkable complication.

Bulgaria globosa Fr.f — Gr. Lagerheim gives an account of this
fungus which occurs frequently in Sweden on the ground among Pine
needles. The author proves its identity with Sarcosoma gloooswn and
S. plat //disc us. The spores in the various species of Bulgaria remain
colourless for a long time, and become brown only when they are quite
mature.

Sclerotinia and Monilia.J — Eud. Aderhold restates the observations
made on the species of Monilia that infest our orchards ; one of which.
Monilia fructigena, had been associated by Norton with the Peziza form
Sclerotinia fructigena. Aderhold has kept apples infested with Monilia
fructigena, and has watched the development on them of a Sclerotinia
which does not agree with that described by Norton. He holds, there-
fore, that the one found by Norton, as it grew on stone-fruit, was asso-
ciated with Monilia cinerea, and should rather be designated S. cinerea.
He gives a detailed account of the asci and spores of the species, which,
he holds, is the true S. fructigena.

Sclerotinia Alni.§ — Fr. Bubak has found on the fruits of Alnus
glutinosa the sclerotia and their apothecia. The Alnus cones are usually
buried under a thin layer of earth. The stalk of the apothecium rises
just to the surface of the ground, and the disc, which measures 2-5 mm.
across, looks at first like a Humaria. Stalk and apothecium are both
brown.

Epiplasm in the Ascomycetes.|| — A. Guilliermond has followed his
previous studies on the metachromatic- corpuscles by a more detailed
account of the occurrence of these and other bodies in the ascus. Conte
and Vaney have recently announced that these corpuscles in a Protozoon
were identical with grains of zymogen, and have showed that they were
derived from the chromatin of the nucleus from which they were ejected
at certain stages of development. Guilliermond's research had led him
to believe that metachromatic corpuscles were formed from the cyto-
plasm of the cell independently of the nucleus.

* Bull. Soc. Sci. Nancy, iv. (1904) ser. 3, pp. 239-G7 (4 pis.). See also Bot.
Centralbl. xcv. (1904) pp. 541-2.

t Botan. Notiser, 1903, pp. 249-G7 (1 pi.). See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) p. 50.

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxii. (1904) pp. 2G2-G (1 pi.).

§ Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 253-4.

|| Rev. Gen. Bot., xvi. (1904) pp. 49-05 (3 figs, and 2 pis.).

440 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

He gives the methods of fixation and staining, and the species of
fungi in which he studied this subject. They were selected chiefly
from the larger Discomycetes. The results are followed out in detail
in the case of Ahuria cerect, and a resume is given of special points
noted in the other species examined.

The mother-cell of the ascus, he finds, is derived from a filament
with bi-nucleate cells, which bends over like a crook ; the nuclei each
divide, and a cell is cut off at the bend containing the two central
nuclei, which fuse. The cell then grows in length and forms the ascus.
At first it is filled with a dense cytoplasm, but gradually this becomes
vacuolated and the metachromatic corpuscles make their appearance in
the meshes between the vacuoles, not only in the neighbourhood of the
nucleus, but through the entire length of the cell. Glycogen was also
found in the epiplasm and globules of oil, which are secreted in the
same manner as the corpuscles. Guilliermond considers them all to be
reserve bodies. He did not find that the corpuscles were bodies acting
on glycogen and transforming it into oil, nor were they elaioplasts
for the formation of oil. These different bodies exist separately or
together in different cells. The final absorption of the corpuscles by
the maturing spores proves that they, as well as the other bodies formed,
were reserve material to be used up in the growth of the spore.

In one of the fungi examined, a species of Peziza, it was found that the
ascus was formed in a slightly different manner. The primary cell did
not bend over. The nuclei divided and remained attached in pairs as
in the basidiomycetes, the cell elongated, and the upper cell with its
pair of nuclei was cut off and formed the ascus. The nuclei fused, and
development proceeded as in the other cases. The writer notes the
appearance of the band of amyloid round the operculum of the ascus
in Ahuria ; he does not consider it to be a reserve body in this in-
stance, its function being concerned with the escape of the spores.
He confirms Harper's work on the development of the spores in the
ascus.

Critical Notes on Exoascacese.* — R. Sadebeck describes a new
Exoascus found on a member of the Euphorbiacese. He found three
types of ascus present on the leaves attacked. They were long and
slender, or short and clavate, or of an ovate form on a long slender stalk-
cell. The author is quite certain that the first two forms belong to one
fungus, and he thinks it very probable that the third is also part of the
same growth, though the polymorphism of the asci is as marked as it is
unusual. The number of spores varies from four to eight in each ascus ;
the hymenium is formed under the cuticle of the leaf. He calls the new
species E. Sebastiancz.

Specialisation of Parasitism in Erysiphacese.t — E. S. Salmon has
continued his inoculation experiments with Erysiphe Sphcerotheca on
various host-plants. The results, he says, seem to show that in every
case the form of the fungus has become specialised into a " biologic
form." In each experiment the conidia of the fungus were used, but

* Ber. Deutscli. Bot. Gesell., xxii. (1904) pp. 119-33 (1 pi.).
t New Phytol., iii. (1904) pp. 109-21.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 441

the infection powers of the ascopores have been proved to be strictly
similar to those of the oidia. Special economic interest is attached to
experiments with hop-mildew. The fungus which causes this disease,
Sphmrotheca Humuli, grows on a variety of different plants ; but it was
found that it was specialised on each host, and could not be transferred
from one to the other. Again, in the case of E. Cichoracearum, conidia
collected from Plantago major infected P. major, producing an abundant
crop of oidia and perithecia, while on P. media there was mostly only a
feeble sub-infection, and P. lanceolata was immune. The author gives
detailed tables of the various experiments.

Mycological Notes.* — E. S. Salmon finds that the asci of Erysiphe
graminis do not form spores until the conditions of moisture, etc., are
favourable for their subsequent germination and development. He
tested this repeatedly in the laboratory, aud found that in a damp
chamber the spores matured quickly, were ejected from the perithecium
and at once germinated. He infected leaves of Tritkum vulgare, and
in about ten days powdery Oidium -patches were observed on the grass.
He thinks the fungi may go through the life-cycle more than once
in the course of the season. He adds some notes on the mycophagus
larva? that feed on the conidia, and which doubtless aid in checking the
spread of the fungus.

Observations on G-ymnoascaceae and Aspergulese.f — P. A. Dangeard
publishes notes on the question of sexuality in the genera and species
of these fungi. He records the occurrence of the two coiled cells in
the early stage of fruit formation in species belonging to Ctenomyces,
Gymnoascus and Aphanoascus. He denies that sexual fusion takes
place. In Aphanoascus, the most easily observed, the sterile cell becomes
large and spherical, enclosing four or five nuclei, which increase to about
forty. The nuclei of the ascogonial cell also increase. This cell winds
round the central sterile cell, and then gives rise to five or six branches,
which also encircle it, and these branches divide into isodiametric cells.
There never is any trace of anastomosis or of fusion to be observed be-
tween the two organs.

l&'

Yeast Nucleus.^ — A. Guilliermond reviews the work done by him-
self and others on Saccharomyces. He insists on the correctness of
his statements as to the existence of a vacuole with metachromatic
corpuscles, and a nucleus close by — the nucleolus of Wager. He also
insists on the existence of only one nucleus in the sporulating cell.
He describes the division of this nucleus into two or four daughter-
nuclei previous to sporulation — a division first into two masses which
emigrate to the two poles, and then divide again in the same manner.
He has never seen any case of karyokinesis. The achromatic spindle
seen by Janssens and Leblanc is only " sporogenous plasma." He noted,
further, that the epiplasm of the cell contained small oil-globules, which
in this case are reserve bodies.

* Journ. Bot., xlii. (1904) pp. 1S2-6.

+ Comptes Bendus, exxxviii. (1904) pp. 1235-7.

\ Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 184-9 (1 fig.).

442 .SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Sterig-matocystis versicolor. — Henri Coupin and Jean Friedel,*
have studied the biology of this fungus, which changes its form and
colour according to the -medium in which it is grown. It resembles
closely St. nigra, except that it will scarcely grow in the presence of
an acid, while St. nigra develops well in an acid solution. Normally,
it is of a rusty red colour, and secretes a pigment varying from clear
yellow, when an acid is present, to deep red when an excess of car-
bonate of potassium renders the solution alkaline.

Paul Yuillemin f also publishes notes on the same subject. He
distinguishes the two colour forms, green and rose, due to the medium
in which the fungus is cultivated, and therefore depending on definite
chemical properties. The colour of the spores is less easily controlled,
as both kinds may appear in the same growth. Cultures were made
on the same substratum of green and rose-coloured conidia, and it was
found that the colour form was constant. In this case the medium was
not the determining cause of the colour.

Culture of Oospora destructor.^ — This fungus, previously known
as Isaria destructor, is parasitic on insects. A. Vast cultivated the spores
on a large variety of media, and describes the influence that the sub-
stratum had on the growth of hyphse and conidia. The fungus de-
veloped more quickly and luxuriantly on potato than on any of the
other substances experimented with. In some of the cultures, patches
of sterile yellow mycelium were developed, in others there was a con-
siderable formation of crystals. Vast infected the larvas of Coleoptera
by plunging them in sterilised water containing conidia, or in brushing
them over with the conidia themselves.

Conidial Form of Daldinia concentrica.§ — Marin Molliard has
gone over the work done by Tulasne on this fungus. He got the same
conidial growth, but some additional discoveries have enabled him to
place the conidial fungus in the genus Nodulisporum, considered by some
authors to be a section of Botrgtis. Molliard finds that it is in many
points similar to a Mucedine studied by Matruchot, Gostantinella
cristata, and he thinks that probably the latter is the conidial form of
a Pyrenomycete closely related to Xylaria.

Fungi imperfecti.|]— G. Lindau is the author of the section Hypho-
mycetes in the " Kryptogamen-Flora," the first part of which has just
been issued. He discusses their systematic position in the preface, and
states the difficulty of classifying them properly. Many of them have
been proved to be conidial forms of Ascomycetes, but while it has been
proved that allied species of Ascomycetes often have very similar conidial
forms, it as often occurs that neighbouring Hyphomycetes may form part
of the life-cycle of widely separated higher fungi.

The author remarks, too, on the difficulty in recognising the plants
which the older writers had under observation. The type specimens have

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1118-20. f Tom. cifc., pp. 1350-1.

t Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xx. (1904) pp. 66-71.
§ Torn, cit., pp. 55-60 (1 pi.)

|| Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Flora. Band. I., Abtb. viii., Lief. 92. 135 pp.
Leipzig, Eduard Rummer, 1904.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 44.'»

■succumbed to the influences of time, and the drawings and descriptions
are vague and general. It has thus become necessary to drop out many
of the old species.

Lindau follows the usual line of classification, dividing the group into
four families, Mucedineae, Deruatiaceas, Stilbaceae, and Tuberculariacere.
Spore characters are the determining factors in the system. The Muce-
dineae, which have colourless or brightly-coloured hyphaj and spores,
are divided up according to their form and disposition. Lindau treats
of almost the whole of two of the sub-divisions of the family in this first
part, the Chromosporeas and the Oospores. Both of them are grouped
under the Micronemeae. They have an insignificant vegetative develop-
ment and very short conidiophores.

Triphragmium.* — M. Milesi and G. B. Traverso publish the sketch
of a monograph of this genus. They use colour as one of the most
salient characters, and divide the species into two groups : Xantho-
triphragmium, of which the teleutospores are yellow in colour, and the
epispore warted or comparatively smooth ; and Phc&otriphragmium,
which includes species with spores of a deeper brown colour ornamented
with long processes. A detailed account of the different species follows.

New Species of Uredinese.t — J. C. Constantineau describes two
new species which he found on well-known plants. An yEcidium on
Ifiula Helenium, and Uromyces (teleutospores) on Viccia Cracca ; of the
latter, he notes that it attacks only the leaves of the host-plant ; the sori
are to be found on both surfaces. The membrane of the spore is
brownish and is ornamented by bands of longitudinal thickening, which
often anastomose. There is a small colourless papilla at the top of the
spores.

Vegetative Life of Cereal Rusts. $ — J. Eriksson and G. Tischler
have carried out a research on Puccinia glumarum which occurs on
wheat. The aim was to examine further the mycoplasma-hypothesis.
Material and methods are fully described. No trace of mycelium was
found in the cells of the host, but a more dense condition of the proto-
plasm was noted in preparations made from spring and autumn material
to which the name " mycoplasma " was given. This condition of the cell-
contents was compared with that of other preparations of grass leaves
known to be free of rust, and in such cases no " mycoplasma " Mas
found. Yery early stages of mycelium were noted in Uredo pustules,
mere threads of protoplasm without nucleus or cell-membrane in the
intercellular spaces of the host-plant. A later stage showed distinct
nuclei. Both these appearances are termed by the authors "Proto-
mycelium," and they have no doubt that they are successive stages of
growth. Haustoria were developed later and septation of the mycelium.
The research was made on young corn seedlings. The origin of the
mycoplasm has not yet been traced.

Mycoplasma Hypothesis.§ — H. Klebahn has reviewed his own work
on Puccinia glumarum in the light of Eriksson and Tischler's publica-

* Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 143-56 (1 pi.). t Tom. cit., 250-3 (1 fig.).

% K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl., xxxvii. (1904) pp. 1-19 (3 pis.). Sec also Bot.
Centvalbl., xcv. (1904) pp. 353-5.

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Geeell., xxii. (1904) pp. 255-61 (2 figs.).

444 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tion. He noted in connection with this rust that the mycelium was
rather scanty, but of very large dimensions. It fills the whole of the
intercellular spaces where it has penetrated. It is of a dense proto-
plasmic structure and contains numerous small bodies, which he con-
siders to be nuclei. These nuclei diminish in number as development
goes on. Klebahn draws attention to a special case he came across in
his examination of P. glumarum, which he considered to be somewhat
abnormal rust hyphfe, and which bear a strong resemblance to Eriksson's
mycoplasma. He points out the difficulty that Eriksson presents us, in
asking us to believe that nuclei appear spontaneously ; and he also
refers to the almost impossible task of detecting spots where uredo
pustules will appear, while as yet there is no visible trace of them. He
considers the question still unsettled.

Rust of Cereals in Silesia.* — W. Eemer publishes a report on the
prevalence of rust diseases during the summer of 1003. He found
that the two species most frequently met with were Puccinia dispersa
TriUci and P. graminis Tritici. The rusts attacked the cereals in
greatest abundance in the localities where the ground had been richly
supplied with nitrogenous manure, either artificial or from the farm-
yard. The rich groAvth of the grass thus induced, seemed to afford a
more satisfactory condition for the parasite. Phosphates, especially
superphosphate of ammonia, seemed to be most effectual in checking
the spread of the rust. The presence of other fungus parasites rendered
the cereal still more liable to attack. The author did not find that the
rusts spread from the JEcidia of the alternate hosts, but he thinks that
the wild grasses of the woods and hedgerows act as intermediate hosts,
and to them the presence and continuance of the disease are largely due.

Myxosporium, Myxolibertella and Sporodiniopsis.t — Franz v.
Hohnel points out that Myxosporium Tidasnei is identical with Septo-
myxa. He criticises Saccardo's action in sinking the form, genus
Myxolibertella (Melanconieae), which possesses two kinds of spores.
He insists also that the genus Sporodiniopsis should stand, as the fungus
described could not be placed under any of the existing genera without
a confusion of diagnoses.

■&••

American Mycology. — A. P. Morgan % describes a new species of
Melogramma that grew on dead branches of Carpinus. T. D. A.
Cockerell § gives a short list of fungi collected by him in New Mexico..
W. R. Dudley and C. H. Thompson || publish notes on Californian
Uredinete and descriptions of new species, of which there are three of
Puccinia and one of Uromyces.^ A descriptive list of Fascicle ix. of
Ohio fungi is given by W. A. Kellerman,** who also publishes notes om
species of Podosjrficera. He concludes that P. tridactyla is a true species
and not merely a variety of P. oxyacantlm as described by Salmon.
The author is led to the decision by the difference in form of the peri-

* Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xiv. (1904) pp. 65-70.

t Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 247-9.

X Journ. of Mycology, x. (1904) p. 49.

§ Tom. cit , pp. 49-51. || Tom. cit., pp. 52-5.

1" Tom. cit., pp. 55-62. ** Tom. cit., pp. 62-4 (1 pi).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 445

thecial appendages. Kelleruian * also continues his index of Uredinous
culture experiments for North America, with lists of species and hosts ;
andf under the title " Elementary Mycology " he advises beginners how
to set about the study of fungi.

Root Excrescences of Alnus.J — There have been many different
opinions as to the nature and origin of the outgrowths on alder roots.
C. G. Bjorkenheim has examined them recently and has concluded that
they are due to the hyphas of a parasitic fungus. It was not possible
to determine the species. He finds two forms of hypha? inhabiting the
cells. Extremely fine filaments occupied the central cells and often
terminated in a globose swelling. The cells of the cortical tissue were
tilled with hyphas of larger dimensions, which formed clumps inside the
cells. In the invaded cells the starch had usually disappeared. The
author considers that the large hyphas are produced after the first
infection, and that the filaments become finer as they penetrate deeper
into the tissue of the host.

Mycopathological Notes from Hungary.§ — Karl Posch-Grinad
gives a resume of his observations on plant diseases during the years
1902-3. Rust was specially destructive, and the cereals were also
attacked by species of Helminthosporium, Erysiphe, Claviceps, OpJiio-
bolus, etc. He records also disease of roots and tubers, and of various
vegetables. Fruit trees and vines were injured by various fungi, and
in some cases great mischief was done. Charrinia Diplodiella, the
origin of white-rot, caused a loss of about 8 million crowns (kronen).

Australian Fungi. || — D. McAlpine describes a number of new
species and one new genus, Scluzotrickum, a Hyphomycete found on
the flowering stems of a native Lobelia {L. gibbosa). This genus has
a dark-coloured sporodochium, but the conidia are hyaline, hence it
belongs to the series Tubercular iece mucedinw Sacc. On account of its
septate spores it must be placed near Leptotrichum Corda. It was found
at Sandringham, Victoria. The new species belong to fifteen different
genera, including Fusarium, Puccinia, Khabdo&pora and Septoria.

Diseases of Plants. — R. Farneti IT describes a fungoid disease which
has recently been detected on apricots. It appears first as grey-green
spots in the young fruit, which gradually become brown. The fruits
may ripen if the attack is only slight; the more seriously diseased have a
bitter astringent taste. The fungus belongs to the Dematiea?, and has
been named Stigmina Briosiana.

R. Aderhold ** has been experimenting with Fasicladium dendriticum
which causes a disease of apples, to see if it were the same species as
that which grows on Crataegus. He found that the fungus from one

* Journ. of Mycology, x. (1904) pp. 64-81. f Tom. cit, pp. 90-5.

X Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xiv. (1904) pp. 129-33 (1 pi.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 158-60.

|| Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S.Wales, xxviii. (1903) pp. 553-63.

*[f Atti. 1st. Pavia, vii. ser. 2, pp. 23-31 (1 pi.). See also Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr.,
xiv. (1904) p. 183.

** Kais. Gesundh.-Amt , iii. (1903) p. 436. See also Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xiv.
(1904) p. 182.

440 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

host would not infect the other, and he found also that the perfect fruit
form belonged to two different species of Venturia.

Fungi of the Soil.* — C. J. Koning has published the results of
his investigations on humicolous fungi, and on the chemical phenomena
that accompany the process of humification. He finds that at each
stage of leaf disintegration some special fungus, usually a Hypho-
mycete, grows more freely than any other. He notes these fungi, and
takes account also of the insects that aid in the distribution and pro-
pagation of the different moulds. The leaves that bear the richest
crop of fungi are the first to decay ; oak leaves, that provide better
nourishment for the fungi, disintegrate more rapidly than those of beech
or of pine. The odour of the soil is due to several species of moulds.
The author devotes a large part of the work to a discussion of the
chemical changes that go on. He states that the process of humification
could be explained by the study of chemical phenomena that are pro-
duced during the life of the fungus. He gives lists of the fungi found
on different trees, and also a list of chemical substances, organic and
inorganic, isolated from the soil.

Disease of Cork Trees.f — F. Bordas has found that the "cork
taste " is given to wine by corks that have been cut from a piece of the
tree affected with " yellow spot." On examination, the spot was found
to be caused by the presence of Aspergillus niger and Pmwillium
glaucum. The tree is usually found to be spotted on the side most
exposed to rain. Advice is given as the methods to be employed for
preventing contamination of the trees.

Sorica g. n., Parasitic on Ferns.J — K. Giesenhageu describes a
curious pyrenomycete from Brazil. It attacks the sori of Polypodium,
which become studded with the fructifications of the fungus. There is
a black thread-like stalk about 2 mm. in height bearing a perithecium
at the apex, which is furnished with a long beak. The spores are
globose and brown. The sori of the leaf alone are infected by the
fungus : the intervening tissue is free from mycelium.

Errors in Determination of Fungi due to Misconception of
Host-Plants. § — W. Franzschel has inquired into this subject in re-
ference to a number of species, and he finds that carelessness in
accurately determining the host-plant has led to a considerable duplica-
tion of species. Where a parasite has been recorded only once on a
somewhat universal host species, the author sees constant reason to>
doubt its occurrence at all, and he has several times proved the justness
of his surmise. Thus a leaf of Epilobium was confounded with that
of a Veronica, leaves of Thalictrum were mistaken for those of one of
the Umbelliferoe, and of Plantago lanceolata for those of Scorzonera
humilis.

Fossil Fungi. — Fungi have been recorded by several workers in
connection with plants from Palasozoic times, some of them saprophytic^

* Arch. Ne'erl. Sci. exact, et Nat., ix. (1904) pp. 34-107.
f Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 928-9.
I Ber. Ueutsch. Bot. Gesell. xxii. (1904) pp. 191-6 (1 pi.).
' § Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 157-61.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 447

others evidently parasitic. F. E. Weiss * has recently described a speci-
men that he has found on rootlets from the lower coal-measures, which
seems to correspond with the Mycorhiza of recent times. In the root or
rhizome examined, the fungus mycelium was very evident in the exo-
eortex. In the cells of the medio-cortex there were somewhat indefinite
masses that recalled the " clumps " characteristic of the Mycorhiza of
living plants, but no definite details could be made out. The clumps
were connected with the cell-walls by delicate protoplasmic filaments,
which were probably contracted hyphae. The whole fungus differs
materially from other cases of endophytic fungi observed in fossil
plants, and is evidently neither parasitic nor saprophytic on the host-
plant. The author has been unable to identify the root ; he therefore
gives it the non-committal name of Rhizonium. The fungus he de-
signates provisionally as Mycorhizonium.

Botjlanger, Em. — La culture artificielle de la Truffe.

[The author claims to have developed truffle-beds in new localities, and
explains the methods he has followed.]

Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xx. pp. 77-82.

Bubak, Franz und Kabat, J. E. — Einige neue Imperfekten aus Bbhmen una
Tirol.

[One new genus, Kabatia (Leptostromaceae), is described ; there are a number
of new species.] Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., liv. (1901) pp. 22-81 (10 figs.).

See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) p. 46.

Bubak, Fr — Eine neue Agaricaceen-Gattung aus Bbhmen.

[The new genus is near akin to Lentinus, and has been named Lentodiopsis by
the finder.] Hedwigia, xliii. pp. 195-6.

Diedicke, H. — Fungi Imperfecti aus Thuringen.

[The author describes some new species, and gives the results of liis cultures
of spores of Pleomassaria siparia. He succeeded in producing the pyc-
nidial spores of Prosthemium betulinum.)

Ann. Mycol, ii. (1904) pp. 179-83 (9 figs.).

Ha riot, P., et Patouillard, N. — Description de Champignons nouveaux de
l'Herbier du Museeum.

[Descriptions of ten new species from various countries.]

Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xx. (1904) pp. 61-5 (1 fig.).

Hennings, P. — Einige neue Pilze aus Japan.

[The new genera are Kusanobotrys (Asterinacese), Yoshinagaia and Coccodiscus
(Coccoideaceae.) Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 140-6, 150-:;.

„ „ Einige neue Pilze aus Costarica und Paraguay.

[Diagnoses of seven new species.] , Tom. cit., pp. 1 47-9.

„ Fungi Amazonici I. a il Ernesto TJle collecti.
[The list includes a very large number of new species, more especially among'
the UredineaB. Tom. cit., 154-86 (1 pi. and 2 figs.).

„ Fungi Australiensis II.
[Diagnoses of nine new species from Queensland or from Western Australia.]

Tom. cit., pp. 187-9.

„ „ Einige schadliche Blattpilze auf cultivierten Himalaya-Ehodo-

dendron.
[The author found a number of new species, mostly small Pyrenomycetes, espe-
cially on Rhododendron Falconeri, which has a hairy under-leaf surface.]

Gartenflora, lii. (1903) pp. 575-7.
See also Bot. Centralbl, xcv. (1904) p. 369.

* Annals of Botany, xviii. (1904) pp. 255-65 (2 pis.).

448 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Hennings, P. — Beitrag zur Pilzflora von Rheinsburg.

[A number of new species of micro-fungi are described.]

Abhandl. Bot. Ver. Brandenb., xlv. (1908) pp. 12-18.
See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 47-8.

„ „ Fungi Africae Orientalis iii.

[A considerable number of new forms are included in tbis account of fungi from
German East Africa. Tbe new genera are Englerula and Asterothyriim.']

Engler,Bot. Jalirb., xxxiv. (1904) pp. 39-57.
See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) p. 48.
Hollos, L. — Gasteromycetes Hungariae.
[About 100 species described.]

Magyarorszdg G aster omycetdi, 194 pp., xxxi. pis.
Budapest, 1903 (Hungarian).
See also Hedicigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 49-50.
:Hol leung, M. — Sphaeronema Betas nov. spec.

[Tbe author describes the new species, and discusses tbe systematic position
of the genus.] Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxii. (1904)

pp. 199-202 (5 figs.).

iKanteu, R. M. — TJeber die wirkung einiger Salze der Schwermetalle auf das
Wach.stb.um und die cbemische Zusammensetzung von Aspergillus niger.

[The author worked witb the salts of such metals as iron, copper, cobalt,
zinc, etc. Iron be found indispensable for the growth of the fungus, though
only a trace was necessary.]

Inaug. Diss. St. Petersburg, 1903 (Russian).
See also Bot. Centralbl, xcv. (1904) p. 3G9.

iKellerjian, W. A. — Index to TJredineous culture experiments, with list of species
and bosts from North America. Ohio Naturalist, iv. (1904) pp. 78-82.

Lagerheim, G. — Om af swamp angrifna fikon och dadlar.

[Notes on the systematic position and development of Sterigmatocystis.]

Svensk. Farm. Tidskrift, No. 18 (1903) G pp. 7 figs.
See also Hedicigia, xliii. (1904) p. 51.

Lister, Arthur, & Gulielma — Notes on Mycetozoa.

[Descriptions of new species, and notes on species already recorded.]

Journ. Bot., xlii. (1904) pp. 129-40 (2 pis.).

Mau blanc, M. — Especes nouvelles de Champignons inferieurs.
[Diagnoses of ten new species of micro-fungi.]

Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xx. (1904) pp. 72-6 (1 pi.).

Oudemans, O. A. J. A. — A new microscopic fungus occurring on tbe Larch, and
very injurious to tbis tree.

[The fungus belongs to a new genus of Tuberculariacese, Exosporina; it grows
on tbe needles of the larch.]

K. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, vi. (1904) pp. 498-501 (1 pi.).

See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) p. 51.

Patouillard, N. — Champignons algero-tunisiens nouveaux ou peu connus.
[A detailed account of three new species of the larger fuugi.]

Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xx. (1904) pp. 51-G (1 pi.).

Peck, Charles H. — New species of fungi.

[Diagnoses of 1G species of the larger fungi ; collected in the United States.]

Bidl. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 177-82.
Rehm. H. — Ascomycetes Americae borealis.

[Notes ou various Pyrenomycetes, several of them new species.]

Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 175-8.

.Renault, B. — Quelques remarques sur les Cryptogames anciennes et les sols fossiles
de vegetation.

[From the plant-remains and the strata in which they are found, the author
indicates the appearance of tbe fossil vegetation, and draws attention to
various problems that have been solved by this local grouping of plants.]

Comptea Bendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1237-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, M1CKOSCOPY, ETC. 449

S a c c a n d o, P. A. — De diagnostica et nomenclatura mycologica. Admonita quaedam.
[A Beries of rules for systematists, to guide them in diagnosing and naming
new forms. Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 195-8.

Sydow, H. & P. — Novae Fungorum species.

[Micro-fungi from various parts of the world. The new genera are Micro-

cyclus, Phseodoihis and Manrodothis (Dothideaceae). They differ from

Dothidea and from each other in the form of the stroma, and in the form

and colour of the spores.] Tom. cit., pp. 162-74.

Sydow — Mycotheca Germanica, Fasc. iii.-iv. (Nos. 101-200).

[A liBt of the species is given, and diagnoses of the new forms.]

Tom. cit., pp. 190-4.

Went, F. A. F. C. — Kralloten en verstende Vruchten van de Cacao in Suriname.
[Account of a disease that has attacked cacao-plants.]

K. Scenslc. Vet.-Akad. HandL, xxxviii. (1901) 40 pp., 6 pis.

Lichens.

Studies of Peltigera.* — Georg Bitter records a case of Peltigera
malacia in which he found the normal apothecia formed on the upper
surface of the thallus, and also small apothecia formed on the under
surface, beneath the upper fruit. They resembled somewhat the apo-
thecia of Nephromium, but they were developed further from the apex
of the fertile lobe. Anatomically the fruits formed on the upper and
under surfaces do not differ from each other. In one of the fruits
examined, a hole had been formed through both the apothecia.

In a second paper he describes the thallus of a small lichen, Peltigera
lepidophora. The species is always sterile, and on the surface are
formed outgrowths of gonidia and hyphse which he proposes to call
autosymbiontic Cephalodia — because they enclose the same gonidia as
those that are found in the thallus, whereas the true Cephalodia are
formed of another alga. They have a quite different structure from
Isidia, their gonidia being entirely separate from those of the underlying
thallus. They have the same function as soredia and serve to propagate
the lichen.

Collema and Leptogium.f — Carolyn W. Harris describes in popular
terms these two genera and a few of the species of each. She instructs
the student how to discriminate between them in the field. She finds
that Leptogium differs from Collema in the presence of rhizoids in some
form or other, either in clusters or as a fine close nap. The two genera
inhabit the same localities, and are not^always easily to be distinguished
the one from the other.

Swedish Lichens.J — B. Nilson gives the result of a careful search
for lichens in Kullen. He describes minutely the locality and the con-
dition of soil, etc., and gives a list of the lichens that occur the most
frequently. The stone and rock inhabiting species form a large
majority. A number were found on trees, and only a few Cladonias
were common on the soil. In some notes on Nephromium Icevigatiwi
he criticises the presence or absence of soredia, and the colour of the
medullary tissue as species-characters. They are due he thinks to

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxii. (1904) pp. 248-56 (1 pi).

t Bryolo^ist, vii. (1904) pp. 45-8 (1 pi.).

X Arkiv. fur. Bot. K. Svensk Vet.-Akad .. i. (1904) pp. 467-96.

Aug. 17th, 1904 2 r

450 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

habitat alone. On the same specimen he has found both yellow and
white medullary hypha), and sorediate and non-sorediate lobes. In this
judgement he differs from Nylander, Crombie and others. He records
altogether eighty species on stones, seventeen on the soil, and fifty-five
on trees.

Protection of Lichens against Animals.* — E. Stahl finds that the
protective substances elaborated by lichens are the lichen acids, especially
vulpin acid. Not only do these acids ward off snails, caterpillars, etc.,
but they prevent the development of bacteria, as they have antiseptic
properties. He found, however, that their presence does not affect the
growth of filamentous fungi.

Lichens as Endosaprophytes.f — A. Elenkin has examined a number
of heteromerous lichens in the Lecidese, Acarosporese and Endocarpeas,
to determine the relation between the fungi and algas constituting the
lichen plant. In many of the specimens he finds layers of dead gonidia
{nelcrale zone). In Lecidia atro-brunnea he noted the outgrowths of
fungus hyphae piercing the Pleurococcus gonidia, which in this case are
very large. These outgrowths are similar to the haustoria described by
Schneider and Peirce, but the author considers that they destroy the
algse rather than that they live in symbiotic union with them.

Arcangeli, A. — Sulla struttura dell' TTsnea articulata. (On the structure of Usnea
articulata.)

[The writer describes the vegetative structure in great detail. He concludes
that U. articulata is only a variety of U. barbata.]

Atta. Soc. Jose. Sci. Nat., xiv. (1904) pp. 46-52.
Zahlbeuckner, A. — Neue Flechten.

[Diagnoses of six new species from Trieste, Java, Australia and Nicaragua.]

Ann. Mycol, ii. (19'J4) pp. 267-70.

Mycetozoa.

Studies of Mxyomycetes.J — E. Jahn gives the results of observations
on nuclear division in the formation of the cilium in the swarm-spores
of Stemonitis flaccida. The cilia, he finds, grow out from the poles of
the nucleus ; their earliest development coincides with the beginning of
the cell-division. They increase slowly, and have hardly attained full
growth when the nucleus is fully formed. At the base of the cilia are
strongly staining granules, which are identical with the centrosomes of
the spindle. Jahn discusses the nature and function of these granules,
comparing them with those found in other nuclei. He also gives a
minute account of the stages of nuclear division observed by him in the
swarm-spores.

Schizophyta.

Schizophyceae.

Studies on Cyanophycese. — F. E. Fritsch publishes the first of a
series of papers under this title. The present communication deals with

* Festsch. siehzigst. Geburtst., von Ernst Haeckel, Jena, G. Fischer, 1904,
pp. 353-76. See also Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xliii. (1904) p. 55.

f Bull. Jardin Imp. Bot. St. Petersb., iv. (1904) pp. 25-39 (2 pis. and 4 figs.).
See also Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxii. (1904) pp. 54-5.

\ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxii. (1904) pp. 84-92 (1 pi.).

§ New Phytologist, iii. (1904) pp. 85-96 (figs, in text.).

ZOOLOGY AND DOT ANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 451

* Some points in the structure of an Anabffina.' The material was taken
from the main tank in the Victoria Regia House at Kew, and was at :
first intended for the study of an QCdogonium, but a month or two later
that alga had almost entirely disappeared from the glass vessel, and
was superseded by a rich growth of blue-green algae. The species of
Anabcena here considered occurred in all stages of development, and was
remarkable for the abundant heterocysts. These were not much larger
than the ordinary vegetative cells, and sometimes were even smaller.
They developed from the vegetative cells, and were generally to be re-
cognised at a very early stage. Two kinds were to be distinguished :
terminal ones, of a spherical shape, flattened on the sides towards the
vegetative cells ; and intercalary ones, more or less barrel-shaped and
flattened at each end. The structure and development of these hetero-
oysts is described, and the author remarks that his account scarcely
agrees with Brand's observations on Nostoc commune and Tolypothrix .
In young filaments the heterocysts occur singly and at considerable
intervals from one another, but in older filaments the author has seen
;is many as four heterocysts side by side at one extremity of a filament,
the distal one being often the most fully differentiated. Various re-
agents were tried on these bodies, and the respective results are described.
The presence of cyanophycin-granules has been demonstrated in the
vegetative cells of the young filament, and in older filaments it is noticed
that they disappear from the vegetative cells and are found in the
heterocysts. A protoplasmic communication is shown to exist between
the heterocysts and the adjacent vegetative cells, and it is supposed that
the cyanophycin-granules pass to the heterocysts by this passage. The
author regards the heterocyst as a recipient of reserve-substances — an
organ for storing up the contents of neighbouring vegetative cells,
when these, owing to unfavourable external conditions, or to active
spore-formation in the central portion of a filament, become exhausted.
In the case of centripetal spore-formation, as in Sphccrozyga, it is possible
that the function of the heterocysts may be taken over by the intercalary
ones. As regards Brand's observation of the germination of the contents
of heterocysts, it stands alone : but Fritsch considers that these bodies
may be the remnants of important reproductive organs of the Cyano-
phyceae, whose functions have now in great part been taken over by
the spores ; and the failure to confirm Brand's observation may lie in
the fact that very unusual conditions may be necessary to cause the
heterocyst to revert to its former functions, and these extreme conditions
but rarely occur.

Schizomycetes.

Action of Radium on Micro-organisms.* — A. B. Grim has sub-
jected certain micro-organisms to such emanations from radium bromide
as passed through thin talc, i.e. the /? and y rays. Experimenting
with calf vaccine, he found that the specific germ in no case survived a
longer exposure than 22 hours at a distance of 1-2 mm. The ex-
traneous micro-organisms of the vaccines employed, viz. S. pyogenes
<wreu$, S. pyogenes albus, S. cereus flavus, S. cereus albus, in no case

* Proc. Roy. Soc., lxxiii. (1904) pp. 375-S1.

2 r 2

452 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

survived a longer exposure than 15 hours. The same was found to be-
the case with Streptococcus pyogenes, B. prodigiosus, B. proleus vulgaris,
B. pyocyaneus, B. typhosus, B. coll communis, B. mallei, B. pestis, B.
tuberculosis, the bacillus of Malta fever, and Spirillum cholera Asiatica.
Bacteria containing spores were more resistant, e.g. B. mesenterial^
vulgatus, B. mesentericus ruber, B. subtilis, B. anthracis, B. tetani,
Gartner's bacillus, the bacillus of malignant oedema, and the bacillu;
of Rauschbrand. These were not killed by less than a 72 hours' ex-
posure. At 10 cm. distance the radium was found to have no
germicidal action. It was found that when micro-organisms have been
exposed to radium emanations for 24 to 120 hours, they themselves
may become radio-active. This induced radio-activity can be demon-
strated by bringing the bacteria so exposed in contact with a "rapid '"
photographic plate, and then developing the latter.

Accumulation Experiments with Denitrifying Bacteria.* — G. van
Itersen, junior, by accumulation experiments {Anhdufungsversuche)
claims to have established a simple method for the isolation and culture
of denitrifying bacteria, obtained from earth, canal-water, horse-dung,
etc. His method is to introduce such material into a stoppered flask,
filled, to the exclusion of all air, with a solution of organic salts and
nitrate, to incubate for several days at 28° C, and then with the frothy
development so obtained to incubate a second flask filled with a similar
solution. When this has been repeated three times the last flask will be
found to contain practically a pure culture. In this way were isolated
B. Stutzeri (Neumann and Lehmann), B. denitrofluorescens sp. n., and
B. vulpinus sp. n. B. Stutzeri merits attention on account of the
characteristic form (a rosette) of its colonies on gelatin. B. denitro-
fluorescens is the first example of a fluorescent denitrifying non-liquefying
bacterium. B. vulpinus is chromogenic, but it requires light for the
development of its pigment. In the presence of free oxygen B. Stutzeri
and B. vulpinus behave as aerobic spirilla, and B. denitrofluorescens as
an ordinary aerobic bacterium. The denitrifying bacteria can themselves,
with the smallest quantities of many organic substances, bring about the
disappearance, in the form of free nitrogen, of estimated quantities of
nitrate. In the same earth in which nitrification can take place by
aeration, denitrification can take place by exclusion of air.

Ferments of Diseases of Wines.f — P. Maze and P. Pacottet, in a
research on this subject, succeeded in isolating the ferments of la towns,
la graisse and Vamer. They used wines that had been for many years in
bottle, such being free from yeasts, fungi, and the common bacteria.
Such wine gave rise to no growth when inoculated in ordinary media,
aerobically. Anaerobic methods were therefore employed, and haricot
bouillon used as a culture medium. 1 ■ 2 c.c. of the deposit at the
bottom of the bottles was taken up into a Ronx's pipette with 15-20 c.c.
of haricot bouillon, containing 3 p.c. saccharose and 0 * 2-0 " 3 p.c. tartaric
acid. After many weeks a whitish deposit appeared, which microscopic -

* Verslagen der koninkl. Akad. van Wetensch. te. Amsterdam, xi. (1002-3)
biz. 135. See also Centralbl. Bakt., 2,e Abt., xii. (1904) pp. 106-15.
t Ann. Inst. Past,, xviii. (1904) pp. 244-63.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 453

ally was seen to consist of chains of ovoid elements (the ferment of
la graisse), and rods and elongated filaments, if the wine under exami-
nation had become turned or sour. The growth is increased by several
changes into fresh media, and takes place most favourably in vacuo.
Cultures, however, succeed in open tubes when sown in quantity. From
such, isolations were made, haricot bouillon being used solidified with
agar. The authors obtained thus : 4 bacilli from vins amers ; 4 bacilli
from vins tournes ; 2 mannitic ferments ; 1 coccus ; and 3 ferments in
chains. All these ferments had certain characters in common. They
were Gram-positive, non-spore-forming and non-liquefying. They were
killed by 10 min. at 65° C. They grew preferably in the depth of the
agar medium. Air hindered their development.

The authors conclude that : diseased wines are invaded by a certain
number of species of microbes which are almost always associated.
Vins tournes contain sometimes almost all the species studied. The
ferment de Vamer is always accompanied by the ferment de la graisse.
The physiological properties of the two latter are nearly identical ; they
destroy ordinary sugars in the same way, with the formation of products
in the same proportions. They are able to develop in the same media,
and they proliferate indifferently in all wines, provided that they find in
them sugars and nitrogenous matters. The most widely spread of all
disease-producing ferments is that of la graisse. Wines poor in sugar
and nitrogen are stable as regards disease-producing ferments, but when
these two substances are present in sensible quantities, no constituent
element of this wine can offer a sufficient barrier to the development of
the microbes.

Resistance of the Micrococcus melitensis to Moist Heat.* — ■
P. J. A. Dalton and J. W. H. Eyre have determined the " thermal death
point" of M. melitensis to be 57*5° C, this temperature invariably
causing the death of all the individual organisms exposed to it for a
period of ten minutes. They experimented with the organism at the
period of its maximum vegetative growth. This was obtained by culti-
vating it aerobically on the sloped surface of nutrient glycerin agar
(5 p.c. glycerin) reaction + 10, for a period of 48 hours, at a tempera-
ture of 37° C. They employed a wTater-bath, the heat of which was
regulated by a delicate and accurate thermo-regulator — Hearson's
thermostatic capsule. Emulsions .were made in the proportion of
1 mgrm. of the culture to 1 c.c. of 0"6 p.c. sterile salt solution. These
emulsions were filtered before use to remove clumps. The germ-
content of the emulsions was determined by plating out in dilutions of
j-^j- and tow^. The authors lay stress on the importance of not
using test-tubes the walls of which are thinner than 1 mm., which would
permit of a too rapid transmission of heat, leading to the evaporation
of the small quantities of fluid which frequently adhere to the glass just
above the upper limit of the bulk of the emulsion. When this happens,
the organisms previously suspended in that fluid become more resistant
to heat as the result of their desiccation, and fallacious results may be
obtained. Five different strains of the organism were employed.

* Journ. Hygifne, iv. (1901) pp. 157-72.

454 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Spirillosis in Fowls.* — C. Levaditi, in an important paper, gives
the results of a research on this subject. If blood containing spirilla
is injected subcutaneously into a fowl, spirilla are not found in the circu-
lation until after the second day. If the site of inoculation be examined
microscopically, the vibrios will be found numerous and active 85 min.
after injection, much diminished in number after the second hour, and
rare after the ninth, with their mobility much impaired ; none are to be
found the next day. There is no sign of local phagocytosis. The
spirilla have left the place where they were introduced, and have gone
to certain internal organs, e.g. the spleen and the liver, where they
vapidly multiply. This the author has demonstrated experimentally.
These events are accompanied by histological changes in the blood,
leucocytosis, mono- and polymorpho-nuclear, and basophilia of the red
blood-corpuscles. There is also the appearance of large non-granular
mononuclear cells, probably of splenic origin, as well as vacuolisation of
all the leucocytes, which becomes more marked as the crisis approaches.
In blood obtained at this time there is observable a pseudo-agglutination
of the vibrios.

From the second day onward the spirilla increase in the blood till the
fifth or sixth, when in the course of a few hours they suddenly disappear.
Of the two theories to explain this disappearance, extra-cellular dissolu-
tion and phagocytosis, the author inclines to the latter— from the fact
that the vibrios preserve their motility and power of division up to the
end, and do not exhibit granular or moniliform changes, and also that at
the crisis the large cells of the spleen and bone-marrow become vacuo-
lated and contain spirilla. Serum obtained a few days after the crisis
possesses marked immobilising and agglutinating properties. It contains
a thermolabile cytase and a thermostabile sensibilisatrice. It is probable
that the assimilating power of the leucocytes increases in the course of
spirillic infection, and that at the moment of the crisis the vibrios are
absorbed as soon as they are englobed by the leucocytes. It is possible
also that the sensibilisation plays a certain role in the rapid destruction
of the spirilla in the interior of the macrophages. The presence in the
fluids of the infected organism of a quantity of amboceptors insufficient
to provoke extra-cellular dissolution of the vibrios, may facilitate their
intra-protoplasmic digestion.

If serum from a fowl which has recovered be injected into a fowl in
(he third or fourth day of the disease, it usually causes death, by pro-
ducing agglutination of the spirilla in the blood. The clumps so formed
are surrounded by vacuolated leucocytes, and are carried as emboli to the
lungs and nervous system.

Plasma prepared after the method of Delezenne was found to have
an intense agglutinating and immobilising power, even on vibrios
actively motile in the circulation of the fowl supplying the blood for the
plasma.

Growth of Bacteria in Salt Solutions of High Concentration.! —
F. Lewandowsky finds that the most concentrated solution of sodium

* Ann. Inst. Past., xviii. (1904) pp. 129-49.

+ Arch. Hygiene, xlix. (1904) pp. 47-01. See also Jonrn. Chem. Soc.,ccccxcviii-
F-!276.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 455

chloride, in which bacterial growth takes place, contains 25 p.c. of the
salt. Potassium salts have less effect, growth being very active in broth
saturated with potassium nitrate.

Production of Acetylmethylcarbinol by the Bacteria of the
Group Bacillus mesentericus.* — Henri Desmots finds that Bacillus
mesentericus vulgatus, B. fuscus, B. flavus, B. niger and B. ruber
attack solutions of glycerol, mannitol, dextrose, sucrose, dextrin, inulin
and starch. Acetic acid, valeric acid, and small quantities of ethyl-
alcohol were produced in each case. By distilling the product a lasvo-
rotatory solution was obtained, which reduces Fehling's solution at the
ordinary temperature, and with excess of phenyl-hydrazin acetate gives
a precipitate of osazone of acetylmethylcarbinol. This osazone forms
pale yellow, fern-like crystals, melting at 24:3° C.

Growth of Bacteria under Altered Pressure. f — G. Marpmann
has investigated the influence of alteration in pressure on the growth
of bacteria. His method is to introduce into a chamber of glass, or
metal, culture masses inoculated on nutrient gelatin, or in fluid media.
This chamber contains a thermometer, and is furnished with a screw-top
by means of which it is closed hermetically. It is then connected
with a manometer. The manometer readings must always be taken at
the same temperature. The author found that, from the pressure point
of view, bacteria fall into three groups : the gas-producing, the non-gas-
producing, and the gas-absorbing. The following were found to pro-
duce gas copiously in glucose agar : Bacterium coli, Bacillus pneumonia,
B. vulgare {Proteus), B. chauvcei, B. tetani, and B. cedematis maligni.

Chemistry of Tubercle Bacillus.! — W. Bullock and J. J. R.
Macleod find that on extraction with ether dried tubercle bacilli yield
large percentages of fatty substances. On filtering the boiled extracts,
a white precipitate deposits on cooling. After saponification of the
filtrate with sodium hydroxide, two extracts, aqueous and ethereal, are
obtainable ; the latter contains some fats ; the fatty acids are probably
oleic, isocetic, and myristic. The aqueous extract contains a soap, the
fatty acid of which corresponds in melting-point with lauric acid. The
filtrates also contain lipochromes. The white precipitate mentioned
above can be saponified with difficulty by means of alcoholic potash :
a white powder, which is an alcohol, is deposited, and the filtrate
contains fatty acids.

Bacterial Flora of the Male Urethral — H. Pfeiffer has studied
the bacterial contents of twenty-four normal male urethras, and found
one only culturally sterile. For the study of the posterior portion of
the urethra he employed an endoscope tube, and for that of the an-
terior portion a medium-sized ear-speculum. Samples of the urethral
secretion were obtained from both these situations by means of a looped
platinum needle inserted through the tube, or speculum, and rubbed

* Comptes Eendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 5S1-3. See also Journ. Chem. Soc,
ccccxcviii., pp. 276-7.

t Zeitschr. ang. Mikrosk.,is. (1903) pp. 293-7.

X Journ. Hvgiene, iv. (1904) pp. 1-10. See also Journ. Chem. Soc, ccccxcviii.
p. 277. § Archiv. Derm. u. Syph., 1904, pp. 379-410.

456 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

gently over the mucous membrane. Cultures were made on ox-serum-
agar plates and on ordinary agar, both aerobically, and in an atmosphere
of hydrogen. The author found, in comparing the bacterial contents
of the anterior and posterior portions, that the numbers diminished
from before backwards, although the species did not vary. Constant
forms were Bacillus pseudo-diphtherim, Strepto-bacillus urethra, Staphylo-
coccus albus, aureus and citreus, Sarcina alba typica, alba atypica and
Uava, and Micrococcus candicans. Occasional forms were a vibrio, a
coccus negative to Gram, an influenza-like bacillus, and Bacterium
bruneum. The author concludes that (1) the normal urethra even in
its' posterior part contains numerous bacteria ; (2) the presence of
Bacillus pseudo-diphtherice and Strepto-bacillus urethral can become im-
portant in conditions of post-gonorrhceal urethritis and cystitis ;
(3) none of the obtained forms are pathogenic to animals ; and (4) it
is worthy of note that in none of the studied cases were typical
Streptococci or Bacillus coli communis found.

^~»-=5>"*-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

457

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c*
CI) Stands. """

Draw-Tube Stop.f — S. Gelblum discusses the general conditions
which a draw- tube stop should fulfil ; he suggests the best practical
means for arriving at the result. He considers that, inasmuch as the
stop would have to be applicable to objectives of different lengths as
well as to preparations of different thicknesses, it would be best to
attach the stop to the objective itself. He recommends that the objec-
tive mount should be provided with a small cincture to which could be

&

:t ^;

Fig. 61.

attached a removable band of brass (fig. 64). From this band a small
arm terminating in a kind of button would project ; this button would,
on lowering the tube, come into contact with an adjustable button on
the stage, and so prevent the tube from being lowered beyond safety
distance. This stage button would, in reality, be the head of a screw
working in a small right-angled arm attached to the stage. The screw
could be adjusted at various heights, as required.

Beck's London Penological Microscope.^— This instrument (fig. 65)
embodies the principle invented by Allan B. Dick,§ but numerous im-

• This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous.

f Zeitsehr. wies. Mikr.,xx. (1903) pp. 129-32 (3 figs.).

t R. and J. Beck, Special Catalogue, 1904.

§ See this Journal, 1889, p. 432, fig. 57.

-458 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

provements suggested by Dr. Flett, of H.M. Geological Survey and
Museum, have been introduced. The base is heavier and more solid,
while the general arrangement of the parts allows freer access to the

Fit;. C.;-).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

459

apparatus above and below the stage. The stage is covered with
vulcanite and measures 4 by 4 in. The analyser and polariser are
simultaneously rotated by means of cogwheels connected by a shaft H,
so placed that it does not interfere with the use of the stage : there is
a distance of 2 in. from the centre of the stage and the edge of the
slow-motion pedestal, and the cogwheel shaft is 1*8 in. from the centre
of the stage. The analyser K is carried on a swinging bracket L, and
is usually supplied on a sliding dovetail M, so that its height can be
adjusted to the eye-point of the Microscope, and the slide is provided
with a clamp to fix the analyser in any position.

Within the I ody-tube is a slot P, through which an inner tube
carrying a Bertrand lens can be slid up and down. Below the Bertrand
lens is an iris diaphragm S.

Two kinds of condensers are supplied, the simpler form (fig. G6)

Fig. G7.

consisting of a couple of lenses placed above the polariser. The more
complete form (fig. 67) consists of an achromatic and aplanatic con-
denser 1*0 N.A., or semi-apochromatic condenser i'2 N.A., and has a
pivoted top lens which can be swung out of the optic axis by means of
a handle below the stage. An iris diaphragm is affixed to the condenser
to reduce the aperture when necessary.

The top lenses of the eye-pieces have a special adjustment to enable
either the micrometer or the cobwebs to be focussed. The principal
cobweb of the crossed pair is marked by a V.

Zeiss' Rotary Projection Slide Carrier.* — E. Richter describes
this apparatus, whose general nature is that of a square rotary drum
with its axis transversely in the axis of the optical lantern. It is
placed between the illuminating apparatus and the objective. When

* Zeits"lir. wise. Mikr., xx. (1903) pp. 132-7 (2 figs.).

460

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the carrier is in its initial position the slide is placed horizontally in a
sort of recess prepared for it at the top of the drum, which is then
rotated backwards through 90°, so as to bring the slide in front of the
condensing lens : it is now in the proper position for projection. A
second slide is now put in at the top and the drum rotated through a
further 90°. The first slide is now horizontally at the bottom of the
drum, and automatically falls out on to a soft surface suitable for its
reception ; the second slide has now come into the projection position.
The fourth side of the drum, viz. that opposite the slide displayed, is
always clear and therefore offers no obstacle to the free passage of the
light. A suitable arrangement of bars ensures that the apparatus shall
stop accurately in the proper positions. The foot has been designed
for attachment to the prismatic bar of an optical bench, but could, of
course, be modified for other applications.

Bebgmann — Das Trichinoskop. Zeitschr. Fleisch u. Milchyg., xiii. (1903) p. 111.

Dowdy, S. E. — Attachable Object-finder.

English Afec/itmc, lxxix. (1904) p. 410(1 fig.)

Hitohcock, E. — The Ideal Projecting Microscope.

Journ. New York. Micr. Soc, Animal of 1902, pp. 19-23.

Ites, F. E. — Ein neues Binocularmikroskop.

Central zeitg. Opt. u. Median., xxiv. (1903) p. 38.

„ „ Franzbsische Mikroskop. Op. cit., xxiii. (1902) p. 98'

Kohler, A. — Das Zeiss 'sche Trichinoskop.

Zeitschr. Fleisch u. Milchyg.,xiii. (1903) p. 107.

Lbitz, E. — Ein nenes Mikroskopstativ und seine feine Einstellung.

Zeitschr. Imtrumentenlc, xxiii. (1903) p. 79.

Fio. 68.

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Zeiss' Compound Lens with Iris Diaphragm.*
This is shown, one-third full size, in fig. 68. The
lens having an aperture of about 6 cm. with a focal
length of about 12*5 cm., is secured in a ring, which
carries an iris diaghragm of aperture 3 to 6 cm.
The desired aperture is attained by means of the
lever G-. The ring hangs in a semi-circular sleeve,
and is rotated by means of the knob K, about a
horizontal axis capable of being clamped by the
screw Sr. The sleeve is screwed on to a rod S£,
which a clamping screw S rl grips inside a rider or
cylindrical foot. The lens is primarily useful for
illumination in photomicrography, in case light
sources with enlarged surface, such as incandescent
gas and petroleum light, are used ; it can be applied
to the upright or sloping Microscope. With trans-
parent light it must be used in conjunction with a
condenser. With reflected light it can be used either
alone or with a vertical illuminator. The instru-
ment can be also used for ordinary microscopic work.

Deutsche Mecbaniker-Zeitung, No. 3 (Feb. 1, 1904) p. 28 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 461

(3) Illuminating; and other Apparatus.

Watson and Sons' New Objective Changer. — This apparatus
(fig. 69) was exhibited at the May meeting, and is fully described in
the Proceedings of the Society (see ante, p. 382).

Fig. G9.

Fedorow, E. von — Einigeneue Hiilfsapparate fur das polar isationsmikroskop.

Ann. Geol. et Miner, de Russie, iv. (1901), p. 142 ;
Zeitschr. Krystallogr.,xxx\ii. (1903) p. 413.
Metcalp, M. M. — An electric lamp for Microscope illumination

Science Notes.xv. (1902) p. 937.
Patterson, W. L.— A new changing nose-piece.

Journ. Applied Micros., vi. (1903) p. 2162.

Schmidt, H. — Ueber projections-nnd Vergr5sserungsapparate.

Centraheitg. Opt. u. Mechan., xxiii. (1902) pp. 253, 265.

(4) Photomicrography.

Photomicrography of Rock Sections.* — This is one of the most
interesting applications of the Microscope, says W. Forgan, and one to
which, so far as can be learned, not much attention has been paid in
photographic literature. The sections of rocks are so varied in their
character that to very few of them can the same mode of lighting and
illumination be applied. It may be stated generally that granite and
its three components, quartz, felspar and mica, form the basis of all
rocks. Many other chemical substances assist in giving character and
variation in a greater or less degree ; but the three components of
granite are the ruling features in the whole of them. The chief use
of the photography of rock sections may be said to be the production
of lantern slides for teaching purposes. A good negative when repro-
duced in this way most materially assists in the illustration of a
geological lecture. In fact, to a class, or in a lecture of a more
popular form, such asssistance has now become indispensable. In the
production of negatives from rock sections it is, with few exceptions,
only necessary to use low magnifications. Only the other day a section
of rock was asked to be photographed, having an elliptical shape, the
major axis of which was over an inch in diameter. As no micro low-
power objective covers more than £ in., recourse was had to a Zeiss
Unar of 4|-in. focus stopped down to /ll, and this gave a very fine
sharp negative. The Microscope portion of the camera was removed,
and a supplementary stage on an improvised suitable rigid easel was
used to carry the section. Another method used for a different material

* Brit. Journ. Photography, li. (1904) p. 489.

462 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

may be mentioned, with which very fine results were obtained. If, for
instance, one is required to take a negative of some grains of sand to
show the character of any particular variety, the procedure may be as
follows : Take an ordinary glass slip 3 in. by 1 in., give it a few strokes-
with virgin wax (white wax), hold the slip over a Bunsen burner, or
spirit lamp, until the wax melts, which may then be spread with the
finger, then sprinkle the sand over the melted wax, to which it adheres.
The wax will cool at once. The slide is placed on the Microscope stage,
with a piece of dead black paper behind it, and after focussing by
means of a gas-jet or lamp, the illumination is made by burning a few
inches of magnesium ribbon held behind the objective, and gently
waved about. The objective used in such a case may be a 70 mm. by
Zeiss, and a camera extension of about 18 in. A great number of
rock sections, to enable them to be photographed well, require the use
of polarised light to differentiate their structure, and many also as well
the use of a depolarising selenite. Some of them show best for photo-
graphic purposes when examined with tbe crossed nicols only without
the selenite, while others again absolutely require the selenite to reveal
the structure properly. Agate and the various forms of felspar may
be mentioned as rendering this illumination necessary ; while, on the
other hand, the selenite may not be used with many of the forms of
granite, as the crystals of granite show so much colour that only
the crossed nicols are required. No absolute rule can be laid down as
to the mode of procedure either as regards the illumination required or
the use of polarised light. Every one must just exercise his own dis-
cretion and skill in such matters. When a considerable experience with
the Microscope is possessed by the operator no difficulty will be found
in judging what is the best mode of operating to obtain the best
results. One thing is essential above all others for success in this
work, and this undoubtedly is that the sections must be thin. There
is not much difficulty nowadays in getting thin sections compared to
those which could be obtained some years ago. Another point is that
the objectives used must be corrected for the chemical focus. It will not
do to attempt this work with any ordinary micro-objectives. Even
with the low powers which are, except in certain cases, only required,
the results obtained must be sharp and clear. They have to be so, as,
when projected by the lantern, defects become so very apparent. The
illumination used by the writer is invariably magnesium ribbon. The
image is first focussed by an ordinary lamp, which is then removed, and
a small piece of brass tube, about ■{*■$ in. in diameter, having been pre-
viously fixed in a shutter, and placed exactly in line with the optical
axis of the Microscope, the magnesium ribbon is pushed through the
tube and ignited. In this way the exposures are so short that little
time is lost. No instructions, however, will render experience useless.
It is only by long practice that any one can hope to succeed in any
department of photography.

<J rosbie, F. — Directions for Photomicrography. Lancet, 1903, p. 233.

D'Abct Poweb, H. — Laboratory Photography.

Journ. Applied Micr., vi. (1903) p. 2282.

Elliott, L. B.— Ditto. Ibid., p. 2230.

FracHEn, H. — Mikrophotogramme von Inulitsphariten und Starkekbrnern.

Ber. d. Deutsch. Bo'an. Geeelhch., xxi. (1003) p 107.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

463

Ive?, P. E. — Eine photomikrographische Vorrichtung.

Zeitschr. Opt. u. Mech., xxiv. (1903) p. 3.
,. „ Stereoscopic Photomicrography with high powers.

[The apparatus used seems to be much the same as that figured in Journal
K.M.S., 1903, p. 224. The lenses, etc., were a Zeiss 3 mm. apochromat ;
18 compensating eye-piece ; amplification, 1700 ; Welsbach light; Cramer
isochromatic plates without colour-screeu. The objects were Pleurosigma
angulatum, Coscinodiscus aslerocephalus, and a Triceratium.

Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc.,x\iv. (1902) pp. 23-7 (1 pi.).
Molesch, H. — Bacterienlicht und photographische Platte.

Anz. d. h. k. Acad. d. Wiss., Wien, 1903, p. 50.

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Jamin's Circle for Reflexion, Refraction and Polarisation.*—
This instrument (fig. 70) is adapted for repeating the experiments on

Fig 70.

the above branches of Optics as described in the Cows de riujsiuuc de
Jamin,

* Catalogue of the Socie'te Ge'ncvoise, 1900, p. 112, No. 2870.

464

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

New Kinds of Glass of Increased Ultra-violet Transparency.* —
E. Zschimmer has renewed some earlier attempts to manufacture a glass
at Jena, which should be less opaque to ultra-violet radiation than is
usually the case. The only media at present known to answer the
purpose are quartz, fluorspar, and molten silica ; but these, excellent as
they are, are never likely to come much into ordinary use. The result
has been to discover a method, according to which various kinds of
optical glass of large size can be produced ; and these glasses are notably
more transparent for ultra-violet than the best glasses hitherto known.
Whilst with other glasses, 1 cm. thick, rays of wave-length 305 /a/a are
as good as completely absorbed, the new glass transmits about 50 p.c.
of the original intensity.

The following table gives some of the optical constants of the new
glass (U.-V. glass).

Title.

ND

(F - C) 105

N»- 1

F-C ~l

U.V. Flint, 3248

U.V. Flint, 3492 ..

Heaviest U.V. Flint, S. 249 . .

1-503
1-533
1-533
1-653

781

963

968

- 1270

644
55-4
55-2
51-4

As for many purposes it is desirable that the visible spectrum should
be excluded, the inventor has endeavoured to meet this want, and he
has been so successful that the light as far as the blue is absorbed,
while ultra-violet as far as 280 /a/a is transmitted. This particular glass
therefore serves as a filter for photography : it is called " Violet, TJ.-V.
Glass" (No. 786'"). A U.-V. aplanat compared with an ordinary
apochromatic aplanat in an astrophotographical test showed 359 stars
in a Ursse minoris as against 264. Other tests were equally successful.
The glass is also produced as cover-glasses and window glass. A table
of photographs shows very clearly the superiority of U.-V. glass.

Direct Micrometric Measurement of Fog Particles.! — C. Barus
succeeded in this object by means of a compound Microscope, magni-
fying about 100 diameters, provided with a filar ocular micrometer.
The objective and the whole lower part of the Microscope was sub-
merged in the condensation chamber and suspended from a wide rubber
cork through which it passed. All lenses below the cork were hermeti-
cally sealed with wax. The lower face of the objective was protected by
a glass shield, whose underside was covered by perforated wet blotting-
paper. Below this was a horizontal plate of thin microscopic glass
covered with a film of oil, and attached to a vertical brass rod by a
suitable clip. This rod passed through the cork and terminated in a
small lever by which the glass plate could be rotated and focussed.

* ZeitBchr. Instrumentk., xxiii. (Dec. 1903) pp. 360-2 (1 pi. of photos, of spectra).
t Amer Jonrn. of Science, xvii (1904) pp. 160-70 (5 figs.)

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 4G5

The part of the rod within the cork was enclosed in a small brass tube,
soldered above and below the cork to the body of the Microscope tube.
The lowest part of the small brass tube was arranged as a stuffing-box,
so that no ingress of external air could take place, but the whole
arrangement formed an eccentric focussing device whereby the oiled
plate could be made to explore the atmosphere of the condensation
chamber, and then rotated for examination into the proper position.
The particles observed seem to have varied in diameter between
•0003 and '0008 cm.

Haktmasn, J. — Objectivuntersuchungen.

[An article full of practical details regarding all varieties of optical errors.]

Zeitschr. Imtrumentenk., xxiv. (Jan. 1904) pp. 1-12
(9 figs., 7 numerical tables).

Plank, M. — Tiber die Extinction des Licbtes in einen optischhomogenen Medium
von normaler Dispersion.

[The author compares his results with those of Lord Rayleigh's paper, and
finds that they agree.] S.B. K6nig.preuasich.en Akad.der Wis*.

xxii. (April 1904) pp. 740-50.

Sato Tscneji — Zur Mikroskopiscben Technik.

[Recommendation to insert coloured glass or gelatin-paper between the mirror
and condenser when examining by artificial light. Complementary colours
should be employed, e.g. for saffranin, green ; for methylen-blue, orange ]

Munchener Med. Wochenschr., 1. (1903) p. 327.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Electro- thermic Regulator and Electric Incubators.* — CI. Regaud
and R. Fouilliand have applied the principles, considered by them in
an earlier memoir, f to the construction of thermostats for biological
laboratories. The subject is considered under five heads : (1) Mode of
heating ; (2) mode of regulation ; (3) various details of construction ;
(4) practical results ; (5) review of previous works upon electric
heating and regulation of stoves.

Mode of Heating. The heat is entirely furnished from within, and
is radiated from a series of bare wires coiled along the walls and floor
of the cupboard. This method is considered much superior to one of
radiation from a focus, such as an electric incandescent lamp. To
produce uniformity of temperature the number of coils is diminished
in the upper tiers and no coils are placed in the ceiling (fig. 71).

Mode of Regulation. The regulation, which is obviously of capital
importance, is shown in fig. 72. It consists of a tube ABCD bent
into a U. The part A B, or ampulla, is relatively wide and thin-
walled ; B C D is narrow and thick- walled. To the lower part of the
ampulla a pouch Gr is soldered on. The wall of the thick tube is
pierced by two platinum threads placed opposite one another. One of
these tubes, E, is bent in the axis of the tube, and its pointed interior
extremity is directed towards the elbow C ; the other, F, is straight.
The regulator is completely closed, and the extremities of the pouch G-

* Zeitschr. wiss. Mikr., xx. (1903) pp. 138-68 (S figs.).

t Chauffage et re'gulation des e'tuves par l'e'lectricite'. Jouni. do Physiol, et do
Pathol. Ge'ne'voise, 1900, p. 457.

Aug. 17th, 1904 2 k

466

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and of the ampulla are sealed after filling. A B contains pure and dry
hydrogen, whose pressure is in equilibrium with the column of pure

Fig. 71.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

467

and dry mercury in BCD. Above the mercury in C D there is a
barometric vacuum. When the regulator is vertical and at ordinary
temperature (e.g. 15°) the inferior level of the mercury in B C is above
the thread E. The total length varies between 45 and 75 cm., and the
hydrogen pressure between 0*45 and 0'75 mm. of mercury, according
to the size of cupboard. The regulator is intended to be suspended
and in circuit with the heating wire. The
current can only circulate when there is con-
tact between the platinum thread E and the
mercury ; the level of the mercury in B C is *

dependent upon temperature variations of the
hydrogen, the inclination of the regulator to
the vertical and the allotment of the mercury
between the pocket G and the tube BCD.
The effect of each of these is separately con-
sidered by the designers. It will be understood

m

that by inversion of the instrument the pro-
portion of mercury and hydrogen in the limbs
can be easily adjusted and that the increase of
pressure, as the temperature is raised, of the
hydrogen in AB will depress the mercury so
that electric contact is at length automatically
severed. The authors give tables for determin-
ing the adjustment.

Various Details of Construction. The walls
are made of wood, varnished externally ; the
wood is of two thicknesses, enclosing a layer of
wadding and lined with glass. In the larger
stoves there are two systems of doors, the inner
ones being made to slide, the outer ones hinged.
Certain modifications of these arrangements
obtain in the smaller stoves. A rheoscopic
lamp (fig. 73) is in the electric circuit, not for
illumination but for signalling the interruption
of current. This lamp is formed of a test-tube
constricted so that the lower part is bulbous.
Above this constriction is a block of paraffin
fusible at the temperature at which the circuit is
to work ; above the paraffin is a small quantity
of mercury into which pass the ends of the
wires. This mercury ensures contact, and if,
from any cause whatever, the temperature rises
too high, the underlying paraffin is melted by
the heat of the mercury, which thereupon falls into the bulb. In this
way the contact is broken and accident from over-heating prevented.

Practical Results. The conditions of maintenance of uniform tem-
perature are fully discussed, and, as an example of the working of the
stove, the temperature statistics for a certain day are given. On that
day the mean temperature of the stove was 37 '9° C, the variations
being within 37 -7° and 38-2° C. The coefficient of loss of heat from
small stoves was found to be greater than from large ones ; or, in other

2 k 2

<T

468

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

words, the working of large stoves is more economical. The authors
are quite clear as to the overwhelming advantages of electric stoves,
but admit that the cost of electricity must in many cases be a difficulty.

Fig. 73.

Review of Previous Works. This includes a bibliography in chrono-
logical order.

B. Technique.*
(1) {Collecting1 Objects, including- Culture J Processes.

Apparatus for the Continuous Agitation of Cultures.! — E. Bodin
and E. Cartex describe such an apparatus which they have found
especially useful in obtaining homogeneous cultures of the tubercle
bacillus.

It consists of a platform a, on which rest the tubes to be shaken.
This platform is able to turn on a horizontal axis b 5, and receives an
alternating movement by means of a small roller c, rolling on an
elliptical and eccentric cam d, connected by a shaft e, with a pulley /.
The axis of rotation of the platform is constituted by two pegs of wood
fixed to it opposite one another. These turn in two supports g g, fixed to
the table h. Between the platform and the supports are two washers
i i. The roller made of wood or of metal, and surrounded with india-
rubber, turns between two pieces of copper, //, 1 mm. thick. The shaft
of the cam is a tube of copper or brass, 8 mm. in diameter and 1 mm.
thick. The cam is fixed to the shaft by means of a pin. The shaft
turns in two wooden supports, k k, the holes of which are lined with
pieces of copper tubing, I D, of sufficient diameter to admit the shaft.
Just outside the supports two pieces of the same copper tubing,
m wAD, are fixed to the shaft to limit lateral movement. The

* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous.

t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xviii. (1904) pp. 264-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

469

pulley of wood is fixed to a washer n C, soldered to a piece of the same
copper tubing o, which is fixed to the shaft by a pin.

The apparatus can be placed in an incubator, e.g. that of Roux No. '1

A

<d

1AI

f

m"

<j

M hi

^d

d

j i

i1

'J
\ ft -

0

H

rwM^

m

m

cc

L-.

J i__J l I

3 cm 0

i i i i I i i i i I i i i i t i i i i I i i -i i I

5 JO to W J5 cm

Fig. 74.

model of Weisnegg, the shaft projecting from one of the aerating
apertures, and the pulley being thus outside. Movement is supplied
bv means of a turbine or small electromotor.

470 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The inclination of the platform is such that the liquid contained in
the tubes is not able to come in contact with the cotton-wool plugging
them. When the apparatus is working the liquid is given a to-and-fro
movement, which is sufficient to shake up the whole mass.

Pure Cultures of Diatoms.* — 0. Richter has found that by the
aid of the Koch-Beijerinck isolation method on agar cultivations of
diatomsf can be obtained in a pure condition so that sub-cultures can
be made on gelatin. The agar medium is made by washing 10 grin..
agar in running water for 2 or 8 days, and then in distilled water,
frequently changed, for one day. The mass is then dissolved in boiling
distilled water, and after filtering, made up to 1000 c.cm. with distilled
water. Then are added 0'2 grm. KN03, 0-2 grm. K2HP04, 0'2 grm.
MgS04, 0-2 grm. CaS04, and a trace of FeS04. The reaction of the
agar should be slightly alkaline.

It was found that the CaS04 might be omitted with the advantage
that 2 p.c, 1*5 p.c, 0 " 7 p.c, and 0 ■ 5 p.c. agar could be used.

The gelatin medium is made by soaking 100 grm. white gelatin in
700 to 800 c.cm. distilled water for two or three hours and then dis-
solving it. The solution is made up to 1000 c.cm., and then 0*2 grm.
K2HP04 and 0-2 grm. MgS04, and a trace of FeS04 added. The
solution is made slightly alkaline with soda and cleared with egg-
albumen.

New Method of Demonstrating Typhoid Bacilli.; — W. Hofmann
and M. Ficker recommend the addition of coffein to media as it inhibits
the growth of B. coli communis, though it has little influence on other
water bacteria. The medium used consisisted of beef 1 kilo., pepton
60 grm., salt 5 grm., water 1*5 litre, reduced to 1 litre by boiling-
One part of this stock fluid is mixed with an equal bulk of 1*2 p.c.
coffein solution. To 200 c.cm. of the mixture 1*4 c.cm. of 0*1 p.c.
crystal-violet solution is added.

In this culture fluid some of the suspected stool is placed, and after
24 hours plates are made.

Demonstrating Typhoid Bacilli in Water.§ — M. Ficker finds that
when there are but few typhoid germs in water, the sediment may be
enriched by precipitating with iron sulphate. To 2000 c.cm. of the
water add 0*8 grm. sodium carbonate and 0*7 grm. sulphate of iron.
In about two hours a sediment will have formed. The supernatant
fluid is decanted off, and some of the deposit pipetted on to litmus-
lactose -agar plates.

Preparation of Nutrose Agar.||— J. W. H. Eyre gives the following
improved method of preparing nutrose agar. This medium was originally
devised by Drigalski and Conradi,1T but the author has introduced im-
portant modifications.

A. (1) Emulsify 20 grm. pepton sice. "Witte in 100 c.cm. of dis-

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxi. (1903) pp. 493-8 (1 pi.).
t See this Journal, ante, p. 335.

X Hygien. Rundschau, xiv. (1904) p. 1. § Loc. cit.

|| Trans. Path. Soc, lv. (1904) pp. 102-3.
i See this Journal, 1902, p. 371.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 471

tilled water previously heated to 60° C. ; (2) add 10 grm. sodium
chloride ; (3) emulsify 40 grm. powdered agar in 400 c.cm. cold dis-
tilled water, and mix with the pepton salt solution in a litre flask ;
(4) Dissolve the ingredients thoroughly by bubbling live steam through
the mixture for half an hour, the flask being suspended in a bath of
boiling water during the process.

B. (1) Measure out 500 c.cm. ox serum into a " tared " 8-litre
flask, and add to it 900 c.cm. distilled water ; (2) heat in the steam
chamber at 100° C. for half an hour.

C. (1) Add the agar mass to the diluted ox serum, shake thoroughly

to mix, and weigh the mixture ; (2) titrate the mixture and add suffi-

n
cient - NaOH to adjust the reaction of the mixture to — 3*5;

(3) emulsify 20 grm. nutrose in 100 c.cm. distilled water, add the

emulsion to the mixture in the flask and heat in the steamer for

30 minutes ; (4) weigh the mixture and make up to 2090 grm. by the

addition of boiling distilled water ; (5) titrate again, and add sufficient

n
standardised - lactic acid to render the reaction +2*5; (6) cool to

below 60° C, add the well-beate i whites of four eggs, and heat again
in the steam chamber for 80 to 45 minutes ; (7) filter through papier
chardin with a tared 2-litre flask, and weigh the filtrate ; about 1900
grm. or c.cm. clear agar will be obtained : (8) fill the nutrose agar into
small flasks in quantities of 150 c.cm. ; (9) if not needed for immediate
use, sterilise in the steamer at 100° C. for 20 minutes on each of three
successive days.

D. (1) Take as many sterilised test-tubes as there are 150 c.cm.
flasks of medium, and fill 20 c.cm. Kuhlbaum's litmus solution into
each ; (2) heat in the steamer at 100° C. for 20 minutes ; (3) weigh
out and dissolve 1*5 grm. lactose in each tube of litmus solution;

(4) add 1*5 c.cm. of a 0*01 p.c. solution of crystal violet (B. Hochst)
to each tube ; (5) sterilise in the steamer at 100° C. on each of three
successive days.

Preparing Plates of Nutrose Agar.* — J. W. H. Eyre gives the
following method of making plates of nutrose agar : (1) Liquefy a
flask of nutrose agar (for composition and mode of preparation see
ants) by immersion in a water-bath at 100° C. As soon as the
medium is fluid add the contents from one of the prepared test-tubes
and mix thoroughly. (2) Pour the coloured fluid medium into sterile
Petri dishes to the depth of 3 or 4 mm. One flask (of 150 c.cm.) will
supply sufficient medium for about six Petri dishes of 11 cm. diameter.
(3) Open each plate and rest the edge of its cover on the side of the
lower half, and so allow the steam to escape freely whilst the agar is
solidifying. (4) When the medium has set, open and invert the Petri
dishes and place in an incubator at 60° C. for 45 minutes, or at 42° C. for
2 hours. At the end of this time the surface of the medium will be
firm and dry and ready to inoculate. (5) The material to be plated
must first be suspended in either sterile salt solution or sterile broth,

* Trans. Path. Soc, Iv. (1904) p. 104.

472 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and a few drops of the emulsion deposited on the surface of the medium
in one of the plates by means of a platinum loop, resting the lid of the
plate on the bench during the process of inoculation. (6) Smear the
suspension over the surface of the medium by means of the short-arm
of an L-shaped sterilised glass rod. (7) Without sterilising or re-
charging the rod smear the surface of a second plate, then a third, and
if necessary a fourth. (8) Cover the plates, invert them, label the
under surface which now is uppermost, and incubate (still in the inverted
position) at 37° C.

Nets for Gathering Plankton.* — J. Richard describes two nets for
obtaining plankton. The first is made of coarse packing cloth at about
bd. a yard. The cloth is attached to a strong square iron frame, the
sides of which are 3 metres long. The length of the net is about
G metres, and its bottom is formed by a pail supported by means of
cords to the iron frame. It is heavily weighted, and is employed for
gathering at considerable depths. The other is a simple net 50 cm.
long, with an opening of G cm. This is allowed to trail on or near
the surface. Both nets have given great satisfaction and are very easily
and cheaply made.

(2) Preparing- Objects.

Fixative Solutions Isotonic with Sea Water.f — M. C. Dekhuyzen
makes a fixative solution isotonic with sea water by mixing 250 c.cm.
of 2 • 5 p.c. potassium bichromate dissolved in filtered sea water ; to
this, 25 c.cm. of G"3 p.c. nitric acid and 54 c.cm. of 2 p.c. osmic acid
are added. The specific weight of this fluid is 1*038 at 20° C. Its
great advantage is that it can be mixed with sea water without altering
the osmotic pressure. It fixes the blood-cells of Sipunculus nudits
admirably, and is equally successful with other organisms such as
Oydippa, Terebellina, etc. For fixing organisms which contain cal-
careous matter, such as larvae of sea-urchins, the author has devised
an isotonic fluid which does not contain free acid. This is prepared by
mixing 26" 9 c.cm. of 2 p.c. osmi: id and 173 '1 c.cm. of 2*5 p.c.
bichromate of potash in filtered sea mv &r.

Picroformol for Fixation. $ — A. Guilliermond, for studying the
formation of asci and the epiplasm of Ascomycetes, used Maire's modi-
fication of Bouin's picroformol. Formalin 40 p.c, 30 grm. ; acetic
acid, 5 grm. ; distilled water, 20 grm. Picroformol to saturation.

Preparing, Staining and Mounting Fresh-water Fauna. § — K.
-•-i— recommends a funnel-shaped silk gauze net for catching
._ fauna, which should be transported to the laboratory in
glass vessels. The great secret of obtaining a successful preparation
depends on the skilful use of narcotics. These should be used in very
dilute solution, and the palsy of animals awaited with patience. The
animal to be mounted should be removed with a pipette to a slide, and
on this the rest of the manipulation carried out. The narcotising fluid

* Comptes Kondus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1436 -7.

♦ Tom. cit., pp. 415-7; 445-7. J Rev. gen. Bot., xvi. (1904) p. 49.
§ ZcHsdiv. nrgew. Mikr., x. (1904) pp. 5-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 473

is then to be mixed with the water in which the animal is swimming.
The narcotic may be cocain, of which a drop of 1 p.c. solution is usually
sufficient to numb and kill the animal in about 10 minutes. Chloral
hydrate £ to TV p.c. is also good, especially for Bryozoa. The best
narcotic is hydroxylaniin in r\- to £ p.c. aqueous solution. But as the
commercial article often contains hydrochloric acid, it is necessary to
neutralise carefully with soda before using.

The animals are next to be fixed by means of the usual methods,
but if cocain has been used for narcotising, corrosive sublimate must
not be employed, as a copious precipitate forms ; and as hydroxylamin
has a strongly reducing action, easily reducing fixatives should be
avoided. Instead of ordinary fixatives graduated alcohols answer well.
If it be necessary to bleach the animal, peroxide of hydrogen in 1 p.c.
solution, much diluted eau de Javelle, or magnesium peroxide may
be used.

The preparation should now be thoroughly washed, and is then
ready for staining. Mayer's paracarmin is very good for this purpose,
and it is prepared as follows : 1 grm. carminic acid, ^ grm. chloride of
aluminium, 4 grm. calcium chloride are dissolved in 100 c.cm. of warm
70 p.c. alcohol. The object to be stained should not have an alkaline
reaction, and should be washed with a weak solution of aluminium
chloride in alcohol.

Nikiforow's neutral borax carmin is also serviceable. This consists
of 3 grm. carmin, 5 grm. borax, which are boiled in 100 c.cm. of water.
As much ammonia as will dissolve the carmin is then added, and the
mixture evaporated down to half its bulk. Dilute acetic acid is then
added until the cherry-red colour disappears. This solution should be
diluted when used. The preparation should then be dehydrated if it
is to be mounted in balsam. But a better medium is prepared as
follows : (1) Pyroxylic acid with a little salicylic acid diluted freely
with water and glycerin. (2) Ten parts of selected gum arabic are dis-
solved in 10 parts of water and 5 parts of glycerin, and a little camphor
is added. Equal parts of the two solutions are mixed together when
required.

As a substitute for Canada balsam, Yosseler's turpentine mixture is
recommended. This is prepared by mixing equal bulks of Venetian
turpentine and 96 p.c. alcohol in a tall vessel, which is placed in some
warm situation. After 3 or 4 weeks the clear supernatant fluid is
decanted off. Mounted in this medium, the fine details of an object
-stand out excellently well.

Fixing and Examining Cyrripida Larvse.* — H. Eossig, for his
researches on gall-formation, mostly used sublimate for fixing the larva?.
The solution employed was Petrunkewitsch's modification of Gilson's
formula. This was used hot for a few seconds, the larvae being after-
wards transferred to a cold solution. Flemming's and vom Bath's
fluid were also used, but the internal parts were often cloudy.

After the larva? had remained in the sublimate for 2 to 12 hours,
they were washed in 70 p.c. alcohol to which iodine was added. The

* Zool. Jahib, xx. (1901) pp. 28-0 (4 pis.)-

474 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

objects were then hardened in 96 p.c. and in absolute alcohol, and after-
wards passed through xylol to paraffin. For young larvae \ to 1 hour
in melted paraffin was sufficient ; the larger ones on account of the fat
bodies required several hours.

Longitudinal and transverse sections were made, the former being
both sagittal and frontal. In thickness the sections varied from 2| to
15 n, according to the size and the cuticular density of the animal.
The sections were stuck on with glycerin albumen, but occasionally with
water; they were then stained and imbedded in balsam. The stain
mostly used was Bohmer's hematoxylin followed by picrocarmin, but
other pigments were also tried.

Preparing and Demonstrating the Structure of Arenicola.* —
J. H. Ashworth adopts the following procedure for making sections of
Arenicola (lugworm). It is advisable to use specimens not longer than
(5 in., as longer ones are difficult to deal with on account of the hardness
of the musculature. The sand is first removed from the alimentary
tanal by keeping the animals for 4 or 5 days in sea water. When free
from sand, absolute alcohol is dropped in until the water contains about
5 p.c. After a few hours the animals will be sufficiently narcotised and
may then be killed in the extended condition by treating them with
sublimate acetic (95 parts sublimate and 5 parts glacial acetic acid) for
a few hours. On removal, the worms are washed in fresh water and
then transferred to alcohols of increasing strength (50, 70, 90). To
the last, iodine is added to remove the subJimate. Pieces intended for
sectioning are then dehydrated in absolute alcohol (three changes) and
then cleared up with xylol or, preferably, cedarwood oil. The pieces
are next impregnated with paraffin in the usual way. Wax with a
melting-point of 56° to 58° C. is best for Arenicola.

The best staining results were obtained with iron-alum-haematoxylin,
but borax carmin, acid basmalum, Grenadier's and Delafield's hema-
toxylin were also used.

Modification of Zenker's Fluid.f — K. Helly recommends the fol-
lowing modification of Zenker's fixative : it consists of potassium bi-
chromate 2*5, sulphate of soda 1, sublimate 5, distilled water 100.
To 100 parts of this fluid are added, immediately before use, 5 parts
of formalin. This solution works better at incubation temperature,
and should not be allowed to act for more than 6 hours. The after
treatment is the same as for Zenker's fluid, viz. thorough washing,
graded alcohols, and iodine alcohol to remove sublimate.

Dowdy, S. E.— Preparing Diatoms. English Mechanic, Ixxix. (1904) p. 194.

Smith, H. E.— Ditto. Loc. cit.

(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Preparation of Frozen Sections by Means of Anaesthol4 — Katz
advocates for the above purpose the use of anaesthol, a solution of

* Liverpool M.B.C. Memoirs, xi. (1904) 118 pp., 8 pie.
t Zeitschr. wiss. Mikr., xx. (1904) pp. 413-5.

t Deutsche Med. Wochenschr. (1903) No. 24. p. 331. See also CentralR Batt.
sxxiv. (1904) Ref. pp. 652-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 475

methyl-chloride in ethyl-chloride, having its boiling-point at 4° C.
When an object is exposed to a spray of anaesthol it very quickly
becomes frozen. Alcohol-hardened preparations should be placed for
a few hours, and fresh preparations for a few minutes, in formalin
before being frozen.

Neuhaus, E. — Beitrag aur mikroskopischen Technik.

[On the value of the freezing method, and on the superiority of ethyl chloride
as a freezing agent over ether.]

Deutsche Med. WocJienschr., xxix. (1903) pp. 569-70.

Bauuk y Cajal, S. — Unconsejo utilpara evitar los inconvenientes de la frabilidad

y arrollamiento de los cortes en los preparados de Golgi y Marchi. (Device for

obviating the brittleness and curling up of sections prepared by the Golgi and

Marchi methods.) Trabajos lab. investigation biol. Madrid.

ii. (1903) pp. 99-100.

C4) Staining: and Injecting-.

Concretions in Acetic-methyl-green. * — E. Andre calls attention to
the concretions which form in acetic-methyl-green, and points out that
their presence may give rise to some confusion, as they present the
appearance of organised bodies. They look something like starch-
grains, are concentrically laminated, are liable to linear fracture, are
round, ovoid, or occasionally of irregular shape. They begin to deposit
themselves in from 2 to 3 months ; at first are very small, but eventually
may attain a considerable size. They are easily dissolved by alkalis,
are not attacked by weak acids, and are coloured yellow by iodopotassic
iodide.

Haematem and Hsemalum.t — P. Mayer writes that for some time
past he has made henialum directly from hematoxylin by oxidation
with sodium iodate, NaI03, and that he has recently prepared haematem
in a similar way. " For the complete conversion of hematoxylin into
hasmatein, nine parts of the former to two of the latter would suffice ;
but in order to avoid too strong oxidation it is advisable to mix them
in the proportion of 10 to 2.

One gramme of hematoxylin is dissolved in 10 c.cm. of distilled
water by boiling ; to the hot solution is added 0 ' 2 grm. of sodium
iodate dissolved in about 2 c.cm. of water. The mixture is well shaken
and then cooled by placing the vessel in cold water.

The hasmatein comes down as minute spherules or as microscopic
crystals. The deposit is placed on a filter and washed with cold water
to get rid of any sodium iodide. The haematei'n is then dried at room
temperature or with moderate heat.

To make haemalum, 1 grm. of hematoxylin is dissolved in water
by boiling. The solution is made up to 1 litre with water; 0*2 grm.
sodium iodate and 50 grm. alum are added and allowed to dissolve at
ordinary temperature. When quite dissolved the mixture is filtered,
and is then ready for use.

After a lapse of time hasmalum becomes liable to the formation of
scum on the surface, and a sediment. These may be avoided by the
addition of both chloral-hydrate and citric acid ; of the former, a

* Zeitschr. wise. Mikr, xx. (1904) p. 412. + Tom. cit., pp. 409-11.

476 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

quantity equal to that of the alum used ; of the latter, as much as the
hematoxylin. These additions impart to the ha^malum a red-violet
hue. The stained sections should be treated with tap-water to bring out
the blue.

Both preparations can be obtained ready-made from Griibler, of
Leipzig.

Modified Nocht's Stain for Blood Films.*— T. IV. Hastings gives
the following modification of Nocht's stain. Three solutions are re-
quired : (A) 1 p.c. eosin ; (B) 1 p.c. alkalin-methylen-blue ; (C) 1 p.c.
methylen-blue. B is prepared by adding to a warm 1 p.c. solution of
<lry sodium carbonate 1 p.c. of methylen-blue powder. The mixture
is heated over a water-bath for 15 minutes, and 30 c.cm. of water added
for each 100 c.cm. of original fluid to replace loss by evaporation.
After heating a second time over a water-bath for 15 minutes, the warm
alkalin-methylen-blue solution is poured off from the gummy residue,
partially neutralised with 5 to G c.cm. of 12*5 p.c. acetic acid, and
mixed with solutions A and C as follows : Distilled water, 1000 c.cm. ;
eosin solution A, 100 c.cm. ; alkalin-methylen-blue solution B, 200 c.cm. ;
methylen-blue solution C, until a fine precipitate forms (from about
70 to 80 c.cm.). This mixture of three solutions is allowed to stand
for ^ to 1 hour, filtered through one filter, the residue allowed to dry
in the air for 24 to 86 hours, and then dissolved in methylic alcohol.
About 0-3 grm. will dissolve 100 c.cm. of methylic alcohol, but must
be rubbed well in a mortar with pestle to obtain solution.

To use the stain no fixation is required. The dried blood smears
are flooded with the staining solution for 1 minute ; the solution is
then diluted with distilled water (a few drops), and the diluted stain
allowed to act for 5 minutes. The specimen is then washed thoroughly
with distilled water and mounted in the usual way.

Staining the Myelin in Sections of Nervous Tissue previously
treated by Marchi's Method.! — S. Ramon y Cajal recommends the
following procedure. Thin sections are first washed in distilled water,
and then placed for 24 hours in the following solution : Hydrochinon
4 grin., water 100 grm., glacial acetic acid 5 grm. After washing in
distilled water for a few seconds they are transferred to silver nitrate
solution : silver nitrate 1 grm., water 100 grm., ammonia 1 drop.
After 10 minutes the sections are re-transferred to the hydrochinon
solution for 2 to 5 minutes. After a rapid washing in distilled water
they are placed again in the silver bath for 5 to 10 minutes. On
removal they are again washed and then placed in a decolorising fluid,
composed of potassium ferricyanide 1 grm., water 100 grm., potassium
carbonate 0'5 grm. Herein they remain until the white substance has
assumed a pale brown hue (from 2 to 5 minutes). The sections are
then immersed for 2 to 5 minutes in a 12 p.c. solution of sodium hypo-
sulphite. After this the sections must be washed in several changes of
water, and then treated with 40 p.c. and absolute alcohol ; this last
step must be done rapidly in order not to damage the celloidin. They
aire then cleared up in bergamot oil and mounted in dammar.

* John Hopkins Hosp. Bull, xv. (1904) pp. 122-3.

t Trttbajos Lab. Investigacion biol. Madrid, ii. (1903) pp. 93-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ... 4,7

Methods for Silver Impregnation of Nervous Tissue.* — S. Ramon
y Cajal describes the following methods for impregnating nervous tissue
with silver.

1. Method specially adapted for the fibrils of small and medium-
sized cells. Pieces of tissue about 3 mm. thick, and as fresh as
possible, are immersed in a 0*75 to 3 p.c. solution of silver nitrate in
distilled water, and incubated for 3 days at from 30° to 35° C. On
removal, the pieces are washed for a minute or two in distilled water,
and placed in the following reducing medium for 2-4 hours : Pyrogallic
acid or hydrochinon 1 to 2 grm., water 100 grm., formalin 5 grm.
The pieces are washed for some minutes in distilled water, hardened in
alcohol and imbedded in celloidin.

2. Method adapted for medullated nerves and the fibrils of the large
cells. The pieces of tissue are fixed for 24 hours in 97 p.c. alcohol.
After washing in distilled water for a few seconds, the pieces are im-
mersed in 1 p.c. silver nitrate solution and incubated at from 30° to
35° C. After washing for a few seconds the pieces are placed in a
reducing solution composed of hydrochinon 2 grm., water 100 grm.,
formalin 5 grm. The reduction may be hastened by the addition of
0'5 grm. sodium sulphite. The pieces are then washed, dehydrated
and imbedded in celloidin. Should the sections from the deeeper parte
be insufficiently impregnated they are to be treated with the following
gold solution : Ammonium sulphocyanate 3 grm., sodium hyposulphite
3 grm., gold chloride 1 p.c. solution (a few drops). The sections are
washed, dehydrated, cleared up and mounted in dammar.

3. Method for staining non-medullated fibres and terminal twigs.
The pieces are fixed for 3 days in alcohol, but all the other steps are
the same as in the two previous methods.

4. Staining the fibrils of large cells and of fine nerve-fibres. The
pieces of tissue are placed in the following solution : Alcohol 97 p.c.
100 c.cm., ammonia 0'5 to 1 c.cm. If the pieces are large or numerous
a 1*5 ammoniated alcohol solution may be used, or the immersion may
be prolonged up to 2 days.

The preparations are next washed in water, and then transferred to
1 • 5 p.c. silver nitrate solution ; after which they are treated with the
reduction fluid previously described.

The best results were obtained by an immersion of the pieces for
24 to 36 hours in the ammoniated alcohol. Should the sections be
insufficiently impregnated they may be afterwards treated with the gold
chloride solution. Instead of alcohol, ammoniated formalin may be
used, e.g. formalin 20 c.cm., water 100 c.cm., ammonia 0'5 c.cm. The
pieces must be washed in running water for 24 hours in order to get
rid of the formalin before they are placed in the silver nitrate solution.

Demonstrating a Parasite Found in Cases of Enlarged Spleen. f

t S. R. Christophers, in a preliminary report on a parasite found in

persons suffering from enlargement of the spleen in India, employed

the following method for demonstrating their presence in the tissues.

* Zeitschr. wiss. Mikr.. xx. (1904) pp. 401-8.

t Scientific Mem. Med. and San. Departs., Govt.; of India, No. 8 (1904) 17 pp.,
pll.

473 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING! TO

Fix in absolute alcohol or in saturated aqueous solution of sublimate.
Embed in paraffin. Stain the sections for 10 to 15 minutes in 1 to 1000
eosin. Pour off excess of eosin and mop up with filter-paper. Stain
for 15 to 20 minutes with methylen-blue solution prepared as follows :
100 c.cm. medicinal methylen-blue solution in distilled water, 5 c.cm.
of 10 p.c. solution of sodium carbonate. Leave in sunlight till deep
red colour is seen on shaking. Dilute 25 times for use. Pour off
excess of stain and wash rapidly in 70 p.c. alcohol. Transfer to water.
If too blue, wash in 0*25 p.c. acetic acid and then in water. Allow the
section to dry on the slide. Mount in balsam or keep as a film moistened
with cedar oil.

Bielschowskt, M. — Die Silberimpragnation der Neurofibrillen.

Neurol. Centralbl, xxii. (1903) pp. 997-1006 (5 figs.).

(5) Mounting:, including: Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

New Mounting Device. — This apparatus (fig. 75) by "Watson and
Sons was exhibited at the May meeting, and was described by Mr. Watson
Baker (see ante, pp. 382-3).

Fig. 75.

(6) Miscellaneous.

New Method for Sterilising Vessels.* — Rothenbach states that
flasks and other vessels can be effectually sterilised by merely inverting
a glass cap over the neck or other opening of the apparatus.

Differentiation of B. typhosus and B. coli communis by Means
of the Photographic Plate .f — W. C. Stevenson claims to be able to
differentiate B. typhosus from B. coli communis by means of their action
on the gelatino-bromide photographic plate. His method is as follows :
Cultures of the bacilli are made in broth, samples of the same broth
being used for each culture. After, say, 24 hours, a few drops of each
culture are placed upon the sensitive surface of the plate, and spread
out so as to wet an area of any desired extent. This is done in a
faint red light. The plates are then covered up, and allowed to stand
for 40 minutes. They are then developed in the usual way. It will
be found that the moistened areas develop with very different densities

* Deutsche Essigiudustrie, vii. No. 37. See Centralbl. Bakt., 2le Abt. xii. (1904)
pp. 152-3. t Brit. Med. Journ., i. (1904) p. 1004.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

479

of silver deposit. The coli culture produces a full and marked reduction,
of the salt, but with the typhoid culture only a very faint deposit is, in
general, obtained.

Kingsford'sTOlassUTroughs. — For the description and purposes of
these troughs (figs. 76, 77) see ante, p. 383.

Fia. 76.

Fig. 77.

Bbonising Laboratory Tables.* — "VV. J. Wood states that any kind
of wood may be stained by the following method : (a) 250 grm. of
anilin chloride dissolved in 1 litre of water. This solution is applied daily
for 2 or 3 days, (b) 125 grm. of sulphate of copper dissolved in 80 grm.

* Jouro. Quekett, Micr. Club, Lx. (1904) pp, 67-8.

480 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of boiling water, and 125 grm. of potassium chlorate dissolved by
boiling in about. 250 grm. of water. These solutions are mixed to-
gether5 while quite hot, then allowed to cool. Then filter, and dilute
the filtrate to 1 litre. This solution is applied to the wood the same
as a, the wood being allowed to dry thoroughly after each application,
(c) At the end of this operation all crystals covering the surface of the
wood are to be washed off with clean water, (d) Once more dry the
wood thoroughly and then paint over with cottonseed or raw linseed oil.
Leave the oil for one day and then rub dry. This preparation takes
about six days, allowing two days for a, two for b, one for c, and one
for d. The result is a beautiful black surface, which will withstand the
usual reagents used in biological work.

Preparing Lantern Slides of Histological Objects.*— J. Cameron
employs the following method of making lantern slides, the chief ad-
vantage being that it saves the trouble and expense of preparing photo-
graphs. The first requirement is a set of glass plates, lantern size, finely
ground on one surface. Camera lucida tracings are made of the desired
specimen on the ground surface. A sheet of white paper placed behind
the plate makes the object more distinct. Flaws or inaccuracies in the
drawing are easily removed by means of a wet cloth. When the draw-
ing is complete the surface of the plate is covered with a layer of trans-
parency varnish. The film should be thin, and care should be taken
that the plate is quite dry before the varnish is applied.

Instead of making a drawing directly on the plate, a tracing on
paper may be placed under the plate and the outlines of the object
copied indirectly.

After the varnish has become quite dry it is best to place a lantern
slide cover-glass over the plate ; a suitable form of lantern slide mask
being previously inserted between the two in the usual way.

Prints from these slides may be made, and, though negatives, are
useful for handing round during a communication.

Abel, K. — Taschenbuch fur den bacteriologischen Praktikanten, enthaltend die
wichstigsten Detailvorschriften zur bacteriolgischen Laboratoriumsarbeit.

7 Aufl. Wurzburg (Stuber, 1903) 108 pp., 8v>.

Kamek, L.— Anleitung zur Durchfiihrung bacteriologischen TJntersuchungen fur
Klinisch-diagnostiche und hygienische Zwecke.

Wien (Safar, 1903) 311 pp., 8vo, 118 figs., 12 plates.

Keznik, B— Technika mikroskopicka. Briinn, 1903, 16S pp. 8vo.

Merlin, A. A. O. E. — Amphipleura pellucida (Resolution of).

English Mechanic, Ixxix. (1904) p. 284.

Treadle— Amphipleura pellucida (Resolution of). Tom. cit., p. 63.

„ „ Diatom resolving. Tom. cit, pp. 84-105.

„ „ Pinnularia nobilis (Resolution of). Op. cit,, lxxviii. (1904) p. 554.

M „ Ditto. Op. cit, lxxix. (1904) p. 35.

„ „ Pinnularia nobilis (Resolution and Structure of).

Tom. cit, p. 14 (1 fig.).
Villa gio— Resolution of Diatoms, etc. Tom. cit., p. 193.

* Proc. Scot. Micr. Soc., iii. (1904) pp. 350-2.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 481

Metallography, etc.

Sorbitic Steel.* — H. C. Boynton finds that : (1) Furnace-cooling
of an under-saturated steel produces ferrite and pmrlite ; (2) air-cooling
of the same steel produces in samples of relatively small section, ferrite
and sorbite ; (3) the composition of sorbite depends upon the rate of
cooling ; (4) the carbon in sorbite is partially in the hardening condi-
tion, therefore all specimens subjected to " colour analysis " should be
previously annealed ; (5) air-cooling of a supersaturated steel greatly
increases the tensile strength and elastic limit, producing a structure
made up of pearlite containing an excess of cementite, and less free
cementite than under-furnace cooling.

'&•

Dudley, P. H. — Unit Fibre Stresses in the Base of Steel Bails.

[Microscopical measurements and investigations of autographically-recorded
strains in the base of steel rails under moving locomotives, ca rs and trains,
to ascertain the apparent mean unit fibre-strains of the extreme fibres of
the metal, and some of the experimental laws of their distribution.]

Journ. New York Micr, Soc, Annual of 1902, pp. 23-42.

* Iron and Steel Mag., pp. 470-SO (SO photomicros.).

Aug. 17th, 1904

2 h

482

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the 15th of June, 1904, at 20 Hanover Square, W.
Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., etc., President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of the 18th of May, 1004, were
read and confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The List of Donations to the Society, exclusive of exchanges and
reprints received since the last Meeting, was read :

From
Two Slides of Diatoms, mounted by E. Thum in realgar, on \ -tr n t t% *•
flint glass Blips, the covers being also of flint glass .. .. ) Mr'L- Lees Lurt,et-

The Secretary said the Society was much indebted to Mr. dirties
for the two test slides mounted in realgar. They would replace a pair
of similarly mounted slides which had so deteriorated owing to the
decomposition of the mounting medium that they were now useless.

The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. dirties for his donation.

Mr. Thos. Powell exhibited a ?V:ln- apochromatic homogeneous
immersion objective of his own make, which he thought might be of
some interest as it was not likely that he would be able to make many
more.

Prof. Hartog' exhibited, under the Microscope, a slide prepared and
lent to him by Prof. Vejdovsky, which showed with remarkable distinct-
ness the first segmentation spindle and centrospheres in the embryo of
Rhynchelmis, a somewhat rare species of leech. This was so large that
it could be seen with a pocket lens and was very distinctly shown under
a £-in. objective with a B eye-piece — usually much higher powers were
required to see these things. The slides showed that with all the wealth
of detail which appeared in the very beautiful drawings made by Prof.
Vejdovsky * nothing had been added which could not be seen in the
specimens, and that these drawings were faithful representations. It was
interesting to notice the remarkable resemblance between this develop-
ment and what was seen in the field of force between two unlike magnetic

* See Vejdovsky and Mrazek, " Umbildung des Cytoplasma walirend der Befruch-
tung und Zellteilung," Nach den Untersuckungen am Rhynchelmis Eie. : Archiv.
Mikr. Anat., lxii. (1903) pp. 431-579.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 483

poles. This and other slides which had been lent to him had shortly to
be returned to Prague, but he had brought them to the Meeting think-
ing the Fellows of the Society wonld like to see such interesting and
valuable preparations.

The President said he had seen this specimen under a pocket lens
which showed the spindle quite distinctly. The extraordinary develop-
ment of the asters at the poles was very interesting. Among the largest
spindles to be found among plants were those in the pollen tubes of the
Cycads.

The thanks of the Society were voted to Prof. Hartogforhis exhibit.

Mr. Beck exhibited a portable Microscope, designed by Mr. Arthur
Hollick. The whole was packed in a mahogany box, the bottom of
which could be detached and then formed the base on which the Micro-
scope was fixed. The instrument was used chiefly for the examination
of botanical objects, but was equally useful for other purposes, and the
mirror was so mounted that it could be used as a reflector above the
stage in the proper position to converge the light upon the object-
swinging with the object as a centre. The socket which formed the
eye-piece holder when the parts were packed in the box, was utilised
as a lamp holder, when in use, enabling Microscope and lamp to be
handed round in a class without disturbing their relative positions. A
rotating cell made of cardboard formed a convenient revolving object
holder, and a simple method of mounting specimens in pill-boxes had
also been devised. Another point of some interest was the manner in
which the front of the objective had been coned off so as to reduce it to
the dimensions necessary to admit just as much light and not more than
could be utilised by the back lens. The objective exhibited was a £ in.
coned off in this way, and it was remarkable what an amount of illumi-
nation was obtained by this simple method.

The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Beck for his exhibit
and explanation.

Prof. J. D. Everett read his paper entitled ' A Direct Proof of Abbe's
Theorems on the Microscopic Resolution of Gratings,' which he illus-
trated by mathematical formula3 drawn upon the board and by the
exhibition of a slide as described in his paper.

Mr. J. W. Gordon said : By the courtesy of Prof. Everett I have had
the opportunity not only of seeing the abstract of his paper which has
been circulated but also of reading the paper itself in advance. The
subject with which he deals is of particular interest to me because it
relates to an experiment first, as I suppose, suggested by myself, and
which formed, in a paper I had the honour of submitting to this Society
at the June Meeting in 1901, the basis of a criticism of the Abbe theory
as expounded by Naegeli and Schwendener. Perhaps, therefore, I may
be allowed to say, without presumption, that I have read the paper with
uncommon interest and that the proof which Prof. Everett gives of the
changing phase relation between different parts of the spectrum and the
effect of this changing relation in producing apparent movement in the

484 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

image plane seems to me to be extremely ingenious and beautifully
simple. The reading of the paper has cleared up in my own mind what
has long appeared to me a matter of great difficulty and some obscurity.

It is, however, worthy of remark that Prof. Everett's propositions
relate, and relate only, to a very special optical system, and that that
system differs entirely from the system with which we actually work in
the Microscope. Furthermore, I may be perhaps allowed to add that
it is a system entirely different from that which was the subject of
criticism in my paper already referred to and which originally suggested
the experiment of moving the grating on the stage of the Microscope.
Naegeli and Schwendener who were at that time supposed to have pub-
lished an authoritative exposition of the Abbe theory, had laid it down
as a fundamental principle upon which their whole argument was based,
that there is no phase difference between the different members of the
spectrum seen in the upper focal plane of the objective. Their language
was " for since these sources of light " (that is to say, the spectra of the
various orders) "are point for point the optical images of the same
primary source of light, there is no difference of phase between them."

This was the proposition which I mainly attacked, and Prof. Everett
has now shown not only that there is a difference of phase between them
but that this difference of phase is calculable, and that by the aid of the
very elegant expressions which he has devised it can be calculated with
ease. Thus I am entitled to say that, so far as the main controversy
goes, I can claim the support of Prof. Everett's paper in my attack upon
the Naegeli and Schwendener theory.

In conducting this attack I endeavoured first to show by a discussion
upon geometrical lines that this proposition that there could be no
difference of phase between the various members of the spectrum was
preposterous, but realising that ocular proof is very much more satis-
factory to many people than mathematical- demonstration, I proposed
also to test it by the very simple experiment of moving the object grating
across the stage of the Microscope. It was obvious that this would
make no difference in the position of the spectrum, and if it made no
difference to the phase, as Naegeli and Schwendener asserted, then it
could make no difference to the interference pattern developed in the
image plane of the instrument. This was my argument, and it was to
support this argument that the experiment in question was devised. Of
course, when the original position is abandoned it is quite natural that
the argument directed against that original position should cease to
apply, and that is what has happened in the present case. I fully
recognise that in the theory put forward by Prof. Everett, and so far as
I know put forward for the first time by him and this evening, this
particular criterion would no longer serve to distinguish the image
formed by diffracted light from the image formed by transmitted light.

But at this point it will be convenient to pass over to the considera-
tion of the difference between the optical system described and analysed
by Prof. Everett this evening and the actual system with which we work
in the Microscope. The fundamental difference between them is this,
that whereas Prof. Everett postulates a single train of plane wave-fronts
as the source of illumination, the practical microscopist is most careful

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 485

to use no plane wave-fronts at all, but spherical wave-fronts for illumina-
ting his object, and when he desires to get very fine resolution he uses
not only spherical wave-fronts but spherical wave-fronts with an ex-
tremely short radius of curvature. Now this change in the state of
illumination brings about a complete change in the condition of the
spectra, and a change which is extremely material from the present point
of view. For it can easily be shown experimentally that the conclusions
which Prof. Everett has worked out this evening and demonstrated
mathematically by means of plane wave-fronts have no application when
the diffraction arises from the incidence of spherical wave-fronts upon a
grating. I have already shown in this room an experiment, described
on pages 366 to 373 of the Journal for 1901, which demonstrates this
proposition to the eye. Shortly stated it comes to this : When spherical
wave-fronts are used to illuminate the grating (or other object) the state
of resolution in which it is seen is wholly independent of the number of
spectra transmitted by the objective. It is possible by using a wave
front of short radius to collect as many as four or five orders of spectra
in a lens of low angle, and, indeed, of an angle so low that it is incapable
of yielding a resolved image of the grating. In that case the resolution
is not in the least improved by including a large number of spectra in
the image-forming beam. On the other hand, if the incident light is a
spherical wave-front of comparatively long radius of curvature, then it is
quite possible to get perfect resolution when only the central light is
passed and even the first diffraction spectra are shut out. Now these
are in fact the conditions under which the Microscope is used in practice,
and this experiment shows, as I venture to think, conclusively that under,
these conditions the presence or absence of particular spectra makes no
difference whatever to the state of resolution under which the object is
seen.

There is a difficulty even more fundamental than this which appears
to me to be necessarily fatal to any theory by which the phase in one
focal plane is deduced from the phase in another not conjugate to the
first. It is this : the corrections necessary to render the instrument
aplanatic in the image plane involve its being non-aplanatic in the
principal focal plane, and indeed in any other plane situate on the same
side as the image plane of the principal plane of the objective. It is
therefore impossible to calculate the phase which would in fact result
from the formation of an imperfect linage of the source of light by
means of diffracted rays in the neighbourhood of the principal focus.
This circumstance does not render Prof. Everett's results uninstructive,
but it does show that they belong to the region of pure, and in no sense
to the region of applied, mathematics. It is therefore impossible to look
upon his paper as affording any proof of the Abbe theory in concrete
form and as applied to any actual objective ; but, within the limits to
which Prof. Everett himself has restricted them, his results are, if I may
say so with all humility, of very great interest and highly suggestive.

Mr. Beck said, as he had been alluded to by Prof. Everett as having
lent the Abbe experiment, he would explain what it was. He then drew
a diagram on the board to represent the back focal plane of an object-
glass, and said that if they looked at the Microscope upon the table they

486 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

would, on taking out the eye-piece, see a small beam of light in the
centre, and on either side of this a certain number of faint spectra. The
apparatus of Zeiss consisted of a series of slits in a diaphragm, so spaced
that/with a particular size of object-glass suited to the grating, when the
series of slits was placed over the object-glass, it would cut out two
alternate spectra, and the effect then produced was to double the lines
in the image ; and it would be interesting to recall that when Mr. Gordon
read his paper he made his demonstration with a similar diaphragm with
only two slits, which were so spaced that they excluded those portions
of light which the three-slit diaphragm admitted. Prof. Everett's paper
was especially interesting because it afforded a mathematical proof of
the doubling of the lines, and showed that, provided alternate spectra
were excluded, the same phenomenon was produced, so that the experi-
ment above-mentioned was not in itself a disproof of the Abbe theory,
as the three-slit and also the two-slit diaphragm cut out alternate spectra.
The questions which naturally arose were, had this anything to do with
microscopic vision ? was the effect produced by the cutting out of the
spectra, or was it produced by the slit diaphragms acting as diffraction
gratings, causing a doubling of the lines ? It would be perfectly possible
to exclude spectra by having a cover glass with small black spots, but
would this produce a doubling of the lines ? Prof. Everett's paper
seemed to afford an explanation of the reason why Prof. Abbe's theory
had been applied with so much enthusiasm to vision in the Microscope.
Mr. Gordon showed them that although a certain series of spectra
were produced with an illumination of parallel light, as soon as the
quality of the light was changed from a parallel to a convergent beam
these spectra shifted their positions, and that when the object became
practically a radiant source, the light being focussed on the plane of the
grating, then these spectra closed up and practically disappeared. When
this was the case, it would be impossible to suppose that, as no spectra
were now excluded by the three-slit diaphragm in the back focal plane
of the object-glass, the Abbe theory could account for the doubling
of the lines in the image. As a matter of fact, the doubling of the
lines took place whatever the kind of illumination employed, which
would appear to show that the Abbe theory was not the cause of the
doubling of the lines in the well-known experiment, and that the theory
was of purely academic interest, and had no direct bearing of con-
sequence on microscopic vision.

Mr. J. Rheinberg — after reading his note ' On the Influence on
Images of Gratings of Phase-Difference amongst their Spectra ' — said
he would have liked to discuss the standpoint taken up by Mr. J. W.
Gordon and Mr. C. Beck, but time being short he would make his re-
marks very brief, and touch on one matter only. It appeared to him
futile to argue, as they did, that because certain diffraction effects were
obtained by placing diaphragms behind the objective, this fact threw
doubt upon the Abbe theory. One might make a hole in a board by
drilling it, or produce a hole in a board by a pistol-shot : the presence of
the hole produced by the latter method would disprove nothing as to
holes produced by drilling operations. Analogously (as he had en-
deavoured to show in a previous discussion), although by the inter-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 487

position of a diaphragm which cut off part of the light in the upper focal
plane of an objective filled with light, you might obtain somewhat
similar effects to those which occur when the light distribution in the
focal plane, due to the object, coincides more or less with that allowed to
pass through the diaphragm, to draw conclusions from this fact as to
the incorrectness of fundamental laws embodied in the Abbe theory was
an illogical procedure.

Prof. Everett, being called upon by the President to reply, said that
no reply was needed. He had seen Mr. Rheinberg's experiment, and the
main feature of it was that the whole series of lines moved bodily across
the field, thus illustrating in a very interesting way the main point of
the paper.

The President, in moving a hearty vote of thanks to Prof. Everett
for his paper, said it was quite clear that the subject was one which gave
opportunity for much fuller discussion than was possible at that Meeting.

Mr. F. W. Millet's paper — the sixteenth of the series — ' On the
Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago,' was taken as read.

Mr. F. Enock then gave an extremely interesting exhibition of lantern
slides photographed by the Sanger- Shepheard three-colour process from
living insects, which showed the specimens in their natural colours with
great brilliancy and fidelity. The advantages, and also the difficulties of
successfully producing perfect pictures from objects whose least move-
ment during either of the three exposures would spoil the set, were
explained, and a brief description of each slide was given as — owing to
the lateness of the hour — they were somewhat rapidly passed through the
lantern.

The President was sure that all who were present must have been
delighted with this demonstration. Mr. Enock had broken fresh ground
in attempting to make these three-colour pictures of living subjects, and
it was quite clear that in this direction the process had a great feature
before it. They were extremely obliged to Mr. Enock for bringing these
beautiful pictures to show them.

A hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Enock for his demonstration was
unanimously carried.

The List of those gentlemen, eight in number, who were proposed
for election as Honorary Fellows of the Society at the preceding Meeting
was read, and, after a bollot had been taken, they were then declared all
duly elected.

The President mentioned that he proposed to give a demonstration
of the microscopic structure of some Palaeozoic plants at the October
Meeting.

Notice was given that the rooms of the Society would be closed from
August 15 to September 10, and the proceedings were adjourned to
October 19.

488 PROCEEDINGS OE THE SOCIETY.

New Fellows : — The following were elected Honorary Fellows-
Prof. Gaston Bonnier, Prof. Jacques Bran, Prof. Yves Delage, Prof.
S. Ramon y Cajal, Prof. B. Renault, J. J. Harris Teall, Prof. Silvanus
P. Thompson, and Dr. M. Treub.

The following Objects, Instruments, etc., were exhibited : —

Mr. C. Beck :— Portable Microscope, made by Messrs. R. & J. Beck
to the design of Mr. Arthur Hollick ; Microscope with grating on the
stage, showing doubling of the lines by means of a triple slit in back
focal-plane of the object-glass, in illustration of Prof. Everett's paper.

Prof. Marcus Hartog : — A slide, showing the first segmentation
spindle and centrospheres in the embryo of Rhynchebnis (Leech), shown
under a J-inch objective and B eye-piece ; the preparation lent by Prof.
Vejdovsky, of Prague.

Mr. T. H. Powell : — Phurosi-gma angulatum, under a ^-inch apo-
chromatic homogeneous immersion objective of N.A. 1*35.

Mr. Julius Rheinberg : — Experiment showing movement of lines in
the image of a grating by creating a phase-difference amongst the spectra
in the back focal-plane of the objective by means of an Abbe glass- wedge
Compensator. Experiment to illustrate his remarks on Prof. Everett's
paper.

After the business of the Ordinary Meeting was coneluded, a Special
Meeting was held, pursuant to notice given at the Ordinary Meeting of
May 18 last, for the purpose of making an alteration in By-law No. 25,
by the omission of the word " future."

Mr. Vezey explained that the effect of the proposed alteration would
be to relieve a new Fellow, who might be desirous of compounding for
his subscriptions on election, from the necessity of paying his first year's
subscription as well as the full compounding fee. The entrance fee
would, of course, be payable whether a Fellow compounded or not.

The rule as it originally stood, and also as it would be if altered, was
then read to the Meeting, and the proposal for alteration having been
put to the Meeting by the President, it was declared to have been
unanimously carried.

JOURN.R.MICR. S0C.1904. Pl.X.

F.W.MilleLt del. ad nat

West.Newman lith. London.

FORAMINIFERA OF MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.

JOURN.R.MICR. S0C.1904.P1.XI.

c

k

1 5

6 a,

FW.Millett del.adnat. West.Newman lith .

FORAMINIFERA OF MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

OCTOBER 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

X. — Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago
collected hj Mr. A. Due rand, F.R.M.S.—Part XVI.

By Fortescue William Millett, F.R.M.S.

(Head June loth, 1901.)
Plate X.

Planorbulina d'Orbigriy.
Planorbulina meditcrranensis d'Orbigriy.

Planorbulina meditcrranensis d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat..
vol. vii. p. 280, pi. xiv. figs. 4-6 ; Modele, No. 79. P. mediterra-
nensis (d'Orb.) Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc.,
vol. xii. p. 227, pi. xlv. fig. 18. P. meditcrranensis (d'Orb.) Egger,
1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., 01. II. vol. xviii. p. 380,
pi. xiv. figs. 24-26. P. mediterranensis (d'Orb.) Goes, 1894, K.
Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 91, pi. xv. fig. 786. P.
meditcrranensis (d'Orb.) Jones, 1895, Palseont. Soc., p. 298, pi. v.
fig. 30. P. meditcrranensis (d'Orb.) Flint, 1899, Rep. U.S. Nat.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X.

Fig. 1, 2. — Carpeiiteria proteiformis Goes. Fig. 1 X Go; fig. 2 x 91
„ o. — Pulvinulina ohlonga Williamson sp., var. carinata var. n. x 80.
„ 4. „ Brongniartii d'Orbigny sp. x 40.

„ 5. — Botalia Schroeteriana Parker and Jones, var. inflata var. ii. x 60.
„ 6. „ atinectens Parker and Jones. X 30.

,, 7. „ „ var. concinna var. n. x 60.

Note. — In all the figures the letter a denotes the superior aspect ; b, the inferior
aspect; and c, the peripheral aspect.

Oct. 19th, 1904 2 M

490 Transactions of the Society.

Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 328, pi. Ixxii. fig. G. P. mcditerrancnsis
(d'Orb.) Silvestri, 1899, Mem. Pontif. Accad. Nuovi Lincei, vol. xv.
p. 286, pi. vi. figs. 4-7.

Planoroulina acervalis Brady.

Planorhulina acervalis Brady, 1884, Cball. Bepl., p. G57, pi. xcii.
fig. 4. P. acervalis (Brady) Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans.
Zool. Soc, vol. xii. p. 227, p. xlvi. fig. 11. P. acervalis (Brady)
Flint, 1899, Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 328, pi. Ixxii.
fig. 7.

Planorhulina larvata Parker and Jones.

Planorhulina vulgaris var. larvata Parker and Jones, 18G0, Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. v. p. 294. P. larvata Idem, 1865,
Phil. Trans., vol. civ. p. 380, pi. xix. fig. 3. P. larvata (P. and J.)
Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 381,
pi. xiv. fig. 31.

These three forms are not well represented in the Malay
Archipelago ; they occur at the same Stations, and are most
abundant in Area 1.

Truncatidina d'Orbigny.
Truncatulina echinata Brady.

Planorhulina echinata Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,
n.s., vol. xix. p. 283. pi. viii. fig. 31. Truncatidina echinata Idem,
1884, Chall. Kept., p. 670, pi. xcvi. figs. 9-14. T. echinata (Brady)
Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 403,
pi. xvi. figs. 40, 41.

This is an aberrant form which seems as nearly allied to
Planoroulina as to Truncatidina, and may be treated as a con-
necting link between the two genera.

It is not uncommon in Area 1, and occurs sparingly in Area 2.
The examples are normal, both in size and form.

Brady states that it has its home amongst the coral-sands of
the Pacific and Indian oceans at depths of from 2 to 155 fathoms.
The ' Gazelle' Station is Mauritius, 225 fathoms.

Truncatulina reticulata Czjzek sp.

Rotalina reticulata Czjzek, 1848, Haidinger's Naturw. Abhandl.,
vol. ii. p. 145, pi. xiii. figs. 7-9. Truncatidina reticulata (Czjzek)
Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 669, pi. xcvi. figs. 5-8. T. reticulata
(Czjzek) Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. xii.
p. 228, pi. xlv.' figs. 23, 24. T. reticulata (Czjzek) Terrigi, 1891,
Mem. R. Com. Geol. d'ltalia, vol. iv. p. 107, pi. iv. fig. 10. T. reti-
culata (Czjzek) Chaster, 1892, First Kept, of the Southport Soc. of

Bejwrt on Forqminifera. By F. IF. Millett. 491

Nat. Sci, 1890-1891 (1892), p. 66, pi. i. fig. 1G. T. (Botalina) reti-
culata (Czjzek) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., 01. II.
vol. xviii. p. 402, pi. xvi. figs. 42-44 ; Idem, 1895, Naturhist. Ver.
Passau, Jaliresber., xvi. p. 32, pi. v. fig. 7. T. reticulata var.
tuberculata, Silvestri, 1899, Mem. Pontif. Accad. Nuovi Lincei,
vol. xv. p. 300, pi. vi. fig. 11 ; and var. plano-convexa, p. 300, pi. vi.
fig. 12. T. reticulata (Czjzek) Flint, 1899, Pep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for
1897 (1899), p. 334, pi. lxxviii. fig. 3.

This form is very rare in the Malay Archipelago, and occurs
only in Area 1.

According to Brady it has a somewhat wide geographical range,
at depths of from 17 to 450 fathoms; but at one of the 'Gazelle'
Stations the depth was 1914 fathoms.

Truncatulina refulgens Montfort sp.

Cibicidcs refulgens Montfort, 1808, Conch. Syst., vol. i. p. 122,
31c genre. Truncatulina refulgens (Montf.) d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann.
Sci. Nat,, vol. vii. p. 279, pi. xiii. figs. 9-11 ; Modele, No. 77. T.
refulgens (Montf.) Sherborn and Chapman, 1886, Journ. P, Micr.
Soc, ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 756, pi. xiv. fig. 13. T. refulgens (Montf.)
Terrigi, 1889, Mem. P. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vii. p. 117, pi. viii.
figs. 1-3. T. refulgens (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 401, pi. xvi. figs. 31-33. Blanor-
bulina refulgens (Montf.) Goes, 1894, K. SvenskaVet.-Akad. Handl.,
vol. xxv. p.' 89, pi. xv. figs. 775, 776. T. refulgens (Montf.) Jones,
1895, Paheont. Soc, p. 302, pi. v. fig. 31. T. refulgens (Montf.)
Chapman, 1898, Journ. P. Micr. Soc, p. 1, pi. i. fig. 1. T. refulgens
(d'Orb.) Egger, 1899, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss, CI. II. vol.
xxi. p. 151, pi. xx. figs. 20, 21.

The examples are few and insignificant, but they occur in both
Areas.

Truncatulina lobatula Walker and Jacob sp.

" Nautilus spiralis lobatus, etc.," Walker and Boys, 1784, Test.
Min, p. 20, pi. iii. fig. 71. Truncatulina lobatula d'Orbigny, 1846,
For. Foss. Vienne, p. 168, pi. ix. figs. 18-23. T. lobatula (W. and J.)
Sherborn and Chapman, 1886, Journ. P. Micr. Soc, ser. 2, vol. vi,
p. 756, pi. xvi. fig. 12. T. lobatula (Walker) Malagoli, 1887, Atti
Soc. Nat. Modena, ser. 3, vol. iii. p. 110, pi. i. fig. 14. T. lobatula
(W. and J.) Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc, vol
xii. p. 227, pi. xlii. fig. 20, pi. xlv. fig. 26. T. lobatula (W. and J.j
Terrigi, 18S9, Mem. P. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 116, pi. vii.
figs. 5-7. T. lobatula (W. and J.) Mariani, 1893, Ann. Istit. Teen!
Udine, ser. 2, vol. xi. p. 24, pi. i. figs. 19-21. T. lobatula (d'Orb.)
Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad.Wiss, CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 396,

2 ai 2

492 Transactions of the Society.

pi. xvi. figs. 1-3, 10-12. T. lobatula (W. and J.) Fornasini, 1893,
Mem. II. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, ser. 5, vol. iii. p. 435, pi. ii.
figs. 15, 16. Planorbulina lobatula (W. and J.) Goes, 1894, K.
Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 88, pi. xv. fig. 774. T.
lobatula (d'Orb.) Egger, 1895, Naturhist. Ver. Passau, Jahresber.,
xvi. p. 31, pi. v. fig. 5. T. lobatula (W. and J.) Burrows and
Holland, 1897, Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xv. p. 47, pi. ii. fig. 24.
T. lobatula (Walker) Chapman, 1898, Journ. E. Micr. Soc, p. 2,
pi. i. fig. 2. T. lobatula (d'Orb.) Egger, 1899, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xxi. p. 151, pi. xxiii. figs. 12-14. T. lobatula
(W. and J.) Chapman, 1902, Proc. Boy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xxiii.
p. 392, pi. i. figs. 2, 3.

Truncatulina variabilis d'Orbigny.

Truncatulina variabilis d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii-
p. 279, No. 8 ; Idem, 1839, Foram. Canaries, p. 135, pi. ii. fig. 29.
T. variabilis (d'Orb.) Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool.
Soc, vol. xii. p. 227, pi. xlv. fig. 17. T. variabilis (d'Orb.) Terrigi,
1889, Mem. E. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 116, pi. vii. fig. 9.
T. variabilis (d'Orb.) Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890, Journ.
K. Micr. Soc, p. 562, pi. xi. fig. 22. T. variabilis (d'Orb.) Egger,
1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 404,
pi. xvi. figs. 57-59, 63, 64. T. variant (Eeuss) Hosius, 1893,
Verhandl. Naturhist. Ver. Preuss. Eheinl. Westph., Jahrg. 1, p. 127,
pi. ii. fig. 14. T. variabilis (d'Orb.) Jones, 1896, Palajont. Soc,
p. 309, pi. vi. fig. 23. T. variabilis (d'Orb.) Fornasini, 1896,
Eevista Ital. di Paleont., p. 95, pi.

These allied forms are widely distributed in the Malay Archi-
pelago, but are most abundant in Area 1. The examples are small
and weak.

Truncatulina Wudlerstorfi Scliwager sp.

Anomalina Wudlerstorfi Scliwager, 1886, Novara Exped., Geol.
Theil, vol. ii. p. 258, pi. vii. fig. 105. Truncatulina Wuellcrstorfi
(Schw.) Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 662, pi. xciii. figs. 8, 9. T.
Wudlerstorfi (Schw.) Uhlig, 1886, Jahrb. k. k. geol. Eeichs., vol.
xxxvi. p. 174, fig. 3. T. Wudlerstorfi (Schw.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl.
k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 397, pi. xvi. figs. 13-15.
Planorbulina Wudlerstorfi (Schw.) Goes, 1889, K. Svenska Vet.-
Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 89, pi. xv. fig. 777. T. Wuellcrstorfi
(Schw.) Egger, 1895, Naturhist. Ver. Passau, Jahresber., xvi. p. 31,
pi. v. fig. 6. T. Wudlerstorfi (Schw.) Chapman, 1893, Journ. E.
Micr. Soc, p. 3, pi. i. fig. 3. T. Wudlerstorfi (Schw.) Flint, 1899,
Eep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 333, pi. lxxvii. fig. 1.

This form is represented by a few weak examples from Station
27, in Area 2.

Report on Foraminifera. Bg F. W. Millett. 493

Truncatulina Haidingeri d'Orbigny sp.

Rotalina Haidingeri d'Orbigny, 1846, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 154,
pi. viii. figs. 7-0. Truncahdina Haidingeri (d'Orb.) Reuss, 1867,
Sitzungsber. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. lv. p. 100. T. Haidingeri
(d'Orb.) Toutkowski, 1888, Zap. Kievsk. Obsch. Estest., vol. ix.
p. 58, pi. viii. fig. 3. T. Haidingeri (d'Orb.) Terrigi, 1889, Mem.
It. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 118, pi. viii. figs. 7-9. T. {Rotalina)
Haidingeri (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abliandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 401, pi. xvi. figs. 25-27 ; Idem, 1895, Natur-
hist. Ver. Passau, Jahresber., xvi. p. 29, pi. v. fig. 1. Rotalina,
Haidingeri (d'Orb.) Idem, 1899, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
CI. II. vol. xxi. p. 159, pi. xxv. figs. 36-38; and R. Brueckncri
(Eeuss) p. 159, pi. xxv. figs. 19-2 1. T. Haidingeri (d'Orb.) Liebus,
1902, Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs., vol. lii. Heft i. p. 90, fig. 4.

r,J This also is a rare form in the Malay Archipelago, but it is
found at Stations in both Areas. The examples, although small,
are typical.

Truncatulina Ungeriana d'Orbigny sp.

Rotalina Ungeriana d'Orbigny, 1846, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 157,
pi. viii. figs. 16-18. T. Ungeriana (d'Orb.) Eeuss, 1865, Denkschr.
k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. xxv. p. 161. Planorbulina Ungeriana
(d'Orb.) Sherborn and Chapman, 1886, Journ. R. Micr. Soc, ser. 2,
vol. vi. p. 757, pi. xvi. fig. 16. T. Ungeriana (d'Orb.) Terrigi, 1889,
Mem. R. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 117, pi. viii. fig. 4; and
Truncatulina sp., p. 118, pi. viii. fig. 6. T. iuvoluta (Reuss) Fran-
zenau, 1899, Math, termesz. ertesito, vol. vii. p. 263, pi. iv. fig. 4.
T. Unqcriana (d'Orb.) Terrigi, 1891, Mem. R, Com. geol. d'ltalia,
vol. iv. p. 106, pi. iv. fig. 9. T. Ungeriana (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893,
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. (not described)
pi. xvi. figs. 19-21. T. Ungeriana (d'Orb.) Silvestri, 1893, Mem.
Pontif. Accad. Nuovi Lincei, vol. ix. p. 213, pi. vi. fig. 3. Planor-
bulina Ungeriana (d'Orb.) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad.
Handl., vol. xxv. p. 90, pi. xv. fig. 780. T. Ungeriana (d'Orb.)
Jones, 1896, Palseont. Soc, p. 312 (1886), pi. ii. figs. 11, 12. T.
Ungeriana (d'Orb.) Burrows and Holland, 1897, Proc. Ueol. Assoc,
vol. xv. p. 47, pi. ii. fig. 23. T. Ungeriana (d'Orb.) Egger, 1899,
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xxi. p. 150, pi. xix.
figs. 4-6. T. Ungeriana (d'Orb.) Flint, 1899, Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus.
for 1897 (1899), p. 333, pi. lxxvii. fig. 2.

This form is not quite so rare in the Malay Archipelago as
T. Haidingeri, and occurs at a greater number of Stations in both
Areas.

494 Transactions of the Society.

Truncatulina Akncriana d'Orbigny sp.

Rotalina Akncriana d'Orbigny, 184(3, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 156,
pi. viii. figs. 13-15. T. Akncriana (d'Orb.) Eeuss, 1865, Denkschr.
k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. xxv. p. 160. T. Ahicriana (d'Orb.)
Toutkowski, 1887, Zap. Kievsk.-Obsch. Estest., p. 46, pi. vi. figs. 1, 2.
T. Ackncriana (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 400, pi. xvi.figs. 60-62. T. {Rotalina) Ackncriana
(d'Orb.) Egger, 1895, Naturhist. Ver. Passau, Jahresber., xvi. p. 30,
pi. v. fig. 2. T. Akncriana (d'Orb.) Flint, 1899, Eep. U.S. Nat. Mus.
1897 (1899), p. 333, pi. lxxvii. fig. 5.

Is represented by a few characteristic examples from Stations
in Area 2.

Truncatulina prcecincta Karrer sp.

Rotalia prcecincta Karrer, 1868, Sitzungsber. k. Akad. Wiss
Wien, vol. lviii. p. 189, pi. v. fig. 7. T. prcecincta (Karr.) Brady,
1884, Chall. Kept., p. 667, pi. xcv. figs. 1-3. T. prcecincta (Karr.)
Terrigi, 1891, Mem. R. Com. geol. d'ltalia, vol. iv. p. 107, pi. iv.
fig. 11. T. prcecincta (Karr.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad.
Wiss., Cl.II.vol.xviii.p.403, pi. xvi.figs. 51-53. T. prcecincta (Karr.)
Fornasini, 1895, Mem. E. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, ser. 5, vol. v.
p. 12, pi. iv. fig. 36. T. prcecincta (Karr.) Flint, 1899, Eep. U.S.
Nat, Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 334, pi. lxxviii. fig. 1. T. prcecincta
var. ornata Silvestri, 1899, Mem. Pontif. Accad. Nuovi Lincei,
vol. xv. p. 299, pi. v. fig. 10.

This form also is very rare in the Malay Archipelago, and has
been noted only at Station 2 in Area 1, and at Station 22 in
Area 2.

According to Brady it most affects the coral reefs of the
tropics, at depths of from 15 to 225 fathoms.

Anomalina d'Orbigny.

Anomalina ammonoides Eeuss sp.

Rosalina ammonoides Eeuss, Geogn. Skizze Bohmen, p. 214;
and 1845, Verstein. bolnn. Kreide, p. 36, pi. viii. fig. 53, pi. xiii.
fig. 66. A. ammonoides (Eeuss) Brady, 1884, Chall. Eept., p. 672,
pi. xciv. figs. 2, 3. Planorbulina ammonoides (Eeuss) Sherborn and
Chapman, 1886, Journ. E. Micr. Soc., ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 756, pi. xvi.
fig. 14. Planorbulina ammonoides (Eeuss) Burrows, Sherborn,
and Bailey, 1890, Journ. E. Micr. Soc, p. 562, pi. xi. fig. 23.
A. (Rosalina) ammonoides (Eeuss) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 378, pi. xiii. fig. 35, pi. xiv.
figs. 36, 37. A. ammonoides (Eeuss) Woodward and Thomas, 1893
(1895), Geol. and Nat. Hist, Survey of Minnesota, vol. iii. p. 44, pi. d,

Report on Foraminifcra. By F. W. Millctt. 495

figs. 28, 29. A. ammonoides (Reuss) Perner, 1897, Ceska, Akad.
Cfsare Frantiska Josefa (Palseont. Bohemicse No. 4), p. 53, fig. 13.
A. ammonoides (Reuss) Fornasini, 1898, Mem. R. Accacl. Sci. 1st.
Bologna, ser. 5, vol. vii. p. 205, pi. fig. 24. A. ammonoides (Reuss)
Chapman, 1898, Journ. R. Micr. Soc, p. 4, pi. i fig. 5. A. ammo-
noides (Reuss) Egger, 1899, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II.
vol. xxi. p. 152, pi. xviii. figs. 10-12. A. ammonoides (Reuss) Flint.
1899, Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus.for 1897 (1899), p. 335, pi. lxxviii. fig. 4.
A. ammonoides (Reuss) Bagg, 1899, Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 88,
p. 07, pi. vi. fig. 5.

Anomal'uia grosscrugosa Giimbel sp.

Truncatulina grosscrugosa Giimbel, 1868, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., vol. x. p. 660, pi. ii. fig. 104. A. grosserugosa (Giimb.)
Brady, 1884, Chall. Rept., p. 673, pi. xcvi. figs. 4, 5. A. grosscrugosa
(Giimb.) Sherbom and Chapman, 1889, Journ. R, Micr. Soc., p. 487,
pi. xi. fig. 34. Truncatulina grosscrugosa (Giimb.) Terrigi, 1889,
Mem. R. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 117, pi. viii. fig. 5. A.
grosscrugosa (Giimb.) Burrows, Sherbom, and Bailey, 1890, Journ.
R. Micr. Soc, p. 563, pi. xi. fig. 25. A. grosscrugosa (Giimb.)
Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii.
p. 378, pi. xiv. figs. 4-6. A. grosscrugosa (Giimb.) var. Jones,
1897, Palseont. Soc, p. 315, pi. vii. fig. 30. A. grosscrugosa (Giimb.)
Burrows and Holland, 1897, Proc Geol. Assoc, vol. xv. p. 48, pi. ii:
fig. 26. A. grosscrugosa (Giimb.) Bagg, 1898, Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey,
No. 88, p. 67, pi. vi. fig. 4. A. grosserugosa (Giimb.) Flint, 1899,
Rep. U.S. Nat, Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 335, pi. lxxviii. fig. 5.
A. grosserugosa, (Giimb.) Chapman, 1900, Proc. California Acad, of
Sci., ser. 3, Geol., vol. i. p. 253, pi. xxx. fig. 9. A. grosserugosa
(Giimb.) Schubert, 1901, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesell., Jahrg.
1901, p. 21, figs. 5, 6.

Anomalina ariminensis d'Orbigny sp.

Flanulina ariminensis d'Orbignv, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat,, vol. vii.
p. 280, pi. xiv. figs. 1-3 ; Modele, No. 26. A. ariminensis (d'Orb.)
Brady, 1884, Chall. Rept., p. 674, pi. xciii. figs. 10, 11. A. arimi-
nensis (d'Orb.) Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc,
vol. xii. p. 228, pi. xiv. figs. 20-22. A. ariminensis (d'Orb.) Terrigi,
1891, Mem. R. Com. Geol. Italia, vol. iv. p. 107, pi. iv. fig. 12.
Planoruulina ariminensis (d'Orb.) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Vet.-
Akad. HandL, vol. xxv. p. 91, pi. xv. figs. 784, 785. A. ariminensis
(d'Orb.) Fornasini, 1895, Mem. R. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, ser. 5,
vol. v. p. 13, pi. iv. fig. 37. A. ariminensis (d'Orb.) Flint, 1899,
Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 335, pi. lxxix. fig. 1.

Of these three forms, ammonoides and grosserugosa are widely
distributed in the Malay Archipelago and occur at most of the

4:96 Transaction* of the Society.

Stations ; whilst arimincnsis is rare, although it is found in both
Areas. All the examples are small and thin-shelled.

A. grosserugosa is essentially a deep-water form. Brady gives
depths of from 345 to 2160 fathoms; Egger records it from one
'Gazelle' Station, at a depth of 371 fathoms; whilst the 'Alba-
tross' Stations ransre from 420 to 1019 fathoms.

Carpenter la Gray.

Carpentaria monticularis Carter.

Carpcntcria monticularis Carter, 1877, Ann. and Mag. Xat. Hist,,
ser. 4, vol. xix.p. 211, pi. xiii. figs. 9-12. C. monticularis (Carter)
Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii.
p. 439, pi. xxi. fig. 12. C. monticularis (Carter) Chapman, 1900,
Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), p. 14, pi. ii. fig. 5, pi. iv. figs. 5, 6.

This form is very rare in the Malay Archipelago, and has been
found only at Station 4 in Area 1.

Carpcntcria proteiformis Goes, plate X. figs. ), 2.

Carpcntcria halaniformis var. proteiformis Goes, 1882, K.
Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xix. p. 94, pi. vi. figs. 208-214,
pi. vii. figs. 215-219. C. lithothamnica Uhlig, 1886, Jahrb. k. k.
geol. Eeichs., vol. xxxvi. p. 189, pi. v. figs. 1, 2 ; and C. cf. protei-
formis (Goes) p. 188, pi. v. fig. 3. Karreria fallax, Ezehak, 1895,
Ann. k. k. Naturh. Hofmuseums, vol. x. part 2, p. 226, pi. vii.
figs. 7, 8. C. proteiformis Goes, 1896, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.
Harvard College, vol. xxix. p. 74, pi. vi. figs. 8-17. C. proteiformis
(Goes) Chapman, 1900, Journ. Linn. Soc, (Zool.), vol. xxviii. p. 195,
pi. xix. fig. 11.

This form is much more abundant than the preceding, and
occurs at several Stations in both Areas. Usually the examples
are irregular in growth and coarsely perforated as shown by fig. 1,
but there is a solitary specimen from Station 25, which bears a
remarkable resemblance to the example of Karreria fallax, figured
by Ezehak ; this is represented by fig. 2 in our Plate.

Puhinidina Barker and Jones.

Puhinulina rcpanda Fichtel and Moll sp.

Nautilus rcpanclus Fichtel and Moll, 1798, Test. Micr., p. 35,
pi. iii. figs. a-d. Puhinulina rcpanda (F. and M.) Parker and Jones,
1862, in Carpenter's Introd. Forain., p. 311. P. rcpanda (F. and M.)
Sherborn and Chapman, 1886, Journ. B. Micr. Soc, p. 757, pi. xvi.

Report oil Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett. 497

fig. 18. P. rcpanda (F.and M.) Egger, 1893, Abbandl.k. Layer. Akad.
Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 405, pi. xviii. figs. 28-30, 34, 35. P.

rcpanda (F. and M.) GoO's, 1894, K. Svenska Yet.-Akad. Haudl., vol.
xxv. p. 95, p]. xvi. fig. 801. P. rcpanda (F. and M.) Flint, 1899,
Eep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 328, pi. lxxii. fig. 8. P.
rcpanda (F. and M.) Jones and Chapman, 1900, in a Monograph of
Christmas Island, p. 228, pi. xx. fig. 1.

This species is not common in the Malay Archipelago, but it is
widely distributed and the examples are large and well-grown.

Pulcinvliaa conccntrica Parker and Jones.

Pu/cin/dina conccntrica (P. and J., Ms.) Brady, 18G4, Trans.
Linn. Soc, vol. xxiv. p. 470, pi. xlviii. fig. 14. P. conccntrica
(P. and J.) Uhlig, 1886, Jahrb. k. k. geol. Beichs., vol. xxxvi. p. 190,
pi. iii. figs. 3, 4. P. conccntrica (P. and J.) Grzybowski, 1894,
Bozprawy Wydz. Mat.-Przyr. Akad. Umiej-Krakowie, vol. xxix.
p. 202, pi. iv.*fig. 9.

This form is very rare, being represented by a solitary speci-
men from Station 13.

Pulvinulina lateralis Terquem sp.

Bosalina lateralis Terquem, 1878, Mem. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3;
vol. i. p. 25, pi. vii. fig, 11. Pulcinulina lateralis (Terq.) Brady,
1884, Chall. Eept, p. 689, pi. civ. figs. 2, 3. P. lateralis (Terq.)
Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. baycr. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii.
p. 413, pi. xviii. figs. 48-50.

This form, which in the living condition appears to be nothing
more than a wild-growing variety of P. repanda, is tolerably
plentiful at Station 22, and is represented at a tew other Stations
mostly in Area 2.

Like P. rcpanda it is a shallow-water variety. Our knowledge
of its distribution in the existing seas, is confined to the localities
mentioned by Brady, and the solitary Station recorded by Egger.

Pulvinulina oblonga Williamson sp.

Nautilus auricula var. /3, Fichtel and Moll, 1798, Test. Micr.,
p. 110, pi. xx. figs, d, c, f. Rotalina oblonga Williamson, 1858,
Eec. Foram. Gt. Britain, p. 51, pi. iv. figs. 98-100. Pvlvinulina
rcpanda var. auricula (F. and M.) Parker and Jones, 1862, Introd.
Foram., App., p. 311. P. oblonga (Will.) Brady, Parker, and Jones,
1888, Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. xi'i. p. 229, pi. xlvi. fig. 5. P. oblonga
(Will.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol.
xviii. p. 415, pi. xvii. fi^s. 23-25. P. oblonga (Will.) Grzybowski,

498 Transactions of the Society.

1894, Eozprawy Wydz Mat.-Przyr. Akad. Umiej-Krakowie, vol.
xxix. p. 203, pi. iv. fig. 8.

This form is well represented, and occurs abundantly at most
of the Stations in both Areas. The examples ore large and
usually have a clear patch on the septal face, similar to that found
in recent specimens of P. Hduerii.

Pulvinulina ohlonga AVilliamson sp. var. carinata var. n.,

plate X. fig. 3.

This is a well-marked variety, and differs from the type in
having an acute ridge down the centre of the septal face ; this
peculiarity causes the transverse section of the chambers to be of
a triangular form.

It occurs at a few Stations, but in small numbers.

Pulvinulina Brongniartii d'Orbigny sp., plate X. fig. 4.

llotalia Brongniartii d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 273, No. 27. Rotalina Brongniarti Idem, 1846, Tor. Foss.
Vienne, p. 158, pi. viii. figs. 22-24. Pulvinulina auricula (F.
and M.) Parker, Jones, and Brady, 1871, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 4, vol. viii. p. 173, pi. xii. fig. 143.

This variety of the P. auricula group is so abundant in the
Malay Archipelago, and its characters so persistent, that it may be
worth while to record it under the name given to it by d'Orbigny.

The chambers are ventricose, and the sutures limbate, and
formed of clear shelly matter.

It is common at several Stations in both Areas.

Pulvinulina Haucrii d'Orbigny sp.

Rotalina Haucrii d'Orbigny, 1816, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 151,
pi. vii. figs. 22-24. Pulvinulina Haucrii (d'Orb.) Brady, 1884,
Chall. Eept., p. 690, pi. cvi. figs. 6, 7. P. petrolci Andreae, 1884,
Abhandl. geol. Special-Karte Elsass-Loth., vol. ii. p. 217, pi. viii.
fig. 15. P. {Rotalina) Haueri (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k.
bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. 11. vol. xviii. p. 414, pi. xvii. figs. 29-31.
P. Hauerii (d'Orb.) "Woodward and Thomas, 1893, Geol. and Nat.
Hist. Survey of Minnesota, vol. iii. p. 44, pi. E, fig. 34. P. Hauerii
(d'Orb.) Chapman, 1898, Journ. E. Micr. Soc, p. 5, pi. i. fig. 7.
P. Haucrii (d'Orb.) Egger, 1899, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
CI. II. vol. xxi. p. 154, pi. xviii. figs. 4-6.

Abundant at two or three Stations, and occurs at several others
in both Areas. All the examples possess the characters shown in
Brady's drawing, pi. civ. fig. 6.

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millctt. 499

Pulvinulina Mcnardii d'Orbigny sp.

Botalia Mcnardii d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nut., vol. vii.
p. 273, No. 26 ; Modele, No. 10. Pulvinulina repanda var.
Mcnardii (d'Orb.) Parker and Jones, 1865, Phil. Trans., vol. civ.
p. 394, pi. xvi. figs. 35-37. P. Mcnardii (d'Orb.) Malagoli, 1887,
Boll. Soc. Geol. Italia, vol. vi. p. 523, pi. xiii. fig. 10. P. Mcnardii
(d'Orb.) Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. xii.
p. 228, pi. xlvi. fig. 3. P. Mcnardii (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl.
k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., 01. II. vol. xviii. p. 411, pi. xvii. figs. 7-9,
10-12. P. Mcnardii (d'Orb.) Woodward and Thomas, 1893, Geol.
and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minnesota, vol. iii. p. 45, pi. E, fig. 33.
DiscorUna pusilla (Uhlig) Grzybowski, 1894, Rozprawy Wydz.
Mat.-Przyr. Akad. Umiej-Krakowie, vol. xxix. p. 197, pi. iii. fig. 7.
P. Mcnardii (d'Orb.) Burrows and Holland, 1897, Proc. Geol.
Assoc, vol. xv. p. 48, pi. ii. fig. 22. P. Mcnardii (d'Orb.) Flint,
1899, Pep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 329, pi. lxxiii. fig. 3.
P. Mcnardii (d'Orb.) Pliurnbler, 1900, in Dr. Karl Brandt's
Nordisches Plankton, Heft 14, p. 14, figs. 6-8; Idem, 1902r
Zeitschr. far allgem. Pbys., vol. ii. part 2, p. 234, fig. 67. P.
Mcnardii (d'Orb.) Fornasini, 1902, Mem. E. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna,
ser. 5a, vol. x. p. 58, fig. 55.

Pulvinulina Mcnardii d'Orbigny var. fimbriata Brady.

Pulvinulina Mcnardii var. finibriata Brady, 1884, Cliall. Kept.',
p. 691, pi. ciii. fig. 3. P. fimh'iata (Brady) Egger, 1893, Abhandl.
k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 412, pi. xvii. fig. 19.
P. Mcnardii var. fimoriata (Brady) Flint, 1899, Rep. U.S. Nat,
Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 329, pi. lxxiii. fig. 4. P. Mcnardii var.
fimbriata (Brady) Rhumbler, 1900, in Dr. Karl Brandt's Nordisches
Plankton, Heft 14, p. 16, fig. 9.

The normal form, although stunted in growth, is plentiful and
widely distributed throughout the region.

Wherever the type is abundant, examples occur which have
the margin more or less fimbriated.

o

Pulvinulina tumida Brady.

Pulvinulina Mcnardii var. tumida Brady, 1877, Geol. Mag.,
ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 535. P. tumida Idem, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 692,
pi. ciii. figs. 4-6. P. tumida (Brady) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k.
bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 414, pi. xvii. figs. 4-6,
35-37, 44. P. tumida (Brady) Flint, 1899, Pep. U.S. Nat. Mus.
for 1897 (1899), p. 329, pi. lxxiii. fig. 5.

This thick variety is but poorly represented, and has been
noted at two Stations only, and there only in small quantities.

500 Transactions of. the Society.

Puhinulina canaricnsis d'Orbigny sp.

Botalina canaricnsis d'Orbigny, 1830, Foram. Canaries, p. 130,
pi. i. figs. 34-36. Puhinulina repanda var. Menarclii subvar.
canaricnsis (d'Orb.) Parker and Jones, 1865, Phil. Trans., vol. civ.
p. 395, pi. xvi. figs. 47-49. P. canaricnsis (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893,
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 413, pi. xvii.
figs. 20-22. P. canaricnsis (d'Orb.) Ehumbler, 1900, in Dr. Karl
Brandt's Nordisches Plankton, Heft 14, p. 16, fig. 10.

Puhinulina patagonica d'Orbigny sp.

Botalina patagonica d'Orbigny, 1843, Forain. Amer. Merid.,
p. 36, pi. ii. figs. 6-8. Pulvinulina scitula Brady, 1882, Proc Boy.
Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xi. p. 716. P. scitula (Brady) Balkwill and
Millett, 1884, Journ. Micr., vol. iii. p. 85, pi. iv. fig. 12. P. pata-
gonica (d'Orb.) Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 693. pi. ciii. fig. 7.
P. patagonica (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad.
Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 413, pi. xvii. figs. 16-18. P. patagonica
(d'Orb.) Ehumbler, 1900, in Dr. Karl Brandt's Nordisches Plankton,
Heft 14, p. 13, fig. 5.

These closely allied forms are scarce in the Malay Archipelago,
and restricted to a few Stations. Of the two canaricnsis is the
less rare.

Pulvinulina crassa d'Orbigny sp.

Botalina crassa d'Orbigny, 1840, Mem. Soc. Geol. France,
vol. iv. p. 32, pi. iii. figs. 7, 8. Puhinulina crassa (d'Orb.) S. B.
J. Owen, 1867, Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vol. ix. p. 148, pi. v.
figs. 18, 19. P. crassa (d'Orb.) Terrigi, 1891, Mem. E. Com. Geol.
Italia, vol. iv. p. 108, pi. iv. fig. 13. P. crassa (d'Orb.) Egger,
1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 416,
pi. xviii. figs. 7-12. P. crassa (d'Orb.) Flint, 1897, Bep. U.S. Nat.
Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 329, pi. lxxiv. fig. 1. P. crassa (d'Orb.)
Pihumbler, 1900, in Dr. Karl Brandt's Nordisches Plankton, Heft
14, p. 17, figs. 12, 14, 15.

This also is a rare form in the Malay Archipelago. The
examples, although small, are characteristic.

Puhinulina Michcliniana d'Orbigny sp.

Botalina truncatulinoidcs d'Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Canaries,
p. 132, pi. ii. figs. 25-27. Botalina Michcliniana Idem, 1840,
Mem. Soc. Geol. France, vol. iv. p. 31, pi. iii. figs. 1-3. Puhinu-
lina repanda var. Menardii subvar. Michcliniana (d'Orb.) Parker
and Jones, 1865, Phil. Trans., vol. civ. p. 396, pi. xvi. figs. 41-43 ;
pi. xiv. fig. 16. P. Michcliniana (d'Orb.) Brady, Parker, and
Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. xii. p. 229, pi. xlvi. fig. 10.

Report on Foraminifcra. By F. W. Millett. 501

Botalina Michelini (d'Orb.) Fritel, 1888, Foss. Caract. terr. sed.
second., pi. xx. figs. 33-35. Rotalia Michelini (d'Orb.) Beissel
(Holzapfel), 1891, Abhandl. k. Preuss. geol. Landesanst, N.F.,
Heft 3, p. 73, pi. xiv. figs. 7-10. P. Micheliniana (d'Orb.) Egger,
1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 416,
pl. xviii. figs. 1-6. Botalina Micheliniana (d'Orb.) Idem, 1899,
Ibid., vol. xxi. p. 155, pl. xx. figs. 1-3. P. truncahdinoicles (d'Orb.)
Ehunibler, 1900, in Dr. Karl Brandt's Nordisches Plankton, Heft
14, p. 17, fig. 16.

In according precedence to the trivial name truncatulinoides,
Dr. Rhumbler is no doubt technically right, that is, as far as the
dates on the title pages are concerned ; but the name Micheliniana
is so well established, that even a slight excuse for its retention
may be willingly accepted. The uncertainty of d'Orbigny's dates
is shown by the fact that the memoirs on the foraminifera of the
Canary Isles, and of South America both bear on the title the
date 1839. On the very first page of the latter work allusion is
made to a memoir published in 1840, and this is asserted to have
been issued in the year previous to 1839, whilst to complete the
incongruity the original wrapper of my copy bears the date 1843.
Brady, in his ' Challenger ' lteport, notices some of these dis-
crepancies and accords preference to the name Micheliniana.

The form is rare in the Malay Archipelago, and has been found
only at Station 2.

Pidvinulina Schreibcrsii d'Orbigny sp.

Botalina Schreibersii d'Orbigny, 1846, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 154,
pl. viii. figs. 4-6. Pidvinulina Schreibcrsii (d'Orb.) Parker and
Jones, 1865, Phil. Trans., vol. civ. p. 393. P. Schreibersii (d'Orb.)
Bradv, Parker, and Jones, Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. xii. p. 228,
pl. xlvi. fig. 4. P. Schreibcrsii (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k.
bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 409, pl. xviii. figs. 31-33,
67-69.

This form also is rare in the -Malay Archipelago, and has been
observed only in Area 2.

Pidvimdina elegans d'Orbigny sp.

Rotalia (Turbinulina) elegans d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.,
vol. xii. p. 276, No. 54. Pidvinulina elegans (d'Orb.) Jones and
Parker, 1864, Geologist, vol. vii. p. 88. P. elegans (d'Orb.) Brady.
Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. xii. p. 228, pl. xlvi.
fig. 2. P. elegans (d'Orb.) Sherborn and Chapman, 1889, Journ.
E. Micr. Soc, p. 489, pl. xi. figs. 30-32. Rotalia cf. Bouci (d'Orb.)
Beissel (Holzapfel), 1891, p. 72, pl. xiv. figs. 25-29. P. elegans
(d'Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II.
vol. xviii. p. 410, pl. xviii. figs. 37-39. P. elegans (d'Orb.)

E

02 Transactions of the Society.

Fornasini, 1893, Mem. E. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, ser. 5, vol. iii.
p. 435, pi. ii. fig. 18. P. clegans (d'Orb.) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska
Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 97, pi. xvi. fig. 808. P. clegans
(d'Orb.) Jones, 1895, Palseont. Soc, p. 324, pi. vii. fig. 32. P.
clegans (d'Orb.) Chapman, 1898, Jonrn. E. Micr. Soc, p. 6, pi. i.
fig. 8. P. clegans (d'Orb.) Flint, 1899, Eep. U.S. Nat. Mns. for
1897 (1899), p. 331, pi. lxxv. fig. 1.

Pulvinulina PartscMana d'Orbigny sp.

Rotalina PartscMana d'Orbigny, 184G, For. Foss. Vienne,
p. 153, pi. vii. figs. 28-30 ; pi. viii. figs. 1-3. Pulvinulina repanda
var. clegans (d'Orb.) Parker and Jones, 1805, Phil. Trans., vol. civ.
p. 397, pi. xvi. figs. 44-46. P. PartscMana (d'Orb.) Fgger, 1893,
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 410, pi. xvii.
fig. 43, pi. xviii. figs. 25-27. P. (Rotalina) PartscMana (d'Orb.)
Idem, 1895, Naturhist. Ver. Passan, Jahresber., xvi. p. 33, pi. v.
fig. 9. P. PartscMana (d'Orb.) Grzybowski, 1897, Eozprawy Wydz.
Mat.-Przyr. Akad. Umiej-Krakowie, vol. xxxiii. p. 299, pi. xii.
fig. 25. P. PartscMana (d'Orb.) Egger, 1899, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., 01. II. vol. xxi. p. 154, pi. xx. figs. 10-12. P. Part-
scMana (d'Orb.) Flint, 1899, Eep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897 (1899),
p. 331, pi. lxxv. fig. 3.

Although these allied forms occur at several Stations in both
Areas; the examples are very small and weak, and nowhere
numerous.

Pulvinulina Berthclotiana d'Orbigny sp.

Rotalina Befthelotiana d'Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Canaries, p. 130,
pi. i. figs. 31-33. Pulvinulina Bcrtlielotiana (d'Orb.) Parker and
Jones, 1865, Phil. Trans., vol. civ. p. 393. P. Bcrtheloliana (d'Orb.)
De Amicis, 1893, Boll. Soc. Geol. Italia, vol. xii. p. 455, pi. iii.
fig. 12.

Is represented by a solitary, but fine specimen from Station 2
in Area 1.

Little is known of its distribution in the living condition ;
(1 Orbigny found it in the sand of Teneriffe, and Brady records
two ' Challenger' Stations, both near the coast of Papua, at depths
from 16 to 25 fathoms.

Botalia Lamarck.

Botalia Bcecarii Linne sp.

Cornu Ammonis Plancus, 1739, Conch. Min., p. 8, pi. i. fig. 1.
Nautilus Beccarii Linne, 1758, Syst. Nat., p. 710, No. 237. Botalia

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett. 503

(Titrbinidina) Becarii (Turt.) d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.,
vol. vii. p. 275, No. 42. R. Bcccarii (Linne) Wright, 1886, Proc.
Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1884-1885, App. ix. p. 332, pi. xxvii.
fig. 15. R. Bcccari (Linne) Malagoli, 1887, Boll. Soc. Geol. Italia,
vol. vi. p. 523, pi. xiii. fig. 11. R. Bcccari var. ammoniformis Idem,
Ibid., p. 523, pi. xiii. fig. 12 ; Idem, 1888, Atti Soc. Nat. Modena,
ser. 3, vol. vii. p. 113, pi. iii. fig. 10. R. Bcccarii (Linn6) Terrigi,
1889, Mem. E. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 119, pi. viii. fig. 5.
Rotalina Bcccarii (Linne') Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad.
Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 420, pi. xix. figs. 25-27. Rotalina Bcccarii
(Linne) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 99,
pi. xvi. 'fig. 811. R, Bcccarii (Linne) Bhumbler, 1894, Zeitschr.
fur Wiss. Zool., vol. lvii. p. 574, pi. xxii. fig. 41. R. Bcccarii (Linn6)
Lister, 1895, Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxvi. p. 436, pi. viii. figs. 38-40.
R. Bcccarii (Linne) Fornasini, 1898, Mem. E. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna,
p. 259, figs. R. Bcccarii (Linne) Flint, 1899, Eep. U.S. Nat. Mus.
for 1897 (1899), p. 331, pi. lxxv. fig. 2. R, Bcccarii (Linne) Wright,
1900, Geol. Mag., dec. 4, vol. vii. p. 100, pi. v. fig. 22. R. Bcccarii
(Linne) Fornasini, 1902, Mem. E. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, ser. 5a,
vol. x. p. 59, figs. 56-58. R. Bcccarii (Linne) Chapman, 1902, The
Foraminifera, p. 37, fig. 23. R. Bcccarii (Linne) Lister, 1903, The
Foraminifera, in Lankester's Zoology, p. 120, fig. 50.

This well-known form is very abundant and occurs at nearly
all of the Stations. The examples are small, but are marked with,
great variety, not only in the number and degree of inflation of
the chambers, but also in the thickness and translucency of the
shell-substance.

Rotalia Brocckhiana Karrer.

Rotalia Brocckhiana Karrer, 1878, in Drasche's Geol. Luzon,
p. 98, pi. v. fig. 26. Rotalina Brocckhiana (Karr.) Egger, 1893,
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 421, pi. xix.
figs. 19-21.

This even at its best is a very unsatisfactory form, and the
Malay Archipelago examples, which are always found in company
with R. Bcccarii, are small and poor.

Brady records it from off Ki Islands, 580 fathoms. The solitary
'Gazelle' Station is West Australia, 196 fathoms.

Rotalia Soldanii d'Orbigny.

Rotalia (Gyroidina) Soldanii d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.,
vol. vii. p. 278, No. 5; Modele, No. 36. R. Soldanii (d'Orb.)
Terrigi, 1891, Mem. E. Com. Geol. Italia, vol. iv. p. 109, pi. iv.
fig. 15. Rotalina Soldanii (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer.

504 Transactions of the Society.

Akad. Wiss.; CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 420, pi. xix. figs. 16-18, 51.
Rotcdina Soldanii (d'Orb.) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad.
Handl., vol. xxv. p. 99, pi. xvi. fig. 812. Botalina Soldanii (d'Orb.)
Egger, 1895, Naturhist. Ver. Passau, Jahresber., xvi. p. 34, pi. v.
fig. 10. R. Soldanii (d'Orb.) Grzybowski, 1897, Bozprawy Wydz.
Mat.-Przyr. Akad. Umiej-Krakowie, vol. xxxiii. p. 300, pi. xii.
fig. 23. R. Soldanii (d'Orb.) Silvestri, 1899, Mem. Pontif. Accad.
Nuovi Lincei, vol. vi. p. 328, pi. vi. fig. 14. R. Soldanii (d'Orb.)
Flint, 1899, Pep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 332, pi. 1 xxv.
fig. 4. Rotalina Soldanii (d'Orb.) Egger, 1899, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xxi. p. 156, pi. xx. figs. 26-28.

This form is found at two Stations in considerable numbers,
but the examples are small and weak. They vary in the direction
of R. orbicularis, but no typical specimens of this latter form have
been observed.

Rotalia Schroeteriana Parker and Jones.

Ammonshorn Schroeter, 1784, Neue Lift, u. Beytriige, vol. i.
p. 307, pi. i. fig. 1. Faujasina sp., Williamson, 1853, Trans. Micr.
Soc. London, ser. 2, vol. i. p. 87, pi. x. figs. 1-6. R, Schroeteriana
(Parker and Jones, M.S.) Carpenter, 1862, Introd. Forain. p. 212,
pi. iv. fig. 3, pi. xiii. figs. 7-9. Rotalina Schroeteriana (Carpenter)
Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad.Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 422,
pi. xix. figs. 10-12. R. Schroeteriana (P. and J.) Flint, 1899, Eep.
U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897 (1399), p. 338, pi. lxxvi. fig. 1.

This fine species is abundant, large and typical, at Stations 14

and 17.

Schroeter records it from Tramjuebar, and states that the
examples are the size of poppy-seeds. Brady * writes, " No well-
marked specimens of Rotalia Schroeteriana have been met with in
the ' Challenger ' dredgings. Though somewhat local in distribu-
tion, it is by no means rare amongst the islands of the Eastern
Archipelago, at depths of less than 50 or 60 fathoms." The
• Gazelle ' Stations are West Australia, Amboyna and New Guinea,
at depths of from 30 to 560 fathoms. The ' Albatross ' locality is
not recorded.

Rotalia Schroeteriana Parker and Jones, var. inflata var. n.,

plate X. fig. 5.

This is an interesting variety which occurs in great profusion
throughout the region. The conical form of the test and the flat
superior face indicate that it is a modification of R. Schroeteriana ;
whilst being constant in maintaining the conical shape, the surface

* Chall. Rept., 1SS4. p. TOT.

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett. 505

is subject to great variation, being smooth in some examples,
whilst others are beset with tubercles and spines in various
degrees. The peripheral margin is more or less fimbriate and
often deeply indented at the sutures. A series of umbilical lobes
is always present.

The example illustrated shows all these characters in a modified
form.

Rotalia papillosa Brady.

B. papillosa Brady, 1884, Chall. Eept., p. 708, pi. cvi. fig. 9.
B. papulosa (Brady) Flint, 1899, Eep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897
(1899), p. 322, pi. Ixxvi. fig. 2.

At Station 13 in Area 1 this form is common, and it occurs
sparingly at a few other Stations in both Areas.

Brady states that it was obtained at seven 'Challenger'
Stations in the South Pacific, and at one in the North Pacific, at
depths of from 2 to 37 fathoms. The ' Albatross ' locality is not
recorded.

Botalia annectens Parker and Jones, plate X. fig. 6.

Botalia annectens Parker and Jones, 1865, Phil. Trans., vol. civ.
pp. 3S7, 422, pi. xix. fig. 11.

Parker and Jones describe this as " A well-developed conus-
shaped Eotalia, which has on its under or umbilical surface,,
partially formed secondary chambers, owing to angular processes
of the septa nipping the umbilical lobes. It is thus a passage-
form between B. Schroctcriana P. and J., and B. (Aster igcrina)
lobata d'Orbigny." The localities given are Hong Kong (anchor-
mud) and Fiji (coral-reef).

The Malay examples are less conical than the type, and the
angular processes of the septa are not so well marked.

It occurs sparingly at Stations 14 and 17.

Botalia annectens Parker and Jones, var. concinna var. n.,

plate X. fig. 7.

This is a neat compact form, subject to but little variation.
The sutures on the inferior face of the test are deeply excavated,
forming angular depressions which increase in width as they recede
from the peripheral margin. They are bordered by two rows of
tubercles, which combine to form a zigzag beading encircling the
test. The supplementary chambers are obtuse on the superior
margin, and usually cover the whole of the umbilical region. In
the example selected for illustration these lobes are absent from

Oct. 19th, 1904 2 n

506 Transactions of the Society.

a portion of the test, and are replaced by large clear tubercles or
beads.

The variety occurs at the same Stations as the type, as well as
at a few others in both Areas.

Rotalina calcar d'Orbigny sp.

Calcarina calcar d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii. p. 276,
No. 1 ; Modele, No. 34. Rotalia calcar (d'Orb.) Brady, 1884, Chall.
Kept., p. 709, pi. cviii. fig. 3. Rotalina calcar (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893,
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 423, pi. xix.
fisjs. 1-3.

o"

Rotalia venusta Brady.

Rotalia venusta Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 708, pi. cviii.
fig. 2. Rotalina venusta (Brady) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 422, pi. xix. figs. 13-15.

Whilst a few more or less typical examples of these two species
occur in the Malay Archipelago, the greater mass is made up of
forms in which the characters of both are so intermixed that it is
useless to attempt to separate them. They both occur in con-
siderable numbers at several of the Stations in both Areas.

For the occurrence of R. venusta, Brady names five South
Pacific Stations, 3 to 11 fathoms ; and off Calpentyn, Ceylon,
2 fathoms, or thereabouts. The ' Gazelle ' locality is off the Cape
of Good Hope, 50 fathoms.

Rotalia pulchella d'Orbigny sp.

Calcarina pulchella d'Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Cuba, pp. 80, 92,
pi. v. figs. 16-18. Rotalia pulchella (d'Orb.) Brady, 1884, Chall.
Kept., p. 710, pi. cxv. fig. 8. R. pulchella (d'Orb.) Flint, 1899, Rep.
U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897 (1899), p. 332, pi. lxxvi. fig. 3.

This beautiful little form is very abundant at Station 17, and
occurs sparingly at other Stations in both Areas. The inferior
surface of the test is much more complex than would appear from
the published drawings, and is almost identical with that of
R. annectens var. concinna. The superior face is usually of a
delicate fawn colour.

With respect to its general distribution, d'Orbigny found a
few examples in sand from Cuba ; Brady gives ' Challenger '
Stations, Kandavu, 255 fathoms; and Humboldt Bay, Papua,
37 fathoms. He also states that it has been obtained from the
Straits of Banca, 7 or 8 fathoms ; off Java ; and off Penang. The
' Albatross ' locality is not recorded.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICEOSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA,

a. Embryology, f

Some Problems of Reproduction .} — Marcus Hartog points out
that the term "fertilisation" as actually used is too ambiguous for
scientific precision. In its first and older sense it denotes the starting
into active cell-life and multiplication of a resting-cell, and should pro-
perly be regarded as one case of germination. In its second sense,
regarded now-a-days as the " strict " sense, it denotes a process of
cellular (or nuclear) fusion, and is better designated as " syngamy."

Syngamy is not necessarily associated with germination ; on the
contrary, in the most primitive types the cell freshly produced by
syngamy (the zygote) passes into a condition of rest, or gives rise only
to a limited brood of resting-cells, which will only germinate after the
lapse of time and under favourable conditions. The formation of a
membrane round the oosphere at the onset of syngamy in Metazoa and
Metaphyta is probably the last trace of this, the original consequence
of syngamy.

Syngamy includes internal karyogamy and merogony, as well as the
pairing of separate individual cells. It seems possible that in the
Alcyonarians the oosphere is non-nucleate, and that the nucleus of the
oosperm is exclusively male, as in that produced by merogony.

Progamic cell-divisions come under three formulas :

(a) Gametes are morphologically equal to zoospores, and are there-
fore produced by multiple cell-divisions.

(b) No tissue-cell ever becomes directly transformed into a gamete.

(c) Karyogamy (with the possible exception of the Basidiomycetes)

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we." and they
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
butalso those dealingwith Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and allied subjects.

X Quart. Journ. Micr. ScL, xlvii. (1904) pp. 583-608.

2 N 2

508 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

is never possible where both the pairing-cells (or nuclei) have had a
share in active cell-life or growth.

Progamic divisions and reducing divisions, though sometimes co-
incident (as in Metazoa), are not necessarily associated, but may be
widely divided in the life-cycle where there is " antithetic alternation of
generations."

The germ formed by parthenogeny or merogony can double the
number of its chromosomes.

As to the role of the sperm, there has been much debate. One
school sees in it merely the bearing-in of the ferment that starts the
oosperm into development, or of a new centrosome to the oosphere
which has lost its own during the formation of the polar bodies.
Another school refuses to consider anything but the male nucleus,
which indeed constitutes the bulk of the sperm at its entrance. Others,
again, insist that however small be the cytoplasm of the sperm in
quantity, it is by no means negligible in quality. This third view is a
decided under-statement of the case. " The impulse for division given
by the sperm is no essential phenomenon of syngamous union ; it is
conditioned by the differentiation of binary sex, and is the indirect
consequence of that reduction of the sperm which makes its growth
within the egg the necessary prelude of complete fusion therewith."

Maturation Divisions in Vertebrates.* — A. and K. E. Schreiner
have studied the details of chromatin division and reduction in the
spermatogenesis of Myxine glutinosa and Spinax niger. The prepara-
tion of the chromatin for division and the divisions themselves are
similar in both spermatogenesis and oogenesis. In the spermatogonium
there is the same number of maternal and paternal chromosomes, of
which every pair (male and female) are homologous. At the first phase
the chromatin of the single chromosomes divides into fine threads,
which by the controlling of the centriole come to lie parallel to each
other, slightly converging towards the sphere. The homologous chromo-
somes mutually attract, and the chromatin glides in long tracts till all
homologous chromosomes have found each other and have lain parallel.
They then blend more or less closely. The double threads contract, and
next there is a lengthwise splitting of both components. Next the
thread segments crosswise, so that each piece consists of two homologous
chromosomes, whose number on this account amounts to half the
number characteristic for the spermatogonium and the somatic cells.
By means of the first maturation division the components of the
double chromosomes are separated from one another. This is a reduc-
tion division. The second is in no way distinguished from the usual
equatorial division. The preparation for maturation divisions in Verte-
brates cannot be brought into agreement with Boveri's scheme \ for the
illustration of the mechanics of the reduction divisions, since here
reduction is by means of the first division, and the single chromosomes
behave in mitoses quite similarly to the daughter elements of the
chromosomes in ordinary mitoses, i.e. they are connected with the one-

* Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 561-78.

f Ergebn. iiber die Konstitution der cliromatischen Substanz des Zellkerns,
Jena, 1904.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 509

spindle pole only. Even if the view be taken that the reduction takes
place at the second division, this does not correspond to Boveri's scheme,
since the spindle threads disappear after the first division, and a nuclear
membrane is developed and new spindle threads are formed before the
second division.

Phagocytic Absorption of Ova by Follicle Cells in Fasting
Newt.* — Ch. Perez describes this interesting phenomenon in a newt,
Molge marmorata Dum. et Bibr., which had fasted for four months.
Besides ova in process of normal growth, there were others of an orange
colour (identical with that of the adipose bodies) which were obviously
in process of being absorbed by those very elements which serve
normally for their nutrition. This is a good example of a phase of
internal struggle which could hardly have leen predicted, even as a
possibility, from what is known of the normal conditions.

Parthenogenetic Development of Lamprey's Ova.f — E. Bataillon
has succeeded in evoking segmentation on to the blastula stage in un-
unfertilised ova of Petromyzon planeri, by placing them in a 5-6 p.c.
sugar solution or in a salt solution. The removal of water by the
solutions is regarded as the effective stimulus inducing cleavage.

Experiments on the Developing Ova of the Frog.| — Georges
Bohn records some interesting effects of light on the development of
the ova of Rana temporaria, e.g. the general inhibitive effect, com-
parable to the results of radium-influence. The advent of meta-
morphosis appears to be in great part due to nutritive influences.
Green algse may have a more or less important influence on . the
development of the ova ; there is sometimes a kind of symbiosis, the
occurrence of which may give rise to a kind of pcecilogony.

Development of Human Milk Glands.§ — H. Eggeling describes
certain early stages in the development of the human mammary gland,
hitherto not very clearly known. His results prove that if we are not
to accept the ^view that the lacteal glands are sui generis, we must
regard them as homologous with sweat-glands. He is emphatically of
opinion that both have proceeded in different directions from a primitive
" merocrine " skin-gland.

Development of Mandibular Articulation. || — Knut Kjellberg has
directed special attention to the -" meniscus " in the mammalian articu-
lation between the mandible and the squamosal. His observations on
various embryos lead him to accept the general hypothesis that the
articular and quadrate of Sauropsida are represented by the malleus and
incus in Mammals, that the articular when enclosed in the tympanic
cavity took with it a 'portion of the M. pierygoideus extermis, while
other considerable portions remained attached to the dentary and its
condyle, that the most posterior muscular portion is squeezed in between

* Proc. Verb. Soc. Sci. Bordeaux, 1903, pp. 73-4.

t Comptes Rendus, cxxxvii. (1903) pp. 79-80.

t Op. cit., cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1244-5.

§ Ariat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 595-605.

j| Morphol. Jahrb., xxxii. (1904) pp. 159-84 (8 fipe.\

510 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the tympanic and the squamosal, and forms at least a part of the
ligamentum anterius mallei, and that the next region in front has passed
between the condyle and the squamosal and become the articular
meniscus.

Transition between Internal Iliac and Umbilical Arteries in the
New-born.* — E. Argand finds that the structural transition between
the hypogastric artery and the umbilical artery happens in the internal
half of the intra-abdominal part of the latter. The calibre of the vessel
progressively diminishes and the vascular walls thicken. This thicken-
ing seems to result from the formation of new longitudinal muscular
fascicles. The elastic layers of the media begin to resolve into extra-
ordinarily thin fibres. Then the internal elastic coat thins out and
fibrillates in like manner. The delimitation between the internal tunic
and the middle tunic becomes now very difficult, not to say impossible.
It is only by analogy with the structure of the other arteries in the new-
born that we consider the internal tunic as reduced to a vascular
epithelium backed externally by a very thin connective tissue. The
structural transformation of the umbilical artery begins near the hypo-
gastric by local thickening of the wall as a longitudinal ridge, at whose
level the artery is not long in presenting the characters seen in its extra-
abdominal passage. A second thickening now appears, all the vessel
thickens, and the structure of the umbilical artery is realised.

Development of Nerve Fibres.f — A. von Kolliker champions the
view that all nerve-fibres in Vertebrates are direct protoplasmic out-
growths of peripheral or central nerve-cells, each nerve-cell giving rise
to not more than one nerve-fibre. What are called Schwann's cells,
within fused rows of which the nerve-fibres are believed by some to
arise, are mesodermic enveloping elements. Nerve-fibres usually end
freely, in any case, without direct connection with nerve-cells. This is
the doctrine of independent nervous units or neurons. It holds true for
Vertebrates, and probably for Arthropods and Molluscs.

Hypochorda of Salamandra Maculosa.! — Ad. Eeinhardt finds that
this peculiar sub-notochordal rod arises in the salamander, as in all
other lower Vertebrates, from the endoderm. A trunk portion appears
first, then a caudal portion, and lastly a relatively rudimentary hypo-
chorda. Degeneration begins at the two ends, and the part first formed
— the anterior trunk portion — is the last to go. The degeneration is
quite complete. Nothing certain can be said as to its morphological or
phylogenetic import.

Visceral Arches of Urodela.§ — L. Driiner completes his elaborate
account of the structure and development of the skeletal parts, the
musculature, and the innervation of the hyoid, branchial arches, and
laryngeal region of Urodela. He deals with Salamandra, Triton,

* Journ. de l'Anat. et Phys., xl. (1904) pp. 298-304.

t Anat. Anzeig., xxv. (1904) pp. 1-6.

% Morpliol. Jahrb., xxxii. (1904) pp. 195-231 (2 pis.).

§ Zool. Jahrb., xix. (1904) pp. 361-G90 (12 pis. and 44 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. t 511

Proteus, llenooranchus, Menqwma, Siredon, Cryptobranchus, Amphiuma,
Siren, and Ellipsoglossa. He gives a summary of his morphological
results, as well as a detailed account of the various forms.

Development of Mesonephros and Miillerian Ducts inBAmphibia.*
R. W. Hall has investigated these in Amblystoma, Rana and Hyla. In
Ambly stoma the mesonephric blastula is derived from a portion of the
somite which is homologous with the mesomer of elasmobranchs, and it
contains both splanchnoderm and somatoderm. The more anterior
blastulse probably never lose their connection with the two layers of the
lateral mesoderm. The outer tubules (at least in the anterior primary
units) therefore contain both somatoderm and splanchnoderm. The
morphologically dorsal angle of the body-cavity is not at the upper limit
of the mesentery, but lies just mesial to the AVolffian duct. Hence the
germ cells (except in very early stages) all lie in the splanchnoderm.
The secondary character of the dysmetamerism of the urodele shows
itself in the fact that the primary blastulge can be divided into two sets,
in one of which the elements (those of the " first order ") are meta-
merically arranged. It is suggested that the units of the "second order"
represent the final product of a phylogenetic evolution in which a number
of secondary units have been transformed into primary ones. Tertiary
sets arise from secondary, and quaternary from tertiary, etc. At the
period of metamorphosis only primary and secondary units'] have- pro-
duced outer tubules, and in all probability the outer tubules are con-
lined to these two sets of units throughout life. The development of
the Miillerian ducts is followed in great detail. At one point it fuses
with the Wolffian duct, and then grows backward free. That the
Wolffian duct contributes cells helping to form the Miillerian duct in
this region seems almost beyond question. The greater part, however,
— throughout the entire extent of the mesonephros — grows back in-
dependent of the Wolffian duct. The results of similar observations
on Rana and Hyla are included in the paper.

Development of Layers and Organs in the Terminal Bud and Tail
of Teleost Embryos. \ — A. Swaen and A. Brachet have studied the
development of the caudal region in Triittafario, Leuciscus cephalus and
Exococtus volitans. The first chapter discusses the development and
growth of the trunk at the expense of the terminal bud ; the second is
devoted to the development and elongation of the tail ; the third de-
scribes the completion of the posterior extremity, and the formation of
the anal plate.

Development of Pancreas, Liver and Spleen in the Sturgeon. J—
A. Nicolas has studied the development of these organs in Acipenser
ruthenus. He finds that the dorsal primordium of the pancreas is
single ; it is formed by the constricting off of a groove, which becomes
a tubular diverticulum, from the region giving rise to stomach and
duodenum. There is nothing peculiar except its primitive situation,

* Bull. Mus. Zool. Harvard, xlv. (1904) pp. 31-125 (8 pls.).|
t Arch. Biol. xx. (1904) pp. 461-610 (4 pis.).
% Tom. cit., pp. 425-60 (3 pis.).

5 1U SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which is due to an accumulation of yolk in this region of the digestive
tract. There are also two ventral primordia of the pancreas, and their
history is traced. The liver arises as an isolated organ at the expense of
a ventral zone of epithelium on the vitelline intestine, and it is con-
stricted off dorsally, not ventrally, which again is due to the position of
the yolk in gut. In regard to the spleen, the author confirms the con-
clusions of Piper and Laguesse, that this organ arises in a mesen-
chymatous area quite independent of the pancreas.

Development of the Swim-Bladder.* — Fanny Moser has investigated
the early stages in several fishes, e.g. Gyprinus, Salmo, Gasterosteus.
Her conclusions are in favour of a relationship between lungs and air-
bladder. She noted a double movement of the intestine, a displacement
from the side (from left in carp, Rhodeus, etc., and from the right in
salmon) towards the middle line under the notochord, and then a
twisting of the intestine upon its own axis, through which the origin of
the ductus pneumaticus is shifted. In some cases it passes from the
right side to the dorsal and even towards the left, in others from the
dorsal side towards the left. The author considers the shifting per-
manent and not due to the changes in the yolk mass during absorption.
In the trout the twisting affects to some extent the air-bladder also ; in
Rhodeus this is not the case. If a movement of the air-bladder round
is possible, the hypothesis of a phylogenetic shifting gains in probability.
One has only to think of the twisting of the bladder in the trout as
continued ; a side position would be reached as occurs in the Erythrina? ;
continued further it would end in being ventral, as in Polypterus.
It is more probable that the bladder and ductus followed the move-
ment of the gut than that an independent twisting of the ductus took
place around a fixed gut. The absence of bladder in certain forms the
author regards as secondary.

Degeneration in Relation to Regeneration.! — E. Schultz kept
Dendroccdum lacteum throughout the winter without food. In this
time — six months — they had become reduced to one-tenth of their
original size. This reduction was due to falling away of a great number
of cells ; the size of remaining cells being unaltered. In four to six
months a part of the organs had quite disappeared. Thus, of the
copulatory organs only a hollow remained, which afterwards also
disappeared, so that at last he found only a group of cells which was
specialised to the extent that it could re-form the same organ. The
vasa efferentia disappeared, also the oviducts ; only the sexual organs
themselves remained unattacked, in spite of the fact that the sex products
do not mature during starvation. The pigment cells of the eyes fall
away and the pigment disappears. The gut epithelium partly degener-
ates ; a few cells assume an embryonic character. Here there is a
whole series of retrogressive processes, which go through the stages
followed in regeneration,^ but in reverse order.

* Arch. Mikr. Anat., Band lxiii. (1901) pp. 532-74 (4 pis.),
t Biol. Centralis., xxiv. (1904) pp. 310-17.
X Zeitsckr. wise. Zool., Ixxii. (1902).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 513

Viviparity and Parasitism.* — V. Faussek refers to his essay of
1893f in which he elaborated an interpretation of viviparity as a kind
of parasitism within the limit of a species, " a temporary embryonic
parasitism of each new generation on its predecessors." It seems im-
portant to remember that the embryo may, like an endoparasite, play
an active part in securing adaptive arrangements for itself. " The
formation of a placenta is the result of the aggressive activity of the
embryo." The glochidia of Anodonta, the embryos of some species of
Peripatus and dogfish, the state of affairs in Pipa, Salamamlra atra, and
so on, are alluded to. Corroboration is found by considering the
alternation of generations in mosses and ferns. The author notes that
Giard and Houssay have also recognised the idea of embryonic parasitism,
but it is surely a fairly common idea.

b. Histology.

Twin Nuclei in Various Types of Cells in the Guinea-Pig.J — Maurice
Pacaut notes that binucleate cells have been recorded by various histolo-
gists, e.g. in the sympathetic ganglia, in the mucous membrane of
tongue and palate, and so on. In studying the tissues of the guinea-
pig, the author has found many examples of cells with twin nuclei,
especially in the cardiac portion of the oesophagus, but also in the tongue
and in the skin, and more sporadically in most of the organs.

Histology of Digestive Tract of Amblystoma Punctatum.§ —
G. A. Bates describes the features of the alimentary tract in this
Urodele. The mouth cavity is lined by stratified epithelium. Except
in these regions where the cells are low, cubical, and non-ciliate, the
lining cells are of the ciliated columnar and goblet type. Glands
penetrate the tongue from the dorsal surface ; at the base they consist
of clear mucous cells ; farther forward the deeper ends consist of true
secreting cells with large (zymogen ?) granules in the free ends.
Amblystoma differs from Necturus, Proteus and Triton in the presence
of cilia in the mouth and of tubular glands in the tongue. The mucosa
of the oesophagus is folded longitudinally, has ciliated epithelium, fewer
goblet cells, and no muscularis mucosas. Glands are present in the
oesophagus of the young, but absent in the adult. The sub-mucosa
and muscularis mucosas are present in the stomach. This is lined by
the columnar mucous cells peculiar to the Amphibia. The differentiated
regions of higher Vertebrates are not present. The intestine is lined
with striped columnar and goblet cells ; the duodenum has folds recalling
the valvule conniventes of the higher Vertebrates, while at their base
are groups of cells suggestive of glands. The epithelium at the begin-
ning of the cloaca is composed entirely of goblet cells, these being
gradually replaced by a transitional stratified epithelium with columnar-
like cells on the free surface. Below the surface epithelium of the

* Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 761-7.

t Ruaskoje Bogatstwo, 1903. Studien iiber verschiedene Fragen der biologia:hen
Evolution. St. Petersburg, 1899 (in Russian).

\ Comptes Itendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1241-3.

$ 2>ft<4 College Series, No. 8 (1904) pp. 411-35 (3 pis.).

514 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

cloaca are cell aggregates with abundant mitoses, which are to be
regarded as germinal centres for the replacement of the degenerating
cells of the surface.

Granule Cells in Mucosa of Pig's Intestine.*— C. C. Du Bois finds
that this mucosa contains numerous granule cells of which two general
types can be distinguished : (a) those with basophile granules and (&)
those with acidophile granules. The granule cells stand in no definite
relation to the lumen of the canal, to the crypts, to any lamina, or to the
blood- or lymph-vessels. The acidophiles are closely related to certain
granule cells in the blood as to staining properties, and probably
represent a variety of the eosinophile granule cells so widely scattered
about the body. The basophiles belong to the same class as the
coarsely granular basophile cells described by Hardy and Westbrook, and
are similar to Ehrlich's "mast-cells." But the significance of the
granule cells remains obscure : possibly they store metabolic products.

Minute Structure of Supra-Renal of Guinea-Pig.f— F. Fukrmann
does not agree with the hitherto accepted division of the cortex into
three parts (zonge glomerulosa, fascicularis, reticularis, Arnold) but
divides it into two according to the differentiation of the cells in
development. He considers the medulla a separate structure. The
outer cortical layer embraces the zona glomerulosa of Arnold and that
part of the fascicularis termed by Guieysse " couche spongieuse," while
the inner constitutes the rest of the cortex (the " couche fasciculee " of
Guieysse, and the zona reticularis of Arnold). He is of opinion that
the medulla cannot be regarded as a " paraganglion suprarenale"
comparable to the "paraganglion intercaroticum " as held by Kohns.
The cells of the latter are distinguished in essential points from those of
the supra-renal medulla, although they behave similarly with certain
reagents. He inclines to believe that there is a very close connection
between the medulla and the inner cortical layer, and that a sharp
division of both layers is not permissible. Worthy of note is the rare
occurrence of ganglion cells in the supra-renal of the guinea-pig as
compared with other animals.

Kidney of Male Elasmobranchs4 — J. Borcea points out that the
anterior portion of the kidney in male Elasmobranchs {Squatina, Acan-
thias, Galeus, Scyllium, Pristiums, Carchurias, Raid) does not degener-
ate, as it does in the female, but takes on a distinct, non-renal function,
providing a nutritive fluid for the spermatozoa. There is not a single
malpighian glomerulus in this anterior region, and the functional kidney
in the male is wholly due to the posterior nephridia.

Interstitial Tissue of Testis.§;— Bouin ,and Ancel continue in-
vestigations on the structure and significance of the interstitial gland
of the testis. They describe its special characters in the horse— young,
adult, aged and cryptorchid. In the young animal there are special cells

* Anat. Anzeig., xxv. (1904) pp. 6-16.

t Op. cit., xxiv. (1904) pp. 606-8.

j Comptes Eendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1342-3.

§ Arch. Zool. Exp., ii. (1904) Notes et Revue, pp. cxliii.-lv.

'ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 515

containing yellow granules, which diminish in numbers from the
beginning of the period before sexual maturity. In the adult the gland
is of the usual type ; the xanthic granule cells persist in small numbers
between the seminiferous tubules. In the aged animal the cells are
much smaller ; the peripheral vacuolar zone is reduced or absent in most
The secretory activity is diminished and the cells are full of pigment
granules. The cryptorchid testis has all the histological alterations of
the ectopic testis. The observers are of opinion that the interstitial
gland is the only source of the internal secretion of the testicle.

c.

General.

Why is the Human Ear Immobile ? * — Walter Smith argues that
Man's loss of mobility in the ear has resulted in a fuller appreciation of
the succession of sounds, and thus has been in an important sense a
condition of the social, intellectual and aesthetic development which has
come with the use of language and music. It is in a high degree
probable, though the data are insufficient for conclusive demonstration,
that it is to the advantage given in the struggle for existence by the
first stages of this development that we are to attribute the permanent
alteration in the structure of the external ear.

Homology of Olecranon and Patella.f — P. le Damany discusses
this subject. He is of opinion that the olecranon is anatomically
comparable to the humeral trochiter, femoral great trochanter, and
great tuberosity of calcaneum. It is an apophysis for muscular insertion.
The patella, on the contrary, is a sesamoid bone very like the rest, and
often accompanied by many congeners round the knee.

Defect of Human Hip Joint.t — P. le Damany discusses the peculi-
arities of the coxa-femoral articulation, which result from the intra-
uterine position, and are perpetuated by the erect habit of locomotion.
Its manifestations are the ill-adapted orientation of the femoral neck and
cotylus, insufficiency of femoral extension, propulsion of the head by
femoral extension, and diminution or suppression of external rotation
of the femur.

Domestication of Zebras. § — R. J. Stordy, in a report to the Secretary
of State for Foreign Affairs, gives an account of the proceedings adopted
in his experiments on domestication of the zebra. These experiments
were highly successful : in some cases the animals were harnessed to
vehicles in eight months, and some were ridden within five months
from capture. The stallions are to be used by the Indian Government
for the production of hybrids. The author is of opinion that, though
the wild animal, however well domesticated, may not directly reward
experiment, the progeny of semi-domesticated forms will be a suc-
cess, and he is confident that in the near future the zebra, which is
to-day a wild animal, will be classed as one of our most useful beasts
of burden.

* Popular Science Monthly, July 1904, pp. 228-37.

+ Travaux Scient. Univ. Kennes, Tom. ii. Fasc. iii. (1903) pp. 849-58.

X Journ. de l'Anat. et Phys., xl. (1904) pp. 1-21.

§ Journ. Soc. of Arts, London, lii. (1904) pp. 691-7.

516 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Revision of 'the Chiropteran Genus Macrotus.* — J. Rehn, as the
result of the examination of a large number of examples, gives an
authoritative description of all the known species of this genus. He
concludes that it is without doubt a member of the family Phyllostoma-
tinas, and a very distinct type with, well differentiated external characters.

Variation Notes.f — Carl H. Eigenmann and Clarence Kennedy
record several variations : a melanistic form of the cave salamander,
jSpelerpes maculicaudus, from Marble Cave, Mo. ; a specimen of Pygidium
rividatum, a catfish from Lake Titicaca, with a dichotomously branched
maxillary barbule on the left side ; and a specimen of Xiphorhamjihus
jenensii, from the Rio Grande, which possessed an adventitious left
ventral fin, with one ray less — eight instead of nine — than the normal
fish has, and its first ray bent in sickle-fashion.

Osteology of the Dugong Flipper.! — Ludwig Freund has used the
Rontgen-ray method in investigating the bones of the dugong (Hcdicore)
flipper. He gives a detailed account of the carpus, metacarpus, and
phalanges, both in adult and in embryo ; and discusses, more generally,
the slow progress of ossification, the duplication of epiphyses, the hints
of hyperphalangism, the broadening of the flipper, and the reduction
of carpal elements.

Pigment of Supra-renal Capsules.§ — C. Gessard finds that the
chromogenic substance of the supra-renal capsules, is, in its uncoloured
state, which is due to the lack of oxygen, the product (which has hitherto
been known as a coloured substance) of the action of tyrosinase on
tyrosin.

Fat Synthesis by Mucous Membranes. || — J. Arnold has experi-
mented with various fatty substances on the mucous membrane of the
tongue and gut of the frog, and finds that absorption of fats and oils
in both cases takes place. Colouring matter is not absorbed. Other
cells which contain fat on being treated with soap or oil are leucocytes,
connective-tissue cells, muscle-fibres, etc.

Ablation of Parathyroids in Birds. f — Doyon and Jouty find that
cauterisation of these in cock or hen brings on paralysis, dyspnoea, and
other serious symptoms in from six to ten hours, followed by death
a few hours later. In one case a cock recovered after manifesting the
symptoms usually preceding death in others, and some fowls showed no
ill-effects. This last may have been due to some small part of the para-
thyroid escaping destruction, or to the presence of accessory glands in
other parts of the body.

Asymmetrical Development of Fowl's Skull.**— Xavier Raspail
describes a case in which, from the seventh week of development, a

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1904, pp. 427-4G.
t Biol. Bull., iv. (1903) pp. 227-30 (5 figs.).

J Zeitschr. wiss. Zoo]., lxxvii.(1904) pp. 363-97 (2 pis. and 4 figs.).
§ Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 586-8.
|| Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 389-400.
If Comptes Rendus. cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 53-4.
** Bull. Boc. Zool. France, xxix. (1904) pp. 60-3 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 517

non-accidental variation has affected the growth of the bony tissue of
the lower jaw and of the left side of the skull, and has resulted in
marked asymmetry.

Monograph of Genus Dendrocincla.* — H. C. Oberholser finds that
individual colour variation is very marked in some forms, occasionally
amounting to a greater degree of difference than that distinguishing
some species. The sexes, though alike in colour, frequently differ widely
in size. The colour of the bill, which some writers have relied on to
furnish specific distinctions, seems to change with age. The paper con-
tains an account of the characters of the species and sub-species, which
will help to clear up the uncertainty hitherto attending the identification
of the birds of this genus.

Eyes of a Blind Snake.f — Effa Funk Muhse describes the structure
of the eyes in Typhlops lumbricalis, a blind burrowing snake generally
distributed in the West Indies and Guiana, living just beneath the
surface and often thrown out by the plough. The eye shows through
the large ocular scale, which entirely covers it. It appears as a black
spot surrounded by an unpigmented circle. The usual parts are present :
a cornea, an iris, ciliary processes, a large lens, and a retina with the
same layers as in snakes in general. The peculiarities are in details of
the retinal layers.

Osmotic Properties of Amphibian Skin.| — F. Overton has demon-
strated various points bearing on this subject. For example, he finds
that in tree-frogs water may be absorbed through the skin, and that for
equally large skin surfaces of the same region of the body under like
conditions, the rate of absorption is proportional to the difference of
the osmotic pressure of the blood and of the external medium, in so
far as the osmotic pressure of the blood is higher than that of the
outside medium.

Hypophysis in Amblystoma.§ — J. S. Kingsley and F. W. Thyng
conclude that there is nothing in the history of the hypophysis in
Amblystoma to support the " palseostoma theory " of von Kupffer. It
arises as a paired structure ; it does not present gill-slit features, for it
comes into relation not with entodermal structures but rather with the
infundibulum. The paired condition, and the fact that columnar cells
are recognised in the early stages, imply that it was originally either
glandular or sensory. The tubular connection by which it long remains
in connection with the exterior (hypophysial stalk) may be interpreted
either as a duct for the paired gland, or as a tube to convey water to
the sense-organ at its extremity ; the tube lengthening to accommodate
the removal of the organ from the exterior caused by the cephalic
flexure.

Abnormalities in Urodela.|| — G-. M. Winslow describes three cases :
Amblystoma punctatum, with bifid toe ; Plethodon ylutinosus, with bifid

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1904, pp. 447-63.

t Biol. Bull, v. (1903) pp. 2G1-70 (7 figs.).

% Verh. Phys. Med. Ges. Wiirzburg, xxxvi. (1904) pp. 277-95.

§ Tufts College Studies, No. 8 (1904) pp. 363-78.

|| Tom.cit., pp. 387-410 (2 pis.).

518 SUM.MA.RY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tail ; and AmMy stoma punctatum, with five legs. The features present
in the last specimen are discussed, with reference to their bearing on
the problems of variation in the length of the pre-sacral region and of
asymmetrical sacra.

Albumin Extracted from Frog's Ova.* — J. Gallimard gives an
analysis of "ranovin," an albumin extracted from frogs' eggs. It is
complex, slightly acid, peculiar to the species (Rana esculenta), and
related chemically to the "clupeovin" extracted from the eggs of
herring and the " vitellins " of various birds' eggs. The general result
that the albumins of various ova differ according to the species is of
some interest.

Oviducal Gland of Elasmobranchs.t — J. Borcea states that this
gland consists of two parts, a dorsal and a ventral. The former is
developed most towards the right side, and the latter towards the left.
In each part there are two zones : a superior, secreting albumen, and an
inferior, secreting the horny substance of the shell. In each zone there
is an external part composed of secretory tubes, and an internal lamellar
apparatus for receiving, conducting and disposing of the secreted pro-
ducts. Mucin is secreted in- the part beneath the gland, which assists
the egg-shell down the oviduct.

Descriptions of Bolca Fishes. f — C. R. Eastman reviews the litera-
ture of these fishes, and gives descriptions, with synonomy of type
specimens preserved in various museums. A list is also given of all the
types and figured specimens in the Paris Museum of Natural History,
which is the largest single collection of these fishes at present existing.
The writer concludes that not only does the Eocene fish fauna bear an
overwhelmingly modern aspect, but many of its types are as highly
specialised as they are to-day ; and forms which at the present day are
widely aberrant have representatives as far back as the Middle Eocene.
It is evident that an " expression point " (to use Cope's apt term) was
reached in the evolution of ichthyic life exactly corresponding to, and
contemporaneous with that which is so well recognised in mammalian
life, although the cause of the phenomena is in each case unknown.

Pelagic Fauna of the Lake of Bret.§ — Charles Linder has made
a careful study, involving twenty-eight explorations, of the small Lac de
Bret, not far from Lausanne. It is a small moraine lake, of Glacial
origin, only about a mile long, with a maximum depth of 18 cm., but it
contains no fewer than thirty-one representatives of the zooplankton,
and is also very rich in littoral forms. The memoir is a good example
of careful and methodical faunistric survey.

Origin of the Marine (Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika. ||
W. H. Hudleston discusses, as far as the available data permit, the
"Tanganyika problem." The zoological aspect is mainly studied by

* Cornptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1354-5.

t Tom. cit., pp. 99-102.

I Bull. Mus. Zool. Harvard, xlvi. (1904) pp. 1-36 (2 pis.).

§ Revue Suisse Zool., xii. (1904) pp. 149-258 (1 pi.).

|| Geol. Mag. Decade V., i. No. 7 (1904) Supplement, pp. 337-82.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 519

means of conchological comparisons, and the author concludes that the
resemblance between the Tanganyika shells and those of the British
inferior oolite is not sufficiently close to warrant any theory as to the
derivation of the former from the latter, as Moore has suggested. On
the other hand, the anatomy of the existing molluscs reveals a peculiarly
archaic character, and also a singular blending of attributes usually held
to be distinct. These gastropods may, in some way, have had a remote
marine origin, although that need not have been Jurassic. The palae-
ontological and geological evidence is also reviewed, but from no point
of view is much support found for Moore's theory, and the problem in
its main features remains unsolved.

Food of Fishes, Birds and Insects* — S. A. Forbes gives a very
exhaustive account of the food of young and adult fishes and birds of
the State of Illinois. The paper is illustrated by numerous tables in
which the "food" for each species treated is classified, and the pro-
portions indicated. In the case of the birds, the food of each month is
separately shown. In studying the food of birds, the author found it
necessary to construct a key to the genera of the Carabidae (based
primarily upon the mouth structures), an outline of which he gives.
Notes on the food of these insects are also sriven.

&*

Phototropism of Convoluta and Nereids.f — G. Bohn has experi-
mented with these forms, and finds that there is no phototropism such
as Gamble and Keble asserted. The- animals move indifferently from
light to shadow and vice versa. There is a tendency to aggregate in the
line of shadow just beyond the light, but this is done by those coming
from the light and suffering from light-fatigue. The character of the
water, whether salt and deep, brackish, etc., also affects their behaviour.

Dermal Fin-Rays of Fishes.J — Edwin S. Goodrich has studied these
in numerous types. In all the fins of the true Pisces there are dermal
rays of mesoblastic origin, the Dermatrichia ; but in adult living fishes
there are four of these :

1. In the Elasmobranchii and Holocephali, and probably also in the
Acanthodii and Ichthyotomi, these rays are unjointed, occasionally
branched and composed of a fibrous substance of horny consistence
without bone-cells. When placoid scales are present, they are quite in-
dependent of the rays and more superficial. The author calls these rays
" Ceratotrkhia." Their origin is unknown, but for the present they
must be considered as special developments of the connective tissue.

2. All living ' Teleosto rues' — that is to say, Polypterus (Calamo-
ichthys ?) and the Actinopterygii (Ganoids and Teleosts) — are provided
with small, horny, unjointed rays at the edge of their fins, to which the
name " Actinotrichia " has been given. In the early stages of development
these are the only dermal rays supporting the fins. They were probably
present in the extinct Actinopterygii and Crossopterygii. They appear
to be vestigial structures homologous with the ceratotrichia.

* Bull. Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist., i. (1903) pp. 19-176.

t Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1903) pp. 1292-4.

% Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xlvii. (1904) pp. 465-522 (6 pis. and 6 figs.).

520 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

3. The Teleostomi are further provided with jointed and branched
bony, dermal rays, developed outside the actinotrichia. They bear, in
primitive forms, the closest resemblance to the body scales, and Mr.
Goodrich proposes to call them " Lepidotrichia" They have doubtless
arisen through modification of scales, and in the primitive Teleostomes
they often extended into the body by means of a long proximal un-
jointed piece passing below the body-scales.

4. In the Dipnoi are found jointed, branched, dermal rays, of bony
substance, containing bone-cells. The name " Camptotrichia " is pro-
visionally given to these rays, which appear to be in a degenerate con-
dition in the highly modified living forms Lepido siren and Protopterus,
and even to some extent in Ceratodus. The camptotrichia are always
provided with a proximal unsegmented region, deeply imbedded in the
body, and covered by the body-scales. Scales also extend over the
whole or the greater part of the fins, overlying the dermal rays. The
evidence favours the view that the camptotrichia represent the lepido-
trichia of the Teleostomes.

It may be that lepidotrichia have originated from modified scales,
and the camptotrichia of Dipnoi from somewhat degenerate insunk
lepidotrichia covered by a secondary extension of the body-scales. But
the presence of a proximal joint of considerable length extending below
the body-scales in some Teleostomes (such as Cheirolepis) is not easy to
account for ; and the relation which the inner ends of the ceratotrichia,
camptotrichia and lepidotrichia bear to the muscles, connective tissue,
and endo-skeleton, is so similar in all fishes that it is difficult to believe
that all these rays have not been, at all events partly, derived from some
common form.

According to the second and alternative theory, it may be supposed
that the camptotrichia of the Dipnoi have been derived from the cerato-
trichia of the Elasmobranchii, and that they are overlaid with scales as-
the horny fin-rays are overlaid with denticles. The jointing of the
distal region of the rays would follow on their ossification. On such a
view it might be supposed that the lepidotrichia of the Teleostomes have
been formed by the fusion of the original dermal rays with the super-
ficial scales in the distal region, but not in the proximal region, where
the rays were deeply imbedded and remain unjointed. From a com-
pound dermal ray so formed the lepidotrichia of the higher Actinopterygii
would be derived by the shortening of the proximal piece. The author
inclines to the first theory.

The Physiology of the Swim-Bladder of Fishes.* — A. Jaeger dis-
cusses this with particular reference to Thilo's f conclusion that " the
air in the swim-bladder is drawn from the atmosphere, swallowed, and
brought into the bladder through air-passages." He points out that there
is present a mechanism whereby the size of the swim-bladder regulates
most exactly the specific gravity of the fish. How, by the simple taking
in of air from the mouth such a delicate regulation should have come into
existence is not easily seen : indeed, on Thilo's explanation this mechanism
is unnecessary. The whole activity of the swim-bladder organs is under

, * Biol. Centmlbl., xxiv. (1904) p. 129-42.
f Op. cit., xxiii. Nos. 14 and 15.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 521

nervous influence, like the function of the lungs in higher animals.5^ If
the expansion of the bladder exceeds a certain point, then a particular
set of nerve fibres (corresponding to the Vagus fibres of the lungs) is
irritated, and an opening of the " oval " * follows, and an exit of oxygen
into the blood results. If the cubic content of the swim-bladder
becomes too small, then a set of nerves functioning in an opposite
manner is excited, and the red body is induced to the secretion of oxygen.

Notes on Dipnoan Cranium. f — K. Fiirbinger finds that the bone
which lies concealed in cartilage in the occipital region, first noted by
Huxley and termed by him " exoccipital," is, from a consideration of its
relations, particularly to the spinal nerves, to be regarded rather as a
neural arch. On one example he found the neural spine of this arch.
The author was able to establish the same origin for this bone in an
adult Lepidosiren and also in a young Protopterus of 5*5 cm. length.

Chimseroids.J — Samuel Garman describes the interesting Japanese
form Rhinochimccra pacifica, which requires the establishment of a new
family Rhinochirnasridas, including Harriotta ; similarly CaUorhynchus
requires a special family Callorhynchidas, and Chimcera another. The
author indicates how Rhinochimccra agrees with and differs from the
other types : it has an ancestral feature in its long proboscis, its teeth
resemble the embryonic and ancestral forms more than those of the
other recent genera of Chimasriformes ; the brain is nearer to that of
CaUorhynchus than to that of Chimcera ; the notochord is provided with
rings like that of Chimcera ; the lateral canal system of Rhinochimcera
and Harriotta are made up of pseudo-tubules, tubes narrowly slit out-
wardly, that of CaUorhynchus consists of tubes, that of Chimcera is a
system of grooves.

Garman refers to the great interest of Chirnasroids, whose " line of
descent extends to Devonian times and away beyond and back to a
meeting with that of the Plagiostomia near the point at which the latter
separated from the bony fishes." Certain peculiarities of the ChimEeroids,
especially of skull and brain, are perhaps best accounted for by suppos-
ing the group to have been derived from a short-snouted and short-
faced stock.

Pisciculture.! — Louis Eoule discusses under the title " Piscifacture "
what can be done in the way of collecting ova, preventing waste of ova,
ensuring fertilisation, hatching the embryos, rearing the larvae, lessening
the elimination of young forms, and liberating the young fry in closed
areas or in the open sea. There does not seem to be anything new in
his essay, but it discusses the possibilities and the difficulties in a lucid
manner, and includes some useful hints from an expert embryologist's
standpoint.

Evolution of Atherinae in Fresh Water.||— L. Eoule describes how
Atherina lacustris evolved itself out of A. boyeri, and A. riaueti in the

* Pfliigers Arch, fur Phys., Band xciv., p. 93.

t Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 405-8.

X Bull. Mus. Zool. Harvard, xli. (1904) pp. 245-72 (14 pis.).

§ Mem. Acad. Sci. Toulouse, iii. ser. 10 (1903) pp. 390-402.

|| Comptes Bendus, cxxxviii. (1903) pp. 1276-7.

Oct. 19th, 1904. 2 o

522 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

same way developed from A. laoustris. This has occurred in the Canal
du Midi, andjis an instance of present-day forms whose origin is quite
modern and produced by natural causes — an instance of evolution per
solium, -v There are no transitional forms.

Segmental Veins in Amphioxus.* — ■ Boris Zarnik describes the
segmental veins of the lancelet and their relation to the ductus cuvieri.
There seems to be no doubt that the lancelets exhibit very primitive
relations in their vascular system, as in other systems. These conditions
represent, as the author shows, a transition stage between the differenti-
ated circulatory system of Craniota and the simple loops and sinuses in
Invertebrates. The paper is accompanied with an exceptionally fine
figure of the posterior peribranchial cavity of an adult female lancelet.

INVEBTEBRATA.

Mollusca.
a. Cephalopoda.

"Albatross" Cephalopods.t — W. E. Hoyle reports on the cephalo-
pods collected in the tropical Pacific by Alexander Agassiz on the
" Albatross " Expedition. The collection consists of thirty species (six
new) distributed in nineteen genera, one of which {Froekenia) is new.
Another {PterygioUuthis) was first found by the " Albatross," but its
publication has been anticipated by the description of an immature
example by H. Fischer. In a smaller collection made among the Pacific
islands, which contained thirteen species, there was a new genus, Cirro-
brachium. The new genus Froekenia is allied to CirroUuthis, with paired
fins at the sides, but with no connecting membranes between the arms.
In the new decapod Cirrobrachium, based on a head and arms, there is a
row of filaments along the outer or ventral side of each arm, except those
•of the fourth pair. An appendix contains an account of the luminous
■organs of PterygioUuthis giardi and Abraliopsis hoylei.

Structure of the Heart in the Common Octopus.:}: — F. Marceau notes
that the descriptions of the structure of the heart in cephalopods are
somewhat discrepant. He has made a histological study of the heart of
Octopus vulgaris.

The striated fibrils composing the cortex are in some respects re-
markable. They are slightly larger than those of the cardiac muscle-
fibres in Vertebrates ; but the muscular discs of the fibrils are more than
twice as long as those of corresponding fibrils in Vertebrates.

The heart is lined by a very delicate endocardium, formed by an
endothelium with very minute and much-flattened nuclei, below which
there are connective cells at wide intervals. .

Receptaculum Seminis and Nuptial Combat in Octopus.§ — W.

Bergmann has found in Octopus de filippii a receptaculum seminis which

* Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 609-30 (1 pi. and 7 figs.).

t Bull. Mus. Zool. Harvard, xliii. (1904) pp. 1-71 (10 pis. and map).

X Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1177-9.

§ SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1903, pp. 104-9 (3 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 523

consists of several vascular diverticula of the oviduct. They serve for
the storage of spermatozoa, which fertilise the ova as these pass out.

In Octopus vulgaris, as others have observed, there is a keen combat
between male and female prior to the discharge of the hectocotylus arm
into the mantle-cavity of the female. Even in Sepia, where there is no
hectocotylisation, there is nuptial combat.

y. Gastropoda.

Habits of Solenogastres.* — H. Heath gives some notes on these.
Their habitat is on the sea bottom between 15 and 1200 fathoms, and
they appear fairly common and widely distributed. Upwards of fifty
species are known, chiefly from the waters north and south of Europe
and the East Indian Archipelago. They constitute the two families
Chgetodermatidas and Neomenidse. The latter rarely burrow in the
mud, but crawl on hydroid colonies or alcyonarian corals, and occa-
sionally on plants and some species of actinians. They are probably
predatory rather than commensals or parasites, though one species of
the genus Neomenia appears to be parasitic. It was found closely
wrapped about a polyp of Epizoanthus, or some closely related genus,
and subsequent examination showed that its proboscis had penetrated
the body wall of its host and had removed some of the internal struc-
tures, whose remains were present in abundance in the stomach. In
this species well developed ventral salivary glands opened at the free
end of the fully extended proboscis, and in the absence of a radula their
secretion probably exercised a solvent action on the prey. Species of
Chcctoderma, found abundant in mud at 300 fathoms, proved to be
active burrowers. This was accomplished almost entirely by movements
of the prothorax, similar to those of the front end of an earthworm.

Habits of the Cellar-Slug. -j- — Karl Kiinkel has made numerous
observations and experiments in regard to Limax variegatus, the cellar-
slug, which show that its habits are strictly determined in relation to its
great demands for water and the correlated rapid drying of its body.

Spermatogenesis in Enteroxenos Ostergreni.J — K. Bonnevie gives
a detailed account of the development of the sperm in this gastropod.
The leading features are the same as are found in other gastropods and
in Vertebrates, but certain differences in details from Paludina and
others are considered.

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Adductor Muscles of Bivalves.§ — F. Marceau has studied the two
portions of the adductor muscles in Lamellibranchs. These muscles
have two functions — that of rapidly closing the valves and that of keep-
ing them closed against the elasticity of the ligament. Their component
parts are structurally adapted to these two functions. In the oyster, for
instance, the rapid closure of the valves is wholly due to the contraction
of the " vitreous " muscle, while the " nacreous " muscle has solely the

* Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 457-61. f Tom, cit., pp. 571-8.

% Biol. Centralbl., xxiv. (1904) pp. 267-74, 306-10.
§ Comptes Kendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1343-5.

2 O 2

524 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

function of acting against the elastic force of the ligament. In forms
which have adductors wholly of the "vitreous" type, e.g. Sol en and
Latraria elliptica, the closure of the valves, though it may be rapid, is
always of short duration.

JUtheriidse.* — R. Anthony discusses this family of bivalves, which is
usually regarded as allied to Unionidse. There are three genera :
JEtheria from African rivers, Bartlettia and Mulleria from South
American rivers. The first two are Dimyarian, the third Monomyarian.

In JEtheria, as in oysters, the fixation is by one valve, oftenest the
left, and all their peculiarities may be related to this special condition of
" pleurothetic " fixation. From among Unionidse this family has arisen
probably by adaptation to particular conditions of habitat. Thus the
elongated fixed valve of JEtheria caillaudi is advantageous in quiet
waters by enabling the animal to raise itself above the level of the floor.

Arthropoda.

Structure and Classification of Arthropoda.f — E. Eay Lankester
has reprinted the articles Arthropoda and Arachnida which he con-
tributed to the tenth edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica." He
adheres to his formerly expressed conclusion as to the genetic affinity
and monophyletic origin of the Chaetopods, Rotifers and Arthropods,
for which in 1878 he introduced the term Appendicnlata. The Arthro-
poda might be better called " Gnathopoda," since their distinctive
character is that one or more pairs of appendages behind the mouth are
densely chitinised and turned (fellow to fellow on opposite sides) towards
one another so as to act as jaws. This is facilitated by an important
general change in the position of the parapodia ; their basal attachments
are all more ventral in position than in the Chastopoda, and tend to
approach towards the mid-ventral line. Very generally (but not in
Onychophora) all the parapodia are plated with chitin secreted by the
epidermis and divided into a series of joints, giving the " arthropodous "
or hinged character.

Other distinctive features hold the Arthropoda together, and suggest
the view that they have been developed from a single line of primitive
Gnathopods, which arose by modification of parapodiate annulate worms
not very unlike some of the existing Chaatopods. These additional
features include the ostiate heart and the " plileboedesis" that is to say,
the peripheral portions of the blood-vascular system are swollen so as to
obliterate to a large extent the coelom, whilst the separate veins entering
the dorsal vessel or heart coalesced, leaving valvate ostia, by which the
blood passed from a pericardial blood-sinus formed by the fused veins
into the dorsal vessel or heart. Another feature is that the region in
front of the mouth is no longer formed by the primitive prostomium, or
head-lobe, but one or more segments, originally post-oral, with their
appendages, have passed in front of the mouth (" prosthomeres "), and
the brain has become a syncerebrum. Moreover, as in Chaetopods,
ccelomic funnels (" ccelomoducts ") may occur right and left as pairs in

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (190-4) pp. 1233-5 (2 figs.).

t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xlvii. (1904) pp. 523-82 (1 pi. and lrfigs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. 525

each ring-like segment or somite of the body, and some of these are in
all cases retained as gonoducts and often as renal excretory organs
(green glands, coxal glands of Arachnida, but not crural glands, which
are epidermal in origin), while true nephridia, genetically identical with
the nephridia of earthworms, do not occur.

Prof. Lankester proposes and gives justification for the following
arrangement of the larger sub-divisions of the Arthropoda :

Grade A. Hyparthropoda (hypothetical forms connecting ancestors

of Chajtopoda with those of Arthropoda).
Grade B. Protarthropoda. Class Onychophora, e.g. Peripatus.
Grade C. Euarthropoda. Class 1. Diplopoda, e.g. lulus.

Class 2. Arachnida.
Grade a. Anomomeristica, e.g. Phacops.
Grade b. Nomomeristica.

(a) Pantopocla, e.g. Pi/cnogonum.
(ft) Euarachnida, e.g. Limulus, Scorpio, My gale, Acarus.
Class 3. Crustacea.
Grade a. Entomostraca.
Grade b. Malacostraca.

Class 4. Chilopoda, e.g. Scolopendra.
Class 5. Hexapoda (= Insecta Pterygota).
Incertae sedis : Tardigrada, Pentastomida?.

The author discusses the segmentation of the body of Arthropods,
formulating twelve laws of metamerism ; the theory of the Arthropod
head ; the segmental lateral appendages or limbs of Arthropods ; the
branchiae ; the eyes ; the tracheje ; the malpighian tubes ; and so forth.

He then passes the groups of the Arthropoda in review, characteris-
ing them so as to indicate their probable affinities and genetic history.

In an interesting appendix, not contained in the " Encyclopaedia "
article, the author discusses the movements of the parapodia of Peri-
patus, Millipedes, and Centipedes.

a. Insecta.

Moulting Processes in Insects.* — W. Plotnikow describes (1) the
separation of the old cuticle from the hypodermis ; (2) the exuvial
fluid ; (3) the formation and structure of the new cuticle ; (4) the
development of the exuvial hairs ; and (5) the actual process of throw-
ing off the old cuticle. In the second part of his memoir he discusses
Verson's glands in Lepidoptera, and the exuvial glands in the larvae
of Tenebrio molitor, of Chrysomelidas, of Coccinellidae, of Tenthe-
dinidse, etc.

Accommodation-apparatus in Compound Eyes.f — Pierre Vigier
notes that each ommatidium of a compound eye includes (1) a dioptric
apparatus of refractive elements, which alter the direction of the
incident rays ; (2) a receptive apparatus, which receives the luminous

• Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxvi. (1901) pp. 333-66 (2 pis. and 6 figs.).
t Comptes Rendns, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 775-7.

626 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

stimuli and transmits them to the perceptive centres by the optic nerves ;
and (3) a 'pigmentary apparatus, which absorbs the unutilised vibrations,
intercepts oblique rays, and isolates one ommatidium from another.

But this analysis is incomplete as regards the eyes of some rapidly
flying insects, such as dragon-flies. For in the eyes of JEschna, for
instance, the author has proved the presence of an accommodation-
apparatus, which adapts vision to different distances. This apparatus
lies between the ommatidia, and consists of (a) elastic and extensile
elements (trachea?) ; and (b) contractile elements, genuine myofibrils.

Wasps of Spain.* — Jose M. Dusmet y Alonso gives a systematic
descriptive account of the Vespidse, Eumenidaa, and Masaridze, of Spain.

Development of Bees' Eggs. t— Otto Dickel has studied the forma-
tion of the blastoderm, the origin of the yolk-cells, the history of the
yolk-cells with especial reference to the blastopore, the formation of
the endoderm and mesoderm, and so forth.

No distinction can be drawn between yolk-cells and the endoderm
established by invagination. Both are derived from the same material.
The endoderm of insects may be formed by yolk-cells, or by invaginated
material, or by both. The distribution of yolk-cells and invaginated
material may be such, that in the earlier stages the yolk-cells form the
endoderm of the median region, and the invaginated material forms
the polar regions. Between endoderm and mesoderm there are the
closest relations, for both arise in intimate interdependence.

Parthenogenesis in Telenomus.t— J. TV. Wasschew has established
the occurrence of "arrenotokie" (male-producing) parthenogenesis in the
genus Telenomus, a member of the family Proctotrupidae among
Ichneumonids.

Formica exsecta as Hill-builders in Swamps.§ — N. Holmgren
has noted a number of special features in the hills of this species, which
are the result of competition with the mosses (Sphagnum and Poly-
trichum) in the vicinity. Here the hills are more numerous and smaller
than in drier regions, and there is an absence of large roads leading to
them. Being drier than the surrounding parts, they are soon invaded
by Polytricham strictum, which gradually forms a thick carpet covering
and penetrating the heap. The form of the hill becomes altered as
building is carried on on the side remote from the Polytrickum attack ;
in other words, they withdraw from it. In course of time the habitable
part becomes too small for the ants, and migration occurs. This
explains the large number of small ant-heaps in the swamps. Ulti-
mately the ants are beaten and the moss remains in possession — for a
time. But before the hill is completely covered by the Polytrichum,
Sphagnum presses in upon the latter and in general crushes it out. It
will thus be seen that the ants play a not unimportant role in the
swamps, forming layers upon which the mosses can grow.

* Mem. Soc. EspaS. Hist. Nat., ii. (1903) pp. 119-225.

t Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Ixxvii. (1904) pp. 481-527 (2 pis. and 46 figa.).

t Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 578-9.

§ Zool. Jahrb. xx. (1904) pp. 353-70.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 527

Metamorphoses of Saturnian Moths. • — A. S. Packard7 gives de-
scriptions of the larval stages of a number of genera of Saturn iidse,
some of which are most highly specialised, while [ others are more
primitive. It is a matter of some interest to have' [worked ont the
transformations of Callosamia calleta, an annectant form between Callo-
samia and Philosamia. The early stages of the speciesEof Rothschildia,
which represent in the New World the Asiatic Attacus, have now been
discovered after several years of effort to secure the cocoons and eggs.
The knowledge gained appears to be of phylogenetic significance.

Imaginal Adipose Tissue in Muscidee.f — Ch. Perez has made a
study of this tissue, which consists of two kinds of elements — tropho-
cytes and cenocytes. Their history shows that they are not due to old
migratory elements nor to muscle-nuclei, but that, like*other imaginal
organs, they arise from independent and from the first specialised
primordia.

Case of Dimorphism in Cecidomyidae.J — J. Kunstler and J. Chaine
find in Kiefferia musce, a new Cecidomyid, a good case lot" dimorphism,
which is rare in dipterous insects. The peculiar forml described has
miniature wings with modified venation, and its head and abdomen are
larger than the same parts in those which form the majority of the
species. Dimorphism in Cecidomyids has been previously reported in
Monardia v an-der-Wulfsi and M. dimorphagyna, to_ which Kiefferia is
allied.

First Abdominal Appendage in the Meal-Worm. § — Maurice de
Selys Longchamps has made a detailed study of the development of
the appendage of the first abdominal segment in Tenebriol molitor.
There is no doubt that it is an appendage homologous with those of
the thorax and head. Apart from the existence of a ccelomic cavity,
jointing, a trachea, and so on, the structure of the organ iwhen fully
developed is obviously appendicular. The distal part suffers peculiar
modification in reference to its special glandular function. The author
bases on actual observations an interesting general discussion of the
abdominal appendages in insects, and the degrees of their ontogenetic
suppression.

Monograph of Genus Saperda.|] — E. P. Felt and L. J. Joutel con-
tribute a beautifully illustrated monograph of this genus of tree-boring
beetles. They discuss the genus as established by Fabricius, the sub-
generic grouping, the distribution and relationships of the species, and
the food-habits of the larvae.

New British Spring-Tails. f—G. H. Carpenter and W. Evans re-
corded in 1899 seventeen species of Collembola and Thysanura new k

* Proc. Araer. Acad,, xxxix. (1904) pp. 547-78.

t Proc. Verb. Soc. Sci. Bordeaux, 1903, pp. 110-1. J Tom. cit., pp. 13-4. '

§ Bull. Classe Sci. Acad. Boy. Belg., No. 4 (1904) pp. 413-47 (1 pi.).
i| Bull. 74 New York State Museum (Entomology). Albany, 1904, pp. 1-6S
(14 pis. and 20 figs.). '

f Proc. Koy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, xv. (1902-1904) pp. 215-20 (1 pi.).

528 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the British fauna. They have been able to add Isotoma sexoculata
Tullberg, found under stones below high-water mark on the shore of
the Firth of Forth at Dalmeny ; Achorutes manubr talis Tullberg, from
Perth ; A. propinquus sp. n. (= A. manubrialis of the 1899 list) ; and
Xemjlla maritima Tullberg, from Kirkcaldy.

New Machilidae.* — Filippo Silvestri establishes the new genus
Machiloides, with Machilis appmdiculata Silv. as type. His conspectus
of Machilid genera includes Petrooius Leach, type P. maritimus Leach ;
Machilis L., type L&pisma poli/poda L. ; Prmnachilis Silv., type P.
excelsior Silv.; Machiloides g. n., type Machilis appendiculata Silv.;
Meinertellus Silv., type M. pulvillatus Silv.; and Machilinus, type M.
rupestris Lucas (vel M.grassii Griard).

He also describes \Machilis alter nata sp. n., and Prcemachilis meti-
culosa sp. n. ; and gives an analytical table of the Italian Machilidae.
We give these details became of the systematic importance and general
zoological interest of these primitive insects.

Enemies of Roses.f — Fr. Richter von Binnenthal has devoted a
book to the anitmls that injure roses. He discusses the various modes
of injury, from leaf-eating to gall-forming, the life -histories of some of
the injurious forms, the means of cure aud prevention, and so on. As
most of the enemies are insects we have inserted our reference here,
but the book also takes account of Tetranychidaj, Nematodes, etc. It
is not exactly a book for specialists, but the reference may be useful
to many friends of roses who are interested in the pathological aspects
of rosiculture.

Habits and Development of Neocerata rhodophaga.t— F. M.

Webster has investigated the life-history of this rose parasite infesting
rose-houses in the vicinity of Chicago, but not attacking plants in the
open. It affects most seriously a species of rose that requires a very
warm, yet ventilated environment. It is not a native, and its gradual
occurrence further and further inland does not imply an American
origin. It is closely related to the European form Dichelomyia rosarum
Hardy.

Life-History, Habits and Taxonomic Relations of a New Species
of Oberea.§— F. M. Webster gives an account of 0. idmicola Chittenden,
a beetle of remarkable habits. Thus far it has been found only in a
single city in central Illinois infesting the elm. Even there it has
confined itself to a certain section of the city, within which it is so
excessively abundant that the females are compelled to deposit their
eggs in the same twigs again and again, notwithstanding the fact that
only a single larva can survive in each twig. This congestion in
numbers and restricted distribution, might be taken to indicate a spirit

* Redia, ii. Fasc. 1 (1904) pp. 1-9.

t Die Rosenschadlinge aus dem Tierreicbe, deren wirksame Abwehr und Bek'anip-
fung. E. Ulmer, Stuttgart, Svo, 1903, x. and 392 pp. See also Biol. Centralbl.
xxiv. (1904) pp. 478-80.

1 Bull. Illinois State Labor, of Nat. Hist., vii. (1904) pp. 15-25 (1 pi.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 1-14 (2 p!s.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 529

of mutual toleration such as exists in social communities. In this case,
however, if adults of both sexes are confined closely together, they will,
regardless of sex, fall upon each other, amputating antennae and legs
with a savagery like that of the most bloodthirsty quadruped.

S. Arachnida.

Grasping Organs in Pediculidae.* — H. Osborn describes in Hcema-
topinus urius, H. macrocephalus, and Euhmnatopinus ahiormis, pro-
tractile discs upon the legs, whose function appears to be that of holding
on to the hair. The disc, which in H. urius is at the distal end of the
tibia, plays back and forth in a pit-like depression. There is a large
muscle running through the tibia and forking near the middle of the
tibial joint, one part going to the tibial spur, the other passing on to the
tarsal joint, while from the latter a fibre runs to the base of the pro-
tractile disc. Muscular elements for protraction are apparently absent,
and this may be provided for in the movements of the chitinous wall,
assisted partially by the flexion of the tarsal joint.

Pycnogonida of West Coast of North America.f — Leon J. Cole
gives an account of the Pycnogonida collected by the Harriman Alaska
Expedition. The collection includes thirteen species, representing nine-
teen genera. After notes on the geographical distribution, the author
discusses the classification and terminology, giving a useful tabular
summary of the names used by various recent investigators. He also
gives a diagnostic key to the species described in his memoir, which is
admirablv illustrated.

e. Crustacea.

Maturation Divisions in Testicle of a Lobster.! — A. Labbe
observes that in the state of synapsis the chromosomes unite two and
two, and fuse their chromatin into a single or protetrad body. The
tetrads arise from the protetrads by quaternary condensation of the
chromatin. In the constitution there is no question of longitudinal or
transverse division. Before the formation of the protetrads the thread
prepared for the first maturation division undergoes a first longitudinal
division, which effaces itself. At the first metaphase there is a second
division (? longitudinal) which appears preparatory to the second
kinesis and does not efface itself, but is useless, since it separates two
demi-dyads which will pass into the same spermatid. These two
divisions are quite independent of the formation of tetrads. They seem
only a suggestion of ordinary mitoses, and are objectless. The mode of
formation of the quaternary groups shows that the chromatin mass of
a protetrad separates into four, without involving either equational or
reduction division. The author is inclined to deduce from these facts
qualitative differences between the conjugated chromosomes as important
as exist between ovum and spermatozoon.

* Ohio Naturalist, iv. (1904) pp. 107-8.

t Harrimau Alaska Exped., x. (1904) pp. 249-98 (18 pis.).

\ Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 9G-9.

530 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Isopod Parasitic in a Sacculina.* — Ch. Perez found numerous
examples of a Cryptoniscid (probably Eumetof) parasitic in a Sacculina
which infested a Pinnotheres commensal in a Spondylus. The " emboite-
ment " of parasite within parasite is interesting. The males were seen
coming and going through the cloacal orifice of the Sacculina ; as in
Hemioniscus, Crinoniscus, and other Cryptoniscid s, there is protandrous
hermaphroditism. The "males" cease to be male, and become "females."

Cryptophialus striatus sp. n.f — W. Berndt describes a new boring
Cirriped which occurs in abundance in Chiton magni/icus, from the
Chilian coast. From the same locality Darwin described Cr. minutus,
which bores in the shells of the Gastropod Concholepas peruviana.
Berndt gives an account of the alimentary, nervous, and reproductive
systems, and shows how this new form differs from Darwin's Cr. minutus.

Fixation of CoronulidaB in Skin of Cetaceans.! — A. Gravel makes
a preliminary note on this subject, referring to Coronula, in which the
proliferating epidermis of the cetacean insinuates itself into the lateral
canals between the outer and inner wall of the Cirriped shell ; to Cryp-
tolepas, in which the external wall seems to have disappeared, the lateral
canals are transformed into simple ridges, and the epidermis between
these binds the animal to its bearer in a very effective manner ; and to
Tubicinella, in which, according to Marlotte, there is a digestion of the
skin by peptonising substances.

Organ of Koehler in Cirripeds.§— A. Gravel describes the structure
of the apparently sensory structure known as the organ of Koehler,
which is situated at the base and in the centre of the scales of Pollicipes.
It consists of a group of cells loosely or closely united ; and their inner-
vation issuing from the mantle and extending to the surface of the
scales points to a sensory function. In the scales of the upper part of
the stalk there is only one basal cell ; this also disappears, the nerve
atrophies, and only a minute hole in the chitin is left.

New Canthocamptus from Idaho. |] — C. Dwight Marsh describes
Canthocamptus idahoensis sp. n. from the Alturas Inlet, Idaho. The
marked characters by which the species is easily distinguished are the
slender furca, and the remarkably slender fifth feet of both sexes. In
fact, it is possible that the peculiar characters of the fifth feet should be
considered of generic value.

Free-swimming Copepods of Louisiana.! — E. Foster gives a series
of notes on the bathymetrical distribution and relative abundance of
various species in the neighbourhood of the Gulf Biologic Station, as a
contribution to the subject of the food of fishes.

* Proc. Verb. Soc. Sci. Bordeaux, 1903, pp. 109-10.

t SB. Ges. Natur. Berlin, 1903, pp. 436-44 (2 figs.).

\ Proc. Verb. Soc. Sci. Bordeaux, 1903, p. 8.

<} Tom. cit., pp. 90-1.

|| Trans. Wisconsin Acad., xiv. Part 1 (1903) pp. 112-6 (1 pi.).

^ Eeport Louisiana Gulf Biol. Station, 1903, Bull. No. 2 (1904) pp. 69-79.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. 531

Annulata.

Studies on Oligochaeta.* — Asger Ditlevsen discusses the systematic
relations of the Oligochaata, and has made a special study of the sexual
reproduction.

He begins with an investigation of the Naidse, and of the genus
Ilyodrilus Stole in particular, of which two new species are established.
A grouping of the forms of Tubificidaa is submitted, with descriptions
of two new species of Psammoryctes, one of Tubifex, two of Monopele-
phorus. The Enchytra^idas are then dealt with, and this section includes
descriptions of a new species of Pachydrilus, and a new species of
Mesenchytmus.

The next section is devoted to the advent and duration of the sexual
period in Tubificidaa, Naidaa, CliEetogastridas, iEolosornatida?, and Lum-
briculidse. Then the author passes to the copulatory phenomena in
Enchytraaidaa, Naidse, Chaetogastridas, and Tubificidaa, in regard to
which he has much that is new to say. In Enchytraaidaj, Naidas, Chaato-
gastridaa, Lumbriculidge, and Tubificidae, the clitellum functions solely
as a cocoon-forming structure, while in Lumbricidas it has also to do
with copulation. The oviposition in the different families is then
discussed.

Priapulidae of Scandinavia.f — M. Herubel gives some notes on
the geographical distribution and comparative anatomy of the Pria-
pulidaa of the west side of Scandinavia. He found their distribution
very local. There appear to be four conditions requisite — shallow
water with mud or sand and mud, absence of strong currents, low but
variable temperature, and nearly constant salinity. He distinguished
three distinct varieties of P. caudatus. In the first there is a medium-
sized ring of denser tissue, and uniform appearance, between the intro-
vert and the body ; a second form has this ring very large, and in the
third it is absent. These differences, which are accompanied by other
anatomical peculiarities, were made out upon living specimens. The
varieties are from separate localities. A second paper discusses the
integumentary characters.

Digestive System of Hirudinea.J — Canaille Spiess compares the
alimentary tracts of Hirudo medicinalis and Aulastomum gulo, and em-
phasises the detailed differences between a species living on blood and
a species living on worms and molluscs in a voracious carnivorous
fashion. The differences are striking, ar.d illustrate, according to the
author, "the modifications which the digestive apparatus may exhibit
under the influence of different nutritive regime." They illustrate, at
any rate, different adaptations to different diet.

Nematohelminthes.

Differences in the Chromosomes of Sister-germ-cells.§ — Th.
Boveri recalls the fact that in the development of Ascarids, the chromo-

* Zeitschr. "wiss. Zool. Ixxvii. (1904) pp. 398-480 (3 pis.).
t Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxix. (1904) pp. 100-9, 126-9.
X C'omptes Rendus, exxxviii. (1904) pp. 1123-4.
§ SB. Phys. Med. Ges. Wiirzburg (1904) pp. 16-20.

532 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

somes of sister-cells may be quite different. Those of the one cell
retain the original character, they remain " primitive chromosomes " ;
those of the other suffer diminution, and in Ascaris megalocephala the
remnant of each primitive chromosome breaks up into a number of
small " somatic chromosomes." The question arises, is this differentia-
tion of chromosomes autonomic ? that is, does each chromosome in
certain cell-divisions divide into two different halves ; or, does it depend
on differences in the surrounding cytoplasm — on protoplasmic dif-
ferentiations which determine whether the chromosomes are to persist
along a definite cell-lineage as primitive chromosomes, while in other
lateral lineages, diminution sets in ? After a discussion of the problem,
Boveri concludes that the protoplasmic differentiation determines the
persistence or reduction of the chromosomes.

Platyhelttiinth.es.

Terrestrial Planarians from North-East Africa.* — Camillo Moll
describes a collection made by Oscar Neumann in north-east Africa.
It includes Amblgplana nigrescens sp. n., A. aberrana sp. n., A. neu-
manni sp. n., and Platydemus montanus sp. n., — within the family
Blvynchodemidse. We record the names, since relatively few terrestrial
Planarians have hitherto been recorded from the African continent.

Sense-Organs in Digenetic Trematodes.f — D. Ssinitzin finds on
definite points of the body-surface, within the cuticula, clear vesicles
containing transparent substance, in which a rod-like structure and some
granules can be recognised. A nerve-fibre penetrates into the vesicle.
The cuticula over the slightly protruding vesicle is relatively delicate,
and may bear fine hair-like processes.

Ssinitzin distinguishes : (1) sensory vesicles, without hairs ; (2)
sensory vesicles, with short immobile hairs (0 * 0006 mm.) ; (3) sensory
vesicles, with long (0 ' 01 mm.) immobile hairs ; (4) sensory vesicles,
with mobile hairs of moderate length ; and (5) sensory vesicles, with
long flagella-like mobile hairs.

Sexually mature Trematodes exhibit only the first two kinds of
sensory organ ; redire show the first three kinds ; in cercarias all forms
occur. The research refers to Trematodes found in fresh-water molluscs,
such as Amphistomum subdavatum and Distomum folium.

Echinostomum garzettse.f — W. Gr. MacCallum describes this new
species collected by W. Volz while in Benakat (Lematangilir) from the
intestine of Garzetta nigripes Temm. All the other described forms
of Echinostomum from birds differ very decidedly from Echinostomum
garzetta, though this new form falls readily into the smaller group of
those closely related to E. echinatus.

Three Species of Paramphistomum from Mammals.§ — F. Fis-
choeder describes Paramphistomum explanatum Crepl., from Buffelus

* Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 471-90 (1 pi.),
t Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 767-70 (5 figs.).
% Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 541-8 (1 fig.).
§ Tom. cit., pp. 453-70 (2 pis. and 3 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 533

indicus ; P. epiclitum Fischer, from Bos taurus indicus ; and P. scolio-
ccdium Fischer, from Buffelus indicus.

Cestodes from Mammals.* — C. von'Janicki describes Linstowia
brasiliensis sp. n. from Didelphys tristriata, Oochoristica bivittata sp. n.
from Didelphys murina, 0. ivageneri sp. n. from Myrmecophaga tetra-
dactyla, and other new species of Hymenolepis (nine), Davainea (three).
He modifies the diagnosis of the genus Anoplocephala Blanchard, and
establishes a new genus, Schizotamia, which comes nearest to Bertia in the
family Anoplocephalinse.

Incertae Sedis.

Anatomy of Ptychodera erythrsea.f — J. W. Spengel gives supple-
mentary notes to his earlier work on this species. The details were made
out on a young form imperfectly preserved, and embrace points in all
the regions of the body.

Geographical Distribution of Marine Bryozoa.f — M. L. Calvet
reviews the evidence bearing on the theory of bi-polarity supplied by a
study of a collection of marine Polyzoa from South Patagonia, Tierra del
Fuego, and South Georgia. They form an essentially littoral fauna.
Those genera in the Austral hemisphere are represented in the Boreal
by only 67*3 p.c, while the proportion of species is only 18 '5 p.c. The
fauna of the Southern hemisphere has a very local character. The
evidence is unfavourable to the theory.

Jurassic Polyzoa.§ — W. D. Lang concludes that the relationships of
the Jurassic forms of the "genera" Stomatopora and Proboscina haVe
been misunderstood. A detailed examination of all the material avail-
able in the British Museum has resulted in the following conclusions : — ■
The division into these two genera is unnatural. The development of
a colony (the zoarium of Polyzoa) is comparable with and follows the
same laws as the development of the individual (the zocecium of Polyzoa).
Therefore the diagnosis of a form, whether " species " or " circulus," is
incomplete, and for practical purposes useless, unless the part of the
zoarium with respect to its age is specified. In the " genera " Stomatopora
and Proboscina the method of branching is of paramount importance.
A re-arrangement in the light of the foregoing is believed to yield an
evolutionary series.

Rotifera.

New Rotifer. |j — T. E. Lord figures and describes as new Diaschiza
crassipes, a species characterised chiefly by a cervical eye, an arched lorica
projecting over the foot, with a dorsal cleft widening considerably
posteriorly, and two very stout, short, conical toes. The author found
only a single specimen, which, having been imperfectly observed, is im-
perfectly figured and described.

* Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 770-82.

t Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 412-28.

j Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 384-7.

§ Geol. Mag. Decade V., i. No. 7(1904) pp. 315-22.

|| Trans. Manchester Micr. Soc, 1903, pp. 78-80 (1 fig.).

534 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Echinoderma.

Larval Development of Echinus microtuberculatus.* — H. Schmidt
has studied one hundred and five stages, representing a continuous
series, from the developed blastula before the formation of the primary
mesenchyme up to the pluteus with arms and fully-formed left vaso-
peritoneal vesicle. Abnormalities were exceedingly rare, and almost
never occurred in the later stages. Only isolated blastulae were observed
with pathological mesenchyme and dwarfed plutei. The development
was remarkably even in its course, and at the temperature (17° C.) rapid.
At 36 hours the gut had reached the opposite end, and in 41 hours
plutei with well-developed arms were formed. From 17 to 22 hours'
larvae showed, besides the primary mesenchyme, an animal pole consist-
ing of a thick plate of blastoderm cells. At the end of the blastula
stage there arises at the vegetative pole a specially differentiated
plate, provisionally designated " endoderm plate." Very soon this plate
is invaginated (20th hour). Two hours later there is present a well-
developed gut. During the following hours (22 to 26) the formation
and migration of the secondary mesenchyme is completed. At the
same time the gut is extending towards the opposite side, while at the
end of the gastrula period alterations in form and size are evident
which mark the transition to the pluteus. The first hint of the mouth
appears to be about the 30th hour, while the swelling of the blind end
of the primitive gut to form the later vaso-peritoneal vesicle appears at
33 hours. The ciliated band inaugurating the pluteus stage is seen an
hour later, and by 36 hours this stage is clearly defined. The vaso-
peritoneal sacs now constrict themselves off. At the 38th hour the
gut is in three parts, and it is only after 41 hours that the mouth is
formed. The rest of the time up to 45 hours is occupied by the de-
velopment of the larva to the typical elongated pluteus form, and the
growth of the arms.

" Pentasomaea " Theory .f — E. Herouard states what he calls the
" Pentasomcm'1'' theory of the Echinoderm body, according to which
somites arise in groups of fives, each of the groups forming a " penta-
somic vesicle." The five somites potentially included in a pentasomic
vesicle do not begin to be individualised until the vesicle has been
liberated into the blastoccel cavity. The five somites of a pentasomic
vesicle in Echinoderms are only partially individualised ; their cavities
remain in communication through the residue of the pentasomic vesicle
which formed them — a residue that represents the enterotomes of the
somites. He compares the pentasomic vesicle of Echinoderms with the
enteroccelic vesicle in Amphioxus, which has four specialised regions :
myotome, sclerotome, enterotome, and gonotome. The five somites of
the superior pentasomic vesicles in Echinoderms form the radial canals,
those of the lower vesicles form the general radial cavities. The general
result of a theory, which is somewhat difficult to follow, is to the effect
that Vertebrates and Echinoderms have had a common ancestor. A

* Verh. Phys. Med. Ges. Wiirzburg, xxxvi. (1904) pp. 297-336 (5 pis),
t Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxix. (1904) pp. 70-81 (9 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 535

descendant affected by precocious dorsal atrophy and progressive left
hemilateral degeneration gave rise to the Echinoderai stock.

Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto.* — F. A. Bather describes and dis-
cusses the significance of Plesiolampas Sahara, sp.'n., and Hemiaster
sudanensis, sp.n., collected by Captain Lelean in Sokoto. The occurrence
of Plesiolampas, a genus hitherto unknown outside Sind, suggests a
continuous westward extension of the Eocene Indian Ocean ; and this
idea is confirmed by an Egyptian fossil of the same age, identified by
Gauthier as Plesiolampas.

Ccelentera.

Development of Hydromedusse.f — A. Goette has studied the
development of the medusoid in a number of free-swimming and sessile
forms. His results are remarkably different in a number of points from
those of Agassiz. The radial canals arise from the apical portions of
the four tamiolge. The circular canal arises neither from an endoderm
lamella nor through side continuations of the radial canals. It appears
to be formed independently from outgrowths from the tamioke. The
cavity of the bell arises from four radial furrows of the endoderm sepa-
rated by the four tamiolre. The ova, in Podocoryne, arise from the
ectoderm of the polyps ; in Syncoryne and Bougainvillea from the endo-
derm of the bud. The male sexual cells in all the three genera probably
have their origin in the outer ectoderm. Only in Dendroclava does the
ectoderm of the manubrium appear to be the germinal region, and here
not exclusively, since the sub-umbrellar flaps beyond the manubrium
likewise give rise to germinal cells.

Solenocaulon.f — Martin Janower does not agree with Hickson in
slumping Solenocaulon tortuosum Gray, Sol. grayi Studer, and Sol. tubn-
losum Genth into one species, Sol. tortuosum Gray, with a widened
diagnosis. He maintains that these are three good species, to which
must be added Sol. (Leucoella) cervicorne Gray. A general discussion
of the genus follows.

Anatomy of Cerianthus Borealis.§— J. S. Kingsley gives some
account of this form. It is distinguished from related species in being
hermaphrodite. It differs from 0. membranaceus and G. lloycli in the
great extension of its septa, five pairs reaching to the aboral pole. The
larger and more prominent siphonoglyph in Cerianthus is homologous
with the single groove in Halcampa, and hence should be termed sulcus
and not sulculus as maintained by Bourne.

Studies in Anthozoa.[| — 0. Carlgren has investigated the develop-
ment of the first twelve tentacles in Peachia, Cribrina (Buuodes), etc.
At the eighth tentacle stage in these forms there are only four which are
homologous to each other. These are the two directive, and the two
which lie on each side of the dorsal directive tentacles ; the four others

* Geol. Mag. Decade V., i. No. 7(1901) pp. 292-304 (1 pi.).

t Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 473-5.

X Kevue Suisse Zool., xii. (1904) pp. 495-538 (2 pis.).

§ Tufts College Studies, No. 8 (1901) pp. 345-61.

|| Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 531-49.

536 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

are not the same in the genera in question. In Peachia these four last
are exoccel tentacles, and in Cribrina they are endoccel. The eight first
tentacles in Cribrina are the six which later form the six primary
endoccel tentacles plus two primary exococl ones. In Peachia the eight
first form the two primary endoccel (directive) tentacles plus the six
primary exoccel. This is related to a difference in the position assumed
by tentacles nine to twelve. There exist in the twelfth tentacle stage
of Actiniarians two types, which are already indicated in the eighth
tentacle stage : (1) Bilateral. On each side of the plane of direction
and on both sides of the ventro-lateral tentacle of the eighth tentacle
stage there arises an exoccel tentacle, so that the dorsal tentacle develops
a little earlier than the ventral. (2) Biradial. Here there appear about
the same time four endoccel tentacles, two on each side of the plane of
direction, on both sides of the lateral tentacle of the eighth tentacle
stage. The paper includes a consideration of transverse division in
Gonactinia, as well as notes on heteromorphism in the Actiniaria.

Protozoa.

Significance of Pigment Spots in Protozoa.* — R. Halben dis-
cusses the significance of the pigment in the " eye-spots " of certain
Protozoa, and generally the problem of " seeing " in simple Invertebrates.
The significance of a pigmented spot in Protozoa and in transparent
Metazoa he seeks to interpret in the following manner. It is capable
of orientating the body with respect to light. In other words, it
functions as a shadow giver. If parallel light strikes on a ball-like
mass of pigment in a transparent animal a shadow-cylinder is formed,
in relation to which the organism automatically seeks to orientate itself,
so that the shadow coincides with the long axis of the body. The
animal thus turns the " eye " to the light or seeks to withdraw
from it.

Neogamous Gregarines.f — H. M. Woodcock gives a preliminary
account of the life-cycle of Cystobia irregularis and other allied gre-
garines, which from their constant occurrence in pairs he terms " neo-
gamous." C. irregularis is parasitic in Holothuria forskali. The adults
are perfectly regular in form and beautifully ovoid. The two associates
are sometimes separated by a distinct septum, and sometimes not, which
is dependent on the time of their union. In C. minchinii occurs one
of the most advanced instances of neogamy yet known, the fusion
taking place almost at the commencement of the life-cycle when the
parasites are scarcely more than sporozoites, and comprising an absolute
union of the two cytoplasms, the nuclei alone remaining distinct. Here
the fusion is longitudinal, that is, side by side ; in C. irregularis it is
end to end. The author regards this extremely precocious association
as an adaptation on the part of the parasites to ensure a suitable asso-
ciation, which would otherwise be rendered very difficult by the loss of
mobility characterising these ccelomic forms. Successive phylogenetic
steps in the increasing intimacy of the process are seen in Diplocystis
major, D. minor, and D. schneideri.

* Biol. Centralbl., xxiv. (1904) pp. 283-8.

f Arch. Zool. Exp et Gen., xxxii. (1904) Notes et Revue, pp. cxxv.-cxxviii.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 537

Protozoa of Louisiana.* — J. C. Smith gives an account of the
structure and habits of various marine Protozoa as a preliminary con-
tribution to the fauna of this region. Several forms are recorded for
the first time for North America.

Trypanosoma dimorphon in Horses.f — A. Laveran and F. Mesnil
discuss this new species of Trypanosoma found by J. E. Dutton and
J. H. Todd in horses in Gambia. It seems to be structurally quite
distinct from Tr. gambiense (in man) and from other forms. Mice,
which are immune to Tr. gambiense, are acutely infected by Tr. dimor-
phon, and human serum, which is ineffective as regard Tr. gambiense,
has an effect on Tr. dimorphon, though less than in Nagana, Surra, and
Caderas. There seems little doubt that Tr. dimorphon is a well-charac-
terised species, distinct from Tr. brucei, Tr. gambiense, and other
forms.

Peculiar Parasite of the Embryos of Daphnia.J — Ch. Perez de-
scribes Blashdidium pcedophthorvm g. et sp. n., probably one of the
Haplosporidia, which is parasitic on the eggs and young embryos in
the brood-pouch of parthenogenetic forms of Daphnia obtusa Kurz.
The fertilised ova were not infected. In its adult state the parasite
exhibits an ellipsoidal protoplasmic body, surrounded by a delicate
envelope, with a huge hyaline vacuole in the centre, and with very
numerous nuclei round about. The plasmic cortex divides into as
many parts as there are nuclei, and the mature schizont has the ap-
pearance of a blastula with a large segmentation cavity.

* Rep. Louisiana Gulf Biol. Station, 1003, Bull. No. 2, pp. 43-55.
t Comptes Kendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 732-7 (7 figs.).
X Proc. Verb. Soc. Sci. Bordeaux, 1903, pp. 75-^6.

* t c^»-+-

Oct. 19th, 1904 2 p

538 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Cytology,
including Cell-Contents.

Occurrence of Mitochondria and Chondromites in Plant Cells.* —
Fr. Meves finds in the tapetal cells of young anthers of Nymplum alia
long, irregularly wound, tolerably thick threads, which stain a deep
black with iron hsematoxylin. He regards these as identical with the
chondromites, the term used by Benda for the thread-like aggregations
of microsomes or mitochondria found in certain animal cells. He is of
opinion that the filaments will be found to be generally distributed in
plant-cells.

Scent of the Orange Flower.|— E. Charabot and G. Laloue find
that the petals contain the greater part of the essential oil of the orange
flower. During flowering the weight of oil is sensibly increased ; hence,
contrary to what occurs in the leaf and the stem, the formation or
accumulation of scent products in the flower is more active when the
organ is fully developed than in an earlier stage. The authors also give
details of the chemistry of the process.

Structure and Development.
Vegetative.

Comparative Anatomy of Japanese Cucurbitacese. % — Atsashi
Yasuda has studied the anatomy of various organs of fifteen genera of
this family, which are found wild or are cultivated in Japan. The
stems bear four kinds of trichomes, sharp-pointed and blunt conical
trichomes, and short- and long-stalked glandular trichomes. There
are four types of distribution of the sieve-tubes in the stems : vascular
bundle sieve-tubes, ectocyclic, endocyclic and commissural sieve-tubes ;
all four types are found in GucurUta Pepo. Melothria japonica and
Gymnostemma cissoides have long, thick rhizomes, bearing at several
nodes three scales which are anatomically distinguished as a shoot, a leaf
and a tendril. The rhizomes are full of starch-grains ; the collenchyma,
sclerenchyma and fibro-vascular bundles are much reduced. There are
generally six fibro-vascular bundles in the hypocotyls, except in Citrullus
vulgaris and Cucurlita Pepo, which have twelve and ten respectively.
GucurUta Pepo is singular in having a many-layered epidermis in the
leaves. The much enlarged epidermal cells on the lower face of the
blade in Momordicd Charantia contain globular cystoliths.

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxii. (1904) pp. 254-6 (1 pi.).

t Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1513-4.

J Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokio, xviii. (1903) Art. 4, pp. 1-5G (5 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 539

The author describes six ways of arrangement of the fibro-vascular
bundles in the midribs of the leaves : the number of bundles varies
between one and seven. He also describes the characters of the
cotyledons ; the spongy parenchyma of these organs in Actinostemma
racemosum has a reticulate appearance, the cells radiating from a
fibro-vascular bundle and bearing very large intercellular spaces,
recalling the leaf tissue of water-plants. The young roots of the
same species have also remarkably wide inter- cellular spaces. The
epidermal cells of the fruit may be radially flattened, cubical or
radially elongated ; a more or less complete sclerenchymatous ring is
generally formed in the pericarp. The origin of the tubercles on the
surface of the fruit varies : those in Actinostemma and Momordica are
parenchymatous out-growths, while those of Cuaimis sativus are the large
protuberant bases of trichomes which have become detached. Sieve-
tubes have a characteristic distribution in the fruits : besides those found
in the phloem, there are isolated ones in the tissue of the pericarp, in the
hypoderma outside the hardened ring, when such is present. A
vascular bundle enters the tubercles on the pericarp in Momordica Cha-
rantia. Three kinds of epidermal cells may be distinguished in the
seeds, flattened or cubical, prismatic, and prismatic with thickened
ridges.

Development of the Bicollateral Bundle of Curcurbita.* — F. C.
von Faber has worked out the development in Cucurbita Pepo, and finds
that the bundle is a true bicollateral one. The inner phloem is differ-
entiated at a very early stage in the same procambium strand as the
other elements, and differs in no way from the external phloem ; hence it
seems more correct to speak of a single bicollateral bundle than to regard
the inner phloem as belonging to a second bundle which consists only of
phloem. The development of an internal cambium, and the occasional
formation of xylem elements in connection with the inner phloem, cannot
be regarded as an argument against the original entity of the bundle.

Leaf-form and Stomata of the Dwarf Plants of the Wiirzburg
Limestone. f — E. Lippold has made a detailed comparison of a number
of plants growing in the area in question, in which there is a marked
scarcity of water, with others growing under normal conditions, from
the point of view of leaf -area and distribution of stomata. A reduction
of leaf -surface is general in the dwarf forms ; an extreme case is seen in
Pimpinella Saxifraga, where it is in the proportion of 24 to 1. There
was also a reduced number of stomata on a square millimetre of surface;
here the extreme case was supplied by Poterinm Sanguisorba, the re-
duction being in the proportion of 1*8 to 1. The form and often also
the size of the epidermal cells was unaltered in the dwarf forms.
Generally speaking, the leaves were hairy on both sides. Transpiration
is checked in these dwarf forms by one or a combination of more than
one of the following factors : reduction of the leaf -surface, diminution
of the number of stomata in unit area, diminution of the size of the
stomata.

* Ber. Dentsch. Bot. Gesell., xxii. (1904) pp. 296-303 (2 pis.).

t Verhandl. Pbysik.-Medicin. Gea. Wurzburg, N.F., xxxvi. (1904) pp. 337-83

2 P 2

540 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Structure of the Petiolar Glands of Hevea brasiliensis.* —
A. Daguillon and H. Coupin describe the anatomy of the glands,
several of which occur on the upper face of the petiole between the
bases of the three leaflets. Each gland consists of a central depression
surrounded by a raised ring of tissue ; the epidermis in the depression
forms a secretive epithelium with palisade-like cells. Beneath the well
developed sub-epidermal layer is a mass of relatively small cells, with
dense protoplasm, large nucleus and numerous chloroleucites ; near
these are many cells containing crystals of calcium oxalate. Below the
periglandular ring is a water-bearing ring of tracheids. A slender
woody bundle ends in a cap of small tracheids beneath the centre of
the subglandular mass, in which also are found the ends of some lati-
ciferous cells. Cells rich in tannin occur in the parenchyma near the
secreting surface, and especially in the subglandular mass.

These petiolar glands afford useful diagnostic characters in several
other genera of Euphorbiaceas.

Vegetative Propagation in the Floral Region in Epidendrum
elongatum.t — E. Hemmendorff describes in specimens of this orchid
from San Paulo, Brazil, the production of vegetative shoots on the
inflorescence. Only a few flowers form fruit ; generally they soon fall
and the upper part of the inflorescence withers, but from the axils of
the bracts immediately below the floral region new shoots are often pro-
duced. These develop in various ways. Only rarely do they bear
flowers ; generally they are vegetative, forming naked branches without
leaves or roots, or bearing the air-roots, or air-roots and leaves. Occa-
sionally shoots of the third order, which are flower-bearing, are developed.

Gatin, C. L. — Sur les etats jeunes de quelques Palmiers. (On the young states of
some palms.)

[Gives a few details especially in relation lo the root ; in some species only
adventitious roots occur. The author states that the three modes of germi-
nation of palms distinguished by Micheels represent only superficial
differences.] Comptes liendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1625-7.

Reproductive.

Variation in the Violet Flower.^ — 0. E. Britton summarises the
variations detected among 1000 flowers of each of five species gathered
in various parts of Surrey. The species were Viola odorata, V. hirta,
V. silvestris, V. Riviana, V. ericetorum. The most general forms of
variation were those tending towards the production of a regular flower,
either by an increase in the number of spurs or the formation of petal-
line sacs, or by abortion of the typical spur. Petalody of the sepals and
stamens, sepalody of the petals, lobing of sepals and petals, and the
development of tetramerous and trimerous flowers were also observed.
External conditions, chiefly light and temperature, seem to have con-
siderable influence on the production of aberrations among violet flowers.
The effect of an unusual excess of light was seen in the case of V. silves-
tris growing in a copse which had been cut over during the previous

* Kev. Gen. Botan., xvi. (1904) pp. 82-90 (3 figs, in text).i

t Arkiv for Botanik (K. Svensk. Akad.) i. (1904) pp. 516-19 (2 pis.).

X Journ. of Bot., xlii. (1904) pp. 140-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 541

winter ; in the spring abnormal flowers abounded. The author con-
siders that the great factor in the production of abnormal violet flowers
is connected with the existence of two classes of flowers, the large-petalled,
which usually fail to form fruit, and the cleistogamic, which are
productive.

Sexuality in the Genus Ribes.* — Ed. de Jancewski finds as a result
of examination of the species of Riles occurring in South America, that
these are all practically dioecious, thus contrasting with the North
American species. Both stamens and pistil are present in all the
flowers, but on some plants the stamens, on others the pistil, show
various degrees of abortion. In several species the flowers are apparently
hermaphrodite, but the anthers in the fruit-producing flower contain in
place of functional pollen a mass of parenchyma-like cells, which are
apparently aborted pollen-mother-cells, while the ovules in the male
flowers are rudimentary. The Isthmus of Panama constitutes a natural
limit between species, wrhich, while closely allied and very near in all
other respects, differ in the incomplete development of the sexual organs
in the Southern species.

Nutrition of the Egg- in Zamia.t — Isabel S. Smith describes the
mode of nutrition of the egg by jacket-cells in Zamia. The inner walls
of the jacket-cells are pierced by numerous pores of various sizes, through
which the protoplasm of the egg protrudes into the jacket-cells, forming
haustoria-like processes. After passing through the pits the ends of the
haustoria become distended so that the structure appears knob-shaped.
The haustorium behaves like a gland cell, during the period of accumu-
lation staining more and more deeply, then discharging, and during the
following period of exhaustion staining faintly until the active period
begins again. In no case was there any indication of the passage of
nuclei or nucleoli from the jacket-cells into the egg, and in no case was
a jacket-cell found without a nucleus. It often happens that the knob-
like ends of haustoria are cut longitudinally and then closely resemble
nuclei, and might be mistaken for nuclei passing bodily into the egg.
This may explain the passage of the nuclei described by Arnoldi in
Pinus, but not confirmed by subsequent investigators. No sieve-plates,
or similar structures, as described by Goroschankin in Ceratozamia, were
found in the present instance.

Embryo-sac and Fertilisation 4n Aster.! — Marie Opperman has
investigated these stages in the life-history of several species of Aster.
The embryo-sac arises from the lowest cell of an axial row of four cells,
and the eight-nucleate sac is formed in the usual way. There is con-
siderable variation in the form of the embryo-sac, both in different
species and in the same species. Generally the polar nuclei fuse before
fertilisation, but may fuse after it. The endosperm nucleus is marked
out by its large size, almost spherical shape, its large nucleolus and its
position below and in contact with the oosphere. The antipodals show
a remarkable growth before the time of fertilisation, and persist till the

* Bull. Internat. Acad. Sci. Cracow, 1903, No. 10 (1904) pp. 788-92 (7 figs, in text)-
t Bot. Gazette, xxxvii. (1904) pp. 346-52 (6 figs, in text).
X Tom. cit., pp. 3f>3-62 (2 pis.).

542 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

development of the embryo is far advanced ; from one to nineteen nuclei
were found in a single antipodal cell. The lowest antipodal cell is often
very much enlarged. A remarkable embryo-sac was observed in a speci-
men of Aster undulatus, containing two oospheres and two endosperm
nuclei. The upper part of the sac is normal, but in the lower part just
above the first antipodal cell there is a cell and a large nucleus which
have the same structure and the same relative position as that of the
egg and the endosperm nucleus at the micropylar end. One of the
sperm nuclei has passed to the lower part of the embryo-sac to fuse with
the lower oosphere. This discovery of an antipodal, functioning as an
egg and about to be fertilised, has, the author considers, an important
bearing on the problem of the homologies of the antipodals.

In the same species, A. undulatus, double fertilisation was observed.
The development of the embryo follows the type described for other
Compositee.

Embryo-sac and Embryology of Nelumbo.* — H. H. York gives an
account of his work on the life-history of Nelumbo lutea. There is a
single hypodermal archesporial cell, and four megaspores are formed, the
lowest of which only is functional. An eight-celled embryo-sac is
formed, and usually one or more imperfect sacs, presumably derived
from sister megaspores. The antipodals are small and usually disappear
before the conjugation of the polar nuclei ; the synergids are small and
degenerate about the time of fertilisation. The fusion of the polar
nuclei is not complete until after fertilisation ; double fertilisation was
observed. An axial row of cells below the embryo-sac are large and
rich in protoplasm, and form a conducting passage for food from the
ower ovular tissue to the embryo-sac. The embryo-sac becomes divided,
after fertilisation, into three chambers by formation of two transverse
walls, and finally the whole sac becomes filled with endosperm. No free
cell formation occurs at any stage of the process.

The history of the embryo is the same as reported by Lyon. A
spherical embryo of several hundred cells is formed ; no suspensor cell
is present. When the spherical embryo has reached its maximum growth
it becomes flattened at the outer end by the development of a collar-like
ridge extending about two-thirds of the way round. Development then
continues at the opposite side, giving rise to the two " cotyledonary "
lobes, which grow downwards very rapidly outside the endosperm. The
plumule forms a dome-shaped projection occupying a central position
between the lobes. Both the cotyledonary ridge and the stem tip
probably represent terminal structures, but on account of the spherical
form of the embryo it is impossible to trace the origin of any set of
cells which appear at the outer end of the more mature embryo, and the
cotyledonary ridge may be lateral. The first leaf and stem tip develop
side by side from the terminal mass of cells in the protuberance ; the
leaf arises on the side opposite the cotyledonary ridge.

The author points out the similarity in early development between
the embryo of Nelumbo and those of certain Aroids {Lyskliiton and
others), while the development of the cotyledonary ridge shows a

* Ohio Naturalist, iv. (1904) pp. 167-76 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 543

striking resemblance to the hypocotyledonary expansion of various
Helobiae. It is probable that the broad two-lobed expansion in the
Nelumbo embryo, commonly known as the cotyledons, is a true hypo-
cotyledonary body, bearing a rather close resemblance to the hypocoty-
ledonary expansion of Phyllospadix. The first leaf of Nelumbo then
becomes homologous with the so-called cotyledon in Buppia and
Phyllospadix.

Jacket Layer in Sassafras.* — J. H. Schaffner describes a jacket of
cells surrounding the mature embryo-sac in Sassafras. It shows some
resemblance to the delicate zone in Agrostemma, but there is no distinct
limiting wall on the outside. It is from one to several layers of cells
thick, and behaves differently to stains from the outer layer. The cells
have large vacuoles, and comparatively little protoplasm, and begin to
degenerate when the embryo-sac is fully formed. It thus serves not
only to nourish the developing gametophyte, but by its disintegration
supplies food to the developing endosperm and embryo. This jacket
layer is a purely physiological tissue developed in various ways in
different angiosperms. It may be absent, as in Sagittaria and Lilium ;
represented by disintegrating cells in contact with the embryo-sac, as in
many monocotyledons and dicotyledons ; it may be developed, as in the
examples just discussed ; or it may be a highly-specialised layer of dark
staining cells, as in Aster Novce-anglice, described by Chamberlain.

Overton, J. B. — Tiber Parthenogenesis bei Thalictrum purpurascens. (On parthe-
nogenesis in Thalictrum purpurascens.)

[Gives cy tological details of the phenomenon, a general account of which was
given by the same author in 1902).

Ber. Deuttch. Bot. Gesell, xxii. (1904) pp. 274-83 (1 pi.).

Robertson, C. — The structure of flowers and the mode of pollination of the primi-
tive angiosperms.

[Suggests that the primitive angiosperms were entomophilous, and that the
anemophilous ones are metamorphosed entomophilous flowers whose
seemingly simple structures are degraded, not primitive.]

Bot. Gazette, xxxvii. (1904) pp. 294-8.

Vogler, Paul — Die Variation der Blutenteile von Ranunculus Ficaria L. (Varia-
tion of the parts of the flower of B. Ficaria.)

[The petals and the sporophylls show a marked parallel variation ; there is
no obvious compensation.]

Vierttljalirsclti-. Naturf. Gesell. in Zurich, xlviii. (1904)
pp. 321-8, with explanatory curves.

Physiology.
Nutrition and Growth.

Assimilation of Atmospheric Nitrogen.-f-— Charlotte Ternetz finds
associated with the roots of Calluna, Erica carnea, Oxycoccus and Vacci-
nium a fungus which can assimilate atmospheric nitrogen. The fungus
has a much-branched septate mycelium, and forms brown pycnidia, which

* Ohio Naturalist, iv. (1904) pp. 192-3 (fig. in text).

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxii. (1904) pp. 267-74(1 pi.).

544 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

contain small hyaline spores. The nitrogen assimilation is much less
energetic than in the case of Clostridium pastor ianum.

"1i Intramolecular Respiration.*— E. Godlewski finds that, whereas
lupin seeds in pure water develop in absence of oxygen only very slight
intramolecular respiration, this form of respiration is well marked when
the seeds are placed in a suitable sugar solution, and may continue for
six to eight weeks. Grape-sugar is used more easily than cane-sugar,
which has first to be inverted. The intramolecular respiration, which is
developed at the cost of the sugar supplied to the seeds, facilitates the
hydrolysis of the reserve carbohydrate of the seeds and its use for intra-
molecular respiration, so that seeds placed in sugar solution use more of
their own carbohydrates than when lying in pure water. During intra-
molecular respiration under these circumstances changes also occur in
the contained proteids, about 30 p.c. becoming decomposed before death
occursifrom want of oxygen. The nitrogen of the decomposed proteid
appears chiefly (more than 75 p.c.) in the form of amino-acids ; only 9
to 10 p.c. appears in the form of asparagin. This last result suggests
that in absence of oxygen only dissimilation of the proteids is possible
in the higher plants — ■ not a synthetic formation of asparagin — and
from this point of view a closer investigation of the formation of pro-
teid, in absence of oxygen in the case of the higher plants, seems
desirable.

Irritability.

Effect of Chemical Irritation on Respiration of Fungi.f — Ada
Watterson reviews previous work on this subject, the results of which
indicate that small quantities of certain poisonous substances act as
stimulants, increasing the growth of certain plants, and also increasing
respiration. Since, in the case of fungi, it has been found that stimula-
tion raises the economic coefficient of the sugar — i.e. allows the plant to
make use of the sugar to form a greater amount of dry substance in a
given time, the question of the amount of C02, which is produced at the
same time, becomes of interest. The author finds from her own experi-
ments that the addition of small quantities of zinc sulphate, iron
sulphate and lithium chloride, increases the rate of growth of Sterig-
matocystis and Pemcillium, so that a larger amount of dry substance is
formed within a given time than in normal culture ; that at the same time
there has been an increase in the production of C02, but not too great
to be accounted for by the enlarged area of the plant. The ratio of dry
weight to C02 in the irritated fungus is, therefore, approximately equal
to that of the normal. Taking into account previous results which show
that the effect of the addition of such poisons is to enable the plant to
make more economical use of the carbohydrates supplied to it, we can
interpret this action as a stimulus which causes the fungus to transform
more of the food material into its own substance and less into waste
products such as oxalic acid, while at the same time the respiration
remains relatively unchanged.

* Bull. Interuat. Acad. Soi. Cracow, 1901, pp. 115-58.
t Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 291-303.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 545

Perception of the Force of Gravity by Plants.*— F. Darwin
gives a valuable discussion on the statolith theory of geotropism, which
suggests that the stimulus to geotropic curvatures is supplied by the
change in position of the movable starch-grains resulting from an
alteration in the position of a plant or plant-organ. Two general con-
siderations are of interest. First, analogy with the graviperceptive
organs of animals, Kreidl having shown that in the crustacean Palasmon
the sense of verticality depends on the pressure of heavy bodies on the
inside of certain cavities, or statocysts, formerly believed to be organs of
hearing. When the normal particles are replaced by fragments of iron,
the animal reacts towards the attraction of a magnet precisely as it
former^ reacted towards gravity. Secondly, the specialisation and
distribution of the falling bodies in plants. The difference between
movable starch-grains (statoplasts) and the ordinary immovable amylo-
plasts is striking, and it is hardly possible to doubt that their function
is different. In a seedling, Phalaris canariensis, the apical part has
only falling starch-grains, while lower down both forms occur, and
correspondingly, we find that the seedling is gravi-sensitive throughout,
but especially so at the apex. The most striking general fact about the
distribution of the statoplasts is their presence in the endodermis. If the
endodermis is essentially a tissue of gravi-sensitive cells, we can under-
stand why it contains loose starch only as long as the stem is capable of
growth curvature. Other cases which strongly suggest a relation
between sensitiveness to gravity and presence of statoplasts are the
onion, where these occur in the root-cap, the endoderm and punctum of
the seedling, but not elsewhere, and the pulvinus of grasses in which
statoplasts occur, but not in the haulm. Viscum, on the other hand, is
not geotropic, and has no statoplasts. The author has previously
shown that the cotyledon of Setaria and Sorghum is the seat of gravita-
tion, and it is there that the statoplasts are found. Physiologists have
gradually come to accept Charles Darwin's view that the organ of gravi-
perception is in the tip of the root, and it is there — generally in the
root-cap and there only — that the statoplasts are found. In a large
number of plants, such as Algse and Fungi, no statoliths are known to
exist ; here we must either accept Noll's view of minute and hitherto
unseen statoliths, or suppose a different mechanism such as hydrostatic
pressure.

Reviewing, in some detail, the experimental evidence, the author
expresses his opinion that it is not fatal to the statolith theory ; in some
cases a revision is necessary, and other considerations must be taken
into account. He is impressed with the general, though not the
universal, applicability of the statolith theory, and considers that in the
case of the higher plants, sensitiveness to the pressure of heavy bodies
will be found to be by far the most important, if not the exclusive
means, by which gravity is perceived. The stimulus must depend on
weight, and since neither the theory of radial pressure nor Noll's
supposition of stimulation by small unknown bodies lends itself to
experimental inquiry, we are driven, as practical people, to test the

* Brit. Assoc, 1901, Botanical Section. Address by the President, Francis
Darwin, F.R.S.

546 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

statolithic views of Haberlandt and Nemec. Their theory may fairly
hold the field until better theories of both gravi-perception and of the
function of falling starch-grains are established.

Aerotropism in Roots.* — Mary E. Bennett has carried out a series
of experiments on the supposed aerotropic curvatures ascribed by
Molisch to roots. Roots of maize, Pisum sativum, Raphanus sativus,
and others were subjected to the one-sided access of oxygen, hydrogen
and carbon dioxide, to determine whether the roots do really curve
toward or away from these gases in natural or artificial conditions.
When the roots were grown in water between submerged chambers, the
one containing air and the other C02 or hydrogen, no constant and
regular curvatures occurred ; the majority of roots were indifferent to
the influence of any of these gases. The same results followed when
the roots were not submerged but placed between the gas chambers in a
larger damp chamber. When the seedlings were grown in a thin
vertical layer of earth forming a septum between air and C02, or air
and hydrogen, or in earth permeated on one side with air, and on the
other with C02 or hydrogen, very few curves were formed, the large
majority of roots growing straight, or if curved, the curves were not
directed by the presence of gases. Similarly, when the roots of seedlings
were grown in a thin layer of gelatin between different gases, no curves
of constant direction were shown. In experiments similar to those of
Molisch, where roots were supported close to narrow slits opening into
gas-chambers from which gases were constantly diffusing, curves were
produced generally towards the gas-chambers, whether or no gases were
diffusing from the chambers. But these curves were found to be purely
hydrotropic. The author concludes that, at any rate in the case of the
land plants used in the present inquiry, definite direction curvatures are
not induced in roots by the one-sided access of gases, and these roots
are therefore not aerotropic.

Stimulating Action of some Metallic Salts on the Growth of
the Higher Plants. f — Masayasu Kanda finds that a favourable influence
is exerted on the growth of some plants by a slight addition of certain
metallic salts, which are not nutrient but act as poisons in larger doses.
The methods which gave satisfactory results were those of water-culture
and pot-culture, both of which in the case of land plants imply a de-
parture from normal conditions. The author found that very dilute
copper sulphate solution (0* 000000249 p.c.) acted prejudicially on
pea-seedlings in water-culture, while still further dilute solutions
(0-0000000249 to 0*00000000249 p.c.) acted neither as poison nor
as stimulus. In certain " soils, however, the same salt had a favourable
action on pea- and bean-seedlings. Very dilute solutions of sulphate
of zinc had a favourable action ; the optimum concentration lies
between 0' 00000287 and 0*0000001435 p.c; a concentration of
0*0000287 p.c. had a poisonous effect. Pot-plants of Vicia and Pisum
watered three times a week with 200 c.cm. of 0*287 p.c. solution of
zinc-sulphate, showed a more rapid growth than the control plants

* Bot. Gazette, xxxvii. (1904) pp. 241-59 (5 figs, in text).

t Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokio, xix. Art. B (1904) pp. 1-37 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 547

which were watered with tap-water. Sodium fluoride acted as a stimulus
to pea-seedlings in water-culture ; the optimum concentration lies be-
tween 0-0021 and 0*00021 p.c. A concentration of 0'02 p.c. had a
poisonous effect.

Chemical Changes.

Occurrence of Invertase in Plants.* — J. H. Kastle and Mary
E. Clark have examined nineteen species representing fourteen families of
plants, and find invertase abundantly in each and more constant in its
occurrence than diastase. Contrary to the views of Bechamp, it occurs
abundantly in the leaves ; it also occurs in some rather unexpected
associations — for instance, in the growing tubers of the potato and arti-
choke, where we should be inclined to expect the occurrence of relatively
large amounts of inulase and diastase respectively, these ferments are
present but in less quantity than invertase. It is of interest to note
that invertase is not confined to those plants which store cane-sugar as
the characteristic reserve material. The fact that it occurs so generally
in foliage leaves, and is so widely disseminated throughout the various
plant organs, lends support to the view of Brown and Morris that cane-
sugar is the first product of photosynthesis, and the fact that it is also
present in the reserve organs of plants storing inulin as well as those
storing starch would seem to point to cane-sugar as the substance
immediately antecedent not only to starch but to other reserve materials.

Zymase and Alcoholic Fermentation. f — P. Maze continues his
researches on this subject. The production of the zymase has hitherto
been considered as limited to a larger or smaller number of living cells,
and forming generally a kind of anomaly. The author has shown that
the conversion of sugar into alcohol and C02 is very general in living
cells under normal conditions. Zymase is a diastase formed in aerobic
conditions, and its action on sugar must be regarded as a phenomenon
of digestion. Hence the alcoholic fermentation in absence of oxygen so
often observed in plant and animal tissues, must be regarded as the
continuation of a diastatic action which has its origin in normal life.
The general poverty in zymase of plant and animal cells is due to its
rapid destruction, probably by an oxidation process.

General.

Botany of Belle Isle.* — Emile Gadeceau gives an exhaustive account
of the botany of this small Breton island. After a general account of
the topography, climate, geology and cultivation, he gives a catalogue
of the vascular plants found on the island, with notes on their habitat.
The third part of his paper is devoted to plant-geography or cacology ;
here the author discusses the influence of climate, of soil, etc., on the
distribution of the plants, and describes the various plant-associations.
Finally he tabulates the following general conclusions. Climate exer-
cises a strikingly preponderant influence on the dispersion of species,

* American Chem. Journ., xxx. (1903) pp. 422-7.
t Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1901) pp. 1514-17.

X Mem. Soc. Sci. Nat. & Math. Cherbourg, xxxiii. (1903) pp. 177-368 (3 pis. and
map).

■548 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

many southern species attaining their extreme northern limit in the
island. Water plays an important part in determining the character of
the flora, xerophilous species forming the basis of the vegetation, while
many hygrophilous species common in neighbouring regions are absent
or rare in Belle Isle. The physical character of the soil exercises a more
marked effect on the flora than the chemical character. A comparison
of the flora with that of other Breton islands suggests their separation
from neighbouring continents at an epoch prior to that of the formation
of the Gulf -stream.

Flora of the Philippine Islands.*— E. D. Merrill gives notes on
a number of new or otherwise noteworthy seed-plants recently collected
by him in these islands. He also enumerates the plants of American
origin which are now found in the islands. Some of these of economic
or ornamental value have been purposely introduced ; others are the
result of accident. The latter are for the most part generally dis-
tributed as weeds in cultivated fields. Many of those of economic
importance seem to have been introduced in very early times ; both
Mercado and Camell at the beginning of the eighteenth century
enumerate many species of American origin. Nearly all the American
species of economic importance, and a very large percentage of those
accidentally introduced and now found in the islands, have been gene-
rally distributed throughout the tropics of the East by the same
agencies by which they were introduced into this Archipelago ; and at
the present time we find in other countries of the East, comparatively
few of the tropical American species which are not also found in the
Philippines. These islands must be considered as the early distributing
point of American species in the East.

Antarctic Fossil Flora.f— A. G. Nathorst gives an account of the
fossil plants collected in the Swedish Antarctic expedition. The most
interesting is the Jurassic flora found by J. G. Andersson in Hope Bay,
at latitude 63° 15' S., longitude 57° W. The plants were found in a black
schist which formed part of an ancient mountain chain ; the flora is
very rich in species, and the external leaf -form is well preserved. Equi-
setineae are represented by a species very near Equisetum columnare
Brongn., and the Hydropteridese by a Sagenopteris, which is perhaps
identical with S. PhiUipsi Brongn. Ferns are abundant and belong to
a large number of genera, and include several species of Cladophlebis,
Todites Williamsoni, Scleropteris, Stachijpteris, Thinnfeldia indica, Pacliy-
pteris, and Sphenopteris. Among the Cycadophytes are several species
of Otozamites, Williamsonia, large leaves suggesting Nilssonia tenui-
nervis, and a magnificent Pterophyllum of the same type as the Indian
Pt. Morrisianum. Among the Coniferae the most interesting are cone-
scales of Araucarites cutchmsis ; leafy branches of conifers of different
types were common. This Jurassic flora as a whole resembles on the
one hand the Jurassic flora of Europe, and on the other the flora of
upper Gondwana in India. In richness of species it far surpasses the
Jurassic floras previously known from South America.

* Department of the Interior, Bureau of Government Laboratories, Manila (1904)
3 ; PP- t Comptes lUndus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1447-50.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 54^

Fossil Tertiary plants found in Seymour Island about latitude
64° 15' S., as fragmentary and badly preserved leaf -impressions in a
marine volcanic tufa contain different species of ferns, the determination
of which is difficult, a conifer with distichous leaves, and a single leaf
suggesting an Araucaria near A. brasilknsis. The leaves of the di-
cotyledons are generally small and have the same facies as those of
certain Tertiary floras of Southern Europe ; leaves of Fagus indicate
the existence of the genus in South America or the neighbouring Ant-
arctic regions since the beginning of the Tertiary iperiod. Owing to
their existence in a marine deposit, it is possible that these plants may
have been brought some distance, for M. Agassiz has shown that fruits-
and leaves may be found at the bottom of the sea more than 1000 kilo-
metres from the nearest land.

Presence of Abronia in the Tertiary Flora of Europe.* —
L. Laurent refers to this American genus the specimens of fossil fruit
from Cantal, which were originally referred to Ulmus by Unger, and were
considered by Saporta and others to belong to Zygoffhyllum. Abronia
cycloptera A. Gray var. micrantha Torr., from the mountains of
Wyoming, has fruits identical with the fossil specimens. Abronia is a
herbaceous plant belonging to the order Nyctagineae, and is at the
present day confined to Western North America. It will rank with the
Californian element represented by Taxoclium and Sequoia, which is so
abundant in the Tertiary forests of Europe.

De Wildemah— Sur les Acarophytes. (On myrmecophilous plants.)

[The author suggests that the considerable variations found in the form of the
acarodomatia on the leaves of species of Coffea in tropical Africa are due to
hybridisation.] Comples Bendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1437-40.

Habshbeeger, J. W. — A photogeographic sketch of extreme south-eastern Penn-
sylvania.

[An account of the various plant formations, and suggestions as to the origin
of the flora.] Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904>

pp. 125-59 (4 figs, in text).

Malme, G. O. — Beitrage zur Kenntnis der sudamerikanischen Aristoloohiaceen.
(South American Aristolochiaceae.)

[A systematic account, with notes on morphology and distribution.]

Arkiv for Botanik (K. Svensk. Akad.) i. pp. 521-52

(3 pis. and 4 figs, in text).

Sherman, P. L., Jun. — The gutta-percha and rubber of the Philippine Islands.

[An account of the subject from historical, botanical and economic points of
view.] Department of the Interior, Bureau of Government Laboratories,

Manila, 1903, 43 pp., 2 maps, 41 pis.

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

Anatomical Structure of Hymenophyllaceae.f — E. Ott has made a
careful study of this order, and finds that fresh light is thrown on the
systematic classification by taking into account the anatomical structure
of the rhizome. Other authors have treated of the general anatomical
structure of Hymenophyllaceaa, but rather in order to compare it with

* Comptes Eendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 996-9.

t SB. Akad. wiss. Wien, cxi. (1902) pp. 879-925 (3 pis. and 9 figs.).

550 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

other ferns than as a guide to a systematic arrangement of the order itself.
The present work makes a special study of the rhizome in this respect.
The author gives a short resume of former work by Mettenius, Russow,
Prantl and others. As regards nomenclature, he follows Hooker's
' Synopsis Filicum,' except that Loxsoma is now by common consent re-
moved from Hymenophyllacese to Davalliacese. The structure of the
Thizome is then described as it occurs in the two genera Trichomanes and
HymenophyUum. Trichomanes is distinguished by the following char-
acteristics : (1) " Deckzellen," either at the junction of the sclerenchyma
and the peripheral parenchyma, or, where this is absent, in contact with
the epidermis ; (2) tracheids of the xylem are similar almost through-
out, and arranged equally in all directions when seen in tranverse
section. The genus is divided into two groups, the first characterised
by : (1) an elliptic and 3-sided transverse section of the rhizome ;
(2) the black colour of the peripheral sclerenchyma in quite mature
(dried) specimens ; (3) semi-parenchymatous tissue between the scleren-
chyma and the bundle-sheath ; (4) the eccentric collateral bundle ;
xylem consisting of some few tracheids ; preponderance of phloem in
the bundle. To this group belong 19 species, which are all small and
delicate, and possess other morphological features in common.

The second group has (1) a circular transverse section of the rhizome ;

(2) yellow, yellow-brown to reddish coloration of the sclerenchyma ;

(3) central concentric bundle ; preponderance of xylem, which forms
a circle in the bundle ; phloem forms a ring in tranverse section. To
this group belong 27 species, of sturdy growth, mostly erect, sometimes
having a much shortened rhizome and long-stalked fronds.

The genus HymenophyUum is characterised as a whole by : (1) absence
of "deckzellen" ; (2) tracheids of the xylem of two kinds, symmetrically
arranged ; (3) unequal development of the circular tranverse section of
the rhizome ; (4) closely adpressed, yellow, yellow-brown or reddish
sclerenchyma-cylinder ; (5) central, concentric bundle. There is a pre-
ponderance of phloem in the bundle. Four different types of xylem
occur in the transverse section, and on this character the genus is
divided into four sections ; (a) ring-shaped xylem ; (b) horse-shoe shaped
xylem ; (c) fan-shaped xylem ; (d) irregular, mostly much reduced, xylem.
Among these four groups are distributed the 52 species of Hymeno-
phyUum, as well as four so-called species of Trichomanes. The author
refers to many specimens in the Yienna herbarium. The paper is illus-
trated by text-figures and plates.

Boodle, L. A. — Secondary tracheids in Psilotum. Preliminary account.

New Phytohgist, iii. (1904) pp. 48-9.
Bower, F. O. — Ophioglossum simplex Ridley.

[Anatomy of a new species from East Sumatra.]

Annals of Botany, xviii. (1904) pp. 205-16 (1 pi.)

Carestie — Localites nouvelles pour le Jura occidental: Aspidium auriculatum,
Asplenium lobatum. (New localities for the western Jura for these two ferns.)

Arch. Flore Jurass., iv. (1903) p. 84.

Chandler, S. E. — On the arrangement of the vascular strands in the "seedlings"
of certain leptosporangiate Ferns. Preliminary notice.

New Phytohgist, iii. (1904) pp. 123-5

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 551

Chauveatjd, G. — Sur le developpement des oryptogames vasculaires. (On the
development of the vascular cryptogams.)

Comptes Bendtts, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 511-3
Christ, H. — Loxsomopsis oostaricensis g. et-sp. n.

[Allied to Loxsoma, but differs in the characters of the sporangia.]

Bull. Herb. Boiss., iv. (1904) pp. 393-400 (1 pi.).
Davenport, G. E. — Miscellaneous notes on New England Ferns. VI.
[Nephrodium spinuhsum, var. concordianum n. var.]

Bhodora, vi. (1904) pp. 31-3.
Eaton, A. A. — Note on Equisetum pratense.

[Rare in the United States.] Tom. cit., p. 92.

Eggleston, W. W. — Addenda to the Flora of Vermont.

[Contains a list ot 11 ferns and allies.] Tom. cit., pp. 137-44.

Grand'Eury — Sur les rhizomes et les racines des fougeres fossiles et les Cycado-
filices. (On the rhizomes and roots of the fossil ferns and Cyca-
dofilices.)

Comptes Bendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 607-10,
„ „ Sur les sols de vegetation fossiles des Sigillaires et des Lepidoden-

drons. (On the fossil vegetation-soils of Sigillaria and Lepido-
dendron.)

Tom. cit., pp. 460-3.
Gregory, R. P. — The Keduction Division in Ferns.

Broc. Boy. Soc, Ixxiii. (1904) pp. 86-92.
Halacsy, E. v. — Aspidium aculeatumx lonchitis.

[A new hybrid.] Verh. Zool. but. Gesell. Wien, liv. (1904) pp. 129-32.

Hegi, G. — Zwei neue Fundorte von Botrychium lanceolatum Angstrom und Lyco-
podium complanatum L. in der Schweiz. (Two new Swiss localities for B.
lanceolatum and L. complanatum.) Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 312-3.

Kennedy, G. G.— Flora of Willoughby, Vermont.

[Contains a list of 62 ferns and fern allies.] Bhodora. vi. (1904) pp. 93-134.
Kidston, R. — On the fructification of Neuropteris heterophylla Brongn.

Bhil. Trans. Boy. Soc, cxovii. (1904) pp. 1-5.

Lankester, Mrs. — British Ferns: their classification, structure, functions. Illus-
trated new edition. Gibbings (1904) 132 pp.
L e ay itt, R. G. — Trichomes of the Boot in Vascular Cryptogams and Angiosperms

Broc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxxi. (1904) pp. 273-313.

Lignier, O. — Equisetales et Sphenophyllales. Leur origine filicineenne commune.
(Equisetales and Sphenophyllales ; their common origin in the Filicinex.)

Bull. Soc. Linn. Normand., vii. (1903) pp. 93-137.

Lindman, C. A. M. — Neue Speziesnamen einiger sudamerikanischer Fame. (New
specific names of some South American ferns.)

Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 308-11 (fig.).

Maxon, W. R.— Two new Ferns of the genus Polypodium from Jamaica.

Broc. U.S. Nat. Mus.,xxm. (1904) pp. 741-4.

Olivier, E. — Une fougere anormale. (An abnormal fern.)

Bev. Sci. Bourbonn. et Centre de la France, 1904, p. 69 .

Oshtjn, A. V. — Further stations for Botrychium matricariaefolium in Connecticut.

Bhodora, vi. (1904) p. 80.

Rosenstock, E. — Beitrage zur Pteridophytenflora Sudbrasiliens. (Contribution to
the fern-flora of South Brazil.)

[A list of 191 species, four being new, with critical notes.]

Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 210-38.
Slosson, M. — A new hybrid fern from Vermont,

Bhodora, vi. (1904) pp. 75-7 (fig.).
Tansley, A. G., & R. B. Lulham — The vascular system of the rhizome and leaf-
trace of Pteris Aquilina L. and Pteris incisa Thunb. var. integrifolia Beddome.

New Fhytologist, iii. (1904) pp. 1-17 (59 figs.)

552 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Underwood, L. M. — The Early writers on Ferns and their Collections. II. J. E.
Smith, 1759-1828; Swartz, 1760-1818; Willdenow, 1765-1812.

Torreya, iv. (1904) pp. 49-52.

Urspring, A. — Beitrage zum Bewegungsmechanismus einiger Pteridophyten
sporangien. (Notes on the mecbanisin of movement of some fern-sporangia.)

Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell, xxii. (1904) pp. 73-84.

Vries, H. de. — Schnurhiezen (Equisetum). Album der Natuur, 1904, pp. 233-46.

Zeiller, E. — Observations au sujet dn mode de fructification des Cycadofilicinees.
(Observations on the subject of the mode of fructification of the Cycadofilicineee.y

Comptes Bendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 663-5.

Bryophyta.

British Mosses.* — H. N. Dixon publishes a second and enlarged
edition of the ' Student's Handbook of British Mosses,' in which he has
corrected and supplemented the test of his notes, revised some of the
genera, e.g. Sphagnum, Weisia, Hypnum, introduced some 30 recent
additional species, and drawn 5 new plates. He has inserted the deriva-
tions of the genera, and employed the index as a means of hinting at
the right pronunciation of generic and specific names.

Mosses of Mark Brandenburg-.f — C. Warnstorf, having published
his monographs of the hepatics and sphagna of the Mark, is now occupied
with the mosses. The present part is concerned principally with the
cleistocarpous genera and the tribes Weisieae, Dicraneee, Fissidentese,
Seligerieee, Ditrichea?, Pottieaa and Trichostomea?. The descriptions are
carefully written, and are accompanied by keys to the orders, tribes,
genera and species.

Ectropothecium4 — E. S. Salmon, having examined the type speci-
mens of some species of the troublesome genus Ectropotliecium, has been
able to clear away much confusion. Leskia rutilans Brid. and Vesicu-
lar ia malachitica C. Muell. are identical with Ectropothecium vesiculare
(Schwaegr.), to a variety of which are reduced Hookeria Poeppigiana
Hampe, Hypnum conostegum C. Muell. and E. flavoviride Mitt.
E. crassicaule Mitt, is a distinct species. Hookeria prcelonga Walk. Arn.
must not be referred to E. vesiculare, but rather to E. amphibolum
Spruce. The "Hypnum Montagnei Schiinp." of C. Wright's Cuban
Mosses (No. 120) is compounded of some of the above plants. The
author re-describes at length E. vesiculare and its variety, and adds an
abundance of critical notes.

French Hepatic£e.§ — Abbe Boulay, who published his work on the
French moss-flora twenty years ago, now gives us a companion volume on
the hepatics, and promises a final one on the Sphagnacea3. Beginning
with a preface and bibliography, the author discusses at some length the
structure and physiology of the hepatics and their geographical distri-

* Student's Handbook of British Mosses, ed. ii. (Eastbourne, 1904) pp. 1., 586
(65 pis.).

t Kryptogamenflora der Mark Brandenburg, ii. (1. Laubmoose) Leipzig, 1904,
240 pp., with figs.

X Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 309-24 (2 pis.).

§ Muscinees de la France. II. He'patiques. Paris, 1904, pp. clxviii. 224, 15.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 553

Imtion, giving lists of species characteristic of various rocks, soils, waters
and trees, also lists of species grouped into several categories, according
to their habitats, within the three regions — mediterranean, forest, alpine.
He supplies a long dichotomous key to the 179 species, employing vege-
tative characters as far as possible ; also a synoptical table of the families,
genera and species. He then proceeds to describe the species systematic-
ally, adding critical notes, and introducing for comparison numerous
foreign species which occur in neighbouring countries.

Andrews, A. L. — Some interesting Mosses from a southern Vermont peatbog.

Rhodora, vi. (li>04) pp. 43-4.

„ „ Bryophytes of the Mt. Greylock region. III.

[A list of 23 Massachusetts mosses and 9 hepatics.]

Tom. cit., pp. 72-5.

Bailey, J. W. — Webera Lachenaudi Card, et Ther.

[A new species gathered near Seattle (Wash.), U.S.A.]

Bryolonist, vii. (1904) p. G6 (1 pi.).

Barsali, E. — A propos de la fructification de THomalia lusitanica Schpr. (Con-
cerning the fructification of if. lusitanica.)

[Description.] Set. Bryol , xxxi. (1904) pp. 90-1.

Bit it ton, E. G. — Further notes on Sematophyllum.

[A re-description of Richard's typos of the Carolina mosses, Leskea recurvans
and L. squarro^a. The former is now known as Sematophyllum recurvam-,
and the latter is reduced to the rank of a variety of it.]

Bryologist, vii. (1904) pp. 59-61.

Bisvnnthaler, J. — TJeber dieWachsausscheidung von Ditrichum glaucescens. (On
the excretion of wax by D. glaucescens.)

Oesterr. hot. ZeitsOir., liv. (1901) pp. 94-6.

Campbell, D. H. — Resistance of Drought by Liverworts.

[Notes on the thalloid hepatics which survive the annual long summer drought
of California ] Torreya, iv. (iy04) pp. 81-6.

Caedot, J., & I. Theriot — New or unrecorded Mosses of North America. II.
[Descriptions of 24 new species and 9 new varieties ]

Bot. Gazette, xxxvii. (1904) pp. 3G3-S2 (10 pis.).

Casares Gil, D A. — Catalogo de las muscineas de los alredores de Barcelona.
(Catalogue of the Muscineae of the environs of Barcelona.)

Boh Soc. Esjwii. Nat. Hist., 1903, p. 527.

Cavers, F. — Notes on Yorkshire Bryophytes. III. Rfcboulia hemisphaerica (L.
Raddi.

[An account of the morphology and^biology, revealing some peculiar features
rot fully described hitherto.] Naturalist, 1904, pp. 208-14

(1 pi. and 2 figs).

„ „ On the structure and development of Monoclea Forsteri Hooker.

[Living plants were examined, and consequently several new
points were made out. On the whole, the affinity uf the
genus is with Marchantiacea) rather than with thalloid
J unger m ann iacese. 1

Rev. Bryol., xsxi (1904) pp. 60-80 (4 figs.).

Claassen, E. — On the occurrence of Fossombronia cristula in Ohio.

Ohio Nat., iv. (1904) p. 58.
Collins, J. F. — Some Maine Mosses.

[Records five species new to the State. Distichium capillaceum invariably
grows associated with Mynrella Careyana.~]

Rhodora, vi. (1904) pp. 145-6
Oct. 19th, 1004. 2 q

554 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Culmann, P.— Notes bryologiqu.es sur les flores Suisse et Francaise. (Bryological
notes on the Swiss and French floras.)

[Five hepatics and four mosses, with figure of Scleropodium Ornellanum.']

Rev. Bryol., xxxi. (1904) pp. 80-3 (fig).

Dixon, H. N, & W. E. Nicholson — Bryological notes on a trip in Norway.

[Continuation.] Nyt Mag. Naturv., xlii. (1904) pp. 97-109.

Ewing, P. — Hepaticae of the Breadalbane Range. Second contribution.

[A list of 52 species, of which 20 are new to the district, nine to Scotland, and
five to the British Isles.] Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1904, pp. 181-4.

Falqui, G. — Contributo alia Flora del bacino del Liri. (Contribution to the flora
of the basin of the Liri.)

[Mosses.] Bull. Sot: Bot. Ital, 1904, pp. 5G-61.

Fleischer, M. — Die Musci der Flora von Buitenzorg. (The mosses of the flora of
Buitenzorg.)

[Moss-flora of Java.] Band ii. (Leiden, 1901) pp. xviii. 381-644 (49 figs.),

Gilbert, B. D. — Mounting Mosses.

[A simple plan of preserving specimens in pockets.]

Bryologist, vii. (1904) pp 61-2.

Gregoire, V., et Berghs, J. — La figure achromatique dans le Pellia epiphylla .
(The achromatic figure in P. epiphylla.')

La Cellule, xxi. (1904) pp. 193-238 (2 pis.).

Grout, A. J. — Tortula pagorum (Milde) De Not. in Georgia.
[An addition to the flora of North America.]

Bryologist, vii. (1904) p. 65 (1 pi.).

Gyorffy, I. — Bryologiai adatok az erdelyi fldraterulet ismeretehez. (Bryological
data for a knowledge of the floral region of Siebenbiir^e )

Magyar Bot. Lapoh, iii. (1904) r>p. 118-32.

Harris, W. P. & C. W. — Mosses and Lichens of Montana.

Bull. Univ. Montana (Biol), ser. i. (1904) pp. 303-31.

Hillier— Sur quelques Hepatiques jurassiennes, notamment le Trichocolea dans les
environs de Besancon. (On some hepatics of the Jura, especially Trichocolea, in the
neighbourhood of Besancon.) Arch. Flore Jurass., 1904, pp. 23-4.

Janzen, P. — Bemerkungen zur Limprichtschen Laubmoosflora. (Remarks on
Limpricht's " Moss-flora.")

[A series of notes correcting or supplementing Limpricht's work.]

Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 281-94 (1 fig.).

Krieger, W. — Fissidens exiguus Sull., ein neuer Burger Deutschlands. (F. exiguus
Sull., an addition to the German flora.)

Tom. cit., pp. 346-8 (fig.).

,, „ Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Moosflora von Uruguay.

(A contribution to our knowledge of the moss-flora of Uruguay.)
[A list of 36 species.] Tom. cit., pp. 349-50.

Lett, H. W. — A new Hepatic.

[Adelanthus dugortiensis Douin and Lett, a new species found in Achill Island.]

Joum. of Bot., xlii. (1904) pp. 201-3 (fig.).

L itschauer, V. — Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Moosflora Algiers. (A contribution to
our knowledge of the moss-flora of Algiers.)

[Continuation.] Oesterr. bot. Zeilsclir., liv. (1904) pp. 144-6.

Loeske, L.— Bryologische Notizen aus den Salzburger und Berchtesgadener Alpen.
(Moss notes from the Alps of Salzburg and Berchtesgaden.)

[The author found six species new to the district, and new stations for
numerous more or less rare species.]

Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 189-94.

Massalongo, C. — Intorno alia Radula Visianica sp. n. (Concerning R. Visianica.)

Ann. But. Roma, i. (1904) pp. 297-300 (rig.)

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. 555

Massaloxgo, C— Censimento delle specie italiane del genere Madotheca. (Enume-
ration of the Italian species of the genus Madotheca.)

Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital, 1901, pp. 36-40.

Matouschek, F.— Ein zweiter Standort von Homalia lusitanica Schimp. in der
b'sterr.-ungar. Monarchie. (A second station for H. lusitanica
iu the Austro-Hungarian Empire.)
[Found near Abbazia.]

Magyar Bot. Lapoh, iii. (1904) p. 166.

,, Ueber Nematoden-Gallen bei Laubmoosen. (On nematode-galls

on mosses.)

[Description of the effects observed in four plcurocarpous species]

Hedwigia, xliii. (19U4) pp. 343-5.

Meylan. Cu- Notes Bryologiques. (Bryological notes.)

[I. Contributions to the moss- flora of the Jura. II. On an abnormal form of

Orthotrichum affine,'] Bull. Herb. Boits., iv. ( 1904) pp. 5S0-5.

Migula, W.— Thome's Flora von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz. Band V.

Kryptogamen-Flora. (Thome's flora of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.

Vol. V. Cryptogamic flora.)

[Completes the Musciuese.] Lief. xvii. (Gera, 1904) pp. vi. 449-512 (3 pis.).
Mullek, K. — Beitrag zur oberbayerischen Lebermoosrlora. (Contribution to the
hepatic-flora of Upper Bavaria.)

Mitt. Bay. Bot. Ges., 1904, pp. 307-8.

„ „ Ueber die in Baden in den Jahren 1902 und 1903 gesammelten Leber-
moose. (On the hepatica? gathered iu Baden in 1902-3.)

[A list of 116 species, with critical and distributional notes;
five species new to Baden, and two varieties new to
science.] Beitr. z. Bot. Centralbl., xvii.

(1904) pp. 211-33.

Nitardy, E. — Die Kryptogamenflora des Kreises Elbing. (The cryptogamic flora
of the environs of Elhing.)

[A list containing 53 hepatics, 22 sphagna and 223 mosses of this Prussian
locality.] Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 314-342.

Paris, E. G. — Index Bryologicus sive Enumeratio Muscorum ad diem ultimam anni
1900 cognitorum. (Bryological index or enumeration of the mosses
known at the end of 1900.) Ed. II., ii. fasc. 1, 2 (Paris, 1904)

pp. 1-128.

„ „ Muscinees de 1'Afrique occidentale francaise. (Mosses of French
West Africa.)
[Thirty-one mosses, fourteen being new, and four hepatics ]

Sev. Bryol, xxxi. (1904) pp. 83-90.

Pearson, "W. LL— Scapania compacta (Eoth) Dum.

[Described by various authors as paroicous, dioicous and heteroicous ; upon
re- examination it proves to be variable, i.e. heteroicous.]

Jourri. of Bot., xlii. (1904) pp. 208-9.

Peterfi, M— Bryologiai Kb'zlemeny. (Bryological communications.)
[List of some Hungarian species of Bryum^]

Magyar Bot. LapoJc, iii. (1904) pp. 116, 117.

Eoth, G.— Die Europaischen Laubmoose. (The mosses of Europe.)

Band ii. fa»c. 6, 7, 8 (Leipzig, 1904) pp. 1-384, pis. i.-xxx.

Stephani, F. — Species Hepaticarum. (Species of Hepaticse.)
[Descriptions of Flagiochila continued.]

Bull. Herb. Boiss., iv. (1904) pp. 345-360, 586-601.

Thomas, Fr. — Moosvegetation in elektrisch beleuchteten Hohlen. (Moss vegetation
in caves electrically lighted.)

FerTi. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, xlv. (1903) p. 29.

Turn, E.— Die Moosflora einiger unserer Hochmoore, insbesondere des Himmel-
moores bei Quickborn. (Moss flora of some high moors, especially of the Himmel-
rnoor, near Quickborn.)

Verli. Natunc. Ver. Hamburg, xi. (1904) pp. 34-55 (13 figs.),

2 Q 2

55G SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Velenovsky, J.— Bryologicke prispevky z Cech za rok 1901- 1902. (Bryological
contributions from Bohemia for 1901-1902.)

[Contains one species and ten varieties new to scunce, and
eight mosses new to Bohemia.]

Mitt, tschech. Ahad. Wiss. Prag., xii. (1903) No. 11.
„ ,, Jatrovky ceske. (The Hepatica? of Bohemia.)

[List based on the author's collections; contains descrip-
tions and figures of two new species and twelve new
varieties.] Op. cit. x.-xii. (1901-3) 3pts. Ill pp. 12 pis.

Wheldon, J. A. — The Mosses of Cheshire.

[The author's second contribution to the county's moss-flora ]

Journ. of Bot., xlii. (1904) pp. 203-S.

Thallophyta.

Algae.

Sporangia of Halimeda.* — E. S. Gepp describes and compares the
fruiting filaments of Halimeda Tuna and H. gracilis. The paper begins
with a short account of the structure of the vegetative thallus, especially
with regard to the central strand. The fruiting filaments are a continu-
ation of the filaments of this strand, and this fact accounts for the diffe-
rences in position of the fruiting filaments in the two species. In
H. gracilis the filaments of the central strand are chiefly confined to the
main axis and its lateral branches ; hence the fruiting filaments emerge in
isolated tufts at the angles where the strand might otherwise have pro-
duced new joints. In H. Tuna the filaments of the central strand
spread fan-wise through a joint and the fruiting filaments therefore
emerge along the upper margin of a joint, forming a continuous fringe.
The question of the fusion of the filaments which precedes all growth
in Halimeda is discussed, and it is pointed out that this fusion is not
analogous to the fusion of filaments in fungi before spore-formation, as
in Halimeda the fusion is equally characteristic of vegetative and repro-
ductive growth.

Pleodorina in Ceylon.f — F. E. Fritsch records P. californiea, hitherto
only known from the United States, as occurring in two of the tanks
of the central low country in Ceylon. He finds two other types of
colonies associated with Pleodorina, one represented by spherical
colonies of 32 cells each, and the other of 64 cells. He thinks it pos-
sible they may be developmental stages of Pleodorina.

Chlamydomonas4 — F. S. Hollis describes and analyses chemically
two growths of this alga in water in Connecticut. The water was turbid,
and had the unpleasant odour characterising the presence of this alga.
In one sample Chlamydomonas was present to the extent of 14,47G indi-
viduals, or 5790 standard units per c.cm. The contractile vacuole, oil
globules and starch grains were well marked in the samples from each
locality.

Fragilaiia Harrisonii.§ — R. H. Philip finds among some papers of
the late Mr. Harrison a number of letters from Dr. Walker Arnott, of

* Journ. of Bot., xlii. (1904) pp. 193-97 (1 pi.).
t New Phytulogisr, iii. (1904) pp. 122-3.
% Trans. Amer. Micr. £oc., xxiv. (1903) pp. 13-G.
§ The Naturalist, July, 1904, pp. 214-6 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 557

Glasgow, giving interesting particulars respecting the original discovery
of Fragilaria Harrisonii near the remains of the ancient Priory of
Haltemprice in Yorkshire. These particulars he gives here. The
species has been lately removed from Fragilaria to the genus Staurosira
by Peragallo. A figure of the diatom is given attached to a sand grain.

Diatoms from Nyassaland.* — 0. Midler publishes the second part
of his report on the Bacillariaceae collected by the German expedition
to Lake Nyassa and the Kinga mountains. A certain number of new
species and varieties are described, belonging to the section Discoidege-
CoscinodisceaB ; with an addendum to Surirellese, carried on from the
last paper. Several of the species are treated in morphological groups,
and each record is followed by critical notes. Eemarks are made on the
subgenus Orthosira, and on mutation by jumps.

£<] Studies in the Dictyotacese.f — J. Lloyd "Williams publishes under
the above title two interesting communications : (1) the Cytology of the
Tetrasporangium and the Germinating Tetraspore ; and (2) the Cytology
of the Gametophyte Generation. The author divides his first paper
into the following sections : the stalk-cell division ; the first, or reduc-
ing division of the tetraspore mother-cell ; the second, mitosis in the
tetraspore mother-cell ; karyokinesis in the germinating tetraspore ;
abnormalities ; conclusions. The latter section is divided into (1) the
alternation of generations, and (2) the nucleolus. The author has worked
out the cytology of all the various kinds of cells in the three forms of
Dictyota, male, female and asexual, and he considers that so far as cyto-
logical evidence is concerned, there seems to be no reason to doubt that
there is here a clear case of alternation of generations. In the second
paper the author describes the development of the oosphere and anthero-
zoid, the fertilization of the ovum and its subsequent segmentation, to-
gether with the parthenogenesis of unfertilized eggs — the observations
in this case applying to Dictyota dichotoma only. The sections of this
paper are entitled : the development of the oogonia ; the development
of the antheridium ; the fertilization of the egg ; the segmentation of
the fertilized egg ; the parthenogenesis of unfertilized eggs ; general
considerations ; summary. It is found that the sexual cells, unlike
the tetraspores, are produced and liberated simultaneously in fortnightly
crops. Fertilization takes place externally. Eggs not fertilized within
about half or three-quarters of an hour after liberation become invested
with walls and germinate parthenogenetically. The oogonium and anthe-
ridium are produced by the increased growth of surface cells, which, after
cutting off a stalk-cell, form respectively a single egg, or over 1500 an-
therozoids. There is no division of the nucleus in the oogonium as
there is in that of Fucus. The nuclear division is described and figured
in detail.

Corallinacese.J — A. Weber van Bosse and M. Foslie publish a mono-
graph on the Corallinaceai of the Siboga expedition to the Dutch East
Indies. M. Foslie is the author of the first part of the joint paper, and

* Engler's Bot. Jahib., 1904, pp. 256-301 (2 pis., 4 figs, in text).

t Ann. of Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 141-GO (2 pis.) ; pp. 183-204 (3 pis.).

% Siboga-Expeditic. Monogr.,;lxi. (Leiden, 1904) 110 pp. (1G pis., 34 figs, in text).

558 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

this treats of Lithothamnionete, Melobesieaa, and Mastophorete. Madame
Weber writes the second part, "The Corallines) verae of the Malay
Archipelago," in which she presents a new and most important character
for the determination of the genera of this group. She finds that the
arrangement of cells at the nodes differs in different genera, and is always
constant, so that systematists will no longer be obliged to depend almost
solely on the conceptacnla for the distinguishing characters of puzzling
genera. She describes two new genera, Metagoniolithon and Lithar-
thron, founded on previously known species of Amphiroa ; and one new
species Amphiroa anastomosans. An introduction to the monograph is
also written by Madame Weber, who gives an account of the banks of
coral alga3, mostly Lithothamnion erubescens, which she saw while on the
Siboga. The subject of the coral algae banks was studied on the spot
by herself and Prof. Weber, and their results form the subject of this
interesting introduction. Photographs are given of one of the Litho-
thamnion banks, showing that the surface of the reef is covered writh
rounded balls of the alga. The illustrations to the paper are numerous,
and consist largely of reproductions of photographs, taken natural size,
of the various species described.

Development of the Spermatozoid in Chara.* — D. M. Mottier
alludes to the work on this subject by Belajeff, and then proceeds to de-
scribe the details of the development, in which some of his results differ
slightly from those of Belajeff. The spermatozoid of Chara is a spirally
coiled body consisting of a nucleus, and a specially differentiated part of
the cytoplasm which exists in the form of a thread or band, the blepha-
roplast, and bears two long cilia. The nucleus occupies the middle part
of the spermatozoid, while the blepharoplast extends its entire length.
The development of the blepharoplast is described in detail, and the
author believes it to be a modification of the plasma-membrane — a
direct transformation of it. The cilia were always found attached some
distance behind the anterior extremity of the blepharoplast.

Algal Vegetation of the Faerbes.f — F. Borgesen publishes an in-
teresting account of the algal flora of these islands from a geographical
point of view. He divides his book into the following sections : Intro-
duction. I. On the external conditions of algal vegetation on the
coasts of the Faeroes. II. General character of the algal vegetation.

III. Regions and association of alg03 on the coasts of the Faeroes.

IV. Position in plant geography of the algal flora of the Faeroes.

V. Biological observations. Under the first heading, the author deals
with the climatological and hydrographical relations, temperatures and
salinity, tides and currents, force of the waves on the outer and inner
coast lines, temperature and humidity of the air, and light. The third
section is divided into (1) the littoral region, (2) the sublittoral region,
(3) the lowest limit of algal vegetation, the elittoral region. The
author comes to the conclusion that the algal flora of the Faeroes is most
closely related to that of the northern shores of the British Isles, and

* Ann. of Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 245-53 (1 pi.).

t Om Algevegetationen ved Faeroernes Kyster. Copenhagen, 1904, 125 pp.
(12 pi., 9 text figs., 1 map).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 559

that of the north-west and south- west of Iceland. Characteristic of the
Faeroe algal vegetation is the specially rich development of the littoral
region. He is able to endorse the views held by Kjellman on the
systematic relations of Acrasiphonia. The Desmid flora is nearly related
to that of western Europe, especially the British Isles, bnt it possesses also
a distinctly Arctic element. The book is illustrated by good photographs
of alga? in situ. It is written in Danish.

Plankton of the Danish Lakes.* — C. Wesenberg-Lund embodies in
this paper the results of the biological studies in fresh-water organisms
carried out in the Danish Laboratory since 1897. The paper begins
with an introduction dealing with former work on the subject, and
explains the lines of the author's own investigations. In the first
chapter there is given a topographical account of the lakes, height above
sea-level, streams falling into or running out of them, etc. In the
second chapter the author describes his methods of investigation, and
in the third he deals with the general formation, the physical conditions,
and the temperature of the lakes. The fourth and following chapters
contain remarks on the Cyanophycese, Diatomaceas, Chlorophycea?, and
Zooplankton of the region. The numerous illustrations are reproduced
from photomicrographs. Explanatory tables give the date of capture,
and frequency or rarity of occurrence.

Analysis of the Colour of Algse.f — N". Gaidukov has examined the
light absorption of certain living alga? with the help of Engelmann's
microphotometer. The species chosen were the green Gladophora fracta
Kutz., the blue-green OsciUaria aermjineo-ccurula Kutz., a red Ceramium
species, the yellow-brown Dictyota clichotoma Lam., brown Funis serra-
tus, and violet Chondrus crispus. A permanent mount of Gryptoglena
ccerulescens Ehrb., with blue chromatophores, was also analysed. The
spectroscopic results which are given showed a remarkable likeness, only
the spectrum of the green cells differing somewhat more markedly from
the others. Colours formed artificially in the algae by treatment with
acids and alkalis show much the same spectra as the natural colours.

Growth of Algse in Water Supplies.} — G. T. Moore and K. F.
Kellerman have made a special study of the algae found in many reservoirs
of drinking water, and have experimented in methods of exterminating
them, in order to render the water once more fit for use. They find
that the disagreeable odour and taste often present in drinking water
are due almost exclusively to alga?, and the methods employed for re-
moving this trouble are expensive, or in some way unsatisfactory. They
therefore recommend the use of copper sulphate in a dilution so great as
to be colourless, tasteless or harmless to man, while it is sufficiently
toxic to the alga? as to destroy or to prevent their appearance. The cost
of this treatment is slight, and the result very satisfactory. Details are
given in tabulated form of the result on certain species of alga?, as well
as on pathogenic bacteria.

* Dansk. Ferskvands-Biolog. Labor., v. (1904) pp. 223 (S maps, 10 pis.).

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., 1904, pp. 23-9 (1 pi.).

X U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau Plant Industry, 1904, 44 pp.

5 GO SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Sicilian Marine Algae.* — A. Mazza continues his list of marine algae
from Sicily, and enumerates genera and species of Fucoidere, Chloro-
phycese and Cyanophycese. Critical notes are appended to many of the
species named, the numbers of which are continued from 140 to 21G.

Bourgon, D. — Faniille des Cryptomonadinees. Suite. (Family of the Cryptomona-
dinea).) [Continuation.] Microgr. Prepar., xii. (1901) pp. 27-31.

Butschli, O. — Notiz uber die sogenannte Florideenstarke. (Note on the so-called
Florideau starch.) Verli. d. uaturhist.-mediz. Yer. Heidelberg, vii. (1904)

pp. 519-28.

Cozette, M. P. — Catalogue des algues terrestres et d'eau douce du Nord de la
France. (Catalogue of terrestrial and fresh-water algse of North France.)

C. It. Congr. Soc. Sav. Bordeaux, 1903, pp. 254-328.

Cronhetm, W. — Die Bedeutung der pflanzlichen Schwebeorganismen fur den Sauer-
staffhaushalt des Wassers. (The importance of vegetable floating organisms for
the oxygenation of water.) For-chungsber. Biol. Stat. Flon, xi. (190i)

pp. 27G-88.
De Ton i, G. B. — Intorno ad alcune Bangia di Bory e di Zanardini. (Concerning
certain species of Bangia of Bory and of Zanardini.)
[A reprint of a paper previously noticed.]

Nuov. Notar., xv. (1904) pp. 150-4.

Diederichs, K. — Die Diatomeenpraparation. (Preparation of diatoms.)

Nerthus, vi. (1904) pp. 153-G.

Ewald, W. F. — Der Planktonfang im Stisswasser. (Plankton collecting in fresh-
water.) Tom. tit., pp. S8 90.

Fournier, P. — Phycologie francaise, suite. (Phycology of France, continued.)

Feuille Jeunes A'af., xxxiv. (1904) pp. 181-5.

Garb in i, Adriano — Per orientarsi nella nomenclatura degli studi concernenti
la vita delle acque dolci. (An attempt to obtain a better understanding of the
nomenclature of studies concerned with fresh- water life.)

La Nuov. Notar., xv. (19C4) pp. 93-114.

Keissler, K. von — Das Plankton des Millstatter Sees in Karnten. (The plank-
ton of Millstatter lake, in Carinthia.)

Oesterr. Bot. Ze.tschr., liv. (1904) pp. 218-24.

KiiASKOwiTZ, G. — Ueber norwegische Alpenvegetation. (On the Alpine vegeta-
tion of Norway.) Verli. Zool. Bot. Get-ell. Wien, liv. (1904) pp. 126-9.

Lemmermann, E. — Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Planktonalgen. XVII. Ueber die

Entstehun^ neuer Planktonformen. XVIII. Notigen zur
Sysiematik einiger Formen (Chrysosphaerella longispina
Lauterborn ; Micractinium Fres. ; Conniella Schroeder.)
(Contributions to our knowledge of the Plankton-alga?.
XVII. On the origin of new Plankton forms. XYI1I.
Notes on the systematic position of certain forms )

Btr. Deuts h. Bot. Ge>ell., xxii. (1904) pp. 17-22.

„ „ Das Plankton Schwedischer Gewasser. (The plankton of

Swedish waters.) Arlriof. Botan., ii. (1904) pp. 1-209

(2 double plates).

., „ Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Planktonalgen. XIX. Das Phyto-

plankton der Ausgrabenseen bei Plon. (Contributions to

om knowledge of planktonaly;a>. XlX. The phytoplankton

of the Ausgraben lakes at Plon.)

Forschungsber. Biol. Stat. Plon, xi. (1904) pp. 289-311 (17 text figs.).

* Nuov. Notar., xv. (1904) pp. 115-49.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 561

Lorenz, M.— Ascosomaceae, eine neue Faniilie der Siphoneen aus deni Cambium,
von Schantung. ( Ascosomacea&, a new family of the Siplioinse fiom the Cambium
of Shantung ) Centralbl. Min. Geol. Faldont. (1904) pp. 193-4.

Marsh, C. D. — The Plankton of Lake Winnebago and Green Lake.

Wisconsin Geol. Nat, Hist. Surv. Bull, xii. (1903) pp. 1-9L
Monti, E. — Limnologische Untersuchungen iiber einige italienische Alpenseen.
(Liuinological investigations of several Italian Alpine lakes.)

Fonchungsber. Biol. Stat. Flon, xi. (1904) pp. 252-75 (13 text figs.).

Nitardy, E. — Die Kryptogamenflora des Kreises Elbing. (The cryptogamio flora
of the environs of Elbing.)

[A list containing 111 fresh-water alga? of this Prussian locality.]

Hcdicigia, xliii. (190*1) pp. 314-42.

Odin, A. — Le verdissement de l'Huitre. (The green coloration of oysters.)

Le Feveil Salicole, ostreic. et de pech. marit , iii. (1904) pp. 24-6.

Ostenfeld, C. H. et Paulsen, O. — Planktonproever fra Nord-Atlanterhave
(c. 58°-60° N. Br.) samlede i 1899 af Dr. K. J. V. Steenstrup. (Samples of plank-
ton from the N. Atlantic Ocean (about 58°-00° N. Lut.) collected in 1899 by
Dr. K. J. V. Steenstrup.) Medd. von Gronland, xxvi. (1904) pp. 143-250.

Petraschevsky, L. — TJeber Atmungskoeflizienten der einzelligen Alge Chloro-
thecium saccharophilum. (On the coedicient of respiration of the unicellular
alga Cldowthecium saccharophilum.) Bcr. Deutsch. But. Gesell. (1904) pp. 323-7.

Protic, G. — Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Flora der Umgebung von Vares in
Bosnien. V. (Addition to our knowledge of the flora in the environs of Vares, in
Dosnia. V.)

[Written in Servian.] Glasn. Zemalj. Muz. Bosn. i Ilerceg., xv. (1903)

pp. 273-318.
Keinhard, L— Zur Kenntniss des Phytoplankton von Donjec. (On tiie phyto-
plankton of Donjec.)

[Russian.] Arb. Gesell. Naturf. Charhoio (1904) 28 pp.

Schmidt, Grvjndler, Grunow, Janiscu & Witt.— Altas der Diatomaceen
kunde. (Atlas of diatoms.) Parts 02-63, Leipzig, 1904

Skorikow, A. S.— Ueber das Sommerplankton der Newa und aus einem Teile des
Ladoga-Sees. (On the summer plankton of the Newa and of a part of Ladoga
lake.) Biol. Centralbl, xxiv. (1904) pp. 353-60, 385-91.

Fungi.

Variations of Growth in Achlya polyandra.* — L. Horn has con-
ducted an exhaustive research on this subject, his object being to throw-
light on the influence of external conditions, such as culture media, in
determining form variations within the species. He obtained the fungus
by immersing the bodies of flies, mealworms, etc., in water collected
from various suitable sources. From the hyphal growth he isolated
a small piece of mycelium and produced a pure culture of the desired
plant. Pepton agar and pease water were chiefly used as media, and
their influence on the growth of the mycelium was noted. Attention
was drawn at an early stage to certain unhealthy appearances which
were found to be due to oligo-dynamic influence as described by Nageli ;
that is the influence exerted by minute quantities of metals in the water
used in the cultures. Niigeli's observations were made on Spirogyra.
Horn found that Achlya was equally sensitive. It reacted most
quickly to the presence of copper, obtained by placing a penny for
a loncrer or shorter time in the solution. A considerable selection of

* Ann. MycoL, ii. (1904) pp. 207-41 (21 figs.).

562 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

metal salts was used, and their influence on the development of the
fungus was noted. The form of the mycelium was largely affected ; it
became multi-septate, and often a cell complex was built up. Opaque
shining plasma masses also filled many of the cells. These as well as
the newly-formed septa consisted of pectin. By plasmolysing the
kyphas, the same effects were produced, and the septa and plasmic
masses were formed in the hyphaa. Normal sporangia and zoospores
were formed when there was a dearth of nutriment. A weak metal
solution, or a slight plasmolysis, induced intercalary sporangia! growth,
and the plasma masses occasionally were transformed into sporangia.

Change of form was also observed in the oogonia and oospores. The
oogonia in most of the culture media had smooth walls ; when grown
in cane- or grape-sugar, they had ornamented walls, were very large, and
of somewhat oval form. Considering these variations, the alteration
and correcting of the diagnoses that have been given of the species of
Sa prole;.; nlaceae is very necessary. The author gives descriptions of two
new sptcies discovered by him during his research. The first, which he
calls Achlya oidiifera, was distinguished by the hyphaa breaking up into
oidium-like cells. In pure water these " oidia " formed zoospores ; in a
culture medium they grew out into hyphse. The species formed oogonia
in the interior of ants' eggs, but antheridia could not be detected.
Oogonia were not formed in any of the artificial cultures. In contrast
to this species, the other, A. Saprolegnia, formed abundant oogonia and
antheridia terminal on lateral branches of the hyphaj. The branchlets
often formed a short spiral, and on this account the name 8. retorta was
given to the species. Sporangia were formed when the mycelium was
placed in pure water. Tables are given of the different reagents used,
and of their effect on the vegetative and reproductive organs, and a
bibliography of the works bearing on the subject is added.

Zygospore Formation in Mucoraceas.*— A. F. Blakeslee has found
by experiment that there are two kinds of Mucoraceae ; those like
8porodinia, that form zygospores on the filaments of one plant,
which he designates homothallic ; and those in which zygospores are
produced only by the copulation of hyphae from two different strains.
These, which include most of the Mucors, he terms heterothallic. He
thus explains the difficulty so often experienced of inducing the forma-
tion of zygospores. This fact confirms the opinion " that the formation
of zygospores is a sexual process ; that the mycelium of a homothallic
species is bisexual ; while the mycelium of a heterothallic species is uni-
sexual." The writer promises further investigation.

(Edomyces leproides.f— This fungus, elsewhere published as Chryso-
phtyctis endobiotica, forms the subject of a leaflet issued by the Board of
Agriculture. It causes a disease of potato tubers, but does not attack
turnips, carrots or cereals. The presence of the fungus is made known
by the stimulating influence it exerts on the tubers, causing irregular
outgrowths of a blackish colour. Experiments were conducted at Kew
to test the mode of infection, and the best means of preventing the

* Science, n. s.. xix. (1904) pp. 864-G.

t Board of Agric. and Fisheries, leaflet No. 105.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 563

spread of the disease ; all diseased tubers should be burned, and no
potatoes planted on infested soil.

Vegetable Pathology.* — P. Viala and P. Pacottet record their
observations on the development of black-rot of the vine. They find
that the fungus Guignardia Bidwellii attacks the grapes only when they
are green, that is, when the amount of organic acid in the fruit is
greater than the amount of sugar. If the fruit is protected against
attack until ripening has begun, by washes of copper salt, there is no
further risk of disease. Temperature and humidity are also important
factors in the spread of the disease. The fungus grows most freely in
a moist state of the atmosphere. It rarely develops in southern vine-
yards. The authors give details of these artificial cultures and the
effect on the fungus of varying quantities of acid.

Cultural Experiments with " Biologic Forms " of the Erysi-
phacese, etc.j — E. S. Salmon has proved that within the species
Erysiphe graminis there are undoubted "biologic forms," both in the
ascigerous and conidial stages of the fungus. He has further demon-
strated that if the vitality of the host-plant is interfered with, its power
of resistance to forms to which it is naturally immune breaks down.
The leaves selected for experiment were superficially injured by cutting
any part of the epidermis or by touching the leaf with a red-hot knife.
On these injured surfaces were some conidia of various biologic forms
which would not have inoculated the normal healthy plant, and it was
found that they grew and produced conidiophores, which in turn served
to inoculate another individual of the host species — the injured plant
serving as a bridging species to enable the parasite to pass from one host
to another. The author concludes with a . summary of the various
experiments.

Aschersonia.i — P. Pfennings has made a study of the fungi that
have been placed in this genus and of the literature dealing with it.
The genus has been associated with Hypoerella as a pycnidial form, but
the author thinks that the ascus form of Aschersonia has probably never
been met with. He notes that a number of similar leaf fungi are asso-
ciated with Coccidce. They grow on the bodies of the insects and
exactly imitate their appearance. The stromata thus formed are as
easily detachable from the leaf as are the Coccidcc. The genus Ascher-
sonia was established by Montague in 1848. Thirty species have been
described.

Anthracnose of the Vine.§— P. Viala and P. Pacottet have culti-
vated the fungus causing this disease on suitable media, and have
obtained the conidial form with cylindrical-ovate conidia, spermogonia
with spermatia similar to the conidia, pycnidia, sclerotia giving rise to
yet another conidial form with large spores and a polymorphic mycelium,

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxix. (1904) pp. 152-4.
f Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, ser. B, cxcvii. (1904) pp. 107-22.

% Festschr. zu Prof. Ascherson's 70 Geburtstag (1904) 4 pp. Soo also Hedwigia,
xliii. (1904) pp. 93-4.

§ Comptes Eendus, cxxxix. (1904) pp. 88-90.

564 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

"which breaks up and forms a yeast on sugar. All these forms of fructi-
fication were proved to be connected with each other, and reproduced
the disease by inoculation of green grapes. The authors consider the
fungus the type of a new genus of Sphteropsideae ; and they have named
it Manginia ampelina.

Disease of Potato.* — J. J. Vanha notes a disease of the potato
plant affecting it outwardly very much like Phytophthora, causing brown
spots on the leaves attacked and rendering the tubers small and poor in
starch. The fungus has been identified as a Hyphomycete, Sporidesmium
solani varkms sp. n. It penetrates the leaf and grows in the tissue.
The writer made a series of cultures and produced macrospores of few
or many cells, one-celled conidia, pycnidia, and small mycelial clumps
something like sclerotia.

Hyphomycetes.t — G. Lindau has issued the second part of the
' Kryptogainen-Flora' dealing with Mucedineae. In the division Cephalo-
sporieae, he describes all those forms with simple colourless spores that
form a head of spores. He keeps up both Rhopalomyces and (Edo-
ceplialum, very closely related genera, and also the barely distinguishable
Hyalopus and Ccplialosporium. He demands a more exact knowledge
of the species by culture, etc., before sinking the allied genus. He
begins the Aspergilleas and describes one new genus Eidamia founded
on Monosporium acrcmonioides.

Notes on Moulds. J — v. Holmel publishes an account of three dif-
ferent species of Hyphomycetes. Thielaviopsis paradoxahe, found grow-
ing on the seed albumen of Cocos nucifcra. It was identical in one
stage with Sporochisma paradoxa, but it had also the second conidial
form of Thielaviopsis ethacetica. He therefore unites the two species.
He has also established the identity of Helminthosporium apicale with
Acrothecium. It has undoubtedly two conidial forms. He creates a
new genus Atractina from a foim with upright dark coloured condio-
phores branched like Penicillium and bearing a head of septate spores.
All these are saprophytes.

Ustilago violacea.§ — R. Baar describes the development of this
fungus in the host-plant Melandryum pratense. In autumn the hyphse
penetrate the root-stock and form a resting mycelium. In summer the
spores are formed in the anthers, and seed-formation is stopped.

^Iridium of Maize Rust.||— J. C.Arthur has succeeded in elucidat-
ing the problem as to the propagation of rust on Indian corn. He
found ascidia growing plentifully in a restricted area of Oxalis plants,
and on searching for the teleutosporic host, he found some corn-stalks
washed up by a neighbouring river. He followed up the clue and
brought the aecidia of the Oxalis into contact with a healthy maize

* Naturw. Zcitscln-. Land unci Forstwirthsch., ii. (1904) pp. 113-27. See also
Bot. Centralbl., xcvi. (1904) p. 67.

t Rabenliorst's Kryptoganien-Floia, viii. Lief. 93 (1904) pp. 63-128.

J Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 295-9.

§ SB. Deutsch. Nat.-Mediziu. Btikm., 1903, pp. 279-8.") (0 figs.). See alto Aim.
Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 3C0-1.

|| Bot. Gazette, xxxviii. (1904) pp. G4-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 565

plant. In a very short time be got a plentiful growth of uredosori
developed. He considers that thetecidia may grow on several species
of Oxalis, and gives a list of those on which it has been found.

Water-relation of Puccinia Asparagi.*— Ralph Smith found that
the rust of asparagus was peculiarly suited to test the influence of
moisture on the infection and spread of the disease. In general the
factors that lowered the vitality of the host-plant conduced to the
growth of the parasite. When weakened by drought, the asparagus
seemed less able to resist the rust, which thus gained from the want of
water at the roots of the host. In autumn also the fungus was observed
to be more active. Uredospores grew in conditions of moisture, etc.,
favourable to the fungus ; at other times teleutospores were developed.
In reference to the direct action of moisture on the fungus itself, it was
found that dew was absolutely necessary to infection and of more im-
portance than rain. The author found that teleutospores were a pro-
vision for enabling the fungus to survive unfavourable conditions,
whether of food-supply, moisture, temperature or resistance by the host,
without regard to season.

Mycoplasma in Uredineae.t — Jakob Eriksson insists again on the
endogenous development of the rust of certain cereals. He reviews
the work done recently in connection with this subject on Puccinia
glumarum and P. dispersa. He affirms the gradual growth of the rust
pustule from strands of protoplasm in the host-cell, which form first
a protomycelium and afterwards the hyphas of the Uredine. He has
found that the " corpuscules speciaux " described before, are endogenous
haustoria formed from the fungal protoplasm in the host-cell.

American Uredinese. — E. W. D. HolwayJ continues his notes on
Uredineje already known, and describes a number of new species that
have come under his observation. P. L. Picker § also adds one new
-species, and gives notes on various forms. W. A. Kellerman|| records
the results of his cultures of Puccinia Tlwmpsonii. He inoculated the
leaves of Sambucus canadensis with the teleutospores, and got a fine
growth of spermogonia and a^cidia. He has thus proved its identity
with Puccinia Sambuci.

Variability of Dictyophora.f — Advantage was taken of a plentiful
growth of the common species D. phalloidea to make a series of com-
parisons between the different individuals by A. H. Christman. Height
varied from 5*6 cm. to 21*2 cm. The taller plants were solitary, and
grew in a fairly shaded, moist locality. The size of the collar round the
pore was very variable ; the veil also, both in size and structure, pre-
sented very great differences. It expanded before the stipe or after it ;
sometimes it was a delicate membrane perforated with round holes, or it
resembled a net formed of heavy bands with large angular openings. A
table is given of the measurements of twenty specimens.

* Bot. Gazette, xxxviii. (1904) pp. 19-43 (21 figs.).

t Comptes Rendus, cxxxix. (1904) pp. 85-7.

X Journ. My col., x. (1904) pp. 103-5. § Tom. cit., pp. 165-6.

j| Tom. cit., p. 173. f Tom. cit., pp. 101-8.

566 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The PolyporaceaB of North America. VII. * — W. A. Murrill con-
tinues his exposition of this group of fungi, and gives an account of
five genera. Hexagona, the first on the list, replaces Favolus. It is
characterised, according to him, by hexagonal, radiately elongated pores.
He adds several new species to those already known. Grifola, one of
Gray's genera, is made to include a large species with a frondose branched
habit. Romellia, a new genus, has been established for one species,
Polyporus Schweintzii, which now figures as R. sistotremoides. Coltricia,
another of Gray's genera revived, is in part synonymous with the more
recent Polgstictus. Coltriciella, also new, has a " pendant vertically-
attached pileus." The one species, C. d&pendens, was found growing on
dead oak and pine wood.

Mycorhiza of Muscinese.f — Jaroslav Peklo has studied the occurrence
and signification of mycorhiza in the Musci, Marchantias and Junger-
manniae. Among the mosses its appearance was definitely proved in
Buxbaumia. The hypha3 were found filling the rhizoids and penetrating
to the seta and theca. The author doubts if the fungus is of any
practical value to the moss. Fegatella was the most liable to infection
among the foliose Hepatics, but it was free from hypha? in damp
localities. Anthoceros was always free. Many Jungermanniaa were
associated with a fungus, but here also Peklo thinks that it is question-
able "whether the fungus aids the nutrition of the liverwort. This
whole group of plants he finds grows as luxuriantly without the aid of
the mycorhiza, and the fungus must be looked on as purely parasitic.

Diseases of Economic Plants.} — An account has been prepared for
the Board of Agriculture of Nectria cinnabarina, a pyrenomycetous
fungus that attacks many woody plants, and of the Witch's Broom in
Firs, which is caused by an JEcidium. The alternative host of the
latter has recently been determined as some form of stitchwort, or
chickweed. The removal of these weeds from the neighbourhood of the
Firs attacked would effectually stop the disease. Peach-leaf curl, caused
by Exoascus deformans, is also described and remedies prescribed.

Parasites of Edelweiss. § — D. Cruchet examined some diseased
plants of edelweiss, and found five species of microfungi growing on
the leaves. Lqrfosjihceria Lcontopodii he describes as a new species.
Another new species, Stagonospora Leontopodii, may be, he thinks, the
conidial form of the Leptosplmria. He also noted a Septoria that may
be new to science. He gives full descriptions of all the species found
on the plants.

Diseases of Cereals.|| — D. McAlpine has described two forms of
fungal disease that attack wheat in Australia, and both due to the same
parasite, Opliiobolus graminis and the pycnidial form Hcndersonia

* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 325-48.

t Bull. Acad. Sci. Boheme (1903) 23 pp. (I pi.). See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904)
p. 99.

% Journ. Board Agric, xi. (1904) pp. 202-3 and 239-45 (1 pi. and 3 rigs.).

§ Bull. Soc. Vaud., xl. (1904) pp. 25-31 (3 pis.).

j| Depart, of Agric., Bull. No. 9 (1904) 20 pp. See also Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904)
p. 300.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 567

graminis. When the disease attacks the young wheat it destroys the
roots and the lower part of the stem, and is popularly described as
" take-all." The plant is at other times infected as the cars develop,
and the seeds are destroyed. It is then known as " white-heads." The
disease has also been detected in Europe.

Mycorhiza of Epiphytic Plants.*- — H. Jacob de Cordemoy has con-
tinued the research commenced on the Vanilla plant in reference to the
advantage gained by the roots from symbiotic fungi. He found that
the fungus not only lived in symbiosis with the roots of the Vanilla, but
that it also penetrated the tree on which the orchid was epiphytic, that
it drew sustenance from it, and that, for this reason, the Vanilla grew
more luxuriantly attached to a living than a dead support. He has ex-
amined in similar fashion three species of Piper, and has found the same
conditions existing in them. The roots of the epiphyte are associated
with a mycorhiza, fine strands of which traverse the long aerial roots
and pass from them into the cork tissue of the supporting plant. Some
of the filaments have been observed penetrating the cortical tissue below
the cork layer. The growth of the epiphyte is evidently materially
assisted by the nutritive material of the host.

Myxobacteriacese.t — Roland Thaxter, the discoverer of the group of
organisms, reviews the work done since his first publication of them in
1897. He notes the announcement of Dr. E. Zederbauer that they do
not form a separate order, but are merely a conglomeration of hypho-
mycetes and bacteria. Zederbauer had not seen any of the rnyxo-
bacteria, and his criticisms are easily disposed of. Thaxter has not any-
thing new to add to the general characteristics of the group as a whole,
but he chronicles a number of new species belonging to the genera
Chondromyces, Myxococcm and Polyangium, all of them of a reddish-
yellow colour. He thinks that probably the myxobacteria represent
transitional conditions between the higher bacteria and the lower
mycetozoa.

American Fungi. — A. P. MorganJ traces the changes of nomen-
clature in the fungus originally called Tiibercularia fasciculate/, by lode,
a discomycete growing on Carpinus. He finally names it Dermatdla
scolinus. Six new species of Pyrenomycetes are described by the same
author.§ They are saprophytic on wood.

J. B. Ellis and B. M. Everhart || describe a number of new American
species, both Deuteromycetes and Pyrenomycetes. Elias J. DurandlT
publishes diagnoses of three species of Discomycetes. A new Hypho-
loma collected in New Mexico is described by T. D. A. Cockerell,** and
W. A. Kellerman ft describes a new Ncemosphara found on old stems of
Luctuca virosa, and a new Peronospora %% which had dwarfed its host
plant Floerlcia proserpinacoides. The whole plant was invaded by the
fungus. The same writer §§ gives a second and third instalment of his

* Comptes Rendus, exxxix. (1904) pp. 83-5.

t Bot. Gazette, xxxvii. (1904) pp. 405-16 (2 pis.).

X Journ. Mycol., x. (1904) pp. 98-9. § Tom. cit., pp. 161-2.

|| Tom. cit., pp. 167-70. ' i Tom. cit, pp. 99-100.

** Tom. cit., p. 108. tt Tom. cit., pp. 113-4 (1 fig.).

» Tom. cit., pp. 171-2 (1 pi.). §§ Tom. cit., pp. 144-9, 174-82.

568 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

* Elementary Mycology : an outlook over the whole field, '.describing tlie
growth and development of the different groups of fungi, and comparing
them with the higher plants. In ' Minor Mycological Notes ' * he states
the occurrence on the same leaf of Uncimda polychceta and U. parvula,
and he gives a list of fungi from Cedar Point on Lake Erie.

Helicomycelium fulignosum.f — E. Dubourg has studied a mould
that had attacked railway sleepers although they had been impregnated
with creosote. The sterilising liquid had not penetrated to the centre
of the wood, and there the fungus had developed. No fructification
was observed, nor could any be induced in the artificial cultures, but the
brown colour and the tendency of the hyphge to form into coils sug-
gested the above designation. Dubourg's research deals with the physio-
logical action of the fungus, its behaviour towards hydrocarbons, acids,
sugars, etc., and the products of its metabolism. Finally he recounts
the influence exerted by various antiseptics on the growth of the my-
celium. Sulphate of copper in the culture was found to be ineffective.
Sublimate prevented all growth, and creosote was almost as powerful in
its effects. Experiments are wanted in connection with the wood itself
to decide as to the best means of preventing fungoid attacks.

Growth of Moulds.^ — Jacob Nikitinsky has been testing the inter-
action of different moulds when grown in the same culture solution.
He found that Raulin's solution was better adapted to the growth of
other moulds after Aspergillus niger had been grown in it. On the
other hand, the development of acids in the solution is fatal to the
growth of some fungi, but if the acid be neutralised, the solution is
found to be most favourable. The author gives also the results obtained
by him with growths of yeasts, etc.

Conidial Forms of the Higher Fungi. § — Marin Molliard has

made cultures of the spores of Sarcoscypha coccinea, and describes and
figures the conidial growth. He finds that they resemble those of
Coryne and Chlorosplenium rather than those of the Peziza?, and he
considers that this rather points to the affinity of Sarcoscypha with the
Helvellaceae.

Disease of the Coffee Plant. || — Georges Delacroix gives an account
of various fungi that have attacked the coffee plant in different regions.
He describes the fruit of Capnodium coffece which he had watched
through the stages of growth. Specimens of dried branches were sent
to him from Mexico, and the desiccation was due, he considered, to the
presence of three fungi : one pyrenomycetous form, and pycnidia of
Hendersonia and Rhabdospora, all of them new to science. He also
found a new species of Phyllostieta on leaves of coffee from Vera- Cruz,
and still another Phyllostieta on a different host which he names
P. eomoensis.

A. Puttemans *H contributes an account of the Fumagos of coffee

* Journ. MycoL x. (1904) pp. 114-6.

t Mem. Foe. Sci. Fkjs. & Nat. Bordeaux, seir. G, iii. (1903) pp. 263-72.

t Jahr. wiss. Bot., x. (11)04) pp. 40-1. Sec also Bot. Zeit., Ixii. (1904) pp. 213-5.

§ Bull. Hoc. Mycol. France, xx. (19C4) pp. 139-41 (! fig.).

|| Tom. cit., pp. 142-51 (1 pi.). 1 Tom. cat., pp. 152-4 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 569

with the fruiting forms Capnodium and Limacinia. The latter was
accompanied by a form of Triposporium.

The same writer * gives an account of the mischief done to coffee
plants by Stilbum flavidum. He gives also a detailed description of the
fungus.

Disease of Cattleya.f — Maublanc and Lasnier describe a disease
which attacks orchids in the hot-houses near Paris in early spring. The
leaves show at first small brown patches which gradually increase so as
to cover the whole leaf. In summer the disease gradually disappears.
The fungus causing the disease was found to be a Pythium. Later a
Glccosporium developed on the brown spots, and connected with the
latter by a similar mycelium they found the perithecia of Physalosphom
Gatthya sp. n. They consider these two to be different stages of the
same fungus, and to be rather in the nature of saprophytes ou the tissue
killed by the Pythium.

Fairy-Rings. + — P. Hennings has been watching the formation of
" rings " for many years, and records his observations. Regular " rings "
can only be found on a flat unbroken plain either in wood or meadow.
Stones, roots, etc., break the symmetry of the centrifugal growth which
forms year after year. When the ring-forming fungus decays, it gives
back its nitrogenous material to the soil as manure, and a rich growth
of grass springs up on the site of the previous year's ring of fungi.
The author gives an account of the species that tend to grow in the
ring formation.

Mycological Contributions^ — F. v. Hohnel explains that his studies
in mycology undertaken that he might gain a wider knowledge of the
subject, have led unexpectedly to the discovery of many new forms, as
well as to new observations on plants already described. The new
genera are : Neorehrnia, allied to the Perisporiaceaj ; TrichocoUonema
(Spha3ropsidea3) ; Pseudozythia and Rhyiichonectria (Nectriacese) ;
Rhy/ichonectrin was established to include the species Eleutheromyces
tonyisporus Phill. & Plowr., which is distinguished by the ciliate
ascospores ; Helicostilbe, a Phacostilbum, with the spiral spores of
Helicomyces ; CoUodochium, near to Dendrodocliium, but distinguished
by the catennlate spores ; Gloiosphcera, Diplorhinotrichum, and Pedilo-
spora (Mucedineae), Gliobotrys (Dematite). The writer also creates a
new genus, Pirobasidium, for the conidial form of Coryne sarcoides,
often wrongly described as Trerriella sarcoides. The paper includes
besides many new species, and notes on various well-known forms.

Diseases of Potatoes.j| — G. Delacroix states that Phytophthora in-

festans has been very prevalent in the neighbourhood of Paris in

1903 ; he has examined the fungus more carefully. He describes

also a spot disease, Pseudocommis vitis, which he thought might have

* Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, pp. 157-64 (1 pi.).

f Tom. cit., pp. 167-72 (1 pi.).

% Gartenflora, liii. (1904) No. 9, pp. 228-331. See also Hedwitria. xliii. (1904)
pp. 92-3. § SB. Akad. Wiss.,cxi. (1902) pp. 987-1056.

|| Ann. Inst. Nat. Agron., ser. 2, iii. (1904") pp. 1-40. See also Ann. Mycol., ii.
(1904) p. 299.

Oct. 19th, 1904 2 R

570 SUMMARY OF CUEEENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

been occasioned by Phytophthora. Bacterial maladies are also discussed,
and the parasitism of Fusarium solani. He considers that this fungus
is nearly always saprophytic, and only penetrates the tubers in excep-
tional conditions which render them more susceptible. He gives advice
as to the treatment for the various diseases.

Mycological Notes.* — Franz v. Hohnel finds that Stictis Tilm and
Platyghca nigricans are identical with Achroomyces Tilm, a fungus
parasitic on Tilia. He founds a new genus, Korydanella, on a hymeno-
mycete collected by him on pine-wood. Another new genus, Debar yella
(Hypocreaceaj), was parasitic on Valsa scabrosa ; the spores are colour-
less, fusiform, four-celled. The author adds notes on several other
fungi ; he thinks that a number of Sphreriaceaj with stroma forms, such
as Cryptospora and Gryptosporella, ought to be classed with the Hypo-
creaceas.

Fungi of Alaska.f — William Trelease writes the preface to a list of
Alaskan fungi determined by P. A. Saccardo, C. H. Peck, and himself.
The first fungus from the region was a Dothedia, recorded many years
ago by Hooker and Arnott ; since then there have been small additions
to the list, followed now by the descriptions of species collected in the
Harriman expedition. There are many new species, and an index to
the various hosts of the parasitic forms is supplied, along with a record
of the various substrata on which fungi were found growing. The
plentiful vegetation of Alaska and the frequent rains make it probable,
Trelease thinks, that a very large fungus flora exists.

Barbier, M. — Agaricinees de la Cote-d'or.

[Supplement to the lists of Hymenomycetes of Dion. Critical notes are given
on many of the species.] Bull. Soc. MycoL France, xx. (1904) pp. 89-138.
Barsali, E. — Agguinte alia Micologia Pisana.

[A list of 42 species of Hymenomycetes from the neighbourhood of Pisa, one
of which, Mycena arcangeliana Bres., is new to science]

Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital, 1904, pp. 78-83.

Beck, Gunther von Mannagetta. — Beitrag zur Pilzflora von Mahrisch

Weizkirchen.
[Only the larger fungi are included ; there is one new species,
Hygrophorus rubellus.]

Sitzungsb. Deutsch. Nat. aftlichmediz. Ver. BShm., xxiv.
(1904) pp. 12-14. See also tfecZiingta, xliii. (1904) p. 91.
„ „ „ Notizen zur Pilzflora von Oberbsterreich.
[A list of the larger fungi.]

Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., liv. (1904) pp. 121-4.
See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) p. 91.

Bigeard, R. — Petite Flore mycologique des Champignons les plus vulgaires.

[A handy volume for beginners, containing keys to the common species,
with special reference to those that are eatable or distinctly poisonous.]

Chalons-sur-Saone (E. Bertrand, 1903) 200 pp.

Bubak, Franz, und Kabat, J. E. — Dritter Beitrag zur Pilzflora von Tirol.

[The authors describe a number of new species of microfungi, and one new
genus Colletotrichopsis (Melanconiese).]

Oesterr. Bot. ZeiUchr., liv. (1904) pp. 134-7 and 181-0.
See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) p. 91.

* Ann. My col., ii. (1904) pp. 271-7.

t Alaska. V. Cryptogamic Botany. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York. 1904,
pp. 13-53 (7 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 571

Dietel, P. — Kurze Bemerkungen iiber Triphragmium TJlmariae.

[The author discusses again the occurrence of teleutospores in the uredospore

sorus.] Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 239-40.

Hennings, P. — Beitrag znr Pilzflora der TTmgebung Christianias (Halbinsel Bygd).

[The author gives a list of 375 species. He describes 14 new

species aud varieties.]

Nyt. Magaz. Naturvidensk , xlii. (1904) p. 9-34.
See also Iledwigia, xliii. (1904) p. 9'2.

Ueber die auf Hevea-Arten bischer beobachteten parasitischen Pilze.
[The author found four new parasitic fungi on the leaves of
Hevea from the Amazon region.]

Notizbl. Egl. bot. Gart. Mus. zu Berlin, iv No. 31 (1904)
pp. 133-8. See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) p. 92.

Fungi Oranenses Hochreutinerani.

[A list of fungi collected by Hochreutiner in Oran. He
describes four new species of microfungi.]

Ann. du Conserv. Jard. Bot. Geneve, vii.-viii. (1903-4)
pp. 242-3. See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) p. 93.
,. Fungi of the Kunene-Sambesi Expedition.

[A list of fungi from West Africa, many of them new species.
The new genera are BaumieUa (Arnphisphaeriaceas) and
Hyphaster (Phseostilbacea?).]

Kunene-Sambesi Expedition, Kokmial Wirtscha/t-
liches Komite, Berlin, 1903, pp. 155-69.

,. ., Fungi S. Paulenses iii. a cl. Pultemans collecti.

[The list includes a number of new species.]

Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 197-209.
„ Fungi Amazonici ii. a cl. Ernesto Ule collecti.

[In addition to many new species Hennings publishes the
new genera, HypoxyJonopsis near to Hypoxylon, but with
two-celled spores, Parmulariella and (Jltopeltis (Hyste-
riacere) and Rehmiomyces (Bulgariacese).]

Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 242-73 (15 figs, and 1 pi.).
Jahn, E. — Myxomyceten aus Amazonas. Gesammelt von E. Ule.

[One new genus is recorded, Iocraterium rubescens, previously imperfectly
described under Craterium.']

Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 300-5 (2 figs.).

Lixdau, G. — Aspergillus (Sterigmatocystis) Strychni nov. spec.

[The new species grew on the fruits of Strychnos; the conidiophores reached
a height of 2-4 mm.] Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 306-7.

Nitakdy, E. — Die Kryptogamenflora des Kreises Elbing.

[The list includes a few Mycetozoa and Lichens, and a larLre number of
Fungi.] Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 315 and 319-32.

Oddemans, C. A. J. A. — Contribution a la Flore mycologique des Pays-Bas. XX.
[The author records 118 species for the locality. A number of microfungi
are new to science.]

Overdr. Ned. Kr. Arch., se'r. 3e, suppl. 4, pp. 1 097-1 1 32
(2 pis.). See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904j p. 95.
P f v a l, F r. — Einige Mittheilungen iiber die Pilze der Provinz Posen.

[The author describes his methods of preserving and examining the spores.
of Agarics, etc. ; he makes notes on unusual forms.]

Zeitschr. Naturw. Abth. Deutsch. Ges. Posen, xviii. (1904) pp. 1-16.
See also Bot. Centralbl, xcvi. (1904) pp. 65-6-
TiEhm. H.— Beitrage zur Ascomyceten-Flora der Voralpen und Alpen. II.
[Descriptions of several new species and varieties.]

Oesterr. bot. Zeitschr., liv. (1904) pp. 81-8.
See also Ann. Mycol., ii. (19U4) pp. 295-6.
Scalia, G. — Mycetes siculi novi. II.

[Several new parasitic microfungi are described.]

Atti deW Accad. Giornia di Set. Nat. in Catania, xvii. (1903) 14 pp.

See also Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) p. 297.

R 2

572 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Lichens.

Antarctic Lichens.* — Wainio has described the Lichens collected by
Racovitza during the expedition of the 'Belgica' to the Antarctic.
There are 79 species, of which 32 are new. The lists give a good
presentation of the Antarctic Lichen-flora.

Formation of Soredia in Lichens.t — Georg Bilter criticises Nilson's
theories as to the significance of soredia formation. The latter holds
that they are caused by conditions of moisture, and cannot rank as
specific characters. Bilter passes in review various sorediate and non-
sorediate forms to prove the insufficiency of his theory. Lichens, for
instance, that live almost entirely in water, such as Lichina and others,
are non-sorediate. Nilson had stated that the development of soredia
was clue to the excessive growth of the alga, which burst the rind of the
thallus at the weakest spot — either at the edge or on weak portions of
the old thallus. Bilter points out how insufficient this explanation is,
as soredia appear unvaryingly in definite positions of certain Lichens.
Nilson's statement that isidia pass over into soredia also lacks proof.
Moisture is not the only condition that determines soredia formations.
Other factors have an important influence on their growth.

Lichens of Alaska.:}: — Clara E. Cummings has determined the
Lichens of the Harriman expedition. Some 217 species were collected,
including 75 new to Alaska and two new to science. An historical
account of the records from Alaska is given in the preface, and a
review of the forms that occur most frequently. The flora is essentially
like that of other Northern regions. A large number of species of
such genera as Umbilicaria and Getraria have been found. A biblio-
graphy is published of the works consulted.

Olivier, H. — Expose systematique et descriptions des Lichens de l'Ouest et du
Nord-Ouest de la France. Tom. ii. 1900-3.

[This volume includes the Lecidese, Graphidese, Caliciacese, Verrucariae,
Collemacese, and the Parasites.] Paris, P. Klincksieck, 3 Rue Corneille.

See also Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) p. 98.

Zahlbbucknek, A.— Lichenes a el Damazio in montibus Serra do Ouro Preto
Brasiliae lecti in herb. Barbey-Boissier asservati.

[The author describes some new forms of Parmelia.

Bull. Herb. Boiss., se'r. 2, torn. iv. (1904) pp. 134-6.
See also Ann. My col, ii. (1904) p. 305.

Schizophyta.
Schizomycetes.

Bacterial Light and Photographic Plates.§— H. Molisch has
shown that the luminous colonies of Micrococcus phosphoreus can be
photographed after five minutes by their own light. The colonies then

* Anvers (1903) 46 pp. (4 pis.). See also Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) p. 305.

t Hedsvigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 274-80.

\ Alaska. V. Cryptogamic Botany. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, 1904,
pp. 67-149 (2 pis.).

§ Photogr. Rundschau, 1903, p. 10. See also Zeit. angew. Mikrosk., ix. (1903)
pp. 209-10.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 573

appear as luminous rings. He suggests a " Bakterienlampe " for use in
photography by bacterial light. Salt-pepton-gelatin is introduced into
a 1-2 litre Erlenmeyer flask, and inoculated before it has set with Micro-
coccus phosphor em. The flask is then rotated until its inner surface is
covered with a thin layer of the gelatin. After two days, numerous
colonies have developed which give out a beautiful blue-green light.
This living lamp lasts from two to three weeks at about 10° C, after
which its light diminishes. He finds that bacterial light has no power
to act on photographic plates through opaque bodies such as wood, but
that certain woods, cards, papers, etc., when laid on the sensitive surface
of a photographic plate can influence the subjacent layer quite inde-
pendently of any light. He has demonstrated thus, on a plate so treated
with a piece of wood and afterwards developed, the annual rings and
the distinction between wood and bark.

Gum and By-products of Bacterium Sacchari.* — A. Greig Smith
has studied the slime produced by Bact. sacchari. He finds that in media
containing saccharose Bact. sacchari produces a galactan gum, carbon
dioxide, ethyl alcohol, lauric, palmitic, succinic, acetic and formic acids.

Effect of certain Dyes upon the Cultural Characters of the
Bacillus typhosus and some other Micro-organisms.f — E. W.A.Walker
and W. Murray found that when the B. typhosus, the B. coli and the
cholera vibrio were grown on ordinary media containing a definite quan-
tity of Grubler's methyl-violet (C> B), ordinary gentian-violet, fuchsin,
methyl-green or methylene-blue, the cultural characters of these bacteria
underwent changes, consisting in the conversion of a normal short
bacillus into a form which presents itself as long filaments or threads,,
which may be twenty or more times the length of the ordinary bacillus.
These threads often showed no sign of segmentation, and sometimes
appeared truly branched. In the case of the Bacillus typhosus the long
forms when tested for the Gruber-Durham reaction rapidly agglutinated.
The best results were obtained by the addition of 0 • 2 p.c. methyl-violet
to the culture medium.

Role of Bacteria : Saprophytic and Pathogenic. f — E. Bodin, in
an important paper, considers the properties of bacteria. He arrives at
the following conclusions : That the property of being harmful to man
and to animals, termed virulence, is not an absolute quality of the
microbe. That this property can -become attenuated, or can even dis-
appear altogether in microbes originally highly pathogenic. That
inversely, certain conditions, among which are the becoming accustomed,
on the part of the microbe, to live in an animal medium, or, on the part
of the organism, disturbances in its defensive (phagocytic) function r
allow certain bacteria ordinarily innocuous to man and animals to be-
come virulent and pathogenic. The author therefore condemns the
classification of bacteria into the two groups of saprophytic and patho-
genic. He argues in favour of all infectious diseases being caused by
microbes at one time living in a state of saprophytism, instancing in

* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxviii. (1903) pp. 834-8.

t Brit. Med. Journ., 1904,11. pp. 16-8 (5 figs.).

\ Travaux Scientiriques de rCniversite de Eennes, ii. (1903) pp. 409-42.

574 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

support of this theory actinomycosis and aspergillosis, diseases caused by
fungi normally saprophytic ; tetanus and subacute septicemia, the caus-
ing microbes of both of which have their usual habitat in the soil ; and
the frequent presence of the pneumococcus in the mouth and nose with-
out giving rise to trouble. He applies his theory also to cholera and
typhoid, and is not prepared to deny the possible identity of B. coli
communis with B. typhosus. He discusses its possible applicability also
to tuberculosis.

Bactericidal Properties of Helminthic Juice.* — L. Jammes and
H. Mandoul have studied the bactericidal power of the juice of intes-
tinal worms. They found the juice of ascaris (A. megalocepliala, A. vituli,
A. mystax) to be devoid of bactericidal power. The juice of taenia on
the other hand (T. expansa, T. serrata, T. mesocestoules, T. incrmis)
could be infected with certainty only by bacilli with resistant spores.
With other microbes it manifested evident but irregular bactericidal
properties. When injected into guinea-pigs along with B. tuberculosis
it caused a retardation in the evolution of tuberculosis in the animals
experimented on.

Non-flagellate Typhoid Bacilli.f— J. W. W. Stephens has found
that certain strains of typhoid bacilli may lose their flagella after having
been repeatedly cultivated on the same medium, but that when the strain
is passed through an animal, motility is regained. From this it is
inferred (1) that it may be necessary to pass a bacillus, e.g. B. dyscn-
terire, through an animal, or to examine freshly isolated bacilli, before
it is quite certain that they do not normally possess flagella ; (2) that
as the foregoing non-flagellated typhoid bacilli reacted normally to
the agglutination test, flagella cannot be an essential factor in the pro-
duction of this phenomenon.

* Comptes Benuus, exxxix. (1904) pp. 32!)-31.
t Lancet, 1904, II. p. 22.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

575

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c*
(1) Stands.

Ortner's Entomological Microscope.! — E. Kiister describes this
instrument (fig. 78) made by the firm of Ortner Bros, and Co., of

Fig. 78.

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (G) Miscellaneous.

f Zeitschr. wiss. Mikr., xx. (1904), pp. 429, 430 (1 fig.).

576

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Vienna. It is differentiated from ordinary Microscopes by making the
object-stage swing round the tube-holder. When the stage has been
rotated through 180°, a movable bent object-holder can be brought
into position between the mirror and objective, and on its free end is
applied an extensible collar bearing a cork. The object, on a pin, is
set in this cork, and, by the variety of movements possessed by the
arrangements, can be brought into any desired position in front of the
objective. For the examination of opaque objects, a second mirror
fastened on the tube-holder furnishes the required incident light. The
instrument might also be used for botanical objects, or for any others
which should be viewed from all sides.

Hollick's Naturalists' Microscope. — This instrument (fig. 79) is
a modification of R. and J. Beck's well-known Star Microscope, and

Fig. 79.

was made to the drawings of A. Hollick, who wished to have : first,
the utmost compactness ; and secondly, good illumination for opaque
objects.

The former of these objects is obtained by making the bottom of
the Microscope case the base of the instrument, and by folding the
Microscope down on to it on the principle of R. and J. Beck's Popular
Microscope ; but the lower end of the pillar, instead of dropping into
a series of holes, slides in a slot, and can be clamped in any position,
so that any desired inclination can be imparted to the Microscope.
Owing to its large base, the instrument, though light, is very stable.

The second object is attained by swinging the mirror on a centre
above the stage approximately level with the object ; that is to say, on
an arm of such length that the lamp flame is focussed on to the object

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 577

with the concave mirror, and therefore, when used for opaque illumina-
tion, is practically always in focus whatever the inclination. The mirror
can be swung below the stage for use with transparent objects. This
arrangement is very convenient, as the mirror arm is not in the way of
the lingers when manipulating the object.

Another point to be noticed is that the front lens and cell of the
-J- object-glass are coned to the utmost that is possible without limiting
the aperture. The apes of the cone is so small that very effective
illumination of opaque objects by the concave mirror can be obtained
even with this high power.

When the Microscope is in use the fitting on the base-board in
which the spare eye-piece is packed is utilised to support a wooden
bracket which carries a light lamp. This arrangement allows of the
Microscope being slid along a table for exhibition without disturbing
the illumination. The outside dimensions are 5 in. by 3f in. by 9J in.,
and the weight 4 lb. 2 oz.

Notched Fine Adjustment for Optical Instruments. §— The firm
of A. Pfeiffer, Wetzlar, have designed a new form of adjustment in-

Fig. 80.

tended to simplify the movements of the usual types of coarse and fine
adjustments. Fig. 80 shows it as applied to a polarimeter. The part
of the apparatus acting as the fine adjustment consists of an endless
screw on one end of a two-armed lever ; the other end of the lever
terminates in a handle a, a projection on which is pressed by a clip into
a notch. The axis of the lever can be seen on the left .of the endless
screw ; this axis also provides the means for securing the fine adjust-
ment to the front part of the polarimeter. This part of the polari-
meter contains the analyser, and is rotatory about the long axis of the
whole instrument, and surrounds the part bearing the divided circle.
This inner part also bears the thread in which the endless screw works
through an opening in the analyser tube. It will now be understood
that if, by pressure, the handle a be released the fine adjustment is put
out of gear, and the movement of the front part serves as the coarse
adjustment ; the fine adjustment is then reinstated by relaxing the
spring, and the movement completed.

* Central-Zeit. f. Opt. u. Mech., xxv. (1904) pp. 13-44 (1 fig.).

578

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Application of the Stereo-Komparator to Monocular Use, and a
Specially Designed Monocular Comparison Microscope.* — C.Pulf rich's
article is mainly occupied with the testing of star-photographs ; but he
shows how a microscopic method may he adapted to the comparison of

\

A

/

■

M.

\iJ

Fig. 81.

two plates for monocular observers, that is, by observers who prefer
to work single-eyed. The paths of the rays are shown in fig. 81,
which will be easily understood. The author seems pleased with the
results obtained.

Gelblum, S. — Le mouvement lent dutube de microscope.

[The author attacks the problem by methods of mathematical analysis. He
suggests that a part of the tube should be threaded, and should work in a
nut — the whole forming a male and female screw — so that the fine adjust-
ment would be obtained by rotating the tube.]

Zeilschr. iciss. Mikr., xx. (June 1904) pp. 421-8 (7 figs.)

M. — Die ntue Binocular-Lupe von E. Leitz "Wetzlar.

Zeitschr. angew. Mikr., ix. (1903) p. 291.

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Blakesley, Th. H. — Single-piece lenses.

Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond., xviii. (1903) p. 591.

Conbady, A. E. — On the chromatic correction of object-glasses.

Monthly Not. Boy. Astron. Soc, lxiv. (1904) p. 274.

Feuy, Ch. — Method e nonvelle pour la determination des constantes des lentilles.

Bull. Soc. franc de Physique, 1903, p. 22(3.
Haetmasn, J. — Objectivuntersuchungen.

Zeitschr. Tnstrume?itenh., xxiv. (1904) p. 1.

Kerber, A. — TJeber den Astigmatismus von Fernrohr- und Mikroskopobjectiven.

Mechaniker, xi. (1903) p. 157.

Trotzewitsch, S. E. — Anfertigung von Objectiven fur Telescope, Mikroskope
und photographische Apparate. Die optische Technik du Mikroskope und
Teleskope.

[Russian.] Warsaw (1903) 322 pp.

Anonymous— Sammellinse mit Irisblende von Carl Zeiss.

Deutsche Mechaniker ■•Zeitung, iii. (1904) p. 28.

* Zeilechr. Instrumentenk., xxiv. (1901) pp. 161-6 (1 6g.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

579

(3) Illuminating' and other Apparatus.

An Easily Set-up Heliostat.* — A. W. Gray has contrived a helio-
stat (Fig. 82) oat of simple materials. He uses a framework in the shape
of a right-angled triangle, the vertical side being applied to the window
of the room, and the base resting on the window-sill : means are provided
for fixing. The hypotenuse of the frame must be inclined to the base
at an angle equal to the geographical latitude of the place. By help of

Pig. 82.

a bracket at right angles to the hypotenuse the mirror axis (made out
of a bicycle pedal) is arranged parallel to the hypotenuse. One ex-
tremity of this axis bears a plane mirror, which reflects the sunlight
upwards on to another plane fixed mirror, which, again, reflects it
horizontally into the room. In order to secure the rotation of the
lower mirror, the axis above mentioned is connected at its lower end

*|Dentsche Mechaniker-Zeit., ii. (June 1, 1904) p. 104 (fig.); Zcitschr f. A.
plijr8. u. Chein. Unterr. xvii. (1904) p. 25.

580 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

with the hour-hand axle of an ordinary alarum clock. This hour-hand,
of course, rotates twice per diem, so connexion is made between it
and a wheel of twice as many teeth ; but, inasmuch as the rotation
is thereby reversed, a third wheel equal to one of the other two is
required. It is necessary that the hypotenuse should lie due north
and south.

Polariscope and Microscope Lantern.* — The following details
will enable any one to make a polariscope for the lantern. Make first
a tube of tin or brass, about 4 in. diameter, to fit the tube of the
lantern, and at an angle of 56° 45' fix a similar tube 4 in. long. Part
of the elbow is cut away to introduce a bundle of 10 or 12 plates,
4^ in. by 34; in. of thin patent plate-glass. The lowermost of these is
blackened. A hole for stage, 2 in. by lh in., is cut on each side of this
tube, and a plate is fixed in tube here with a 2-in. hole in centre. This
forms the stage. A sliding tube with a similar plate at end, and a
spiral spring serves to keep objects in position. At the end of tube fix
a flange and another short tube about 3 in. diameter, which carries the
objective, — of about 4-in. focus. The objective moves in this tube with
a sliding or rack-and-pinion movement. Beyond this again is still
another tube 2 in. diameter and 2 in. long. In this slides a smaller
tube, in which is fitted a Nicol prism. This fits in a cork, which cork
fits in small tube, and the smaller tube rotates in the other.

Lantern Microscope. Get a brass tube 3 in. long and 2 in. diameter,
and at one end fix a screw, fitting flange of the lantern. Two inches
from this end cut holes on either side, 2 in. by 1J in., and fit for stage
as in the polariscope. At about 1^ in. from end is fitted a lens about
2^-in. focus, which acts as an additional condenser. To the other end
of the tube fix a plate, in centre of which fix a tube 1 in. diameter
and lj in. long. In this slides a smaller tube carrying the magnifying
lenses, which may be two lenses each about 2-in. to 3-in. focus. If
these are not achromatic a diaphragm with \-m. hole must be placed
about f in. in front. The best position is determined by experiment.
Achromatic lenses will be best. Micro-objectives of 1-in., l^-in., or
2-in. focus may be utilised with advantage by fitting them by means
of a cork in the sliding tube in place of those mentioned. Instead of
a sliding tube a rack-and-pinion will be a great advantage.

(4) Photomicrography.

Microphotographs.t — The production of these small views, or
microphotoijraphs, is a branch of work which requires very considerable
patience and skill, inasmuch as it is necessary to perform the operations
of development, etc., in the field of a magnifier or small Microscope,
since the size of the image is so minute. The majority of the micro-
photographs sold are made on the Continent, and details of their rnanu-

* Photographic Reference Book, 2nd ed., 1904, p. 23S.
t Tom. cit,, pp. 191-2.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 581

factnre are not given in English treatises. The collodion process (wet
plate) is used, or collodio-albumen may also be employed. In either
case, the collodion used for making the plates must be absolutely struc-
tureless, for if it is not the magnified images will have a disagreeable
reticulated appearance. Pyrogallic acid is preferable to iron sulphate
for development, since it gives a much finer deposit. The process con-
sists in making a positive by copying an illuminated negative, a 1-in.
microscopical objective being used for this purpose. An apparatus
devised by Mr. Hislop, and described in Mr. Sutton's " Dictionary of
Photography," may be employed. It consists of a rigid mahogany board
about 6 in. wide and 3 ft. G in. in length. At one end two uprights
are fixed, between which a miniature camera, fitted with the micro-
scopical objective, can be moved up and down, so as to allow it to be
placed opposite the centre of the negative to be copied. The objective
is screwed to a brass tube, projecting from the camera towards the
negative, the tube being fitted with stops of various sizes. A micro-
meter head for the fine adjustment of the lens is also necessary, because
the majority of microscopic objectives are corrected only for the visual
rays. The sharpest visual focus must be found by means of a powerful
magnifying-glass, and the chemical focus ascertained by racking the
lens in or out to various distances until the proper chemical focus is
found. "When this has been done, the same correction may always be
applied unless the negative's distance from the lens is altered. The
negative is placed in a frame at the required distance on the long
mahogany board. The illumination may be natural or artificial, but
must, of course, pass through the negative. The variations of light,
negative, and collodion plate render it impossible to give any idea of
exposure. After exposure the little plate is placed under a low-power
Microscope, in yellow light, and a few drops of developer poured over
it. Development must be watched through the instrument, remember-
ing that a transparency is required, and that, therefore, rather greater
density than otherwise should be obtained. After fixing and drying,
the tiny plates are examined through a magnifier of about the power
which it is intended to subsequently attach to them, in order to see if
they are perfect and worth the subsequent trouble of mounting. The
photographs chosen are then cut into small squares with an ordinary
diamond. Care must be exercised that no dust adheres to the film side
of these small squares. The little lenses (or Stanhopes) to which the
view is to be cemented are now placed on the top of a small stove, and
very cautiously heated. A drop of Canada balsam is placed on the
end and allowed to soften, and the little square transparency taken up
in a pair of forceps and pressed — gently at first, afterwards more
strongly — into contact with the melted cement. The two are then
allowed to harden together for some hours. In order to be certain that
the operation has succeeded, and that the contact is perfect, the trans-
parency is examined through the rounded end of the little glass
cylinder, to which it is cemented, which acts as a Microscope, and gives
a magnified and distinct image of the object. If air-bubbles show they
are most likely due to unequal pressure in cementing the glass. The

582 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

balsam must be resoftened by placing it for a few m inutes on the stove,
and the operation repeated with greater care.

Anonymous — Praktische Arbeitserfahrungen in der Photographic (Mikrophoto-
graphie). Zeitschr. angew. MUcr., x. (1904) p. 24.

Leiss. C. — Ueber eine neue Camera zur stereoskopischen Abbildung mikroskopischer
und makroskopischer Objecte. Zeitschr. Instrumentenk., xxiv. (1904), p. 61 ;

Zeitschr. Krystallug. u. Mineral, xxxviii. (1903) p. 99.

(£) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Chabkie, C. — Sur la fonction qui represente le grossissement des objets vus a
travers un cone de cristal. Comptes Rendus, exxxviii. (1904) p. 349.

D oku lid, Tif. — Die Bestimmung der optischen Constanten eines centrirten spha-
rischen Systems mit dem pracisionsfocometer.

Der Mechaniker, xii. (1904) p. 37.

Everett, J. D.— On skew refraction through a lens; and on the hollow pencil
given by an annulus of a very obliquely-placed lens.

Proc. Roy. Soc, lxxi. (1903) p. 59.

,, „ On the resolving power in the Microscope and Telescope.

Rep. British Assoc, Glasgow, 1901, p. 569.

Kletber, J. — Astigmatismus bei Hohlspiegeln.

Zeitschr. Unlerr., xvi. (1903) p. 208.

Mace de Lepinay, J., & H. Buissox — TJeber eine neue Methode der optischen
Dickenmessung. Zeitschr. Instrumentenk., xxiv. (1904) p. 30 ;

Comptes Rendus, exxxv. (1902) p. 283.

Anonymous — Ueber die Grenzen der mikroskopischen Abbildung und die Sichtbar-
machung " ultra mikroskopischer." Theilchen.

[After referring to Abbe's theorems on the limits of visibility, the writer
describes tbe experiments of Siedentopf and Zsigmondy, which have been
more than once described in our Journal.]

Central-Zeit. f. Opt. u. Mech., xxv. (March 1, 1904)

pp. 51-3 (3 figs.)

(6) Miscellaneous.

Optical Bench.* — The firm of R. and J. Beck manufacture an
optical bench and appliances for Microscope illumination, photomicro-
graphy, micro-projection, and optical lantern projection. It consists of
a table (fig. 83), having a rigid iron framework and a wooden top,
54 in. by 20 in., which supports the optical bench, the Microscope and
the illuminant. It runs on four castors, by the side of which are screw
pillars with lock-nuts, by which the castors may be raised off the
ground. The bench proper is a steel rail 80 in. long, with a prismatic
section ; this is carried on two cross bars, at the ends of which are four
screwed pillars with milled heads and clamp nuts, the ends of which fit
into sockets fixed upon the wooden table. By means of the pillars the
rails may be raised or lowered. Along the dove-tailed rail the various
pieces of apparatus slide with a spring fitting, and may be clamped in

* R. & J. Beck's Special Catalogue, 1904(12 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

583

any position by means of a milled head and screw. The condensers,
light filters, iris diaphragms, cooling chambers, lenses, mirrors and
prisms (figs. 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89) are so made that when in position on

Fig. 83.

the rail their centres are in alignment on the optic axis. The illuminat-
ing apparatus, arc, incandescent gas or paraffin lamp, fits on the bench,
and is provided with an adjustment for altering its position.

Ol.

•v

A

I/

\

y

\ J

\

Fig. 84.

Fig. 85.

Fig. 86.

The platform upon which the Microscope is placed is provided with
a tilting movement by which the optic axis of the instrument may be
inclined up or down. The platform runs on three sets of steel rails ;

584

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

one set places the optic axis of the Microscope in line with that of the
bench ; the second set allows the instrument to be placed with its optic
axis parallel to but to one side of the axis of the bench, a position suitable
for the illumination of opaque objects ; while the third set permits the

=S"

Fig. 87.

Fig. 88.

Fig. 89.

Microscope to be used at right angles to the optic axis of the bench.
When used as an optical lantern the height of the bench (fig. 90) is
increased by a supplementary table. A set of rods and curtains is
provided to cover the apparatus. A photomicrographic and enlarging
camera (fig. 91) on a similar turntable is made of the same height as
the Microscope table, so that it can be placed in alignment for photo-
micrography. This camera carries a \ plate (8£ in. by G£ in.) with
adapters for smaller sizes, and has a variable extension of from about

T"T "'JJ-*-'-'-»^-'-

Fig. 90.

12 in. to 7 ft., the front portion being extended by means of a steel
rod which slides in bushed fittings, while the back slides and clamps
upon the main bar of the table. The front of the camera is arranged
to take a small photographic plate-holder, and a sliding panel in the

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

585

fixed frame of the camera takes a photographic lens, so that the camera
may be turned into an enlarging apparatus.

Fig. 91.

Manissadjam, J. J. — Microscopical Work in Turkey.

Journ. Applied Micr., vi. (1903) p. 2547.
Oeetel, T. E. — Medical Microscopy. London (Rebman), 9 pp.

Pebcival, A. S. — The Microscope. English Mechanic, Ixxvi. (1903) p. 430.

B. Technique.*
(1) Collecting' [Objects, including' Culture Processes.

Culture of Anaerobic Bacteria. f — J. Bordet recommends the fol-
lowing method for the cultivation -of anaerobic bacteria. He employs
an apparatus used ordinarily for desiccation in vacuo (fig. 92). This
is composed of two receivers, the inferior of which, A, is cylindrical,
and has its edges ground. It is 0*14 m. high, and has an internal
diameter of 0'14 m. The superior receiver B is a hemispherical
bell-glass with a stop-cock, and furnished with a flat bottom, the inferior
surface of which is carefully ground for adaptation to the edges of the
cylinder A. The flat bottom of the bell-glass is raised towards the

* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous.

f Annales de l'Institut Pasteur (1904) No. 5, pp. 332-6.

Oct. 19th, 1904 % S

586

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

centre in a ridge 0*05 m. high, and this ridge surrounds a circular
opening b, which furnishes a communication between the two parts of
the apparatus. It is in the cylinder A that the vessels are placed in
which the cultures are made. This being done, a small packet of about
5 grin, of pyrogallic acid in filter-paper is introduced through the
opening b into the bottom of the bell-glass. The latter is then applied
to the cylinder. The whole apparatus is then inclined, so that the
highest part of the floor of the bell-glass is that on which rests the
packet of pyrogallic acid. This position is maintained by means of a
block of wood (fig. 93). The stop-cock is then removed, and by means
of a funnel, the stem of which is suitably bent, about 100 c.cm. of a
10 p.c. solution of caustic potash are introduced into the bell-glass in
such a way that, thanks to the inclination, none of it touches the pyro-
gallic acid. The stop-cock is then replaced and the air exhausted. When
the rarefaction has reached a maximum, the stop-cock is closed, and the

Fig. 92.

Fig. 93.

apparatus placed in a horizontal position, the latter causing the mixture
of the acid with the potash solution. Thus the traces of oxygen left
after exhaustion of the apparatus are absorbed by the pyrogallate of
potash. Before placing in the incubator the author recommends that
all the apposed glass surfaces of the apparatus should be covered with
a mixture in equal parts of wax and vaselin. This renders it more
surely air-tight.

Pure Cultures of Chlorella vulgaris.*— E. Herouard obtains pure
cultures of this alga on potato. Obliquely cut cylinders of the medium
are placed in test-tubes having a constriction near the lower end. At
the bottom of the tube is placed a little water, or a mixture of water
and 10 p.c. glycerin. The tube is plugged with cotton-wool and
sterilised in the autoclave. The sterilisation should be lengthy or
repeated on several occasions. The medium should be inoculated with
the usual precautions, and care should be taken to spread the seed over

* Bull. Soc. Zool. de France, xxix. (1904) pp. 110-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

587

a considerable surface, as the alga grows but little beyond the inocula-
tion site. The tubes should be covered with rubber caps to prevent
evaporation. Cultures of Chlorella obtained by the foregoing method
enabled the author to rear Infusoria and Cladocera.

Scotia. Closing Plankton Net.* — W. S. Bruce describes a form of
closing net (fig. 94) constructed after a design the idea of which was

Fig. 94.

derived from the Scottish reversing thermometer frame. A weight runs
down the cord A, strikes.the lever B, raises brass rod C, which liberates
hook D from position X to Y. This lets go net-cords E, and the net
becomes suspended as in position Y by cord F, which has a continuation
of A and draws up neck of net and closes it. F is passed through a
series of rings round the neck. G- is coarse material. H, Swiss silk or
such-like material. The end takes off at I, as in Hensen's net. Thus
by letting the whole apparatus down nothing enters the net, but on
hauling up the tow-netting proceeds and goes on vertically until the

* Proc. Roy. Physical Soc, xv. (1904) p. 141 (5 figa.).

2 3 2

588 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

weight is sent down cord A at desired depth, when position Y is
obtained and nothing enters or gets out of the net. It is easy to trawl
in fast in this position. The net can be made of any size.

Preparing Agar.* — K. Rosam states that the following procedure
prevents the too rapid setting of agar, and facilitates nitration. Pow-
dered agar is treated for about five minutes with 10 p.c. acetic acid ; it
is then placed on a sieve and the acetic acid washed out with running
water. Thus prepared, agar is rapidly filtered, has a low melting-point,
and solidifies at 85° C. It may be stocked dry, and will keep for quite
a long time. The filter-paper recommended is Schleicher and SchiiU's
No. 601.

Cultivation of Algse.f — Th. Frank obtained pure cultures of
Chlamydomouas tingens by inoculating agar with single cells. He also
used Knop's medium, which consists of 4 parts calcium nitrate and
1 part potassium nitrate, magnesium sulphate, potassium monophos-
phate, and a trace of iron sulphate. Made up with distilled water, this
medium has a slightly acid reaction, and the free acid it contains corre-
sponds to about 0'033 p.c. phosphoric acid. When used in concentra-
tions varying from 0*05 to 3 p.c, the results obtained were good.
Besides agar and Knop's medium, cultivations were made successfully
on gelatin and on clay plates saturated with nutrient fluid.

Cultivation of Anaerobes. % — D. J. Hamilton describes a method
which aims at the exclusion of any atmosphere whatever. The first
step is to encourage sporulation, and this is done by incubating (at 37°
to 38° C.) the organism in the liquid upon which it is found growing
naturally within the animal body. The fluid is removed in a Pasteur's
pipette ; this is then sealed off, and the tube incubated for 24 to 48
hours. By this means the organism is obtained in the sporing state.

The medium used is glucose-pepton-beef-tea. This must be boiled
and filtered until precipitation of phosphates ceases. The reaction
must be distinctly alkaline to phenolphthalein. The medium is de-
canted into test-tubes or flasks, and sterile olive-oil to the depth of
1*5 cm. is then poured over the surface. The tubes or flasks are
sterilised again on three successive days ; on the first day for f hour,
on the second and third day for J hour.

The spores are inoculated by drawing up some of the spore-con-
taining fluid in a Pasteur's pipette, which is plunged into the beef -tea
and some of the contents blown out, care being taken not to empty the
tube lest any air might enter. The plug is then readjusted, and the
vessels heated in a water-bath at 80° C. for 20 minutes, to kill off any
non-sporing contaminations. If the organism be contained in a tissue
a minute piece is snipped off and dropped into the tube or flask.
After the last-mentioned heating the vessel is cooled down quickly in
running water. The inoculated vessels are then incubated. Within
24 hours, as a rule, germination is in full activity, and the growth may
be examined by withdrawing some fluid by means of a sterilised pipette.

* Centralbl. Bakt., 2te Abt, xii. (1904) p. 464.
t Bot.Zeit., lxii. (1904) pp. 153-88 (1 pi.).
1 Brit. Med. Journ., 1904, II. pp. 11-2.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 589

For making surface growths the most suitable medium is glucose-
pepton-agar, but any other solid medium not coagulable by heat may
be substituted. The vessels used are circular capsules, with an inside
diameter of 7 cm. and a depth of 2| cm. They are provided with a
flat ground flange lh cm. broad. The cover is made of plate-glass and
extends outwards to half the breadth of the flange, so as to leave a
margin uncovered. It is ground to fit closely on to the flange. In the
capsule is placed a layer of medium about 1 cm. thick, and then olive-
oil is poured in nearly up to the rim. It is then covered and sterilised.
When cool, the medium is inoculated by means of a pipette containing
pure culture. Growth is usually abundant after incubating from 24 to
48 hours. Such cultures may be preserved permanently by killing
the organisms with formalin, and then mounting the capsules with
refined castor-oil.

(2) Preparing1 Objects.

Preserving Insects.* — In order to preserve insects collected in the
summer for dissection and mounting in the winter, Villagio recommends
the following procedure : Kill the insect in chloroform vapour, then
drop it into a test-tube half full of water. Raise to the boiling-point
and then transfer at once to 30 p.c. alcohol. After 24 hours remove
to a mixture of equal parts of 90 p.c. alcohol, glycerin and distilled
water, with \ p.c. of acetic acid added. From this fluid the insect is
removed to diluted alcohol for dissection, or passed through graded
alcohols for imbedding in paraffin.

Preparation of Spicules of Silicious Sponges.f — R. von Lenden-
feld takes a piece of the sponge of the size of a hazel-nut, and boils it in
water. The piece of sponge is then placed in a test-tube and covered
with strong nitric acid. After standing for some hours it is boiled
until the acid is quite clear. The tube is then almost filled with dis-
tilled water and shaken, and after about 20 seconds the supernatant
fluid is decanted off into another test-tube. After some 40 seconds
the supernatant fluid in the second tube is removed to a third test-tube,
and this procedure is repeated until no spicules are obvious to the
naked eye. The last fluid is then centrifuged for \\ minutes. The
deposit is washed with distilled water several times, and afterwards
placed on a slide. After removing the excess of water, the preparation
is dried over the flame and mounted in balsam or dammar.

Collodionage of Cells.! — CI. Regaud describes an ingenious method
of preparation applicable to anatomical elements naturally or artificially
dissociated.

The first step consists in dissociating and fixing the cells. "When
dealing with a fluid rich in cells, e.g. blood, semen, etc., one or two
drops of the liquid are allowed to fall into several cubic centimetres
of a fixative, such as 1 to 2 p.c. osmic acid or 10 p.c. formalin. The
fixative must be kept shaken for a while to prevent agglutination of the
cells. If more rapidly coagulating fixatives such as chromic, picric, or

*

English Mechanic, Ixxix. (1904) p. 556.
t Zeilschr. wiss. Mikr., xxi. (1904) pp. 23-4. % Tom. cit., pp. 10-4.

59 0 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

acetic acid, bichloride of mercury, alcohol, etc., be used, the cells must
be previously washed with physiological salt solution, and, after sedimen-
tation, the supernatant fluid decanted off. The deposit is then fixed.
When the elements are scanty, as in urine, pleural fluid, etc., they must
be concentrated by centrifuging before being fixed. In the case of
cells not naturally dissociated, e.g. of the liver, spleen, bone-marrow,
etc., they may be dissociated first and fixed afterwards, or vice versa.

The next step consists in washing the fixed cells in a centrifuge, and
this operation may be repeated once or twice.

The third step is to dehydrate the sediment by dropping in absolute
alcohol, and after this an equal quantity of anhydrous ether, shaking
or inverting the tube from time to time.

The fourth step is to add some few drops of collodion solution, and
then shake the mixture again.

Fifth step : with a thin dry pipette draw up some of the collo-
dionised fluid and place droplets on cover-slips. While the films are
still moist, transfer the cover-slips to 80 p.c. alcohol. The preparations
are next passed through GO p.c. alcohol and then to water. After this,
the treatment is the same as for ordinary histological sections stuck on
a slide.

(3) Cutting, including- Imbedding1 and Microtomes.

Rapid Method of Hardening and Paraffin Imbedding.* — The
following are the steps in a method employed by 0. Lubarsch by means
of which hardening and imbedding are accomplished in from 1 to 3
hours, enabling perfect sections to be cut and all stains to be used with
success: (1) Blocks of tissue 0'5 cm. thick are placed in 10 p.c.
.formalin for 10 to 15 minutes, with one to two changes; (2) 90 to
•95 p.c. alcohol for 5 to 10 minutes, with one change ; (3) absolute
alcohol for 10 minutes, with two changes ; (4) anilin oil, to clear, for
10 to 30 minutes, according to size of block of tissue ; (5) xylol, to
remove oil, for 10 to 20 minutes, with two to three changes ; (6) paraffin
for 10 to GO minutes. All the steps of the process are carried out in a
paraffin oven at 50° C. to 53° C.

Rapid Hardening and Imbedding.! — A. Stein gives the following
modification of Lubarsch's method of rapidly hardening and imbedding
fresh tissue : 1. Immersion in 10 p.c. formalin (5 minutes). 2. 95 p.c.
alcohol (5 minutes). 3. Absolute alcohol, two changes (10 minutes).
-4. Anilin oil, till quite cleared up (15 to 20 minutes). 5. Xylol, two
to three changes (15 minutes). G. Paraffin (10 to 30 minutes, accord-
ing to the size of the piece). The first four stages are made in in-
cubator at 50° to 52° C. ; the last two at 58° to 60° C.

Zl Use of Radium in Section Cutting. J — H. H. Dixon remarks that
every one who cuts paraffin sections is frequently troubled by their
electrification, which makes them stick to the knife or curl up and, even
when successfully removed from the knife, fly about in an erratic
manner. These undesirable phenomena may be completely obviated

*

Deutsche Med. Wochenschr., No. -IS (1903) p. 890.
t Op. cit., xxix. (1903) p. 806. t Nature, lxx. (1904) p. 198.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 591

by fixing a 5 mgrm. tube of radium bromide on the microtome knife
■close to where the paraffin ribbon is forming. Apparently the radiations
from the radium discharge the electrification of the paraffin sections
by ionising the air in their neighbourhood.

Fixation and Staining of Eumesostomina.* — A. Luther fixed the
objects chiefly with sublimate either in the form of Lang's fluid of
medium strength, or as a saturated solution in physiological salt solution.
The fixative was used hot, and the objects afterwards washed in distilled
water. They were then transferred to graded alcohols (50, 70, 96 p.c).
The sublimate was removed by means of iodine immediately before
saturation with paraffin. Sometimes Flemming's mixture was used as
fixative, the results being good, especially for the eggs of Mesostoma
lingua. The stains mostly used were Ehrlich's hematoxylin and eosin,
or Benda's iron hematoxylin and eosin. Toluidin blue (1 p.c. aqueous
solution for 8 hours) combined with a weak solution of erythrosin (a
few seconds) was often successful. Golgi's impregnation method and
intra-vitam staining with methylen-blue were failures. As maceration
fluid, especially for the isolation of muscle, nitric acid was found
serviceable ; 10 p.c. for fresh material, 20 p.c. for that hardened in
alcohol.

Behh. M. — TJber Schnellhartung und Schnelleinbettung.
[On rapid hardening and imbedding.]

Miinchener Med. Wochenschr., 1. (1903) pp. 2256-7,

Guttmann, C. — Uber Schnellhartung und Schnelleinbettung.

Deutsche Med. Wochenschr., xxix. (1903) pp. 740-1.

(4) {Staining and Injecting'.

Hematoxylin Staining of Nerve-fibres of the Central Nervous
System.j — "W. Pavlow recommends that the brain should be cut up
into pieces of about 4 cm. diameter, and fixed in Miiller's fluid or 3 p.c.
potassium bichromate at 35° C. The fixative should be changed daily
for the first week and twice a week afterwards. The pieces are fixed
at 35° O. for 3 weeks, and for the next week at ordinary temperature.
On removal they are washed in running water for 2 hours, and then
transferred to 75 p.c. methyl-alcohol for 3 days ; after this to absolute
alcohol for 3 days, and subsequently to a mixture of absolute alcohol
and ether for 5 days. They are next placed for a week in celloidin,
kolloxylin or photoxylin solutions. The celloidin solution is made by
dissolving 10 grin, of celloidin in a mixture of 500 grm. methyl-alcohol
and 500 grm. of sulphuric ether. For the kolloxylin or photoxylin
30 grm. are dissolved in 800 c.cm. of the ether mixture.

The pieces of brain are then fixed on wood or paraffin blocks by
means of the same mixture, and after the lapse of 15 minutes are placed
in 60 p.c. methyl-alcohol.

The celloidin sections are stained with hematoxylin solution made
by dissolving 10 parts of hematoxylin in 100 parts of absolute ethylic-

* Zeitschr. wias. Zool., lxxvi. 1(1904) p. 3.
t Zeitschr. -wise. Mikr., xxi. (1904) pp. 14-8.

592 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

alcohol, and then adding 870 of distilled water and 20 of glacial acetic
acid. This solution must stand uncovered in the light for 3 weeks
before use. The sections are stained for 20 hours at a temperature of
30° C. On removal the sections are treated for 10 minutes with a
saturated solution of lithium carbonate, and are then washed with dis-
tilled water until the water runs off quite clear. The sections are now
decolorised after Pal's method, though the permanganate solution is
stronger. In solution A (pot. permang. 5, H20 1000) the sections
remain 1 minute ; in B (acid, oxalic. 5, pot. sulphurosum 5, H20 1000)
5 minutes. If not sufficiently decolorised, the whole business must
be gone through again.

The decolorised sections are next washed and treated successively
with methyl-alcohol, creosote and carbolxylol. In each of these fluids
they remain 5 minutes, after which they are mounted in balsam.

If it be desired to double-stain the sections, this may be done with
magdala red, congo red, or fuchsin ; but the preference is given to the
following : Rubin 1, H20 200, glacial acetic acid 4. The counter-
staining must be done after differentiation in B solution and washing
in water. It takes about 3 hours, after which the sections are immersed
for 24 hours in 2 p.c. acetic acid.

Modification of the Van Gieson Method.* — K. "VYeigert recom-
mends the following improvement of the Van Gieson method. For
alum-hajmatoxylin is substituted iron-hamiatoxylin. This is prepared
by mixing, when required for use, equal parts of two solutions : A, con-
sisting of 1 grm. hematoxylin to 100 c.cm. of 9G p.c. alcohol ; B, of
4 c.cm. liq. ferri sesqnichlorati, 1 c.cm. of hydrochloric acid, and 95
water. The iron chloride solution contains 10 p.c. iron ; the specific
gravity of HC1 is 1 ■ 124, ' German Pharmacopoeia.'

The acid fuchsin-picric acid mixture is made by adding 10 parts of
1 p.c. aqueous solution of acid fuchsin to 100 parts of saturated aqueous
solution of picric acid.

The sections previously stained with iron-hamiatoxylin are placed
in the picric-fuchsin solution for only 'a short time ; they are then
quickly washed in water, dehydrated in 90 p.c. alcohol, and cleared up
in carbolxylol.

Method of Staining" Sections Quickly with Picrocarmin.t — "W.
Freeman gives the following method by which staining with picro-
carmin is complete in a few minutes. The staining is almost entirely
that of carmin, but the picric acid can be easily added by passing the
sections through alcohol tinged with picric acid in the usual way for
successive double stains. The fixatives used were Midler's fluid, potas-
sium bichromate, Weigert's chrome-alum mixture and formalin, with
after-hardening in alcohol. The picrocarmins used were Bourne's and
H oyer's. (1) To 1 volume of Bourne's picrocarmin 9 volumes of
0 • 2 p.c. acetic acid are added ; the mixture is filtered preferably after
boiling. The sections cut with a freezing microtome are placed in the
dilute picrocarmin, which is then heated quickly just to the boiling-

* Zeitschr. wiss. Mikr., xxi. (1904) pp. 1-5.

t Proc. Physiol. Soc, May 1903 ; Journ. Physiol., xxix. (1903) pp. xxx-i.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 593

point and allowed to cool. As the fluid cools the sections stain, and
are at their best in 3 to 4 minutes. (2) To 1 volume of Hover's picro-
carmin 19 volumes of distilled water are added. The sections are
treated as above, but the staining takes 10 to 15 minutes.

Fixing, Staining and Mounting Sections of Skin.* — E. Retterer,

in his researches on the structure of the skin, fixed the material in
Flemruing's, Zenker's or Branca's fluid, giving the preference to the two
last. The sections were stained by various methods : some with hgema-
toxylin, and fuchsin and Israel's eosin-orange-aurantia ; others with
fuchsin-resorcin, followed by hematoxylin and safranin (21 hours) ;
others with fuchsin-resorcin and alum-carmin ; others with lithium-
carmin, vesuvin and fuchsin-resorcin. The specimens were mounted
in glycerin, Farrant's medium, and balsam.

The author pertinently remarks that if all the structure and details
of a histological specimen are to be made out satisfactorily no single
method will suffice, and that no rule can be given for determining a
priori the precise routine for obtaining the best results.

New Method of Staining the Epithelial Fibres and the Mem-
brane of Prickle Cells.f — P. G. Unna fixes the material partly in
absolute alcohol, partly in formalin, hardens in alcohol and imbeds in
celloidin. The sections are stained in the following mixture : Water
blue 1 ; orcein 1 ; acetic acid 5 ; glycerin 20 ; spirit 50 ; water to 100.
One gramme of this solution is placed in a test-tube and mixed with
0 ' 3 grm. of 1 p.c. alcoholic solution of eosin, and then with 0 ■ 3 grin,
of 1 p.c. aqueous solution of hydrochinon. The sections are stained
in the cold for 10 minutes. After washing with distilled water they
are immersed in 1 p.c. aqueous solution of safranin for 10 minutes.
They are again washed with distilled water, and transferred to J p.c.
bichromate of potassium solution for 10 to 20 minutes. On removal
the sections are washed in distilled water, after which they are de-
hydrated in absolute alcohol and then mounted in balsam.

Should the sections (which should have a violet hue after dehydration)
be too red from excess of safranin, they must be re-treated with alcohol.

Staining with Chrom-hsematoxylin.J — O. Schultze recommends
the following procedure for staining tissues previous to sectioning :

(1) Fix the material in solutions of bichromate of potash or of chromic
acid, or better still, with osmic ackl added to both, for 12 hours or longer ;

(2) 50 p.c. alcohol, in the dark for 24 hours or longer ; (3) 70 p.c.
alcohol with 0'5 p.c. hematoxylin, for 24 hours or longer ; (4) 80 p.c.
alcohol ; (5) absolute alcohol ; (G) imbedding : the sections should be
thin, not thicker than 5 jx.

Modification of van Ermengem's Method of Staining Flagella.§
J. "W. W. Stephens describes the following modification of van Ermen-
gem's method : (1) The mordant consists of 2 p.c. osmic acid, 1 part ;
tannin 20 p.c, 2 parts ; this is allowed to act for | to 1 hour or longer.

* Journ. Anat. et Physiol., xl. (1904) pp. 337-86 (2 pis.).

t Monatsch. prakt. Dermatol., xxxvii. (1903) pp. 1-18 (1 pi.). See Zeitschr wiss.
Mikr., xxi. (1904) pp. 68-9.

\ Zeitschr. wiss. Mikr.. xxi. (1904) pp. 5-9. § Lancet, 1904, II. p. 22.

594 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(2) Silver nitrate solution, 0*2 p.c. (3) Ammonium tannate solution -
of this, a quantity sufficient for staining one slide is freshly made thus :
tannin 20 p.c, 0*2 c.cm. ; equal parts of strong ammonia and water,
1 c.cm. A clean slide is flooded with an emulsion of culture, the
surplus fluid is drained off, and when dry the slides are mordanted.
After washing with water a few drops of the silver solution are put on
the slide,rand then a few drops of ammonium tannate. The slide is
rocked to and fro for a few minutes. The washing and staining are
then repeated three or four times.

(5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Iodine-Paraffin Oil : a New Micro-reagent and Mounting Me-
dium.*— C. 0. Harz makes this medium by dissolving one part of
iodine in 100 parts of neutral, colourless paraffin oil by the aid of
gentle heat. Thus prepared, the mixture has a beautiful red colour.
It is well suited for mounting bacteria, fungi, starch, ligneous tissue
and other vegetable preparations. The method of mounting starch-
grains is simple. The grains are spread out on a slide or cover-glass,
with water or with iodine solution (1 p.c. iodide of potassium solution
saturated with iodine). The preparation is dried in the air or by means
of gentle heat, and then mounted in the usual way in paraffin oil or in
iodine-paraffin oil. The cover-glass is then ringed round with 10 p.c.
gelatin previously warmed.

Method for the Removal of Air-Bubbles from Frozen Sections.!
E. Neuhaus recommends the following method for use chiefly when
ethyl-chloride is employed as the freezing agent in the rapid preparation
of sections. The sections having been cut, placed in salt solution,
stained and washed, are transferred to alcohol, which is then slightly
warmed. By this the air-bubbles are seen to disappear, especially if
the alcohol is agitated or the sections moved about with a needle. The
warming does not interfere with the staining reaction of alum-carmin,
haeniatoxylin, or any of the usual stains.

Dowdy, S. E. — Micro-mounting methods for amateurs.
[A useful compendium for beginners.]

English Mechanic, lxxix. (1904) pp. 580-2.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Demonstrating Foetal Cartilage.:}: — Halvar Lundvall, after alluding
to Wijhe's method,§ describes his own procedure : (1) Fixation in
10 p.c. formalin for at least 48 hours ; (2) 95 p.c. alcohol for at least
48 hours ; (3) £ p.c. toluidin blue in hydrochloric acid alcohol for
some days at 40° C. ; (4) decolorising in hydrochloric acid alcohol at
40° C. ; (5) 95 p.c. alcohol (frequently changed) for some days ;

(6) dehydrating in absolute alcohol for 24 to 48 hours or longer ;

(7) 2 parts absolute alcohol plus 1 part benzol for 12 to 24 hours ;

(8) 2 parts benzol plus 1 part absolute alcohol for 24 to 48 hours ;

* Zeitschr. wiss. Mikr., xxi. (1904) pp. 25-7.

f Deutsch. Med. Wochenschr., No. 32 (1903). See also Zeitschr. angew. Mikr.,
ix. (1903) pp. 210-1.

% Anat. Anzeig., xxv. (1904) pp. 219-22.
§ See this Journal, 1902, p. 372.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 595

(9) pure benzol; (10) carbon bisulphide; (11) carbon bisulphide
1 part plus benzol 4 parts. The preparations _ are preserved in small
glass jars, the lids being luted on with sodium silicate.

Preparation of Slides for Blood Films.* — A. E. Wright states
that ideally perfect films can be obtained by simply rubbing the slide
with the finest emery-paper. The paper is mounted on a stout cylindrical
roller by means of a rubber ring. In making a film a drop of blood
is placed on a slide thus prepared ; another slide is brought down on it,
and as soon as the blood has spread out in the included angle the upper
slide is drawn along the surface of the lower. The foregoing method is
ill-adapted for a differential count of white corpuscles unless a line be
ruled with a needle longitudinally from end to end through the equa-
torial region of the film. The count should then proceed from one end
of the equator to the other.

Shenton, J. P. — Application of the Microscope to the study of potable water.

Trans. Manchester Micr. Soc, 1903, pp. 41-53.

Simon, K. — Dendritic forms in paper. Tom. cit., pp. 92-5 (1 pi.).

Metallography, etc.

Hard and Soft States in Metals.j— G-. T. Beilby, in a paper read
before the Faraday Society, advances the following argument on the
above subject. Metals ordinarily occur in two distinct solid phases — the
hardened or amorphous (A phase), and the annealed or crystalline
(C phase). The A phase is transformed into the C phase by the agency
of heat ; the C phase is transformed into the A phase by mechanically
produced flow. In the transformations A^±C there are two interme-
diate mobile phases, M and M', so that the transformations may be
written A -» M' -» C and C -» M -> A. The author's experiments and
observations lead to the conclusion that mere modifications of the
crystalline state in respect of the arrangement and size of the crystals,
forming the solid mass of a particular metal, are insufficient to explain the
difference between its hard and solid state. He considers that the kind
of hardening which is due to purely mechanical force involves a process
the effect of which is to cause the breaking down of the crystalline con-
dition more or less completely, and the production of a superficial, and
sometimes inter-crystalline, flow of the metal, which transforms it from
the crystalline to the amorphous state.

Influence of Varying Casting Temperature on the Properties of
Steel and Iron Castings.^ — P. Longmuir concludes, as the result of
prolonged microscopical research, that a suitable casting temperature for
any given alloy is not constant, but varies with the form and weight of
the casting. Other determining conditions are the rate of pouring, the
form of runner and gate, and the distance travelled by the metal before
entering the mould. By taking advantage of these determining con-
ditions, and commencing with a sufficiently high casting temperature,

* Lancet, 1904, II. p. 73.

t Electro-chemist and Metallurgist (June 1904) pp. 806-26 (5 figs, and 20 photo-
micrographs.

% Iron and Steel Mag., viii. (July 1904) pp. 32-47 (20 figs.) ; Iron and Steel
Institute May (1904) Meeting.

596 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

matters can be readily arranged so that each mould is poured at the
correct heat. In determining this correct heat, experience must, until
a very considerable advance has been in pyrometer methods, be the only
guide. Empirical though this may be, when carefully applied regularly
successful results follow.

Structure of Metals.* — J. A. Ewing, in the Rede lecture, deals with
the insight into the structure of metals as yielded by metallographic
methods of research. He showed by lantern projection how the crystal-
line nature of metals could be observed, and pointed out how stress pro-
duced slip-lines among the crystals. This was of great practical interest
in connection with " fatigue " in metals, which was shown to be due
first to slips appearing on isolated grains, and then to the development
of these slips into cracks. He dealt at length with binary alloys and
eutectics, giving it as his opinion that the formation of a eutectic
occurred by alternate surfusion or supersaturation of each constituent
in the other. Eutectics in which the constituents were not of the same
crystalline system appeared to be mechanically weak. The properties
connected with recalescence were illustrated by experiments on a steel
wire coiled into the form of a spring, and carrying a light weight. The
spring extended in a conspicuous way while the process of re-crystallisa-
tion associated with recalescence was going on. The gradual changes of
structure which go on even at atmospheric temperature in lead and other
metals after the structure has been broken up by severe straining were
next described, and, in conclusion, the lecturer referred to the analogous
case of glacier-ice, which had for long been known to possess a granular
structure, each grain being a crystal, just as in the case of metals.
Photographs by Principal Skinner, illustrating this granular structure,
were shown. In the upper neve the grains were vague and comparatively
small ; as the glacier slowly travelled down, the grains became consoli-
dated and large, and their outlines became well defined. Clearly a slow
process of crystal growth was going on, and it was to this very process
of growth that the plasticity of the glacier as a whole was to be ascribed.
Nothing was more striking to a worker in this field than the evidence
to be found that those substances on which we were most accustomed
to rely as constant were undergoing, sometimes comparatively fast and
sometimes very slowly, a process of internal flux. A monument more
enduring than brass might be a lofty ideal, but it was seen at least to be
an ideal easy of conception when one realised how far from constant the
inner structure of brass and other metals was apt to be.

Boynton, H. C. — Troostile. Iron and Steel Mag., vii. (June 1904)

pp. 606-28 (22 figs.).
Hofman, H. O., Gkeen, C. F., & Yerxa, K. B. — Laboratory study of the stages
in the Refining of copper.

[Micrographic studies of a number of copper samples in different stages were
made ; full statistics are given.]

Technology Quarterly and Proc. of Soc. Arts, xvii. (March 1904)
pp. 76-100 (6 tables of statistics, 31 figs.).

Johns, C. — Notes on the production and thermal treatment of steel in large masses.

Iron and Steel Mag., vii. (June 1904) pp. 596-606 (7 figs.).

* Abstract of Rede lecture before the University of Cambridge, June 11, 1904 ;
and Nature, 1808 (June 23, 1904), pp. 187-8.

JOUKNAL

OF THE

EOYAL MICKOSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DECEMBER 1904.

XI. — Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archi-
pelago, collected by Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S. — Part XVII.

( Conclusion).

By Fortescue William Millett, F.R.M.S.

(Bead October 19th, 1904.)
Plate XI.

Calcarina d'Orbigny.

Calcarina Spengleri Linne sp.

" Ammonshorn " Spengler, 1781, Danske Selsk. Skrifter, vol. i.
p. 379, pi. ii. fig. 9. Calcarina Spengleri (Gmel.) d'Orbigny, 1826,
Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii. p. 276, No. 4. C. Spengleri (Linne) Egger,
1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 423,
pi. xix. figs. 4-6. C. calcitropoides (Lam.) Idem, 1899, Ibid., vol.
xxi. p. 167, pi. xvii. figs. 18, 38, pi. xxii. fig. 36.

This form is not uncommon at Stations 2, and 22. The ex-
amples are moderately large, and exhibit the usual variations.

Calcarina hispida Brady.

Calcarina Spengleri (Linne) Jiispid var. Carpenter, 1860, Phil.
Trans., vol. cl. p. 551, pis. xix. figs. 8-11, xx. figs. 6, 8. C. hispida
Brady, 1876, Proc. R. Irish Acad., ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 590. C. hispida
(Brady) Lister, 1895, Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxvi. p. 437, pi. viii. figs.
34-37.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Fig. 1. — Noniomna orbicularis Brady, x 75.
„ 2. — Polystomella crispa Linne sp. Abnormal. X 75.
„ 3. — „ verriculata Brady, x 60.

„ 4. — Miliolina excisa Brady, Parker, and Jones. X 115.
„ 5, 6. — Pelosina distoma sp. n. x 115.
„ 7. —Thurammina favosa Flint, var x 140.

Dec. 21st, 1904 2 t

598 Transactions of the Society.

In the Malay Archipelago the distribution of this form is iden-
tical with that of C. Spengleri. The examples are neither numerous
nor large.

Brady in his 'Challenger' Eeport states that it has been ob-
served at ten Stations, all of them amongst the Islands of the
Pacific. The depths range from 3 to 155 fathoms.

Calcarina Defrancii d'Orbigny.

Calcarina Defrancii d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 276, pi. xiii. figs. 5-7.

In the Malay Archipelago, this is the most abundant species of
the genus, and it occurs at several Stations in both Areas. The
examples have the characters of the one figured by Brady in the
' Challenger ' Eeport.*

According to Brady the best examples in the ' Challenger ' col-
lection have been found associated with the type, at one or two
Stations in the Eastern Archipelago, notably off the Admiralty
Islands, 15 to 25 fathoms. D'Orbigny's locality is the Bed Sea.

Sub-Family Tinoporinae.

Tinoporus Montfort.

Tinoporus baculatus Montfort.

Tinoporus baculatus Montfort, 1808, Conch. Syst, vol. i. p. 146,
Genre 37. T. baculatus (Carp.) Dervieux, 1893, Atti E. Accad. Sci.
Torino, vol. xxix. p. 6, pi. figs. 19, 26, 34. T. baculatus (Montf.)
Sherlock, 1903, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard College, vol.
xxxviii. p. 357, fig. 8.

The form is very rare in the Malay Archipelago, and has been
noted only at Station 2, in Area 1.

Gypsina Carter.

Gypsina vcsicularis Parker and Jones, sp.

Orbitolina vcsicularis Parker and Jones, 1860, Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. vi. p. 31, No. 5. Gypsina vesicularis (P. and
J.) Carter, 1877, Ibid. ser. 4, vol. xx. p. 173. G. vesicularis (P.
and J.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii.
p. 382, pi. xiv. figs. 20-23. G. vesicularis (P. and J.) Jones, 189V,
Paheont. Soc, p. 335, fig. 25. G. vesicularis (P. and J.) Chapman,
1900, Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), p. 198, pi. xix. fig. 12.

This is rather rare, but occurs at Stations in both Areas.

* Plate cviii. fig. 6.

Report on Foraminifera. By F. IV. Millett. 599

Gypsina inhecrens Schultze, sp.

Acervulina inhcerens Schultze, 1854, Organ. Polythal., p. 68,
pi. vi. fig. 12. Gypsina inhecrens (Schultze) Brady, 1884, Chall.
Kept., p. 718, pi. cii. figs. 1-6. G. inhecrens (Schultze) Brady,
Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. xii. p. 229, pi. xli.
fig. 19. G. inhecrens (Schultze) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad.
Handl., vol. xxv. p. 91. pi. xv. fig. 787. G. inhecrens (Schultze
Flint, 1899, Eep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897 (1899) p. 336, pi. lxxix.
fig. 6.

This is less rare than the preceding form, and is found in small
numbers at several Stations in both Areas. The individuals ex-
hibit the usual irregularities of growth, and size.

Family NUMMULINID.E.

Sub-Family Polystomellinae.

Nonionina d'Orbigny.

Nonionina depresstda Walker and Jacob, sp.

Nautilus spiralis utrinque subumbilicatus, &c. Walker and
Jacob, 1784, Test. Min., p. 19, pi. iii. fig. 68. Nautilus depressulus
Walker and Jacob, 1798, Adams's Essays, Kanmacher's edition,
p. 641, pi. xiv. fig. 33. Nonionina elepressula (W. and J.) Parker
and Jones, 1859, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. iv. pp. 339,
341. Pidvinulina nonionoides Andreae, 1884, Abhandl. geol.
Special-Karte Elsass-Loth., vol. ii. p. 256, pi. xi. fig. 2. Nonionina
depressula (W. and J.) Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool.
Soc, vol. xii. p. 229, pi. xliii. fig. 25. N. depresstda (W. and J.)
Terrigi, 1889, Mem. E. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4. vol. vi. p. 119, pi. x.
fig. 4; Idem, 1891, Mem. E. Com. Geol. Italia, vol. iv. p. 109, pi. iv.
fig. 16. N. elepressula (W. and J.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 427, pi. xix., figs. 38, 39. N. depres-
sulei (W. and J.) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl.,
vol. xxv. p. 103, pi. xvii. figs. 825, 826. N deprcssulei (W. and J.)
Morton, 1897, Proc. Portland Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. ii. p. 121, pi. i.
fig. 20. N depressula (W. and J.) Jones, 1897, Pakeont. Soc,
p. 347. N elepressula (W. and J.) Wright, 1900, Geol. Mag., dec. 4,
vol. vii. p. 100, pi. v. fig. 23. N. depresstda (N. complanata d'Orb.)
Fornasini, 1904, Mem. E. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, ser. 6, vol. i.
p. 12, pi. iii. fig. 6.

This species is abundant in Area 2, and occurs sparingly at a
few Stations in Area 1. The forms vary in the direction of N.
asterizans.

2 T 2

600 Transactions of the Society.

Nonionina orbicularis Brady, plate XI. fig. 1.

Nonionina orbicularis Brady, 1881, Denkscbr. k. Akad. Wiss.
Wien., vol. xliii. p. 105, pi. ii. fig. 5. N. dzpressula var. orbicularis
(Brady) Madsen, 1895, Medd. Dausk Geol. Forening, No. 2, p. 217,
pi. fig. 7.

This essentially northern form is very rare, and represented
only at Station 22, in Area 2. The examples are quite charac-
teristic, even to the granulation of the sutures shown in Brady's
figures.

Nonionina stelligera d'Orbigny.

Nonionina stelligera d'Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Canaries, p. 128,
pi. iii. figs. 1, 2. N. stelligera (d'Orb.) Fornasini, 1889, Minute
forme Eizopod. Eetic, pi., fig. 32. N. stelligera (d'Orb.) Egger, 1893,
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 425, pi. xix.
fig. 44. N. stelligera (d'Orb.) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Yet.-Akad.
Handl., vol. xxv. p. 104, pi. xvii. figs. 827, 828. N. stelligera
(d'Orb) Morton, 1897, Proc. Portland Soc. Nat Hist., vol. ii.
p. 121, pi. i. fig. 18. N. stelligera (d'Orb.) (N. elegans d'Orb.) For-
nasini, 1899, Mem. B. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, ser. 5, vol. vii. p. 654,
%. 5.

This occurs at Stations in both Areas, but is very rare.

Nonionina umbilicatula Montagu sp.

Nautilus umbilicatulus Montagu, 1803, Test. Brit., p. 191 ;
Suppl., p. 78, pi. xviii. fig. 1. Nonionina asterizans (F. and M.) var.
umbilicatula Parker and Jones, 1859, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 3, vol. iv. p. 347. N. umbilicatula (Montagu) Brady, Parker,
and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. xii. p. 230, pi. xliii. fig. 19.
N. umbilicatula (Montagu) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad.
Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 426, pi. xix. figs. 36, 37. N. umbilicatula
(Montagu) Silvestri, 1893, Atti e Eendic. Acad. Sci. Lett e Arti
dei Zelanti di Acireale, vol. v. p. 20, pi. iii. figs. 26, 27. N. umbili-
catula (Montagu) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Yet.-Akad. Handl.,
vol. xxv. p. 103, pi. xvii. fig. 823. N. Soldanii (d'Orb.) Egger, 1895,
Naturhist. Yer. Passau, Jahresber. xvi. p. 40, pi. iii. fig. 18. N.
umbilicatula (Montagu) Jones, 1897, Palasont Soc, p. 345, fig. 29.
N. umbilicatula (Montagu) var. depressula Silvestri, 1899, Mem.
Pontif. Accad. Nuovi Lincei, vol. xv. p. 331, pi. vi. fig. 15. N Sol-
danii (d'Orb.) Egger, 1899, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II.
vol. xxi. p. 174, pi. xxii. figs. 7, 8. N umbilicatula (Montagu) Chap-
man, 1900, Proc. California Acad, of Sci., ser. 3, Geol., vol. i.
p. 256, pi. xxx. fig. 15.

A few characteristic examples occur at Stations in both Areas.

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett. 601

Nonionina pompilioides Fichtel and Moll sp.

Nautilus pompilioides Fichtel and Moll, 1798, Test. Micr., p. 31,
pi. ii. figs. a-c. Nonionina pompilioides (F. and M.) Parker, Jones,
and Brady, 1865, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. xvi. p. 18.
pi. iii. fig. 98. N. pompilioides (F. and M.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl.
k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 426, pi. xix. figs. 32, 33.
N. Soldanii ,(d'Orb.) Idem, 1895, Naturhist. Ver. Passau, Jahresber.
xvi. p. 40, pi. iii. fig, 16. N pompilioides (F. and M.) Chapman,
1900, Proc. California Acad, of Sci., ser. 3, Geol., vol. i. p. 256,
pi. xxx. fig. 16.

As might be anticipated, this deep-water form is not well repre-
sented in the anchor-mud of the Malay Archipelago. It has been
observed only at Station 11, in Area 1, and is there very rare.

Brady states that it is almost exclusively a deep-water Fora-
minifer, and mentions several localities where it has occurred at
depths of from 1000 to 2750 fathoms. Amongst numerous ' Gazelle'
Stations one has a depth of as little as 75 fathoms.

Nonionina scapha Fichtel and Moll sp.

Nautilus scapha Fichtel and Moll, 1798, Test. Micr., p. 105
pi. xix. figs. d-f. Polystomella crispa (Linne) var. Nonionina
scapha (F. and M.), Parker and Jones, 1865, Phil. Trans., vol. civ.
p. 404, pi. xvi. figs 37, 38, pi. xviii. figs. 55, 56. N scapha (F.
and M.) Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1888 ; Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. xii.
p. 230, pi. xliii. fig. 20. N. scapha (F. and M.) Terrigi, 1889,
Mem. Pi. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 120, pi. x. fig. 7 ; Idem,
1891, Mem. E. Com. Geol. d'ltalia, vol. iv. p. 110, pi. iv. fig. 18.
N. scapha (F. and M.) Woodward and Thomas, 1893, Geol. and
Nat. Hist. Survey of Minnesota, vol. iii. p. 48, pi. E, figs. 35, 36.
N. scapha (F. and M.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad.
Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 424, pi. xix. figs. 43, 44. N. scapha
(F. and M.) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Vet. -Akad. Handl., vol. xxv.
p. 104, pi. xvii. fig. 830. N. scapha (F. and M.) Egger, 1895,
Naturhist. Ver. Passau, Jahresber. xvi. p. 40, pi. iii. fig. 17. N.
scapha (F. and M.) Morton, 1897, Proc. Portland Soc. Nat. Hist.,
vol. ii. p. 121, pi. i. fig. 23. N. scapha (F. and M.) Jones, 1897,
Pakeont. Soc, p. 342, fig. 27. N. scapha (F. and M.) Egger, 1899,
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xxi. p. 175, pi. xxv.
fig. 56. N. scapha (F. and M.) Flint, 1899, Eep. U.S. Nat. Mus.
for 1897 (1899) p. 337, pi. lxxx. fig. 1. N scapha (F. and M.)
(N elongata d'Orb.) Fornasini, 1904, Mem. Pi. Accad. Sci 1st.
Bologna, ser. 6, vol. i. p. 12, pi. iii. fig. 4. N. scapha (F. and M.)
(N. Grateloupi d'Orb.), Idem, Ibid., p. 12, pi. xiii. fig. 5.

602 Transactions of the Society.

Nonionina Boueana d'Orbigny.

Nonionina Boueana d'Orbigny, 1846, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 108,
pi. v. figs. 11, 12. N Boueana (d'Orb.) Terrigi, 1889, Mem. E.
Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 119, pi. x. fig. 5 ; Idem, 1891,
Mem. E. Geol. Italia, vol. iv. p. 110, pi. iv. fig. 17. N. Boueana
(d'Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II.
vol. xviii. p. 426, pi. xix. figs. 34, 35. N. Boueana (d'Orb.) Goes,
1894, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 104, pi. xvii.
fig. 829. N Boueana (d'Orb.) Egger, 1899, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xxi. p. 175, pi. xxii. figs. 11, 12. N.
Boueana (d'Orb.) var. senensis Silvestri, 1899, Mem. Pontif. Accad.
Nuovi Lincei, vol. xv. p. 335, pi. xi. fig. 16. N. Boueana (d'Orb.)
Fornasini, 1900, Mem. E, Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, ser. 5, vol. viii.
p. 400, fig. 49. N. Boueana (d'Orb.) (Polystomella umbilicata
d'Orb.) Idem, 1904 ; Ibid., ser. 6, vol. i. p. 13, pi. iii. fig. 11.

These two forms are found associated in great abundance
throughout the Eegion. Whilst there are numerous typical ex-
amples of both forms, there is also a great mass of individuals in
which the characters are mixed up in such bewildering confusion
that it would be vain to attempt to assign them to either one or
other of the types.

Nonionina turgida Williamson sp.

Botalina turgida Williamson, 1858, Eec. Foram. Gt. Britain,
p. 50, pi. iv. figs. 95-97. Nonionina asterizans var. turgida (Will.)
Parker and Jones, 1862, In Carpenter's Introd. Foram., App.,
p. 311. N turgida (Will.) Terquem, 1886, Bull. Soc Zool. France,
vol. xi. p. 331, pi. xi. figs. 7, 8. N. turgida (Will.) Egger, 1893,
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,1 CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 425, pi. xix.,
figs. 45, 46. N. turgida (Will.) Schubert, 1900, "Lotos," vol. xx.
p. 97, pi. i. fig. 10 ; and turgida var. infiata, p. 97, pi. ii. fig. 6.

In the Malay Archipelago this is as widely distributed as the
two preceding forms, but is not quite as abundant. Its affinities
are with N. Boueana.

Polystomella Lamarck.
Polystomella striatopunctata Fichtel and Moll sp.

Nautilus striatopunctatus Fichtel and Moll, 1798, Test. Micr.,
p. 61, pi. ix. figs. a-c. Polystomella striatopunctata (F. and M.)
Parker and Jones, 1860, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. v.
p. 103, No. 6. P. striatopunctata (F. and M.) Brady, Parker, and
Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. xii. p. 230, pi. xliii. fig. 17.
P. striatopunctata (F. and M.) Terrigi, 1889, Mem. E. Accad.

Report on Foraminifcra. By F. W. Millett, 603

Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 120, pi. x. fig. 2. P. striatopunctata (F.
and M.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., 01. 11
vol. xviii. p. 433, pi. xix. figs. 49, 50. P. striatopunctata (F. and
M.) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 101,
pi. xvii. figs. 815 (partim), 822. P. striatopunctata (F. and M.)
Morton, 1897, Proc. Portland Soo. Nat. Hist., vol. ii. p. 122, pi. i
fig. 19. P. striatopunctata (F. and M.) Wright, 1900, Geol. Mag.,
dec. 4, vol. vii. p. 100, pi. v. fig. 24. P. striatopunctata (F. and M.)
(P. oeeancnsis d'Orb.) Fornasini, 1904, Mem. R. Accad. Sci. 1st
Bologna, ser. 6, vol. i. p. 13, pi. iii. fig. 10. P. striatopunctata
(F. and M.) (P. lurcligalensis d'Orb.) Idem, Ibid., p. 13, pi. iii.
fig. 12.

Polystomclla crispa Linne sp., plate XI., fig. 2.

" Cornu Hammonis minus vulgare, Orbiculatum," &c, Plancus,
1739, Conch. Min., p. 10, pi. i. fig. 2. Nautilus crispus Linne, 1767,
Syst. Nat,, ed. 12, p. 1162, No. 275. Polystomclla crispa (Linn.)
Lamarck., 1822, Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii. p. 625, No. 1. P. flcxuosa
(d'Orb.) Walther, 1888, Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vol. viii. p. 382,
pi. xx. fig. 5. P. crispa (Linn.) Verworn, 1888, Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool.,
vol. xlvi. p. 462, pi. xxxii. figs. 7-9, and figs, g, h, i. P. crispa
(Linn.) Terrigi, 1889, Mem. R. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 120,
pi. x. fig, 6. P. crispa (Linn.) Silvestri, 1893, Mem. Pontif. Accad
Nuovi Lincei, vol. ix. p. 216, pi. iv. fig. 3. Idem, Atti e Rendic.
Accad. Sci. Lett, e Arti dei Zelanti Acireale, vol. v. p. 21, pi. iii.
figs. 28, 29. P. crisp>a (Linn.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 432, pi. xx. figs. 20, 21. P. crispa
(Linn.) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 102,
pi. xvii. figs. 820, 821. P. crispa (Linn.) Lister, 1895, Phil. Trans.,
vol. clxxxvi. p. 414, pi. vi. figs. 1-3, 5-12, pi. vii. figs. 13-27, pi. viii
figs. 28-32. P. crispa (Linn.) Flint, 1899, Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for
1897 (1899) p. 338, p. lxxx. fig. 3. P. crispa (Linn.) Rhumbler,
1902, Zeitschr. fur allgem. Phys., vol. ii. part 2, p. 233, fig. 64. P.
crispa (Linn.) Lister, 1903, The Foraminifera, in Lankester's
Zoology, p. 62, figs. 7-12. P. crispa (Linne) = angularis (d'Orb.)
Fornasini, 1904, Mem. R. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, ser. 6, vol. i.
p. 12, pi. iii. fig. 7.

Wherever there is an abundance of examples, the characters of
these two forms become so involved that it is impossible to draw-
any thing like a distinct line of separation between them. The
rounded margin and small circular depressions of striatopunctara,
and the acute or carinate periphery, together with the retral pro-
cesses reaching from septal band to septal band, characteristic of
crispa, are mixed together in inextricable confusion.

Both forms are abundant in the Malay Archipelago, and exhibit
great variety of character, some examples being covered with short

604 Transactions of the Society.

spines, whilst others add to the nauteloid a linear series of chambers,
as in the example of P. crispa here figured.

Although many of the specimens of P. crispa are much com-
pressed, none of them have the other characters of P. macclla.

Polystomella subnodosa Minister sp.

Robulina subnodosa Miinster (fide Homer), 1838, Neues Jahrb.
fur Min., p. 391, pi. iii. fig. 01. Polystomella siibnodosa (Miinst.)
Reuss, 1856, Sitzungsber. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. xviii. p. 240,
pi. iv. fig. 51. P. subnodosa (Miinst.) Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Vet.-
Akad. Handl, vol. xxv. p. 102, pi. xvii. figs. 817-819. P. subno-
dosa (Miinst.) Fornasini, 1897, Rendic. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna,
n. s., vol. ii. pi. i. fig. 12.

Although the form is compounded of characters taken from both
P. crispa and P. striatopunctata, it is subject to but little variation,
and the examples can usually be identified without difficulty.

In the Malay Archipelago it is found at several Stations in both
Areas, and is abundant at Stations 13, 18, and 21.

Polystomella vericulata Brady, plate XI. fig. 3.

Polystomella verriculata Brady, 1881, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,
n. 8., vol. xxi. p. 66 ; and 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 738, pi. ex. fig. 12.

This form occurs at most of the Stations in the Malay Archi-
pelago. The reticulations of the surface are much more delicate
than those of the example figured by Brady. Specimens of a
similar character occur in some sea-sand from Sagami Bay, Japan,
for which I am indebted to the kindness of Prof. Yokoyama of
Tokio.

Brady gives two ' Challenger ' Stations, both off the west coast of
Australia.

Polystomella craticulata Fichtel and Moll sp.

Nautilus craticidatus Fichtel and Moll, 1798, Test. Micr., p. 51,
pi. v. figs, h, i, k. Polystomella cratiadata (F. and M.) d'Orbigny,
1826, Ann. Sci. Nat, vol. vii. p. 284, No. 3 ? P. iberica Schrodt,
1890, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesell., vol. xlii. p. 417, pi. xxii.
fig. 9. P. craticulata (F. and M.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 433, pi. xx. figs. 24, 25.

A few fine examples occur at several Stations in both Areas.

Under the name of P. iberica, Schrodt describes a similar form
from the Spanish Pliocene. If identical, this would be the first
record of its occurrence in the fossil condition.

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett. 605

Sub- Family Nummulitinse.

Amphistegina d'Orbigny.

Amphistegina Lessonii d'Orbigny.

Amphistegina Lcssonii d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 304, No. 3, pi. xvii. figs. 1-4; Modele No. 98. A. vulgaris, Id.
Ibid., p. 305, No. 8 ; Modele No. 40. A. vulgaris (d'Orb.) Amicis,
1886, Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., (Mem.) vol. vii. p. 242, pi. xi. fig. 2.
A. Lcssonii (d'Orb.) Biitschli, 1886, Morph. Jahrb., vol. xi. p. 86,
pi. vi. figs. 7, 8. A. Lessonii (d'Orb.) Brady, Parker, and Jones,
1888, Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. xii. p. 230, pi. xliii. fig. 15. A. Lessonii
(d'Orb.) Terrigi, 1889, Mem. E. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 121,
pi. ix. figs. 6-8. A. Lessonii (d'Orb.) Dreyer, 1891, Jenaische
Zeitsch. fiir Naturwiss., vol. xxvi. pi. xxviii. fig. 267. A. Lessonii
<d'Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II.
vol. xviii. p. 431, pi. xx. figs. 18, 19. A. Lessonii (d'Orb.) Zittel,
1896, Bull. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3, vol. xxiv. p. 969, fig. I1"7.
A. Lcssonii (d'Orb.) Flint, 1899, Eep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897
<1899), p. 338, pi. lxxxii. fig. 4. A. Lcssonii (d'Orb.) Chapman, 1901,
Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh, vol xxiii. p. 394, pi. iii. fig. 2. A. vul-
garis (d'Orb.) Newton and Holland, 1902, Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp.
Univ. Tokyo, vol. xvii. p. 16, pi. ii. fig. 1. A. Lessonii (d'Orb.)
Fornasini, 1903, Rendic. R. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, n. s., vol. vii.
pi. ii. fig. 1. A. Lessonii (d'Orb.) Sherlock, 1903, Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool. Harvard College, vol. xxxviii. p. 356, fig. 5.

This form is not abundant, but it occurs at several Stations, and
is most frequent in Area 1.

Amphistegina Cumingii Carpenter.

Amphistegina Cumingii Carpenter, 1859, Phil. Trans., vol. cxlix.
p. 32, pi. v. figs. 13-17, pi. vi. figs. 5, 6. A Cumingii Murray and
Renard, 1891, Chall. Kept. ' On Deep Sea Deposits,' pis. xiii., xiv.

Is represented by a few examples from one or two Stations in
both Areas.

Whether this species should be assigned to Amphistegina or to
Nummulina is still undecided. The Malay specimens exhibit a
greater affinity with Operculina than with Nummulina.

Operculina d'Orbigny.
Operculina complanata Defrance sp.

Lenticulites complanata Defrance, 1822, Diet. Sci. Nat., vol. xxv.
p. 453. Operculina complanata (Basterot) d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann.
Sci. Nat., vol. vii. p. 281, No. 1, pi. iv. figs. 7-10 ; Modele, No. 80.
O. complanata (Defr.) Woodward and Thomas, 1885, 13th Ann.

606 Transactions of the Society.

Eept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minnesota for 1884, p. 175,
pi. iv. rig. 35. Operculina sp. Blackenhorn, 1890, Zeitschr. deutsch.
geol. Gesell., p. 339, pi. xvii. figs. 2, 3. 0. complanata (Defr.)
Woodward and Thomas, 1893, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of
Minnesota, vol. iii. p. 45, pi. E. fig. 37. 0. complanata (Defr.) Egger,
1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 435,
pi. xx. figs. 40-42. 0. complanata (Defr.) Jones, 1897, Palseont.
Soc., p. 362, pi. ii. rigs. 49, 50. 0. complanata (Defr.) Newton and
Holland, 1902, Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, p. 13. pi. i.
figs. 3, 5, pi. iii. fig. 3. 0. complanata (Defr.) Lister, 1903, The
Foraminifera, in Lankester's Zoology, p. 126, fig. 55.

Operculina complanata var. granulosa Leymerie.

Operculina granulosa Leymerie, 1846, Mem. Soc. Geol. France,
ser. 2, vol. i. p. 359, pi. xiii. fig. 12. O. complanata var. granulosa
(Leym.) Woodward and Thomas, 1885, 13th Ann. Eept. Geol. and
Nat. Hist. Survey of Minnesota for 1884, p. 176, pi. iv. fig. 36.
0. granulosa (Leym.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
CI. II. vol. xviii., p. 435, pi. xx. figs. 36, 37, 43. O. complanata var.
granulosa (Leym.) Idem, 1899, Ibid. vol. xxi. p. 175, pi. xix. figs.
33, 34. O. complanata var. granulosa (Leym.) Newton and Holland,
1902, Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, vol. xvii. p. 14, pi. ii.
rig. 4, pi. iii. fig. 5.

Both these forms occur in the two Areas, and mostly at the
same Stations. With few exceptions the examples are small and
ill -developed.

Heterostegina d'Orbigny.

Heterostegina deprcssa d'Orbigny.

Heterostegina deprcssa d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 305, No. 2, pi. xvii. figs. 5-7 ; Modele, No. 99. H. depressa
(d'Orb.) Terrigi, 1889, Mem. E. Accad. Lincei, ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 122,
pi. x. fig. 1. H. curva (Moebius) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii. p. 434, pi. xx. figs. 26-31 ; and H.
depressa (d'Orb.) p. 433, pi. xx. figs. 34, 35. H. depressa (d'Orb.)
Jones and Chapman, 1900, In A Monograph of Christmas Island,
p. 229, pi. xx. fig. 1. H. depressa (d'Orb.) Chapman, 1900, Journ.
Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vol. xxviii. p. 18, pi. iii. figs. 6, 7 ; Idem, 1900,
Geol. Mag., n. s., dec. 4, vol. vii. pi. xiii. fig. 7 ; Idem, 1902, Ibid.,
vol. ix. p. 10, pi. iv. fig. 1. H. depressa (d'Orb.) Lister, 1903, The
Foraminifera, in Lankester's Zoology, p. 128, fig. 56. H. suborbi-
cularis (d'Orb.) (cf. H. depressa d'Orb.) Fornasini, 1903, Boll. Soc.
Geol. Italiana, vol. xxii. p. 396, pi. xiv. figs. 5, 6.

This form is represented in the Malay Archipelago by a few
small examples occurring at Stations in Area 1.

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett. 607

APPENDIX.

Miliolina excisa Brady, Parker, and Jones, plate XI. tig. 4.

Miliolina excisa Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool.
Soc, vol. xii. p. 215, pi. xl. fig. 33.

A solitary example of this form has been found in the material
from Station 7. The M. cristata described and figured in Part II.
of this Keport differs in having only one dentate ridge.

Brady, Parker, and Jones's specimens were from the Abrohlos
Bank ; depth 31 fathoms.

A somewhat similar form from Delos has been described and
figured by my friend Mr. H. Sidebottom, under the name of M.
seminuluni var. cornuta*

Miliolina crassatina Brady.

Miliolina incrassata Brady, 1881, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., n. s.,
vol. xxi. p. 46. M. crassatina Idem, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 180,
pi. viii. fig. 5.

A very few examples of this ambiguous form occur at two
Stations in Area 1, and at one Station in Area 2. The minute
crescentic aperture is in some examples concealed by the coarse
grains of sand composing the test.

Brady writes, " Miliolina crassatina is exceedingly rare. It has
only been met with in a single dredging, off East Moncceur Island,
Bass Strait, 38 fathoms."

Sigmoilina tenuis Czjzek.

Quinqueloculina tenuis Czjzek, 1848, Haidinger's Naturw.
Abhandl., vol. ii. p. 149, pi. xiii. figs. 31-34. Miliolina tenuis (Cz.)
Balkwill and Wright, 1885, Trans. E. Irish. Acad., vol. xxviii. (Sci.)
p. 324, pi. xii. figs. 3-5. Spiroloculina panda (Schwager) var.
Rengerriana Deecke, 1886, Mem. Soc. emul. Montbeliard, s£r. 3,
vol. xvi. p. 16, pi. i. fig. 28. Sigmoilina tenuis (Cz.) Schlumberger,
1887, Bull. Soc. Zool. France, vol. xii. p. 117. Miliolina sp.
Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890, Journ. E. Micr. Soc, p. 551,
pi. viii. figs. 2, 3 ; and Spirolomlina tenuis (Cz.) p. 551, pi. viii.
fig. 4. Spiroloculina tenuis (Cz.) Terrigi, 1891, Mem. E. Com. Geol.
d'ltalia, vol. iv. p. 65, pi. i. figs. 2, 3. Spiroloculimt tenuis (Cz.)
Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CI. II. vol. xviii.

* Mem. "and Proo. Manchester ' Lit. and Phil. Soc., xlviii., 1904, p. 11, pi. iii,
figs. 11, 12.

608 Transactions of the Society.

p. 222, pi. i. figs. 46, 47. Sigmoilina tenuis (Cz.) Jones, 1895,
Palseont. Soc, p. 125, pi. vii. fig. 2.

This form is represented by a fine but solitary example from
Station 13, in Area 1.

Pelosina distoma sp. n., Plate XI. figs. 5, 6.

Test pyriform or fusiform, with a rounded aperture at each
extremity, that at the superior end being the larger. From the
inferior orifice the chitinous lining protrudes in the form of a short
tube. Length 0*35 mm.

In his definition of the genus Pelosina Brady specifies " aper-
ture single." This limitation would exclude the species uuder con-
sideration, but it is so evidently a true Pelosina that the emendation
of Brady's definition would be less objectionable than the creation
of a new genus.

The test of P. distoma is unusually dense, and often has a
polished surface, which gives it a superficial resemblance to
Glandulina. Sometimes there is a constriction in the test, as
shown by fig. 6. The chitinous membrane is in some specimens
visible at the superior orifice, but never forms there a projecting
tube as in P. rotundata.

In its distribution it appears to be very local, being somewhat
abundant at Station 6, and is represented sparingly at Station 22,
but these are the only localities where it has been found.

Thurammina favosa Flint, Plate XL fig. 7.

Thurammina favosa Flint, 1899, Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1897
(1899) p. 278, pi. xxi. fig. 2. Thyrammina favosa (Flint) Bhumbler,
1903, Schaudinn's Archiv fur Protistenkunde, vol. iii. p. 236,
fig. 65.

This is a doubtful Foraminifer, and I had hesitated in accepting
it, but since it has been admitted by Flint and Rhumbler, I feel
compelled to include it in the present Report. Like the also
doubtful Reophax pleurostomelloides before described, there is a
certain amount of flexibility about the test reminiscent of the
vegetable kingdom, to which possibly both may belong.

In the Malay Archipelago it occurs at several Stations, but is
most abundant in Area 1.

The ' Gazelle ' Stations are in the Gulf of Mexico ; 26 and
420 fathoms.

In conclusion, it should be explained that a few doubtful forms
■ which may or may not be Foraminifera, have purposely been

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millctt. 609

included in this Eeport. By thus calling attention to them, their
true position in Nature is more likely to be determined, than it
would have been, had they been absolutely ignored.

CORRIGENDA AND ADDENDA.

Journ. B. Micr. Soo.

1898.

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s 1 from top,

for ep. n.

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610

XII. — Hieories of Microscopical Vision : a Vindication of

the Abbe Tlieory.

By A. E. Cunrady, F.K.A.S., F.E.M.S.

(Bead November 16th, 1904).

In the early days of the compound Microscope, the performance of
the instrument was judged on the basis of geometrical optics, viz.
it was assumed that an optically perfect instrument should bear
unlimited magnification, and that the practical limitation of resolv-
ing and defining power was due to insufficient light, and especially
to the shortcomings of that long-suffering individual, the manufac-
turing optician.

But when the undulatory theory of light became more generally
known and accepted, a direct connection between the power of
optical instruments and the wave-length of the light employed was
soon recognised as one of the obvious deductions from that theory.

On the assumption of a self-luminous object and a limiting
aperture of 180° in air (N.A. 1*00, we should say now), the great
Hermann v. Helmholtz defined that limit for the Microscope in an
admirably clear and conclusive paper which must be read in the
original, or at least in a straightforward translation, to be appre-
ciated.

On the basis of that tlieory, microscopical vision becomes
comparable with telescopic vision. Each point in the object is
represented by a " spurious or diffraction disc " in the image ; the
latter being composed of an immense number of overlapping
"spurious discs," which soften all outlines and suppress detail
below the theoretical limit of resolution, but produce an otherwise
faithful and exact representation of the object.

It is, however, most important to bear in mind that this con-
venient and comforting theory assumes that the object behaves
like a self-luminous one, that is to say, that each point in the
object sends out regular spherical waves independently of all other
points, in the same way as the molecules of a white-hot object
would do. The opinion seems to be widely held that we can
satisfy that assumption by focussing a sharp image of the source
of light (usually a lamp flame) upon the object by means of a well
corrected condenser, and that by this procedure we can secure
images which give perfectly trustworthy indications of all resolv-
able detail in the object.

If we could project a geometrically perfect image of a self-
luminous surface upon a very thin object, by a wide-angled con-

Theories of Microscopical Vision. By A. E. Conrady. 611

•denser, this assumption would indeed be justified, for each point in
the object would send out the regular spherical waves concentrated
upon it by the condenser and derived from the conjugate self-
luminous point ; and, as the light from each point in the object —
being derived from a separate and independently vibrating point
in the source of light — would also be independent from, and in-
capable of interference with, that from any other point in the ob-
ject, the necessary consequence would be that each point in the
object formed its own image in the form of a spurious disc, quite
independently of adjacent points.

But unfortunately it is quite impossible to strictly realise this
ideal state of illumination, and I shall show that even the best
conditions to be met with in actual practice depart so far from the
ideal that it is quite out of the question to adhere to the belief
that the object could behave like a self-luminous one.

The following are the principal reasons for this statement : —

1. Even assuming that the whole illuminating arrangements
were absolutely perfect, we should still have to reckon with that
spreading of the light concentrated by the condenser which is
caused by diffraction, for the condenser, like any other optical
instrument, would render each point in the source of light as a
spurious disc surrounded by diffraction rings ; and, as the former
would be at least of the same order of magnitude as the detail
resolvable by the Microscope of which that condenser formed part,
while the diffraction rings would cover several times that area, we
should even then have neighbouring points in the object receiving-
light from the same source, and therefore the possibility of inter-
ference phenomena between the light from such neighbouring
points.

2. But the optical perfection assumed is probably never realised,
for it implies : —

(a) Perfect freedom from spherical and other aberration in the
condenser, whilst in reality all condensers, when used with any-
thing approaching full aperture, show considerable residuals of
aberration, or, at best, easily recognisable spherical zones ; hence
the spurious discs produced by actual condensers are very much
larger than those assumed above.

(b) Optical perfection of other media intervening between the
source of light and the object ; we should therefore have to have
optically worked slips of optical glass instead of the usual ones
of badly annealed common glass.

(c) Perfect homogeneity of the object. In the majority of
cases the object itself would also take a share in spoiling the
optical perfection aimed at, for very few objects would be so thin
and uniform as to act like a homogeneous plate.

3. The greatest source of diffusion of light is, however, formed
by the usual system of obtaining "critical light." For visual

612 Transactions of the Society.

purposes, at any rate, this usually consists in using the edge of the
flame of an oil lamp as the source of light. Now this flame is
probably about an inch deep in the direction of the optical axis,
and, being almost perfectly transparent, a complete image (of three
dimensions) is formed of it by the condenser. It is well known
that the magnification (or diminution) in the direction of the
optical axis is the square of that at right angles to the optical
axis (this follows directly by differentiating the formula for con-
jugate foci: j +y = ~/)> and if we take an average case, say a
condenser of £-inch focus used with the lamp 8 inches away, the
diminution will be | = -,9 ; the diminution of the lamp flame in

the direction of the optical axis will be the square of this or near
enough -j-qW ; the image of our flame of an assumed depth of 1 in.
will therefore cover y^W m- al°ng the optical axis. This seems
small, but such a condenser would be suitable for high dry powers
and objects such as our old friend Plcurosigma anguhttum, with
50,000 dots to the inch ; and if we make the further reasonable
assumptions that the condenser is opened to give approximately
a 60° cone, and that the centre of the lamp flame is focussed in
the plane of the structure, we shall have the extreme front and
back of the flame focussed 20*00 m- aoove an(l below the structure,
and the cones forming their images will be 20W in. diameter
where they cut the structure.

But these small circles have a diameter containing 25 dots in
line, or an area containing something like 500 dots, and therefore
this great number of dots receives light capable of producing
diffraction spectra.

Of course intermediate points of the lamp flame will be
focussed nearer the plane containing the structure, but it will
readily be understood that the greater part of the light from the
flame is diffused over a considerable number of elements of struc-
ture, and that it is probably not far wrong to say that not more
than 5 p.c. of the light is or can be focussed nearly enough to
satisfy the condition of truly critical light.

I shall show later on that the remaining 95 p.c. of the light
produce diffraction spectra, and through them an image of the
object, in much the same way as the parallel light assumed by
the theory that we are now driven to depend upon — that of
Prof. Abbe.

One more point in connection with the spurious disc theory
should be borne in mind.

A self-luminous object, such as this theory assumes, would,
and should, send out light in all directions like any other source
of light ; it would, in consequence, fill uniformly and completely

Theories of Microscopical Vision. By A. E. Conrady. 613

the entire aperture of any optical instrument directed towards it.
It is therefore illogical to adopt this theory when, by manipulation
or choice of the condenser, only part of the aperture of the objec-
tive is filled with direct light; yet this is nearly always the case,
as hardly any objectives of the present day will bear the absolute
filling with light which a self-luminous object would produce.
One of the most obvious demands of the spurious disc theory is
therefore almost invariably neglected.

Some years ago Mr. J. W. Gordon read a long paper before
this Society in which several curious objections, each of which was
put forward as fatal to the Abbe theory — objections which I shall
dispose of further on, in so far as this has not been done already —
were followed by an attempt at an extension of the spurious disc
theory. Mr. Gordon speculated on the effect which diaphragms
introduced between the objective and the eye-piece would produce
in the image of a luminous point, and invented the name " anti-
point " for the image thus obtained.

As no serious microscopist would ever think of interfering
with the regular clear and round aperture of an objective, or, at
any rate, would only reduce it by a " Davis diaphragm," without
destroying its simple circular form, it is difficult to see how cases
could arise where an " antipoint " would have to be considered
instead of the well-known spurious disc resulting with a single
round aperture. But to those familiar with optical experiments
it should at once be clear that the real and only significance of
Mr. Gordon's " antipoints " is to be found in their identification
as the complete diffraction spectrum produced by the diaphragm
introduced behind the objective. For, in these experiments of
Mr. Gordon's, the Microscope objective takes the place of the
collimator of a spectrometer, by roughly parallelising the rays
from the luminous point. These rays then suffer diffraction by
the diaphragm, and the resulting diffraction spectrum is observed
through the eye-piece ; the slight convergence of the pencils pro-
duced by the objective rendering a separate telescope objective
(such as is used in the usual laboratory instrument) unnecessary.

Mr. Gordon's " antipoints " Tare therefore simply the familiar
diffraction spectra under a new name.

I will now proceed to deal with the Abbe theory.

It would seem that at the time when he enunciated his theory,
Prof. Abbe was quite unaware of the use which was, even at that
time, being made of condensers in England ; anyhow, he tacitly
assumed a mode of illumination by daylight or diffused lamplight,
directed by the mirror and limited by suitable diaphragms, and
showed that the light thus transmitted to the object was of such
a nature that it could not account for the formation of any image
in the manner usually assumed ; for the cone of rays having its
apex at any one point of the object would obviously consist of

Dec. 21st, 1904. 2 Cr

614 Transactions of the Society.

rays from different and independently vibrating points of the
source of light, and the corresponding undulations — being inco-
herent— could not possibly unite to form the regular spherical
wave-front demanded by the spurious disc theory. On the other
hand, different points in the object would receive light from the
same point of the source of light, and the light proceeding from
different parts of the object would therefore be capable of inter-
ference— again contrary to the requirements of the spurious disc
theory.

Prof. Abbe then went on to demonstrate that the image formed
under these conditions of illumination could only be explained by
diffraction produced by the object itself, and that microscopical
images were thus something quite different from telescopic images.
The logic of Prof. Abbe's reasoning is so perfect, and his theory is
such an immediate and necessary consequence of the fundamental
properties of light according to the undulatory theory of light,
than which no theory, not even that of gravitation, is better
established, that it has only been subjected to occasional decidedly
futile attacks which could not but fail to impress anyone fairly
well acquainted with mathematical optics. But the theory was
put forward as an extension of theoretical optics rather than as a
practical explanation of the formation of ordinary microscopical
images, and the experiments cited in proof are subject to the same
reproach ; for, whilst admirably adapted to remove the slightest
doubt as to the accuracy of Prof. Abbe's conclusions from the
mind of any competent physicist, inasmuch as they show that
theory and experiment agree even under conditions which imply
the destruction of all similarity between object and image, they
have created no end of confusion in the minds of practical micro-
scop ists by the grotesque dissimilarity between object and image
which they proved to be possible. And thus it comes about that,
through the brief and purely theoretical manner in which it has
been put forward, the Abbe theory occupies a curious and anoma-
lous position. No text-book is complete without some account
of it, and especially of the famous experiments. Every serious
microscopist is, as a consequence, ever afraid of spurious images
comparable in dissimilarity to the original with the startling
nightmares included amongst those self-same experiments. And
yet it is peculiarly barren and forbidding ; it frightens rather than
guides the microscopist; it hints at mysterious possibilities of
deception rather than supplying definite information and well-
defined warnings. In other words, the Abbe theory has never
been presented in a form which would appeal to practical micro-
scopists. What the latter require to know is : —

1. Which, if any, of the many possibilities of deception de-
monstrated by the experiments with the diffraction plate are likely
to be realised in the ordinary intelligent use of the Microscope ;

Theories of Microscopical Vision. By A. E. Conrady. 615

is there really any danger of our seeing two or three lines where
there is but one ; of seeing crossed lines wrongly spaced, and
running in a direction totally different from their actual direction
in the object, etc., etc. ?

2. Granting that, in order to obtain perfectly truthful images
all diffracted light must be used, how is the immense improve-
ment of images with only a slight increase of N.A. accounted for ?

3. What is the explanation of the greatly improved images
obtained with " solid " illuminating cones of considerable aperture ;
do these images deserve the confidence which they inspire ?

The object of this paper is to attempt to answer these and
similar questions : to show how the image is built up according to
the diffraction theory under the usual conditions of observation,
and in how far it is likely to be truthful or the reverse, and thus
to rob the theory of its hidden terrors and to make it acceptable
to practical microscopists.

It will be necessary to have an ideal image with which to
compare those yielded by diffraction ; it would be absurd to use
the exact image of geometrical optics as a standard, as this is
absolutely unattainable with light of finite wave-length. I shall,
instead, use the image which the object would yield with the same
objective if it were rendered self-luminous. That it is the most
faithful image practically possible, and has the further advantage
of being easily deduced by adding to all bright outlines of the
geometrical image the fuzzy fringe representing overlapping
spurious discs.

It will soon be noted that I apply Abbe's principle in a some-
what different manner to that familiar from the existing explana-
tions. I do so because, in my opinion, it makes it easier to arrive
at the 'practically important deductions from the fundamental
principle in a straightforward manner. It is not done with a view
to belittling the great physicist, nor does it imply any flaw in his
own treatment of the subject. On the contrary, I trust that this
paper may be of some assistance in convincing those who have
looked on the Abbe theory as sterile and devoid of practical utility,
that this theory, when applied" to ordinary working conditions,
explains every peculiarity of the microscopical image, and is,
indeed, the only theory that can be applied with safety. And I thus
hope to remove many doubts as to its importance, and to demon-
strate to microscopists that, even if Prof. Abbe had never given
us anything else, his theory of microscopic vision alone should
secure him immortal fame.

I shall at first follow Prof. Abbe's lead by assuming light
reaching the object in practically parallel rays or plane waves,
discussing afterwards how the results are modified when condensers
are interposed, and I shall limit the present paper to the considera-
tion of perfectly regular and perfectly plane simple gratings ; and

2 u 2

61 C Transactions of the Society.

I shall further assume that these gratings are examined with an
optically perfect instrument. The latter assumption — which may
be considered closely fulfilled when the best of modern objectives
are used with about f of their total aperture — implies that all
" rays " from a point in the object are united in the conjugate
point ; or — to express it according to the undulatory theory, and
therefore more correctly — this assumption implies that all optical
paths uniting a point in the object with its conjugate point in the
image, are equal, and therefore that " rays," or, more correctly
speaking, plane wavelets, arrive at a point in the image in the
same phase-relation in which they left the conjugate point in the
object. This last simple and obvious deduction will be of the
greatest assistance in my inquiry.

The explanation of the diffraction spectra themselves is given
in numerous books, and I shall therefore assume it as well known
that when a plane wave strikes a grating of straight, parallel and
equidistant slits, it is broken up into a number of "diffracted"
plane waves, and that when a is the angle between the arriving
wave and the grating, /3 that between a diffracted wave and the
grating, d the spacing of the grating, i.e. the distance from centre
to centre of the slits, X the wave-length of the light employed, and
X the " order " of any spectrum, we shall have the relation

I. <% . \ = d (sin a + sin /3),

the upper sign to be taken when the diffraction-spectrum lies on
the opposite side of the optical axis to that occupied by the direct
light, the lower sign when both are on the same side of the
optical axis ; this formula being the mathematical expression of
the fact that in the first spectrum the wavelets proceeding from
adjoining slits meet with a difference of phase equal to one wave-
length, and in any spectrum of higher order with a difference of
as many wave-lengths as the number of the spectrum indicates.

But the knowledge embodied in this formula is not sufficient
for our purposes. The phase-relation between the direct light and
the several diffracted waves enters into our problem ; and I proceed
to discuss this, the first novel point of importance which I am
going to raise.

Assuming a grating of extremely narrow slits, no question can
arise, as it is obvious that all the diffracted waves leave points in
the grating in phase with the arriving wave, and remain in that
phase-relation, as they are not exposed to any further interferences
— the wavelets from successive slits being too small to have any
difference of phase within themselves, and joining up with a
difference of whole wave-lengths, and therefore in the same phases.
Hence, in such a grating all diffracted waves depart from points in
the slits in equal phase, and consequently arrive in equal phase

Theories of Microscopical Vision. By A. E. Conrad i/. C17

in the conjugate point of a Microscope focussed on the grating.
But when the slits are of a sensible width compared to the dark
interval, there will be differences of phase between the light pro-
ceeding from different portions of any one slit ; there will, there-
fore, be interference between these portions, and the resulting
combined phase remains to be determined.

Let A and B (fig. 95) represent the centres of two adjoining
slits of a grating, then we know already that the light proceeding
from these points joins up with a difference of phase of one or
several wave-lengths to form the plane diffracted wave C D.

If we now consider two points equidistant from the centre A,
it is evident that the light emanating from these will be out of
phase with that starting from A, and that the difference of phase
between the light from either of those two points and A will be in
the same proportion to the difference of phase of one or several

whole wave-lengths between C and D as E A = F A is to A B.
The resulting phase will be determined according to the principle
of Huyghens, by adding together the disturbances of all the
luminous elements of surface contributing to the wave C D, and
discussing the resulting integral wave. I will deduce the result
in an elementary but correct manner by a rough mechanical inte-
gration, instead of the mathematical one, which might repel many
of my readers.

The disturbance caused, say at C, by the light coming from A
may be represented by the simple formula —

(1) xx = c . sin a,

where a is an angle uniformly increasing by 360° for every com-
plete vibration, and c, the amplitude of the wave, is a constant
•depending on the intensity of the light, the formula simply imply-
ing that the vibrations of li^ht follow a sine law. The light from E

o o o

618 Transactions of the Society.

and F will be out of phase, that from E lagging behind, that from
F leading by a certain amount expressed as an angle, depending on
the distance between E or F and A compared with the distance
between A and B, and on the order of the spectrum. Let this
difference of phase be ft, then the light emanating from E will
cause the disturbance —

(2) xK = c . sin (a - ft),

the light from F the disturbance —

(3) x = c . sin (a -f- ft).

Any pair of points equidistant from the centre of the slit will
produce a pair of disturbances like (2) and (3) ; and, as the order
in which the elementary disturbances are added together is im-
material, we will combine them in such pairs.
Now, solving the sines in (2) and (3) we get —

xE = c sin a cos ft — c cos a sin ft

xt=c sin a cos ft + c cos a sin ft,

and adding the two together we get —

II. xa + os, = 2 c cos ft . sin a.

ft and cos ft being constants for any one pair of points, 2 c cos ft
is obviously the amplitude of the combined vibrations, and we see,
firstly, that the intensity resulting from such pairs away from the
centre is less than that from a similar area in the centre of the
slit in proportion of cos ft : 1 ; secondly, that the combined phase
is the same as that of the central wavelet as long as cos ft remains
positive ; and thirdly, that the phase is reversed when cos ft be-
comes negative, which happens when ft becomes greater than 90°
but less than 270°. To render this quite clear, and also to facilitate
the study of these phase relations, I will tabulate the amplitudes
of successive pairsffrom the value of 2 c cos ft according to II.,.
taking pairs covering 15° difference of phase, the first pair to cover
the centre of the slit ; and, for simplicity's sake, I will put c = £,
its value being quite immaterial to this inquiry.

In the third column I have added up the values contained in
the second, thus carrying out roughly what mathematical integra-
tion does accurately, and determining approximately the total
amplitude caused by a broad slit extending over all the successive
pairs it embraces, but the result is sufficient for this discussion.

It shows that, given an arriving wave of a certain intensity,
and assuming slits the width of which increase from indefinite
smallness, then the intensity of any diffraction spectrum will

Theories of Microscopical Vision. By A. E. Conrad ij. 619

Table I.

1

2

3

<J*

8

Mean value of
2 c cos j8

0

2 2c cos ,3

0

P'iccosjBdjS x12

J 0 7T

0°

0

0

15°

+ -99

4- -99

4- -989

30°

4- -92

4- 1-9.1

+ 1-910

45°

+ -79

+ 2-70

+ 2-701

60°

+ -61

+ 331

4- 3-308

75°

+ -38

+ 3-69

+ 3-690

| wave-i
length/

90°
10f>°

+ -13
- 13

+ 3 82
+ 3-69

4- 3-820
4- 3-690

120°

- -38

+ 3-31

4- 3-308

135°

- 61

+ 2-70

+ 2701

150°

- -79

+ 1-91

4- 1-910

165°

- -92

4- -99

4- -989

J wave-)
length (

180°
195°

- -99

- -99

±
- -99

±

- -989

210°

- -92

- L-91

- 1910

225°

- -79

- 2-70

- 2-701

240°

- -61

- 3-31

- 3-308

255°

- -38

- 3 09

- 3-690

J wave- )
length )

270°
285°

- -13
+ -13

- 3-82

- 3-69

- 3-820

- 3-690

300°

+ -38

— 3-3L

- 3-308

315°

+ -61

- 2-70

- 2-701

330°

+ -79

- L-91

- 1-910

345°

+ -92

- -99

- -989

1 wave-\
length )

360°

+ -99

=F

=F

* In column 4 the rigorous values of the integral are given, which show agree-
ment with column 3 even more closely than could be expected. In computing
these we have, of course, J0 2 c cos £d/3 = 2 c sin /3, or (c being = £) simply equal

to sin £. But we must re member that in columns 2 and 3 we have adopted 15° a.-*

qc||

our unit of angle, whilst in mathematical calculations the radian = - — is the unit.

2 IT

Hence the value of the integral has to be multiplied by the ratio of these units,

12

which gives — . sin $ as the complete formula for computing column 4

G20 Transactions of the Society.

grow as long as the edges of the slit send out light not more than
90°, or \ wave-length, out of phase with light from the centre of
the slit ; if the slit becomes still wider, the intensity of the dif-
fraction spectrum is diminished, and becomes zero when twice the
previous width is reached, i.e. when light from the edges of the
slit is £ wave-length out of phase with that from the centre. Up
to this width the combined phase is the same as that yielded by
a grating of indefinitely narrow slits. But when the width of the
slits is increased still further, the diffraction spectrum re-appears,
and gains an equally bright maximum at a difference of phase of
| wave-length between centre and edges, declining beyond that
point and once more disappearing when the difference of phase
becomes a whole wave-length. But, and this is my great point, in
this second cycle the sign of the resulting amplitude is reversed,
i.e. ths combined phase is in this case the opposite one to, or is
£ wave-length different from that given by indefinitely narrow
slits. As all trigonometrical functions have a period or cycle of
360°, it is evident that when the differences of phase between
centre and edges of a slit exceed a whole wave-length, the result-
ing integral phase will be the same as that for the excess over a
whole number of wave-lengths — i.e. for a difference of phase of,
say, 3£ wave-length", the resulting combined amplitude and phase .
would be the same as for a difference of \ wave-length.

It will now be easy to apply this law to the successive diffrac-
tion-spectra of a plane grating.

In the first spectrum, the difference between the light from
adjoining slits is one wave-length, and the difference of phase
between centre and edge of any one slit cannot exceed £ wave-
length, as at that point the adjoining slits would coalesce. There-
lore it follows that the first spectrum is always in phase with
the direct light ; we can also see that the brightness of the first
spectrum will be a maximum when the slits are equal in width to
the intervening dark spaces, for that corresponds to the difference
of phase of 90°, for which we found the maximum value.

In the second spectrum, light from adjoining slits differs by
2 wave-lengths, and our angle /3 can therefore reach 360°, and
produce any of the values in the table. In this case we shall
therefore have —

The diffraction-spectrum is in phase with the direct light when
the slit is narrower than the dark space, i.e. /3 < 180°.

The diffraction-spectrum is in opposite phase to the direct light
when the slit is wider than the space, i.e. /3 > 180°.

The second spectrum wall have maxima of brightness when the
width of the slit is respectively \ or f of the spacing of the grating ;
it will vanish when the slit is equal to the dark interval.

Proceeding to the third spectrum, where light from adjoining
slits joins up with a difference in phase of 3 wave-lengths, /3 can

Theories of Microscopical Vision. By A. E. Conrady. 621

reach 1£ wave-lengths, and we easily deduce the following
rules : —

When the width of slit is less than \ of the spacing, the spec-
trum is in phase with the direct light.

f When the width exceeds ^, but is less than § of the spacing,
the spectrum is in opposite phase.

When the width exceeds §, the spectrum is again in the same
phase as the direct light.

The spectrum has maximum brightness for a width of slit of
respectively \, f-, and % of the spacing, and vanishes for a width
equal to -J and § of the spacing.

It will be obvious how this may be carried up to spectra of
any order, and that the number of reversals of phase will con-
stantly increase. It will also be foreseen what an important bear-
ing these phase relations must have on the character of the image,
and how vital the knowledge of their existence and nature must
prove to a proper understanding of "diffraction" images. That
must be my excuse for going into the question at such length.

The figures in the third column of the above table also show
that, with very narrow lines, the diffraction-spectra are almost of
the same brightness as the direct light, as there is little weakening
of the light by interferences. The broader the lines compared to
the dark intervals, the more does the direct light preponderate,
and a special application of this reasoning leads to the important
conclusion that with plane gratings the first spectrum is always
brighter than any other ; this follows because there must always
be more interference between the wavelets from different portions
of a slit which unite to form the higher spectra, than there can
be in the case of the first.

We will now proceed to apply these principles to the Micro-
scope.

As stated above, we assume for the present that our grating
is illuminated with parallel monochromatic light, such as would
be received from a distant luminous point, and, further, that the
Microscope is correctly focussed on the grating, i.e. that we are
looking at the image formed by- the diffracted light in the plane
of the geometrical image. The necessity of assuming this will
become apparent later.

We will first take the case where oblique light is used, the
direct light entering through the outer zone of the objective on
one side, and a greater or lesser number of successive diffraction
spectra through other zones right across the objective.

1. Let the aperture be sufficient to admit the direct wave and
the first diffracted one. We have seen that the latter is always
in the same phase as the direct one ; hence, by applying my first
theorem, i.e. that wavelets arrive at the conjugate point in the
same phase relation in which they left a point in the object, we

622 Transactions of the Society.

immediately arrive at the important conclusion that the two waves
(or spectra) meet in equal phase, and produce a maximum of
brightness in those points of the image which are coDj'ugate to
points in the centres of grating slits ; or, in other words, the
diffraction-image yields maximum brightness along lines coin-
cident with the geometrical images of the centre-lines of the slits.
In order to establish the character of the diffraction-image stilt
more closely, we have only to remember that in the first spectrum
there is a difference of one whole wave-length in the portions or
wavelets coming from adjoining slits ; there will therefore be the
same range of one whole wave-length in the phase relation
through which the two waves pass between two neighbouring-
maxima in the image, and there can therefore be no intermediate
bright lines.

The intensity curve of the light, in passing from the centre of
one line in the image to the centre of the next, will be somewhat
modified according to the relative brightness of the direct and the
diffracted light, which in turn we found to depend on the relation
between the width of the slits to the spacing of the gnting; but
the visual appearance has been often shown to be that of bright
lines separated by more or less dark intervals of approximately
the same width, the amplitude curve being of the nature of that
shown in fig. 96, a. Hence, the image which we get in this simplest
case coincides with the ideal geometrical image ; but whatever the
real width of the slits may be, they are always represented as
equal to half the spacing — really a commendable compromise, as
that is the happy mean of all possible widths.

2. Now let us proceed to the consideration of the image produced
when the oblique direct light and two successive diffraction-spectra
are admitted. "We saw that the second spectrum is necessarily
less bright than either the first spectrum or the direct light, hence
its admission cannot reverse, but can only modify the effect pro-
duced by the others. The modification largely results from the
phase relations, which, for this reason, I discussed at considerable
length, and it takes place in this way : —

(a) When the slits are narrower than the dark interval, the
second spectrum also is in phase with the direct light. As the
second spectrum passes through two wave-lengths difference of
phase from slit to slit, and consequently also from image to image,
we shall have resulting from the co-operation of the direct light,
and that of the second spectrum, maxima coincident with those
treated above, but also intermediate maxima, corresponding to the
centre of each dark space in the image, as shown at fig. 96, b.

In the formation of the image, the amplitudes resulting from
both combinations will be added together (this is very approxi-
mately true, but not quite strictly, as there are slight differences of
phase to be taken into consideration), with the result shown in

a

h

c

Theories of Microscopical Vision. By A. E. Conrad y. 623

tig. 96, c ; that is to say, the bright line becomes much brighter, but
also narrower, exactly as it ought to do, and this effect will be
the more pronounced the narrower the actual slits are, because the
second spectrum will be relatively brighter accordingly. There
will, however, be a tendency to the formation of a feeble false line
midway between the true ones. Generally, these ghosts will be
invisible, but I believe they have
been "glimpsed."

(b) When the slit really is equal
in width to the dark interval, the
second spectrum disappears, and
the result produced by the direct
light and the first spectrum is left
unchanged ; and so it ought to be,
for we saw that the image pro-
duced by these alone is just right
in this case.

(c) When the slits are wider
than the dark interval, we saw that
the second spectrum is opposed in
phase to the direct light, hence we
now get an intensity-curve like
fig. 96, d, from the combination of
direct light and second spectrum,
and combining this again with the
effect produced by the direct light
and the first spectrum, we get a
curve like fig. 96, e — i.e. the lines
are diminished in brightness, but
broadened out !

I think it will be unneces-
sary for the present to carry this
analysis further to spectra of higher
order ; it must already be obvious
that this improvement in the veri-
similitude of the image wilb be

maintained solely through those phase-relations — which I believe
I am the first to point out, at any rate in their bearing on the
formation of the microscopical image.

It will also be unnecessary to deal at any length with the case
of direct light of less obliquity, or perchance proceeding along
the optical axis ; we shall then have some or all of the successive
spectra which can enter the objective present in pairs ; but it is
easy to see that, owing to the complete symmetry of the object
we are considering, the other spectrum of any one order can only
emphasise the effect produced by its fellow. The main facts will
remain as previously discussed for extremely oblique light.

d

Fig. 96.

624 Transactions of the Society,

Instead of going into such details, I will deal with other
features of the images under consideration, most of which have at
one time or another been advanced as insuperable obstacles to the
validity of the diffraction theory.

The first came from Mr. Gordon, who seems to have misunder-
stood one of the published accounts of the theory in such a way
as to lead him to claim that, according to Prof. Abbe, the image
should stand still when the object is moved, and he thus appeared
to have succeeded in bringing the theory under the ban of the
famous " which is absurd " of our old friend or foe, Euclid. The
late Prof. Everett turned the tables on Mr. Gordon in what was
probably his last paper, and I fancy that Mr. Gordon's astute
rejoinder to that paper failed to impress either those present at
the meeting or those who read the report. However, my method
of treating the problem supplies an alternative proof that the
diffraction-image must move conformably to any movement of
the object. For I have shown that the diffraction-spectra must
always produce an image of a simple plane grating coincident
with the geometrical image, and, as the latter obviously moves in
proportion to movements of the object, the diffraction -image must
do the same. Competent physicists will see at once that my proof
is really identical with Prof. Everett's, as it relies on the same
theorems ; it, however, has the advantage of avoiding the inter-
mediate step which Mr. Gordon made his sheet anchor for objec-
tion, and to thus be free from that objection ; and it may therefore
be acceptable to those who do not care to expend their mental
energy in going through mathematical investigations.

The next objection also came from Mr. Gordon. He claims
that there is nothing in the diffraction theory to show how
the right number, the right shape and length, and any existing
irregularity of the lines, come to be correctly shown in the
image. Mr. Gordon's objection would seem to be prompted by
a complete misunderstanding of the diffraction theory, for he
persistently speaks of the lines seen in the image as diffrac-
tion images of the source of light, although it must be obvious
that it is physically impossible that such images should be
formed in the plane of the final image ; I can only think that
Mr. Gordon confuses the diffraction spectra formed in the upper
'principal focal plane of the objective, in the form of small images
of the source of light, with the diffraction pattern resulting from
the interference of the waves concentrated in these images when
they have again spread out and arrive in the plane of the micro-
scopical image of the object. I am reluctantly driven to this
explanation, for how could Mr. Gordon claim as an objection to
the Abbe theory the fact that, with a candle as the source of light,
the image of a grating as seen through the eye-piece does not

Theories of Microscopical Vision. By A. E. Conrady. 625

consist of a row of candle flames, if he had not failed to grasp
these elementary facts !

There is, however, an opening for a move reasonable objection
in this same direction, i.e. as to the rendering of number, length
and possible irregularities of the lines in the image. We may very
well ask : —

1. How is it that the waves which come into interference in the
plane of the image do not extend their effect beyond the geometrical
image ? Under my method of treating the diffraction- images the
answer seems almost obvious, for it shows that there is maximum
brightness only along those lines of the image which are conjugate
to the centre lines of the slits of the grating ; hence, there can
be only the correct number of fully bright lines, and they must be
shown at very nearly their exact length. According to Abbe's
treatment, where the waves leaving the object are followed as
such through the optical system, the answer follows from the
Huyghenian principle which shows that waves in their progress
conform closely to the outline of the corresponding " rays " of
light, with but slight encroachment beyond that outline ; hence,
on reaching the plane of the final image, the waves will, with the
exception of a small fringe, again be confined within the limits of
the geometrical image of the object. In either case the formation
of one or possibly several feeble ghost-lines beyond the limits of
the geometrical image appears probable ; and I believe that, as a
matter of fact, feeble spurious lines of this kind are occasionally
observed, even under ordinary working conditions.

2. As to the rendering of irregularities in the lines, the ex-
planation is contained in one word : " Ghosts." I mean, of course,
the " ghosts " painfully familiar to users of diffraction gratings for
spectroscopical purposes. The sweet simplicity of the diffraction
phenomena which results from the assumption of an absolutely
regular and uniform grating, is disturbed by any irregularity in
the ruling. The light from any displaced slit, or from a slit differ-
ing in width from the majority, does not completely harmonise
with that from the other slits, and there results a corresponding
zone of greater or less brightness in the diffracted waves, besides
uncompensated, scattered light from the irregular slit ; all these
results combined, form in the first place so-called "ghost" spectra
in the principal focal plane of the objective, and subsequently
lead to a more or less faithful representation of the irregularity
in the final images.

Leaving some other objections to be dealt with later, I come to
a very serious one which, curiously enough, is the very one which
has escaped Mr. Gordon's attention, and which, as far as I know,
has formed the only really formidable barrier to reconciling a
direct and necessary conclusion from Abbe's theory with the
experience gained in ordinary microscopical observations. I refer

626

Transactions of the Society.

to the fact, which has been pointed out before now, and I believe
by various writers, that the diffraction-image under the conditions
which I have here assumed, and which have always been assumed
in explaining the Abbe theory, has no focus — viz;, whilst in ordinary
microscopical observations we cannot be in doubt as to the position
of the image which is sharp and thus inspires confidence, the
result, when we carry out the experiment suggested by the theo-
retical investigation, is that either the image remains continuously
sharp through quite a long range of focal adjustment, or else that
we get a regular succession of sharp images all equally good.
Hence the need of my stipulation, at the beginning of this section
of my paper, that I intended discussing the diffraction effects
produced in the plane of the geometrical image. I shall now have
to show how that plane is to be found, or rather, whether and in
what manner the image can be caused to be sharp in that plane
only, so as to be readily picked out simply by focussing. This is
the second point for the elucidation of which I am inclined to
claim credit.

Let me first recall the reason for this want of focus in a simple
diffraction-image.

Fig. 97.

In fig. 97 the case is shown where only the direct light and
first diffraction-wave of one side enters the objective. The two
waves are brought to a focus * in the upper principal focal plane
of the objective, and thence spread out again, coming into complete

* As the focussing of these waves by the objective is another of the points in
connection with the Abbe theory which Mr. Gordon has attacked, it may be worth
while to point out that we need not deal with waves filling the entire aperture of the
objective, iu which case the objection that there must be heavy spherical aberration
would be justified. We have only to consider small wave-segments corresponding
to a small number of structural elements, and therefore of very small angular extent ;
and for such the assumed focal properties of the points Pand P' can be shown to
he rigorously correct ; a reversal of Hockin's proof of the optical sine law (which
latter can be proved by other methods) is perhaps the most direct and the mo.-t
satisfactory.

Theories of Microscopical Vision By A. E. Conrady. 627

coincidence in the geometrical focal plane ; but the interference
between these two waves is evidently not limited to that plane ;
interference can and must take place throughout the space, which
in the figure has a cross-hatched appearance, where the two waves
meet, producing brightness or darkness according to their phase
relation at any given point within that space.

Discussing the question more closely, we know from our pre-
vious discussion that in the centre of any line of the image in
the plane 1 1 of the geometrical image, the waves from P and P'
meet with a difference of a whole number of wave-lengths, thereby
producing maximum brightness ; but they will do exactly the
same at any point on either side of the plane 1 1 where they meet
with the same difference of phase. The geometrical locus for these
points is a hyperbola having P and P' as foci, but, owing to the
extremely stretched form of the curve, we may with small error

Fig. 98.

maximum brightness

substitute its asymptote, i.e. a straight line connecting any bright
point in the plane 1 1 with the point C bisecting the distance
between P and P'. There will therefore be
along any such line, hence there can be no definite focus

This is shown in fig. 98, where the zone of possible interference
is shown in outline, and the loci, along which maximum brightness
would be found, by thick lines.

It should, perhaps, be pointed out that there may, nevertheless,
be something to assist us in picking out the plane 1 1, for fig. 97
and fig. 98 show that only close to that plane can the whole extent
of the grating be shown : hence it could be focussed for by finding
the adjustment showing the maximum number of lines ; but even
this expedient would break down with a grating extending beyond
the limits of the field of the instrument, or with an object consist-

628

Transactions of the Society.

ing of a limited number of dark lines in an otherwise bright field.
This want of focus accounts for the appearance often noticed by
microscopists (and occasionally immortalised by photography !) of
striated diatoms or similar objects, shown by a narrow pencil of
oblique light, with the detail partly outside the outline of the
object.

This want of focus is, however, never seen in practice to the
extent which theoretical considerations prove to be possible, for
the simple reason that we do not and cannot realise the condition
of monochromatic light from a single distant point. Even when
we use a source small enough to approximate a point, it will
yield light of various colours ; and as soon as we consider, say,
white light, we find a substantial improvement. For we shall then
have a diffraction spectrum instead of a single diffracted wave, and
consequently there will be, instead of the single point F in fig. 97

Fig. 9:».

and fig. 98, a continuous row of points of different colours, each of
which co-operates with the waves of the same colour expanding
from the focus P of the direct light. Consider two extreme colours,
and let PR and Pv (fig. 99) be the foci of the red and violet diffracted
waves. The lines along which the images of the grating slits
appear will aim at the bisecting point CE for the red, at the
bisecting point C7 for the violet light ; and if we draw these lines
of maximum brightness, and remember that those corresponding
to intermediate colours will fill the space between the extreme
ones, we immediately see that there will be confusion at a little
distance in either direction from the plane 1 1 of the true image.
The images of the slits will be drawn out into spectra which over-
lap more and more, and eventually fuse into uniform whiteness.
Therefore we shall have a much better criterion for finding the
true image, and a much reduced range of focus within which we
mi^ht be in doubt.

TJieories of Microscopical Vision. By A. E. Conrady. 629

But we cannot strictly realise illumination from a point-source
of light and as soon as we employ an extended source of light
we shall secure a still more definite focus of the image. For
different points in the source of light will illuminate the object
from different directions ; there will be correspondingly displaced
pairs of points P and F ; and the amount of confusion by over-
lapping of images, corresponding to different points of the source
of light and to light of different colours, will become so pronounced
as to destroy all semblance of a recognisable image beyond the
immediate neighbourhood of the plane 1 1. Hence the latter
will be instinctively found by focussing, because it is the only
position yielding a sharp image.

When other spectra in addition to the direct light and one first
diffracted wave are admitted, the same effect results from the use

Fig. loo.

of an extended source of light ; but as there is a difference in this
case when a point-source of light is used, I will briefly treat an
example — viz. the case when the direct light and the two first
diffracted waves are admitted.

Starting in this case from a bright point in the true image,
where the two diffracted waves meet the direct one with a whole
number of wave-lengths difference of phase, we can apply the
same reasoning which we used before, to show that the two
diffracted waves will meet in phase anywhere along the line con-
necting the bright point in the image with the focus P of the
direct light ; for that point P is midway between the foci P' and
P" (fig. 100) of the diffracted waves. But, as the path from P to a
point on this connecting line shortens more quickly than the
paths from P' and P" (owing to the inclination of the latter paths),
the combined diffracted waves will meet the direct wave succes-
sively in all possible phase-relations, with the result that we get

Dec. 21st, 1904. 2 x

630 Transactions of the Society.

successive dark and bright lengths ; and hence the succession of
sharp images referred to above. In this case the substitution of a
white for a monochromatic point of light does not produce much
improvement ; the distance between the successive images is
different for different colours, and the discontinuity of the suc-
cessive images is in consequence diminished with white light, but
the images remain comparatively sharp. But when an extended
source of light is substituted, we at once get a great number of
points P, from each of which the images of the slits radiate, with
the result that a sharp image is only obtainable in the plane 1 1
where all the elementary images coincide.

I hope I have now made it clear that the chief advantage of
an extended source of light (which corresponds to a wide illu-
minating cone) is, that the ghostliness of the simple diffraction
image is done away with, and that the latter is replaced by an
easily focussed composite image which is more likely to inspire
confidence. I will not at this stage of my inquiry enter into the
question whether the image is really better, reserving this until
I have dealt with structures consisting of crossed lines and of dots.

It now remains to be shown in how far the conclusions hitherto
arrived at are modified when the assumption is dropped — to which
all the above reasoning is subject — that the source of light is at a
considerable distance from the grating ; we must inquire whether
there are any important changes brought about when the source of
light (which will generally be a virtual image of the real source) is
brought very close to the object, so that the curvature of the waves
passing through the object becomes sensible. In discussing the
spurious disc theory, I showed that only a small percentage of
so-called " critical light " can be considered as accurately focussed
on the object, and that the greater part of such light is diffused
over a considerable number of structural elements — and it is this
latter case which we have to discuss. Mr. Gordon has put for-
ward an extraordinary claim, which I shall show to be contrary to
the undulatory theory as well as to direct experiment, that with
curved wave-fronts the diffraction spectra " will be seen to diminish
in breadth and crowd together," that an aperture which will only
accommodate a single spectrum produced by plane waves will pass
an ever-growing number of spectra when the waves are curved ; or
again, in Mr. Gordon's own words, " A narrow angled objective
will in this way yield the diffraction-image of an oil-immersion
objective ! "

If we make the experiment with a diffraction grating or a
regularly striated diatom, starting of course by focussing the image,
and then, having removed the eye-piece, looking down the tube
at the back of the objective, we fail absolutely to see the effect
described by Mr. Gordon ; we may open or close the iris, we may
rack the condenser up or down, in order to vary the curvature

Theories of Microscopical Vision. By A. E. Conrady. 631

of the wave-fronts, the diffraction spectra refuse to move ; they
uniformly expand and contract agreeably to the effective cones of
light, but they rigorously preserve their distance apart ; they
absolutely decline to crowd together !

I have indeed failed to cause the diffraction spectra to dis-
appear or to essentially change in appearance, when, by the use
of an apochromatic objective as condenser (working of course at
correct tube-length and through a proper cover-glass), and by
choice of source of light, the theoretical conditions for getting rid
of the diffraction spectra seemed completely realised ; but nothing
would do away with them except cutting down the flame-image
to such a small size that it covered one slit only.

It would seem that Dr. Johnstone Stoney was right when he
claimed that, under the conditions prevailing with " critical illu-
mination," a flame-image behaved as if it were composed of
innumerable plane waves.

The only explanation that I can suggest for the phenomenon
which Mr. Gordon describes is that he must have observed the
diffraction spectra without making sure that the instrument was
at least approximately focussed upon the object. Only in this
case would it seem possible to get the diffraction spectra to
appear to crowd together, owing to their being observed in a
wrong plane.

In cases where a coarse structure is illuminated by very wide
cones, we can observe that the different diffraction spectra expand
to such an extent as to overlap, and that indeed we may have
direct light and portions of a number of diffraction spectra of
several successive orders super-imposed in the centre of the objec-
tive. But it is easy to see that the portions thus super-imposed
are never capable of meeting in the plane of the image of the
structure in such a way as to produce an image. For, in the case
assumed by Prof. Abbe, i.e. that the illuminating cone is obtained
from a relatively distant extended source of light, these supei'-
imposed portions are derived from different luminous points, and
therefore incoherent or incapable of interference ; whilst in case
of an illuminating cone really consisting of spherical wave-fronts,
having their focus near but not in the plane of the object, the
super-imposed portions of different diffracted waves have such
inclinations to each other that they cannot possibly meet in the
plane of the true image. This latter case, which is the one really
under discussion, I will briefly deal with.

Let A B, fig. 101, represent a grating with slits 1, 2 7, and

let a luminous point C be brought close to that grating. Those por-
tions of the spherical waves sent out by C winch fall upon slits
are there diffracted according to the universal Huyghenian prin-
ciple, i.e. the first effect is as if the slits themselves had become
self-luminous. But the secondary waves thus set up in the indi-

2x2

632

Transactions of the Society.

vicinal slits meet almost as soon as they have left the point where
they originated, and get into interference with each other, just as
similar portions of a plane wave would do, and the outcome must
be the same, viz. one portion of the diffracted waves joins up with-
out difference of phase and proceeds in the direction of the original
wave from C, forming the direct light; but other portions join
with differences from slit to slit of one or several wave-lengths,
and unite to form diffracted waves of corresponding order. The
mathematical treatment is extremely laborious in this case, but
we can easily arrive at an approximate solution graphically.

Describe a circle 1) E over C as centre ; this obviously corre-
sponds to the direct light joined ^^p in its original phase after
passing the grating. To find the first diffracted wave, we have

to introduce a difference of phase of one wave-length between
adjoining slits. To do this we may describe a circle (representing
an elementary diffracted wave) from 4 with length 4 — D4, as
radius ; from 3 we describe a circle with 3 — D 3 plus one wave-
length (represented by a suitable length) ; from 2 a circle with
2 — D 2 plus two wave-lengths, from 1 with 1 — D 1 plus three
wave-lengths ; on the other hand, from 5 we take a radius of
5 — D 5 minus one wave-length, and so on throughout. A wave
tangent to all these elementary ones will be the diffracted wave we
are seeking ; trial shows that a circle struck from C as centre
closely fulfils this condition. It should also be clear that, con-
sidering any one slit, the angles between the direct and the
diffracted "rays" must be precisely the same as with plane waves,
and also that the elementary wavelets from different portions of
any one slit must be subject to the same interferences amongst

Theories of Microscopical Vision. By A. E. Conrady. 633

themselves, and, therefore, to the law of phase which I have
originally deduced for plane waves.

The whole reasoning of my paper may, therefore, be applied to
this case of spherical wave -fronts. The latter will be refracted by
the objective according to their apparent point of origin, which, in
the case of fig. 101, is a little below the plane of the grating. The
only difference as compared with figs. 97 and 98, will, therefore, be
that the conjugate foci P and P' will lie much closer to the plane
1 1 of the true image, and that the space within which spurious
interferences can take place is correspondingly curtailed. But as
we can always limit the recognisable image to the plane 1 1 by
using an extended source of light, there is no very evident advan-
tage in this one difference in favour of spherical wave-fronts.

I hope I have now made it clear that it must always be very
risky to assume that an object might be treated as self-luminous ;
that we must, therefore, seek the explanation of microscopical
images on the basis of the great principle laid down and proved
by Prof. Abbe, and that this latter principle, when applied to ordi-
nary working conditions, leads to the formation of images of plane
gratings which are as close replicas of the original as could possibly
be desired.

In a supplementary paper I hope to apply the Abbe theory to
crossed lines and to dot-patterns. I shall then be in a better
position to discuss the question of favourable illumination, and to
show what is the real cause of the pleasing images obtained by
the use of carefully regulated " aplanatic cones " of light.

634

NOTE.

On the Use of the Esculin Screen in Photomicrography.

By Fkederic E. Ives.

1 believe I was the first to point out, about fifteen years ago, in
a verbal communication to the Photographic Society of Phila-
delphia, the advantage to be gained in photomicrography with
ordinary achromatic objectives, by employing screens to cut out
those spectrum rays for which the objectives are not well corrected,
and presented a collection of examples obtained with colour-
sensitive plates and colour screens, of a quality which could not
otherwise have been obtained with the objectives employed.

Since then, I have always, until quite recently, employed a
yellow screen and orthochromatic plates for photomicrography
with achromatic objectives, though preferring to use apocbromatic
objectives for high-power work, because they are corrected for rays
which resolve finer details, and also permit the use of transparency
plates, which give brilliant and fine-grained negatives.

Inasmuch as most achromatic objectives appear to be well
corrected for the bright blue spectrum rays, it has occurred to me
that transparency plates might be satisfactorily employed with
them if the action of the violet and ultra-violet rays was entirely
suppressed.

To test the relative effect of the blue and ultra-violet rays, I
have employed a combination of Bausch and Lomb § achromatic
objective and 1 in. huyghenian eye-piece, which gives an ex-
cellent image to the eye, but works very badly with daylight on
ordinary photo plates.

One exposure was made through a dry esculin screen as recently
described by me in " Camera Work," July 1904, p. 44, and another
through a uranine screen ; both with diffused daylight.

The esculin screen suppresses the ultra-violet and part of the
violet spectrum rays ; and the photograph, made chiefly by the
blue rays, is a very good one. The uranine screen suppresses the
blue spectrum rays and part of the violet ; and the photograph,
made chiefly by the ultra-violet rays, is very bad indeed. The
photographs are submitted herewith, and the conclusions to be
drawn are sufficiently obvious. With no screen, the result is inter-
mediate in quality between the two examples shown, but is bad.

Achromatic objectives used without an eye-piece sometimes
work very well on ordinary plates, but I have yet to find one that
does not give distinctly better results with the esculin screen.*

* Mr. Ives kindly sent two photographs which bear out the statements in the
foregoing note; one was sharp, the other quite woolly. — Ed.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICEOSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.
a. Embryology.!

Development of Motor Nerve-Trunks and Myotomes in Lepido-
siren.J — J. Graham Kerr concludes from a study of a series of early
stages that the facts of development in the motor nerves of Lepidosiren
give strong support to the view that the nerve-trunk is not a secondarily
formed bridge between spinal cord and motor end organ. The motor-
trunk can be traced back to a simple protoplasmic bridge, which already
connects the substance of the medullary tube with that of the myotome
at a stage when they are still in contact. As regards the origin of the
protoplasmic sheath, the evidence of Lepidosiren is equally emphatic.
At an early period the motor-trunk is perfectly naked. At a certain
stage masses of mesenchymatous protoplasm laden with yolk become
applied to the nerve-trunk, gradually spreading over the whole of it.
As development goes on the yolk becomes used up, the protoplasm with
its nuclei extends into the substance of the nerve-trunk — doubtless to
keep up the proper proportion between the bulk of the nerve-trunk and
its nutritive surface in contact with the sheath protoplasm. The proto-
plasm itself becomes less and less conspicuous, and eventually is only to
be detected in the immediate vicinity of the nuclei. Lepidosiren offers
no evidence, so far, as to the ultimate origin of the nerve-fibrils. They
appear gradually in an at first simple protoplasmic matrix. The paper
contains also an account of the development of the myomeres.

Influence of Constant Agitation on the Development of the
Toad's Egg.§— T. H. Morgan has devised an apparatus which excludes

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and they
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and allied subjects.

X Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., xli. pt. 1 (1904) pp. 119-28(6 pis.).

§ Ana . Anzeig., xxv. (1904) pp. 94-6.

636 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the action of gravity and also that of a constant centrifugal force. Its
motion is constant and extremely irregular. Eggs which had been kept
in constant motion from the moment of their removal from the toad
till placed in the machine developed normally and produced normal
embryos. In fact, they developed faster than those outside, a feature
which appears to be due to the agitation of the eggs yielding better
aeration. The effect was very different from that of a centrifugal force,
which kills the eggs outright.

Influence of Radium-Rays and Radium-Emanation on Develop-
ment and Regeneration.* — A. Schaper has experimented with develop-
ing embryos of frog and with regeneration in Planarians and newts, in
order to detect the influence of radium-rays and radium-emanation.
The experiments established a disruptive and tissue-disturbing effect,
and the frequent occurrence of abnormalities.

Rudimentary Amnion in Selachians.f — T. D'Evant describes,
in some very early stages of Pristiurus and Scyllium, which show the
medullary groove and gut tube still open, two laterally placed double
folds of the extra embryonic ectoderm. They run in the direction of
the longitudinal axis, and extend towards but do not reach the mid-
dorsal line. In the cranial region the folds meet ; in the caudal region
they become lower and disappear. The author regards these folds as
a rudimentary amnion.

Development of Liver in the Pig.J — David C. Hilton discusses
the early morphogenesis and histogenesis of the liver in the pig, with
notes on the development of the ventral pancreas.

The most interesting deviation of the results of this research from
those of other investigators concerns the relations of the vascular system
in the septum transversum to the trabeculation of the glandular struc-
tures derived from the primitive " protonic " wall. A second important
difference concerns the method and direct results of the gland -formative
proliferation. The hepatic tissue, instead of being grown into by the
vessels, grows out and extends among and around them, although by
virtue of increases in calibre, the vascular spaces actively change the
location of the rods springing from the protonic wall.

Breeding Habits of Yellow-Bellied Terrapin.§ — H. M. Smith
notes that the nest of Pseudemys rugosa is usually made in sandy loam
or sandy clay, flask-shaped, about 4 in. deep by 4 in. wide at the
bottom, with an opening somewhat smaller than a silver dollar. All
the eggs (10 to 35) are laid at once, and packed tightly by the mother.
The egg-laying is in June and July, and the young remain in the nest
until the following spring. Birds, especially crows, destroy some eggs.
The male is smaller than the female, his claws are twice as long as hers,
and the under shell is flat, while in the female it bulges slightly.

Hybridisation of Triton marmoratus and Triton cristatus.|| —
W. Wolterstorff has succeeded in effecting hybridisation between Tr.

* Anat. Anzeig., xxv. (1904) pp. 298-314 (4 figs.;.

t Op. cit., xxiv. (1904) pp. 490-2.

% Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc, xxiv. (1903) pp. 55-88 (4 pis.).

§ Smithsonian Misc. Collections, xlv. (1904) pp. 252-3.

|| Zool. Anzeig., xxviii. (1904) pp. 82-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 637

marmoratm and Tr. cristatus (sub-species typica and sub-species camifex)
in both directions. It seems that Triton Uasii de l'lsle is simply one
of such hybrids, and the author indicates that it will prove a useful
subject in connection with Mendel's law.

Bilateral Symmetry in Egg of Necturus.* — A. C. Eycleshymer
finds that the primary area of cellular activity is at or near the upper
pole, and it determines the position of the future head-end of the
embryo. There is an early appearance of a second area of accelerated
cell-division, which determines the position of the forthcoming blasto-
pore and consequently the posterior end of the embryo. A line passing
through the centres of the two areas coincides with the median plane of
the future embryo.

Inheritance of Mental Qualities in Man.f — B. Rawitz discusses
this subject. His point of view is that inheritance here is a physio-
logical impossibility. Ganglion cells are occupied with specific functions
and cannot acquire new qualities. They are without any power of
transforming received material so as to influence the molecular structure
of sperm and egg.

b. Histologry.

Models of Cellular Mitoses.}— M. Hartog has studied the " mag-
netic spectrum " obtained in a viscous substance, in order to elucidate
the play of forces in mitotic division.

His mimetic model has proved very suggestive. It is necessary to
analyse the karyokinetic forces (which combine to evoke two daughter-
nuclei) into at least three sets. First, there are the usual cytoplasmic
movements, determining the repulsion of the poles and the elongation. of
the spindle, aided perhaps by osmosis, for all the appearances of turgidity
are often observed. Second, there is the force wThich determines the
mutual repulsion of the chromosomes, potent even in the still intact
nucleus, and perhaps comparable to static electricity. Third, there is
the force which has its seat in the kinoplasm, and which produces the
chains of force which Hartog calls " mitolcinetic " because of their
analogies with magnetism. In all kinetic interpretations of cellular
mitoses, it is necessary to keep in mind the distinction between lines of
ideal force and chains of material force.

Comparative Histology of Pancreas.§— Giuseppe Levi has studied
in particular the pancreas of Lemur mangos var. rubifrons, in which
there is an enormous development ^of the tissue composing the islands
of Langerhans. They are not only large, but unusually numerous.
There is a poor differentiation of zymogenic tubules in the canalicular
system of the pancreas. The author makes a number of comparative
notes on the state of the pancreas, and of the islands of Langerhans
in particular, in various Mammals.

The Question of Sinusoids. || — F. T. Lewis seeks to show that there
is an essential difference between capillaries and sinusoids, and considers

* Anat. Anzeig., xxv. (1904) pp. 230-40 (47 figs.),
t Biol. Centralbl., xxiv. (1904) pp. 396-408.
\ Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1523-5.
§ Anat. Anzeig., xxv. (1U04) pp. 289-98 (1 pi.). || Tom. cit., pp. 261-79.

638 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

that their recognition is of fundamental importance. A sinusoid is a
sub-division of a vessel produced by intercrescence between its endo-
thelium and the parenchyma of an adjacent organ. The proliferating
tubules or trabecular of an organ encounter a large vessel and invade
its lumen, pushing the endothelium before them. The vessel, on the
other hand, sends out branches to circumvent the tubules. By the con-
volution or anastomosis of the tubules or trabecular, the large vessel
becomes sub-divided into small ones. This is the process of inter-
crescence which produces sinusoids. It follows that a sinusoidal circu-
lation is either purely venous or purely arterial. To demonstrate it for
any organ, it must be possible to state what vessel has been invaded,
and thus resolved into an afferent and an efferent system. An essential
characteristic — a consequence of the mode of development — is the
almost entire absence of connective tissue between the endothelium of
the sinusoids and the cells of the adjoining trabecular. Sinusoids have
been demonstrated histologically and developmentally in the Wolffian
body, myocardium, liver, and pronephros. They possibly occur in gills,
but not in kidney nor lungs. They are found in the adults of lower
Vertebrates but are regressive in Mammals, and are probably primitive.

Optic Reflex Apparatus in Cyclostomes and Fishes.* — P. E.
Sargent discusses very fully the structure, development, function and
ontogeny of Reissner's fibre apparatus in these forms. Only a hint of
his results can be given. In Cyclostomes the opiic reflex apparatus is in
many respects in a primitive condition, but the relative size of its
elements shows it to be of great importance. It is not fully established
until the second month of larval life. Judged by the relative size of
the elements, the apparatus probably reaches its highest development in
Selachians. Its cell nidulus extends on either side of the median plane
through the length of the optic lobes, close to the ventricle. The cells
are early distinguishable, but do not reach a functional condition until
the young attains the free life. In Ganoids the apparatus is not fully
established until several days after hatching. The cells, 40 to 100 in
number, lie close to the ventricle in the anterior portion of the tectum
opticum, and are grouped about the margin of that portion of the
ventricle which extends above the posterior commissure. In Teleosts
the cells are small and are concentrated in the torus longitudinalis.
Unipolar or bipolar in their general outline, they ultimately give rise to
three processes, forming three fibre-tracts on each side of the brain.
Concerning the physiological value of the apparatus, the author believes
that it offers a " short circuit " for the transmission of motor reflexes,
by which a reaction may be brought about more quickly than when the
impulse is transmitted through the nerve-tracts of the spinal cord.

Sensory Nerve-endings in Human Tongue.f — Cf. Ceccherelli gives
an account of the many forms of nerve dilatations which occur in the
human tongue, including some not hitherto described. On the external
layer of the papilla? of the corium and in the filiform papilla? and inter-
papillary spaces he describes " corymbose " endings, and in the conical

* Bull. Mus. Zool. Harvard, xlv. (1904) pp. 129-258 (11 pis.),
t Anat. Anzeig, xxv. (190-t) pp. 56-69.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 639

and fungiform papillse, modified corymbose forms. In the thickness of
the papillae, he finds grape-like clusters, interlacing of papillary nerves,
an interpapillary net, mono- and pluri-lobed Meissner's corpuscles, etc.
In the deep stratum are terminal corpuscles of Ruffini.

The Fuchsinophile Granules of Spinal Ganglia Cells.* — A. M.
Coco finds that these granules increase initially in the nucleus at the
stage of excitation of the nerve-cells, and they appear abundantly in
the protoplasm of the cellular element. In proportion as the ganglion
is exhausted by protracted or excessive work, the granules in the proto-
plasm and in the nucleus diminish. The young cells become exhausted
first, and the granules are more permanent in the older cells when
stimulated a long time. The granules stain a light blue, whose intensity
is in proportion to the exhaustion of the cell.

Supra-renal Capsule of Amphibians.f — E. Grynfeltt gives an
account of the histology of the several elements of this organ. (1) The
chromaffin cells are abundant epithelial elements, whose regularity of
form is greater than in Selachians. They cannot be confused with the
nerve-cells as in the latter group, and, whatever their origin, in the
adult they are absolutely independent of the elements of the sym-
pathetic nervous system. They are glandular elements ; their chromaffin
granules appear to be the product of protoplasmic elaboration, and to
this the chromaffin reaction peculiar to these cells is due. (2) The
cortical cells form a predominating element in the glandular trabeculae,
and are of a single type. They elaborate a product of a fatty nature,
whose solubility characters are similar to those of other Vertebrates,
especially birds. (3) Summer cells are only existent in Rana. They
are round or oval with an excentric nucleus, often irregular, with leuco-
cyte features. Frogs kept in the laboratory were found to have these
cells all the year round, although Stilling held they were present only
in the aestivation period.

c. General.

Anatomy of Notoryctes typhlops.J — A. Carlsson gives an account
of the anatomy of this Marsupial, noting a number of points in which
it differs from other members of the group. These are skeletal and
muscular peculiarities, such as the absence of the par-occipital process,
the fusion of the 2-6 cervical vertebrae, a short symphysis pubis,
fusion of ischium with transverse processes of two last sacral vertebrae,
the presence of a foramen in the proximal part of the fibula, differences
in the origin and insertion of muscles of the hinder extremity, and the
absence of others. A detailed comparison of Notoryctes and Chryso-
chloris is given.

Constrictions and Dilatations of the Ureter. § — B. Robinson
demonstrates by means of numerous preparations of ureters from man,
pig, cow, sheep, buffalo, dog, etc., that Mammalia possess definite

* Anat. Anzeig., xxv. (1904) pp. 97-102.

t Jour, de l'Anat. Physiol., xl. (1904) pp. 180-224 (1 p'.).

% Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 81-122 (2 pis.).

§ Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 482-5.

640 SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ureteral dilatations and constrictions, and these he interprets as heri-
tages from the Wolffian body enhanced by environmental factors.

Hares and their Allies.* — M. W. Lyon, jun., has made a mono-
graphic study of the hares and their allies, discussing the genera and
sub-genera of the existing Leporidas and Ochotonidas, their dental,
cranial, and other skeletal characters, their geographical distribution,
and their probable relationships.

Influence of Unilateral Horn-Growth on Cranial Characters.! — ■
J. Ulrich Duerst has made a careful study of the numerous changes
which are seen in the sheep's skull when the horn is removed from
one side.

Compound Rhamphotheca of Birds.} — Einar Lonnberg seeks to
show that the bill of birds is only a modification of certain common
reptilian characters. It is well known that the horny sheath of the bill
of some birds consists of several pieces, which are more or less distinct
in different genera and species. Lonnberg believes that there are pieces
of the compound or " simple " bill of birds which are homologous
with the reptilian rostrale, labialia, nasalia, and internasalia of the upper
jaw, and with the mentale (or symphysiale), infralabialia, and subman-
dibular ia of the lower jaw.

As long as the ancestral birds were provided with teeth, the horny
covering was of less importance, but with the loss of teeth the condition
was changed. The premaxillas increased, the rnaxillae decreased, and an
enlarged rostrale developed. The mentale was developed in a corre-
sponding manner. With the increased development of the premaxillary
and reduction of the maxillary tract, it is probable that the anterior
labialia were enlarged and the posterior more or less reduced. The
author works this view through the chief types of birds in an interesting
and suggestive paper.

Middle Ear and Columella of Birds. § — G. Smith gives an account
of the disposition of the chorda tympani in Gallus and Columba, and
embryological data concerning the derivation and homology of the
stapes. Positively, it may be stated that in the chick the contribution
of the auditory capsule to the columella is exceedingly small, probably
confined to the foot plug of the stapes ; at any rate, the main part of
the stapes, and the whole of the columella, are formed from the hyoid
arch. Negatively, the author shows the futility of basing arguments
upon this question on isolated stages or on cartilaginous stages which have
not been traced back to their earliest procartilaginous forerunners. The
conclusion to be drawn is that the stapes of Sauropsida corresponds to
that of Mammalia and to the hyomandibular of fishes. Mammalia and
Sauropsida have this much in common, that they have both converted
the hyomandibular or dorsal portion of the hyoid arch into the stapes,
but subsequently they have gone on different lines in evolution, the

* Smithsonian Misc. Collections, xlv. (1904) pp. 321-47 (27 pis.).
t Vierteljahrschr. Nat. Ges. Zurich, xlviii. (1903) pp. 360-75 (2 pis.).
t Arkiv f. Zool., i. (1904) pp. 473-512 (13 figs.).
§ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xlviii. (1904) pp. 11-22.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 641

Sauropsida making use of the more ventral part of the hyoid to com-
plete their chain of ossicles (extra columella), while the Mammalia
have pressed into this service the constituents of the arch in front — viz.
the quadrate and articular (incus and malleus).

Colour Change in Anolis Carolinensis.* — F. Carlton has investigated
the colour changes in the skin of this lizard, a member of the family
Iguanidse. The animal is as a rule dark brown during the day and pea-
green at night. These extremes, with a series of transitional tints run-
ning through shades of brown and yellow to green, were the chief
colours regularly noticed. The brown state is produced by the outward
migration of pigment granules from conspicuous black bodies well
buried in the derma, and sending branching processes outwards toward
the epidermis {melanophores). The migration proceeds along the pro-
cesses and into their ultimate branches ; it occupies about four minutes,
and may be induced either by the mechanical stimulation of the skin, or
by the action of the sympathetic nerve centres. The melanophores are
not stimulated directly by light. The green state is produced by the
inward migration of the pigment granules of the melanophores, where-
by a reflecting " ochrophore" layer filling the spaces between the melano-
phore processes is exposed to light. The inward migration may be
induced by darkness, cessation of circulation, nicotine poisoning, in fact,
by any means which brings the melanophores into an unstimulated
state.

Natural Immunity of Vipers.t — C. Phisalix finds experimental
reasons for maintaining that the natural immunity of vipers to their
own venom is to be attributed to the presence in the blood of a free anti-
toxin, which neutralises the poison in proportion to its entrance into the
general circulation.

Reptiles and Amphibians of Asia Minor.! — Fr. "Werner gives an
account of the reptilian and amphibian fauna of this region. It includes
42 species of reptiles (3 Chelonians, 22 lizards, 1 chameleon, 17 snakes)
and 15 species of Amphibians (7 Urodela and 8 Anura). Six reptiles
(5 lizards and 1 snake) and 1 Amphibian must be regarded as quite
peculiar to Asia Minor, and an analysis of the distribution of the others
(in relation to the Caucasus, Syria, Persia, Egypt, etc.) confirms the view
that for many species Asia Minor must be considered as the headquarters
or centre of dispersal.

Limbs of Amphiuma.§ — P. van Pee is of opinion that the two-toed
Amphiuma means is not a distinct species, but is a regressional form of
A. tridactylum. In two larvse of each kind he found that seven of the
eight limbs had only two elements in the carpus or tarsus, one radial or
tibial, the other primary basale + intermedium 4- ulnar or fibular.
On the peroneal border of the second cartilage there was a deep cleft,
nearly subdividing it into two. Of eleven anterior extremities of A.
means, six had three cartilages in carpus, four had two, and one had

* Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci., xxxix. (1903) pp. 259-76 (1 pi.),
f Comptes Rendus, exxxviii. (1904) pp. 1459-61.
X SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien, cxi. (1902) pp. 1057-1121 (3 pis.).
§ Anat. Anzeig., xxiv. (1904) pp. 476-82.

642 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

four ; while of the limbs, one had rudiments of a third toe, and one a
complete third toe. Of twelve posterior extremities, the tarsus con-
sisted six times of three elements, and six times of two ; once there
was a rudiment of a third toe. Both species thus appear very variable.

Fishes of Chilian Coast.* — J. Pellegrin gives a list of fishes obtained
by the Crequi-Montfort expedition. He describes as of particular in-
terest the dental and pharyngeal apparatus of Hoplegnathus insignis.
The teeth have coalesced to form a beak resembling that of the Scaridai.
On the first branchial arch there are very long, pointed, ridged, and
finely-toothed spines. On the internal side of this arch, and on both
sides of the second, third, and fourth, there are short, rounded appen-
dages, covered with fine denticulations. The inferior pharyngeal bones
are very slender, quite separate, and covered with extremely sharp conical
teeth in four or five rows. There are analogous teeth upon the superior
bones.

Deep- Water Fishes of Japan.f — D. S. Jordan and J. 0. Snyder
report on a collection of fishes made by Mr. Alan Owston in the deep
water of Japan. The collection includes some interesting forms : —
Pristmrus eastmani sp. n., PseudotriaJcis aerales sp. n., the huge 3Iitsu-
kurina owstoni, Trismegistus owstoni g. et sp. n. (a Liparid with very
peculiar prickles), and so on.

Pelican Fish from the Pacific.f — B. A. Bean describes Gastro-
stomus pacificus sp. n., with a more robust body and higher fin-rays than
G. bairdii, the Atlantic form. It is believed to be the first pelican-fish
recorded from the Pacific, and was entangled on the sounding wire, near
the sinker, the depth at the point of capture being between 2000 and
3000 fathoms. It was obtained half-way between Midway islands and
Guam by U.S. naval ship ' Nero,' which on that voyage discovered the
greatest depth of water ever recorded, 5269 fathoms in 12° 43' 15" N.
lat. ; 145° 49' 00" W. long.

Umbrids or Mud-Minnows. § — Theodore Gill gives an account of
this feeble but interesting family represented by a single genus, whose
three species are distributed in a notable manner. One species, Umbra
umbra or Tcrameri, occurs in Central and South-eastern Europe, —
Hungary and the neighbouring countries — and the two others are
inhabitants of the eastern slope of the American continent and the
Mississippi valley, while all the intervening countries are deprived of
them. They have interesting habits, e.g. the alleged segregation of the
males from the females ; and are very tenacious of life. With their
great adaptability and power of endurance, it is remarkable that the
range of the genus should now be so restricted.

Toxic Action of Serum of Torpedo marmorata.|| — E. Gley finds
that the blood of this electric ray contains a substance which is highly
toxic for various Mammals — dog, rabbit, and guinea-pig.

* Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxix. (1904) pp. 117-21.

t Smithsonian Misc. Collections, xlv. (1904) pp. 230-40 (G pis.).

X Tom. cit., p. 254 (1 pi.). § Tom. cit., pp. 295-305 (5 figs.).

U Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1547-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 643

He proposes to inquire whether the blood of the skate, which is also
■electric, is equally toxic, and whether the blood of non-electric Selachians
has or has not the same property.

Mitsukurina Owstoni.* — Leon Vaillant describes a specimen of this
deep-sea shark, the first to reach Europe, and the third obtained. It
was named in 190o by Jordan from a specimen in the museum at
Tokyo. The present specimen is 2 * 5 metres in length. Vaillant gives
•descriptive notes on the vertebral column and skull, and finds that the
animal belongs to the Lamnidte, with affinities linking it to Oxyrhina,
Lamna, and Odontuspis.

Parasites of Fishes.f — A. Scott gives a list of parasites from fishes
•caught in the Irish Sea. Of Protozoa there are four species : — from
Phuronectes flesus, a sporozoon, Lymphocystis johnstonei ; from the
plaice a species of Glugm and Sphccrospora platessce ; and Glugea lophii
from Lophius. The occurrence of ten species of Trematodes and forty-
six species of Copepods is noted.

Plankton of Wisconsin Lakes.} — C. D. Marsh has made a com-
parative study of the plankton of Winnebago, Green, and other lakes.
The author discusses the distribution of Cyclops brevispinosus and C.pul-
chellus ; the "bloom"; the annual distribution of the total plankton;
constituents which produce plankton maxima ; amount in different years ;
and, comparatively, the plankton of the different lakes. On comparing
the plankton of successive years, it is apparent that the balance of life is
maintained much more evenly in deep lakes than in shallow. In the
shallow lakes there is always an over-production of plants in the summer
as compared with the animals. This is so much the case that sometimes
in midsummer the water through the decay of the plants may become
actually poisonous to the fish. From the point of view of fish produc-
tion the shallow lakes must be considered the more valuable. Under
similar favourable conditions deep lakes are never so productive as the
shallower ; yet the author thinks the difference has been greatly ex-
aggerated.

INVERTEBRATA.

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

Anatomy and Affinities of the, Trochidse.§ — W. B. Randies reviews
the structure of a number of species of Trochus. His investigations
have revealed such a striking similarity of structure as to necessitate the
reduction of sub-genera amongst British Trochidse. The section Trocho-
oochlea cannot be retained, T. /meatus and T. turbinatus being referable
to the division Gibbula. There is a very great similarity in the digestive,
excretory, circulatory, and nervous systems of Trochidge and Pleuroto-
maria. The author confirms Pelseneer's view that a right reno-pericardial
oanal exists in the Trochidae, and considers that the kidney of the Mono-

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1517-8.

t Rep. Lancashire Sea Fisheries Lab., 1904, pp. 33-45.

\ Bull. Wiscon. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, xii. (1903) Sci. Ser. No. 3, pp. 1-94.

§ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xlviii. (1904) pp. 33-78 (3 pis.).

644 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tocardia has been derived principally from the right kidney of the
Diotocardia. These are the true excretory organs, the left kidney or
papillary sac of Trochus and its allies being more of the nature of a
lymphatic gland. The nephridial gland of the Monotocardia possesses
similar functions, and so, from a physiological point of view, can more
easily be homologised with the papillary sac of Trochus.

Muscular Fibres in Heart of Nassa reticulata.* — M. Mader
shows that the fibres in this Gastropod are in a state of differentiation
intermediate between the unstriped fibre and the fibre of simple striation,
described by Vigier in Anodonta ; it is a transition-type towards the
complex striated fibre of Arthropods and Vertebrates.

Phylogeny of Fusus and its Allies.f — Amadeus W. Grabau dis-
cusses the genetic relationships of Fusus and its allies. Starting from
Eocene species of Fusus, he describes more than half-a-dozen series of
species, and indicates their probable phylogeny. He also deals with
species of Fusoid shells generally referred to Fusus— the genus Aptyxis,
various Eocene species, the new genus Heilprinia, and the genus Euthrio-
fusus. Then follows a discussion of phylogerontic Fusida3— the genus
Ctjrtulus and the Eocene Clavilithoids. A study of the geographical
distribution closes the memoir.

Mendelian Phenomena in Gastropods4 — G. Contagne maintains
that Mendelian or "polytazic " phenomena may be recognised in various
Gastropods in natural conditions — e.g. Cyclostoma elegans, ValJonia
pukheila, Ccelistde hispanica, Helix planospira, H. piscina, H.nemoralis.

Chitons from the Pacific.§ — Curt von "Wissel reports on collections
of Chitons made by Schauinsland and Thilenius in the Pacific, nineteen
forms in all, belonging to the genera Ischnochiton, Mopalia, Cluetophura,
Plaxiphvra, Acanthochites, Cryptoconchus, Katharina, Chiton, Onitho-
chiton. The author has been able to work out the anatomy in some
detail. An appendix describes three species of Oncidiella from New
Zealand.

Anatomy of Lottia gigantea.|| — W. K. Fisher has investigated the
organisation of the Acmajidse as exhibited in this species. The follow-
ing are some of the most notable points elucidated. The Acmseidae
possess a larval nautiloid shell. The lips are armed with tiny teeth.
The nephridia are very unequal in size, the left being a tiny sac on the
left side of the rectum. Both are in communication with the peri-
cardium by long canals, which are really diverticula of the pericardium.
The circulation is for the most part closed. Sinuses, however, collect
the blood in the foot, and there are also open lacunas of minute size in
the liver. The arterial system is extensive. Over the nephridia there
is present a highly developed vein-net. The mantle discharges its
blood directly into the auricle. The innervation of the mantle is

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) p. 1537.

t Smithsonian Misc. Collections, xliv. (1904) pp. 1-1 GO (18 pis. and 22 figs.).

\ Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1521-3.

§ Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 591-676 (5 pis. and 10 figs.).

|| Tom. cit., pp. 1-66 (4. pis.)

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 645

complex, and wholly typical of the Acmaaida?. From each plearal
ganglion, there are two principal pallial nerves, which reach a circum-
pallial nerve completely encircling the animal near the mantle edge.
This nerve is ganglionic, and supplies the finer nerves to the mantle.

Anatomy of Corolla (Cymbuliopsis) spectabilis.* — H. Heath and
M. H. Spaulding give an account of the anatomy of this Pteropod.
There is a symmetrical proboscis, comparatively thin and broad, and
free from the fin for nearly half of its length. Its free margins form
a groove of richly ciliated tall columnar cells profusely innervated. It
appears to function as an organ of special sense, and as a contrivance
for collecting and directing food to the mouth. The foot or fin,
modified into a swimming organ, is operated by two systems of muscle
bands. Along its margin there are multitudes of sense-organs, appa-
rently light percipient structures, the details of whose development are
remarkable. There are no cephalic eyes. There appear to be no data
discovered by the authors to enable them to decide whether the species
is truly hermaphrodite, whether the penis has entirely disappeared,
whether there is progressive hermaphroditism, or whether the males are
still undiscovered.

5. LamellibrancMata.

The Formation of Pearls.f — W. A. Herdman sums up the various
points in the problem of pearl-formation. In particular he criticises
Jameson's views as to the mode of origin of the epithelial sac which
encloses the larval parasite, and which secretes from its cellular walls
layer after layer of nacreous material so as to form a pearl. He thinks
there can be little or no doubt that the cells of the pearl sac are directly
and genetically connected with the cells on the outside on the mantle.
He has found also that the evidence for Jameson's view that the
mussels are infected by parasites from Tapes and Cardium, is very far
from sufficient. There are two points in particular which require
clearing up : the exact details of formation of the pearl-producing
epithelial sac when deeply placed in the tissues, and the complete life-
history of the parasite inside the sac.

Evolution of Pecten.J — C. B. Davenport has made a quantitative
study of Pecten opercular is from three separate localities of the British
Isles, viz. Firth of Forth, Irish Sea, and English Channel. The general
conclusions drawn from his results are that the three lots are measurably
unlike in size, proportions, and average number of rays. The geo-
graphical extremes are the biological extremes also. The evidence from
the shells examined bears upon De Vries' law of mutation. Where the
environmental conditions of the isolated form units are similar, the
differences met with are easily accounted for on the assumption of
mutations which are preserved. Where, on the other hand, the en-
vironmental conditions are dissimilar, it is obvious that they must pro-
duce a change either through their direct and definite action or possibly

* Zool. Jahrb. xx. (1904) pp. 67-80 (1 pi.).

t Rep. Lancashire Sea Fisheries Lab., 1901, pp. 88-97.

X Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci., sxxix. (1903) pp. 123-59.

Dec. 21st, 1904 2 y

646 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

by selection. The mutation theory errs in stating only half a truth.
Through mutation and also through the direct action of environment,
specific changes may be produced. In another paper * the author makes
statistical comparisons of Pectens from the east and west coasts of the
United States.

Muscular Fibres of the Molluscan Heart. — P. Vigier has observed
considerable variety in the myocardium of the Molluscan heart. The
fibres are sometimes incipiently striated, and sometimes well-striated.

Those of Anodonta, for instance, are striated fibres of the simple
type, such as has been defined by Haswell and Prenant. In Lamelli-
branchs generally, it seems that the fibres represent a stage far below
that of Arthropods and Vertebrates, and yet above the unstriped level,
as is also suggested by their brusque and rhythmical contractions. They
recall the embryonic cardiac fibres in the lower Vertebrates. In Cephalo-
pods, however, as Marceau has shown, a higher level is attained.

Arthropoda.
a- Insecta.

Habits of Sphex. J — F. Picard relates in a lively manner his obser-
vations on Sphex maxiUosus. This insect is, as regards its habits, still
in process of evolution. It is very variable, especially as regards the
prey with which it feeds its larvae. It is not so far advanced or " fixed "
as some of its fellow-species ; it lingers at an ancestral level.

Picard reconstructs the history : the first Sphex was in the habit of
capturing many kinds of Orthoptera ; gradually the Sphexes began to
confine themselves to two or three families, as Sphex maxiUosus does ;
later on attention was restricted to one family, as in Sphex albisecta ;
subsequently, as in Sphex fiavipennis, operations were confined to a
genus ; finally, in the most differentiated species, Sphex occitanica, the
prey is a single species, and one sex only.

The author regards the instinct as an acquired habit, conserved by
heredity, transformed little by little in adaptation to external conditions,
the modifications being retained or eliminated for the good of the species
by natural selection.

Insect Evolution in Relation to Plants. § — A. Handlirsch notes as
factors which have essentially influenced the development of races of
insects, (1) the origin of a land flora and fauna in Silurian times ;
(2) great climatic alterations during the Permian period (the impulse
to the decidedly heterophyletic origin of metamorphoses) ; (3) the
appearance of angiosperms in the Chalk.

Convergence Phenomena in Insects. || — A. Handlirsch points out
the frequent occurrence of " convergence " amongst insects, and the con-
sequent difficulty of attaining a classification showing real relationships.
As instances he quotes the reduction in number of stigmata in aquatic

* Mark. Anniv. Vol. Art. vi. (1903) pp. 121-36 (1 pi.).

t Comples Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1534-7.

j Mem. Soc. Soi. Nat. Cherbourg, xxxiii. (1903) pp. 77-130.

§ Verb. Zool Bot. Ges. Wien, liv.(1904) pp. 114-9.

j) Tom. cit., pp. 134-42.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 647

insects or parasites, the concentration of the central nervous system into
one or two masses, the presence of a sucking stomach, and the reduction
of the malphigian tubes to a small number, or a remarkable increase of
the same, etc. Amongst such are also to be included viviparous forms
in the most different groups, polymorphism, formation of states, the
origin of resting stages (pupa), and of similar larval forms in otherwise
very different groups. The Holometabola, it can scarcely be doubted,
form a convergent group, and are really heterophyletic. In judging and
valuing characters in classification, it is well to keep in view the fact that
biologically important characters may be unimportant taxonomically.

Metamorphosis of Central Nervous System in Insects.* — V. Bauer
finds that the formation of the central nervous system is not completed
at hatching. A post-embryonic development takes place which is con-
tinuous in the forms without metamorphosis, original in the Metabola.
For the new formation of ganglia, special centres, consisting of neuro-
blasts, are present. Ganglionic cells arise by two divisions. The first
division of the neuroblast leads to the formation of two different part-
products, of which the one becomes a ganglion mother-cell, whilst the
other, retaining the neuroblast character, repeats the division. The
ganglion mother-cells, by simple division, give rise to ganglion cells.
Ganglion cells, as well as connective tissue and tracheae of a provisional
character, degenerate partly with and partly without the aid of phago-
cytes.

Nutritive Role of Follicular Epithelium in Melolontha vulgaris.!
Th. Mollinson finds that the terminal ovarian chamber contains only
oocytes and young epithelial cells, and that it is only the latter which
have to do with the nourishment of the growing ovnm. In perform-
ing this function they may, it is true, sometimes utilise the debris of
superfluous oocytes.

The activity of the epithelial cells finds expression not only in the
formation of pseudopodia-like processes which penetrate into the ovum,
but also in the formation of nutritive strands and, in some cases, of
a nutritive reservoir around the ovum. There is also on the part of the
ovum an active role in the formation of its cytoplasmic substances.

In Geotrupes stercorarlus there are similar arrangements, but a central
protoplasmic process formed by the ovum persists in addition to the
reservoir and nutritive strand formed by the epithelial cells.

Muscle-Changes in Beetle (Thymalus marginicollis) during
Metamorphosis.:}: — R. S. Breed finds that some of the larval muscles
remain unaltered during metamorphosis, a few degenerate, while many
metamorphose into imaginal muscles. Imaginal muscles are formed in
the pupa from cells of an embryonic nature, but they are few in number.
Those undergoing no change are all found in the abdominal region, the
typical degenerating forms in the thorax and first and last abdominal
somites. The muscles of new formation were observed in only two

* Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 123-52 (2 pis.).

t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxxvii. (1904) pp. 529-45 (2 pis.).

X Bull. Mus. Zool. Harvard, xl. (1903) pp. 317-82 (7 pis.).

2 Y 2

648 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

somewhat questionable cases in Thymah/s. In Bruchus and other forms-
with legless larva? the Jeg-muscles belong to this class. The meta-
morphosing forms include all of the remaining larval muscles. The
histological nature of the changes are given in detail.

Weevils of Crozet Islands.* — G. Enderlein describes, from the
material of the German South Polar Expedition, three new forms of
Ectemnorhinus. This type has hitherto been known only from Kerguelen
Island. One of the forms constitutes a new genus, Xanium, the others
are Ectemnorhinus richtersi and E. crozetensis, sp. n. They possess
short and very broad scales ; the hitherto known forms have long scales
as thin as hairs, though in some parts the hairs are transformed into
rather narrow but distinct scales.

Natural History of British Lepidoptera.t— J. W. Tutt has published
the fourth volume of his encyclopaedic text-book for students and col-
lectors, which deals with the Sphingidae.

Tsetse-Flies.f — E. E. Austen communicates a revised synopsis of the
Tsetse-flies (Glossina), one of which (G I. palpal is) is well-known as the
active agent in the dissemination of the dread disease of Tropical Africa
called Sleeping-sickness. He published a monograph, dealing with
seven species, in 1903 ; but already the attention paid to these insects
has increased the number of known species by one, and has afforded
material from which it has been possible to form a clearer view of the
characteristics of the various species.

New Genus of Marine Diptera.§ — Rene Chevrel gives an account
of Scopelodromus isemerinus g. et sp. n., a new marine Chironomid, which
he found at Saint-Briac. The insect passes its larval life among the sea-
weeds and acorn-shells below the low-water mark ; it seems to have but two
generations in the year, for the adults are only seen twice a year running
or flying rapidly among the rocks, about the time of the equinoxes.
Both sexes are winged ; the males are much more numerous than the
females, perhaps 10 to 1, as in Glunio and a marine Chironomus. The
new genus differs from all other Chironomids in having in both sexes
7-jointed antennas, and also in the venation of the wings.

Dipterous Parasites of Lepidoptera.j| — J. Kiinckel d'Herculais dis-
cusses the parasitism of the Bombylid Diptera of the genus Systropus in
the cocoons of Limacodid Lepidoptera, such as Sibine bonaerensis. In
winter the cocoons contain either the chrysalis of the Lepidopteron or
the nymph of the Dipterous parasite, resting in a state of " hypnodie"
As in other Limacodidse, the cocoons of Sibine bonaerensis have no
operculum to facilitate the emergence of the inmate. But both chrysalid
and nymph have a similar frontal chitinous point, and similar points at
the end of the abdomen, and similar energetic habits of working their

* Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 6G8-75.

t A Natural History of the British Lepidoptera, iv. (Sonnenschein, London,
1901) pp. xvii. and 535 (portrait and 2 pis.).
X Ann. Nat. Hist., xiv. (1904) pp. 151-5.
§ Arch. Zool. Expe'r., i. (1903) se'r. 4, pp. 1-29 (1 pi.).
|| Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1623-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 649

way out. This is a phenomenon of " dynamic convergence," which the
author calls " ho?neopraxis." It is, indeed, very striking that the right-
ful tenant and the insinuated parasite which replaces it should have
similar adaptations, both structural and functional, securing emergence.
There is a parallel adaptation of host and parasite to the same conditions.

Diptera as Ectoparasites on South American Lepidoptera.* — "W.
A. Schulz found, near Belem do Para in swampy thickets, that some
specimens of Morpho achilles bore small Diptera on the upper surface of
the wing, burrowing among the scales. The Diptera seem to be
members of the family Phoridre. They were also observed on small
Erycinidre, — Helicopis acis and H. cupido.

Phagocytic Apparatus of Cleandrus graniger.f — C Dawydoff finds
that this locust possesses phagocytic organs analogous to these in
Gryllidae. They are three pairs of triangular sacs disposed on the three
first abdominal segments, and having their apices touching the heart.
They absorb solid substances, fat globules in milk, and bacteria with
rapidity. The internal face of the gland has a very thin epithelium ; the
whole of the reticular tissue of which it is composed is filled with little
leucocytiform cells. These are the cells whose role in the organ pre-
dominates. On the whole, the structure of the organ is more primitive
than that of Gryllidas.

Cercopidas of Japan.J — S. Matsumura gives a revised and complete
list of the Cercopidaa of Japan, which is supplementary to that published
the previous year, and includes an account of nineteen new species. A
description of a new species of Cicada is included, viz., C. pyropa, very
similar to C.flammata, but easily distinguished from it by its yellowish-
red veinina;.

"■a •

Parthenogenesis in Copeognathas. § ■ — Constantino Ribaga brings
forward definite evidence that parthenogenesis occurs in Ectopsocus
■briyysi, MacLachl. var meridionalis Ribaga, a common Psocid in Italy,
in which the male sex remains unknown.

Nymphopsocus destructor : a new Copeognathid.|| — G. Enderlein
describes this form, which has appeared at Charlottenburg and elsewhere
in Germany in considerable numbers, and whose introduction has not
been traced. It devours furniture, forming little channels in the wood.
Apparently only the female and nymph have been found.

Homoptera of North-East Africa. If — A. Jacobi gives an account of
the Homoptera from Neumann's collection. Ten new species are in-
cluded in the list, which, however, is not sufficiently complete to warrant
deductions regarding distribution, or general faunistic considerations.

Louse of Elephant-Seal.** — Giinther Enderlein describes Lepidoph-
thirus macrorhini g. et sp. n., a new louse from the elephant-seal of

* Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 42-3. t Tom. cit., pp. 707-10.

X Annot. Zool. Japon, v. (1904) pp. 31-55 (2 pis.).

§ Redia, ii. (1904) pp. 33-6. || Zool. Jahrb., xix. '1904) pp. 727-31 (1 pi.).
■^ Tom. cit., pp. 761-82 (1 pi ).
** Zool. Anzeig., xxviii. (1904) pp. 43-7 (5 figs.).

650 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Kerguelen Islands. It differs from all known lice in a remarkable
character : the upper surface of the thorax and especially of the abdo-
men is covered with broad scales which closely resemble those of butter-
flies. This new form is nearest to Ecliinophfhirus from seals, e.g.
Phoca.

Spermatogenesis of Blatta germanica.* — A. Wassilieff describes
the succession of changes manifested by the centrosome in the develop-
ment of the sperm-cell in Blatta. Briefly these are as follows : In the
spermatogonia they are " points " ; in spermocytes of the first order,
V-shaped ; in spermocytes of the second order, a pair of rods ; in
spermatids (a) a single rod ; in spermatids (b) two point-like bodies as
in the spermatogonia.

Palaeoblattina Douvillei.f — M.Agnus adduces evidence to show
that this fossil, described by Brongniart in 1884 as the impress of an
insect wing, is to be referred to the Trilobites. As he shows from the
channelling and ornamentation upon it, Palceoblattina is a cheek-plate
of an Asaphus.

5. Arachnida.

North American Species of Limnesia.J — B. H. Wolcott gives a
diagnostic key to the North American species of this universally dis-
tributed water-mite. The list stands at nine species, the author having
added five, of which two are new. This mite may be recognised, in
general, by its oval, highly arched body ; by the presence of two eyes
on either side of the body anteriorly ; by the absence of claws on the
last pair of legs, which end in a sharply-pointed distal segment ; and
by the characters of the epimera and the genital area. The individuals
are active and brightly-coloured, of rather large size, and with pro-
nounced cannibalistic tendencies.

Notostigmata : New Sub-order of Acari.§ — C. J. Witte describes
Eucarvs ( = Opilioacarus), a new type of mite which requires a new
sub-order to itself, and appears to be of great taxonomic interest. The
integument is relatively delicate, without sclerites. There is a large
segmented abdomen. A movable pseudocapitulum is defined off. The
labrum, divided into a basal clypeus and a distal labrum proper, is
united with the fused maxillre, and bears a pair of well-developed
maxillary (lateral) lobes. Two labial appendages ( = tritosternum) are
present. The trochanters of the third and fourth limbs are two-jointed.
There are numerous "lyriform fissures." Four dorsal stigmata occur
on the abdomen. The intestine opens by an anus.

Hungarian Species of Eylais.|] — E. von Daday, who is preparing
a monograph on Hungarian Hydrachnida, discusses the genus Eylais.
He has found sixteen Hungarian species, five of them being new.

* Zoo]. Anzeig., xxviii. (1904) pp. 257-60.
+ Comptes Rendus, exxxviii. (1904) pp. 398-9.
J Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc, xxiv. (1903) pp. 139-60 (2 pis.).
§ Vidensk. Medd. Nat. For. Kjobenbaven, 1904, pp. 137-92 (3 pis.). See Zool.
Centralbl. xi. (1904) pp. 511-24.

il Math. Nat. Ber. UDgarn., xviii. (1903) pp. 340-64 (8 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 651

Palaeozoic Arachnida.* — Anton Fritsch describes and figures the
fossil Arachnida in the Museums of London, Paris, Dresden, Breslau,
and Vienna, along with those from the Coal-formation of Bohemia.
Thirty-nine genera aud sixty-seven species of Arachnida are recorded,
and more or less fully described in this important monograph.

€. Crustacea.

Entomostraca of Northern Swedish Mountains.t — Sven Ekman
has studied the Phyllopods, Cladocera, and free-living Copepods of the
various regions (birch-, grey willow-, and lichen-regions) of the Northern
Swedish mountains. The hydrographic conditions are on the whole arctic,
thus the ice-free period in the lakes of the birch region is from 8^-4
months, while higher up ice is never absent. Clear tabular summaries
show the composition and distribution of the Entomostracan fauna. On
the whole the forms are distinctively arctic, and there is close agreement
with those of the mid-European Alps. In the highest regions all the
forms are monocyclic, and in some cases the whole reproductive cycle is
condensed into lj-lf months, only the first generation consisting of
parthenogenetic females. There is more rapid growth than in the South,
and less temporal and local variation. The author discusses the in-
fluences of the Glacial period, the results of isolation, the present-day
splitting of a species like Bythotrephes longimanus into a northern and
a southern species, and much more that is both interesting and im-
portant.

New Lerns8opod4 — Miroslav Miculicich found on the tunny {Thynnus
thynnus L.) an interesting new Lernasopod, which he names Thynnicola
eiegleri g. et sp. n. A brief description is given of both sexes. The new
form is nearest Tracheliastes, with which it is. compared in detail.

Memoir on Gammarus.§ — M. Cussans gives a clear account of the
leading structural and developmental facts in regard to this wrell-known
Amphipod. As a "Memoir' the work seems weak on the bionomic
side.

The Origin of Mysis, Pallasiella, and Pontoporeia.||— M. Samter
and W. Weltner adduce a number of facts proving the origin of these
forms in an ice age. Mysis lives only in cold waters ; in summer in the
colder depths only, but in winter in all layers. Offspring are produced
only in water below 7° C, and twice in those lakes which are sufficiently
cold in autumn. Furthermore, it becomes larger and lives longer in
those waters which are specially cold in autumn. Pallasiella avoids the
higher summer temperature (contrast Gammarus). Reproduction reaches
its height in the cold time of the year, and more eggs per individual
are produced in spring than in summer. Pontoporeia, though living
in warm waters at all depths in winter, is absent in summer from all

* Prag. (1904), 88 pp. 15 pis. and 99 figs. See also SB. Akad. Wien, cxiL
Keview in Geol. Mag, Decade V., i. (1904) pp. 471-5.

t Zool. Jahrb. xx. (1904) pp. 1 -170 (2 pis. and 12 figs.).

% Zool. Anzeig., xxviii. (1904) pp. 47-52 (3 figs.).

§ Liverpool Marine Biol. Committee Memoirs, xii. (1904) pp. 1-47 (4 pis.).

|| Zool. Anzeig., xxvii. (1904) pp. 676-94.

652 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

depths below 10 in. Eggs are brought forth only in the cold season.
These observations were made on the Dratzig and Madii lakes in N.
Germany.

Cave-dwelling G-alatheid from the Canary Islands.* — W. T.
Caiman discusses Munidopsis polymorpha Koelbel, collected by Mr.
Fairfax Prevost in a cave on the island of Lanzarote. The occurrence
in a littoral cave is very interesting, in view of the exclusively deep-sea
habitat of the other (102) species of the genus. It seems probable that
the present inhabitants of the cave are the descendants of some deep-
water species which, having been carried into the fissures by which the
cave communicates with the sea, found there an environment suitable, at
least in the absence of light, to its habits.

Polyspermy and the Culture of Spermatozoids.f — A. Labbe finds
that the ovary of Carcinus a few hours after fertilisation is full of
spermatozoids in different stages of development. The eggs are full,
and in the yolk are all stages between spermatozoids and merocytic nuclei.
Many are digested in the ovarian cytoplasm, many merocytic nuclei
undergo karyolytic degeneration, and only a small number persist in the
vitellus till they reach the stage of definite nuclei. Full development
can be secured by artificial cultures of spermatozoids upon lecithin.

Annulata.

Structure and Habits of Poecilochsetus.* — E. J. Allen gives a very
complete account of the habits and structure of a new species, P. serpens,
of this genus. The larva has been known for years at Plymouth, but
only recently has the adult been discovered. It constructs U-shaped
burrows in the sand which is exposed at low spring tides, and its area
of distribution is very restricted. When at rest the animal lies in its
tube with the two long palps extended in front. A constant current of
water, drawing small particles with it, is kept up through the tube by
means of an undulatory movement of the body, and of a fan-like move-
ment of the parapodia and bristles. If the animal reverses its position
in the tube, the direction of the current is immediately reversed. The
worm does not possess jaws ; its food appears to consist of fine organic
particles and small organisms carried in with the current. Pcecilocluctus
appears to breed practically the whole year round. The larva is re-
markable for the late stage of development to which it retains the
pelagic habit. One of the diagnostic features of the adult is the smooth
anterior dorsal surface, with few tubercles. Parapodial cirri of segments
7-13 are different from those in the rest of the body, being flask-
shaped, with long, stiff necks. The second and third segments have short,
stout spines in the neuropodium. The nuchal organ is greatly developed,
forming three long tentacle-like processes.

Branchial Vessels of Sternaspis.§ — E. S. Goodrich points out that
the so-called supporting " axis " of the branchial artery is in reality a

* Ann. Nat. Hist., xiv. (1904) pp. 213-8 (1 fig.).

t (otnples Eendus, cxxxix. (1904) pp. 75-7.

% Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xlviii. (1904) pp. 79-151 (6 pis.).

S Tom. cit., pp. 1-10 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 653

second blood-vessel with specialised contractile walls. These walls
consist of a regular series of ring-shaped cells. The vessel, which may
be called the dorsal branchial vessel, is capable of undergoing great con-
traction and expansion, and, with a contained inner axis, forms a most
efficient apparatus for propelling the blood from one end of the vessel to
the other as waves of contraction pass down it. There is a com-
municating vessel (branchial artery of Vejdovsky and Eietsch) by means
of which stoppage of the circulation is avoided on the retraction of the
gill filaments, and which affords an alternative path from the main
ventral to the main dorsal vessel.

Polynoid Symbion of HydrocorallinsB.* — Emil von Marenzeller de-
scribes a new Polynoid, Lagisca irritans, sp. n., symbiotic on Slenohelia
•profunda and Errina macrogastra, sp. n., in the ' Albatross ' collection
of 1891. The worm is a typical Lagisca, but the usually strong equip-
ment of setas is sparsely represented.

New Deep-sea Polychsete.t — Akira Izuka describes a new species of
Panthalis, P. Mitsukurii, from deep water in Sagami Bay. Nothing is
known of the tube, although the presence of spinning glands from the
eighth segment backwards indicates the formation of one by this species.

Memoir on Arenicola.J — J. H. Ashworth has completed in the
L. M. B. C. series an excellent memoir on Arenicola. The work includes
an account of observations on the development and post-larval stages of
A. rtaparedii, a discussion of the affinities of the Arenicolidre, notes on
parasitic Trematoda and Sporozoa, an economic section, and directions
for practical work.

Nephridial Cells of Leech.§— L. Fage has studied the nephridial
cells of Hirudo medicinalis in various stages of activity. He finds that
the active cell is the seat of " ergastoplasmic " formations, which are
localised in the basal part of the cell. The nucleus appears to have a
role in connection with the " ergastoplasm," the nucleolus probably
serving as an intermediary between the chromatin and the cytoplasm.

Metamerism of Nervous System of Hirudinea.|| — N. Livanow, in
a second paper on the morphology of the Hirudinea, deals with the meta-
merism of the anterior end of the body, and the innervation of the
head region. He observes that in Hirudo there has been much somite
reduction, which is manifested almost exclusively in the disappearance of
the outer ringing; the main parts^of the nervous system remain un-
reduced. The second pre-clitellar segment consists of four rings, the
first of which is seen from its innervation to be equal to the first and
second ring of the typical 5-ringed somite. The first pre-clitellar has
only three rings, the hinder one corresponds to the fourth and fifth, and
the front one to the first and second. The fourth somite, which is in-
nervated by the sub-cesophageal ganglion, is 3-ringed, with the charac-

* Bull. Mus. Zool. Harvard, xliii. (1904) pp. 91-4 (1 pi.).

f Annot. Zool. Japon., v. (1904) pp. 23-9 (1 pi.).

1 Liverpool Marine Biol. Committee Memoirs, xl. (1904) 118 pp., 8 pis.

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1450-2.

|| Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 153-226 (3 pis.).

654 SUMMARY OF CUEKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

teristic nerve supply of the 5-ringed type. The third somite of the sub-
cesophageal ganglion has dorsally three rings, while ventrally there are
only two. The second somite of this group consists of two rings, the
anterior of which corresponds to three, and the posterior to two, annu-
lations. The first consists of a single ring, which is equal to five.
Details concerning other Hirudinea are given.

Nematohelmintb.es.

Filaria Bancrof ti.*— N. Taniguchi describes four cases of the occur-
ence of this parasite in Japan. He distinguishes two forms of larva, one
shorter and thicker than the other, enclosed in a loose transparent
envelope. The second has no envelope, and has a sharply pointed tail.
It is found within the body of the mother, in hydroccele fluid, in accumu-
lations of lymph, and in swollen lymph-glands, while the former type is
found only in the blood. Both types arise from the same female ; the
one in the blood is to be regarded as a modified form, which has under-
gone degenerative alteration due to the chemical and mechanical stimu-
lation of the circulation, and which ultimately dies, if not removed from
the host.

Nematode associated with Decay in Plants.f— Haven Metcalf has-
studied Rhdbditis brevispina, or a closely related form which is commonly
and widely associated with decay in certain plants, such as Crocus, Petunia,
Colens, and Geranium. The nematodes seek wounded places on the
underground parts of these plants, probably in order to feed on the
plant juices. If they bear spores of pathogenic organisms they neces-
sarily inoculate the plants, and readily transfer the disease from plant to
plant.

Structure of Filaria loa.J — A. Loos gives an account of the
minute structure of this nematode. He investigated a male and female
obtained from the human eye on the Gold Coast. The internal structure
has not hitherto been studied in any detail.

Peculiar Structure of Epithelial Cells of Ovarian and Spermatic
Tubes of Ascarids.§ — L. Sala directs attention to the previously observed
fact that these elongated epithelial cells exhibit what appear as internal
fibres running parallel to one another. What he has discovered, by
using Heidenhain's iron-hsematoxylin, is that a definite filament extends
up the middle of each fibre, sometimes straight, sometimes zigzag.
These filaments are homogeneous and of uniform diameter. There is-
much probability that they represent an endocellular contractile
apparatus.

Platyhelminthes .

A Dioecious Cestode.|| — 0. Fuhrmann describes from the gut of
Podiceps domimcus, a remarkable cestode with separate sexes. A special
peculiarity is that it occurs in pairs, a male and a female, and for the

* Centralbl. Bakt. Parasitenk., xxxv. (1904) pp. 492-500 (3 pis.).

t TranB. Amer. Micr. Soc, xxiv. (1903) pp. 19-102 (1 pi.).

X Zool. Jahrb., xx. (1904) pp. 549-74 (1 pi.).

§ Rend. R. 1st. Lombardo, xxxvii. (1904) pp. 874-87 (1 pi.).

|| Zool. Anzeig, xxvii. (1904) pp. 327-31.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, LTC. 655

most part only one pair in the gut of a single host. The author suggests
that the larva forms two heads only, one of which gives rise to a female,
and the other to a male. Another reproductive peculiarity is that the
spermatozoa do not reach maturity save in the receptaculum of the
female.

Epithelium of Trematodes.* — W. Hein has re-investigated this
question, which has been the subject of so much discussion — perhaps
more than its importance warrants. He finds in Distomum lanceolatum,
and in D. isostomum, a distinct homogeneous cuticula, and a strongly
developed ramification of processes from the epithelial cells with
abundant anastomoses. In Distomum hepaticam and in Amplnstomum
conicum there is an epithelial cell-complex with somewhat less ramified
processes, without observed anastomoses, but with a radial striation of
the cuticle which is due to very fine processes from the epithelial cells.
It seems certain that the four forms investigated exhibit a true epithelium
and a cuticle in the strict sense.

Determination of Human Entozoa.j — Henry B. Ward has written a
very useful paper entitled " Data for the Determination of Human
Entozoa." Thirty years ago, Leuckart listed thirty species which had
been found in man ; Braun's more recent work (1D02) discusses 15
Trematodes, 20 Cestodes, 38 Nematodes, besides 30-40 Protozoa. In
less than a year after Braun's list, the author added two species to the
roll. The first table gives a list, showing the organ infested, the stage
of the parasite, the type of parasitism, the geographical distribution, the
frequency of occurrence. A second table sums up the embryos of
common Nematodes, as to form, size, surface, head, tail, sheath, and
parts infected. The paper is full of useful hints, and should be widely
circulated.

Incertse Sedis.

Notes on Rhabdopleura Normani.J — G. H. Fowler publishes some
notes in reply to the criticisms of Conte and Vaney on his views regarding
the insertion of the peduncle, the subdivisions of the ccelonie and the
notochord. The author substantiates his earlier views, giving a further
account of the stalk of the adult, and the anatomy of a bud. Two main
conclusions follow from his observations. The notochord in the bud is
of ectodermal origin, and the gymnocaulus contains all three embryonic
layers.

Revision of Palaeozoic Bryozoa.§ — E. 0. Ulrich and R. S. Bassler
give an account of the genera and species of Palaeozoic Ctenostomata, —
a first instalment of a revision of the Palasozoic Bryozoa.

Rotatoria.

New Rotifera.|| — Charles Binder, having studied the Pelagic fauna
of the small Lac di Bret, between Lausanne and Yevey in Switzerland,

* Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxvii. (1904) pp. 546-85 (3 pis.).
t Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xxiv. (1903) pp. 105-38 (4 pis.).
X Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., (xlviii.) (1904) pp. 23-31 (1 pi.).
§ Smithsonian Misc. Collections, xlv. (1904) pp. 256-94 (4 pis.).
|| Revue Suisse de Zool., xii. (1904) pp. 149-258 (1 pi.).

656 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

found fifteen species of Rotifers, four of which he erroneously describes
as new. The new names with which science has been burdened are the
following : — Gastropus Cretensis (= Notops hyptopus), Notops falcipes
(= Furcularia forficula), Mastigocerca Bland (= Diurdla Stylata, ac-
cording to Jennings' new nomenclature), Cirtopus inermis (= Diurella
Dixo n-Nuttalli) .

New Rotifer of Genus Drilophaga.* — P. de Beauchamp figures and
describes Drilopliaga Delagei, sp. n., which he found living parasitically
on the common fresh-water leech HerpobdeUa octoculata, near Paris. It
is distinguished from D.fucephalus, of Vejdovsky, the only previous
representative of the genus, by its shorter .and broader body, devoid of
annulations, and its shorter toes.

Eciunoderma.

New Gonad in Holothurians.f — G-. Polara finds in Holothnria
tubulosa and H. poll that a group of germinal cells persists at the side of
the ordinary genital organ, and gives origin to several genital caeca
which are perhaps used to replace those which have liberated their
sexual products. The cellular strand in question is regarded as
analogous to the genital strand in Ophiuroids and Asteroids and to the
" dorsal organ " (" genital stolon," " organo assile ") in Crinoids.

Palseodiscus and Agelacrinus.J- — "VV". K. Spencer has investigated
the structure and affinities of these two rare but very important
Palaeozoic Echinoderms, using the sectioning method. The fossils were
ground at uniform distances of TV mm., and each successive surface
photographed. From tracings of the photographs wax models were
constructed. On the results of these investigations views are brought
forward as to the relationships of some of the groups of Echinoder'ma.
Thus : " We must conclude, therefore, that whilst a double series of
plates, namely, an outer series peculiar to the Echinoid, perhaps derived
from the adambulacrals of Asteroids, and an inner series homologous
with the plates of an Asteroid, occur in the ambulacrum of all the
Echinoids, a complete double series occurs in PaJ ceo discus, which is
therefore entitled to be placed at the base of the Echinoid stem. It is
not alone in the structure of the ambulacra that Palaodiscus shows
itself to be the most primitive of Echinoids, for we have seen that the
inter-ambulacral areas present many ideally primitive Echinoid struc-
tures. That the transition must have been from Asteroid to Echinoid,
and not vice versa, the possession of a lantern of Aristotle by the latter
forms is quite sufficient proof."

Function of Tube-Feet in Ophiuroids.§ — Hj. Ostergren has made
the interesting observation that representatives of various families of
Ophiuroids, e.g. Amphiura chiajei, Ophiopholis acideata, and Ophiura
albida, can use their tube-feet to adhere to vertical glass plates, and can

* Bull. Soc. Zool. de France, xxix. (1904) pp. 157-60 (3 figs.),
t Anat. Anzeig., xxviii. (1904) pp. 33-7 (4 figs.).
\ Proc. K. Soc. London, lxxiv. (1904) pp. 31-46 (1 pi. and 12 figs.).
§ Biol. Centralbl., xxiv. (1904) pp. 559-65 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 657

climb up these. The respiratory function is perhaps the primary one,
and a sensory function is indubitable, but there can no longer be any
denial of a considerable locomotor role. Thus another of the dis-
tinctions between Ophiuroids and Asteroids disappears.

Ccelentera.

American Hydroids.*— C. C. Nutting has completed the second part
of his magnificent monograph on American hydroids. It deals with
the Sertularida3, and it maybe noted that while not more than 20 species
of Sertularians from American waters had been previously mentioned
in any one publication, the author has found no fewer than 130 species
which should be included in the American fauna. More than 30 new
forms have passed through his hands, and many others have been dis-
covered in scrutinising foreign publications.

Medusae of the Bahamas. f — A. G. Mayer gives the results of an
expedition to the Bahamas. The medusa fauna of this region is poor
compared with that of the Tortugas, Florida, the number of species
found in the two regions being forty-three and ninety respectively.
These differences in two regions upon the same latitude and only 300
miles apart the author correlates with different physical conditions, e.g.
relation to the Gulf Stream. The paper gives a detailed description of
all the forms found, as well as notes on the post-embryonic development
of Cabaia and Olindias, from which it appears that Gonionemus, Gubaia,
Vallentinia, OUndioides, and Olindias, are closely related genera which
may be grouped into one family, the Olindiadre. Observations were
made on the phenomenon of asexual budding. In Eucheilota paradoxica,
the only known Leptomedusa producing an asexual generation of medusae
by a direct process of budding, the daughter-medusae are derived from
both endoderm and ectoderm of the gonad of the parent. Two new
species have been established, one of which, Parvanemus degmeratus,
is the most degenerate free-swimming hydromedusa yet described. It
lacks tentacles, sense-organs, and peripheral vascular system. The velum
is exceptionally large and provided with powerful muscles ; the medusa
swims with great activity, but is short-lived.

Regeneration and Non-Sexual Reproduction in Sagartia davisi.J
Harry Beal Torrey and Janet Ruth Mery describe in this sea-anemone :
(1) aboral-oral fission by constriction and rupture, with subsequent
regeneration ; (2) a strikingly irregular rupturing-process, which appears
to differ from the basal fragmentation of Metridium, only in so far as
each fragment retains a bit of the oesophagus and a few tentacles ; and
(3) the rare occurrence of aboral-oral division by constriction, which
was never seen completed in a normal individual.

The authors also discuss the causes of fission. Fission of the first
two types (1 and 2) depends to such a degree upon active movements
of different areas of the foot disk in opposite directions that the idea

* Smithsonian Institution, Special Bulletin (1904) 325 pp., 41 pis.

t Mus. Brooklyn Inst., i. (1904) pp. 1-33 (7 pis.).

X Univ. California Publications (Zoology) i. No. 6, pp. 21 1-226 (7 figs.).

658 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

readily suggests itself that the establishment of some sort of physio-
logical discontinuity between these areas may be the key to the causal
problem. It seems to be clear from experiments, that an interruption
of the physical continuity of two portions of a polyp by means of a
cut parallel with the course which would be taken by a normal fission
plane, tends to interfere with the physiological interaction of the sepa-
rated regions and to initiate the process of fission. Finally, the authors
give interesting proof of the occurrence of heteromorphoses ; more
than 50 p.c. of the anemones operated upon gave positive results.

Habits and Reactions of Sagartia davisi.* — H. B. Torrey de-
scribes this sea-anemone, the Pacific representative of Sagartia lucm of
the Atlantic coast, and discusses its habits. It occurs clustered on the
valves of Chione or any object which can give it a foothold out of the
sand. It can move freely by means of multicellular amoeboid processes
of the foot-disk, and may creep more than an inch in an hour. It has
a marked tendency to assume as erect a posture as its situation will
permit. Its locomotor geotropism is especially interesting from the fact
that the major axis of the animal is not parallel with the direction of
locomotion. It is not stimulated by light in any way.

The entire surface, with the possible exception of a small zone
between mouth and tentacles, responds to mechanical stimulation, and
the tentacles show very definite adaptive reactions, which are described
at some length. The animal can discriminate between mechanical and
chemical stimuli, and can make certain " choices " in its quest for food.
Torrey shows how the movements of the tentacles, and the beating of
the cilia of the lips and oesophagus, are adapted to swallowing what is
useful and disgorging non-nutritious bodies. The phenomena of
swallowing and disgorgement are carefully analysed.

Variation in Sagartia lucise.f — G. C. Davenport has studied the
question of the number of stripes on this sea-anemone. There is a
range from 0 to 20, but this has been found to be due to the fact that
longitudinal fission takes place in this animal with unequal apportion-
ment of the stripes. The individuals are always tending by means of
regeneration in the direction of twelve stripes and forty-eight mesen-
teries, though division may occur before the state of twelve stripes is
attained.

' Albatross ' Corals.} — Emil von Marenzeller reports on the Madre-
poraria and Hydrocorallinae of the 'Albatross' explorations in 1891,
conducted by Alexander Agassiz. Of the former, he discusses Bathy-
actis symmetrica, Cladocora arbuscula, Madrepora (AmphiheUa) oculata,
CaryophyUia diomedece sp. n., another species of Caryopliyllia, a species
of FJabellum, Desmophyflum crista galli, and a new genus or species of
Oculinidae. Of the Hydrocorallines, he discusses Errina macroyastra sp. n.,
Stylaster divergens sp. n., Stenohelia profunda, and Cryptolielia pudica.

* Biol. Bulletin, vi. (1904) pp. 203-16.

t Mark Anniversary Vol., 1903, Art. vii., pp. 137-46 (1 pi.).

J Bull. Mu?. Zool. Harvard, xlii. (1904) pp. 75-S7 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 659

Modification of Tentacular Apparatus in Madrepora.* — Arrnand
Krempf refers to a strange condition observed by Fowler in Madrepora
■durvUlei in 1886, and re-observed by the author in three other species.
A portion of the buccal disk has been converted by a fusion of two ten-
tacles into a U-shaped tunnel, and insinuated into the body of the polyp.
Analogous modifications have been observed by Vaillant in Oculininge.

Systematic Relationships of Antipatharia.^ — Louis Roule has
made a study of Stichopathes richardi sp. n., and has been led from this
to general reflections on the position of Antipatharians. As Brook in-
dicated (188D) these have relationships with Ceriantharia ; and E. van
Beneden (1897) regarded Ceriantharia and Antipatharia as two tribes
•of the order Ceriantipatharia, which along with Rugosa and Scypho-
medusas form the class Scyphactiniaria, comparable to the classes
Octactiniaria and Zoanthactiniaria within the group Scyphozoa.

Roule maintains that the class Anthozoa should be kept distinct
from Scyphomedusa?, that the Antipatharia represent nowadays the
simplest Anthozoa, that the Ceriantharia come nearer to the Antipa-
tharia than do any other extant Anthozoa, but that the Rugosa were
nearer still. Rugosa, Ceriantharia, and Antipatharia may be ranked
together as a sub-class " Protanthozoaria" and opposed to the " Metan-
tliozoaria" namely the Octactiniaria and the Zoanthactiniaria.

Protozoa.

Handbook of Fish-Diseases. +— Bruno Hofer has done a useful and
welcome piece of work in compiling a handbook of the diseases of fishes.
He discusses (1) general infectious diseases, (2) special diseases of par-
ticular organs, (3) the crustacean-pest {Bacterium pestis astaci), and (4)
the more important precautionary measures to be taken in regard to
various diseases, such as salmon-disease.

Mitosis in FlagellataJ — B. Grassi and A. Foa describe with strik-
ing figures the remarkable process of division in Joenia annectens Grassi.
The behaviour of the large spindle which develops tangentially to the
nucleus and passes through remarkable changes is especially interesting,
and may, as the authors suggest, supply some important data for cyto-
logical discussion.

Basal Corpuscles in Connection with Cilia. |] — -P. Mitrophanow
supports the view that the minute .corpuscles found at the base of the
cilia of Parammcium, Vorticella, etc., and the " BasalMrperchen" of
ciliated cells in Metazoa, are of mechanical importance as bases of in-
sertion ("points d'appui") for the vibratile organs.

Chlamydomonas in Water-supplies.il — F. S. Hollis describes two
growths of Chlamydomonas in water-supplies in Connecticut. These

* Comptes Eendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 1518-21. f Tom. cit., pp. 1621-2.

% Handbuchder Fischkranklieiten, Verlag. der Allgem. Fischereizeit. (Miinchen,
1904), 18 coloured plates and 22 figs, in text). See for review, Vein. Zool.-Bot. Ges.
Wien, liv. (1904) pp. 358-61.

§ Atti (Rend.) B, Accad. Liucei. xiii. (1904) pp. 241-53 (17 figs.).

|| Arch. Zool. Expe'r., xxxii. (1904) Notes et Revue, No. 10, pp. clxvii.-ix. (2 figs.).

•J Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc, xxiv. (1903) pp. 13-16.

GGO SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

growths, although comparatively infrequent, have in several cases been
studied, and the presence of an unpleasant odour in the water has been
proved to be associated with their presence. Some description of the
forms observed is given.

Trichocysts of Paramecium.* — P. Mitrophanow interprets the
trichocysts as an excretory apparatus. By contraction of the ectoplasm
they squirt out their contents, and this hardens in the water into a
thread. The material for the trichocysts is formed as granular or
irregular bodies in the endoplasm, in the neighbourhood of the nucleus
and with its assistance.

Nucleus of Paramcecium.f — P. Mitrophanow has made sections of
Paramoecium, and has discovered details regarding the structure of the
macronucleus. There are rows of chromatin granules arranged trans-
versely with achromatin between. What look like chromatin rods are
tubular folds packed with chromatin granules. His scholars, P. A.
Chainsky and B. Petschenks, also contributed to this intricate study.

Stalk of Vorticella.l — E. Faure has made a study of the intimate
structure of the stalk of Vorticella convallaria, which consists of an
internal contractile axis, and an external elastic sheath. The contractile
central cord includes (a) the essentially active part, composed of united
myonemes, the tubular " spasmonema" disposed in a long spiral ; (b) a
plasmic cord formed of minute granules, doubtless united by a hyalo-
plasmic network, and describing a spiral parallel to that of the spas-
monema, and (c) an enveloping sheath. A physiological interpretation
of the contraction is attempted, but it all seems highly problematical.

Note on Klossiella muris, g. et sp. n.§— H. M. Woodcock re-
interprets some of the observations of Smith and Johnson on this
parasite. They described as the sporogonic cycle a stage characterised
by the development of twelve to fourteen spherical spores, each con-
taining thirty to thirty-four banana-shaped sporozoites. According to
the author, their figures leave no doubt that the stage which they have
described as sporogonic is nothing more nor less than merogony or
schizogony, while the other part of the cycle regarding which they give
no decided opinion, is in all probability the commencement of gametocyte
formation.

Trypanosome of Rabbit.|| — G. F. Petrie records the occurrence of
a trypanosome in the blood of rabbits. It does not appear to be of
frequent occurrence, and artificial infection is not easily produced,
although experiments seem to indicate that trypanosoma blood is toxic
to certain uninfected rabbits. The parasite is not essentially different
from that of the rat trypanosome, although it is smaller.

* Arbeit. Zool. Lab. Univ. Warschau, xxxii. (1903) pp. 1-18 (0 figs.), Russian.
See Zool. Centralbl., xi. (1904) pp. 510-11.

t Op. cit, xxxi. (1903) pp. 1-48 (31 figs.) Russian. See Zool. Centralbl. xi.
(1904) pp. 503-10.

t Comptes Rendus, cxxxviii. (1904) pp. 994-6.

§ Quart. Jour. Micr. Soc, xlviii. (1904) pp. 153-63.

| Centralbl. Bakt. Parasitenk., xxv. (1904) pp. 484-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 661

Piroplasma of Dog.*— B. Galli-Valerio has found in dogs, chiefly in
hunting dogs, an endoglobular Haemosporidian, Piroplasma cairis, which
produces a sickness characterised by high fever, icterus, and haemo-
globinuria. It is peculiar in being pathogenic for dogs only. It
increases in the blood by division and sporulation, and it is probable it
has a sexual cycle in the body of a tick, which serves as intermediate
host. When seen free in the plasma, the parasite exhibited appearances
resembling the flagella of the haemosporidian of human and bird
malaria. The sickness has been observed in Italy, France and Africa,
and probably exists in other countries.

Myxosporidia of Flat-fish.f— H. M. Woodcock reviews the recorded
instances of these sporozoa in the flat-fishes in the light of several
recently discovered cases which he describes. There appears to have
been some doubt as to the identity of the species occurring. The writer
concludes that there are only three forms known to infest these fishes —
viz. Glugea stephanl, in gut-wall of flounder, plaice, and Pseudophuro-
iiectes americanm ; Sphwroxpora platessce, sp.n. in otic capsule of plaice ;
and a species of Pleistophora in the liver of Rhombus triacanthus.

* Centralbl. Bakt. Parasitenk., xxxiv. (1904) pp. 367-71.

t Eep. Lancashire 8ea Fisheries Lab. (1904), pp. 46-62, 1 pi.

-4-e^- I »

Dec. 21st, 1904 2 7,

662 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Cytology,
including- Cell-Contents.

Observations on Reduction-division.* — Strasburger has published
a short account of his present views on this division and the for-
mation of the reduced number of the chromosomes. He states that
when the network of the microspore-mother-cell of Tholictrum pur-
purascens has collected at one side of the nucleus, the chromatin
separates from the linin threads and forms a number of granules. These
then collect round a number of centres corresponding to the number of
the future chromosomes, in this case twelve. These centres he terras
gamocentra. The granules then form definite bodies at these points, in
which they are with difficulty to be individualised. These bodies then
become stretched out somewhat, and clearly divided in the middle ; the
individual granules of the two halves then separate into two portions,
and with the help of the linin become arranged in threads. A single
continuous thread is thus formed, and the synapsis stage is over. The
longitudinal splitting of the thread then follows.

Recent Work on Cytology. f — M. Koernicke gives a very useful
account of all the more important botanical work on the protoplasm and
nucleus published during the last few years.

Heterotypic Division.:}: — J. Bergbs has studied this division from
the spireme stage onwards, in the development of the microspores of
Allium and Lilium. He agrees neither with Dixon nor with Farmer and
Moore as to the origin of the chromosomes, but believes that they are
produced from the spireme thread by mere shortening and thickening,
and that the two halves of the chromosome are produced by longitudinal
splitting.

Function of the Nucleolus.§ — H. Wager has studied nuclear division
and the relation of the nucleolus to the process of karyokinesis in the
root apex of Phaseolus. He concludes that the nucleolus contains
chromatin more or less combined with plastin ; and that the chromatin
passes into the chromosomes. Further evidence in support of this view
is supplied by a study of the reconstruction of the daughter-nuclei,
towards the formation of the nucleoli of which the chromatin contributes.
The author considers that the nucleolus is possibly concerned with the

* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, xviii. (1904) pp. 587-615 (9 figs, in text),

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxi. (1904) Generalversaniml.-Heft, pp. 66-134.

% La Cellule, xxi. (1904) pp. 171-86, pi. 1.

§ Aim. Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 29-55 (1 pi.)

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 663

production of the spindle, while part of it may, in some cases, be
extended into, and disappear in the cytoplasm. He contests the view
of Nemec that the nucleolus of the daughter-nuclei originates from the
spindle fibres.

Reconstitution of the Nucleus and Formation of the Chromo-
somes.*— V. Gregoire and A. Wygaerts have investigated these questions
in the meristematic cells of Trillium, and in the second (homotypic)
division of the microspore-mother-cells of that plant. They believe
that the chromosomes produce the network of the resting nucleus by a
process of vacuolation or alveolisation. In the prophase of the next
division the phenomena are repeated in a reverse direction to that of the
telophase. It is very probable that the chromosomes which appear in
the prophase are identical with those that disappeared in the telophase,
having become in the meanwhile invisible, but without losing their
individuality.

Formation of the Achromatic Figure in Pellia.f — V. Gregoire and
J. Berghs have investigated again the developing spores and also the
maturation division of the spores in P. epiphylla. Their observations
agree neither with those of Farmer, Davis, nor Chamberlain. They state
that the centrospores described in this plant have no claim to be definite
organs, for the whole achromatic figure is produced by a rearrangement
of the ordinary cytoplasmic reticulum. They point out that their
observations contradict several of the theories which have been put
forward to explain the mechanism of karyokinesis.

Inorganic Phosphates in Plant Seeds and in Seedlings. $ — E.
Schulze and N. Castoro have tested the seeds of species of Lupin us, Lens,
Vicia, Zea, Picea and Pinus, for inorganic phosphates, and find these to
be absent except for a negligible quantity in the case of Plans. Strobus.
These results confirm those of Hart and Andrews. On the other hand,
etiolated seedlings of Lens esculenta, Vicia Faba, and Zea Mays, when
examined by the same method, were found to contain appreciable
amounts of inorganic phosphates.

Structure and Development.

Vegetative.

Centripetal Wood in Leaves of Conifers. § — Ch. Bernard describes
the results of his examination of the histology of the vascular bundle-
system in the leaves of a large number of species of the genera of the
older tribes of Coniferas (TaxodieaB, Taxeas, Podocarpeae, Araucarieai)
from the point of view of the character and distribution of the trans-
fusion tissue. He regards this tissue as merely centripetal wood ; the
conifers are " diploxylees " in the same sense as the Cycads, but their
centripetal wood accentuates the reduction which is already manifest in

* La Cellule, xxi. (1904) pp. 7-76, pi. 2. + Tom. cit., pp. 193-239, pi. 2.
% Zeit. Physiol. Chem. xli. (1904) pp. 477-84. See also Journ. Cliem. Soc,
lxxxvi. (1904) II. pp. 506-7.

§ Beiheft. z. Bot. Centralbl., xvii. (1904) pp. 241-310 (1 pi. and 88 figs, in text).

2 z 2

664 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the series of higher Cryptogams, especially in fossil forms. The so-
called transverse parenchyma found in Podocarpus and Cycas, which may
be physiologically the continuation of the centripetal wood, often plays
the part of support, and must be kept absolutely distinct from the centri-
petal wood, from a morphological point of view ; to accentuate this
difference, the author suggests the term transverse hydrostereome. The
author also gives a resume of previous work, and a critical discussion of
the whole subject.

Cupressinoxylon Hookeri.* — E. A. N. Arber describes, under this
name, a large silicified trunk of coniferous wood from the Macquarie
Plains, Tasmania, preserved in the Natural History Museum. A full
description of the internal structure, which is in excellent preservation,
is given by the author.

Cycadeoidea Reichenbachiana.j — Lester F. Ward gives a detailed
account of the history and geological position, and a careful description
of the external characters of this fossil. The specimen, which is in the
Museum of Mineralogy and Geology at Dresden, has been known for
more than two centuries and a half. It is a petrified trunk of a Cycad,
and the type and only known specimen of the species which it represents.
It has hitherto always been figured in an inverted position. The author
expresses regret that the internal structure of so fine and classic a speci-
men should never have been investigated.

Observations on Mamillaria elongata.J — 0. V. Darbishire gives
an account of the anatomy of the various members of this cactaceous
plant, which is taken as a type of the family, and a general discussion
of its physiological characters, and of their relation to the conditions
under which the plant grows in its native habitat in Mexico. He con-
cludes that the spines by which the tubercles are crowned form a structure
which acts as a screen to protect the underlying tissues of the tubercle
from the strong sunlight. Such an organ may be called a paraheliode.
A similar function is played by the set of hairs found at the top of the
leaf of Mesembryanthemvm stellatum. He finds that the development of
palisade-tissue is regulated by the influence of the light on the processes
of photosynthesis; while the depth, but not the extension of the air-
spaces, is dependent on the conditions favourable or otherwise to tran-
spiration. The tubercle of Mamillaria represents morphologically the
leaf -basis, with perhaps a portion of the stem. The sp nes are modified
portions of the leaf -blade. There is only one bud in connexion with each
tubercle, and that is axillary to it. The author insists that the guiding
principle which underlies the adaptation of plants, and the production of
plant forms, is physiological. There is no evidence to show that direct
protection against attacks by animals influences the development of any
plant-form.

Germination and Formation of the Primary Root in Palms.§ — C. L.
Gatin has studied germination iiuspecies of Phoenix and Archontophamix

* Geol. Mag., dec. V.. i. (1904) pp. 7-11 (1 pi. and 2 figs, in text).

t Amer. Journ. Sci., xviii. (1904) pp. 40-52 (1 fig.).

X Ann. Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 375-416 (2 pis.).

§ Rev. Gen. Bot., xvi. (1904) pp. 177-87 (7 figs, in text).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 665

and a few other palms. He points out that with considerable differences
in the form of the embryo, maimer of germination, formation of the
primary root, etc., certain characters are constant. The radicle is always
composed of a central cylinder, a cortex distinct but not limited by an
endodermis, a piliferous layer, and a cap which is in close relation with
the root-sheath of which it forms the inner part. The piliferous
layers always appear late, after the external growth of the cotyledon has
been completed. We can recognise two phases in the germination of
Palms : («) a phase of preparation, in which the plantlet in course of differ-
entiation is carried into that medium in which it will develop ; (b) a
phase of development or germination properly so called. In this respect
the author refers to the view expressed by Karsten that the great elonga-
tion of the petiole of the cotyledon in certain species is an adaptation
which allows the young plant to find below the surface of the soil, dried
by a hot climate, a medium more favourable for its development. On
the other hand, Palms developing in a forest, that is to say a damp en-
vironment, develop at the surface of the soil. Thus of the two phases,
the length and importance of the first are a measure of the degree of
adaptation.

Adventitious roots are formed at the base of the root cone. In some
types (admotive) one of these roots, situated in the same straight line as
the axis of the plumule, may play the part of the principal root, at least
during the first months of the life of the plant.

Eberwein, R.— Zur Anatomie des Blattes von Borassus flabelliforniis. (Analomy
of the leaf of B. flabelliformis.')

[Describes the structure of the stomata and other epidermal formations, it
eluding the large cells containing secretions of silica.]

SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien., cxii. (1908) pp. 67-76 (1 pi.).

Tondera, Fr. — Das Gefassbundel System der Cucurbitaceen. (The vascular

bundle system of the Cucurbitacese.) Tom. cit., pp. 23-59 (5 pis.).

Reproductive.

Ovule and Seed of Cycadese.* — Marie C. Stopes has examined a
number of species in various stages of the ovules of Cycas, Zamia, Macro-
zamia, Ceratozarnia, Encephalartos, Bowenia, and Dioon. She finds that
the usual description of the integument as a single one, differentiated
into two layers, an outer fleshy and inner stony, does not hold good. In
all the above-mentioned genera there is also a soft inner integumentary
layer, which is sometimes greater in diameter than the outer fleshy layer ;
frequently it and the nucellus are crushed together by the growing pro-
thallium, but this is by no means always the case : sometimes it remains
fresh quite late.

Two series of vascular bundles run in the ovule, and it is proved that
the inner series, frequently described as " nucellar," belong to the soft
inner layer of the integument. These bundles do not invariably die out
at the region where the nucellus becomes free from the integument, as
hitherto supposed, but in more than one species are found continuing in
the inner layer of the integument almost to the micropyle. The bundles
running in the outer flesh are mesarch, centripetal xylem sometimes being

* Flora, xciii. (1904) pp. 436-82 (37 figs, in text).

666 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

developed in great quantity. The presence of this primitive type of
bundle in the ovules is in itself of interest, as is the comparison of
these bundles with the mesarch ones in the free fleshy "cupule" of
Lagenostoma.

The view is brought forward, chiefly on anatomical grounds, that the
inner fleshy layer with its system of bundles represents an inner integu-
ment. The stony layer is considered as a differentiation of the outer
flesh, and with its distinct system of bundles forms the second or outer
integument. The two are completely grown together, as in the case in
some genera of Rosacea?, and others.

On the basis of the arrangement of the bundles in the ovule and the
supply bundles of the sporophyll, the genera may be placed in a series of
which Cycas is not the most "primitive, but the least primitive of the
group. All the genera have approximately radial symmetry but Cycas y
which is bilateral and shows distinct traces of an original radial symmetry.

Fructification of Neuropteris Heterophylla.*— R. Kidston describes
specimens preserved in small ironstone nodules from the South Stafford-
shire coal measures, containing seeds of Rhabdocarpus Gopp. and Berger,
each attached to a pedicel which bears the foliage of Neuropteris _ hetero-
phylla Brongn. Great interest attaches to these specimens, as it is the
first instance in which the foliage of one of the Cycadofilices has been
found actually in continuity with a seed. This discovery confirms the
conclusion already reached by Professor Oliver and Dr. Scott from the
consideration of other evidence, that the seed-bearing habit existed
among members of this group. The specimens, which are not petrified,
are of the radio-spermic type, oblong, and about 3 cm. long. The outer
surface shows numerous longitudinal ribs, formed by bands of scleren-
chymatous tissue in the outer seed-envelope. Some of the pinnules,
which do not differ in form or nervation from the ordinary foliage pin-
nules of Nevropteris heterophylla, show a slight widening of the base,
and seem to be attached to a basal expansion somewhat of the nature of
a cupule. This semi-cupule like structure does not seem to completely
surround the seed as in Lagenostoma Lomaxi, but is more in the form
of a subtending bract, and probably served to protect the seed during
the early stages of development.

Small bodies of doubtful structure, apparently split into four arms or
valves, and borne at the ends of the dichotomously divided branches of
another specimen, are regarded by the author as the pollen-bearing
organs of the same species.

Gametophyte and Embryology of Cryptomeria Japonica.* — A. A.
Lawson finds that the reduction division which leads to the formation
of the tetrads in the course of development of the microspore, takes
place in October, while pollination occurs in the following March. At
the time of pollination the spore contains a tube-cell and a generative
cell ; the vegetative tissue of the male gametophyte is not represented.
At the time of penetration the generative nucleus divides, so that the
young pollen-tube contains the tube-, stalk-, and body-nuclei. The
body-nucleus soon enlarges and becomes surrounded with a dense zone

* Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, ser. B, cxcvii. (1904) pp. 1-5 (I pi. and fig. in text).
f Ann. Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 417-44 (4 pie.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 667

of cytoplasm and starch-grains, round the periphery of which a mem-
brane is formed. After the tip of the tube has reached the depression
above the archegonium complex, the body-cell divides to form two male
cells, which enter separate archegonia.

From twelve to sixteen macrospores are formed, but only one ger-
minates and forms the female gametophyte. No distinct tapetuui is
present. In the formation of the prothallium the wall becomes lined
with a parietal layer of primary prothallial cells, which become multi-
nucleate, and by their inward growth the large central vacuole becomes
ultimately filled up. The cell- walls are formed as the result of a peculiar
method of free-cell formation. The archegonium-initials appear as
peripheral cells just before the prothallial tissue is thoroughly organised.
There are four neck cells, and a ventral canal-nucleus is cut off before
fertilisation. The archegonia are arranged as in the Cupressese, in a
single group at the apex of the prothallium. They are surrounded by
a common layer of jacket-cells, which are multi-nucleate, their characters
suggesting that they are sterile archegonia.

A single male cell enters the egg ; the first segmentation spindle is
organised in the centre just about the place where the fusion of the
sex-nuclei occurred. After the second division the four free nuclei pass
to the base of the archegonium, become arranged in two tiers, and
undergo a third division, and an embryo consisting of two tiers of cells
and one of free nuclei is organised. The middle tier forms long tor-
tuous suspensors, which carry down the embryo-cells at their tips. One
or several embryos may be developed from a single archegonium.

As nearly as could be estimated, there are nine or ten chromosomes
in the nucleus of the gametophyte, and eighteen or twenty in that of the
sporophyte. The gametophytes and embryo of Cryptomeria are distinctly
of the Cupressege type.

Gametophyte and Development of the Seed-coats in some
Papaveraceas.* — C. H. Shaw gives the results of his examination of
some quantity of material of San guin aria, CheUdonium and Esch-
scholtzia. He finds that in Sanguinaria the microspore mother-cells are
formed in the season preceding blooming, but their division and the
formation of the ovular integuments and of the embryo-sac occur after
renewal of growth in the spring just before blooming. In all genera
an open canal extends from the carpellary cavity to the exterior. The
antipodal cells are very prominent, especially in Eschscholtzia, and the
adjacent cells of the nucellus are thick-walled and rich in contents.

In formation of the seed-coat in Sanguinaria and Eschscholtzia, the
secundine eventually disappears, and the inner cell-layer of the primine
constitutes the most important element of the testa. In Ghdtdonium
both primine and secundine persist and take part in the formation of
the testa.

Physiology.

Nutrition and Growth.

Sources of Nitrogen to Fungi.j — J. H. Kastle and E. Elvove find
that a nutritive solution containing ammonium thiocyanate as the

* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 429-33 (1 pi.).

t Auier. Ciiem. Journ., xxxi. (1904) pp. 550-7. See also Journ. Chen. Soc.
Ixxxvi. (1904) II., pp. 504-5.

668 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

nitrogenous food substance, can support the growth of Penicillium
glaucum, \n\t that a similar solution in which the thiocyanate is replaced
by thiocarbamide cannot do so ; the thiocarbamide is, however, not
poisonous to the fungus. Potassium thiocyanate is equally ineffective ;
hence, in the case of the ammonium salt, it is the nitrogen of the radicle
which is available for food. Similar results were obtained with the various
micro-organisms of putrid cheese, and also with yeast. Thiocarbamide,
although unable to supply the nitrogen required for the growth and
reproduction of the yeast, does not prevent alcoholic fermentation.
Ammonium thiocyanate slowly undergoes nitrification by the organisms
of the soil, whilst thiocarbamide is either acted on very slowly or not
at all.

Transpiration.* — A. Burgerstein contributes what he terms a
" physiological monograph " on the subject of transpiration. It is a
useful account of the work which has been done, and should prove
invaluable to students. The author has brought together in a com-
paratively small volume the results of work spreading over many years,
and embracing the contributions to knowledge of very various workers.
He also includes observations, hitherto unpublished, of his own. The
chapter on methods of investigation contains useful sketches of appara-
tus. At the end of the book is a bibliography occupying more than
thirty pages.

Accumulation of Water in the Leaf-sheath of Musa Ensete.f —
P. Baccarini describes the accumulation of an amount of water in the
lacunar system in the leaf-sheath of a cultivated specimen of this species
of Musa (a native of Abyssinia). It recalls the similar water accumu-
lation in another member of the Musaceae, Ravenala madagascariensis.
The accumulation which occurred at the close of the vegetative season
evidently represented the difference between the amount of water
absorbed by the roots, and that lost by transpiration during the previous
season of growth. The limpid solution was without colour, taste or
smell, did not reduce Fehling's solution, but responded to reaction for
nitrates.

Chemical Changes.

Germination of Oily Seeds. $ — Maurice Nicloux has previously
demonstrated the remarkable lipolytic action of the cytoplasm in the
castor-oil seed, which alone of all the other cell-contents has the power
of saponifying. This action of the cytoplasm is comparable to a diastatic
action, and the author proposes the name Jvpnseidin for the lipolytic sub-
stance, of which the cytoplasm is probably only the carrier. An essential
condition of the process is the presence of a small quantity of mineral or
organic acid, and the author suggests that the carbon-dioxide known to
be present in the cell in association with water fulfils the condition.
This is proved by performing the lipolytic process in vitro ; the cyto-
plasm of the seed of Ricinus, when isolated in the presence of oil and

* Die Transpiration der Pflanzen. By Dr. Alfred LJurgerstein. 8vo., x. and
253 pp., 24 figs, in text. Fischer, Jena, 1904.
t Bull. Soc. Bot Ital., 1904, pp. 276-80.
I Comptes Itendus, cxxxix. (1904) pp. 143-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 669

carbonic anhydride, is able to effect saponification ; hence the interven-
tion of some other acid need not be assumed.

General.

Determination of Sex in Plants.* — R. P. Gregory has investigated
this question in connexion with the suggestion of Castle (put forward in
relation to animals only), that sex is an inherited character which
exhibits the Mendelian phenomena of segregation and dominance, and is
not subject to direct control by environment. Accepting the view that
the chromosomes contained in the germ-cells are the factors concerned
in the transmission of inherited characters, and also the hypothesis that
the segregation of characters in accordance with Mendelian laws is pro-
vided for in the reduction division, it was important to observe the
occurrence of that division. Spore-formation and divisions in the pro-
thallia were observed in Osmunda regalis, and it was found that a true
(qualitative) reduction takes place at the time of spore-formation. The
problem of sex-determination is complicated in the higher plants by
alternation of generations ; and in the higher Cryptogams and in Phane-
rogams (where heterospory is, of course, present) the gametophyte is
dioecious. In many of the Archegoniataa the gametophyte, however, is
hermaphrodite. It was observed that the prothallia of Osmunda were
hermaphrodite, and that they were capable of self -fertilisation. It must
be thus concluded that the reduction division in a hermaphrodite sporo-
phyte does not bring about a segregation of sex-characters. There is also
no doubt that the form of gametes produced from the gametophyte may
be influenced, within limits, during the independent existence of gameto-
phyte, by the environment. Also the form of gamete produced by any
gametophyte is independent of the sex-character transmitted through
that gametophyte to the sporophyte of the next generation.

Replacement of Stamens by Carpels in Wallflower.! — C. Gcrber
has studied the anatomical structure of the supernumerary carpels which
replace the stamens in that cultivated form of the wallflower styled by
Be Candolle Cheiranthus Cheiri var. gynantherus. He finds that, whereas
a normal stamen receives only a single meristele from the central
cylinder, there is in addition in the staminal carpels a reversed bundle
such as characterises the false septum of the pistil. It is not therefore
correct to say that the stamens are transformed into carpels in this form
of the wallflower, but rather that the carpellised stamen differs from the
ordinary stamen by the addition to the vascular system of the latter of
the reversed vascular system characteristic of the pistil of Crucifers.

Attraction of Colours and Scents for Insects.:}: — J. Perez, in a
second contribution to this subject, criticises the conclusions of Felix
Plateau on the same subject, and gives an account of his own observa-
tions on the visits of insects to flowers, and to other coloured objects.
He conceives the relation between insect and flower to be as follows.
Insects are guided to masses of flowers at a distance only by the scent

* Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, xii. (1904) pp. 430-40.

t Comptes Rendus, exxxix. (1904) pp. 219-21.

% Mem. Soc. Sci. Phys. et Nat. Bordeaux, se'r. 6, iii. (1903) pp. 1-30.

670 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which is carried by air currents. At a sufficiently close range the short
sight of the insect intervenes to direct it precisely to the seat of the
nectar. Isolated flowers are in general brought to the notice of an
insect by their colour ; the scent intervenes at a short distance to con-
firm or correct the original impression. In cases where a petaloid
perianth is absent, the smell alone seems to guide the visitor.

As to whether a bee keeps to one particular species, the author
concludes that such fidelity is not absolute, but very frequent. It
appears in relation with the collecting of pollen and not of honey, and
only rarely exists in the case of the males. It is hardly ever observed
in other Hymenoptera, though certain species show a marked preference
for definite groups of plants.

Plant -Geography upon a Physiological Basis.* — It is a matter for
congratulation that the late A. F. W. Schimper's great work, " Pflanzen-
Geographie auf physiologischer Grundlage," has been issued in English
form. The book, which is already well known in its German form, is an
excellent exposition of the modern development of plant study known as
cecology. Its usefulness is much enhanced by the numerous excellent
illustrations. An additional feature is an appreciation of the author by
one of the editors, Percy Groom.

Forest Vegetation in Southern Switzerland.! — B. Freuler supplies
a number of photographic representations of the vegetation of
Soltoceneri, or that portion of the Canton Tessin which lies to the south
of Monte Ceneri. Of this district M. Freuler, who is a forest inspector,
remarks that hardly anywhere in Switzerland is there an area of similar
size which is so rich and interesting from the point of view of forest
vegetation. This variety is due to the mountainous character of the
area, extending from 230 to 2,226 metres above sea-level, to the climatic
conditions, and also to the great diversity in geological conditions. The
views, which depict groups of trees, single trees or more general aspects
of vegetation, are accompanied by a full description in the text, which is
written in German.

Completion of Chinese Flora 4 — The completion of the enumeration
of the Grasses by A. B. Rendle brings to a close the account of the
Chinese Flora which, initiated by F. B. Forbes and W. B. Hemsley, has
been brought to a conclusion under the editorship of the last-named.
The elaboration of the grasses includes a number of new species and
forms, chiefly contained in the collections of Henry from Western
China and Formosa, of Faber from Szechuen, and of Hugh from the
province of Shensi. The Bamboo tribe (Bambuseae) is represented by
43 species, 12 of which are here described for the first time.

Flora of Norfolk Island.§ — J. H. Maiden gives an account of the
flora of this island based on previously published accounts and on the

* Plant-Geography upon a Physiological Basis. By Dr. A. F. W. Schimper.
Translated by W. R. Fisher, revised anid edited by Percy Groom and J. Bayley
Balfour. Large 8vo, xxx. and 8J9 pp. Clarendon Press, 1904.

t Atti d. Soc. Elvet. Sci. Nat. in Locarno, sess. 86, 1903 (1904) pp. 269-92.

J Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) xxxvi. (1904) pp. H77-49.

§ Proc. Liun. Soc. New South Wales, xxviii. (1904) pp. 692-785 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 671

results of his own investigations. He records 161 monocotyledons and
dicotyledons, 1 gymnosperm (Araucaria excelsa, the Norfolk Island pine),
52 ferns, 3 lycopodinse, 18 mosses and hepaticse, 23 lichens, 13 fungi,
and 10 algae (an incomplete list). He also gives a list of introduced
plants, economic and otherwise, and makes suggestions as to the ex-
termination of weeds, and other points of agricultural interest. At the
close of his paper extracts are given from accounts by Captains Cook
and King on the primaeval vegetation of the island ; and also a biblio-
graphy of works and papers dealing with its vegetation, and an account
of the relation between Ferdinand Bauer and the island.

Icelandic Fodder Plants.* — St. Stefansen and W. (x. Soderbauin
give the results of their analysis of the fodder plants of Iceland. Of the
360 flowering plants known in the island, 25 per cent, are grasses or
sedges. Analyses are given of 25 of the most important plants, collected
in July or early in August. As regards the grasses, the results show
higher percentages of ash and nitrogenous matter and lower percentages
of cellulose than the corresponding Swedish plants, and the digestibility
of the nitrogenous matter is also relatively higher. Except for a
greater digestibility of the nitrogenous matter, the composition of the
sedges did not differ essentially from those analysed in Sweden.

Philippine Rubber Plants.f — The last report of the Superintendent
of the Government Laboratories in the Philippine Islands contains an
exhaustive report of the Secretary of the Interior on the sources of
gutta-percha and rubber in the Islands. The most important rubber-
producing trees are several species of Palaquiurn and Pay en a Leerii,
members of the order Sapotaceae. Photographic reproductions of leafy
and in some cases flower-bearing shoots are given, as well as plates
indicating the various methods of tapping, and maps illustrating the
known geographical distribution of rubber plants in the Philippines.
Notes are also given on the chemical properties of the latter, the culti-
vation of the plants, etc., with suggestions as to the value of the islands
from a rubber-producing point of view.

Timbers of Commerce and their Identification.^ — In this book
Herbert Stone gives a description of the wood of nearly two hundred and
fifty species, comprising all those met with upon the British market, and
those which he has received from the Colonies as being useful and
abundant, and also a few which, though at present unknown in the
market, commend themselves to the writer as timbers of good quality,
which are likely to be heard of in the future. The special portion of
the book is preceded by an introduction, in which the author gives a
general account of the growth of a tree, and the formation and structure
of the wTood. This is followed by some practical hints to those wishing

* Medd. k. Laudtbruks. Akad. Exper., No. 77, Stockholm, 1903. See also
Journ. Chem. Soc, lxxxvi. (1904) II., pp. 509-10.

t Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories in the Philippine
Islands for the year ending September 1, 1903. (From fourth annual report of the
Philippine Commission.) Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Department, pp. 394-411,
■with numerous plates.

J The Timbers of Commerce and their Identification. By Herbert Stone. 8vo,
xxxviii. and 311 pp., 18G pis. Rider, London, 1904.

672 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

to study woods from practical and economic points of view. The special
portion comprises a systematically arranged description of the woods.
The arrangement is that of Bentham and Hooker's Genera Plantarurn.
In each case the common and the botanical names of the wood are fol-
lowed by the name of the natural order. A few synonyms are cited, the
source of supply is given, and also a number of " alternative " common
names. The physical characters, the grain and bark are described ; its
uses are mentioned, and references are given to various authorities.
Then follows a more detailed description of the anatomical characters of
the wood in transverse, radial, and tangential section, so far as they are
visible to the naked eye, or an ordinary hand lens. All the genera men-
tioned are with few exceptions represented by photomicrographs, which
have been prepared by Mr. Arthur Deane. The scale of magnification
is three times the actual size, and is designed to show the appearance of
the transverse section as seen by means of an ordinary hand lens.

Carlo Allioni.*— In commemoration of the centenary of the death
of this Italian botanist (born 1728, died 1804) 0. Mattirolo gives a
systematised account of his works, both published and manuscript, fol-
lowed by an enumeration of the genera and species published by him.
Allioni was the author of several important works on the botany of
northern Italy, including the Flora Pedemontana, comprising three
large volumes and 92 plates. He also published a small work on palaeon-
tology entitled "Orydographice Pedemontana^ specimen, exhibens corpora
fossilia terrce adventita," besides various medical and a few zoological
works. The paper is accompanied by photographic reproductions of a
portrait and a bust at Turin.

Alexis Millardet.|— U. Gayon and C. Sauvageau give an account of
the life and work of this French botanist (1838-1902), who for five and
twenty years occupied the chair of botany at Bordeaux. Millardet's
work falls into two categories ; that of pure botany, chiefly cryptogamic
and cytological, and that of viticulture. To the latter he contributed
invaluable researches on the relation of the Phylloxera to the vine, and the
possibility of establishing disease-resisting varieties in Europe, and also
on the fungal diseases of the plant. The notice concludes with a chrono-
logically arranged list of his papers, 141 in number.

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

Bernard, C. — A propos d'Azolla. (Concerning Azolla.)

Bee. Trav. Bot. Nterland., i. (1904) pp. 10-14 (1 pi. and figs.).

Boodle, L. A. — On the occurrence of secondary Xylem in Psilotnm.

Ann. Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 504-17 (1 pi. and figs, in text).

Btjrck, \V. — Sur quelques formes du Polystichum acnleatum de l'Archipel Malais
et sur un caractere special et peu connu de cette espece. (On some forms of
P. aculeatum in the Malay Archipelago and on a special and little known
characteristic of this species.) Bee. Trav. Bot. Ne'erland., i. (1904) pp. 33-49.

* Malpighia, xviii. (1904) pp. 213-92 (2 pis.).

T Mem. Soc. Sci. Phys. et Nat. Bordeaux, se'r. 6, iii. (1903) pp. ix.-xlvii. (with
ograph).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 673

Christ, H. — Filices Faurieanae. (Ferns collected by Faurie.)

Bull. Herb. Boissier, iv. (1904) pp. 609-18.

„ „ Primitiae Floras Costaricensis. Filices et Lycopodiaceae. III. (First-
fruits of the Costa-rican flora, Ferns and Lvcopods. Continuation )

Tom. cit., pp. 936-51, 957-72.

Clute. W. N.— The Star Fern, Hemionitis palmata.

Fern Bull, xii. (1904) pp. 71, 72 (1 pi.)

„ „ A new form of the Christmas Fern. {Polystichum acrostichoides

forma recurvation.) Tom. cit., p. 79.

„ ,. Raising prothallia of Botrychium and Lycopodium.

[A suggestion that these prothallia to reach maturity require
to be associated with a symbiotic fuugus just as the seed-
lings of orohids do. For artificial culture use 'should be
made of soil from the rootlets of mature plants.]

Tom. cit, pp. 83, 84.

„ „ Concerning forms and hybrids.

[A protest against some instances of denoting hybrids by bi-
nomial names as if they were true species.]

Tom. cit., pp. 85, 86.

Eaton, A. A.— The Californian Gold Fern. (Gymnogramme.)

Tom. cit., pp. 77, 78.

„ „ Is Asplenium lanceum American 1

[An account of how an error arose from a change of labels in a
fern-dealer's garden.] Tom. cit, pp. 79, 80.

„ „ Isoetes Amesii. (A correction.) Tom. cit., p. 89.

Gregory, R. P. — Spore-formation in Leptosporangiate Ferns.

[Investigations of eight genera of ferns, with special reference to reduction-
phenomena.] Ann. Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 445-58 (1 pi.).

11 a ii ne (Bonn) — Ueber Farnhybriden. (On Firn-hvbrids.)

Allg. Bot. Zeit., 1904, pp. 102-6.

„ Ueber Gabelnng der Farnwedel. (On bifurcation of fern-fronds.)

[Contains list of more than 80 species in which it has been

observed by the author.] Tom. cit., pp. 106-8.

Hope, C. W. — The Ferns of North-western India.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, xv. (1904) pp. 415-29.

House, H. D. — Some rare ferns of central New Jersey.

Fern Bull., xii. (1904) pp. 80-2.

Le Grand, A. — Lettre a M. Malinvaud. {Scoloppndrium officinale abnormal.)

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlviii. (1901) pp. 420-1 (1 fig.).

Lindmann, O. A. M. — Regnellidium novum genus Marsiliacearum. (Regnelli-
dium, a new genus of Marsiliacere.)

Arhiv Bot. Stockholm, 1904, 14 pp. (10 figs.).

Linsbaoer, L. — Ueber das Vorkommen ,von Botrychium rutaefolium A. Br. in
Niederosterreich. (On the occurrence of B. rut* folium in Lower Austria.)

Oeslerr. Bot. Zeit., liv. (1904) pp. 332-3.

Lot8Y, J. P. — Photographies de plantes interessantes. 1. Pflanzen des javanischen
Urwaldes. Nephrodium callosum Bl. (Photographs of interesting plants. 1.
Plants of the Javan jungle.)

Bee. Trav. Bot. Ne'erland., i. (1904) pp. 131-4 (3 pis.).

Mabqtjand, E. D. — Additions to the Flora of Alderney.

[Records the occurrence of Isoetes Hystrix.~]

Guernsey Soc. Nat. Sci. Eep., 1902 (1903) pp. 144-8.

Mason, W. R. — A new fern, Goniophlebium Pringlei, from Mexico.

Proc. US. Nat. Mus., xxvii. (1904, pp 953-4.

Maxon. W.— Two new Ferns of the genus Polypodium, from Jamaica.

[Reprinted.] Bull. Dept. Agric. Jamaica, ii. (1904) pp. 176-8.

674 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Parish, S. B. — Additions to the Californian Fern flora.

Fern Bull, xii. (1904) pp. 82, 83.

Price, Sadie F. — Contribution toward the Fern flora of Kentucky.

[An annotated list of 42 ferus, published after the writer's death.]

Tom. cit., pp. 65-70.

Prince, S. Fred. — Some ferns of the cave region of Stone County, Missouri.

[A list of 17 species and 4 varieties from the remarkably eroded southern
side of the Ozark Range.] Tom. cit., pp. 72-7.

Scott, D. H. — On the occurrence of Sigillariopsis in the lower coal-Measures of
Britain. Ann. Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 519-21.

Bryophyta.

Monoclea.* — D. S. Johnson discusses the development and relation-
ship of Monoclea, founded on a study of material from Jamaica. In an
historical resume he gives a clear account of the observations of previous
authors, and their views as to the systematic position of the genus — at
first near Anthoceros, then near PelUa, and then in the Marchantiacese.
He also describes his own researches, and draws a series of conclusions
from them. The male receptacle resembles that of Gorsuiia and Fim-
briaria rather than that of Fegatella. The development and structure
of the antheridia are clearly Marchantiaceous. The archegonia are
Marchantiaceous in development and structure, and not Jungerman-
niaceous. The long-stalked sporogonium with cylindric capsule is more
of a difficulty ; but the monostromatic capsular wall is Marchantiaceous,
not Jungermanniaceous. The presence and direction of the two kinds of
rhizoids is a thalline character of the Marchantiaceae, among the lower
members of which order the author places the genus.

Revision of Lophozia.t— V. Schiffner has made a careful study of
Lophozia Muelleri and its allies, examining very many specimens. This
group of species is well marked off from the rest of the genus by the fol-
lowing characters : (1) leaves always two-lobed ; (2) amphigastria mostly
well developed even on the sterile stem ; (3) involucral bracts subsimilar
to the leaves ; (4) perianth cylindric or conical, not plicate (or only at the
apex), contracted into a tubular apiculus ; (5) perigonial bracts, always
with a third dorsal tooth. The author gives a chronological list of 19
species which have been described in this group, and, criticising them in
detail, reduces them to 7 species : L. MwUeri, Hornschuchiana, badensis,
turbiiiata, heterocarpa, Schultzii, Kaurini. As an appendix he adds a
long list of the original specimens and specimens in published sets, which
he has examined critically, giving them their corrected names.

Dispersal of Moss-spores.J — A. Pfaehler publishes a biological and
morphological study of the dissemination of the spores of mosses. After
describing the general structure of the sporogonium, he sums up pre-
vious work, mainly that of Hutton (1874), who held the wind to be the
prime agent in spore-dispersal in proportion to the length of the fruit-
stalk, and the peristome to be an apparatus which prevents too rapid

* Bot. Gazette, xxxviii. (1904) pp. 185-205 (2 pis.).

t Verh. k. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, liv. (1904) pp. 381-405.

% Bull. Soc. Vaudoise, xl. (1904) pp. 41-132 (9 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 675

dispersal. Goebers views are similar. Pfaehler then details his own
observations extended to all the groups of stegocarpous mosses ; and
finally gives a resum6 showing how the different parts of a moss may
contribute towards the emission and protection of the spores — pedicel,
capsule, peristome (simple or double), operculum, columella, and even the
spores themselves. The dominant biological principle is regulation in
the spore-dispersal by means of the peristome, columella, upright position
of capsule, etc. A second dominant principle is the protection of the
spores from water, by means of the peristome, by the formation of a
watery pellicle across the mouth of the capsule, etc. For in nearly all
the mosses spore-dispersal does not take place during rain.

Boi'Tet, G.— Muscinees du departement de Maine et Loire. Supplement No. 2.
(Musuinese of the department of Maine and Loire.)

Bull. Soc. Etudes Sci. Angers. N.S., xxxii. (1902) 1903, pp. 171-8.

Britton, E. G. — Hyophila : a new genus to the United States.

[Pottia riparia Austin, 1870, New Jersey, is now shown to
be a species of the tropical genus Hyophila. It is known
in Switzerland as Trichostomum Warustorfii. It is re-
markable for the gemmiferous paraph yses in its peri-
chretia.] Bryologist, vii. (1904) pp. 69-71 (1 pi. and tig.).

„ „ When doctors disagree. (Controversy as to PlagiotheciumGroutii.)

Tom. cit., p. 78.

Camtjs,'F. — Une anomalie du Phascum cuspidatum. (An abnormal form of
^•P. cuspidatum.') Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlviii. (1901) pp. 421-2.

Cardot, J.— An answer to Mrs. E. G. Britton's last article, "Notes on Nomen
clatnre." Bryologist, vii. (1904) pp. 80, 81.

Clarke, Cora H. — Curbstone Mosses.

[On the interest of common species of the pavement.] Tom. cit., p. 74.

Coker, W. C. — Chapel Hill Liverworts.

Journ. Elislta Mitchell Sci. Soc, xx. (1904) pp. 35-7.

Corb'iere, L. — Le Jolis.

[Notice of Auguste Le Jolis, b. 1823 ; d. 1901.]

Revue Bryolog., xxxi. (1904) pp. 96-7.

Detalliere, C. — Essai sur les muscinees de 1'Ain. (Essay on the Muscinese of
the Ain department.)

[Catalogue of 259 species.] Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Ain, 1904, 16 pp.

Dismier, G. — Muscinees nouvelles, rares ou pen connues pour la flore Parisienne .
(Muscinese new, rare or little known for the Parisian liora.)

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, li. (1904) pp. 182-6.

Evans, A. W.— Notes on New England Hepaticae.

[Critical and descriptive notes on thirteen species, which are new to New
England or have been imperfectly described. Lepidozia sylmtica is new
to science.] Rhodora, vi. (1904) pp. 165-74, 181-91 (1 pi.).

Friren. A. — Promenades bryologiques en Lorraine. (Bryological excursions in
Lorraine.)

[Third series.] Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Metz, 1904, 25 pp.

„ „ Nouveau Supplement au catalogue des mousses et des hepatiques
de la Lorraine. (New Supplement to the Catalogue of the Mosses
and Hepatics of Lorraine.) Op. cit., 11 pp.

Grotjt, A. J. — Mosses with hand-lens and Microscope.

Part ii. pp. 87-166. Brooklyn, 1904 (numerous figs.).

Gtjin'et, A. — Henri Bernet.

'[B. 1850; d. 1904. Memorial notice.]

Revue Bryolog., xxxi. (1904) pp. 97-8.

676 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Hamilton, W. P. — Mosses.

[List of 197 mosses and 14 hepatics gathered in the neighbourhood of Church
Stretton in Shropshire.]

Church Stretton. Ed. by Hyslop and Cobbold. Shrewsbury,

1904, vol. ii. pp. 137-49.

Herzog, Th. — Die Laubmoose Badens. Eine bryogecgraphische Skizze. (The
Mosses of Baden. A bryogeographic sketch. Continuation.)

Bull. Herb. Boiss., iv. (1904) pp. 918-35, 1035-50.

Ingham, W. — Mosses and hepatics of the Buckden District

Naturalist, 1904, pp. 309-12.

Keller, R. — Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Laubmoosflora des Kantons TJnterwalden.
(Contributions to a knowledge of the moss-flora of Canton Unterwalden.1)

[List of 102 species gathered at Beckenried, Bnochs, etc., on the Lake of
Lucerne.] Bull. Herb. Boiss., iv. (1904) pp. 952-6.

Lam pa, E. — Untersnchungen an einigen Lebermoosen. (Researches on some
liverworts. Part II.)

Sitzb. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien., cxii. (1903) pp. 779-92 (4 pis.).

Lett, H. W. — A new Hepatic

[Description and figures of Adelanthus Dugortiensis Douin and
Lett, gathered in Achill Island, Co. Mayo, in 1903.]

Irish Naturalist, xiii. (1904) pp. 157-9 (1 pi.).

„ „ Notes on Hypopteryginm.

[Describes a new species, H. immigrant, found in an Irish green-
house ; and redescrihes 14 other species mostly preserved in
Trinity College, Dublin.]

Journ. Bot., xiii. (1904) pp. 249-53 (1 pi.).

Loeske, L.— Erster Nachtrag zur "Moosflora des Harzes." (First supplement
to the " Moss-flora of tlie Harz.")

[Contains one species new to Germany and nine new to the Harz mountains]
Festschr. zu P. Atcherson's siebzigstem Gebwtstage, 1904, pp. 280-95.

Lloyd, F. E. — Liverworts in dry regions.

Plant World, Washington, vii. (1904) pp. 185-7.

Maequand, E. D. — Further Additions to the Flora of Alderney.

[Contains a list of 13 mosses, raising the total of species
in Alderney to 100.]
Guernsey Soc. Nat. Sci. Rep., 1903 (1904) pp. 266-71.

„ „ The Mosses and Hepaticae of Sark.

[A list of 60 mosses and 22 hepatics, 14 of which are not
found in Alderney.] Tom. cit., pp. 223-6.

Massalongo, C. — Appunti intorno alle specie Italiane del genere Radula Dnmort.
(Notes on the Italian species of Badula.)

[Having studied the native species in detail, the author arranges them in two
groups; (1) Communes (R. complanata, R. ovata, and R. Lindbergi with
var. germana = R. commutata Gott.); (2) Abnormes (R. visianica).~\

Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital, 1904, pp. 260-1.
McArdle, D. — Bryophyta.

[A list of 84 mosses and 56 hepatics collected in Sligo and Leitrim, with a
photograph of a large growth of encrusted calcicolous mosses.]

Irish Naturalist, xiii. (1904) pp. 208-13 (1 pi.).

Paris, E. G. — Index Bryologicus. Ed. II., ii. fasc. 3, 4 (Paris, 1904)

pp. 129-256.

„ „ Qnelqnes nouvelles pleurocarpes japonaises et tonkinoises. (Some

new pleurocarpous mosses from Japan and Tonkin.)
[Descriptions of 7 new species.]

Revue Bryolog., xxxi. (1904) pp. 93-5.

Paul, H. — Einige interessante Moosfunde aus Oberbayern. (Some interesting moss
records from Upper Bavaria.)

Festschr. zu P. Aschersoris siebzigstem Geburtstage, 1904, pp. 128-37.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 677

Peterfi, M. — Beitrage zur Kenntniss der ungarischen kleistocarpen Moose.
(Contributions to a knowledge of the Hungarian cleistocarpous mosses).
[A list of 13 species mostly from Siebenbiirgen.]

Math. Naturw. Ber. Vngarn., xix. (Leipzig, 1904) pp. 352-6.

Koth, G. — Die Europaischen Laubmoose beschrieben und gezeichnet. (The
European Mosses described and figured.)

Band ii. Lief. ix. (Leipzig, 1904) pp. 385-512, pis. xxxi.-xl.

Schiffner, V. — Bryologische Fragmente. (Bryological Fragments.)
[Six notes on Cephalozia and other subjects.]

Oe<terr. Bot. Zeitschr., liv. (1904) pp. 251-6, 292-4.

„ „ Revision einiger kritischer Laubmoose aus dem Herbarium

F. v. Hbhnel. (Revision of some critical mosses from F. v.
Hohnel's herbarium.)

[Four of von Hohnel's novelties from the Sierra Nevada
of Spain, described by him in Sitzb. k. Akad. Wiss.
Wien., 1895, pp. 297-336, are liere criticised with a
few others. Grimmia Dornaji is shown to be a
synonym of G. anodon ; and Hypnum Alcazabx is
H. Vaucheri var. ccelophyllum Mol.]

Hedivigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 425-7.

„ „ Ueber Dumortiera. (On Dumortiera.)

[A reply to W. C. Coker's article in Bot. Gaz., xxxvi.
(1903) p. 225, etc., on the presence of air-chambers in
the frond of Dumortiera.~\ Tom. tit., pp. 428-9.

„ „ Ueber die Variabilitat von Nardia crenulata (Sm.) Lindb. nnd

N. byalina (Lyell) Carr. (On the variability of N. crenulata
and N. hyalina.)

[The former of these is the most variable of all hepatics.
Three new varieties of the former and two of the latter
are established. Notes on N. scalaris and N. minor are
added.] Verli. k. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, liv.

(1904) pp. 410-22.
S[heppard], T. — Yorkshire Naturalists at Dent.

[Contains lists of mosses and hepatics determined by W. Ingham]

Naturalist, 1904, pp. 299-304.

Stephani, F. — Species Hepaticarum.

[Monograph of the genus Plagioclu'la, coutinued ; descriptions of 29 species.]

Bull. Herb. Boiss., iv. (1904) pp. 973-88.

Stow, S. C. — Lincolnshire Mosses.

[A few new records for the county.] Naturalist, 1904, p. 312.

Torka, V. — Moose des Kreises Zullichau-Schwiebus. (Mosses of the district
Zullichau-Schwiebus.) Helios, xxi., 1903.

Thallophyta.
Algae.

Algae of Central Europe.*— \Y. Migula has reached the Alga? in his
Cryptogamic Flora of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. He begins
with a few introductory remarks on algge in general, and then proceeds
to describe the search for, collection and determination of these plants.
Useful hints and instructions are given on all these points, as well as on
methods of mounting for microscopic examination of both Cyanophyceaa
and Diatomaceaa. Details as to the cultivation of green alga? are also
given, and in a manner calculated to interest both the professional and
the amateur botanist. Under Schizophycese there is a key to the seven

* Flora v. Deutsohland, Thome, v. (1904) pp. 1-16 (6 pis.).
Dec. 21st, 1904 3 a

678 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

families of that order. The first, Chroococcaceae, is shortly defined, and
then follows a key to the fifteen genera it contains. Diagnoses are given
of the first few species of Chroococcus.

Algae of Alderney.* — E. D. Marqnand publishes additions to the
flora of this island, in the first of which he gives a list of 62 marine
algae, and in the second a list of 14 marine and 63 fresh-water species,
as well as 9 Desrnidiaceae. Each species-name is followed by the name
of the locality where it occurs.

New Algae from Java and the Philippines.f — W. Schmidle de-
scribes four new species, one of which is the type of a new genus, Myxo-
balctron. They are Pliormidium Usterii, Lyngbya Usterii, Pleurocapsa
Usteriana and MyxobaMron Usterianum. They are all named after the
collector.

Marine Algae of the Caroline Islands, etc.J— K. Okamura publishes
an interesting list of algae collected in the Caroline Islands, Australia,
Tasmania and New Zealand. He enumerates 16 Chlorophycese,
25 Phaeophyceae, 40 Florideae, and 2 Schizophyceae. Among the algae
are specimens of Cystoseira articulate Kiitz., and the author adds an
interesting and instructive note on its structure, synonymy and allies.
He doubts whether Hormopliysa articulata Kiitz. is really a synonym of
Cystoseira laUfroiis Kiitz., as De Toni suggests in his Sylloge Algarum.
He puts forward the question whether Hormopliysa articulata is distinct
from Hormosira (?) articulata Zan., and whether the latter is the same
as Cystoseira prolifera J. Ag., or C. triquetra J. Ag. He also describes
the anatomical differences between C. articulata and Hormosira Bariksii.
Figures of portions of C. articulata add to the interest of his remarks.
Separate short lists of the species collected at each locality complete the
paper.

American Algae.§ — F. S. Collins publishes a note on a small
collection made by a sailor with no special knowledge of Algae. The
localities range from Newfoundland and Bay Chaleur to Yucatan. The
only fresh-water algae are specimens of Stigeoclonium and Ulothrix which
were found on pine logs coming down the river to some port in Florida.
Among the marine species are several which enlarge the geographical
distribution hitherto recorded. The most interesting plants, however,
are luxuriant specimens of Caulerpa prolifera Lam., Codium tomentosum,
Stackh., Bryotliamnion Seaforthii Kiitz., and Eucheuma isiforme J. Ag.,
from Progreso, Mexico. Hitherto it has been supposed that the coast
of Mexico was barren, but the presence of these algae indicates that this
theory is not well-founded.

Two Algae from the Malay Archipelago. || — A. Weber van Bosse
makes some interesting observations on two algae in her collection made
on the Siboga Expedition to the Dutch East Indies. One is a new
species, forming the type of a new genus, Tapeinodasya Borneti. The

* Guernsey Soc. Nat. Sci., 1902-3, pp. 145-8; 1903-4, pp. 266-71.

t Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 414-5.

X Bot. Mag. Tokyo, xviii. (1904) pp. 77-96 (4 figs, in text).

§ Rhodora, vi. (1904) pp. 181-2.

)| Recueil des travaux bot. Ne'erl., i. (1904) pp. 1-10.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 679

thallus is dorsiventral, with sympodial branching, and the plant
resembles in appearance a minute cauliflower. Cystocarps and tetra-
spores are described. The carpospores are pyriform, like those of
Dasyopsis, but it differs from that genus in having pericentral cells.
The other species referred to in this paper is GelkUum rigidum Vahl.,
which should be placed in Gelidiopsis. It agrees with Gelidiopsis in
having a fan-like disposition of the apical cells, while Gelidium has one
large apical cell. The hyphae which characterise Gelidium are wanting
in G. rigidum, and the structure of the tetrasporous branches is identical
with those of Gelidiopsis var labile.

Florideae of the Gulf of Spezia.* — This is the first part of a paper
by A. Preda, on the algal flora of the Gulf of Spezia. Seventy-three
species are given, and among them Bornetia secuiidiflora, which is
recorded as growing on a rhizome of Posidonia.

Genicula of Corallinese.t — K. Yendo publishes the results of his
study on the genicula of the Corallineae, a subject which has lately
received attention from another botanist. After a short introduction,
he opens his paper with a description of the external appearance of the
genicula, and gives diagrammatic figures which make his meaning clear.
He considers that the genicula may be classified according to five
different types, distinguishable by the naked eye. These differences
are due to a diversity in the method of development in the early stages
of the plant. He discusses the position of genicula, both normal and
abnormal ; the relative position of the genicular and articular cells ; the
structure of the genicular cells, and comparison with articular cells ;
the formation and development of the geniculum ; the difference in the
properties of the cell-wall of articular and genicular cells ; and lastly,
the value of the geniculum as a systematic character. The subject is
worked out in great detail, and the genicula of several genera are
figured.

British Fresh-water Algae.}— G. S. "West embodies in a Treatise on
the British Fresh-water Alga?, the results of his studies on this group.
Many new facts and suggestions concerning their life-histories, develop-
ment and relationships are here brought forward. A short preface
explains the lines on which the book is written and the necessity for
such a book. The contents are divided into two sections. The first is
an Introduction, which gives a short historical sketch of the principal
works hitherto published on the -subject ; and information on the
Occurrence, Collection, Preservation and Cultivation of Fresh-water
Algae. In the second section the author shortly diagnoses the six classes
of Algae in general, and then turns to Fresh- water Algas in particular ;
describing their Vegetative multiplication, Asexual reproduction, Sexual
reproduction, Polymorphism, and Phylogeny and Classification. To the
latter subject thirteen pages are devoted, and diagrams represent the
views of the author on this subject. The algae are then dealt with
under their various orders. Each genus is fully described, with short

* Malpighia, xviii. (1904) pp. 76-93.

t Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1904, Art. 14, 44 pp., 1 pi.

X Cambridge Biol. Ser. (1904) 8vo, xv. and 373 pp., 166 figs, in text.

3 A 2

680 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

notes on the British species. The book is illustrated by 166 text-figures,
most of which are original, and as a rule the localities are mentioned
where the specimens figured were collected. Accurate measurements are
given for the most abundant and widely distributed species. Peridinese-
and Characese are not included in the volume, as being outside the group
of fresh-water algae. A frontispiece shows a reproduction of two photo-
micrographs of plankton material from Loch Ruer, Sutherland, and
Lough Neagh, Ireland.

British Desmidiacese* — W. West and G. S. West have brought out
the first volume of their Monograph of the British Desmidiaceae. The
preface contains a short historical account of past work. The last
book published on the subject appeared in 1887, since which time 400
species and 402 varieties have been added to the British Desmid flora.
A full bibliographical list is followed by an Introduction, in which a
general description of Desmids is given, and their minute structure is
dealt with under the headings of cell-wall, cell-protoplasm, chloroplasts
and nucleus. Other subjects discussed are Variation, Locomotion,
Vegetative Reproduction, Asexual Reproduction, Sexual Reproduction,
Phylogenetic Relationships of the Desniidiacese, Occurrence and
Distribution, Collection and Preservation, Examination, and Specific
Determination. A diagram illustrates the views of the authors on the
phylogeny of the genera. In the systematic treatment, the arrangement
of the genera is based upon the scheme of evolution already published
by one of the authors, and upon certain recent investigations of
Liitkemuiler. An analytical key is given to all known genera of
Desmids, of which five have not been recorded from Great Britain.
This first volume includes twelve genera, ending with Tetmemorus in
Cosmarieas. One new species is described, Mesotcenium truncatim, and
thirteen new varieties of species already known. Keys are given to
several genera, including Penkim and Closterium. Under each species
name stands a short list of synonymy, the diagnosis, a list of British
localities, the general geographical distribution, and generally some
critical remarks. The volume is illustrated by thirty-two plates, some
of which are coloured. Most of the figures are original.

West Indian Fresh-water Algse.t— G. S. West describes a collection
of fresh-water species found by A. Howard in the islands of Barba-
does, Dominica, and Trinidad. The author finds nine new species
among them, three of which are epiphytic on Pithophora Cleveana
Wittr. Of the remainder, there were several of special interest, notably
GlcRotcmium Loitlesbergerianum Hansg., which was remarkable on
account of the extraordinary deposition of black pigment in its integu-
ments ; and Cosmarium bireme Nordst. var. barbadense, because of its
minute size. The most interesting of the diatoms were Achnantlm
Hdrmannii Gutw., Cerataulus lewis, var. thermalis Grun., Tropidoneis
Van HeurcHi Cleve, and Terpsino'e muska Ehrenb.

* Monograph of the British Desniidiacese, i. (LondoD, Ray Society, 1904) xxxvi.
and 224 pp., 32 pis. t Jonrn. Bot., xlii. (1904) pp. 281-294 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 681

Biology of Diatoms.* — Matteo Lanzi makes some interesting bio-
logical observations on Diatornaceas. He points out the use of these
plants in purifying fresh- and salt-water, in the composition of the
so-called guano, and in the nutrition of animals. At the end of his
remarks the author gives two lists of Diatoms ; the first enumerates
thirty-nine species found in the stomach and intestines of a fresh-water
fish caught near Domodossola, and the second is a list of fifty-eight
species found in a fish from the Mediterranean.

Micrasterias.j — J. A. Cushman records ten species and five varieties
of this genus from south-eastern Massachusetts, of which three varieties
are new. He finds the genus is almost wholly confined to ponds and
lakes, but few occurring in streams. In ponds and lakes there are many
species present, and usually an abundance of specimens. Critical notes
are appended to the species names.

Development of Cocconema.j— C. Turner has found developmental
stages of C. Cistula, which he describes and figures. The earliest stage
seen by him consists of a minute spore, which is brown in colour and
contains four dark brown nuclei. The spore increases in size, and four
diatoms are formed within the protoplasm, the frustules being gradually
secreted and deposited around the four nuclei. The spore may contain
one, two or three young diatoms, instead of four.

Diatoms of Koh Chang.§ — E. Oestrup publishes a list of 274
species of marine diatoms contained in 74 samples of material
■collected by the Danish Expedition to Siam in 1899-1900. The
genera which characterise the material as a whole are Cocconeis and
Mastogloia. Fresh-water species occur singly, especially in samples
from mangrove swamps. Plankton forms are rare, and occur only as
fragments. Taken as a whole, the material is rich both in individuals
and in species, but it is uniform. The marine diatoms of Siam have a
tropical character, but do not occupy a peculiar position among the
East-Indian marine diatoms, such as might have been anticipated.

Dutch Plankton. ||— H. C. Redeke publishes the result of his investi-
gations during the years 1897-1901, made on the plankton of the
Zwanewater, a small lake in the North Sea dunes near Callantsoog. On
account of the shallowness of the water, the plankton corresponds with
that of the littoral zone of a larger lake. In the number of forms and
•of individuals, the zooplankton exceeds the phytoplankton.

North Sea Plankton.^" — H. C. Redeke and P. J. van Breemen give
a list of phyto- and zoo-plankton collected in the southern waters of the
North Sea between 52° and 51° N. lat., 0° and 4° E. long. Tripos-
plankton occurred principally in the north of the region examined, being

* Atti Pont. Accad. Nuov. Lincei, lvi. (1903) pp. 129-41.

f Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 393-7 (3 figs, in text).

X Rep. and Trans. Manchester Micr. Sue, 1903, pp. 88-91 (1 pi.).

§ Botanisk. Tidsskrift., xxvi. (1904) pp. 115-61 (2 pis.).

|| De erven Loosjes. Haarlem, 1903, 5 pis.

If Tijdsch. Nederl. Dierk. Vereeng. (2) viii. (1903) pp. 118-47.

682 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

less common in the south. Kemarks are made on the occurrence,
geographical distribution, etc., of the most important species. No
novelties are mentioned.

Balsa mo, F. — Primo elenco delle Diatomee del Golfo di Napoli. r(Firet list of
Diatoms from the Gulf of Naples.)

Bull. Soc. Nat Napoli, xvii. (1903) pp. 228-41.

Davis, B. M. — Oogenesis in Vaucheria.

Bot. Gazette, xxxviii. (1904) pp. 81-99 (2 pis.)

Drost, A. W. — Pleuroeoocus vulgaris Menegh. als endophytisch levende wier.
(P. vulgaris as an endophytic alga.)

[The author finds small wart-like swellings on the needles of Abies Pinsapo
and Picea excelsa, caused by colonies of Pleurococcus vulgaris, which push
up the epidermis.]

Tijdscliri/t over Plantenziehten, x. (1904) pp. 71-3 (1 pi.).

Ernst, A. — Zur Eenntniss des Zellinhaltes von Derbesia. (On the cell-contents of
Derbesia.)

[The author finds very large crystals of calcium oxalate of
regular shape in D. tenuissima.]

Flora, xciii. (1904) pp. 514-32.

, Die Stipnlarblatter von Nitella hyalina (D.C.) Ag. (The stipulary
leaves of N. hyalina.) Vierteljahrschr. Natur. Gesell. Zurich*

xlix. (1904) pp. 64-114 (1 pi.).

Falcon, B. C. — Los misterios de la naturaleza: investigaciones sobre el micro-
plankton de la ria de Arosa. (The mysteries of nature : investigations into the
microplankton of the Arosa Biver.) La Coruna, 1904, 175 pp. (1 map, 293 figs.).

Fi rth, W. A. — Diatomaceae.

[A note on five species of Diatoms encrusting some molluscs (Planorbis),
dredged in a pond near Kilmacowan, Co. Sligo.]

Irish Naturalist, xiii. (1904) p. 214.

Fournier, Abbe — L'etude des Algues. (The study of Algse.)

Bull. Soc. Bot. Deux-Sevres, Bull. xv. [1903] 1904, pp. 173-8.

Frank, The odor— Cnltur und chemische Reizerscheinungen der Chlamydomonas
tingens. (Culture and chemical stimulus-phenomena in C. tingens.)

Bot. Zeitschr., lxii. (1904) pp. 153-88 (1 pi.)

Gran, H. H.— Diatomaceae from the Ice-Floes and Plankton of the Arctic Ocean.

In F. Nansen's The Norwegian North Polar Expedition.

1893-96, iv. (London, 1904.)

„ „ Die Diatomeen der Arktischen Meere. I Teil. Die Diatomeen des

Planktons. (Diatoms of the Arctic Ocean. Part I. Diatoms of
the Plankton.) Fauna Arctica, iii. (1904) pp. 511-54

(1 table and 6 figs, in text).

Hirn, K. E. — Zur Zenntnis der Desmidiacese Finnlands. (Contribution to a know-
ledge of the Desmids of Finland.) Act. Soc. Faun, et Fl. Fenn. Helsingfors.

1903, 24 pp. (2 pis.).

K!jel lm an, F. B.— Om Alvegetationen i Skelderviken och angransande Kattegatts-
' onwade. (On the algal vegetation in Skelderviken and the neighbouring parts.
of Kattegatt.)

[Mentions a new species of Phlazospora, but gives no description.]

Medd. fr. Kgl. Landbruksst, ii. (1902) pp. 71-81.

Kuckuck, P.— Bericht uber eine botanische Reise nach Marokko (Account of a
botanical iourney to Morocco.) Wiss. Meeresunters. Kiel und Biol. Anst Alt

Helgoland, v. (1904) pp. 107-15.

Langeron — Note sur le role phytostatique et la floculation naturelle des enx
limonenses. (Note on the phytobtatic character and natural flocculation of
muddy waters.) Bull. Soc. Bot. France, li. (1902) pp. xxvii-xl

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 683

Lanzi, M. — Diatomee contenute nel canale alimentare di Oloturie del Mediterraneo'
(Diatoms contained in the alimentary canal of Holothurians of the Mediter-
ranean.)

[The author enumerates 28 species in Holothurians collected at Civita
Vecchia, and 89 in others collected at Naples.]

Atti Pont. Akad. Horn. Nuov. Lined, lvii. (1904) pp. 172-9.

Moesz, G. — Brasso videkenck levegb'n es folyovizben eto moszatjai. (Algse from
the neighbourhood of Brasso living in air or running water.)

Jahresb. Staats-Ober-B.-schule, Brasso, xix., 1904 (11 pis.).

Largaiolli, V. — Notizie fisiche e biologiche sul lago di Cepich in Istria. (Phy-
sical and biological notes on the lake of Cepich in Istria.)

Programm P. Gymnasium Pisino (Parenzo, 1904).

., „ Le Diatomee del Trentino, xvi., xvii., Laghi Corvo. (The dia-

toms of the Trentino, Corvo lakes.)

Ann. Soc. Alpinisti Tridentini, xxiii. (1904) Trento.
Ostenfeld, C. H. — Phalocystis Ponchettii (Hariot) Lagerh., and its zoospores.

Arch.f. Protistenkunde, iii. (1904) pp. 295-302 (figs. 1, 2).

Porsild, Morton P., & H. G. Simmons — Om Faeroernes Havalgevegetation
og dens Oprindelse. En Kritik. (On the marine flora of the Faeroes and its
origin.)

[M. P. Porsild writes 20 pages on the origin of the Faeroe marine flora,
giving a reduced facsimile of Ryder's map of the currents of the North
Atlantic. H. G. Simmonds writes 13 pages on the ecological unities in
the same flora ; to be continued.] Bot. Notiser, 1904, pp. 149-80.

Rosen, F. — Die Frage von der Sexualitat der Diatomeen, in Studien ueber das
naturliche System der Pflanzen. (The question of the sexuality of diatoms in
studies on the natural system of plants.)

Cohn's Beitrage t. Biologie der Pflanzen, chaps, v., vi. (1904);
Jahresb. Schles. Gesell. Vaterl. Cultur., Abt. ii. Zool.-Bot, 1904, p. 11.

Sauvageau, C. — Remarques sur les Sphacelariacees. (Remarks on the Sphacela-
riacese.)

[A continuation of the author's work on the subject.]

Journ. de Bot, 1903, pp. 332-53, 378-422 ;
1904, pp. 88-104 (figs. 48-68).

Schroder, B. — Ueber den gegenwartigen Stand der schlesischen Algenforschung.
(On the present condition of the investigation of Silesian algre.)

Jahresb. Schles. Gesell. Vaterl. Cultur., Abt. ii., Zool.-Bot., 1904, pp. 27-30.

Tecket, K.— Verhalten einiger mariner Algen bei Aendernng des Salzgehalles.
(Reaction of some marine algae to change of salinitv.) To be continued.

Oesterr. Bot.Zeit.,hv. (1904) pp. 313-18 (9 figs, in text).

Wille, N. — Ueber die Gattung Gloionema Ag. Eine Nomenklaturstudie. (On the
genus Gloionema. A study in nomenclature.)

Festsclrijt f. P. Ascherson, pp. 439-51.

Fungi.

Plasmopara cubensis in Austria.* — Ludwig Hecke records the
appearance of this dangerous parasite of cucumber. It has long been
known in America, but not yet recorded for Austria or Germany. The
leaves are attacked and very soon wither and fall, so that the health of
the plant and the development of the fruit are seriously affected. He
describes the fungus in detail, and gives an account of the methods
employed for its eradication.

* Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 355-8.

684 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Spore-development in Aphanomyces.*— Rothert confirms De Bary's
work on Aphanomyces, and adds further observations. He describes the
formation of the sporangia and the spores : the latter characterised by a
circular massing of the plasma, which takes at the same time a foam-
like formation. When the spores are fully formed, there remains a
plasma thread forming a bridge between them. The connection
accounts for the grouping of the non-motile spores after leaving the
sporangium.

Sexual Reproduction in the Mucorinege.f— A. F. Blakeslee presents
us with the extended paper, a summary of which has already appeared.
In a long introduction he discusses the points of interest in connexion
with the formation of zygospores. He finds that the conjugating gametes
do not grow towards each other, but are the ends of branches in close
contact, and that as they swell and grow, they push apart the supporting
hyphas. He explains the distinction between homothallic or bisexual
and heterothallic or unisexual strains, and gives an historical review of the
many theories held by workers as to the causes inducing the formation
of zygospores in this group of fungi. An account is also given of all
the species in which zygospores have been recorded. He finds that
there are two main groups of Mucorineae, homothallic and heterothallic,
the latter largely outnumbering the former. In the heterothallic group
zygospores are only formed between the hyphae of different plants or
" strains." Given these two strains, the other conditions of nutrition
and moisture are unimportant, except that where the substratum is too
dry no fusion takes place. Moisture, he finds, though not a determining
factor, has a decided influence on zygospore formation. The stimulus
to the formation of progametes becomes operative through the osmotic
activity of the hyphal contents ; and if the surfaces of the two membranes
are dry, there will be no osmotic influence between the fluids contained
in them. The author records several instances of successful hybridisa-
tion between different species, but always between the ( + ) strain of one
and the ( — ) of another. Mature zygospores are not formed, however ;
the process goes no further than the formation, or the cutting off, of the
two gametes. A complete bibliography of the subject is appended.

Development of Mucorini4— J. Dauphin has tested the influence of
various carbohydrates on the growth of Morierellapolycephala. He finds
that glucose, levulose, and galactose favour the appearance of sporangia
and induce the formation of zygospores hitherto unknown in this fungus.
Lactose and saccharose give only sporangia and chlamydospores ; with
maltose and mannite chlamydospores alone are produced. The author
considers that he has gained some knowledge of the conditions favour-
able to the formation of zygospores, a subject which is still enveloped in
obscurity.

Conidial Form of Morchella esculenta.§— Marin Molliard produced a
conidial growth from the ascospores of Morchella, and he finds it identical

* Flora, xcii. (1903), pp. 293-301. See also Centralbl. Bakt., xii. (1904) p. 502.
t Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., xl. (1904) pp. 205-319 (4 pis.).
t Comptes Rendus, cxxxix. (1904) pp. 482-4.
§ Rev. Gen. Bot., xvi. (1904) pp. 209-18 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY. ETC. 685

with the Hyphomycete Costantinella cristata. He thinks that it might
be included in the genus Botrytis. The conidial form is produced
where there is a high condition of moisture. Conidiophores and conidia
are colourless. Sclerotia were also developed from the Morchella
mycelium, hard brown bodies up to 7 mm. in diameter. If grown in
a more liquid substratum, a crust of similar texture was formed on the
surface.

Capnodium maximum.* — A fungus (that K. Giesenhagen found on
the sori of Polypodium crassifolium in tropical America, was described
by him as new, and placed in a new genus, Sorica. He learned later that
it had already been described by Berkeley and Curtus as Capnodium
maximum. The fungus, however, belongs rather to the Pyrenomycetes
than to the PerisporiaceaB, and thus the more recent name is retained.
The fungus finds entrance into the leaf either through the young sorus
or through wounds at the edge of the leaf caused by the bites of animals.

Karyokinesis in the Ascomycetes.f — A. Guillermond has investi-
gated nuclear division in this group, paying attention chiefly to divisions
in the ascus. He has observed in the ascus of Pustularia vesiculosa,
Peziza catinus and Ascobolus marginalus, divisions which are of the
type described by Harper. In Peziza rutilans, however, the division is of
quite a different type, the karyokinesis having no centrosomes but all the
characters of nuclear division in Phanerogams. The number of chromo-
somes is 12 in P. catinus, 8 in P. vesiculosa, and 6 in P. rutilans ; the
generalisation of Dangeard that all the ascomycetes have 4 chromosomes
at this stage is thus not supported. The author was unable to solve the
problem of the reduction in number of the chromosomes.

Erysiphe G-raminis4 — In this paper, Part I., E. Salmon discusses
the adaptive parasitism of Erysiphe graminis within the genus Bromus.
He shows that there exists not only a high degree of specialisation of
the fungus, but that each species of the host-plants possesses con-
stitutional characters existing concomitantly with the specific morpho-
logical characters. As a rule this holds good for all examples of the
species wherever grown. In one case he found a biologic form of the
host-plant which resisted infection, though morphologically it was
exactly similar to the form on which the fungus grew readily. This fact
has great economic importance, as pointing to the possibility of breeding
races that would be immune to disease.

In another case, Bromus arduefmensis, the species has been con-
sidered by some systematists to possess generic differences that would
separate it altogether from this genus. Salmon found that it was
markedly susceptible to attacks of the fungi that are parasitic within
the genus, and thus its affinity was very strikingly indicated.

In Part II., he gives an account of his inoculation experiments with
the conidia of E. graminis on species of Bromus. The Oidium was taken
from several species, and a very large number of experiments were made,
with very varying results, according to the affinities and physiological

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxii. (1904) pp. 355-8.
t Rev. Gen. Bot., xvi. (1904) pp. 129-43 (2 pis.).
X Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 255-67, 307-43.

G86 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

characters of the host-plants. In the species B. commutatus, he found
that there were two races that showed a different reaction to the same-
fungus. In other cases, plants that were immune when young and
vigorous, became susceptible after being kept for some time in the
laboratory. Extended tables are given of the experiments, and diagrams
illustrating the text.

Growth of Yeast in Mineral Solutions.* — A. Kossowicz found that
very small quantities of yeast failed to increase in the usual sugar and
mineral solutions. An increased quantity showed some growth, though
no visible fermentation, while the introduction of a large quantity in-
duced at once cell production and fermentation. He found also that an
addition of calcium (as phosphate or chloride) increases yeast formation
and fermentation. Sulphate and chloride of iron, in excess only, aid
fermentation.

Saccharomyces Anomalus.f — Under this name, K. Saito describes a
yeast that occurs on Sake. He made artificial cultures, and describes the
morphology and physiological properties of the cells. Endogenous
spores were easily obtained. The writer is uncertain as to the role of
this special yeast in the brewing of sake. He thinks probably the
peculiar odour is to be traced to it.

Contributions to the Morphology of Saccharomyces.J — A. Oster-
walder has studied the forms of yeast that are to be found in the must
of cider. He isolated several species, and found that they belonged to
races that could not be distinguished from Saccharomyces Gerevisice. He
found also that the culture medium exercised a great influence on the
form of the yeast-cell. He gives an account of spore formation, and a
detailed account of the 12 races that he succeeded in isolating.

Aposphaeria violacea, sp. n.§— Rud. Bertel detected a large patch of
reddish-violet mycelium growing on the walls of a conservatory at
Prague. The hypha? were thickly interwoven and appressed to the sub-
stratum. Here and there seated on the hypha? were small pycnidia,
which became dark-brown when mature. The pycnidial spores were
small, colourless, elliptical bodies. No further fructification was ob-
served by the author, who considers that it would probably prove to be
near Clmtomium. He cultivated the fungus in artificial media, and
tested the colouring matter with various reagents.

Cercosporella compacta, sp. n.|] — J. B. Traverso describes a disease
of Acanthus leaves caused by the above fungus. The leaf was covered
with brown spots 3-8 mm. broad. The fungus consists of tufts of
colourless conidiophores, which rise from a Pseudostroma within the
tissue ; the elongate, septate conidia are borne singly at the tips of the
fertile hyphge. The author gives an account of other fungal parasites
on Acanthus leaves.

* Zeitschr. Landw. Verauchsw. Oesterr., vi. (1903) pp. 731-7. See also Ann.
Mycol., ii. (1904) p. 385.

t Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, xix (1904) 14 pp.

X Landw. Jahrb. der Fcliweiz, 1903. Bee also Centralbl. Bakt., xii. (1904)
pp. 486-7. § Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., liv.(1904) pp. 205-209, 233-7 (1 pi.).

... ;^ gih, xliii. (1904) pp. 422-4 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY, AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 687

Hyphomycetes.* — G. Lindau continues in this third part the de-
cription of the Aspergilleae begun in Part II. Under Aspergillus he
includes the genus Sterigmatocystis, with Septromyces opizii&s a monstrous
form of S. nigra. Citromyces and PeniciUium are also described. The
latter genus, he remarks, is in great need of revision.

Uredineae. — D. McAlpinef corrects misconceptions that have arisen
concerning the uredospores of Puccinia Pruni. A number of observers
have described them as being of two kinds. McAlpine disproves this.
The uredospores are all alike, but sometimes the two cells of the teleuto-
spore fall apart, and the lower has been figured and described as a second
kind of uredospore.

H. and P. Sydow % describe a series of new or critical species from
Japan, Africa, Mexico, etc.

C. A. J. A. Oudemans § writes a note on Puccinia veratri, which has
been erroneously described as a Uromyces.

A. Trotter || gives an account of Uromyces giganteus, a species found
on the stalks of Suaeda maritima ; he finds a variety on S. fruticosa also,
growing on the stalks and deforming them.

Fr. Bubak IT gives a list of seven forms of Uredinese, in which he
has conducted successful inoculation experiments. He notes that in
Sedum boloniense the aacidium mycelium of Puccinia longissima is
perennial.

Fertilisation, Alternation of Generations, and General Cytology of
the Uredinese.** — V. H. Blackman has published the full paper, a short
account of which appeared in the New Phytologist, iii. 1004, pp. 24-27.
He reviews the history of research and opinion as to the sexuality of this,
group of fungi, describes the methods he employed, and then gives the
results arrived at by himself. After describing the morphology, cytology
and germination of the teleutospores of Phragmidium violaceum and
Gymnosporanghim clavariavforme, he passes on to a consideration of the
sperm ogonia of these forms. They arise from a uninucleate mycelium.
The spermatia are also uninucleate, and, when mature, are extruded and
lie on the leaf surface, where many of them seem to undergo a process of
degradation : they took no part in ascidiuni formation, and were never
observed to germinate. The gecidium of Phragmidium, which the writer
takes next in order, also arises from a uninucleate mycelium. The cells
of the eecidiuni immediately below the epidermis of the hosts elongate,
and cut off a sterile cell at the tip, the nucleus of which becomes dis-
organised ; the cell below is the fertile cell that gives rise to the ascidio-
spores ; at first uninucleate, it becomes binucleate from the passing into
it of the nucleus of a neighbouring cell, usually the one immediately
below. The migrating nucleus passes through the cell wall. The
paired nuclei then divide by conjugate division, and binucleate secidio-
spores are cut off from the fertile cell. The migrating process was
not observed in Gymnosporangium, but the development proceeds in
the same way from uninucleate mycelium to binucleate ascidiospores.

* Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Flora, viii. Lief. 94, pp. 129-76.

+ Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 344-8. X Tom. cit., pp. 349-51.

§ Tom. cit., p. 358. || Tom. cit, pp. 359-60 (1 fig.).

i Tom. cit., p. 361. ** Ann. Bot., xviii. (1904) pp. 323-73 (4 ph.).

688 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES DELATING TO

The agcidiospores give rise to binucleate uredospores mycelia and
finally to binucleate teleutospores ; as these latter mature, the two nuclei
in each cell become fused, and produce on germination the uninucleate
sporidia and uninucleate mycelium of the early ascidiuin stages. The
author considers that the migration of nuclei observed in the eecidium is
a reduced form of fertilisation ; though conjugation does not take place,
there is association which give the necessary sexual stimulus to further
growth. The spermogonia are male organs, that have become function-
less ; the nature of the spermatia proves this to be the case. Comparing
the development with that of the higher plants, he finds a clear alter-
nation of generations ; the sexual or gametophyte bearing spermogonia
and secidia, and characterised by a single nucleus, and the sporophyte or
asexual stage, bearing asexual spores, secidiospores, uredospores and
teleutospores. Finally in the teleutospore there is the return to the
oophyte, fusion of the nuclei, and reduction of the chromatin masses.
The teleutospore represents the spore mother-cell, and undergoes a
process of tetrad division to form the four cells of the promycelium.
These four cells are really spores, and are easily recognised as such in
forms like Coleosporium. The absence of the aecidium in the life-cycle
corresponds to the cases of apogamy observed in the higher plants.
Apospory is found in Enclophyllum, where the Eecidiospores behave on
germination like the teleutospores, and produce sporidia. Blackmail
has given full accounts of the cytology throughout. He compares the
fusion of nuclei in the basidiospore with fusion in the teleutospore, but
he would consider the Basidiomycetes, while closely related, to be
reduced apogamous forms of the Uredinese.

Nuclear Phenomena in Coleosporium Sonchi-arvensis.* — R. J.
Holden and F. J. Harper selected this form, parasitic on various com-
posites, as favourable for the study of nuclear division and nuclear
phenomena. The authors consider the uredospores of this fungus to be
really ascidiospores — thus regarding Coleosporium Sonchi-arvensis as
monoecious. All other forms investigated have been found to be
hetercecious. They discuss the work already done by Sappin-Trouffy,
Dangeard, Poirault, etc., on this subject, and give in detail the results
arrived at in their own investigations. They lay special stress on the
fusion of the nuclei in the teleutospore, which has, they consider, " the
essential characteristics of a sexual fertilisation in the origin of the
nuclei, and in the behaviour of the teleutospores after fusion." In this
genus the teleutospore germinates at once, and sporidia are produced,
which are at first uninucleated. The nucleus divides in the sporidium,
and the cells of the fungus, according to these writers, are thenceforth
bi-nucleated until the teleutospore is again reached. Poirault and
Raciborski found in the division stages of the nucleus that there were
two chromosomes. Holden and Harper have evidence that there are
from six to ten.

Witches'-Broom caused by Puccinia.f — P. Magnus has followed
the development of Puccinia Riibsaameni on Origanum vulgare, where

* Trans. Wiss. Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters, xiv. (1904) pp. 63-80 (2 pis.).
f Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxii. (1904) pp. 344-7 (1 pi.)-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 689

it grows only in the stalk, causing an abnormal branch development with
a dwarfing of the leaves. The fungus produces only teleutospores ; the
mycelium is very abundant in the pith, and passes out to the cortex
chiefly at the leaf bases where the sori are usually found, though they
also extend up the internodes. The intercellular spores are filled with
hyphas, and haustoria penetrate the cells. The hyphas were found to
have penetrated the youngest branches. Magnus made a careful search
for mycoplasma, but was unable to find any evidence of its presence in
the tissues.

Infection of Cereals by Smut.* — L. Hecke has been testing the
effects of copper sulphate treatment of seeds to destroy any spores of
Ustilago adhering to them. He has come to the conclusion that the
fungus infects the seed before it is ripe, and is thus contained within it
when it is sown the following year. He experimented with corn that
was artificially infected when flowering, and of which some of the seeds
ripened and seemed healthy. These seeds protected from further infec-
tion were sown, and produced smutted heads.

Copulation of Conidia in Ustilago Tragopogi-pratensis.t — H,
Federley has observed the copulation of the conidia of this fungus and
the fusion of the nuclei. He noted some remarkable differences in
material gathered at different seasons. In autumn material the spores
would not germinate in any nutritive solution : they germinated only in
pure water. Fusion took place between the conidia, and long hyphre were
formed. The spores from fungi collected during the summer germinated
either in water or in nutritive media ; the promycelium gave rise to
numerous conidia, which multiplied by budding, but copulation was.
never observed, and the addition or exhaustion of nutrition had no effect
in inducing fusion.

North American Polyporaceas.J — W. A. Mnrrill continues his work
on this group. He revises the two genera Hapctlopilus and Pycnoporus ;
the former to contain forms with an " anoderm surface and fleshy-tough
context " ; the latter for the two species Polyporus cinnabarinus and
P. sanguineus. His new genera are Abortiporus, Gyclomycetella, Cyclo-
porus, Globiformes, Nigroformes and Poronidulus, all of them so far
monotypic, and founded on various speeies of Polyporus.

Dry-rot. § — B. Malenkovie finds that the infection of dry-rot is due
to the spores of the fungus rather than to the mycelium. He thinks
that calcium carbonate, which is found on wood near the walls, offers
a favourable medium for the growth of the fungus. He recommends
light and air as the best means of preventing the growth of Meridius.
In another paper j| the same author gives results of his work on the ger-

* Zeitschr. landw. Versuchsw. Oesterr., 1904. See also Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904)
pp. 376-7.

t Finska. Vetensk.-soo. Forh., xlvi. (1903-4) No. 2. See also Bot. Zeit., lxii.(1904)
pp. 171-2.

X Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxi. (1904) pp. 415-28.

§ Centralbl. Ges. Forstw., xxxix. (1903) pp. 281-9G. See also Centralbl. Bakt.,
xii. (1904) pp. 511-2.

|] Naturw. Zeitscbr. Land und Forshw., ii. (1904) pp. 100-9, 160-3. See also
Centralbl. Bakt.. xii. (1904) pp. 512-3.

690 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

mination of the spores. He made artificial cultures, and found that any
invasion of bacteria or moulds hindered the development of the Meru-
lius, and that the finest growth was obtained in acid solutions that were
unfavourable to bacteria. Wood itself was less advantageous than arti-
ficial media. He found, however, that bacteria did not readily develop
on wood.

J. Beauverie * has written a lengthy treatise on the same subject.
He gives a scientific account of the fungus, discusses the conditions
favourable to growth, the influence of different media in artificial culture,
and the chemical products of growth. He then takes up the technical
side of the question ; the woods that are specially liable to attack, and
the conditions that favour development. He gives various methods of
detecting the presence of the hyphae, and advises as to the means of
combating the fungus when it has gained an entry into a house ; above
all, proper ventilation must be secured. Various antiseptics are also of
use to sterilise the wood.

New Species of Microfungi.f — Gr. Cocconi describes a new Absidia,
which grows on horse-dung. The sporangiophores grow in groups of
3 to 5, and are often branched. The spores are somewhat echinulate.
Lack of nutrition induces the formation of zygospores, which are almost
globose. If the sexual hyphae fail to fuse together, azygospores are
formed, which germinate like the zygospores.

Cocconi also describes % a species of Ghcetomium ; the spores are
ovate, with a colourless papilla at one end. The author describes the
various cultures that he made.

Teratology of Fungi.§ — Ferdinand Filarszky describes the cases of
anomalous growth or malformation among the higher fungi. He in-
cludes among these the cases of cohesion between different individuals,
proliferation, abnormal growth of the stalk at the expense of the pileus,
excessive development of stalk or head, malformation of the hymeno-
phore, and either dwarfing or overgrowth of any of the plants.

Production of Citric Acid by Citromyces.|| — The species of fungi
belonging to the genus Citromyces produce citric acid in sugar solutions,
and have been used commercially for the production of the acid.
P. Maze and A. Perrier have studied the process, and give their results.
They find that these moulds (nearly allied to Penicilliurri) grow freely
on organic acids. They have isolated four different species, which they
call Citromyces citricus, G. tartar icus, C. oxalicus, and G. lacticus. They
consider the acid formed by the fungus to be an accidental product of
" disassimilation," when nitrogen is exhausted in the culture, and sugar,
glycerine or alcohol are still present in abundance. They give details of
the different experiments, and the chemical results arrived at.

* Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, 1. (1904) pp. 1-63 (9 figs.).

t Mem. Acad. Bol., viii. ser. 5, pp. 85-90 (1 pi.). See also Centralbl. Bakt., xii.
(1904) p. 738.

X Tom. cit., pp. G83-88 (1 pi.). See also Centralbl. Bakt., xii. pp. 738-9.
§ Math. Naturwiss. Ber.TJngarn, xix. (1904) pp. 357-62.
|| Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xviii. (1904) pp. 553-75.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 691

Diseases of Ficus.* — R. Farneti describes two fungi that attack
and damage figs. The first, Alternaria Fici, attacks the young fruit and
causes deformation. The mycelium burrows among the cells of the
growing tissue. As the fruit ripens and becomes soft, conidiophores and
conidia are produced. The second, Cladosporium sicophilum, also attacks
the fruit. A layer of cork underneath the part affected is formed, and
brown spots appear on the outer skin of the fig. The fungus spores are
of a clear brown colour.

White Mildew of Citrus Limonum.f — G-. Briosi and E. Farneti
have worked out this disease of the lemon tree. It attacks the fruit,
leaves, and leaf -stalks. The first form of the fungus observed is Clado-
sporium Citri ; other forms observed were Hormodendron, Ovidaria,
Haplaria, and Rhynchodiplodia. The authors followed the different
stages throughout, and watched the development of one form to another.
Artificial infection of healthy fruits caused either hypertrophy (out-
growths of the fruit), or atrophy (formation of crusts). The oil glands
are the most favourable regions of infection. A cork layer invariably
forms under the area attacked.

Diseases of Citrous Trees and Fruits.J — P. H. Rolfs records a
fungous disease which works much havoc in all places where citrous fruits
are grown, and is known by the name of wither-tip. The fruit, leaves,
flowers, or twigs may be attacked by the fungus Colletotrichum gloao-
sporoides. It causes spots on the fruit, especially of the lemon, and
these do not show until after the fruit is shipped, and much loss is
caused. The writer recommends methods of cure.

Mycodomatia of Myrica cerifera.§ — J. W. Harshberger has given
an account of the nodules on the root of this plant. He found them
to be filled with fungus mycelium. The hyphae grew in the interior of
the cells and also in the intercellular spaces. The larger hyphae were
brown in colour. The root structure was found to be more or less
abnormal in the nodules.

Formation of False Heart-wood in the Red Beech. || — The false
heart-wood is characterised by its dark colour. It takes rise from
wounds caused by decaying or broken branches, and spreads above and
below the place of origin. Johan Tuszon finds that it differs from the
neighbouring sap-wood, in the cells being filled by reddish-brown gummy
•contents and in the tylosis of the vessels. He finds also that there are
always fungal hyphae in the tissue, "especially towards the centre. He
■considers the special formation to be a protective structure against the
attack of the fungus. It is only the functionless heart-wood that is
thus transformed, and the fungus enters through some deeply penetrating

* Atti 1st. Bot. Pavia, viii. (1908) 5 pp., 1 pi. See also Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904)
p. 375.

t Op.cit. n.s.,x. (1904) 60 pp., 11 pis. See also Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 374-5.

I U.S. Dep. Agric. Bur. Plant Industry, Bull. lii. (1904) 20 pp. See alBo Bot.
€entralbl., xcvi. (1904) pp. 116-7.

§ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, lv. (1903) pp. 352-62. See also Bot.
€entralbl., xcvi. (1904) p. 274.

|| Math. Naturwiss. Ber. Ungarn, xix. (19041 pp. 242-82 (22 figs.).

692 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

wound such as would be caused by a decaying branch. The fungi
causing the formation are Stereum hirsutum and possibly Xenodochus
(?) ligniperda. The latter consists of stout coloured hyphae, of which
the fructification is unknown. The author gives an account of various
other fungi that attack beech wood, and recommends suitable remedies.

Influence of Growth Products of Fungi on their Further De-
velopment.*— Jacob Nikitinsky has studied this question in regard to
the growth of species of Penicillium, Mucor, Aspergillus and Saccharo-
myces. He gives the solutions used as culture media, and the different
salts employed to vary these media. He found, in all the culture con-
ditions tested, that changes were induced by the growth of the fungus
that had a considerable influence on its later growth. These results can
be counteracted by the addition of neutralising agents such as ammonia,
salts, etc. A deterrent of growth is produced by an acid condition of
the culture solution, the acidity being due to the production of inorganic
acids or free oxalic acid extruded in the metabolism of the hyphal cells.
Other hurtful products arise by the splitting of glucosides. There are
also unknown products that are harmful to continued growth, and some
fungi are more susceptible than others to these influences. Extended
tables are given of the different culture experiments.

Conditions of Colour Formation in Fusarium. f — Ernst A. Bessey
gives an historical review of previous work on this subject ; his object has
been to verify the results already published by various workers, and to
advance further our knowledge of the subject. The colours produced
by the different fungi tested are chiefly red and orange. The red colour
he found to be an acid which with different bases formed blue or violet
salts insoluble in alcohol. Under the influence of light the same species
of Fusarium produced an orange colour, of which the exact chemical
nature is unknown. Fusarium culmorum forms a yellow pigment in an
acid medium, and reddish-violet if the medium gave a neutral or alkaline
reaction. The acid form appears to be a weak organic acid with diffi-
culty soluble in water or alcohol. The alkaline form dissolved in
alkaline solutions. The author gives the conditions other than the
media in which these colours were formed, and also the conditions that
hinder their production.

Seed-fungus of Lolium temulentum.f — This fungus is of universal
occurrence in Europe. G. Lindau has also found it in seeds of extra-
European origin. He secured some old seeds from Egyptian tombs, and
in all cases he found the fungus in them in great abundance. He ex-
amined recent seeds from the same locality with the same result. He
gives an account of the microscopic appearance of the fungus.

Buchnek, E., & J. M ei sen hammer— Die chemischen Vorgange bei der Alko-
holischen Garung. (The chemistry of alcoholic fermentation.)

Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Geseli, xxxvii. (1904) p. 417. See also

Ann. Mycol, ii. (1904) pp. 385-6.

* Jahrb. Wiss. Bot., xl. (1904) pp. 1-93.

t Flora, xciii. (1904) pp. 301-33.

% SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., xxxv. (1901) pp. 1031-6 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 693

Buffa, Edmond — Note sur un Mucor parasite vegetal du cuir chevelu de l'homme
(The mucor found growing on the hair of a child's head resembled Mucor corym-
bifer.) Nord. Med. Arkiv., 19U4, Afd. ii. Haft. 2, No. 6, 9 pp. (2 pis.).

Cooke, M. C. — Fungoid pests of the garden. (Descriptions of the parasites that
attack greenhouse plants.) Jonrn. Hort. Soc, xxviii. (1904) pp. 313-37.

Heinze, B., & E. Cohn — TJeber Milchzucker vergarende Sprosspilze. (The yeast
fungi that cause fermentation of milk.)

Zeitschr. JJyg. Infectionskranklt., xlvi. (1904) pp. 286-366.
See also Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 380-5.

Hennings, P. — Fungi amazonici iii. a cl Ernesto Ule collecti.

[A large number of new species of microfungi are included
in the list, the new genera are Perisporina and Zukaliopsis
(Perisporiacese); Asteropeltis and Phxoscutella (Micro-
thyriacese); Metadothella (Pseudophacidiacesa); Cicinno-
bella, Diplodiopsis and Septodothideopsis (Sphaeropsidese) ;
Poropeltis, Ptltistroma, Seynesiopsu and Phragmopeltis
(Leptostromatacese) ; and Bactridiupsis (Tuberculariacese.)]
Hedwigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 351-400
(1 pi. and 46 figs.).

„ „ Cudoniella Milbraedii sp. n. (An Ascomycete described at length ;

it has a smooth stalk and a reddish-brown convex head.)

Tom. cit., pp. 430-1 (3 figs.).

„ „ Einige von Herrn G. Feurich, Goda, im Konigreich Sachsen

gesammelte Sphaeropsidaceen. (Description of six new species
parasitic on herbaceous plants.) Tom. cit., pp. 432-3.

Hinsberg & Eoos — Ueber einige Bestandteile der Hefe.

[The authors found among other constituents of the yeast-cell a chloresterin
aud an ethereal oil : The latter had the odour of hyacinth.]

Zeitschr. Physiolog. Chern., xxxviii. (1903) p. 1 ff. See also
Centralbl. Bakt., xii. (1904) pp. 478-9.

Hollos, Lapislaus — Neue Gasteromyceten-Arten aus Ungarn.

[Diagnoses and descriptions of eight new species of Geaster, Calvatia, Lyco-
perdon and Bovista.) Math. Naticriciss. Ber. Ungarn, xix. (1904) pp. 82-8.

Ktjseno, S. — Notes on Japanese Fungi.

[An account of Uredinese found on Sophora japonica.']

Bot. Mag. Tokyo, xviii. (1904) pp. 1-6. See also
Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) p. 371.

Lesage, Pierre — Contribution a l'etude des mycoses dans les voies respiratoires.
Role du regime hygrometrique dans le genese de ces mycoses. (Study of the
development of fungi in the trachefe of birds and in respiratory canal of man.)

Arch. Parasit., viii. (1904) pp. 353-443 (14 figs.). See also
Bot. Centralbl, xcvi. (1904) pp. 301-2.

McAlpine, D. — Australian Fungi, new or unrecorded. Decades vii.-viii.
[There is one new genus, Amphichada, and seventeen new species.]

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, xxix. (1904) pp. 117-27.

Pax, F. — Cordiceps sphecophila von Gorkan am Zobten.

[A record of the Isaria form of this fungus rare in Silesia found on a wasp.]

Jahres. Ber. Schles. Ges., lxxx. (1904) Abt. ii. p. 10.

Pantanelli, Enrico — Su le regolazioni del Turgore nelle cellule delle volgari
muffe. (On the regulation of turgescence in the cells of the common moulds,
Aspergillus niger, and others.) Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital., xi. (1904) pp. 333-55.

Rehm, H. — Ascomycetes Americae borealis.

TNotes on twelve species of Ascomycetes. Three of these are new species.]

Ann. Mycol., ii. (1904) pp. 351-4.

Saccardo, P. A., & G. B. Traverso — Micromiceti Italiani nuovi o interessanti.
[A list of new or interesting species parasitic on leaves or branches.]

Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., v. (1904) pp. 207-21 (9 figs.).

Dec. 21st, 1904 3 b

694 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Saccardo, P. A. — Le relique dell' Erbario micologico di P. A. Micheli.
[A list of the funsji of Micheli's herbarium.]

Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital.,\. (1904) pp. 221-32.
Saito, K. — Tieghemella japonica sp. n.

[Morphological account of a new mucor obtained from the floating spores in
a brewing cellar.]

Journ. Coll. Set. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, xix. (1904) 8 pp. (1 pi.).

Shear, C. L. — The black Fungi.

[Popular account of some Pyrenomycetes in America.]

Plant World, vii. (1904) pp. 172-4.

Spaulding, Perley — Two fungi growing in holes made by wood-boring insects.

[The fungi were Flammula mpineus and Claudopus nidulans. They grew on

logs of Pine.] Beport Miss. Bot. Garden, xv. C1904) pp. 73-7. See

also Bot. Centralbl, xcvi. (1904) pp. 119-20.

Starback, Karl — Ascomyceten der ersten Regnellschen Expedition, iii.

[The list of Discomycetes and Pyrenomycetes includes several new species.]

Arkivfiir Botanik, ii. No. 5, 20 pp. (2 pis.).

Young, A., & W. J. Young — Garversuche mit Presssaft aus obergariger Hefe.
[Research on fermentation processes.]

Ber. Deutsch. Cliem. Ges., xxxvii. (19041 p. 1052. See
also Aim. Mycol., ii. (1904) p. 36.

Lichens.

Alvthin, Nils — Bidrag tell kannedom om Skanes lafflora.
[A list of Lichens from Scandinavia.]

Arkivfiir Botanik, ii. No. 6 (1904) 30 pp.

Britzelmayr, M. — Tiber Cladonien-Abbildungen.

[An account of the published drawings, photographs, etc., of the different
species of CladoniaJ] Hedicigia, xliii. (1904) pp. 401-13.

Steiner, J. — -Flechten, auf Madeira und den Eanaren gesammelt von J. Born-
rnuller in den Jahren 1900 und 1901.

[A list of species with their habitats, with descriptions of Pyrenopsis Palmana
and Us7iea submollis, sp. n.]

Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., liv. (1904) pp. 333-6.

Mycetozoa.

Nuclear Changes in the Plasmodium of Myxomycetes.* — J,
Proweizek finds in the plasmodium of Physarum a nucleus rich in
chromatin with a dark-staining body. At certain stages this body
moves to the periphery of the nucleus, and passes out into the sur-
rounding protoplasm, leaving a clear, somewhat empty nucleus behind.
He discusses the nature of these inner dark bodies, and compares the
structure of this nucleus with that of other organisms. He gives an
account of nuclear fusion in the plasmodium. Such fusion may or may
not have a sexual signification, but he thinks that sexual fusion does
take place, as in Plasmodiophora, before spore-formation.

Schizophyta.
Schizomycetes.

Etiology of Rat-Plague and other Infectious Rat Diseases .t —
E. Klein, in a report on this subject, suggests that there are at least two
definite types of B. pestis — viz. (1) a virulent type, bred in the human

* Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., liv. (1904) pp. 278-81.

t Bep. Med. Off. Local Government Board, 1902-3, pp. 399-420.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 695

subject, which on gelatin exhibits raised colonies with filmy irregular
margins, and the bacilli of which are cylindrical in shape when taken
from recent cultures ; and (2) a less virulent type, bred in the rat,
exhibiting rounded translucent colonies on gelatin, with coccus-like
forms on culture. He regards the rat-bacillus of Edington as belonging
to the latter type. With regard to the supposed flea agency in the
spread of plague among rats, the author, from the results of experiment,
negatives it. He emphasises the prevalence of wounds, abrasions,
ulcers, etc., in the majority of sewer rats, making ready inoculation
possible. From the fact that the bloodvessels and uriniferous tubules of
the kidney in a plague-infected rat contain B.pestis, he considers the
urine as a possible source of infection. He has found the sanguineous
mucus of the intestine very virulent, and also, in the sxtb-acute form, the
oral and pharyngeal mucus. Feeding with infected material gave nega-
tive results. The author discusses four rat-diseases other than plague :
(1) that described by Danysz, caused by a microbe shown to be a variety
of B. coli ; (2) one caused by a microbe related partly to B. coli and
partly to B. lactis ccrot/enes, and named by him Bad. Bristolensp ; (3)
Pseudotuberculosis ; and (4) a disease caused by a micro-organism
apparently morphologically identical with Klebs-Loffler's B. diphtheria,
which is uninfluenced by diphtheria anti-toxin.

Nitrifying Organisms in Sewage Filters.* — Schultz-Schultzenstein
has carried out a research with the object of isolating and studying the
nitrifying bacteria in sewage filters, and comparing them with the
nitrifying organisms present in the soil of cultivated fields. His con-
clusions are as follows : (1) on the coke of biological filters Winogradsky's
nitrifying organisms are present ; (2) for their isolation the silica jelly
media of Winogradsky is strongly recommended ; (3) the micro-organisms
isolated by Winogradsky are introduced into the filters by the sewage
itself ; (4) no nitrifying organisms other than those discovered by
Winogradsky were found upon the coke of biological filters ; (5) steri-
lised sewage containing ammonium salts may be kept indefinitely without
losing ammonia. If such sewage be inoculated with the nitrite- and the
nitrate-formers, the ammonia is soon oxidised ; (G) unsterilised sewage
kept without inoculation loses its ammonia in time. Nitrites and
nitrates make their appearance, and these disappear after some time
(denitrification) ; (7) the optimum temperature for the nitrifying
organism lies between 28° C. and 30°-C. ; (8) slight amounts of organic
acids up to 0 • 1 p.c. interfere but little with the growth of the nitrifying
organisms ; they retard their nitrifying activity only. Commercial
chloride of lime and phenol up to O'l p.c. act similarly ; (9) 0*5 p.c.
solutions of organic acids, of phenol, chloride of lime and inorganic
acids, completely prevent growth and nitrification ; (10) free ammonia
entirely prevents the growth and activity of the nitrifying organisms.

Role of Streptococci in the Course of Scarlatina.f — Besredka and
Dopter have endeavoured to demonstrate specificity as regards the
streptococci commonly found in the throat and heart's blood of cases of

* Technology Quarterly, xvii. (1904) pp. 1SG-203.
t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xviii. (1904) pp. 373-7.

3 b 2

^96 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

scarlatina. Having previously failed to obtain a specific agglutinating
reaction, they. attempted, to demonstrate a sensibilisatrice for the strepto-
cocci. Serum obtained from scarlatina patients was heated to 5 G° C.
20 drops of this were then mixed with 4-7 drops of serum of the guinea-
pig, which supplied the necessary alexine. 10-20 drops of a culture of
the streptococcus were added, and after five hours sensitised red blood
corpuscles ((/lobules sensibilises) of the rabbit. The reaction showed
itself very soon. The results of the experiments were that in none of
"the sera employed did there appear to be a sensibilisatrice either for
streptococci isolated from the heart's blood in fatal cases, or for their
proper streptococci isolated from the throat. The authors are of opinion
that the streptococcus met with in scarlatina is not specific to this
disease.

Antistreptococcic Serum and its Mode of Action.* — Besredka has
prepared antistreptococcic serum by sowing and preserving different
varieties of streptococci in a mixture of horse serum, heated for half an
hour at 5(J° C, and bouillon (Martin) in equal parts. From these
cultures are made, in Roux's flasks, on agar to which 1-1 ■ 5 c.cm. horse
serum, heated, has been added one hour before inoculation. Each in-
jection into the horse contains a mixture of cultures of 6-8 streptococci.
Of this mixture all varieties save one are from a human source ; this one
has been caused to acquire a heightened virulence by a series of passages
through animals. It is inferred that this virulent streptococcus may
serve as an indicator of the state of immunity of the horse against the
totality 'of the streptococci. Serum obtained from a horse so treated is
preventive. It, unlike Aronson's serum, contains fixateur. A serum is
then able to be active without containing fixateur, and is able to contain
fixateur without on tihat account being active. The action of the serum
is apparently to stimulate the leucocytes.

Fatal Infection by a Hitherto Undescribed Chromogenic Bac-
terium : Bacillus aureus foetidus.f — Under this name M. Herzog de-
scribes a micro-organism obtained from the body of a Filippino who had
died rather suddenly. It is a non-sporing, non-motile, encapsulated
short rod. It tends to polar staining, and is negative to Gram. On
solid media it produces golden yellow pigment. It liquefies gelatin.
It develops under either aerobic or anaerobic conditions, and the cul-
tures have a very foetid, cheesy and somewhat cadaverous smell. In
animal experiments it was not found to be very highly pathogenic. The
author concludes that Bacillus aureus fcetidus is ordinarily a saprophyte.

Role of Microbes in Alcoholic Fermentation which Stoklasa
attributes to the Zymase isolated from Vegetable or Animal
Tissues.:]:— From experiments on this subject, P. Maze and A. Perrier
conclude that the results obtained hy Stoklasa are accurate, if one only
considers the nature of the fermentations which appear in solutions of
glucose to which vegetable or animal extracts have been added ; but the
origin of the diastases so acting is quite other than that which they
indicate, being bacterial.

'* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xvii. (1904) pp. 3G3-72.
t Rep. Bureau Gov. Lab., Manila, 1904.
% Ann. Inst. Pasteur, sv.iii. (1904.) pp. 382-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 697

Loss of Colour in Red Wines.*— R. Greig Smith considers the los
of colour stage of vin tourne to be due to the action of an acetic
organism which does its work by means of oxidase. From two samples
of decolorised red wines he isolated a bacterium, apparently a race of
Bad. ascendens Henneberg. It forms a delicate film, which creeps
high up the sides of the culture flasks ; it is easily broken, and falls to
the bottom of the wine as a flocculent precipitate. The cells are not
stained by iodine ; they are non-motile, and are not arranged in threads,
but occur singly, in pairs, and in masses. "When contained in wine it is
killed by an exposure to 43° C. for ten minutes.

Bacerium teutlium, sp. n.f — H.Metcalf describes the parasite which
causes the rot of sugar beets. It is a rodlet without flagella or capsule ;
does not form spores or pigment ; occurs singly, in pairs, and in chains ;
is readily stained, and is positive to Gram ; does not liquefy gelatin ;
is a potential anaerobe ; does not form gas ; produces acid in all media ;
inverts cane-sugar ; and is not sensitive to acid or alkalis. It grows
freely on sugar beet, but less copiously or not at all on other media.

Influence of Shaking- on the Development of Cultures.^ — B. Galli-
Valerio finds that shaking is rather more favourable than unfavourable
to the development of cultures of bacteria and yeasts. Also the
production of spores and of pigment is unaffected. The morphological
aspect is only slightly modified, and then only in the case of the longer
forms, which seem a little more bent ; micrococci, sarcina3, and saccharo-
mycetes not being altered in shape or in arrangement.

Wright, A. E., & S. E. Douglas— Action exerted upon the Staphylococcus pyogenes

by human blood fluids, and on the elaboration
of protective elements in the human organism
in response to inoculations of a staphylococcus
vaccine. Proc. Boy. Soc, lxxiv. (1904)

pp. 147-59.

„ „ „ Action exerted upon the tubercle bacillus by

human blood fluids, and on the elaboration of
protective elements in the human organism
in response to inoculations of a tubercle
vaccine. Tom. cit, pp. 159-80.

Tchitchkine, A. — De l'influence de l'ingestion des bacteries et des produits
bacteriens sur les proprietes du serum sanguin. (Influence of the ingestion of
bacteria and of bacterial products on the properties of blood serum.)

Ann. hist. Pasteur, xviii. (1904) pp. 576-86.

* Proc. Linn. Soe. N.S.W., xxix. (1904) pp. 213-6.
t Centralbl. Bakt. 2te Abt., xiii. (1904) pp. 28-30.
j Op. cit.. lte Abt. Orig., xxxvii. (1904) pp. 151-3.

— I <<£»+-

698

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c*
(1) Stands.

Exhibition Microscope.t — B. J. Howard, of the Bureau of Chemistry,
U.S.A. Department of Agriculture, gives a description of the Micro-
scope used in connection with the exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition.

Fig. 102.

The chief feature is a specially devised stage which carries three cog-
wheels so arranged that for each half revolution of the small pinion
the large one is driven forward ^ revolution. The large wheel carries
a circular plate-glass disk of 5 in. diameter, attached to it by means

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation : (<») Miscellaneous.

t Journ. App. Micr., vi. (1903) p. 2727(1 fig.)-

ZOOLDGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

699

of a thumb- screw passing through a hole in the centre of the disk.
The specimens are carefully mounted, so that their centres are at an
equal distance from the centre of the disk, and are covered with £-in.
slips. In this way each disk will carry twenty specimens. On the
shaft carrying the hard rubber button by which the small pinion is
turned is an intermittent sear arrangement which drives a dial with
figures or names on it, indicating the specimens as they come under the
objective. The whole instrument (fig. 102), with the exception of the
ocular and the hard rubber button, is inclosed in a glass case, the
focussing being accomplished by raising or lowering the ocular ; a set-
screw preventing its being removed from the draw-tube.

Societe Genevoise Second Large Model Microscope.* — This in-
strument (fig. 103) is of similar but lighter construction to the Micro-
scope previously described and figured in this Journal. |

Fig. 103.

- Culmann's Monocular Image-Erecting Prism-Microscope.J — This
instrument (fig. 104), constructed by the Zeiss firm, has been designed

*kCat. Soc. Genevoise pour la Construction d'Instr. de physique et de me'canique,
1900, p. 99. f See this Journal, 1884, pp. 281-2, figs. 30 and 31.

X Zeitschr. wiss. Mikr., xx. (June 1904) pp. 416-20 (1 fig.).

700

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

by P. Culmann to serve the combined purposes of a preparation, an
observation, and a drawing Microscope. The stand is fitted with Zeiss'

o

M

&4

objective a* with changeable magnifying power, and the object is
placed at about 10 cm. distance. The stage opening and mirror are

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 701

of correspondingly large dimensions. The underside of the stand
resembles Zeiss' binocular preparation Microscope. The mirror is
plane one side, concave the other, 7 cm. diameter, and has universal
movement. Over it there extends a frame : this can be placed upon
a sheet of white paper for affording diffused illumination. By means
of the frame black paper diaphragms can be fastened over the mirror,
if required, for stopping down the light-cone. The 10 by 10 cm. stage
has an aperture of 4 cm., which can be reduced to 2 cm. by a diaphragm.
Under the stage is a rotatory disk half -black, half -white, so that, if one
is working with reflected light, a black or a white background can be
had, as desired. The rotation axis of the disk which, in the binocular
stand is placed on the right, is here placed on the left, so as to leave
the right side quite clear for the drawing-paper. The entire upper part
of the stand is fastened by two screws to the lower part. The bent
arm bearing the optical system can be moved vertically up and down in
two different ways : first, in the ordinary way by rack-and-pinion ;
secondly, by push-movement in a swallow-tailed groove. A screw pro-
vided with a short lever clamps the arm in the groove. The second
movement is intended to lengthen the rack-range and to increase the
object distance beyond 10 cm. The reversal system is in a drum with
two tube-unions ; the upper one bears an ordinary Microscope ocular ;
the lower has the English objective thread and can take either a
revolver or a single objective. The construction is so arranged that
the tube-length without the revolver is 145 mm. ; with it, 160 mm.,
so that even medium-power objectives can be used with the stand. An
extension ring of 15 mm. length allows of stronger systems to be used
even without the revolver. The author gives full details of objectives
and oculars.

Ortner's Pocket-Loup.* — This instrument (fig. 105) is fitted with
two lenses ; one, an aplanatic, has a magnification of twenty ; the

Fig. 105.

other, an achromatic, has a magnification of ten, the combination giving
a magnification of 30 diameters. By pressing the projection or handle
to the right the aplanat only comes out, while by pressing it to the left
both loups are simultaneously extruded from the mount, and by a
special contrivance are accurately centred.

Ortner's Loup-Stand.f — -This loup-stand or lens-holder (fig.;106)
which is chiefly intended for the use of entomologists, consists of a firm

* Ortner's Katalog No. 7 (Entomologie), 1904, p. 42.
t Tom. cit., p. 44.

7€2

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

pillar, supported on a circular base, and of two arms. One arm carries
the lens, the other the object-holder. Both arms are fitted with a ball-
and-socket joint. The lens arm has also vertical and horizontal move-

Fig. 10(5.

ments. This object-holder can be raised or lowered along the pillar,
and its outer end is covered with cork ; this part of the apparatus can
be rotated and also pushed to and fro. The apparatus can be supplied
with lenses having magnifications of from 10 to 35 diameters.

(3) Illuminating: and other Apparatus.

Artificial Light for the Microscope.* — C. J. Chamberlain states
that excellent illumination is obtainable by means of a hollow sphere
filled with liquid. The globe should be made of the finest flint glass,
have a diameter of G in., and be mounted in a black frame. The
liquid content mostly used is a weak solution of ammonia copper sul-
phate, made by adding 50 c.cm. of ammonia to 25 c.cm. of 10 p.c.
solution of copper sulphate, and then adding enough distilled water to
fill the globe. If the solution be milky more ammonia must be added.

The best source of light is an incandescent gas burner, so placed
that the rays will be focussed on the mirror of the Microscope. With
less powerful lamps a reflector is required.

Apparatus for Examination of Ultra-Microscopical Particles.f —
(1) In Solutions.— The firm of Carl Zeiss have prepared the apparatus

* Journ. App. Micr., vi. (1903) pp. 2GG3-5 (2 figs.).

t Catalogue, Besclireibung der Einrichtungen zur Sichtbarmachung ultramikro-
skopi8cher Teilung, 1904

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

703

required for the investigations of Siedentopf and Zsigmondy on ultra-
microscopical particles. Some of the results of these inquiries, more
especially in regard to gold ruby glass and bacteria, were described by
H. Siedentopf in a paper read before the Society.* It will be found,
on reference to the paper, that the principle of the experiment consists
(pp. 575, 576) "in illuminating only those particles which are to be
made visible, by focussing an arc light upon a small spectroscopic slit ;
the light from this slit being focussed by a condenser upon those par-
ticles which are to be made visible. The size of the slit can be precisely
controlled, and, with a knowledge of its width and of the condensing
system employed, the exact thickness of the layer of illuminated particles
can be regulated to a nicety."

The axis of the Microscope must be at right angles to the plane of

Fig. 107.

the beam, and the general arrangement of the apparatus is shown in
fig. 107. On the stand «, an optical bench b, one metre long, is mounted.
The stand is 34 cm. longer than the bench ; the free part is unused, in
case of sunlight, but serves for an arc lamp in case of artificial light.
With sunlight a heliostat is indispensable. The figure shows at c a
self -regulating arc lamp mounted on the stand. The lamp is so arranged
that the axis of the narrow light beam emerging through the previously
erected diaphragm d is parallel to the optical bench. A small projection
objective / of 80 mm. focus, mounted on a rider, is arranged about
41 cm. from the beginning of the bench. The objective is surrounded
by a circular diaphragm disk of 15 cm. diameter to keep off side light,
and is chromatically and spherically corrected.

The next piece of apparatus g is a precision slit-head, and is also on
a rider. It is moved along the optical bench until the projection objec-

* Journal R.M.S., 1903, pp. 573-S.

ro4

SUMMARY OF CURRENT ■ RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tive / throws on the slit a real image of the light source. With sun-
light the distance of the slit from the objective is about 80 mm., and
the sun's image is then 1 mm. in diameter. The slit-head is shown
separately in fig. 108. The drum c, graduated on rim into 50 divisions,
must always be on top : the entrance-slit is then horizontal. One
complete rotation of the drum opens the slit about | mm., so that the
rotation of one division of the drum produces an aperture of T^o mm.
For the examination of fluids the most favourable slit-breadth is from
O'l to 0*4 mm. The figure also shows the two slit-cheeks, one of
which is secured by springs and is operated by the screw a. These
cheeks limit the slit-length, which, with sunlight, should be about

Fig. 108.

1 mm. The whole head can be rotated through 90° by the lever I).
The effect is to make the slit vertical, which is of importance for
gauging purposes. The slit answers a two-fold purpose : firstly, a
measurable, illuminated volume is delimited in the preparation ; secondly,
the depth of this volume must be made as suitable as possible to the
penetrating power of the Microscope objective used (in this case, the
water-immersion D*).

Details of the gauging process are given below. At h (fig. 107)
there is a second projection objective of 55 mm. focus at a distance of
about 14 cm. from the slit. Like the first objective, it is mounted on
a rider with its front side directed towards the Microscope. It casts a
real, about 1J fold reduced, image of the slit at a distance of 90 mm.
from the lens. The function of this second lens is to bring the image

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC.

705

of the slit into the image plane of the Microscope objective A A. Quite
at the end of the bench there is a Microscope stand i, with the base-
plate Jc and cross- carrier 1. The base-plate is clamped by the screw s,
and the cross-carrier by two screws m (only one of which is visible in

142.

Fig. 109.

the figure), which move it micrometrically in two directions _at right
angles. The Microscope objective A A for the illumination is fastened
to the carrier by a sleeve and moves with it, and thus the beam of light
can be centred for the observation Microscope objective D*. When in

706

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

adjustment, the front lens of A A must be about 1 mm. from the
mount of D*. On the tube a (fig. 109) of the Microscope stand the

Fig. 110.

objective D* is fastened with a sliding; objective change-piece. On this
objective a special holder secures the cuvette used for observation.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

707

The holder consists of an upper band rx (fig. 110), set round the
objective mount, and a lower band c2 encircling the back half only of
the front lens mount ; both these bands are held together by the
springs dlt d2. The lower band can be moved upwards by means of
the screws el5 e2. The cuvette is placed in two sections on the under-
side of the band c2, and is then held fast by two springs secured by
screws. The cuvette is again shown in fig. Ill, and its two quartz
windows must be so arranged, that one faces the light source and the
other is parallel to the front lens of the objective. The screws e are

Fig. ill.

turned so as to bring cuvette and baud to a position such that the
quartz window is about 0*2 mm. from the front lens. The water-
immersion is filled by injection, and the superfluous water carefully
removed from the quartz window facing the light source. Quartz is
recommended on account of its resistance to fluids, and as being in its
molten state free from double refraction, and giving a sharp image of
the slit. The ends of the cuvette are connected by indiarubber coup-
lings with the thistle funnel g and the delivery tube h (fig. 101)), the

20 —

JUL

Fig. 112.

delivery tube being closed by a pinchcock k, and led away by a second
coupling i to a final delivery tube. The pinchcock is only opened
when it is desired to empty out the liquid in the funnel and cuvette.
The attachment of the funnel by its holder / is made after the insertion
of the objective.

The illuminated fluid is now gauged, so that its breadth is read off
with an ocular micrometer as shown in fig. 112. The precision slit-
head is next rotated 90° into its position, and the proper slit-breadth,
corresponding to the depth of the observation, is then projected in the

708

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

microscopic image from left to right. The reading on the ocular micro-
meter now gives the depth. The slit-cheeks are brought as closely
together as is suitable for the purpose.

It remains now to delimit forwards and backwards a portion of the
light cone ; and this is done by rotation of the ocular micrometer into
the position shown in fig. 113.. The gauging can also be done by

JLA.

(.4; :i.+'>Vf ft {'I' "I!
30 kU .50

Fig. 113.

placing in the ocular quadratic fields, whose dimensions are known.
Fig. 114 shows the network in Huyghens' ocular 4, which contains
eighteen squares. The side-length of such a square has, in the com-
1 bination of water immersion D* with a tube-length of 1G0 mm., a value
of about 0 /a shown on the object. This arrangement suffices for
approximate measurements ; but for accurate determinations the ob-

Fig, 114.

server must ascertain its value for his objective and ocular by com-
parison with an object micrometer.

Finally, for the observation of polarisation effects, an analyser is set
up on the ocular. The particles show themselves the more polarised in
proportion as they are more minute, according to the plane which passes
through the axis of the illuminating and refracted beams. The analyser
also serves for distinguishing the non-polarised fluorescent light from
the refracted light.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

'09

{2) For Ultra-microscopical Bacteria between Object-carrier and
Cover-glass. — The principle involved was described by Siedentopf in the
above-mentioned paper,* as follows : " In the arrangement for this
purpose the axis of the illuminating cone of light, and that of the rays
diffracted by the object, are in a straight line, and not at right angles
to each other, as in the other methods. Preparations of bacteria can
therefore be mounted in the usual way." The general arrangement of
apparatus is shown in fig. 115 ; and, on comparing it with fig. 107, it
will be noticed that the base-plate, the optical bench, the heliostat (or
arc lamp), and the projection objective have been retained. The
objective of the Microscope is illuminated by the rear focus of its Abbe
condenser, which itself receives the direct beam from the arc lamp
through the diaphragm d. The observation Microscope is arranged at
the end of the optical bench, and is secured on the stand Jc by means

A. ».w. hunger; JENA

Fig. 115.

of clamps. It is set horizontally, so that its axis is parallel to that of
the light cone : the object-stage is therefore vertical.

The illuminating apparatus consists of an exchange condenser
(fig. 116) which permits of an easy alteration from ordinary illumina-
tion to dark-ground illumination. It includes the push-tube a, the
three-lens condenser b, the special objective for dark-field illumina-
tion c, and the centring apparatus d. The tube a slides directly into
the sliding collar of the illuminating apparatus, and, when fully pushed
in, it engages with the clamp h of the condenser b. The iris diaphragm
with ground-glass disk is then inserted from the side, and the illumina-
tion now takes place in the ordinary manner (fig. 117). The handle m
serves for lateral movement of the iris. The objective used is the

* Journal R.M.S., 1903, j>p. 577-8.

Dec. 21st, 190.1,

:) c

710

SUMMARY OF CUKRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

apochromat 2 mm. X.A. 1 "30, with intense dark-field stop. This dark-
field stop is after Prof. Abbe's suggestion, and has the front lens of the
objective in its central part as far as aperture 0'33 mm. accurately cut
away, and the corresponding plane face blackened. The only rays
which enter the objective are those between apertures 0*3 and 1*8.

Among the advantages of the arrangement are : Firstly, absence of
reflexions between the lenses ; secondly, the tedious centring for dark-
ground illumination is obviated ; thirdly, a stop made like this cannot
be decentred ; and lastly, the objective remains available also for ob-
servation in the ordinary way without dark-ground illumination. If
the illumination should now appear unequal, the inequality is due to

Fig. 116.

the fact that the reduced image of the light source of perhaps 0*1 mm.
does not generally lie in the field of view of the observation objective.
To correct this, two centring screws, elt c2 (of which only one is visible
in figs. 116 and 117), are provided, and must be so adjusted that the
image of the light source appears in the preparation. This image is
only indirectly visible, as only the particles which are encountered by
the beams appear self-luminous through diffraction. The centring
succeeds best with a not too high ocular (perhaps compensation ocular
No. 4). The illumination can be increased or reduced by rotation of
the ring r.

In the use of liquid films between object-carrier and cover-glass,
care must be taken that the film thickness is neither too great nor too

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

711

small. The best is 1 to 3 /*. If the distance is much greater there is
much disturbance from the indistinctness of the extra-focal parts of the

Fig. 117.

image ; ifHhe distance is less there, is a very disturbing adsorption
effect of the glass planes on the ultra-microscopical particles.

Sjedentopf, H. — TJeberdie physikalischen'Principien der Sichtbarmachung ultra-
mikroskopischer Teilchen.

[This is substantially the same as Dr. SiedentopPs lecture before the Society,
June 17, 1903. and printed in the Journal, October 1903.]

Berliner Klinischer Wochensch., 1904, No. 32 ; also
reprinted as an extract, 7 pp.

(4) Photomicrography.

Grain in Photographic Plates.* — R. J. Wallace gives an account
of the circumstances which control the size of the silver particles in a
developed gelatino-bromide plate. Generally speaking, these particles

* Astrophysical Journal, Sep. 1904. See Nature, lxx. (1904) p. 571 (1 fig.).

3 C 2

712 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

were found to be spherical in ordinary plates, while isochromatic plates
of several makes showed the peculiarity of having elongated or spicular
grains at the surface of the film. These in passing downwards through
the film gradually gave place to rounded particles, until close to the
supporting glass these latter were the only ones found. Intensification
increased the size of the particles, and these also varied with rapid and
slow development. With rapid development the silver particles most
nearly approached the size of the original particles of the silver salt from
which they were produced. Prolonged development favoured enlarge-
ment of the particles by reason of the formation of " group particles "
as well as by accretion.

On Suiting Contrast Screens for the Photography of Bacteria.*
E. J. Spitta commences his article by reminding his readers, that while
the eye is sensible to differences of colour, the photographic plate can
only perceive contrast. If, therefore, the images of two selected coloured
objects of equal brightness are thrown upou a plate — provided it is
specially prepared to be equally sensitive to both colours — their effect
upon the emulsion is precisely the same, and their images appear similar
within certain limits. But if it is desired to increase the contrast
between two colours in photomicrography, one colour must be made less
bright than the other. The object of the author's paper is to discover
suitable screens for producing this effect. If the spectral colours of
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet are thrown upon an ordinary
photographic plate (Plate XII.), it is at once seen that the emulsion is
not sensitive to the entire range of the spectrum, and that the different
colours which affect it do 'not do so equally with one another. This
selective capacity may be called the " eye " of the plate. It is known
that isochromatic or orthochromatic plates are those in which the sensi-
tiveness of an ordinary plate has been extended by staining the film
with some dye. Plate XII. gives a selection of " eyes " of several iso-
chromatic plates. The wave-lengths in /a/i are given the entire length
of the spectrum, whilst little linear demarcation-limits are also placed
(somewhat empirically chosen) where one colour may be said to merge
into its neighbour. Inasmuch as all plates have a cumulative power,
so with a long exposure (say 15 to 20 seconds) one part of the spectrum
seems as it were to catch up the other parts ; hence the final effect
appears very similar in many cases, so far as relates to density, although
differing in distribution along the spectrum, one part appearing to be
affected more than another. This apparently equal density, as a matter
of fact, is more apparent than real, for each emulsion, in reality, is
more sensitive to one or two particular wave-lengths of light than to
any others. This is the reason for supplying the extra column of ex-
ceedingly short exposures on the right hand of Plate XII., which shows
at a glance where the chemical action in each case seems to have com-
menced. It will be observed (Plate XII.) that :

1. In the Edwards Iso-mediwn plate, action begins between wave-
lengths 525 and 570, that is in the yellow : whilst with fairly long
exposure its sensitiveness reaches to about GOT in the orange and to
nearly the extreme end of the violet.

* Photography, xvii. (Juue 25, 1904) pp. 577-D (4 plates).

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, 1904.

PI. XII.

THE -EYE OF DIFFERENT PLATES.

Lang Exposurt

Very short Exposure.

[To face p. 712.

PI. XIII.

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, 1904.

LOFFLER S BLUE.

To face p. 7 IS.]

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 713

2. In the Bar ml plate, action begins about the same place and
extends somewhat further each way.

3. In the Isolar, action begins in the blue and indigo, where it is
sharply sensitive, but is feeble in the yellow. With a prolonged ex-
posure its sensitiveness reaches to about 596 in the orange.

4. In the Isochrom, a very rapid plate, fairly sensitive in the yellow,
blue and indigo with a short exposure, action reaches to nearly 610 in
the orange.

5. In the Lumiere Pantachromatic, action starts away strongly and
extensively in the blue and indigo, though faintly in the orange and
yellow, and very weakly in the green. With exposure it reaches to
nearly 650.

6. The Mawson plate is not unlike the Barnet, but it is a trifle
quicker and a little more evenly sensitive.

7. In the Cadett plate we seem to have the greatest evenness of any
isochromatic on the market. Action commences over nearly the entire
range of the spectrum at one and the same moment, even with the
exposure of half a second. It extends with a long exposure far into
the ultra-violet, and to 650 at the red end.

8. The Flashlight plate is merely given as an example of the limited
sphere of sensitiveness in the ordinary unstained plate. Action com-
mences in the blue and violet nearly evenly, but no amount of reasonable
exposure will produce effect much further than about 550.

Suppose that it is desired to photograph a blue-stained bacillus on
a white ground. Then in order to increase contrast between the two
colours in the photographic image, the brilliancy of one or the other
must be weakened so as to affect the emulsion less. This can be done
by staining the screen with such a colour that the blue is obliterated,
i.e. that it becomes black to the " eye " of the plate — but the plate
must be sensitive to the colour itself.

The three leading dyes for which we have to find contrasting screens
•are : Loffler's blue, gentian violet, and carbolfuchsin. Plate XIII. gives
a spectrograph of Loffler's blue ; and figs. 4, 5, 6 show the absorption
bands peculiar to it, with short, medium, and long exposures. It will
be seen that this dye transmits light as far as 500. If we now try and
use a green pot-glass screen (much recommended for general use by
the author, three exposures of which are shown in figs. 1, 2, 3,
Plate XIII.), it will be seen that the glass transmits light from 474 to
5S0 or 590. .There is, therefore, an ^overlap, through which a con-
siderable amount of light passes (figs. 7 and 8). Snch a combination of
dye and screen is therefore useless.

Amongst the many dyes tried, Aurantia was found to be the best.
Its absorption bands are shown in figs. 9, 10, and 11. In the longest
exposure (No. 11) only light between 510 and 632 is transmitted,
so that if this screen be used with the blue (fig. 15) there is just a
margin of safety. Orange F is almost as good, but with a fairly long
exposure there is a suspicious leakage at the position of the arrow.

Plate XIV. deals with gentian violet, figs. 1 and 2 showing its two
spectrographs. A single thickness of green pot-glass (fig. 4) is not
dense enough to cut off all the light ; but two thicknesses make it a

714

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

safe screen to use (fig. 5). Plate XIV. also shows the spectrograph of
carbolfuchsin (fig. 1). This dye passes much more indigo than red
(as shown by the Edwards' plate — which was used for all these experi-
ments). Although a fair photograph may be obtained without any
screen, it is better to use the green pot-glass, which perfectly cuts^off the
light (fig. 2).

Dowdy, S. E. — How to photograph crystals.

Amateur Photographer, xl. (1904) pp. 93-5 (6 figs.).

Hertzsprung, E. — Ueber Tiefenscharfe.

[The article is mainly concerned with the " penetration " attainable in
ordinary photography ; but the author also deals with the subject as
affecting microstereoscopy.]

Zeitschr.f. wiss. Photographic (Leipzig), ii. (1904) pp. 232-44 ;

also as an extract in pamphlet form.

Jones, C. — Developments of three-colour photographic processes.

Nature, lxx. (1904) pp. 553-5, 578-80.

Fig. 118.
(5) Microscopical Optics1 and Manipulation.

Photo grammetric Fccimeter for Microscopical Optics: an In-
strument for Verifying Microscopes.* — This instrument (fig. 118), due

* Comptes_Kendus, exxxvii. (Aug. 3, 1903) pp. 314-6 (1 fig.).

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, 1904.

PI. XIV.

GENTIAN VIOLET.

,-R.O Y,6,

muu

i*i©j YjG, B

g eTitcet/i. TtKSfittot's greet*. .

04 £&*

N I I I I I I I I | I | | £**>■

0otUU Cbirayxftct

•7 i?i°lY|GL_B I Iwy ,**•"*

CARBOLFUCHSIN

\To face fi. 714.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

715

to the combined efforts of V. Legros and M. Stiassnie, is intended to
bring into the regular practice of the workshop and of centres of
microscopical instruction, the results which formed the subject of a
previous communication* byM. V. Legros. The base C (fig. 118) is a
divided circle from whose centre arises a vertical column J), terminated
by a horizontal sleeve T. In this sleeve there glides, governed by a
rack-and-pinion p, a rod on which move also under the action of
pinions p', p", two other sleeves bearing the optical parts. These sleeves
can ride one over the other, their displacements being measured by
verniers. The sleeve manipulated by p' has also a slow movement
governed by a screw with divided head V. The part A represents the
body of an ordinary Microscope with its stage P : a slight displacement
can be given by the revolver for purposes of parallax. The stage and
substage are fitted with centring and rotating movements. Micrometers
are fitted to both faces of P, and the orifice in the snbstage is provided
with interlocking screw-jaws for receiving optical systems. Details are
given of the methods for measuring (1) the focal length of an objective
or ocular ; (2) the angle of aperture ; (3) distortion.

Fig. 119.

Desains' Apparatus.! — This instrument (fig. L19) is intended for
measuring wave-lengths by Newton's rings.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxxvii., Jan. 29, 1900.

t Cat. Soc. Genevoise pour la Construction d'lnstrnmetits de Physique et de
Mecanique, 1900, p. 111.

716 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Chromatic Correction of Object-Glasses.* — A. E. Conrady, after
drawing attention to the utter uselessness of Cauchy's dispersion formula,
gives as an alternative

Next, he explains the method of trigonometrically tracing a ray through
a spherical surface, and then shows that if d be the thickness of a lens
at the axis, and I) its thickness where traversed by an extra axial ray,
and if S n be a small increment of the refractive index n, the equation
for an achromatic condition will be

2 8 n (d - D) = 0.

Finally, he points out that when a ray is near the axis the angles become
so small that in the computation sufficient accuracy is obtained by
writing £ (circular measure)2 instead of the versed sine of the angles.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Ultra-microscopic Observations in Solutions of Pure Glycogen.!
W. Biltz and Z. Gatin-Gruzewska used the apparatus of Siedentopf and
Zsigmondy for their observations on glycogen. Similar observations
had been made previously by Raehlmann and others, but the samples
of glycogen used by these observers were not pure. The authors used
A solutions of glycogen in water and B solutions, to which different
reagents were added. The A set showed that in an aqueous solution of
glycogen when examined ultra-microscopically there are corpuscles of
different sizes ; the size varying with the conditions of the solutions.
The B set showed the progressive and regular course of the precipita-
tion of glycogen under the influence of increasing quantities of certain
precipitants.

Microscope and Expert Testimony.:}: — A. S. Osborn shows how
useful the Microscope is for examining documents, especially in case of
fraudulent additions, interlineations and erasures. The paper is fur-
nished with excellent illustrations giving examples of retouched writing,
forgeries, and lines showing the sequence of writing.

Reed, L. — The Microscope and food adulteration.

1'roc. and Trans. Croydon Nat. Hid. and Sci. Soc., 1901, pp. 41-4.

B. Technique.!
(1) Collecting- Objects, including- Culture Processes.

Detection of Nitrifying Organisms in Sewage Filters. || — The
following is the technique employed by Schultz-Schultzenstein (see
p. 695) : 100 c.cm. of Winogradsky's nutrient solutions for the nitrite-

* Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc, lxiv. (1904) pp. 182-S (2 figs.); pp. 458-GO.

t Comptes Rendus, exxxix. (1904) pp. 507-9.

X Jonrn. App. Micr., vi. (1903) pp. 2637-48 (8 figs.).

§ This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(0) Miscellaneous.

|| Technology Quarterly, xvii. (1904) pp. 18G-203.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 717

and nitrate-forming bacteria were put in Erlenmeyer flasks. To these
flasks were added coke from experimental contact beds, soil from irriga-
tion field, etc., in quantities of a few grains. The solutions were kept
at 25° C. to 26° C, and examined daily for ammonia, with Nessler'*
reagent ; for nitrites, with sulphanilic acid and a naphthol ; and for
nitrates, with diphenylamine. After six days sub-cultures were made,
and from these inoculations were made on silica jelly. By such means
organisms were isolated agreeing completely with Winogradsky's Nitroso-
monas and Nitrobacter.

Identification of the Bacillus typhosus in Stools.* — E. Klein and

A. C. Houston, from a research on this subject, conclude that the
Drigalski-Conradi medium in plates incubated at 87° C. is of value in
assisting detection in a short time (24 hours) of the presence of B. coli
communis and allied forms ; the colonies of this microbe being noticeable
by their red colour. Accordingly, in the search for the Bacillus typhosus
in stools the above colour reaction permits of many colonies being ex-
cluded. The recognition of the typhoid colonies was found possible
only in the plates made with high dilutions ; and in these alone were
the (red) colonies of B. coli sufficiently reduced in number to allow
recognition of the typhoid (blue) colonies. Tests with sub-cultures are
necessary. It follows, therefore, that where the typhoid bacilli are
present in a stool only in small numbers the Drigalski plate is not able
to demonstrate them with certainty, for the reasons that : the method
does not alter the initial proportion of B. coli to B. typhosus ; high
dilution of the stools is necessary ; all blue colonies are not those of

B. typhosus. \\.

Bacteriological Test for Estimating Pollution of Air.f — M. H.
Gordon has undertaken an inquiry to determine whether it is possible
to find a bacteriological test of the pollution of air by material given
off from the human body, comparable to the B. coli (etc.) test for the
pollution of water by material derived from a like host : a test capable
of application as an index of the possible access of morbific virus to
air in a manner similar to that in which the B. coli (etc.) test is an
index of its possible access to water. Air is liable to be polluted by
material given off from the human body in the acts of expectoration,
coughing, sneezing and speaking, and such material consists of mucus
derived from the respiratory passages. The procedure adopted was :
(1) A bacterial analysis of a number.of samples of saliva obtained from
normal individuals was made, special attention being paid to the micro-
organisms most abundant therein, with the object of determining
whether any particular micro-organism is by the abundance and con-
stancy of its presence characteristic in the way that B. coli is charac-
teristic of fasces. The most abundant and constant organism in normal
saliva was found to be Streptococcus brevis of Lingelsheim. The sparse
occurrence of bacilli was noticeable. Neutral-red broth, for the reason
that its colour is markedly changed by S. brevis, is, when incubated
anaerobically for 48 hours at 37° C, a culture test whereby very minute

* Rep. Med. Off. Local Govt. Board, 1902-3, pp. 622-46.
t Tom. cit., pp. 421-71.

718

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

droplets of saliva may be readily detected. (2) A series of speaking-
experiments was made in a small and also in a large room, first with the
artificial infection of the mouth with a living emulsion of B. prodigiosuSy.
and afterwards with no artificial infection, culture plates being placed
at different distances on the floor. By this means the presence in the
air of a room of invisible droplets of ordinary saliva emitted from the
mouth during the act of loud speaking was demonstrated at a distance
of 40 feet in front of the speaker, and at a distance of 10 feet behind
him. (3) The open air in several localities was examined both by
exposing broth plates for definite periods, and by aspirating the air
through a special apparatus. By these means twenty-two streptococci
were isolated from the open air, three of which resembled 8. brevis of
the saliva. Virulent anaerobic bacilli resembling B. enteritidis sporo-
(jenes were isolated five times, and micro-organisms of the B. coli type
thrice.

Simple Method for Cultivating Anaerobic Bacteria.* — B. R.
Rickards recommends the following method (fig. 120) for solid media.

A Agar.

B Pyrogallol.

C Broth.

Fig. 120.

Fig. 121.

The tube of inoculated media is inverted into a tall vessel containing
a layer of dry pyrogallol, to which is then added a strong solution of
sodium hydroxide. As the oxygen is absorbed the solution rises in
the tubes. For liquid media the same procedure is followed, but a
tube is employed, the lower two inches of which is bent at an angle of
60°, and in this part is contained the liquid medium. For plate
cultures an inverted Erlenmeyer flask answers well (fig. 121).

Sy mmers, W., St. C. — Method of maintaining the virulence of a pathogenic micro-
organism, Bacillus cholerae asiaticae.

Centralbl. Bait, l*e Abt. Orig., xxxvii. (1904) pp. 23-4.

* Centralbl. Bakt. Orig., xxxvi. (1004) pp. 557-9 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 719

(2) Preparing Objects.

M a bpmakh — Ueber die Preparation der Diatomaceen, Foraminiferen, Polycystineen
and Spongillen. Zeitschr. angew. Mikr., x. (1904) pp. 141-5.

(3) Cutting, including: Imbedding and Microtomes.

Agar Method for Imbedding Plant Tissues.* — H. H. York re-
commends the following quick and simple method for fixing and im-
bedding plant tissues. 10 grm. of agar are boiled in 500 c.cm. of
distilled water for 2 hours. The hot solution is poured into a tall
cylindrical vessel. When cold, the clear upper portion is cut off and
put into a glass jar. The jar is placed in a basin of hot water until
the agar is melted, and then 1 part of formalin is added to 9 parts by
volume of the melted agar. A 5 p.c. solution is prepared in a similar
way. The fresh tissue is placed in hut 2 p.c. solution for about
2 hours, and is then transferred to the 5 p.c. solution for an hour or
so, after which it is imbedded on wooden blocks. A layer of agar is
smeared on the block, and allowed to cool ; then the piece of material
is placed thereon and covered with a sufficient amount of agar. When
properly fixed to the block the whole mass is placed in 95 p.c. alcohol
for 12 hours, after which it is sectioned on a sliding microtome.

Sectioning Wheat Kernels.f ■ — B. J. Howard soaks the grains in
90 to 1>5 p.c. alcohol for 10 to 14 days, after which 1)0 p.c. glycerin is
added to the alcohol in small proportions at intervals of a few days,
until the proportions of alcohol and glycerin are about equal. The
material is then allowed to stand until the grains have attained a firm
cheesy consistence. When the softening has attained a satisfactory
stage, the grains are placed in a shallow dish just covered with the
fluid. When the alcohol has evaporated (2 to 3 days) the grains are
treated (1) with 98 p.c. alcohol for 30 to 60 minutes ; (2) with chloro-
form, 30 to 60 minutes ; (3) chloroform and paraffin shavings, 60 to 90
minutes ; (4) melted paraffin, changing 2 or 3 times, for 2 hours ;
(5) block ; (6) sections.

Imbedding Medium for Brittle Objects.J — J. T>. Johnston has
found that rubber mixed with paraffin wax makes a satisfactory medium
for imbedding brittle objects, such as amphibian embryos. Mix with
hard paraffin about 1 p.c. of indiarubber cut up into very small pieces.
Dissolve by heating to 100° C. (not more) for 24 to 48 hours, though
several days at from 55° to 60° will serve the purpose. Filter or use
the supernatant fluid. Keep a stock of the prepared mixture cold, as
the rubber separates out after a few weeks if the mixture is kept
melted. Use as ordinary paraffin, except that xylol and not cedar-wood
oil must be used for clearing. The hardened block is light brown,
and the melted solution is murky. This murkiness may be prevented
by dissolving in the paraffin before the rubber is added enough
" mineral rubber " (asphalt) to give the paraffin a light ami >er colour.
This paraffin-asphalt solution is more transparent than simple paraffin,
and so facilitates orientation of the object.

* Journ. App. Micr., vi. (1903) pp. 2591-2.
t Tom. cit., pp. 2498-9 (1 fig.). X Tom. cit., pp. 2G02-:;.

720

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Radais' Microtome with Vertical Slideless Carrier.* — This in-
strument, designed by Radais, belongs to the class of microtomes in
which the histological object borne by a carrier receives a vertical move-
ment. It is the knife which governs the adjustment and regulates the
thickness of the section. The mechanical arrangements of the various
parts are essentially different from the instruments hitherto in use ; the
results attained are marked by easy manipulation and an evenness of
section, which remains uniform even in the weakest section-strengths.

Fig. 122 shows the apparatus arranged for celloidin sections. The

Fig. 122.

carrier is guided in a straight-lined course by means of two Watts1
balance-wheels, movable between conical steel points. Such a kind of
adjustment lends itself to a very exact control, and obviates the work-
ing-space required for the slides generally recommended. Indeed it is
evident that in many machines the unequal pressure of the oil layer is
the main cause of the irregularity of the section thickness, and, more
over, the fouling is very considerable. In the axle movements between
the points the upper planes are in no wise exposed to the dust, the

Zeitschr. angew. Mikr., ix. (1903) pp. 206-9 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSUOPY, ETC.

721

wear and tear is almost nil, and the accuracy is unlimited. The regu-
larity of the carrier-track is also secured by means of the arrangement
of the device which keeps the bearer of the histological object vertically
over the engage-point of the driving-wheel. This orderly arrangement,
to which constructors have hitherto paid too little attention, avoids all
quivering which could influence the carrier. The orientation of the
object to be cut is easily and quickly accomplished by the application
of a special handle ABC, which is fastened in a circular-shaped groove
of the carrier E. With the help of this groove and the rotation of
the cylindrical object-holder C about its axis, the celloidin plug moves,

Fig. 123.

so that the object can be oriented without removal from the vertical line
over the engage-point with the driving-wheel. The motive system of the
micrometer screw removes all back-friction of the catch on the toothed
wheel, and thus excludes any possibility of back-action. The female
screw of the micrometer is movable, and of the ordinary type. A
special form of screw-division permits, by a simple manipulation of the
swing-piece of the handle K, the knife to approximate directly to the
upper plane of the object to be cut. The automatic raicrometnc for-
ward movement can then be immediately begun.

722 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The apparatus will produce sections of thicknesses varying from
1 ft to 50 fi. A change may be made during operation by the applica-
tion of a needle on the quadrant of a divided circle, and in this way
the thickness may be quickly determined in the case of series sections
at the beginning of the cutting. Fig. 123 shows the machine arranged
for paraffin and series-cutting. The knife cuts horizontally or obliquely
without any exchange, and the operator can therefore immediately
change the section-angle with the carrier of the histological object.
This carrier is united to the vertical diameter of a metallic semicircle
F, which serves as a carrier to the knife. The edge of the section
passes through the centre of this circle, which can rotate around itself
in a circular track, or can be clamped fast. It therefore follows that
the knife, in consequence of a rotation of 90°, can take every required
position from the horizontal to the vertical. In each individual case
the oblique setting of the section is arranged, as seems best, and serial
sections are cut without changing any part of the apparatus. A paper-
strip H can be applied, as shown in figure, for the more convenient
reception of the serial sections. The gearing is inside the frame.

Handlet, W. S. — Method of obtaining uniplanar sections with the ordinary
rocking microtome. Journ. Anat. and Physiol., xxxvi. (1903) pp. 290-2.

(4) Staining- and Injecting-.

Staining Hyphomycetes in Horny Tissues.* — A. Kraus uses a
methylen-azur solution prepared according to Michaeli's formula.! It
is made by dissolving 2 grm. of medicinal methylen-blue in 100 c.cm.
of water ; 10 c.cm. of one-tenth normal caustic soda solution are
added, and the mixture boiled for a quarter of an hour. When cold
10 c.cm. of one-tenth normal sulphuric acid are added, after which the
solution is filtered.

The material (scales and crusts from the skin and hairs) is stained
for 5 minutes or so, and is afterwards differentiated in 96 p.c. alcohol.
Good results were obtained with Pityriasis versicolor, Herpes tonsurans,
Favus, Eczema marginatum, Erytlirasma. It is advisable to remove
fatty matter with a mixture of ether and alcohol before staining.

Simple Method of Spore Staining.! — E. Thesing fixes the air-
dried film in the flame, then covers it with 1 p.c. platinum chloride
solution and heats it till it vaporises. The film is then washed with water
and mopped up with blotting-paper, after w'hich it is flooded with the
staining solution (carbol-fuchsin or Loeffler's methylen-blue) and then
heated again over the flame. The stain is poured off, and after having
been treated with 33 p.c. alcohol the preparation is thoroughly washed.
When dry it may be contrast-stained (Loeffler after carbol-fuchsin :
safranin, vesuvin or fuchsin after Loeffler). The film is then treated
in the usual way, and mounted in balsam.

* Centralbl. Bakt., 1*? Abt. Orig., xxxvii. (1904) pp. 153-5.

t See this Journal, r'oi, p. 602.

\ Zeitscbr. angew. Mikr., x. (1904) pp. 147-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 72o

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Sticking of Celloidin Sections.* — K. v. Tellyesniczky suggests
that, instead of using Mayer's glycerin-albumen as in Argutinsky's
method, albumen simply diluted should be employed, as the white of
one egg diluted to 100 c.cm. with distilled water and filtered. This he
claims gives a much smoother and more uniform surface of coagulated
albumen than Mayer's glycerin-albumen, and does not stain appreciably.
He also advocates the use of mica plates for mounting celloidin sections.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Ink for Writing on Glass.f — Dissolve 20 parts resin in 150 parts
of alcohol, then add, drop by drop, stirring all the while, a solution of
35 parts borax in 250 parts of water. Finally dissolve 1 part methylen-
blue in the mixture.

Metoalf, H., & G. G. Hedgcock — New apparatus for phytopathological work.
1. A transferring " Oese." 2. Apparatus for growing seedlings and small plants
under sterile conditions. Journ. App. Micr., vi. (1903) pp. 2493-5 (2 figs.).

Dickerson, W. S. — Useful modification of the life-box.

[This consists in substituting for the ordinary cover-glass of the life-box,
a thin glass perforated by a small opening near one margin.]

Tom. cit., pp. 2499-500 (1 fig.).

Metallography, etc.

Evolution of Structure in Metals. J — M. G. Cartaud has been able
by means of picric acid in acetone to etch the surfaces of soft metals
such as lead, zinc and tin. He gives his reasons for thinking that the
cellular surface structure so displayed is antecedent to the perfectly
developed crystalline structure of the interior. The cellular structure
is, as it were, embryonic ; the crystalline, adult.

Behkens, H. — Notes from the Microchemical Laboratory at Delft.

[1. Movements in metals under annealing. 2. On tinning and soldering.
3. Etching by means of electricity.

Iron and Steel Mag., viii. (Aug. 1904) pp. 150-5.

Campbell, "W. — Change of structure in the solid state.

[A useful resume of our present knowledge of changes in metallic structure
during and after solidification.

Journ. Franklin Inst, clviii. (Sept. 1904) pp. 161-84 (34 figs.).

Shepherd, E. 8. — Some neglected details in the experimental study of alloys.

Iron and Steel Mag., viii. (Sept. 1904) pp. 222-31 (6 photos).

* Eine einfache und zuverlassige Methode Celloidinserien mit Wasser und
Eiweiss aufzukleben. Arch. Mikr. Anat., Bd. lv. (1900). See also Anat. Anzeig,
xxv. (1904) p. 182.

f Pharmaceutical Era, Sept. 1903. See Journ. App. Micr., vi. (1903) p. 2636.

t Comptes Kendus, cxxxix. (1904) pp. 428-30.

724

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY

MEETING

Held on the 19th of October, 1904, at 20 Hanover Square, W.
The President, Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., etc., in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of the 15th of June, 1904, were
read and confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The List of Donations to the Society since the last Meeting,
exclusive of exchanges and reprints, was read, and the thanks of the
Meeting were voted to the donors :

From
S. Ramon y Cajal, Textura del Sistema Nerviosa del Honibre y\ T, A n

de Los Vertebrados (2 vols, 8vo. Madrid, 1899-1904) I lhe Aumor-

Additional Portions of a Lucernal Microscope presented by Mr. F.\ ,,, „ n f

Orfeur (Feb. 18, 1903) f Mr. s. vrjeur.

Mr. J. J. Vezey said that the Fellows would regret to hear of the
death of Mr. Edward Dadswell, who had been connected with the
Society since 1887, and was at one time a Member of the Council.
Mr. Dadswell was also a member of the Quekett Club, and had always
been greatly interested in Microscopical work. At one time he was
President of the South London Society, and took the warmest interest
in promoting its progress.

Mr. Dadswell possessed a trait which commended itself especially to
the Treasurer, viz. that he proclaimed his belief on all suitable occasions
that the Fellows of the Society should always endeavour to remember
the Society when making their wills. Mr. Dadswell had carried this
sentiment into practice, and had left a legacy of bOl., free of duty, for
the benefit of the Society. Mr. Vezey commended this to others to
imitate, and he mentioned incidentally that a Member of the Council
(Mr. J. M. Allen) had undertaken to draw up, without charge, the will
of any Fellow wishing to copy such a good example.

Mr. Rousselet read a short description of the Adams Improved
Lucernal Microscope, some further portions of which had recently been
presented to the Society by Mr. F. Orfeur. The instrument, in its
completed condition, was placed upon the table, together with the box
of apparatus pertaining to it.

The Secretary called the attention of the Fellows to three micro-
photographic portraits which had been found in the Society's collection,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 725

and were exhibited under Microscopes in the room. One of these
was certainly a portrait of Prof. Quekett, but as there seemed some
uncertainty as to the identity of the others, the Fellows were asked to
look at them, and to name them in the event of their being recognised.
They were subsequently identified as those of Dr. J. Millar, who
was for many years a Member of the Council of the Society, and of
Dr. Letheby.

A Note, entitled " The Antennas of Pulex irritans, with remarks on
a hitherto undescribed structure of the same," by Mr. W. D. Colver,
was read by the Secretary, as follows : The object exhibited under the
Microscope in the room this evening was of particular interest to ento-
mologists, as it was believed to be the first time that the lamellated
structure on the terminal joint of the antennae of Pulex irritans had
been demonstrated. It was discovered by Mr. William Jenkinson, of
Sheffield, whilst studying the sense organs of insects, who had kindly
lent two slides for exhibition, one of which showed the entire antennae,
whilst the other was of the terminal joint only, showing more clearly the
particular structure referred to. Photographs of this were exhibited in
the room and also upon the screen, the amplification being about x 400.
In describing his observation, Mr. Jenkinson remarked, " that the
antennae of the common flea were a pair of appendages situated in
immediate proximity to the eyes, formed externally of three distinct
cbitinous joints, and believed to have an olfactory function." The joint
attached to the head was a simple structure, the second being circular in
section and conical in shape, and perforated longitudinally for the
passage of the nerve and trachea. The third, or terminal joint, was
somewhat globular in shape, one half being divided into leaf-like
appendages, or lamellaa, and it could readily be imagined that when the
terminal of the large antennal nerve given off from the brain was dis-
tributed over the surface of these lamellas, there would be an extensive
area of highly sensitive surface for the reception of impressions. He
had found a similar structure in several others of the Pulicidaa, and
inferred, therefore, that it would be common to all members of the
family.

The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Colver for his com-
munication.

Part XVII. of the "Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the
Malay Archipelago," by Mr. F. W. Millett, was taken as read.

Dr. Henry Woodward, having been asked to take the Chair pro tern.

The President gave a demonstration of " The Reconstruction of a
Fossil Plant." The plant selected was Lygino den (iron oldhamium Will,
from the lower coal-measures of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and the
growth of our knowledge of its construction was illustrated by a large
number of the actual sections, shown upon the screen under various
magnifying powers by means of the epidiascope. A few supplementary
lantern-slides were also shown.

Dec. 21st, 1904. 3 D

726 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

The first part discovered was the stem, described in 1866 by Binney,
who referred it to the genus Pinites or Dadoxylon, thus recognising its
gymnosperrnous affinities, though he compared the structure of its
primary wood with that of a Sigillaria. A much more thorough in-
vestigation was made by Williamson (1874), who was at first in doubt
whether the affinity with Lycopods or Ferns was the stronger. Later
on, however (1890), he was able to show that the fern-like petiole,
Rachiopteris aspera, belonged to Lyginodendron, and this led to the
discovery that the foliage was identical with Sphenopteris Honinghausi,
a well-known " Fern-frond." In the meantime the organisation of the
stem had become more thoroughly understood, and proved to present
a combination of Cycadean with Filicinean characters. Subsequently
the fossil described as Kaloxylon HooTceri Will., turned out to be the
root of Lyginodendron. Our knowledge of the vegetative organs now
seemed to be complete, but as lately as 1902 Mr. Lomax showed that
the stem was frequently branched, a fact not observed before.

The vegetative organisation indicated a position intermediate be-
tween Cycads and Ferns, but the fructification was still unknown. In
1903 Prof. F. W. Oliver noticed that certain seeds, named Lagenostoma
Lomaxi Will., bore glands on their cupules identical with those on the
leaf and stem of Lyginodendron. A detailed comparison of structure,
supported by evidence from association, left no doubt that this seed
was the female fructification of Lyginodendron. Whereas, however,
the previous steps in the reconstruction of the plant were based on the
direct proof of continuity, this last conclusion rested at present mainly
on identity of structure. The reconstruction of the plant was still
incomplete, for the male organs had not yet been identified with cer-
tainty. The position of Lyginodendron, as a seed-bearing plant, allied
at once to Cycads and Ferns, was now established. Finally a picture
of the reconstructed plant was exhibited, and its various features
explained.

Interesting models of the seed of Lyginodendron, kindly lent by
Prof. F. W. Oliver of University College, were also exhibited.

Dr. Woodward said that before leaving the Chair he would ask those
who were present to give a very hearty vote of thanks to the President
for his very interesting and instructive demonstration. He had shown
that from the numerous sections of calcareous nodules out of the Halifax
coal, he had puzzled out what appeared to be the remains of one and
the same plant, and had been able to demonstrate the structure of the
root, stem, leaves, and fruit, and to correlate these on good botanical
grounds as organically related to one another. This demonstration had
been a good object lesson how to use a fragmentary series of remains,
and how to identify them under the Microscope in a clear and definite
manner. He congratulated Dr. Scott on the great success he had
achieved, and felt sure that he would be further rewarded in the efforts
he was making in the study of fossil plant-structures under the Micro-
scope, both in the Jodrell Laboratory at Kew, and at the British
Museum (Natural History).

The thanks of the Meeting were cordially voted to Dr. Scott for his
demonstration.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 727

Dr. Scott, m responding, pointed out that the demonstration had
necessarily been limited to Lyginodendron itself, as time had not per-
mitted of any comparison with allied plants. He regretted that his
explanations had been rather hurried, for he had not been able to dwell
as long as' he would have liked on each section, for fear of its being
injured by heat, if exposed too long in the lantern.

The following Instruments, Objects, etc., were exhibited: —

The Society : — Microphotographs of Prof. John T. Quekett, Dr.
Letheby and John Millar, L.R.C.P. Ed. ; An Old Lucernal Microscope.

Mr. W. D. Colver : — One Lantern and Two Microscope Slides of
Antennas of Pulex irritans.

The President : — Sections of Fossils and Lantern Slides shown on
the Screen, and Models illustrating his Demonstration of " The Recon-
struction of a Fossil Plant."

MEETING

Held on the 16th of November, 1904, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,
The Right Hon. Sir Ford North, P.C., F.R.S., in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of the 10th of October, 190-1, were
read and confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman.

The List of Donations to the Society since the last Meeting (exclu-
sive of exchanges and reprints), was read ; these included a number of
photomicrographs by Dr. Woodward, U.S.A., sent by Dr. Lionel S. Beale,
for distribution to any Fellows of the Society who desired to have them.

From

An Old Microscope by Dollond, after John Cuff's " New Con-}

structed Double Microscope " .„ I M r T n ..

An Old Microscope by Banks, 441 Strand, after Jones's f Mr' U ** Uurties-
" Most Improved Compound Microscope " ->

The thanks of the Society were voted to the donors.

Mr. C. F. Rousselet called attention to the two old Microscopes
which had been presented to the Society by Mr. Chas. Curties ; one of
which was a copy by Dollond, of Cuff's "New Constructed Double
Microscope," first invented in 1744, and described by Henry Baker ;
the other being a copy of Jones's " Most Improved Compound Micro-
scope," described by Adams, and made by Banks about 1815.

The original descriptions in each case were read to the Meeting.

The thanks of the Meeting were voted to Mr. Rousselet for his
explanation .

3 d 2

728 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Mr. C. L. Curties exhibited two new designs of electric lamps for
Microscope use, fitted with ground-glass or blue-glass fronts, and
mounted so as to be used at any height or angle required. Those
exhibited were made for 100 and 200 volts respectively.

Dr. Hebb said he had been using one of these lamps at the West-
minster Hospital for some weeks, and found that it worked very satis-
factorily and gave a very powerful light.

Mr. Hugh C. Ross exhibited and described a small electric warm stage,
formed by a coil of fine wire pressed into an ebonite plate and covered
with a piece of mica. It could be slipped on or off the ordinary slide
in an instant ; it could be used with the highest powers of the Micro-
scope ; it would work on a mechanical stage, and required no attention
when in use, maintaining a constant temperature for any length of
time. The one exhibited was regulated to give a temperature of 37° C,
and a small thermometer attached to the slide showed that this tem-
perature did not vary during the evening. He invited the Fellows
present to inspect the stage, and to make any suggestions for its im-
provement which occurred to them.

On the motion of the Chairman, a vote of thanks to Mr. Ross for
his exhibit and description was unanimously carried.

Mr. A. E. Conrady gave a lengthy resume of the contents of his
paper entitled " Theories of Microscopical Vision : a Vindication of the
Abbe Theory," illustrating his remarks by lantern slides and by mathe-
matical formulas worked out upon the board.

Dr. Johnstone Stoney, after referring to the lateness of the hour,
which prevented his venturing to criticise Mr. Conrady's suggestive
paper, requested permission to avail himself of this, the first opportunity
open to him, to call attention to a passage in one of Sir George Stokes's
earlier papers, of which he had only lately become aware.

The Abbe theory, as investigated by its author, relies upon experi-
mental evidence ; and when Dr. Stoney, some eleven years ago, made a
special study of Prof. Abbe's important explanation of how microscopical
images are formed, the inductive proof adduced by Abbe did not seem
to him a satisfactory basis on which to rest a theorem of the kind,
since, if accurately correct and susceptible of being generalised, it ought
to follow deductively, as a necessary consequence of the laws under which
the electromagnet waves which constitute light are propagated in uniform
media. On a further study of the subject, he found that it is possible to
obtain a complete deductive proof of Abbe's results, and to extend them
to all optical images, by resolving the optical disturbance in the medium
into components, each of which is an undulation of plane wavelets,
and in which each of these wavelets is uniform throughout its extent.
Dr. Stoney was then and remained until lately under the impression that
he was the first to ascertain that every disturbance within a uniform
wave-propagating medium is susceptible of being resolved in this way.
But a scientific friend has directed his attention to a passage in one of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 729

Stokes's early papers in which the resolution is distinctly enunciated.
Stokes's words are : "... , for we may represent an arbitrary disturbance
in the medium as the aggregate of series of plane waves propagated
in all directions."* He does not give a proof of the theorem, nor a
reference to where a proof may be found, from which the natural
inference is, that the theorem could be referred to as a well-known
theorem so long ago as 1845, when Stokes published the paper in which
this incidental reference occurs. Dr. Stoney desired to call special
attention to this, lest it should be supposed that he claimed the dis-
covery of the theorem. "What he did was only to re-discover it when
it seemed to be forgotten, and to show its great value as a means of
investigating optical problems.

It may be of special interest to some Fellows of the Society to know
that it is possible to see resolved equidistant lines of which there are
140,000 to the inch. Grayson's second set of rulings consists of twelve
bands of lines, of which the closest are 120,000 to the inch. By taking
the seventh of these bands, which consists of lines 70,000 to the inch,
and examining it with an objective of N.A. 1*35, used in conjunction
with a condenser of N.A. 1*30 — the admirable immersion condenser
computed by Mr. Conrady — it was found possible to form a visible
image of the band with its lines duplicated, so that the image as seen
was an image of lines 140,000 to the inch. To accomplish this, all light
of longer wave-lengths was excluded by admitting only light from the
violet end of a solar spectrum, which formed by a two-inch lens of short
focus an image of the sun, as the source of light. A slit was then
placed under the condenser in such a position that the direct light from
it was seen at the edge of the " concentration image " — i.e the image
seen on looking down the tube of the Microscope — accompanied by the
first and isecond spectra formed by the ruling. The first spectrum was
then shut out by a narrow strip of copper foil placed over the objective,
and in this way the direct light and the light of the second spectrum
were alone allowed to pass up the tube and form the microscopic
image near the top of the tube. Under these circumstances, as Abbe
pointed out, the image of the band as seen had twice as many lines
as are in the object on the stage.

To succeed in this experiment it was found necessary to adjust
carefully the tube-length, and the distance between the condenser and
the image of the sun, which was the source of light.

Nobert's celebrated nineteenth band was of lines 120,000 to the old
Paris inch, which is the same as 112,594 to the English inch. It is,
therefore, not as close a ruling as Grayson's twelfth band, and of course
falls far short of being as fine as a ruling of lines 140,000 to the English
inch.

Mr. Gordon spoke in answer to Mr. Conrady, and handed in the
following note upon the mathematical part of Mr. Conrady's paper : —

The main position in Mr. Conrady's paper, the position by establish
ing which he proposes to re-establish the Abbe theory, is contained in
the following sentence, which occurs on page 620 : " The first spectrum

* Stokes's Collected Papers, i. p. 102.

730 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

is always in phase with the direct light.1' The argument is indeed
somewhat loose, for Mr. Conrady does not go on to show that this
equality of phase affects the formation of the image in the image plane.
On the contrary, when he comes to deal with that point, at the bottom of
page 621, he gives the go-by to the spectra altogether, and argues from
the principle of equal optical paths that since the diffracted beams leave
the grating in equal phase with the direct light, they will arrive in equal
phase at the conjugate image. This is a perfectly valid argument, but
it is simply the old-fashioned " dioptric " theory, and has nothing what-
ever to do with the Abbe theory, or with the phase relations of the
spectra inter se. The argument, therefore, has not even the merit of
being coherent, but for some reason Mr. Conrady thinks it necessary to
insist upon the equality of phase of the direct light and the spectra of
the first order. The matter, therefore, must be examined again, although
probably other Members of the Society as well as myself will think it
strange that this question should now be brought up, and brought up in
the form which it assumes in Mr. Conrady's paper. Only in June last
Prof. Everett contributed a paper to our Proceedings in which he showed
that the phase relation between the direct light and the two spectra of
the first order is quite indeterminate, and goes through a complete cycle
of change as the grating is made to move across the stage in a direction
perpendicular to the bars through a distance equal to the distance from
centre to centre of two contiguous bars. It is sufficiently surprising to
find this result called in question, and still more surprising that Mr.
Conrady, while denying Prof. Everett's conclusion, should not think it
necessary even to allude to the argument by which that conclusion was
reached.

By the Society's leave I propose, therefore, to examine Mr. Conrady's
argument ; and since Prof. Everett is no longer among us to defend nis
own position, I will venture to offer some observations in its defence.

First of all, to deal with Mr. Conrady's argument. This appears on
page 617, and it is there shown, with the aid of a diagram, that the
resultant phase in the diffracted beam of the first order is equal at any
given time to the contemporary phase in the beam of direct light. With
that conclusion nobody will quarrel. It might be extended to the beams
of the second, third, and other orders. Mr. Conrady, indeed, thinks not.
He says on page 620 : " This is my great point, in this second cycle the
sign of the resulting amplitude is reversed, i.e. the combined phase is in
this case the opposite one to or is £ wave-length different from that given
by indefinitely narrow slits." On looking for the proof of this pro-
position, one finds that it is due to a mere error in calculation. Mr.
Conrady deduces quite correctly for the resultant disturbance due to the
impulses from a pair of points, E and F, situated symmetrically on either
side of the middle point of a slit, the following expression —

xz -f xv = 2 c . cos /? . sin a.

He then proceeds to obtain the whole result of the radiation from the
slit by integrating this expression, and everything proceeds (so far as it
goes) quite correctly except that he omits to observe the proper limits of

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

731

the integration. Since a is measured from the edge to the middle of
the slit, it is plain that a is the limiting value of /?, and the required

integral is—

i:

= 0

2 c . sin a . cos ft . d (3 . = 2 c . sin2 a.

This, therefore, is necessarily positive, and does not change its sign

whatever value (3 may have. Mr. Conrady has tabulated the function

12

— sin /8 : a function -which does not seem to have relation to anything

in particular, but as it, of course, has a series of negative values, he
infers that the resulting light phase will also change in the diffracted
beam from a broad slit. We see, however, that Mr. Conrady's own
postulates lead to a different conclusion, so we need not further discuss
this proposition.

But to return to the spectra of the first order. Mr. Conrady, having
seen the beams which are to form these spectra safely started on their
way to the focal plane vibrating in unison with
the direct light, assumes that they will be in
equal phase in the focal plane itself. Now
that depends entirely upon the lengths of the
optical paths traversed by the direct beam and
the diffracted beam respectively in passing from
the grating to the focal plane. Mr. Conrady
does not appear to have investigated this part
of the problem. Prof. Everett did investigate it,
and therein lies the explanation of his having
arrived at the opposite conclusion. A short
examination of this point will suffice to decide
the controversy.

In the following diagram (fig. 124) let G ... CI
be the grating on the stage of the Microscope,
Mx M2 the middle points of two contiguous
slits, s the distance between Mj and M2, L the lens, C the prin-
cipal focal point, and Ax the middle point of one of the spectra of
the first order. I use, as far as possible, the symbols used by Prof.
Everett in his paper, and accordingly t = the optical distance from the

grating to the principal focal point C, and T = A. Therefore _, ex-
presses this distance in wave-lengths. To express, in like manner, the
optical distance from the point Mx to the focal point Ai we may write

L 4. ttl where ax stands for any quantity, integral or fractional, and

might, if that were possible, stand for 0, so that the use of this expression
does not commit us to any proposition concerning the relative optical
paths of the direct and diffracted beams respectively. But if this path
from

Mx to A! = T -f «i,

Mj Mi
Fig. 124.

732 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

it follows that the path from

M, to Ax = i + 04 + X.

Now Mr. Conrad j wants the spectrum of the first order to be in
phase with the image formed by the direct light, and as this is a per-
fectly possible condition of things, we will assume it for a starting point,
and in order to express this clearly we will write for the optical paths

Mt to Ax = | + nX (1)

M2 to Ax = i + (n + 1) X . . . . (2)

n being some positive integer.

Next, suppose the grating to be moved across the stage in the direc-
tion from C to Aj through a distance = s. It is clear that in the new
position it will give rise to the same phenomena in the focal plane a&
when it occupied the original position. The optical paths from Mj and
M2 to Ax will have been shortened by one whole wave-length, and the
optical paths to C will be unchanged. Therefore the principal image
and the first spectrum will still be in phase.

But the grating might have been moved through a less distance
than s. Suppose it moved through x. Then the optical path from M
will become t / *\ *

M1toA1 = ^ + U-?U .... (3)

and similarly

M2toA1 = ^+U+ 1 - ;|) A . . . (4)

But the optical paths to C remain unchanged, and therefore in this new
position of the grating there is a phase difference corresponding to

- X between the direct light and the spectrum of the first order.

It is now evident that as x increases from x = 0 to x = s the phase
difference between the direct image and the first spectrum must run
through a complete cycle of change, and that this relation, far from
being determinate, in a general sense, is determined only by the acci-
dental position of the grating on the stage of the instrument. This is
the conclusion at which Prof. Everett arrived, and it appears to be
irresistible.

Towards the end of Mr. Gordon's remarks the Chairman interposed,
and suggested that as it was nearly half -past ten o'clock, Mr. Gordon
might close the subject by simply stating that on other points he did
not accept Mr. Conrady's conclusions. Mr. Gordon at once acquiesced,
and concluded his remarks in that way.*

The Chairman said that the subject referred to in the paper read was
no doubt of much interest to some of their number, but at that late hour
he thought that the discussion could not be prolonged. He felt sure,
however, that they would return their thanks to all who had addressed
them, for the light they had thrown on the matter.

* For Mr. Conrady's'rejoinder, see next page.

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 733

The Chairman also called attention to an exhibition of the palates
of Mollusca from the Society's collection, which were shown under a
number of Microscopes lent for the occasion by Messrs. Watson & Sons,
to whom the thanks of the Meeting were unanimously voted for the use
of these instruments.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows : —
Mr. William Joseph Dibdin, Rev. William Earl, Messrs. Charles E. M.
Fischer, Alfred G. E. Foster, John Ross MacKenzie, and Cecil Price-
Jones.

The Following Objects, Instruments, &c. were exhibited : —

The Society : — An Old Microscope by Dollond, after John Cuff ; an
Old Microscope by Banks, after " Jones's Most Improved Compound
Microscope " ; a Selection of ten Slides of Palates of Mollusca from the
Saunders Collection.

Mr. A. E. Conrady :— The following Experiments in illustration of
his paper. I. Diffraction Spectra with Curved Wave-fronts. The
condenser may be racked up or down as far as it will go, causing a
variation incurvature of the waves passing through the grating from the
maximum possible to practically plane waves (considering the smallness
of the object) without amy change being noticeable in the diffraction
spectra. II. Diffraction Spectra with Critical Light-Opening and Closing
of the Condenser-Iris cause the diffraction spectra to expand and con-
tract in uniform circles, always retaining their distance from centre to
centre, just as would be the case with diffused light. III. Dr. Johnstone-
Stoney's Experiment. An apochromatic objective (Zeiss 16 mm.,
•30N.A.) is used as a condenser, carefully adjusted and focussed, the
" Diffractions-platte " being placed upside down. According to the usual
interpretation of the undulatory theory, diffraction spectra should be
impossible in this case. It will be seen, as a matter of fact, that they
are there, precisely like those in Experiment I.

Mr. J. W. Gordon : — Experiment referred to in Mr. Conrady's
paper, to show the effect of shortening the radius of curvature of the
diffracted wave-front where it passes the grating.

Mr. Hugh C. Ross :— An Electric Warm Stage.

Owing to the lateness of the hour Mr. Conrady was precluded from
replying, but has kindly favoured us with the following rejoinder to
Mr. Gordon's remarks : —

Mr. Gordon sent me a signed copy of the manuscript of his note a
day or two before the meeting at which my paper was read.

In this note Mr. Gordon endeavours, inter alia, to show that I
made a miscalculation in the treatment of a certain integral by which
I prove an important new theorem applying to gratings. It was imme-
diately apparent to me that Mr. Gordon had misunderstood or over-
looked the carefully explained meaning of the two angles entering into

734 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

the problem, and had thus been led to a different solution which is, as
a matter of fact, impossible, because devoid of physical meaning, as I
shall show presently. I therefore wrote privately to Mr. Gordon, point-
ing this out, and repeating the essential parts of my argument ; but as
he does not, apparently, accept my explanation, and maintains his
objection, it becomes necessary to publish my answer to his indictment.

A repetition of my proof of the theorem in question, carried out
with more minute care as to definitions, will probably be the quickest
way of stating my case, which is a very simple example of the applica-
tion of Huyghens' principle.

The latter teaches us that the whole disturbance caused by coherent
light from any given aperture at any point beyond that aperture is
determined by the sum (or integral) of all the elementary disturbances
produced by light from the component elements of the given area.

Referring to fig. 95 accompanying my paper, the wave-motion pro-
duced in the sufficiently distant reference-plane C D by the undulations
from an element of surface, or strip, in the centre of the slit A of a
grating was expressed by the formula

(1) xA = c . sin a ;

and I took great pains to clearly point out a as an angle uniformly in-
creasing by 360° for every complete vibration or wave. I used the
simple symbol a for this ever-increasing angle for the sake of brevity,
as in the whole of this proof its sine only appears as a common factor

of all the terms. Its value is mathematically to be stated as 2 ir - t ;

A

where i? has the usual meaning, A. is the wave-length of the light under
consideration, v the velocity of light, and / the time reckoned from the
instant when the first undulation is assumed to have reached the plane
C D. And it must of course be borne in mind that this meaning is
to be permanently connected with my angle a, as otherwise the physical
meaning of the various equations would be lost, owing to their no
longer expressing light- vibrations.

I next considered two elementary strips of the slit, E and F, equi-
distant from the central strip A, and designated the constant difference
of phase between the light reaching C D from those elements and that
from A by an angle /?, which, consequently, is independent of time.
The wave-motion which light from E and F would produce in the
plane C D contemporaneously with the light from A according to (1)
would then be

(2) xF = c sin (a — /?)

(3) xr = c sin (a -f- /?).

I next added these two disturbances together by solving the sines,
and obtained

II. xs -f xF = 2 c cos /? sin a ;

and I tabulated the value of the amplitude : 2 c . cos /3 in column 2 of
Table I.

Corresponding pairs of elementary strips are to be formed so as to
cover the entire width of the slit. Let the number of pairs be n with

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 735

corresponding values xv ■x_1, j3x for the first pair, and so on to
xn i x-m fin ^ or the ^as^ Pan' '■> then we shall have n equations of the
form of II., differing only in the value of the phase-difference (3 which
grows proportionately to the distance of the strips from the centre of
the slit. The sum to be formed is therefore composed of the terms

•*'i + £_i = 2 c cos /?! sin a
x2 4- x_2 =2 c cos /32 sin a

xn + x-n =2 c cos (3n sin a.

All these terms have the common factor 2 c sin a, and the sum, or total
disturbance, is therefore

m = n

III. 2 (xm + x_m) = 2 c 2 cos j3m . sin a.

m =1 m=l

The successive values of the /3 being independent of time, and there-
fore constant for a spectrum of given order from a given grating, the
sum on the right is also a constant, and combines with 2 c to form the
amplitude of the integral wave ; and this amplitude has been tabulated
in Table I., column 3, for the very coarse interval there adopted.

The step from the sum in III. to the integral, i.e. the correspond-
ing sum taken with pairs of indefinitely narrow strips, is now exceed-
ingly simple. We introduce a new constant, C defined by c = G d (3,
<•? /3 representing the infinitesimal difference of phase between the extreme
edges of any one of the elementary strips, and we can then at once write
down the integral expressing accurately the total effect of the light,
from the whole slit ; putting the limiting value of the angle /? for the
extreme edges of the slit as [3$ and the integral disturbance as K, we find

cos (3 d (3 x sin a = 2 G sin /fy X sin a ;

0 = 0

and, of course, (3^ being again a constant, we identify 2 G sin (3$ as the
amplitude of the resulting wave, whilst sin a again expresses the un-
dulatory nature of light, inasmuch as it goes through its complete
cycle of positive and negative values for every increase of a by 2 v.
But the amplitude is the quantity of interest, and this is therefore
tabulated in column 4 of the table, to show that it agrees closely with
the result of the rough mechanical integration tabulated in column 3.

The important conclusions to be drawn from this table are contained
in the original paper, and need not be again referred to.

It will now be clear that where Mr. Gordon errs is in claiming that
a is also the value of the phase difference for the edges of the slit — which
latter / have consistently designated by (3. He gives no justification
for this, and could not ; for a is an angle ever growing with time at
a tremendously quick rate and to enormous values, whilst the j3 are
comparatively small differences of phase which are independent of time
and limited to a moderate number of wave-lengths.

It is, therefore, no wonder that Mr. Gordon's "solution" of the
integral, i.e. 3C = 2 C sin2 a, is of a form which — assuming that a retains

736 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

the meaning attached to it by me — does indeed represent a periodical
disturbance, but of an unprecedented kind. Owing to sin2 a being
always positive, with a period of it, the disturbances in the aether are
all on the same side of the ray, with a period equal to half that of
the light-waves causing this novel phenomenon ; and, stranger still, the
amplitude is a constant, 2 C ; the influence of the width of the slit
has therefore disappeared, or, in other words, slits of all widths cause
the same disturbance, which, however, is not light. Other interpretations
may be possible by making different assumptions as to the significance
of Mr. Gordon's a, but if a were to be put forward as an angle not
depending on time, say as my (3, then the expression 2 C sin2 a would
no longer represent any undulations of any kind, and would, therefore,
become hopelessly absurd, as a permanent dislocation in the aether is
quite unthinkable.

A large part of the preamble of Mr. Gordon's note falls to the
ground through this proof that the error in the matter is on his side.

It remains to briefly deal with Mr. Gordon's reference to Prof.
Everett's paper.

I am truly glad to see that Mr. Gordon now admits the value and
validity of Prof. Everett's proof of the conjugate movements of object
and image according to the method of treating the formation of micro-
scopical images which Prof. Abbe has introduced. But that is pre-
cisely what I claimed in my paper and referred to, more particularly in
the eleventh line on page 624. Mr. Gordon's attempt to prove me at
variance with Prof. Everett is, therefore, completely unfounded. The
changes in phase relations which take place when a grating is moved
across the field of vision, and which Prof. Everett used in his elegant
proof, have no connection whatever with the phase-law which I have
established as holding for the light emanating from any one slit of a
stationary grating, and which is due to interference of the light from
different parts of each individual slit.

The further question raised by Mr. Gordon, as to whether my appli-
cation of the well-established law of equal optical paths between geo-
metrically conjugate points is reconcilable with the Abbe theory, arises
from Mr. Gordon's views as to the scope and significance of that theory,
which I do not share. I think the reasoning which I have given in
my paper will appear both clear and conclusive to the majority of readers,
and I do not consider it necessary to add to it.

737

INDEX.

Abbe, The Collected Treatises of, 113

— Theory, Vindication of, Theories of

Microscopical Vision, 610, 728
Abbe's Theorems on the Microscopic Re-

solntion of Gratings, Direct Proof, 385,

483
Abel, O., Asymmetry of Skull in Toothed

Whales, 402
Abelous, J. E., Occurrence of an Animal

Diastase at once Oxidising andKeducing,

173
Abnormalities in Urodela, 517
Abronia, Presence in the Tertiary Flora of

Europe, 549
Absorption and Emission of Air and its

Ingredients for Light of Wavelengths

from 250 ft to 100 ft, 360
Acacia salicina, Ash Analysis, 428
Accommodation-Apparatus in Compound

Eyes, 525
Acetic-methyl-green, Concretions, 475
Acetylmethylcarbinol, Production by Bac-
teria of the Bacillus mesentericus Group,

350
Achyla polyandra, Variations of Growth,

561
Achromatic Figure in Pellia, Formation,

663
Acid-fast and Tubercle Bacilli, Resistance

to Decolorising Agents, 249
Actinotrocha, Body Cavities and Nephri-
dia, 418

— Larva, Development of Blood- Vessels

and Blood-Corpuscles, 418
Adams, G. P., Negative and Positive

Phototropism of the Earthworm, 184
Adams' Improved Lucernal Microscope,

724
Adductor Muscles of Bivalves, 523
Aderhold, R., Infection Experiments with
Nectria ditissima, 94

— Sclerotinia and Monilia, 439
Adipo-hepatic Function in Invertebrates,

301
Adjustment, Fine, Notched, for Optical

Instruments, 577
-5Ccidiuni of Maize Rust, 564
Mgagropila Sauteri, 213
iEolids, Nematocysts, 407
JEolosoma hemprichii, Experiments, 184

Aerotropism in Roots, 546
^Etheriidas, 524
iEtiology, Conversational, 168
Agar Method for Imbedding Plant Tissues,
719

— Nutrient, Simple Method of Clearing

without Filtration, 246

— Nutrose, Preparation, 470
Preparing Plates, 471

— Preparing, 588
AgaricinesB on Trees, 222
Agelacrinus and Palseodiscus, 656
Agglutinoscope, Apparatus for Facilitating

Macroscopic Observation of Agglutin-
ation in the Test Tube, 250

Agitation, Constant, Influence on Develop-
ment of Toad's Egg, 635

Agnus, M., Palseoblattina Douvillei, 650

Air, Bacteriological Test for Estimating
Pollution,717

Air-Bubbles, Method of Removal from
Frozen Sections, 594

Albugo Lepigoni and some Peronosporese,
Studies on the Fertilisation, 92

Albumen Extracted from Frog's Ova, 518

Alcohol, Absolute, Resistance of Certain
Seeds to Action of, 426

Aleurodidse, Oriental, 410

Alga, Fountain, 336

— Related to Raphidium polymorphum^Zb
Algae, Alaskan, 437

— American, 678

— Analysis of the Colour, 559

— Arctic, 216

— Bahaman, 337

% — Chinese Marine, 437

— Colour of, and of Water, 332

— Cultivation, 588

— Fossil, 86

— Fresh-water, British, 679

from Brazil and Paraguay, 89

Nitrogen-assimilation, 319

West Indian, 680

— German Fresh-water, 337

— Growth in Water Supplies, 559

— in Public Water Supplies, 86

— Indian Ocean, 216

— Marine, Cell-growth and Plant-form,

217
Distribution in Japan, 217

738

INDEX.

Algse, Marine, from Gulf of Manaar, 216

from Red Sea, 216

from Sicily, 215

of Caroline Islands, etc., 678

of Iceland, 215

Uses in Japan, 217

— New, from Java and Philippines, 67S

— North American, 217

— of Alderney, 678

— of Central Europe, 677

— of the Gulf of Spezia, 337

— Polymorphism, 86

— Eussian Fresh-water, 88

— Sicilian Marine, 560

— Three New Japanese, 216

— Two, from Malay Archipelago, 678
Algal Vegetation of the Faeroes, 55S
Algological Nomenclature, Points, 332
Allen, E. J., Structure and Hahits of

Pcecilochaetus, 652
Allioni, Carlo, 672

Alloy which on Freezing Separates into
Solid Solutions and a Eutectic, Notes
on the Structure, 379
Alloys and Steel, Segregatory and Migra-
tory Habit of Solids below the Critical
Points, 254

— of Aluminium and Silicon, Contributions

to the Study, 125

Aluus, Eoot Excrescences, 445

Alonso, J. M. D. y, Wasps of Spain, 526

Aloy, J., Occurrence of an Animal Diastase
at once Oxidising and Reducing, 173

Alternation, Antithetic versus Homologous,
323

Aluminium and Silicon Alloys, Contribu-
tions to the Study, 125

Amblystegium, Danish Species, 204

Amblystoma, Hypophysis, 517

Amblystoma punctatum, Histology of Diges-
tive Tract, 513

Amitosis in Plants, 315

Amnion, Rudimentary, in Selachians, 636

Amphibia, Development of Mesonephros
and Mullerian Ducts, 511

of Sense Organs of the Lateral Line,

293

— Regeneration of Hind Limbs and Tail,

53
Amphibian Skin, Osmotic Properties, 517
Amphibians and Reptiles of Asia Minor,

641

— Supra-renal Capsule, 639
Amphioxus, Segmental Veins, 522
Amphipod, New Hyperiid, 309
Amphipods, New Family, IS2

— Sex Recognition, 308
Amphiuma, Limbs, 641

Amplifier, Nelson's New Formula, 383,

396
Anaerobes and Symbiosis. 233

— Cultivation, 588
Anaerobic Apparatus, New, 371

Anaesthol, Preparation of Frozen Sections

by Means of, 474
Anatomy and Affinities of the Trochidse,

643
Anatomy, Comparative, of Japanese Cu-
curbitaceae, 538

— of Corolla spectabilis, 645

— of Lottia gigantea, 644

— of Ptychodera erythrxa. 533

Ancel, P., Interstitial Cells of the Mam-
malian Testicle, 53

— Interstitial Testicular Gland, 291
and Secondary Sex Characters,

290

Tissue of Testis, 514

Anderson, J. F., Tick Fever, 68

Andre', E., Concretions in Acetic-methyl-
green, 475

Andrena, Males, 60

Andrews, E. A., Breeding Habits of Ameri-
can Crayfish, 413

Anglas, J., Metamorphosis of Insects, 305

Animals, Protection of Lichens against,
450

Annelid Genera, Revision, 415

Annelids, Cephalisation and Metamerism,
309

Anolis Carolinensis, Colour Change, 641

Anomia ephippium, Anatomy, 58

Antennas of Pulex irritans, 725

Antheridia in Anthoceros, Exogenous, 205

Antherozoids, Explosive Discharge in
Hepaticae, 205

Anthoceros, Exogenous Antheridia, 205

Anthocyan, Formation, 315

Anthony, — ., Orientation of Tridachnids
with their Shells. 304

Anthony, R., iEtheriidae, 524

Anthozoa, Studies, 535

Anthracnose of the Vine. 563

Antipatharia, Systematic Relationships,659

Antipoint, Influence on the Microscopic
Image shown Graphically, 257, 269

Antistreptococcic Serum and its Mode of
Action, 696

Ants, Ergatogynic, 60

— from Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 179

— Notes, 306

Anuria cochlearis, Variation Cycle, 65
Aphauomyces, Spore-development, 684
Aphid, Peculiar, 179
Aphides, Viviparous, Maturation, 180
Aposphxria violacea, 686
Appel, — ., Oidium Tueheri, 223
Aquaria, Kingsford'.-^. Glass Troughs as. 383
Aquatic Life, Adaptations in Mammals, 55

— Plants, Hairs, 321

Arabin Group, Bacterial Origin of the
Forms, 99

the Pararabin Form

of Sterculia, 352

Arachnida, Palaeozoic, 651

Araiospora pulchra, 339

INDEX.

739

Arber, E. A. N., Cupressinoxylon Hookeri,
664

— Synanthy in Lonicera, 72
Arboreal Adaptations, 402
Arenicola, Memoir, 653

— Preparing and Demonstrating the Struc-

ture, 474
Argand, R., Transition between Internal
Iliac and Umbilical Arteries in the New-
born, 510
Argulidse, 182

Arnold, J., Fat Synthesis by Mucous
Membranes, 516

— Vital and Supravital Granule Staining,

119
Arnold, J. 0., Influence of Sulphur and

Manganese on Steel, 254
Arrivault, — ., Contributions to the Study

of Alloys of Aluminium and Silicon, 125
Arsenic, Biological Test for Presence, 225
Arteries, Transition between Internal Iliac

and Umbilical in the New-born, 510
Arthropoda, Classification, 177

— Relationships between Classes, 178

— Structure and Classification, 524
Arthropods, Excretion, 304

Arthur, J. C., iEcidium of Maize Rust, 564

— Taxonomic Importance of the Spermo-

gonium, 344
Ascarids, Peculiar Structure of Epithelial

Cells of Ovarian and Spermatic Tubes,

654
Ascaris, Radially Striated Ganglion Cells,

416
Aschersonia, 563
Ascidians, Solitary, Self-Fertilisation and

Cross-Fertilisation, 406
Ascodesmis, Fertilisation, 93
Ascomycetes, Epiplasm, 439

— Karyokinesis, 685

Ash Analysis of Acacia salicina, 428
Ash worth, J. H., Memoir on Arenicola, 653

— Preparing and Demonstrating the Struc-

ture of Arenicola, 474

Aspergillese and Gymnoascaceas, Observa-
tions, 441

Asplenium ruta-muraria, 81

Assimilation, Energy of in Plants belong-
ing to different Biological Types and
Light Intensity, Relation between, 195

Aster, Fertilisation and Embryo-sac, 541

Asterias glacialis, Parthenogenetic Larvae,
420

Asymmetrical Development of Fowl's
Skull, 516

Aterido, D. L., American Plants Natural-
ised in Spain, 200

Atherinse, Evolution in Fresh Water, 521

Atkinson, G. F., The Genus Harpochy-
trium in the United States, 219

Atyids, Mutations of, 514

Aubert, S., Association of Chalk-loving
and Chalk-avoiding Species, 200

Audige, J., Infectious Exophthalmia of

Fresh-water Fishes, 299
Austen, E. E., Tsetse-Flies, 648
Autodaz lugubris. Habits, 174
Awerinzew, S., New Type of Suctoria, 313

B.

Baar, R., Ustilago violacea, 564
Baccarini, P., Accumulation of Water in
the Leaf-sheath of Musa ensete, 668

— Notes on Ceratostoma juniperinum, 340
Bachmann, H., Phytoplanktou of Fresh

Water, 336
Bacilli, Tubercle and other Acid-fast, Re-
sistance to Decolorising Agents, 249
— ■ Typhoid, in Water, Demonstrating, 470

New Method of Demonstrating, 470

Non-flagellate, 574

Bacillus anthracis, Resistance to Heat, 234

— aureus faztidus, Fatal Infection by a

hitherto undescribed Chroinogenic
Bacterium, 696

— Carnis, 232

Bacillus, Chemistry of Tubercle, 455
Bacillus coli communis and Bacillus typho-
sus, Differentiation by Means of the
Photographic. Plate, 478

— mesentericus, Production of Acetyl -

methylcarbinol by Bacteria of Group,
350, 455
Bacillus of Haemorrhagic Septicaemia of
Caraboas, Pulmonary Lesions produced
by, 352
Bacillus typhosus and Bacillus coli com-
munis, Differentiation by Moans
of the Photographic Plate, 478

and some other Micro-organisms,

Effect of certain Dyes upon the
Cultural Characters, 573

Identification in Stools, 717

Bacteria, Anaerobic, Culture, 585

Simple Method of Cultivating, 718

— Demonstrating Presence of Cilia, 249

— Denitrifying, Accumulation Experi-

ments, 452
-^-Difficult to Stain in Sections of Skin
and other Organs, Staining, 374

— Growth in Salt Solutions of High Con-

centration, 454
under Altered Pressure, 455

— of the Group Bacillus mesentericus, Pro-

duction of Acetvlmethvlcarbinol, 350,
455

— On Suiting Contrast Screens for Photo-

graphy of, 712

— Reduction of Sulphates, 351

— Role of, Saprophytic and Pathogenic,

573

— Two New Fluorescent Dentrifying, 233
Bacterial Disease, Jaundice of the Beet,

100

740

INDEX.

Bacterial Flora of the Male Urethra, 455

— Light and Photographic Plates, 572

— Origin of the Arabin Group, the Par-

arabin form of Sterculia (Bac-
terium pararabinum, sp. n.), 352

of the Forms of the Arabin Group,

99
Bactericidal Properties of Helminthic

Juice, 574
Bacteriological Methods in Sanitary "Water
Analysis, 116

— Test for Estimating Pollution of Air,

717

— Tests for Show Butters, 122

Bacteriology and Histology of Mud ob-
tained at a Depth of 10 m. from a
Roman Funereal Pit at the Necropolis
of Bernard (Vendee), 351

— of the Blood, Technique, 116
Bacterium Cyprinicida, 232
Bacterium, Presence of Cilia in the Genus,

232
Bacterium Sacchari, Gum and By-products,

573
Bacterium, Slime, from the Peach, etc., 231
Bacterium teutlium, 697
Bacterium, Uric Acid, 99
Bagshaw, W., Photographing Microscopic

Crystals, 242
Baker, F. W. W., 382

— Exhibition of Slides illustrating the

Development of an Ascidian, 127
Baker's Diagnostic Microscope, 357
Ball, — , Cysticercus cellulosse on Dog's

Brain, 185
Ballowitz, E., Olfactory Organ of Lamprey,

401

— Spermatozoa of Discoglossus pictus, 168
Band-Plate, Grayson's 120,000, 393
Bangia atropurpurea, 336

Barnard, J. E., 258

Barrett-Hamilton, G. E. H, Sub-Species

of Mustelidse, 406
Barsali, E., Hairs of Aquatic Plants, 321
Barton, E. S., Indian Ocean Algse, 216

— Marine Algas from the Gulf of Manaar,

216
Barus, C, Direct Micrometric Measure-
ment of Fog Particles, 464
Bashford, E. P., Conjugation of Resting

Nuclei in an Epithelioma of the

Mouse, 295

— Zoological Distribution, Mitoses, and

Transmissibility of Cancer, 294

Basidiobolus Lacertas, 91

Basidiobolus, Sexual Reproduction, 339

Bassler, R. S., Revision of Palaeozoic
Bryozoa, 655

Bataillon, E., Parthenogenetic Develop-
ment of Lamprey's Ova, 509

Bate, Old Microscope, 354

Batelli, F., Alleged Alcoholic Fermenta-
tion in Animal Tissues, 173

Bates, G. A., Histology of Digestive Tract
of Amblystoma punctatum, 513

Bates, J. M., American Uredinese, 221

Bather F. A., Eocene Echinoids from
Sokoto, 535

Batrachians and Reptiles, West Asian,
59

Baudouin, M., Bacteriology and Histology
of Mud obtained at a Depth of 10 m.
from a Roman Funereal Pit at the Ne-
cropolis of Bernard (Vendee), 351

Baum, — ., Minute Structure of Blood-
vessels, 171

— Structure of Mammalian Blood- Vessels,

400
Bauer, V., Metamorphosis of Central

Nervous System in Insects, 647
Baur, E., Development of Lichen Fruits,

349
Beach-Flea, Study, 182
Bean, B. A., Pelican Fish from the Pacific,

642
Beauchamp, P. de, Fixation of Infusoria,
372

— New Rotifer of Genus Drilophaga, 656
Beauverie, J., Dry-rot, 690

Beck, G, 257, 258, 262

— Exhibition of Flower Seeds, 384

— Portable Microscope designed by A.

Hollick, 483
Beck, R. and J., Optical Bench, 582

— Safety Cedar Wood Oil-Bottle, 378
Beck's London Petrological Microscope,

457
Becquerel, P., Permeability to Gases of
Certain Dried Seeds, 426

— Resistance of Certain Seeds to the Ac-

tion of Absolute Alcohol, 426

Beddard, F. E., The Phylogeny of the
Boidse, 299

Beech, Red, Formation of False Heart-
wood, 691

Bees' Eggs, Development, 526

Beesley, L., Fountain Alga, 336

Bees, Sex-Determination, 179

Beet, Jaundice of : a Bacterial Disease, 100

Beetle (Thymahis marginicollis) Muscle-
Changes during Metamorphosis, 647

Beetles' Wings, 306

Be'guin, F.. Oesophageal Glands in Rep-
tiles, 171

Beguiuot, A., Bryology of the Tuscan
Archipelago, 82

Beilby, G. T„ Hard and Soft States in
Metals, 595

— Surface Structure of Solids, 124
Bell, E., Pollination of the Primrose, 426
Bell, F. J., New Genus of Spatangoids, 311
Bemis, F. E., Mealy-Winged Flies of

California, 410
Bennett, M. E., Aerotropism in Roots, 546
Bensley, R. R., Brunner's Glands, 170

— Cardiac Glands of Mammals, 170

INDEX.

741

Berestneff, — ., New Modification of the
Romanowsky-Ruge Method for Staining
Blood-Spores, 249

Berghs, J., Formation of the Achromatic
Figure in Pellia, 663

— Heterotypic Division, 662
Bergmann, W., Receptaculum Seminis and

Nuptial Combat in Octopus, 522
Berlese, A. N., Peronosporeae, 339
Bernard, C, Centripetal Wood in Leaves

of Conifers, 663
Bernard, H. M., Studies in the Retina, 296
Bernard, N., Endophytic Fungus of Or-
chids, 320
Berndt, W., Cryptophialus striatus, sp. n.,

530
Bertel, R., Aposphxria violacea, sp. n., 686
Besredka, — ., Antistreptococcic Serum and
its Mode of Action, 696

— Role of Streptococci in the Course of

Scarlatina, 695

Bessey, C. E., Structure and Classification
of the Pliycomycetes, 219

Bessey, E. A., Conditions of Colour Forma-
tion in Fusarium, 692

Best, G. N., North American Species of
Leskia, 81

Bibliography, Botany, 73, 79, 81, 85, 86,
90, 96, 97, 98, 194, 201, 203, 204, 209,
210, 218, 228, 229, 230,231, 316,322,
324, 325, 328, 329, 330, 331,338,347,
348, 426, 429,430, 433, 434, 437, 438,
447, 448, 449, 450, 540, 543, 549, 550,
551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 560, 561,
570, 571, 572, 665, 672, 673, 674, 675,
676, 677, 682, 683, 692, 693, 694, 697

— Microscopy, 111, 112, 115,121, 125,240,

242, 248, 250, 255, 360, 371, 376, 460,
461, 462, 463, 465, 474, 475, 478, 480,
481, 578, 582, 585, 591, 594, 595, 596,
711, 714, 716, 718, 719, 722, 723

Bicollateral Bundle of Cucurbita, Develop-
ment, 539

Bienstock, — ., Anaerobes and Symbiosis,
233

Bigelow, H. B., Medusae from Maldive
Islands, 420

Bilter, G., Formation of Soredia in Lichens.
572

Biltz, W., Ultra-Microscopic Observations
in Solutions of Pure Glycogen, 716

Binnenthal, F. R. v., Enemies of Roses,
528

Biological Test for the Presence of Arsenic,
225

Birch-Hirschfeld, A., Ultra-Microscopic In-
vestigation of Colour-matters and their
Physiological Significance, 114

Birds, Ablation of Parathyroids, 516

— Canadian, 56

— Compound Rhamphotheca, 640

— Fishes and Insects, Food, 519

— Indian, Trypanosoma, 313

Dec. 21st, 1904

Birds, Middle Ear and Columella, 640

— Parasites of Ural, 186

— Trypanosoma in, 190

Bitter, G., Studies of Peltigera, 449
Bivalence of the Chromosomes, 315
Bivalves, Adductor Muscles, 523
Bjorkenheim, C. G., Root Excrescences of

Alnus, 445
Blackman, V. H., Fertilisation, Alterna-
tion of Generations, and General Cyto-
logy of the Uredinese, 221
Blakeslee, A. F., Sexual Reproduction in
the Mucorineae, 684

— Zygospore Formation in Mucoraceae,

562
Blatta Germanica, Spermatogenesis, 650
Bleaching Reagents, 247
Blood-Cells, Origin of, and Structure of

Heart in Spiders, 412

— -Corpuscles and Blood-Vessels, De-

velopment in the Actinotrocha Larva,

418

Cultures in Typhoid Fever, 246

Films, Modified Nocht's Stain for,

476

— Preparation of Slides for, 595

— Mammalian, Oxidation of Glucose, 55

— of Marine Gastropods, 176

— Technique of the Bacteriology, 116

— Vessels and Blood-Corpuscles, Develop-

ment in the Actinotrocha Larva, 418

— Mammalian Structure, 400

— Minute Structure, 171

Bodin, E., Apparatus for the Continuous
Agitation of Cultures, 468

— Role of Bacteria : Saprophytic and

Pathogenic, 573
Body-Cavities and Nephridia of Actino-
trocha, 418

— -Cavity and Cerebral Ganglion of

Gordiidae, 416
Boenninghaus, G., Ear of Toothed Whales,

402
Bohn, G., Experiments on the Developing

Ova of the Frog, 509

— Oscillatory Movements of Convoluta

roscoffensis, 185
-r Phototropism of Convoluta and Nereids,

519
Boidae, Phylogeuy, 299
Bokorny, T., Photosynthesis, 73
Bolca Fishes, Descriptions, 518
Bolle, J., Sleeping Sickness in Silkworms,

179
Bolochonzew, — ., Phytoplanktou of the

Volga, 210
Bombyx mori, Oviposition, 306
Bono and Cartilage, Regeneration, 293
Bonne, C, Development of the Veins of

the Liver in the Rabbit and Sheep,

399
Bonuevie, K., Spermatogenesis in Entero-

zenos (Jstergreni, 523

3 E

742

INDEX.

Bonney, T. G., Primary and Secondary
Devitrification in Glassy Igneous Rocks,
125

Bonnier, G., Conidial Stage of Morchella,
340

Boodle, L. A., Structure of Leaves of the
Bracken Fern in Belation to Environ-
ment, 429

Borcea, J., Kidney of Male Elasmobranchs,
514

— Oviducal Gland of Elasmobranchs, 518
Bordas, F., Disease of Cork Trees, 446
Bordet, J., Culture of Anaerobic Bacteria,

585
Borge, O., Fresh-water Algae from Brazil

and Paraguay, 89
Borgesen, F., Algal Vegetation of the

Faeroes, 558
Bosse, A. W. v., Coral linaceae, 557

— Two Algse from the Malay Archipelago,

678
Botany, Australian, 201
Fossil, 77

— of Belle Isle, 547
Botrytis, Disease of Tulips, 342
Bottle for Mounting-Medium, 121
Boudier, E., and Others, French Mycology,

346
Bougardt, J., Luminosity of Lainpyridse,

307
Bouin, — ., Interstitial Tissue of Testis,

514
Bouin, P., Interstitial Cells of the Mam-
malian Testicle, 53

— Interstitial Testicular Gland, 291
and Secondary Sex. Characters,

290
Boulay, — ., French Hepaticse, 552
Boulder Clay, Micro-fauna, 68
Boulenger, G. A., Sub-Orders and Families

of Teleostean Fishes, 300
Boutan, L., Origin of Fine Pearls, 177,

408
Bouvier, E. L., Mutations of Certain Aty-

ids, 414
Boveri, T., Behaviour of the Protoplasm in

Monocentric Mitoses, 295
— Differences in the Chromosomes of

Sister-germ-cells, 531
Boynton, H. C, Sorbitic Steel, 481
Brachet, A., Development of Layers and

Organs in the Terminal Bud and Tail of

Teleost Embryos, 511
Brain, Human, Transitory Fissures, 55
Branca, A., Testical and Spermatic Ducts

of Lemurs in Captivity, 291
Branchial Apparatus in Tunicata, Develop-
ment, 301
Branchial Vessels of Sternaspis, 652
Branchiobdella parasitica, Musculature, 64
Brasil, L., Digestive Apparatus in Poly-

chaeta, 415
Breathing- Valves, Oral, of Teleostei, 405

Breed, R. S., Muscle-Changes in Beetle
(Thymalus marginicollis) during Meta-
morphosis, 647

Breeding Habits of American Crayfish,
413

of Yellow-Bellied Terrapin, 636

Breemen, P. J. v., North Sea Plankton, 681

Brehm, — ., Plankton of Certain Alpine
Lakes, 434

Bresslau,E., Development of Turbellarians.
416

Bretscher, K., Distribution of Oligochaeta,
184

Briosi, G., White Mildew of Citrus
Limonum, 691

Britton, B. M., North American Mosses, 82,
83

Britton, C. E., Variation in the Violet
Flower, 540

Britton, E. G., American Masses, 205

— North American Mosses, 82
Britzelmayer, M., Growth-Forms of Li-
chens, 348

Bronzes, Prehistoric, of the Charente, Mi-
croscopic Study, 124
Browne, F. B., Ova and Larvae of Fishes,

54
Brownian or Pedetic Movements, Preven-
tion, 250
Brown-rot of Swedes, 228
Bruce, W. S., " Scotia" Closing Plankton

Net, 587
Bruntz, L., Excretion in Arthropods, 304
Bryce, D., New Species of Philodina, 65
Bryology of the Tuscan Archipelago, 82
Bryozoa, Marine, Geographical Distribu-
tion, 533

— Palaeozoic, Eevision, 655
Bubak, F., Sclerotinia Alni, 439
Buchenau, F., Development of Stamens in

the Interior of the O vary of Melandryum,
321

Buckwheat, Pollination, 319

Buds, Adventitious Endogenous, 192

Bulgaria globosa, 439

Bullock, W., Chemistry of Tubercle Bacil-
lus, 455

Bullseye, Scop, Stand Condenser, 252

with Mechanical Adjustments, 252

Burgerstein, A., Transpiration, 668

Buscalioni, L., Caulifloria, 427

Butters, Bacteriological Tests for Show,
122

Byblis gigantea, 424

By-law No. 25, Alteration, 488

Notice of Alteration, 384

Byssus purpurea, 336

C.

Cadeac, M. M., Production of Glucose by

Animal Tissues, 173
Cajal, S. Ramon y, Method for Silver
Impregnation of Nervous Tissue, 477

INDEX.

743

Cajal, S. Ramon y, Minute Structure of
Nerve-Cells and Epithelial Cells in
Earth-worms, 415

— Staining the Myelin in Sections of Ner-

vous Tissue previously treated by

Marchi's Method, 476
Calanoid Copepoda, 1S2
Caiman, W. T., Cave-dwelling Galatheid

from the Canary Islands, 652

— Classification of Malacostraca, 181
Calvet, M. L., Geographical Distribution

of Marine Bryozoa, 533

Cameron, J., Preparing Lantern Slides of
Histological Objects, 480

Campbell, A. W., Histological Studies of
Cerebral Localisation, 401

Campbell, D. H., Antithetic versus Homo-
logous Alternation, 323

Cancer, Merulius lacrymans as a cause,
222

— Zoological Distribution, Mitoses, and

Transmissibility, 294

Candolle, C. de, Adventitious Endogenous
Buds, 192

Cannon, W. A., Spermatogenesis of Hybrid
Peas, 70

Canthocamptus, New, from Idaho, 530

Cantin, G., Destruction of Winter Ova of
Phylloxera by Lysol, 307

Capnodium maximum, 685

Capsule Formation by Diplococcus pneu-
moniae in Culture, 370

Carbon Dioxide, Influence on Ova of Echi-
noderms, 188

Parthenogenesis induced by, 187

Cardiac Fibres, Demonstrating the Struc-
ture, 373

Cardot, J., Leucobryacese of the East
African Islands, 205

— Mosses of Korea, 432

Carices, Grouping : Studies in Cyperacese,

200
Carlgren, O., Studies in Anthozoa, 535
Carlsosn, A., Anatomy of Notoryctes typli-

lops, 639
Carlton, F., Colour Change in Anolis caro-

linensis, 641
Carmin Injection-Masses, New Method for

Neutralising, 378
Carpels, Replacement of Stamens by, in

Wallflower, 669
Carpenter, G. H., New British Spring-
Tails, 527

— Relationships between Classes of Ar-

thropoda, 178
Cartaud, M. G., Evolution of Structure in

Metals, 723
Cartex, E., Apparatus for the Continuous

Agitation of Cultures, 468
Cartilage and Bone, Regeneration, 293

— Foetal, Demonstrating, 594

— Hyaline, Histology, 54

— Supra-cricoid, in Man, 298

Cassididse, Egg-Cases and Early Stages,

410
Cast Iron, Recent Investigations, 255
Castellani, A., Developmental Forms of the "
Trypanosome found in Sleeping Sick-
ness, 191

— Trypanosoma in Sleeping Sickness, 191
Castle, W. E., Mendel's Law of Heredity,

50
Castoro, N, Inorganic Phosphates in Plant

Seeds and in Seedlings, 663
Casts, Internal, of Foraminifera, Method of

Taking, 121
Caterpillars, Influence of Environment, 304

of Humidity, 305

Cattleya, Disease, 569

Caulerpa anceps, 211

Caulifloria, 427

Caullery, M., Pelmatosphsera, 311

Cavers, F., Biology of Hepaticse, 431

— Explosive Discharge of Antherozoids in

Hepaticse, 205

— Fegatella conica, 207

— Pallavicinia Flotowiana, 207

— Petalophyllum Balfsii, 84

— Biella capensis, sp. n., 84
Ceccherelli, G., Sensory Nerve-Endings^in

Human Tongue, 638
Ceeidomyidse, Case of Dimorphism, 527
Cellar Slug, Habits, 523
Celloidin Sections, Sticking, 723
Cells, Collodionage, 589

— Epithelial, of Ovarian and Spermatic

Tubes of Ascarids, Peculiar Structure,
654

— Plant, Occurrence of Mitochondria and

Chondromite8, 538

— Twin Nuclei in Various Types in

Guinea-Pig, 513
Cellulose, Decomposition by Aerobic
Micro-organisms, 235

— Iodine-Calcium Nitrate, a New Re-

agent, 250
Cement, Waterproof, for Glass, 121
Centrospheres and Segmentation Spindle

in Embryo of Rhynchelmis, 482
Cephalisation and Metamerism in Anne-
- lids, 309

Cephalochorda, Ceylonese, 175
Cephalopods, ' Albatross,' 522

— and Chitonidse, Egg-Envelopes, 406

— Demonstrating the Statocysts, 117

— Echinoderms and Tunicates, Digestive

Ferments, 56
Ceratella, New, 190
Ceratium, Sexual Reproduction, 332
Ceratostoma juniperinum, Notes, 340
Cercopidse of Japan, 649
Cercosporella compacta, 6S6
Cereals, Diseases, 566

— Infection by Smut, 689

Cerebral Ganglion and Body-Cavity in
Gordiidse, 416

3 E 2

744

INDEX.

Cerebral Hemisphere in Man and Apes,
Occipital Region, 298

— Localisation, Histological Studies, 401
Cerianthid, New, 312

Cerianthus Borealis, Anatomy, 535
Cestode, Dioecious, 654

— with Separate Sexes, 417
Cestodes from Mammals, 533

— of South American Marsupials, 185
Cetaceans, Fixation of Coronulidse in Skin,

530
Chaine, J., Case of Dimorphism in Cecido-
myidae, 527

— Mandibulo-auricular Muscle, 299

— Myology of Chondropterygian Fishes,

300
Chalk-loving and Chalk-avoiding Species,

Association, 200
Chamberlain, G. J., Artificial Light for the

Microscope, 702
Chapman, B. L., Mallophaga from Ha-
waiian Islands. 411
Chapman, F., Palaeozoic Pteropoda, 407
Chapman, H. C, Origin of Primates, 297
Chara, Development of Spermatozoid, 55S
Charabot, E., Influence of External Media
on Mineral Constituents and Organic
Composition of Plants, 425

— Influence of the Nature of the Soil on

the Organic Composition of Plants,
195

— Scent of the Orange Flower, 538
Characters Acquired, Transmission, 292
Chauveaud, G., Development of Vascular

Cryptograms, 322

— Persistence of the Alternate Structure

in Cotyledons, 317

Chelifer, New, 62

Chemotropism of Roots, 319

Chesneau, M. G., Microscopic Study of the
Prehistoric Bronzes of the Charente,
124

Chevrel, R., New Genus of Marine Diptera,
648

Chichakoff, G., New Species of Phagocata,
65

Chiraseroids, 521

Chironomid, Marine, New to Britain, 61

Chironomus, Habits, 60

Chitonidse and Cephalopods, Egg-En-
velopes, 406

Chitons from the Pacific, 644

— Larval eye, 408
Chlamydomonas, 556

— in Water-Supplies, 659
Chlorella vulgaris, Pure Cultures, 586
Chodat, R., Points of Algological Nomen-
clature, 332

Cholodkovsky,N., Structure of Pediculidse,
307

Chondromites and Mitochondria, Occur-
rence in Plant-Cells, 538

Christ, V. H., Asplenium Ruta-muraria, 81

Christensen, H. R., Two New Fluorescent
Denitrifying Bacteria, 233

Christman, A. H., Variability of Dictyo-
phora, 565

Christophers, S. R., Demonstrating a Para-
site Found in Cases of Enlarged Spleen,
477

Chromatic Correction of Object-Glasses,
716

Chrom-hsematoxylin, Staining, 593

Chromosomes, Bivalence, 315

— Formation of, and Recoustitution of

Nucleus, 663

— of Sister-germ-cells, Differences, 531
Chytridinete, New, 90

Cilia iu Bacteria, Demonstrating Presence,
249

— in Connection with Basal Corpuscles,

659

— Presence iu the Genus Bacterium, 232
Ciliary Movement, 400

Ciliata, Action of Induction Shocks, 68

Cirripeds, Organ of Kcehler, 530

Citelli, J., Supra-cricoid Cartilage in Man,

298
Citromyces, Production of Citric Acid, 690
Citrus limonum, White Mildew of, 691
Cladoceran New to Britain, 63
Clark, M. E., Occurrence of Invertase in

Plants, 547
Clarke, C. B., Chinese Cyperaceae, 78
Clarke, S. F., Alaskan Corymorpha-like

Hydroid, 189
Classes of Arthropoda,' Relationships, 178
Cleandrus graniger, Phagocytic Apparatus,

649
Clegg, M. T., Staining Trypanosoma, 375

— Trypanosoma and Trypanosomiasis, 313
Clerc, W., Parasites of Ural Birds, 186
Climate. Polar, in Time the Major Factor

in Evolution, 197
Clinical Case, Horder's, 245
Clute, W. N., American Ferns, 203
Coccidia in Lamellibranchs, 313

— in Sheep, 191
Cocconema, Development, 681

Cocconi, G., New Species of Microfungi,

690
Coco, A. M., The Fuchsinophile Granules

of Spinal Ganglia Cells, 639
Coco-Palm Disease, 225
Ccelentera and Porifera, Spermatogenesis,

312, 421
Coffee Disease, 345

— Plant, Disease, 568

Coilodesme calif ornica and Myriactis Ares-
chougii, 436

Coker, W. C, Structure of some North
American Hepatics, 206

Cole, L. J., Pycnogonida of West Coast of
North America, 529

Coleosporium sonchi-arvensis, Nuclear Phe-
nomena. 688

INDEX.

745

Coles, C. A., Resistance of Tubercle and
other Acid-fast Bacilli to Decolorising
Agents, 249

Collecting Bottle, Wright's, 115

Collema and Leptogium, 449

Collembola of the Beach, 61

Colletes, Male Terminal Segments and
Armatures, 409

Collins, F. S., American Algse, 678

— North American Alga?, 217

Collius, J. F., North American Mosses, S3

Collodionage of Cells, 589

Colombo, G., Method for Intra-vitam Stain-
ing of the Protoplasmic Granules of the
Cornea, 375

Coloration of the Quaggas, 175

— Protective, 62
Colorations, Tegumentary, 297

Colour Change in Anolis Carolinensis, 641

— Formation in Fusarium, Conditions,

692

— Loss of, in Bed Wines. G97

— of Algae, Analysis, 559
and of Water. 332

— Matters and their Physiological Signi-

ficance, Ultra-Microscopic Investiga-
tion, 114

— Process, The How and Why of the

Lipmann, 242
Colours and Scents, Attraction for Insects,

669
Columbi formes, Comparative Ostelogy and

Phylogeny, 403
Columella and Middle Ear of Birds, 640
Colver, W. D., The Antennae of Pulex

irritans, 725
Concretions in Acetic-methyl-green, 475
Conidia, Copulation, in TJstilaijo tragopogi-

pratensis, 689
Conidial Form of Daldinia concentrica,

442
— ■ — of Morchella esculenta, 684

— Forms of the Higher Fungi, 568
. — Stage of Morchella, 340

Conifers, Centripetal Wood in Leaves,

663
i — Mycorhiza, 223
Conklin, E. G., Follicular Cells of Cricket,

61

— Inverse Symmetry in Gastropods, 303
Conrady, A. E., Chromatic Correction of

Object-Glasses, 716

— Theories of Microscopical Vision : a

Vindication of the Abbe Theory, 610,
728, 7S3

Constantineau, J. C, New Species of Ure-
dinese, 443

Contagne, G., Mendelian Phenomena in
Gastropods, 644

Contractile Vacuoles, Demonstrating Dis-
charge, 421

Convergence Phenomena in Insects, 646

Convoluta and Nereids, Phototropism, 519

Convoluta roscoffensis, Oscillatory Move-
ments, 185

Copeland, E. B., New and Interesting
Californian Fungi, 344

Copeman, S. M., Sex of Mice, 290

Copeognatha, New, 411

Copeognathae, Parthenogenesis, 649

Copepod, New Genus, 03

Copepoda, Calanoid, 182

— of Basel, 63

Copepods, Free-swimming of Louisiana, 530

— Winter Eggs, 309
Corallinaceae, 557

— New Genus of, 436
Corallinea), Genicula, 679

— of Japan, 336
Corals, ' Albatross,' 658

Cordemoy, H. J. de, Mycorhiza of Epiphy-
tic Plants, 567

— Mycorhiza of Vanilla, 425
Corethra plumicomis, Vital Staining, 376
Cork Trees, Disease, 446

Cornea, Method for Staining the Proto-
plasmic Granules, 375

Corolla spectabilis, Anatomy, 645

Coronulidae, Fixation in Skin of Cetaceans.
530

Corpus luteum of Dasyurus viverrinus, 292

of Sheep, Demonstrating the Struc-
ture, 372

Corpuscles, Basal, in Connection with
Cilia, 659

Correction, Chromatic, of Object-Glasses,
716

Corymorpha, Development, 67

Cotton, A., Ultra-Microscopic Objects, 243

Cotyledons, Persistence of Alternate Struc-
ture, 317

Council, New, 130

— Beport for 1903, 130

Coupin, H., Influence of Potassium on the
Morphology of Sterigmalocystis nigra,
194

— Sterigmatocystis versicolor, 442

— Structure of Extrarloral Nectaries of

Hevea, 71

of Petiolar Glands of Hevea bra-

siliensis, 540
"Courvoisier, L. G., Variations in Lycsenidse,

59
Couvreur, E., Blood of Marine Gastropods,
176

— Respiration in Torpedo, 174
Cover-Glass Cleaner, 251

Cowan, T. W., Natural History, Anatomy,
and Physiology of the Honey Bee, 409

Cowles, R. P., Body-Cavities and Ne-
phridia of Actinotrocha, 418

— Development of Blood- Vessels and

Blood-Corpuscles in the Actinotrocha

Larva, 418
Crangonidae, Larval Forms, 63
Cranium, Notes on Dipnoan, 521

746

INDEX.

Crayfish, American, Breeding Habits, 413
Crawley, H., North American Gregarines,

68
Cricket, Follicular Cells, 61
Cross-Fertilisation and Self-Fertilisation

in Solitary Ascidians, 406
Cruchet, D., Parasites of Edelweiss, 566
Crustaceans and Gastropods, Ova, 57
Cryptogams and Higher Plants, Relation,
428

— Vascular, Development, 322
Cryptomeria japonica, Gametophyte and

Embryology, 666

Cryptophialus striatus, 530

Cryptoplax larv&formis. Structure, 58

Crystals, Microscopic, Photographing, 242

Ctenodrilus, Histology, 64

Cuboni, G., Disease of Cultivated Mush-
rooms, 220

Cucurbitaceae, Japanese, Comparative Ana-
tomy, 538

Cucurbita, Development of Bicollateral
Bundle, 539

Cue'not, L., Heredity of Pigmentation in
Mice, 290

— Phagocytic Organ of Decapods, 181
Culmann's Monocular Image-Erecting

Prism-Microscope, 699
Cultivating Anaerobic Bacteria, Simple
Method, 718

— Trypanosomes, 116
Cultivation of Algae, 588

— of Anaerobes, 588

Cultural Experiments with " Biologic

Forms " of the Erysiphaceae, et.5., 563
Culture Medium, New, made with Helix
pomatia, 369

— of Anaerobic Bacteria, 585
Cultures, Apparatus for Continuous Agita-
tion, 468

— Influence of Shaking on Development,

697

— Pure, of Chlorella vulgaris, 586

of Diatoms, 335, 470

Cummings, C. E., Lichens of Alaska, 572
Cupressinoxylon Hooheri, 664

Currant and Gooseberry Disease, 220
Curties, C. L., 256

— Exhibition of Specimens of Marine

Objects mounted by Mr. Waddington,
257

— Nernst Electric Lamps for Microscope,

728
Cushman, J. A., Micrasterias, 681

— New England Desmids, 89
Cussans, M., Memoir of Gammarus, 651
Cyanogenesis in Plants, 77
Cyanophycese, Studies, 450
Cycadeaj, Ovule and Seed, 665
Cycadeoidea Reichenbachiana, 664
Cyclostomes and Fishes, Optic Reflex

Apparatus, 638
Cyclops, Variations, 63

Cymbulia peronii, Maturation and Fertili-
sation, 303

Cymonomus, Modification of Eye-Pedun-
cles, 412

Cyperaceae, Chinese, 78

— Studies : the Grouping of the Carices,

200
Cyrripida Larvas, Fixing and Examiuing,

473
Cysticercus cellulosse on Dog's Brain, 185
Cystopus Candidas, Biology, 93
Cytology, and Micro-Chemistry of a Torula,
69

— General, Fertilisation and Alternation

of Generations of Urediueae, 687

— of Aratspora pulchra, 339

— of Galactinia succosa, 94

— Recent Work on, 662

Czapski, S., The Collected Treatises of
Abbe, 113

D.

Daday, E. v., Hungarian Species of Eylais,
650

— New Rotifers, 66

Dads well, Edward, Death, 724
Daguillon, A., Structure of the Extrafloral
Nectaries of Hevea, 7 1

of the Petiolar Glands of Hevea

hrasiliensis, 540
Daldinia concentrica, Conidial Form, 442
Dale, H. H, Islets of Langerhans of the

Pancreas, 296
Dalton, F. J. A., Resistance of the Micro-
coccus melitensis to Moist Heat, 453
Damany, P. le, Defect of Human Hip
Joint, 515

— Homology of Olecranon and Patella, 515
Dandeno, J, B., Mechanics of Seed-disper-
sion in Ricinus communis, 320

Dangeard, P. A., Development of the
Perithecium, 340

— Fertilisation in Ascodesmis, 93

— Observations on Gymnoascaceae and

Aspergilleae, 441
Daniel, L., New Graft Hybrid, 73
Danysz, J., Microbe Pathogenic to Rats, 351
Daphnia, Peculiar Parasite of Embryos, 537
Darbishire, O. V., Observations on Mamil-

laria elongata, 664
Darkness and Light, Influence, 297
Darwin, F., Perception of the Force of

Gravity by Plants, 545
Dasyurus viverrinus, Corpus luteum, 292
Dauphin, J., Development of Mucorini, 684
Dauphine',A.,Lignification of Subterranean

Organs in Plants of High Regions, 317
Davenport, C. B., Collembola of the Beach,
61

— Evolution of Pecten, 645

— Variation in Sagartia lucix, 658

— Variations in Pecten opercularis, 176
Davidia, Germination, 71

INDEX.

747

Davis, A. M., Resistance to Heat of Bacillus

anthracis, 234
Dawydoff, C, Phagocytic Apparatus of
Cleandrus graniger, 649

— Phagocytic Organs in Gryllidse, 410
Dean, B., Japanese Myxinoids, 300
Decapods, Phagocytic Organ, 181

— Spermatozoa, 181

Defiandre, C, Adipo-hepatic Function in

Invertebrates, 801
Degeneration in Eelation to Regeneration,

512
Dekhuyzen, M. C, Fixative Solutions

Isotonic with Sea Water, 472
Delacroix, G., Degeneration of the Potato,
193

— Diseases of Potatoes, 569

— French Mycology, 227

— Jaundice of the Beet : a Bacterial Dis-

ease, 100

— and Others, Disease of the Coffee Plant,

568
Delage, Y., Non-regeneration of Sphaeridia
in Sea Urchins, 66

— Parthenogenesis induced by Carbon Di-

oxide, 187

— Parthenogenetic Larvae of Asterias gla-

cialis, 420

Delden, A. v., Reduction of Sulphates by
Bacteria, 351

Demonstrating and Preparing the Struc-
ture of Arenicola, 474

Dendrocincla, Monograph of Genus, 517

Dendrocoelida, Fresh-water, Early Deve-
lopment, 310

Dentition of the Elephant, 299

Depastrum, 67

Desains' Apparatus, 715

Desmidiaceae, British, 680

Desmids, New England, 89

Desmognathus fuscus, Early Development,
400

Desmots, H., Production of Acetylmethyl-
carbinol by Bacteria of the Bacillus
mesentericus Group, 350, 455

De Toni, G. B., Bangia atropurpurea,
336

— Byssus purpurea, 336

D'Evant, T., Rudimentary Amnion in

Selachians, 636
Development and Regeneration, Influence
of Radium Rays and Radium-Emana-
tion, 636

— Mechanics of, 167

— of Diplosoniidae, 57

— of Phascolosoma, 64
Devitrification, Primary and Secondary, in

Glassy Igneous Rocks, 125
Diadematidae, New Genus, 188
Diastase, Animal, at once Oxidising and

Reducing, Occurrence of, 173
Diatomaceaa, Transmutation of Various

Stages, 334, 435

Diatoms and Plankton from the Faeroes, 90

— Biology, 681

— Cultures, 211

— from Nyassaland, 557

— from the Jura, 211

— Morphology, 434

— Mounting, 377

— New to the Hull District, 89

— of Koh Chang, 681

— of Madagascar, 434

— Pure Cultures, 335, 470

— Schmidt's Atlas, 211

— Uses of, 435
Dichroiscope, 123

Dickel, F., Sex-Determination in Bees, 179

Dickel, O., Development of Bees' Eggs,
526

Dictyophora, Variability, 565

Dictyotaceae, Alternation of Generations,
214

Dicyemidse, Protozoa and Volvocinesa, Re-
productive Cycle, 312

Diederichs, K., Gelatin Plates as Substi-
tute for Glass Light-Filters, 121

— Preparing, Staining and Mounting

Fresh- water Fauna, 472
Dietel, P., Notes on Uredineae, 343
Diffraction Theory of the Microscope as

Applied to the Case when the Object is

in Motion, 361
Digestive Apparatus in Polychaeta, 415

— Function in Iusects, 305

— Glands and Poison-Glands, Secretory

Phenomena, 169

— System of Hirudinea, 531

— Tract of Amblystoma Punctatum,Histo-

logy, 513
Dilg, C, Detection of Tubercle Bacilli in

Organised Sediment by Means of Cen-

trifugalising or Simple Sedimentation,

117
Dimorphism, Case of, in Cecidomyidse, 527
Dioecious Plants, Influence of Mineral Food

on Sex, 74
Diplococcus pneumonias, Capsule Formation,

370
Diplosomidae, Development, 57
Dipnoan Cranium, Notes, 521
Dipnoi and Holocephali, Limbs, 299
Diptera as Ectoparasites on South Ameri-
can Lepidoptera, 649

— Marine, New Genus, 648
Dipterous Larvae, Reduction of Head, 409
Discoglossus pictus, Spermatozoa, 168
Disease of Cattleya, 569

— of the Coffee Plant, 568

— of Cork Trees, 446

— of Potato, 564
Diseases of Cereals, 566

— of Citrous Trees and Fruits, 691

— of Economic Plants, 566

— of Ficus, 691

— of Plants, 445

748

INDEX.

Diseases of Potatoes, 569
Distant, W. L., Notes on Rhynchota, 307
Distomum cirrigerum, Structure and De-
velopment, 311
Ditlevsen, A., Studies on Oligochseta, 531
Dixon, H. H., Use of Radium in Section

Cutting, 590
Dixon, H. N., British Mosses. 552

— Bhynchostegium litoreum, 326
Dog, Piroplasma, 661

Dogiel, A. S., Nerve-Endings of Human

Skin, 400
Dolchinia, Polymorphism, 301
Domestication of Zebras, 515
Dopter, — ., Eole of Streptococci in the

Course of Scarlatina, 695
Dorset, M., Composition of Tubercle Bacilli

derived from Various Animals, 234
Double-Image Prism for Petrological

Microscopes, Swift's, 111
Douin, L, a New Irish Hepatic, 432
Doyon, Ablation of Parathyroids in Birds,

516
Dowdy, S. E., Bleaching Reagents, 247

— Cover-Glass Cleaner, 251

— Focussing Safeguard, 114

— Improved Mounting Clip, 120

— Mounting Medium Bottle, 121

— New Form of Section-Lifter, 376
Dragon-Fly Wing Venation, Genealogical

Studv, ISO

Draw-tube Stop, 457

Drigalski-Conradi Medium and Agglutina-
tion, Bacterial Diagnosis of Typhoid,
369

Drilophaga, New Rotifer of Genus, 656

Drone-Fly, Habits. 60

Driiner, L., Structure and Development of
Middle Ear in Man and Mouse, 399

— Visceral Arches of Urodela, 510
Dry-rot, 689

Dublin, L. I., Arboreal Adaptations, 402
Du Bois, C. C., Granule Cells in Mucosa

of Pig's Intestine, 514
Dubois, R., Detection of Pearls by Means
of X-Rays, 303

— Secretion of Pearls, 303

Dubourg, E., Helicomycelium fulignosum,
568

Dubuisson. M., Normal Degeneration of
Eggs not Liberated, 168

Duerst, J. U., Influence of Unilateral Horn-
Growth on Cranial Characters, 640

Diiggeli, M., Plant-Life in the Sihlthal at
Einsiedeln, 78

Dugong Flipper, Osteology, 516

Dunning's New Portable Oil-tight Lamp,
110

Dunstan, W. R., Cyanogenesis in Plants,
77

Durrand, A., Report on the Recent Foram-
inifera of the Malay Archipelago col-
lected by, 489, 597

Dusen, P., Patagonian and Fnegian Mosses,

327 i

— South American Mosses, S3
Dwarf Plants of the Wiirzburg Limestone,

Leaf-form and Stomata, 539
Dyctyotacese, Studies, 557^*8^5
Dyes, Certain, Effect upon Cultural Cha-

tacters of Bacillus typhosus, and some

other Micro-Organisms, 573

E.

Ear, Human, Why Immobile? 515

— Middle, and Columella of Birds, 640
in Man and Mouse, Structure and

Development, 399

— of Toothed Whales, 402
Earthworm, Demonstrating the Tubular

Reticulum in the Cytoplasm of Ner-
vous and Epithelial Cells, 372

— Negative and Positive Phototropism,

184

Earthworms, Minute Structure of Nerve-
Cells and Epithelial-Cells, 415

Eastman, C. R., Descriptions of Bolca
Fishes, 51S

Eaton, A. A., American Ferns, 203

Eberhardt, A., Biology of Cystopus candi-
dus, 93

Ebonising Laboratory Tables, 479

Ecballocystis, New Species, 334

Echinoderms, Fertilisation and Partheno-
genesis, 311

— Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Ova*

1S8

— Osmotic Action of Internal Fluids, 66

— Parental Care, 420

— Timicates and Cephalopods, Digestive

Ferments, 56

Echinoids, Eocene, from Sokoto, 535

Echinostomum garzettse, 532

Echinus microtuberculatus, Larval Develop-
ment, 534

— miliaris. Development, 187
Economic Zoology, 172
Ectropothecium, 552

Edelstein, W., Hydathodes in the Leaves

of Woody Plants, 196
Edelweiss, Parasites, 566
Egg in Zamia, Nutrition, 541

— Cases and Early Stages of some Cassi-

didse, 410

— Envelopes of Cephalopods and Chiton-

idaj, 406

— of Necturus, Bilateral Symmetry, 637

— Tooth in Sauropsida, 171

Eggeling, H., Development of Human

Milk Glands, 509
Eggs, Bees', Development, 526

— not Liberated, Normal Degeneration,

168

— Winter, in Copepods, 309

INDEX.

749

Eigenmann, C. H., Variation Notes, 516
Ekman, S., Entomostraca of Northern

Swedish Mountains, 651
Elasmobranchs, Kidney of Male, 514

— Oviducal Gland, 518
Elastic Limit of Metals, 253

Elenkin, A., Lichens as Endosaprophytes,

450
Elephant, Dentition, 299
Elephants, Phylogeny, 55
Elisseef, E., Co-efficient of Eespiration of

Yeasts, 75
Elliot-Smith, G., Transitory Fissures of

Human Brain, 55
Ellis, D., Demonstrating Presence of Cilia
in Bacteria, 249

— Presence of Cilia in the Genus Bac-

terium, 232
Elodea canadensis. Morphology, 318
Elvove, E., Sources of Nitrogen to Fungi,

667
Embleton, A. L., Peculiar Aphid, 179
Embryo and Gametophyte of Ruppia ros-

tellata, Development, 193
Embryo-sac and Embryology of Nelunibo,
542

and Fertilisation in Aster, 541

Embryology, and Gametophyte of Crypto-

meria japonica, 666

— General, 167

— of Juncacese, 194

Emission and Absorption of Air and its
Ingredients for Light of Wave-Lengths
from 250 /j. to 100 n, 360

Enderlein, G., Louse of Elephant Seal,
649

— New Copeognatha, 411

— Nymphopsocus destructor, a new Copeo-

gnathid, 649

— Preparing Small Dried Insects for Mi-

croscopical Examination, 371

— Weevils of Crozet Islands, 648
Endoderm of Lepidoptera, 409
Endogenous Buds, Adventitious, 192
Endosaprophytes, Lichens as, 450
Enock, F., Exhibition of Lantern Slides

Photographed by the Three-Colour Pro-
cess from Living Insects, 487

Enteroxenos Ostergreni, Spermatogenesis,
523

Entomology, Economic, 178

Entomostraca, British Freshwater, 63, 414

— of Northern Swedish Mountains, 651
Entozoa, Human, Determination, 655
Environment, Influence on Caterpillars,

304
Epidendrum Elongatum, Vegetative Pro-
pagation in the Floral Region, 540
Epiplasm in the Ascomycetes, 439
Epithelial-cells and Nerve-cells in Earth-
worms, Minute Structure, 415
Epithelial Fibres and Membrane of Prickle
Cells, New Method of Staining, 593

Epithelioma of Mouse, Conjugation of

Besting Nuclei, 295
Epithelium, Follicular, in Melolontha vul-
garis, Nutritive Bole, 647

— Intestinal, in Frog, Histogenesis, 171

— of Trematodes, 655

Erigoninae, Spiders of the Sub-Family, 412
Eriksson, J., Mycoplasma in Uredinae, 565

— Rhizoctonia violacea, 94

— Vegetative Form of Yellow Bust, 95

— — Life of Cereal Rusts, 443
Ernst, A., Siphonese Studies, 333
Erysiphaceae, Specialisation of Parasitism,

340, 440

Erysiphacea}, etc., Cultural Experiments
with the " Biologic Forms," 563

Erysiphe graminis, 685

the Barley Mildew, Cultural Ex-
periments, 341

Esculin Screen, On the Use in Photomicro-
graphy, 634

Etheridge, R., Australian Fossil Botany, 77

Eumesostomina, Fixation and Staining, 591

Evans, A. W., Hepaticas of Puerto Bico,
207, 431

— Odontoschisma in North America, 206

— Patagonian Hepatics, 328

Evans, W., New British Spring-Tails, 527
Everett, J. D., 487

— A Direct Proof of Abbe's Theorems on

the Microscopic Resolution of Grat-
ings, 385, 483

— Corrigenda, 260

— Microscopic Resolution ; Note on a

Point in Lord Rayleigh's paper of
1896, 26
Evolution of Pecten, 545

— of Vertebrate Animals in Time, 137

— Polar Climate in Time the Major Factor,

197
Ewart, J. C, Wild Horses, 174
Ewing, J. A., Structure of Metals, 596
Ewing, P., British Hepatica?, 208
Excretion in Arthropods, 304
Excretory Organs in the Family Melicer-

tidse, 186
Exhibition of Flower Seeds, 384

— of Hand-painted Lantern slides illus-

trating Botanical Histology, 263

— of Lantern Slides Photographed by the

Sanger-Shepheard Three-colour Pro-
cess from Living Insects, 487

— of Living Aquatic Objects, 381

— of Slides illustrating the Development

of an Ascidian, 127

— of Specimens of Marine Objects mounted

by Mr. Waddingdon, 257
Exoascacese, Critical Notes, 440
Exoascese, Critical Notes, 219
Exophthalmia, Infectious, of Freshwater

Fishes, 299
Eycleshymer, A. C, Bilateral Symmetry

in Egg of Necturus, 637

750

INDEX.

Eye, Larval, of Chitons, 40S

— Peduncles, Modification in Cynionomus,

412
Eyes, Compound, Accommodation-Appara-
tus, 525

— of a Blind Snake, 517
Eylais, Hungarian Species, 650

Eyre, J. W. H., Preparation of Nutrose
Agar, 470

— Preparing Plates of Nutrose Agar, 471

— Resistance of the Micrococcus melitensis

to Moist Heat, 453

F.

Eaber, F. C. v., Development of the Bicol-
lateral Bundle of Cucurbita. 539

Fabre, J. H., Habits and Instincts of In-
sects, 58

Fage, L., Nephridial Cells of Leech, 653

Fairy-Rings, 569

Family, New, of Amphipods, 182

Farneti, R., Diseases of Ficus, 691

— White Mildew of Citrus limonum, 691

— and another, Diseases of Plants, 445
Fat, Bacterial,Naphthol-Blue as a Reegent,

119

— of Tubercle Bacilli, 234

Fat Synthesis by Mucous Membranes, 516
Fauna, Fresh-water, Preparing, Staining,
and Mounting, 472

— Marine, of Lake Tanganyika, Origin,

518

— of New Zealand, 406

— of the Gulf of Trieste, 57

— Pelagic, of Lake of Bret, 518
Faure', E., Stalk of Vorticella, 660
Faussek, V., Viviparity and Parasitism,

513
Fecundity, Carnivorous Fowls, 292
Federley, H., Copulation of Conidia in

Ustilago Tragopogi-pratensis, 689
Fegatella conica, 207
Felt, E. P., Monograph of Genus Saperda,

527
Fermentation, Alcoholic, Alleged in Ani-
mal Tissues, 173

and Zymase, 547

Role of Microbes, which Stoklasa at-
tributes to the Zymase Isolated
from Vegetable or Animal Tissues,
696
Fermentations and Metabolism, Function

of Iron in, 173
Ferments, Digestive, in Cephalopods,
Echinoderms and Tunicates, 56

— of Diseases of Wines, 452

Fern, Fossil, Germinating Spores, 202

— Prothallia, Investigations, 80

— Structure of the Leaves of the Bracken

in Relation to Environment, 429
Ferns, American, 203

Ferns, Californian, 323

— Linnaeus's System, 81

— of the Philippines, 202

— Reduction Division, 315

— Sorica, Parasitic on, 446

— Tropical American, 80
Fertilisation and Hybridisation, 290

— and Maturation in Cymbulia peronii,

303

— and Parthenogenesis in Echinoderms,

311

— in Ascodesmis, 93

— of Albugo Lepigoni and some Perono-

sporese, Studies, 92
Fibich, R., Histology of Hyaline Cartilage,

54
Ficker,M., Demonstrating Typhoid Bacilli

in Water, 470

— New Method of Demonstrating Typhoid

Bacilli, 470
Ficus, Diseases, 691
Fielde, A. M., Notes on Ants, 306
Filaria Bancrofti, 654
Filaria immitis, 185
Filaria loa, Structure, 654
Filaria perstans in Relation to Sleeping

Sickness, 185
Filarszky, F., Teratology of Fungi, 690
Fin-Rays, Dermal, of Fishes, 519
Fins, Paired, of Fishes, 299
Fischel, R., New Method for Sticking Oel-

loidin Sections to the Slide, 373
Fischer, H., Simple Method for Clearing

Nutrient Agar without Filtration, 246
Fischer, O., Human Locomotion, 54
Fischoeder, F., Three Species of Param-

phistomum from Mammals, 532
Fish-Diseases, Handbook, 659
Fish, Pelican, from the Pacific, 642
Fisher, W. K., Anatomy of Lottia gigantea.

644
Fisheries, Thames, 300
Fishes and Cyclostomes, Optic Reflex Ap-
paratus, 638

— Birds, and Insects, Food, 519

— Bolca, Descriptions, 518

— Canadian, Trematodes from, 417

— Chondropterygian, Myology, 300

— Deep-Water, oi Japan, 642

— Dermal Fin-Rays, 519

— Fresh-water, Infectious Exophthalmia,

299
of Mexico, 405

— Labyrinth, 174

— of Chilian Coast, 642

— of Sumatra, 56

— Paired Fins, 299

— Parasites, 643

— Teleostean, Sub-Orders aud Families,

300
Fissures, Transitory, of Human Brain, 55
Fixation and Staining of Eumesostomina,
591

INDEX.

751

Fixation of Infusoria, 372

— Picroformol for, 472

Fixative Solutions, Isotonic with Sea-
Water, 472
Fixing and Examining Cyrripida Larvae,
473

— Fluids, Forniol-subliinate, 247

— Staining and Mounting Sections of Skin,

593
Flagellata, Mitosis, 659
Fiat-Fish, Myxosporidia, 661
Flatters, A., Exhibition of Hand-painted

Lantern Slides Illustrating Botanical

Histology, 263
Fleischer, M., Mosses of Java, 204
Fliche, P., Fossil Algae, 86
Flies, Mealy-Winged, of California, 410
Flora, Antarctic Fossil, 548

— Chinese, 428
Completion, 670

— of Mountainous North Carolina, Ecologic

Studv, 196
Flora of Norfolk Island, 670

— of Philippine Islands, 548

— Tertiary, of Europe, Presence of Abronia,

549
Florideae of Gulf of Spezia, 679
" Flowering " of North American Lakes, 89

— Plants, Classification, 427
Fluorescent Denitrifying Bacteria, Two

New, 233
Foa, A., Mitosis in Flagellata, 659
Focimeter, Photogrammetric, for Micro-
scopical Optics : an Instrument for Veri-
fying Microscopes, 714
Focussing Safeguard, 114
Foetal Cartilage, Demonstrating, 594
Fog Particles, Direct Micrometric Measure-
ment, 464
Follicular Cells of Cricket, 61
Food of Fishes, Birds and Insects, 519
Foraminifera, Method of Taking Internal
Casts, 121

— Miocene, New or Little Known, 313

— Recent,ot'Malay Archipelago, Collected

by Mr. A. Durrand, Report on, 487,

489, 597, 725
Forbes, — ., Chiuese Flora, 428
Forbes, S. A., Food of Fishes, Birds, and

Insects, 519
Forel, A., Ants from the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands, 179

— Myrmecoloirical Notes, 306

Forgan, W., Photomicrography of Rock

Sections, 461
Form Regulation, Problem, 293
Formica electa as Hill Builders in Swamps,

526
Formol-sublimate Fixing Fluids, 247
Forti, A., fiyssus purpurea, 336
Foslie, M., Corallinacese, 557

— Lithothamnia from the Indian Ocean,

215

Fossil Plant, Reconstruction of, 725
Foster, E., Free-swimming Copepods of

Louisiana, 530
Fouilliand, R., Electro-thermic Regulator

and Electric Incubators, 465
Fowler, G. H., Notes on Ehabdopleura

Normani, 655
Fowls, Carnivorous, and their Fecundity,

292
Fowl's Skull, Asymmetrical Development,

516
Fowls, Spirillosis, 100, 454
Fragillaria Rarri&onii, 556
Frank, T., Cultivation of Algse, 588
Franz, V., Structure of Heart and Origin

of Blood-Cells in Spiders, 412
Franzschel, W., Errors in Determination

of Fungi due to Misconception of Host-
Plants, 446
Freeman, E. M., Demonstrating Presence
of Seed-Fungus in Darnel, 372

— Seed-Fungus of Lolium temulentum,

225
Freeman, W., Method of Staining Sections

Quickly with Picrocarmin, 592
Freidel, J., Sterigmatocystis versicolor, 442
Fremont, M., Elastic Limit of Metals, 253
Freuler, B., Forest Vegetation in Southern

Switzerland, 670
Freund, L., Osteology of the Dugong Flip-
per, 516
Fritsch, A., Palaeozoic Arachnida, 651
Fritsch, E. E., New Chytridinese, 90

— Pleodorina in Ceylon, 556

— Studies on Cyanophyceae, 450

— Thames Plankton, 87

Frog, Experiments on the Developing Ova,
509

— Histogenesis of Intestinal Epithelium,

171

Frost Injury followed by Fungoid Attacks,
224

Fructification of Neuropteris Heterophylla,
666

Fruits and Trees, Citrous, Diseases, 691

Fuchsinophile Granules of Spinal Ganglia
Cells, 639

Fucu8 serratus in America, 213

Fuhrmann, F., Minute Structure of Supra-
Renal of Guinea-Pig, 514

Fuhrmann, O., Cestode with Separate Sexes,
417

— Dioecious Cestode, 654

— Fresh-water Representative of a Marine

Genus of Turbellaria, 417
Fungi, Action on Woody Cells, 226

— American, 567

— Australian, 445

— Conidial Forms of the Higher, 568

— Effect of Chemical Irritation on Respi-

ration, 544

— Errors in Determination due to Miscon-

ception of Host-plants, 446

752

INDEX.

Fungi, Filamentous, Respiration, 425

— Fossil, 446

— German, Notes, 225

— Harmful, 225

— imperfecti,Rabenhorst's"Kryptogamen-

Flora," 442

— Influence of Growth Products on their

Further Development, 692

— New and Interesting Californian, 344

— New British, 227

— of Alaska, 570

— of the Soil, 446

— On the Origin of Parasitism, 344

— Parasitic, 345

— Sources of Nitrogen to, 667

— Subterranean, in Italy, 223

— Superficial, New Method of Preparing,

117

— Teratology, 690

— Wood-destroying, 224

Fungoid Attacks, Injury by Frost followed

by, 224
Fungus, Endophytic, of Orchids, 320

— Spores, Occurrence in the Atmosphere,

345
Fiirbinger, K., Notes on Dipnoan Cranium,

521
Fusarium, Conditions of Colour Formation,

692
Fusus and its Allies, Phylogeny, 644

G.

Gadeceau, E., Botany of Belle Isle, 547
Gage, J. H., Prevention of Pedetic or

Brownian Movements, 250
Gage's Microscopy, 369
. Gaidukov, N., Analysis of the Colour of
Algae, 559

— Colour of Algse and of Water, 332
Gal, J., Oviposition in Bombyx mori, 306
Galactinia succosa, Cytology, 94
Galatheid, Cave-Dwelling, from Canary

Islands, 652
Gall-Formation, 408 .
Galli-Valerio, B., Influence of Shaking on
the Development of Cultures, 697

— Piroplasma of Dog, 661

Gallimard, J., Albumin Extraoted from

Frog's Ova, 518
Galvagni, E., Histology of Ctenodrilus, 64
Gametophyte and Development of Seed-
Coats in some Papaveracese, 667

— and Embryo of Buppia rodellata, De-

velopment, 193

— and Embryology of Cryptomeria japon-

■ica, 666
Gammarus, Memoir, 651
Ganglia, Spinal, Fuchsinophile Granules

of Cells, 639
Ganglion Cells, Radially- Striated in As-

caris, 416

Garber. J. F., Morphology and Biology of

Bicciocarpus natans, 327
Garbowski, T., Parthenogenesis in Porthe-

sia, 179
Garjeanne, A. J. M., Mycorrhiza of Liver-
worts, 328

— Oil-Bodies in the Jungermanniales, 205
Garman. S., Chirnseroids, 521

Gases, Permeability to, of Certain Dried

Seeds 426
Gastropod, New Type, 302
Gastropods and Crustaceans, Ova, 57

— Laverse Symmetry, 303

— Marine, Blood, 176

— Mendelian Phenomena, 644

— Nepionic Stage, 302
Gastrotricha and Rotatoria of Ploen, 419
Gastrulation in Lizards, 292

Gatin, C. L., Germination and Formation

of the Primary Root in Palms, 664
Getin-Gruzewska, Z., Ultra-Microscopic
Observations in Solutions of Pure Gly-
cogen, 716
Gayon, U., Alexis Millardet, 672
Geblum, S., Draw-Tube Stop, 457
Geisenheyner, L., Monstrosities in Foliage

Leaves, 322
Gelatin Plates as Substitute for Glass

Light Filters, 121
Genera, Existing, of Trionychidse, 404
Genera, New —
Botany :

Abortiporus, 689

Algacites, 86

Asterophlyctis, 91

Atractina, 564

Bryobrittonia, 83

Chordites, 86

Collodochium, 569

Coltriciella, 566 :

Cyclolejeunea, 431

Cyclomycetella, 689

Cycloporus, 689

Cystoseirites, 86

Debaryella, 570

Didymascella, 93

Diplorhinotrichum, 569

Eidamia, 564
, Gastrosporium, 223 ...

Gliobotrys, 569
; Globiformes, 689

Gloiosphsera, 569

Guillermondia, 346

Helicostilbe, 569

Hirome, 217

Korydanella, 570

Litharthron, 558

Lomentarites, S6

Manginia, 564

Metagoniolithon, 558

Myxobaktron, 678

Neorehmia, 569

Nigroformes, 689

INDEX.

753

Genera, New (Botany) — cont. :

Pedilospora, 569

Phlceopeccania, 98

Pirobasidium, 569

Poronidulus, 689

Pseudoperonospora, 92

Pseudozythia, 569

Rhizoclosnietium, 91

Rhynconectria, 569

Eoccellographa, 98

Rornellia, 566

Saccharomycopsis, 341

Simouyella, 98

Siphonaria, 91

Sorica, 446

Spinella, 346

Stereophyllum, 436

Tapemodasya, 678

Trichocollonema, 569
Zoology :

Astrophrya, 313

Blastulidium, 537

Conochiloides, 186

Cordylosoma, 419

Diadematidaa, 188

Eobrissus, 311

Ingolfiella, 182

Klebsiella, 660

Lepidophthirus, 649

Lissodiadema, 188

Lolimaimia, 186

Lophopodella, 417

Maclriloides, 528

Myenchus, 309

Mytilicola, 63

Nesiotiuus, 411

Ostracolethe, 302

Paramyx'me, 300

Philoceanus, 411

Scolopendronius, 64S

Scutigerides, 412

Scutigerina, 412

Simias, 402

Soa, 411

Thaumonectes, 309

Thyuaicola, 651

Trismegistus, 642
Genera, New, of Scutigeridae, 412
Generations, Alternations in Dictyotaceae,

214
Genicula of Corallineas, 679
Gentianaceaa, Saprophytic, 70
Genus, New, of Corallinaceae, 436
Geodetical Instruments, General Principle

of some Novel Forms, 112
Gepp, E. S., Chinese Marine Alga?, 437
• — Sporangia of Halimeda, 556
Gerber, C, Replacement of Stamens by

Carpels in Wallflower, 669
Germ-Cells, Maturation, and Mendel's

Law, 290
Germination of Davidia, 71
— of Oily Seeds, 668

Gerould, J. H., Development of Phasco-
losoma, 64

Gessard, C, Pigment of Supra-renal Cap-
sules, 516

Gessner, E. F., Males of Andrena, 60

Giesenhagen, K., Capnodium maximum,
6S5

— Sorica, g. n., Parasitic on Ferns, 446
Gifford, J. W., Optical Properties of Vit-
reous Silica, 363

— Vacuum Microscope, 361
Gilbert, B. D., American Ferns, 203
Gill, T., Umbrids or Mud-Miuuows, 642
Gill-Arches of Murasnidse, 405

— in Mytilus, Development, 303

Gills, Anal, in Larva of Glossoma boltoni

and some Hydropsychidae, 410
Gland, Buccal, of Lampreys, 170
Glands, Biunner's, 170

— Cardiac, of Mammals, 170

— Oesophageal, in Reptiles, 171

— of Bartholin in Mammals, Morphology,

295

— of Mouth-Cavity of Petromyzoan, 300
Glass, Ink for Writing on, 723

— New Kinds, of Increased Ultra-violet

Transparency, 464

— Troughs, Kingsford's, for Use as Aqua-

ria and for Containing Fluid Light
Filters, 383

— Waterproof Cement, 121
Glazebrook, R. T., Note on the Diffraction

Theory of the Microscope as applied
to the Case when the Object is in Mo-
tion, 361

— Theories of the Resolving Power of a

Microscope, 364
Gley, E., Toxic Action of Serum of Torpedo

marmorata, 642
Glinski, M., Peptic Glands of the Superior

Region of the GEsophagus in Man, 296
Glossoma boltoni and some Hydropsychidae,

Anal Gills in Larva, 410
Glucose, Oxidation in Mammalian Blood,
55

— Production by Animal Tissues, 173
Glucosides and some Vegetable Tannins,
■> Micro-Chemical Researches, 76
Glycogen, Pure, Ultra-Microscopic Obser-
vations in Solutions, 716

Godlewski, E., Intramolecular Respiration,
544

Goebel, K.,'Regeneration in Lentibularieae,
424

Goeldi, E. A., Mosquitoes of Para, 409

Goette, A., Development of Hydromedusae,
535

Goldschmidt, R., Radially Striated Gang-
lion Cells in Ascaris, 416

Gonad, New, in Holothurians, 656

Gonads of Phoronis, 65

Gongylus gongyloides, Life History, 410

Gonococci Staining, 120

754

INDEX.

Goodrich, E. S., Branchial Vessels ot Ster-
naspis, 652

— Dermal Fin-Rays of Fishes, 519
Gooseberry and Currant Disease, 220
Gordiidse, Cerebral Ganglion and Body

Cavity, 416
Gordon, M. H., Bacteriological Test for
Estimating Pollution of Air, 717

— Capsule Formation by Diplococcus

Pneumonias in Culture, 370
Gordon, J. W., 257, 258, 261, 483, 729
Gorich, W., Spermatogenesis in Porifera

and Coelentera, 312, 421
Goris, A., Micro-Chemical Researches on

some Glucosides and some Vegetable

Tannins, 76
Grabau, A. W., Phylogeny of Fusus and

its Allies, 644
Graeffe, E., Fauna of the Gulf of Trieste,

57
Graeter, A., Copepoda of Basel, 63
Graft-Hybrid, New, 73
Grain in Photographic Plates, 711
Gram's Method, Modification, 120
Granule Cells in Mucosa of Pig's Intestine,
514

— Staining, Vital and Supravital, 119
Grasping Organs in Pedicirlidae, 529
Grassi, B., Mitosis in Flagellata, 659 '
Gratings, Images of, Influence of Phase

Difference amongst their Spectra,
388, 486

— Microscopic Resolution, Direct Proof of

Abbe's Theorems, 385, 483
Gravier, C, Medusa from Victoria Nyanza,

189
Gravity, Force of, Perception by Plants,

545
Gray, A. W., An Easily Set-up Heliostat,

579
Grayson's 120,000 Band Plate, 393

— Rulings of 120,000 Lines to the inch,

Visibility, 383
Gregarines, North American, 68
Gre'goire, V., Formation of the Achromatic

Figure in Pellia, 663

— Reconstitution of the Nucleus and For-

mation of the Chromosomes, 663
Gregory, R. P., Determination of Sex in
Plants, 669

— Reduction Division in Ferns, 315
Grosvenor, G. H., Nematocysts of iEolids,

407
Grout, A. J., American Mosses, 205

— North American Mosses, 82, 432
Growth-Forms of Lichens, 348
Growth, Variations in Achlya polyandra,

561

Grubb, H., General Principle of some
Novel Forms of Geodetical Instruments,
112

Griin, A. B., Action of Radium on Micro-
organisms, 451

Gruvel, A., Fixation of Coronulidaa in Skin
of Cetaceans, 530

— Organ of Kcehler in Cirripeds, 530
Gryllidte, Phagocytic Organs, 410
Grynfeltt, E., Supra-renal Capsule of Am-
phibians, 639

Gue'guen, F., Morphological and Biological

Researches on Stysanus, 94
Guenther, K., Study of the Nucleolus in

the Maturing Ovum, 187
Guillet, L., Metallography of Nickel Steels,

125
Guilliermond, A., Epiplasm in the Asco-
mycetes, 439

— Karyokinesis in the Ascomycetes, 685

— Picroformol for Fixation, 472

— Yeast Nucleus, 441

Guinea-Pig, Minute Structure of Supra-
Renal, 514

Nephridial Canals, 399

Twin Nuclei in Various Types of

Cells, 513
Guldberg, G., Migrations of Right Whales,

55
Gum and By-Products of Bacterium Sac-

chari, 573
Gurney, R., Cladoceran new to Britain, 63

— Larval Forms of Crangonidse, 63
Gutherz, S., Self-Fertilisation and Cross-
Fertilisation in Solitary Ascidians, 406

Gymnoascacese and Aspergillese Observa-
tions, 441

H.

Haack, W., Buccal Gland of Lampreys, 170
— Glands of the Mouth-Cavity of Petro-

myzon, 300
Haddonella, 67

Hsemalum and Hsematein, 475
Ha;mateln and Hsemalum, 475
Hsematoxylin, Iron, New Method of Stain-
ing with, 374
Hair-like Growths of the Rhodomelacese,

215
Hairs of Aquatic Plants, 321
Halben, R., Significance of Pigment Spots

in Protozoa, 536
Halimeda Fuggeri, 212
Halimeda, Sporangia, 556
Hall, C. J. J. V., Disease of Currant and

Gooseberry, 220
Hall, R. W., Development of Mesonephros

and Mullerian Ducts in Amphibia, 511
Hamburger, R., Paired Fins of Fishes, 299
Hamilton, A. G., Byblis gigantea, 424
Hamilton, D. J., Cultivation of Anaerobes,

58S
Haminea solitaria, Natural History, 407
Hamlyn-Harris, R., Demonstrating the

Statocysts of Cephalopods, 117
Handlirsch, A., Convergence Phenomena
in Insects, 646

INDEX.

755

Handlirsch, A., Insect Evolution in Rela-
tion to Plants, 646
Hanna, W., Trypanosoma in Birds, 190

— Trypanosoma in Indian Birds, 313
Hansen, A., Danish Species of Amblyste-

gium, 204
Hansen, H. J., New Family of Amphipods,

182
Hansgirg, A,, Polymorphism of Algse, 86
Hard and Soft States in Metals, 595
Hardening and Imbedding, Rapid, 590

— Rapid Method, and Paraffin Imbedding,

590
Hares and their Allies, 640
Harper, F. J., Nuclear Phenomena in Co-

leosporium sonchi-arvensis, 688
Harpochytrium, The Genus in the United

States, 219
Harris, C. W., Collema and Leptogium,

449
Harris, W. H, Habits of the Drone-Fly, 60
Harrison, R. G., Development of the Sense

Organs of the Lateral Line in Amphibia,

293
Harshberger, J. W., Ecologic Study of the

Flora of Mountainous North Carolina,

196

— Mycodomatia of Myrica cerifera, 691
Hartmann, M., Mould Yeasts, 219

— Reproductive Cycle in Protozoa, Volvo-

cinese, and Dicyemidse, 312
Hartog, M., Models of Cellular Mitoses,
637

— Segmentation Spindle and Centro-

spheres in Embryo of Rhynchelmis,
482

— Some Problems of Reproduction, 507
Harz, C. O., Iodine-Paraffin Oil : a New

Micro-reagent and Mounting Medium,

594
Hastings, T. W., Modified Nocht's Stain

for Blood Films, 476
Hay, O. P., Existing Genera of Triony-

chidse, 404
Head, Reduction in Dipterous Larvse, 409
Heart of Nassa reticulata, Muscular Fibres,
644

— of Solenogastres, 408

— Structure, in Common Octopus, 522
of, and Origin of Blood-Cells in

Spiders, 412
Heart -wood, False, Formation in Red

Beech, 691
Heath, H., Anatomy of Corolla (Cymbu-
liopsis) spectabilis, 645

— Habits of Solenogastres, 523

— Larval Eye of Chitons, 408

Hebert, A., Influence of External Media
on Mineral Constituents and Organic
Composition of Plants, 425

— Influence of the Nature of the Soil on

the Organic Composition of Plants,
195

Hecke, L., Infection of Cereals bv Smut,
689

— Plasmopara cubensis in Austria, 683
Hedophyllum, New Species, 212
Heele's Heliostats, 240

— Miniature Spectroscopes, 246
Heiden, — ., Schmidt's Atlas of Diatoms,

211
Heider, K., General Embryology, 167
Heim, F., Two New Forms of Trombidium

Parasitic in Man, 308
Hein, W., Epithelium of Trematodes, 655
Helicomycelium fulignosum, 568
Heliostat, an Easily Set-up, 579
Heliostats, Heele's, 240
Helix pomatia. New Culture Medium, 369

Olfactory Sense, 57

Helly, K., Modification of Zenker's Fluid,

474
Helminthic Juice, Bactericidal Properties,

574
Helminthosporium, New, 220
Helobiaa and Nymphseacese, Morphological

Peculiarities, 423
Hemmendorff, E., Vegetative Propagation

in the Floral Region in Epidendrum

elongatum, 540
Hemsley., — ., Chinese Flora, 428
Hemsley, W. B,, Germination of Davidia,

71
Henneberg, "W., Mould Yeasts, 220
Hennings, C, Sense of Smell in Myriopods,

411
Hennings, P., Agaricineae on Trees, 222
— ■ Aschersonia, 563

— Fairy-Rings, 569

— Notes on German Fungi, 225

— Wood-destroying Fungi, 224

Henri, V., Digestive Ferments in Cephalo-
pods, Echinoderms, and Tunicates, 56

— Osmotic Action of Internal Fluids of

Echinoderms, 66
Henry. T. A., Cyanogenesis in Plants,

77
Henschen, F., Ova of Crustaceans and

Gastropods, 57
Hepatic, New Irish, 432
Hepaticse, Biology, 431

— British, 20S

— Census of Scottish, 208

— Explosive Discharge of Antherozoids,

205

— French, 552

— Irish, 208

— of Atlantic Type in Scotland, 431

— of Puerto Rico, 207, 431

— Scottish, Census of, 208
Hepatics, Chemistry and Biology, 206

— Patagonian, 328

— Structure of some North American, 206

— Yukon, 85

Herculais, J. K. d', Dipterous Parasites of
Lepidoptera, 648

756

INDEX.

Herdman, W. A., Ceylonese Cephalochorda,
175

— Formation of Pearls, 645
Heredity, Mendel's Law, 50
Herouard, E., " Pentasomeea " Theory, 534

— Pure Cultures of Chlorella vulgaris,

586
He'rubel, M., Priapulidae of Scandinavia,

531
Herzog, M., Fatal Infection by a Hitherto
(■-Undescribed Chromogenic Bacterium,

Bacillus aureus fcetidus. 696
Hesse, O., Contributions to our Knowledge

of the Chemistry of Lichens, 230
Hetercecious Busts, 95

Experiments, 95

Heterotypic Division, 662

Hevea brasiliensis, Structure of Petiolar

Glands, 540
Hevea, Structure of Extrafloral Nectaries,

71
Heydrich, F., New Genus of Corallinaceae,

436
Heymons, B., Wing-like Lateral Organs of

Solifugaa, 412
Hickson, is. J., Mechanics of Development,
167

— New Ceratella, 190

Higgin, A. J., Ash Analysis of Acacia

salicina, 428
Hill, E. E., 383
Hilton, D. C, Development of Liver in the

Pig, 636
Hinde, G. J., 127

— On the Structure and Affinities of the

Genus Porosphsera, 1, 127
Hinsberg, O., and Boss, E., Mould Yeasts,

220
Hip-Joint, Human, Defect of, 515
Hirudinea and Oligochseta, Splanchnic

Musculature, 416

— Digestive System, 531

— Metamerism of Nervous System, 653
Hlava, S., Excretory Organs in the Family

Melicertidse, 186
Hofer, B., Handbook of Fish-Diseases, 659
Hofmann, W., New Method of Demonstrat-
ing Typhoid Bacilli, 470
Hohnel, F. v., Mycological Contributions,
569

— Mycological Notes, 570

— Myxosporium, Myxolibertella, and Spo-

rodiniopsis, 444
Hohnel, v., Notes on Moulds, 564
Holden, B. J., Nuclear Phenomena in

Coleosporium sonchi-arvensis, 688
Holferty, G. M., Origin of Moss-Archego-

nium, 326
Hollick, A., Portable Microscope, 483
Hollick's Naturalists' Microscope, 576
Holliday, M., Ergatogynic Ants, 60
Hollis, F. S., Chlamydomonas, 556
in Water-supplies, 659

Hollrung, M., Annual Becord of Plant
Diseases, 226

— Disease of Coco-Palm, 225

Holm, T., Studies in the Cyperaceae : the
Grouping of the Carices, 200

— Triadenum virginicum, 321

Holmes, S. J., Problem of Form Eegula-
tion, 293

— Sex Becognition among Amphipods, 308
Holmgren, N., Formica exsecta as Hill-
Builders in Swamps, 526

— Beduction of Head in Dipterous larvse,

409

— Viviparous Insects, 59
Holocephali and Dipnoi, Limbs, 299
Holopedidse, 309

Holothurians, New Gonad in, 656
Holway, E. W. D., American UredineoB,

565
Holzinger, J. M., American Mosses, 205

— North American Mosses, 82, 327
Homoptera of North-East Africa, 649
Honey-Bee, Natural History, Anatomy,

and Physiology, 409

— Bees, Stingless, of Brazil, Biology, 305
Horder's Clinical Case, 245

Horn, L., Variations of Growth in Achlya

polyandra, 561
Horn-Growth, Unilateral, Influence on

Cranial Characters, 640
Horses, Trypanosoma dimorphon in, 537

— Wild, 174

Houssay, F., Carnivorous Fowls and their

Fecundity, 292
Houston, A. O, Identification of the

Bacillus typhosus in Stools, 717
Houston, D., Bacteriological Tests for

Show Butters, 122
Howard, B. J., Exhibition Microscope, 698

— Sectioning Wheat Kernels, 719
Howe, MA., Bahama n Algae, 337

— " Flowering" of North American Lakes,

89

— Yukon Hepatics, 85

Hoyle. W. E., " Albatross " Cephalopods,

522'
Hubrecht, A. A. W., Development of

Tarsiu8 spectrum, 169
Huddleston, W. H., Origin of the Marine

Fauna of Lake Tanganyika, 518
Hudson, Charles Thomas, 48
Hue, A., Lecanora subfusca, 98
Humidity, Influence on Caterpillars, 305
Hutton, F. W., Fauna of New Zealand, 406
Hybridisation and Fertilisation, 290

— of Triton marmoratus and Triton crista-

tus, 636
Hydathodes in the Leaves of Woody

Plants, 196
Hydrocoralliiue, Polynoid Symbion, 653
Hydroid, Alaskan Corymorpha-like, 189

— Colonies, Modification by Movements

in the Water, 189

INDEX.

757

Hydroids, American, Gf)7
Hydromedusae, Development, 535
Hynieuophyllacese, Anatomical Structure,

549
Hvmenoptera of West Indian Is'ands, 60
Hyperiid Amphipod, New, 309
Hyphomycetes, 5(34, 687
— in Horny Tissues, staining, 722
Hypochorda of Salnmandra Maculosa, 510
Hypophysis in Ambly»toma, 517

I.

Ichimura, T., Formation of Antliocyan,315

Igneous Rocks, Glassy, Primary and
Secondary Devitrification, 125

Ihering, H. v.. Biology of Stingless Honey-
Bees of Biazil, 305

Ikeda, I., Gonads of Phoronis, 65

Illuminator, Vertical, 165,257

Images of Gratings, Influence of Phase Dif-
erence amongst their Spectra, 388, 486

Imaginal Adipose Tissue in Musi-idse, 527

Imbedding and Hardening. Rapid, 590

— Medium for Brittle Objects, 719

— Paraffin and Hardening, Rapid Method,

590

— Plant Tissut s, Agar Method. 719
Imms, A. D., Marine Chirouomid New to

Britain, 61
Immunity, Natural, of Vipers, 641
Incubators, Electric, and Electro-thermic

Regulator, 465
Induction Shocks, Action on Ciliata, 68
Infection Experiments with Nectria diiis-
sima, 94

— Experiments with Rusts, 95
Infusoria, Fixation, 372
Ingham, W , British Hepaticae, 208
Injection-Masses, Carmin, New Method of

Neutralising, 378

— Medium, Silicate of Soda as, for Macro-

scopic Preparations, 122
Ink for Writing on Glass, 723
Insect Evolution in Relation to Plants, G46
Insects, Attraction of Colours and Scents,

669

— Convergence Phenomena, 646

— Digestive Function, 305

— Fishes and Birds, Food, 519

— Habits and Instincts, 58

— Metamorphosis, 305

of Central Nervous System, 647

— Moulting Processes, 525

— Preserving, 589

— Small Dried. Preparing for Microscopical

Examination, 371

— Viviparous, 59

Intestine, Pig's, Granule Cells in Mucosa,

514
Intra-vitam Staining of the Protoplasmic

Granules of the Cornea, Method, 375

Invertase, Occurrence in Plants, 547
Invertebrates, Adipo-hepatic Function, 301
Iodine-Calcium Nitrate, a New Reagent
for Cellulose, 250

— Paraffin Oil : a New Micro-Reagent and

Mounting Medium, 594
Iron and Steel Castings, Influence of Vary-
ing Casting Temperature on the Pro-
perties of, 595

— Function in Metabolism and Fermenta-

tions, 173
Irritation. Chemical, Effect on Respiration

of Fungi, 544
Islets of Langerhans of the Pancreas, 296
Isoetes, 79

Isopod Parasitic in a Sacculina, 530
Istvanffi, J. v., Harmful Fungi, 225
Istvanti, Gy de, Wintering of Oidinm

Tuckeri, 342
Itersen, G. v., Accumulation Experiments

with Denitrifying Bacteria, 452
Iterson, G. v., Decomposition of Cellulose

by Aerobic Micro-Organisms, 235
Ives, F. E., On the Use of the Esculiu

Screen in Photomicrography, 634
Iwanoff, K. S., Trichothecium roseum, 342
lwanoff, L., Russian Fresh-water Algae, 88
Iwanow. P., Regeneration in Lumbriculus
variegatin, 181

— Regeneration of Trunk and Head Seg-

ments in Lumbricus variegatus, 414
Izuka, A., New Deep-Sea Polychaete, 653

— New Polygordius, 64

Jacbtchinsky, S., Silicate of Soda as an
Injection Medium for Macroscopic Pre-
parations, 122

Jacket Layer in Sassafras, 543

Jacobi, A., Homoptera of North-East
Africa, 649

Jaeger, A., The Physiology of the Swim-
Bladder of Fishes, 520

Jaeger, H., The Agglutinoscope, an Appa-
ratus for Facilitating the Macroscopic
Observation of Agglutination in the Test-
Tube, 250

Jahn, E., Studies of Myxomycetes, 450

Jakowatz, A., Investigations of Fern-
Prothallia, 80

Jamin's Circle for Reflexion, Refraction
and Polarisation, 463

Jammes, L., Bactericidal Properties of
Helminthic Juice, 574

Jancewski, E. de, Sexuality in the Genus
Ribes, 541

Jaiiicki, C. v., Cestodes from Mammals, 533

Janower, M., Solenocaulon, 535

Janssens , — ., Micro-Chemistry and C
tology of a Torula, 69

Dec. 21st, 1904

3 F

758

INDEX.

Janssens, F. A., Nucleus of the Yeast Plant,
69

Japanese Myxinoids, 300

Jaundice of the Beet : a Bacterial Disease,
100

Jennings, H. S., rA Monograph of the
Rattulidae, 419

— Demonstrating Discharge of Con-
tractile Vacuoles, 421

Joh, R., Influence of Structure upon
Strength under Sudden Stresses, 379

Jobling, J. W., Hemorrhagic Septicaemia
in Animals, 352

Johnson, D. S., Monoclea, 674

Johnson, T., Phellomyces Sclerotiopliorus,
221

Johnston, J. B., Imbedding Medium for
Brittle Objects, 719

Jolly, L., Oxidation of Glucose in Mamma-
lian Blood, 55

Joly, J., Petrological Examination of
Paving Sets, 123

Jones, D. A., Plagiothecium piliferum, 431

Jonsson, H., Marine Algae of Iceland, 215

Jordan, D. S., Deep- Water Fishes of Japan,
642

Jordi, E., Infection Experiments with
Rusts, 95

Joutel, L. J., Monograph of Genus Saperda,
527

Jouty, Ablation of Parathyroids in Birds,
516

Julin, C, Development of Branchial Appa-
ratus in Tunicata, 301

Juncacete, Embryology, 194

Jungermanniales, Oil-Bodies, 205

K.

Kanda, M., Stimulating Action of Some
Metallic Salts on the Growth of the
Higher Plants, 546

Karop, G. C, 383

— Pocket Magnifier, 108

— Tank Microscope by Thos. Ross, 380
Karyokinesis in Ascomycetes, 685
Kastle, J. H., Occurrence of Invertase in

Plants, 547

— Sources of Nitrogen to Fungi, 667
Katz, — ., Preparation of Frozen Sections

by Means of Ansesthol, 474
Keissler, K. v., Plankton of Hallstalter

See, 88
Kellerman, K. F., Growth of Algaa in

Water Supplies, 559
Kellerman, W. A., American Mycological
Notes, 228

— American Uredinese, 221

Kellogg, V. L., Mallophaga from Hawaiian
Islands, 411

— New Mallophaga, 411

Kelps of Juan de Fuca, 214
Kennedy, C, Variation Notes, 516
Kerr, J. G., Development of Motor Nerve-
Trunks and Myotomes in Lepidosireu,

635
Kesteven, H. L., Nepionic Stage in the

Gastropods, 302
Kidney of Male Elasmobranchs, 514
Kidston, R., Fructification of Neiiropferis

heterophylla, 666
King, 0. A., Cytology of Araiospora pul-

chra, 339
Kingsford, — ., Glass Troughs for Use as

Aquaria and for containing Fluid Light

Filters, 383
Kingford's Glass Troughs, 479
Kiugsley, J. S., Anatomy of Cerianthus
Borealis, 535

— Hypophysis in Amblystoma, 517
Kinkelin, P., Devonian Medusa, 312
Kjellberg, K., Development of Mandibular

Articulation, 509
Klebahn, H., Botrytis Disease of Tulips,
342

— Cultures with Rusts, 222

— Heteroecious Rusts, 95

— Mycoplasma Hypothesis, 443
Klein, E., Bacillus Camis, 232

— Etiology of Rat Plague and other Infec-

tious Rat Diseases, 694

— Identification of the Bacillus typhosus

in Stools, 717
Kling, C. A., Development of Lymph-
Glands in Man, 293
Klocker, A., Classification of Penicillium,

342

— Forms of Saccharomyces, 341
Klossiella muris, Note, 660

Klug, A., Merulius lacrymans as a Cause

of Cancer, 222
Koehler, Organ of, in Cirripeds, 530
Kcenenia, New Species from Italy, 181
Koernicke, M., Recent Work on Cytology,

662
Kohl, F. G., Coffee Disease, 345
Kolliker, A. v., Development of Nerve

Fibres, 510
Kolmer, W., Vital Staining of Corethra

plumicornis, 376
Konaschko, P., New Method for Neutra-
lising Carmin Injection-Masses; 378
Koning, C. J., Fungi of the Soil, 446
Korotneff, A., Polymorphism of Dolchinia,

301
Korschelt, E., General Embryology, 167
Kossowicz, A., Growth of Yeast in Mineral

Solutions, 686
Kostytschew, S., Respiration of Filament-
ous Fungi, 425
Krasan, F., Conversational iEtiology, 168
Krassuskaja, A., Ova of Sea-Urchins, 187
Kraus, A., Staining Hyphomycetes in
Horny Tissues, 722

INDEX.

759

Krause, K., Is there a " Vital " Staining ?

375
Krefft, P., Rotation Microtome, 248
Krempf, A., Modification of Tentacular

Apparatus in Madrepora, 659
Krisling, K. J., Fat of Tubercle Bacilli,

234
Kriiss, H. A., Filtration of Ultra- Violet

Rays through a Selection of Jena Optical

vrlfLSSGS out!

Kiinkel, K, Habits of the Cellar Slug, 523
Kiister, E., Ortner's Entomological Micro-
scope, 575
Kunstler, J., Case of Dimorphism in Ceci-
domyicUe, 527

L.

Labbe, A., Maturation Divisions in Testicle
of a Lobster, 529

— Polyspermy and the Culture of Sperma-

tozoids, 652

— Spermatozoa of Decapods, 181
Labiatse, Anatomy of Seedlings, 1 92
Labyrinth of Fishes, 174

Ladreyt, F., Leucocytes and Similar Cells

in Sipunoulus nudus, 183
Lagerheim, G., Bulgaria globosa, 439
Laidlaw, F. F., Revision of Classification

of Polyclad Turbellarians, 185
Laing, A. R., New Anaerobic Apparatus,

371
Lake Survey, 56
Lalou, S., Osmotic Action of Internal

Fluids of Echinoderms, 66
Laloue, G., Scent of the Orange Flower,

538
Lamellibranchs, Coccidia, 313
Lamp, Oil-tight, Duuning's New Portable,

110
Lampa, E., Exogenous Antlieridia in
Anthoceros, 205

— Germination of Liver-worts, 83
Lamprey, Olfactory Organ, 401
Lampreys, Buccal Gland, 170

Lamps, Electric, for Microscope Use, 728
Lampyridae, Luminosity, 307
Landau, E., Ova of Sea-Urchins, 187
Lang, E., Anatomy of Crustaceous Lichens,

350
Lang, W. D., Jurassic Polyzoa, 533
Lankester, E. R., Economic Zoology, 172

— Modification of Eye-Peduncles in Cy-

monomus, 412

— Structure and Classification of Arthro-

poda, 524
Lantern Microscope and Polariscope, 580

— Slides of Histological Objects, Prepar-

ing, 480
Lanzi, M., Biology of Diatoms, 681

— Uses of Diatoms, 435
Larvae and Ova of Fishes, 54

Larvae, Parthenogenetic, of Asterias glacia-

lis, 420 .
Larval, Development of Echinus micro-
tuberculatus, 534

— Forms of Crangonidae, 63
Lasnier, Disease of Cattleya, 569
Lathy, P. I., Aberrations of Lepidoptera,

409
Launoy, L., Nuclear Changes during
Secretion, 170

— Secretory Phenomena in Poison-Glands

and Digestive Glands, 169
Laurent, E., Influence of Mineral Food on
Sex in Dioecious Plants, 74

— Synthesis of Proteids, 74

Laurent, L., Presence of Abronia in the
Tertiary Flora of Europe, 549

Laurent, M, Embryology of Juncacese, 194

Lauterborn, R., Variation Cycle of Anurasa
cochlearis, 65

Laveran, — ., Method of Staining the Pro-
tozoal Parasites of the Blood, 120

Laveran, A., Piroplasma donovani, 314

— Trypanosoma dimorphon in Horses, 537
Lawson, A. A., Garaetophyte and Embryo-
logy of Cryptomeria japonica, 666

Leach's Oxy-hydrogen Lantern Microscope,

107
Leaf-form and Stomata of tho Dwarf Plants

of the Wiirzburg Limestone, 539
Leaves, Foliage, Monstrosities, 322

— of Bracken Fern, Structure in Relation

to Environment, 429
Lecaillon, A., Development of Ovary of

Polyxenus lagurus, 179
Lecanora subfusca, 98
Lederbauer, — ., Plankton of Certain

Alpine Lakes, 434
Leech, Nephridial Cells, 653
Leger, L., Coccidia in Lamellibranchs, 313

— Trypanoplasma of the Minnow, 421
Legros, V., Photogrammetric Focimeter for

Microscopical Objects: an Instrument

for Verifying Microscopes, 715
Lehmann, H., Variation in Cyclops, 63
Leitz' New Binocular Loup, 360
Lemmerman, E., Phytoplankton from

Brandenburg Lakes, 88
Lemurs in Captivity, Testicle and Spermatic

Ducts, 291
Lendenfeld, R. v., Preparation of Spicules

of Silicious Sponges, 589
Lens Calculation, 109

— Development, 169

under Abnormal Conditions, 399

— Zeiss' Compound, with Iris Diaphragm,

460
Lentibulariete, Regeneration, 424
Lepidoptera, Aberrations, 409

— Australian, 409

— British, Natural History, 648

— Dipterous Parasites, 648

— Endoderm, 409

3 f 2

760

INDEX.

Lepidoptera, South American, Diptera as
Ectoparasites, 649

Lepidosiren, Development of Motor Nerve-
Trunks ami Myotomes, 635

Leptogium and Colleina, 449

LernaBopod, New, 651

Leskea, North American Species, 81

Leucobryacese of the East African Islands,
205

Leucocytes anil Similar Cells in Sipunculus
nudus, 183

Levarliti, O, Spirillosis in Fowls, 454

Levelling Superstate, 252

Levi, G., Comparative Histology of Pan-
creas, 637

Levier, E., European Mosses in the Hima-
layas, 82

— Hawaiian Mosses, 327
Lewandowsky, F., Growth of Bacteria in

Salt Solutions of High Concentration,

454
Lewis, F. T., The Question of Sinusoids,

637
Lewis, R. T., New Chelifer, 62
Liburnau, J. L. v., Halimeda Fuggeri, 212
Lichen Flora of Heidelberg, 230

— Fruits, Development, 348
Lichens, Antarctic, 572

— as Endosaprophytes, 450

— Contributions to our Knowledge of the

Chemistry of, 230

— Crustaceous, Anatomy, 350

— Forma tion of Soredia, 572

— from Socotra, 98

— Growth-Forms, 348

— of Alaska, 572

— Protection against Animals, 450

— Swedish, 449

Lickley, J. D., Seventh and Eighth Sternal
Ribs in Man, 402

— Variations in Human Ribs, 173
Light and Darkness, Influence, 297
Light, Artificial, for Microscope, 702

— Filters, Gelatin Plates as Substitute for

Glass, 121
Kingsford's Glass Troughs for Con-
taining Fluid for, 383

— Intensity and Energy of Assimilation in

Plants belonging to different Biologic
Types, Relation between, 195

— Modifiers, Swift's, 110

— of Wave-Lengths from 250 fj. to 100 fi,

Absorption and Emission of Air and
its Ingredients, 360

— On the Separation of Ultra-Violet, 263

— Organs of Photinus marginellus, His-

tology, 401

— Waves and their Uses, 362
Lignification of Subterranean Organs in

Plants of High Regions, 317
Limbs of Holocephali and Dipnoi, 299
Limnesia, North American Species, 650
Lindau, G., Fungi imperfecti, 442

Lindau, G., Hyphomycetes, 564, 687

— Seed-Fungus of Lob'um temulentum, 692
Linden, M. G. von, Red and Yellow Pig-
ment of Vanessa, 59

Linder, C, New Rotifera, 655

— Pelagic Fauna of Lake of Bret, 518
Lindman, C. A. M., Trichomanes (sect.

Didymoglossum), 80

— Tropical American Ferns, 80
Lindmark, G., Swedish Saxifrages, 78
Linnseus's System of Ferns, 81
Lippmann Colour Process, The How and

Why, 242

Lippold, E., Leaf-Form and Stomata of the
Dwarf Plants of the Wiirzburg Lime-
stone, 539

Lipschiitz, B., Bacterial Diagnosis of Ty-
phoid by means of the v. Drigalski-
Conradi Medium and Agglutination, 369

Lithothamnia from the Indian Ocean, 215

Livanow, N., Metamerism of Nervous Sys-
tem of Hirudi nea, 653

— Splanchnic Musculature in Oligochseta

and Hirudinea, 416
Liver in Pig, Development, 636

— in Rabbit and Sheep, Development of

Veins, 399

— Pancreas and Spleen in Sturgeon, De-

velopment, 511
Liver-worts, Germination, 83

Mycorrhiza, 328

Lizard, New European, 404

— Notes on Development, 169

— Viviparous, Prolific Multiplication, 173
Lizards, Gastrulation, 292

— of Sumatra, 56

Lobster, Maturation Divisions in Testicle,
529

Localisation,Cerebral, Histological Studies,
401

Locomotion, Human, 54

Loeb, J., Sea-Urchin Ova Fertilised by
Starfish Spermatozoa, 187

Loewenthal, W., Basidiobolus Lacertae, 91

Lohmanella catenata, 419

Lohmann, C. E. J., Chemistry and Biology
of Hepatics, 206

Lohmannia catenata, 186

Lolium temulentum, Seed-Fungus, 225, 692

London, E. S., Simple Method for the
Observation of Ultra- Microscopic Parti-
cles, 362

Longchamps, M. de S., First Abdominal
Appendage in the Meal- Worm, 527

Longmuir, P., Influence of Varying Cast-
ing Temperature on the Properties of
Steel and Iron Castings, 595

Lonicera, Synanthy, 72

Lonnberg, E., Compound Rhamphotheca
of Birds, 640

Lord, T. E., New Rotifer, 533

Loos, A., Structure of Filaria loa, 654

Lophozia, Revision, 674

INDEX.

761

Lottia gigantea. Anatomy, 644

Lotsy, J. P., Bi valence of the Chromosomes,

315
Loup, Leitz' New Binocular, 360

— Ortner's Pocket, 701
Loup-Stand, Ortner's, 701
Louse of Elephant-Seal, 649

Low, G. C, t'ilaria perstans, in Relation

to Sleeping Sickness, 185
Lubarsch, O., Rapid Method of Hardening

and Paraffin Imbedding, 590
Lucas, K., 259

— On a Microscope with Geometric Slides,

258, 272

Ludwig, H., Parental Care in Echino-
derms, 420

Lumbriculus variegatus, Regeneration, 184

Lumbricus variegatus, Regeneration of
Trunk and Head Segments, 414

Luminosity of Lampyridae, 307

Lundvall, H., Demonstrating Foetal Carti-
lage, 594

Luther, A., Fixation and Staining of
Eumesostomina, 591

Lutkemiiller. J., Genus Spirotsenia, 334

Lycaenidae, Variations, 59

Lydekker, R., Zoological Esssays, 171

Lyginodendron oldhamium, 725

Lymph Glands in Man, Development, 293

Lyon, F. M., Two Megasporangia in
Selaginella, 202

Lyon, M. W., Hares and their Allies, 640

M.

Maassen, A., Biological Test for the Pre-
sence of Arsenic, 225
McAlpine, D., Australian Fungi, 445

— Diseases of Cereals, 566

— and others, Uredineae, 687
McArdle, D., Irish Hepaticae, 208
MacCallum, W. G., Echinostomum garzettse,

532
Macchiati, L., Photosynthesis, 74
Machilidae, New, 528
Mcintosh, D. C, Variation in Ophiocoma

nigra, 188
Macleod, J. J. R., Chemistry of Tubercle

Bacillus, 455
McMillan, C, Kelps of Juan de Fuca, 214
McMurrich, J. P., Sagartia paguri, 189
McNeal, W. J., Cultivating Trypanosomes,

116
Macoun, J., Canadian Birds, 56
Macrotus, Revision of the Genus, 516
Macvicar, S. M., Census of Scottish Hepa-
ticae, 208

— Hepaticae of Atlantic Type in Scotland,

431
Mader, M., Muscular Fibres in Heart of
Nassa reticulata, 644

Madrepora, Modification of Tentacula Ap-
paratus, 659

Magnifier, Pocket, Swift and Son's, 108

Magnifying Power of the Microscope and
its Separate Elements, On Certain New
Methods of Measuring, 261

Magnus, P., New Helminthosporium, 220

— Urediuopsis, 343

— Witches'-Bioom cause 1 bv Puccinia,

688
Magnus, W., Morphological Researches,

225
Maiden, J. H., Flora of Norfolk Islands,

670
Maignon, — ., Production of Glucose by

Animal Tissue, 173
Maire, R., Cytology of Galactinia succosa,
94

— New Genus of Phacidieae, 93
Malacostraca, Classification, 181
Malaquin, A., Cephalisation and Meta-
merism in Annelids, 309

Malenkovie, B., Dry-rot, 689

Mallock, A., Resistance to Heat of Bacillus

anthracis, 234
Mallophaga from Hawaiian Islands, 411

— New, 411

Mammals, Adaptations to Aquatic Life, 55

— Cardiac Glands, 170

— Morphology of the Glands of Bartholin,

295

— Seventy New Malayan, 402
Mamillaria elongata, Observations, 664
Man, Inheritance of Mental Qualities, 637
Mandibular Articulation, Development,

509
Mandibulo-auricular Muscle, 299
Mandoul, H., Bactericidal Properties of
Helminthic Juice, 574

— Tegumentary Colorations, 297
Manganese and Sulphur, Influence on Steel,

254
Mangin, L., Phthiriosis of the Vine, 343
Maplestone, C. M., Tertiary Polyzoa of

Victoria, 417
Marceau, F., Adductor Muscles of Bivalves,
523

— Cardiac Muscle Fibres, 171

— Demonstrating the Structure of Cardiac

Fibres, 373

— Structure of the Heart in the Common

Octopus, 522
Marcelin, R. H., Histogenesis of Intestinal

Epithelium in Frog, 171
Marchal, E., Synthesis of Proteids, 74
Marchi's Method, Staining the Myelin in

Sections of Nervous Tissue previously

Treated by, 476
Marchoux, E., Spirillosis of Fowls, 100
Marenzeller, E. v., ' Albatross ' Corals, 658

— Polynoid Symbion of Hydrocorallinae,

653
Marks, K. I., New Male Rotifers, 65

762

INDEX.

Marotel, — ., Cysticercus celhdosse on Dog's

Brain, 185
— ■ Coccidia in Sheep, 191
Marpmann, G., Growth of Bacteria under

Altered Pressure, 455
— Preparing Planarian Worms, 373
Marquand, E. D., Algae of Alderney, 678
Marsh, C. D., New Canthocamptus from

Idaho, 530

— Plankton of Wisconsin Lakes, 643
Marshall, F. H. A., Demonstrating the

Structure of Corpus Luteum of Sheep,

372
Marsupials, South American, Cestodes, 185
Martin, B., Comparative Osteology and

Phylogeny of the Columbiformes, 403
Massee, G., On the Origin of Parasitism in

Fungi, 344
Masters, M. T., General View of the Genus

Pinus, 422
Matruchot, L., Phytophthora infestans, 218
Matsumura, S., Cercopidae ot Japan, 649
Mattiesen, E . , Early De velopmen t of Fresh -

water Dendroccelida, 310
Mattirolo, O., Carlo Allioni, 672

— Subterranean Fungi in Italy, 223
Maturation and Fertilisation in Cymbulia

peronii, 303

— Divisions in Vertebrates, 508
Maublauc, — ., Disease of Cattleya, 569
May, A. J., Development of Corymorpha,

67
Mayer, A. G., Medusae of the Bahamas, 657
Mayer, P., Haematein and Haenialum, 475
Maze', P., Ferments of Diseases of Wines,
452

— Production of Citric Acid by Citromyces,

690

— Bole of Microbes in Alcoholic Fer-

mentation which Stoklasa attributes
to the Zymase isolated from Vege-
table or Animal Tissues, 696

— Zymase and Alcoholic Fermentation,

547
Mazza, A., Marine Algae from Sicily, 215

— Sicilian Marine Algae, 560

Meal- Worm, First Abdominal Appendage,

527
Measuring the Magnifying Power of the

Microscope and of its Separate Elements,

On Certain New Methods, 261, 279
Media, External, Influence on Mineral

Constituents and Organic Composition

of Plants, 425
Medusa, Devonian, 312

— from Victoria Nyanza, 189
Medussa from Maldive Islands, 420

— of the Bahamas, 657

Meek, S. E., Fresh-water Fishes of Mexico,

405
Meeting, Special, for the Purpose of Making

an Alteration in By-Law No. 25, 488
Megasporangia, Two in Selaginella, 202

Megliola, G., Disease of Cultivated Mush-
rooms, 220

Meisenheimer, J., Experiments of Yeast-
Extract, 75

Melandryum, Development of Stamens in
the Interior of the Ovary, 321

Melicertidae, Execretory Organs, 186

Metolontha vulgaris, Nutritive Bole of
Follicular Epithelium, 647

Mencl, E., Development of Lens, 169

Mendelian Phenomena in Gastropods, 644

Mendel's Law, and Maturation of Germ-
Cells, 290

of Heredity, 50

Mental Qualities, Inheritance of, in Man,
637

Me'reschkowsky, C, Morphology of, Dia-
toms, 434

— Transmutation of Various Stages in

Diatomaceae, 334, 435
Merlin, A. A. C. E., Nelson's Formula
Oculars, 109

— Note on Mr. Nelson's New Formula

Amplifier, 383, 396

Merrill, E. D., Flora of the Philippine
Islands, 548

Mertens, — ., Micro-Chemistry and Cyto-
logy of a Torula, 69

Merulius lacrymans as a Cause of Cancer,
222

Mery, J. E., Begeneration and Non-Sexual
Beproduction in Sagartia davisi, 657

Mesnil, F., Pelmatosphaera. 311

— Piroplasma donovani, 314

— Trypanosoma dimorphon in Horses, 537
Mesonephros and Miillerian Ducts in Am-
phibia, Development, 511

Mesostoma nasonojfi, Structure, 185
Metabolism and Fermentations, Function

of Iron in, 173
Metal-holder, Universal, 251
Metallography of Nickel Steels, 125
Metallurgical Stage, 108
Metals, Evolution of Structure, 723

— Hard and Soft States, 595

— Microscopic Analysis, 378

— Structure, 596

Metamerism and Cephalisation in Annelids,

309
Metamorphoses of Saturnian Moths, 527
Metamorphosis of Insects, 305
Metcalf, H., f Bacterium teutlium, sp. n.,
697

— Nematode Associated with Decay in

Plants, 654
Method for Clearing Nutrient Agar without
Filtration, 246

— of Concentrating Plankton without Net

or Filter, 247
Metzger, O., Development of Lichen Fruits,

348
Meves, F., Occurrence of Mitochondria and

Chondromites in Plant Cells, 538

INDEX.

763

Meyer, A., Naphthol-Blue as a Keagent

for Bacterial Fat, 119
Meyer, R., Nephridial Canals in Guinea-

Pig, 399
Mice, Heredity of Pigmentation, 290

— Sex of, 290
Michael, A. D., 134, 135

— British Tyroglyphidas, 181
Michaelis, H., Method for Sticking Paraffin

Sections to the Slide, 374

Miclielson, A, A., Light Waves and their
Uses, 362

Micrasterias, 6S1

Microbe Pathogenic to Eats, 351

Microbes, Pole in Alcoholic Fermentation
which Stoklasa attributes to the Zymase
isolated from Vegetable or Animal Tis-
sues, 696

Micrococcus melitensis, Resistance to Moist
Heat, 453

Micro-fauna of Boulder Clay, 68

Microfungi, New Species, 690

Micrometric Measurement, Direct, of Fog
Particles, 464

Micro-organisms, Action of Radium on, 451

Aerobic, Decomposition of Cellulose,

235

Microphotographic Portraits of Prof. Que-
kett, Dr. J. Millar and Dr. Letheby, 724,
725

Microphotographs, 580

Microscope, Adams' Improved Lucernal,
724

— and Expert Testimony, 716

— and its Separate Elements, On certain

New Methods of Measuring the Mag-
nifying Power, 261, 279

— Artificial Light for, 702

— Baker's Diagnostic, 357

— Beck's London Penological, 457

— Culmann's Monocular Image- Erecting

Prism, 699

— Electric Lamps for, 728

— Exhibition, 698

— Hollick's Naturalists', 576

— Leach's Oxyhydrogen Lantern, 107

— Mineralogical, 359

— Note on the Diffraction Theory as

applied to the Case when the Object "
is in Motion, 361

— Old, by Banks, 727

by Bate, 354

by Dollond, 727

by Plossl of Vienna, 355

— Ortner's Entomological, 575

— Portable, Designed by A. Hollick, 483

— Ross' No. 2 " Standard," 236

— Societe Genevoise Second Large Model,

699

— Specially Designed Monocular Compari-

son, and Application of the Stereo-
Komparator to Monocular Use, 578

— Swift's Continental Stand, 105

Microscope, Swift's Newly Designed for
Bacteriological ResearchJOl

Histological and Physiological,

103

Simple Dissecting, 101

— Tank, by Thos. Ross, 380

— Theories of the Resolving Power, 364

— Travelling, 359

— Vacuum, 361

— "Watson and Sons' New " Argus." 238
" Works," Metallurgical, 105

— with Geometric Slides, 258, 272
Microscopes, Instrument for Verifying, 714
Microscopic Analysis of Metals, 378

— Resolution, Note on a Point in Lord

Rayleigh's paper of 18H6, 26

of Gratings, Direct Proof of Abbe's

Theorems, 385, 483

— Study of the Prehistoric Bronzes of the

Charente, 124
Microscopical Examination, Preparing
Small Dried Insects for, 371

— Vision, Theories of : a Vindication of

the Abbe Theory, 610, 728
Microscopy, Gage's, 369
Microtome, K rent's Rotation, 248

— Pleuel, 247

— Radais', with Vertical Slideless Carrier,

720
Miculicich, M., New Lernseopod, 651
Migrations of Right Whales, 55
Migula, W.. Algae of Central Europe, 677
Mildew, White, of Citrus limonum, 691
Milesi, M., Triphragmium, 443
Milk Glands, Human, Development, 509
Millardet, Alexis, 672
Miller, G. S. jun., Seventy New Malayan

Mammals, 402
Miller, M. F., American Mosses, 204
Millett, F. W., Report on the Recent Fora-
minifera of the Malay Archipelago col-
lected by Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S.,.
487, 499, 597, 725
Minnow, Trypanoplasma of, 421
Miquel, P., Cultures of Diatoms, 211
Mitchell, E. G., Oral Breathing- Valvea

of Teleostei, 405
Mitchell, W., Dentition of the Elephant

299
Mites, Comparative Anatomy, 308
Mitochondria and Chondromites, Occur-
rence in Plant Cells, 538
Mitoses, Cellular. Models of, 637

— Monocentric, Behaviour of the Proto-

plasm, 295

— Zoological Distribution, and Transmis-

sibility of Cancer, 294

Mitosis in Flagellata, 659

Mitrophanow, P., Basal Corpuscles in Con-
nection with Cilia, 659

— Nuclear Apparatus in Paramcecium, 67

— Nucleus of Paramcecium, 660

— Trichocysts of Paramcecium, 660

764

INDEX.

Mitsukuri, K., Habits aud Life-History of
Stichopus japonicus, 18S

Mitsukurina Owttoni, 643

Molisch, H , Bacterial Light and Photo-
graphic Plates, 572

Moll,C, Terrestrial ITanarians from North-
East Africa, 532

Moller, A., Mycorhiza of Onifers, 223

Molliard, M., Conidial Form of Daldinia
ccnicentrica, 442

Morehella esculenta, 684

— Conidial Forms of the Higher Fungi,

568

— Influence of Potassium on the Morpho-

logy of Sterigmalocysiis nigra, 194

— Phytuphlhora infestans, 218
Mollinson, T., Nutritive Role of Follicular

Epithelium in Melolentha vulgaris, 647
Molluscan Heart, Muscular Fibres, 616
Monilia and Sclerotinia. 439
Monks, S. P., Regeneration in Starfish, 311
Monochromatic Ultra- Violet Light, Method

of Obtaining, 392
Monoclea, 674

Monstrosities in Foliage Leaves, 322
Moore, G. T., Algse iu Public Water Sup-
plies, 86

— Growth of Alga3 iu Water Supplies, 559
Moore, J. P., Some Woods Hole Pelagic

Polyehaota, 184
Morehella esculenta, Conidial Form, 684
Morehella, Conidial Stage, 310
Morice, F. D., Male Terminal Segments

and Armatures in the Hymenopterous

Genus Colletes, 409
Morgan, A. P., American Mycology, 223

— and others, American Fungi, 567

Mycology, 347. 444

Morgan, T. H, Influence of Constant Agi-
tation on the Development of the Toad's
Eg^, 635

Morphological Peculiarities of the Nym-
phaeacese and Helobiae, 423

— Researches, 225

Morphology and Biology of Ricciocarpus
nutans, 327

— of Saccharomyces, Contributions, 686
Morse, M., Transmission of Acquired Cha-
racters, 292

Moss-Spores, Dispersal, 674

Mortensen, T.,New (Jenus of Diadematidse,
188

Moser, F., Development of the Swim-
Bladder, 512

Mosquitoes of Para, 409

Moss-Archegonium, Origin, 326

Mosses, American, 204

— British, 552
Fossil, 81

— European, in the Himalayas, 82

— Hawaiian, 827

— North American, 82, 327, 432

— of Java, 204

Mosses of Korea, 432

— of Mark Brandenburg, 552

— Patagonian and Fuegian, 327

— South American, 83

Moths, Saturnian, Metamorphoses, 527
Mot tier, D. M., Development of the Sper-

matozoid in Chara, 558
Motz-Kossowska, S., Modification of Hy-

droid Colonies by Movements in the

Water, 189
Moulds, Growth, 568

— Notes, 564
Mould Yeasts, 219

Moulting Processes in Insects, 525
Mounting Clip, Improved, 120

— Device, designed by VV. Rosenhain, 382

478

— Fixing and Staining Sections of Skin,

593

— Medium Bottle, 121

— Preparing aud Staining Fresh-water

Fauna, 472
Mouse, Conjugation of Resting Nuclei in

an Epithelioma. 295
Moussu, — ., Coccidia in Sheep, 191
Mouth-parts of the Nemocera and their

Relation to the other Families in Diptera,

28
Mouton, H., Ultra-Microscopic Objects, 243
Mucoracese, Zygospore Formation, 562
Mucorinse, Sexual Reproduction, 684
Mucorini, Zygospore, 93

— Development, 684
Mud-Minnows or Umbrids, 642

Mud obtained at a Depth of 10 m. from a
Roman Funereal Pit at the Necropolis of
Bernard (Vendee), Bacteriology and His-
tology, 351

Muhse, E. F., 1 yes of a Blind Snake, 517

Muir, F.. Egg-Cases aud Early Stages of
some Cassi lidse, 410

Muller, O., Diatoms from Nyassaland, 557

MiiUerian Ducts and Me.-onephros in Am-
phibia, Development, 511

Multiplication, Viviparous Lizard's Pro-
lific, 173

Muraeniilse, Gill-Arches, 405

Murbeck, — ., Development of Gameto-
phyte and Embryo of Euppia rostellata,
193

Murie. J., Thames Fisheries, 300

Murril, W. A., Polyporaceas of North
America, 222, 560. 689

Murray, J., Plankton of Scottish Lakes,
175

Murray, J. A., Conjugation of Resting Nu-
clei in an Epithelioma of the Mouse,
295

— Zoological Distribution, Mitoses, and

Transmissibility of Cancer, 294
Musa ensete, Accumulation of Water in

Leaf-Sheath, 668
Muscidae, Imaginal Adipose Tissue, 527

INDEX.

765

Muscinere, Critical Notes, 326

— Mycorhiza, 566

— Tyrolean, 326

Muscle-Changes in Beetle (Thymalus
marginicollis) during Metamorphosis,
647

Muscle Fibres, Cardiac, 171

Musculature of Branchiobdella parasitica,
64

— Splanchnic, in Oligochseta and Hiru-

dinea, 416
Musgrave, Staining Trypanosoma, 375

— Trypanosoma and Trypanosomiasis, 313
Mushrooms, Cultivated, Disease, 220
Mustelidse, Sub-Species, 406
Mycodomatia of Myrica cerifera, 691
Mycological Contributions, 569

— Notes, 441. 570

American, 228

Mycology, American, 223, 347, 444

— British, 346

— French, 227, 346
Mycopatholosrical Notes from Hungary,

445
Mycoplasma, Hypothesis, 443

Eriksson's, 343

Mycoplasma in Uredinese, 565
Mycorrhiza, 345

— Endotropic, Sporangioles, 224

— of Conifers, 223

— of Epiphytic Plants, 567

— of Liver-worts, 328

— of Muscineae, 566

— of Vanilla. 425

Myology of Chondropterygian Fishes, 300

Myotomes and Motor Nerve-Trunks, Deve-
lopment in Lepidosiren, 635

Myriactis Areschougii and Coilodemne Cali-
fornia, 436

Myrica cerifera, Mycodomatia, 691

Myriopods, Littoral, 180

— Sense of Smell, 411
Myrmecological Notes, 306
Myrmecophilous Insects, Neapolitan, 180
Mysis, Pallasiella and Pontoporeia, Origin,

651
Mytilus, Development of Gill, 303
Myxinoids, Japanese, 300
Myxobaeteriacese, 567
Myxolibertella, Myxosporium and Sporo-

diniopsis, 444
Myxomycetes, Development, 98

— Nuclear Changes in Plasmodium, 694

— Studies, 450

Myxosporidia of Fiat-Fish, 661
Myxosporium, Myxolibertella and Sporo-

diniopsis, 444
Myzostoma, Anatomy and Histology, 64

N.

Naphthol-Blue as a Reagent for Bacterial
Fat, 119

Nassa reticulata, Muscular Fibres in Heart,
644

Nathorst, A. G., Antarctic Fossil Flora,
548

Naucoria nana, Spore-Formation, 222]

Nectaiius,Extra-fioral, of Hevea, Structure,
71

Nectria ditissima, Infection Experiments,
94

Necturus, Bilateral Symmetry in Egg, tJ37

Needham, J. G., Genealogical Study of
Dragon-Fly Wing Venation, 180

Nekiassoff, A., Maturation aud Fertilisa-
tion in Cymbulia Peronii, 303

Nelson's Formula Oculars, 109

— New Formula Amplifier, 383, 396
Nelson, E. M., On Grayson's 120,000 Band-
Plate, 393

■ — On the Vertical Illuminator, 165, 257

— The Influence of the Antipoint on the

Microscopic linage Shown Graphi-
cally, 257, 269

— The Visibility of Grayson's Rulings of

120,000 Lines to the Inch, 383
Nelumbo, Embryo-sac and Embryology,

542
Nematocysts of iEolids, 407
Nematode associated with Decay in Plants,

654

— in Smooth Muscle-Cells of Nephelis, 309
Nemec, B., Amitosis in Plants, 315

— Mycorrhiza of Liver- Worts, 328
Nemocera, Mouth-Parts, and their Rela-
tion to the other Families in Diptera, 28

Neocerata rhodophaga, Habits and Develop-
ment, 528

Neogamous Gregarines, 536

Nephelis, Nematode in Smooth Muscle-
Cells, 309

Nephridia and Body Cavities of Actino-
tiocha, 418

Nephridial Canals in Guinea-Pig, 399

— Cells of Leech, 653

Nepionic Stage in the Gastropods, 302
Nereids and Convoluta, Phototropism, 519
Neresheimer, E., Lohmannia catenata, 186,

419
.Nerve-Cells and Epithelial-Cells in Earth-
Worms, Minute Structure, 415

— Endings of Human Skin, 400
Seusory, in Human Tongue, 638

— Fibres, Development, 510

— Trunks, Motor, and Myotomes, Develop-

ment in Lepidosiren, 635
Nervous System, Central, Hematoxylin
Staining of Nerve-Fibres, 591

in Insects, Metamorphosis, 647

of Hirudinea, Metamerism, 653

— Tissue, Methods for Silver Impregna-

tion, 477

Staining the Myelin in Sections of,

Previously Treated by Marchi's
Method, 476

766

INDEX.

Net, Plankton, " Scotia " Closing, 587
Nets for Gathering Plankton, 472
Neuhaus, E., Method for the Removal of

Air-Bubbles from Frozen Sections, 594
Neuropteris Heterophylla, Fructification,

666
New-born, Transition between Internal

Iliac and Umbilical Arteries, 510
Newcombe, F. C, Ohemotropism of Boots,

319
Newt, Fasting, Phagocytic Absorption of

Ova by Follicle-Cells, 509
Nibecker, C. P., Bacteriological Methods

in Sanitary Water Analysis, 116
Nickel Steels, Metallography, 1 25
Nicloux, M., Gemination of Oily Seeds,

668
Nicolas, A., Development of Pancreas,

Liver and Spleen in the Sturgeon, 511
Nicolle, — ., Modification of Gram's Method,

120
Nierstrasz, H. F., Heart of Solenogastres,

408
Nikitinsky, J., Growth of Moulds, 568

— Influence of Growth Products of Fungi

on their Further Development, 692
Nilson, B., Swedish Lichens, 449
Nitrifying Organisms in Sewage Filters,
695

Detection, 716

Nitrogen-Assimilation of Fresh-water

Algae, 319
Nitrogen, Atmospheric, Assimilation, 543

— Sources to Fungi, 667

Nocht's Stain, Modified, for Blood-Films,

476
Noe, G., Filaria immitis, 185
Nomenclature, Algological, Points, 332
Norman, A. M., Calanoid Copepoda, 182
North, Rt. Hon. Sir Ford, 134, 436
Nosema anomahim, 190
Notice to Fellows of the Business of the

Succeeding Meeting, 260
Notoryctes typhlops, Anatomy, 639
Notostigmata : New Sub-order of Acari,

650
Novy, F. G., Cultivating Trypanosomes,

116
Nuclear Apparatus in Paramcecium, 67

— Changes during Secretion, 170

— Division, Abnormal, 70

— Phenomena in Coleosporium sonchi-

arvensis. 688
Nuclei, Resting, Conjugation in an Epithe-
lioma of the Mouse, 295

— Twin, in Various Types of Cells in the

Guinea-Pig, 513
Nucleolus, Function, 662

— in the Maturing Ovum, Study, 187
Nucleus of Paramcecium, 660

— of the Yeast Plant, 69

— Reconstitution of, and Formation of

Chromosomes, 663

Nuptial Combat and Receptaculum Seminis

in Octopus, 522
Nutrition and Sex Determination in Man,

289
Nutting, C. O, American Hydroids, 657
Nymph seacea? and Helobiae, Morphological

Peculiarities, 423
Nymphopsocus destructor: a new Copeo-

gnathid, 649

O.

Oberea, New Species, Life-History, Habits,
and Taxonomic Relations, 528

Oberholser, H. C, Monograph of Genus
Dendrocincla, 517

Object-Glasses, Chromatic Correction, 716

Objective Changer, Watson and Sons' New,
382, 461

— ^-inch Apochromatic Homogeneous

Immersion, 482
Objects, Brittle, Imbedding Medium, 719
Occipital Region of Cerebral Hemisphere

in Man and Apes, 298
Octopus, Common, Structure of Heart, 522

— Rtceptaculum Seminis and Nuptial

Combat, 522
Oculars, Nelson's Formula, 109
O'Donohoe, T. A., The How and Why of

the Lippmann Colour Process, 242
Odontoschisma in North America, 206
(Edomycet leproides, 562
Oestrup, E., Diatoms and Plankton from
the Faeroes, 90

of Koh Chang, 681

Oidium Tuckeri, 223

Wintering, 342

Oil-Bodies in the Jungermanniales, 205

— Bottle, Beck's Safety Cedar Wood, 378
Okamura, K., Marine Algas of the Caroline

Islands, etc., 678
Olecranon and Patella, Homology, 515
Olfactory Organ of Lamprey, 401

— Sense in Helix Pomatia, 57
Oligochseta and Hirudinea, Splanchnic*

Musculature, 416

— Distribution, 184

— Studies, 531

Olivier, E., Viviparous Lizard's Prolific

Multiplication, 173
Oospora destructor, 442
Ophiocoma nigra, Variation, 188
Ophiuroids, Function of Tube-Feet, 656
Opperman, M., Embryo-sac and Fertilisa-
tion in Aster, 541
Optic Reflex Apparatus in Cyclostomes

and Fishes, 638
Optical Bench, 582

— Properties of Vitreous Silica, 363
Orange Flower, Scent, 538
Orchids, Endophytic Fungus, 320
Organ of Koehler in Cirripeds, 530
Organs, Wing-like Lateral, of Solifugae,

412

INDEX.

767

Ortner'a Entomological Microscope, 575

— Loup-Stand, 701

— Pocket-Loup, 701

Osborn, A. S., Microscope and Expert

Testimony, 716
Osborn, H., Grasping Organs in Pedicu-

lidse, 529
Osborn, H. F., Reclassification of the

Reptilia, 403
Osburn, R. C, Adaptations to Aquatic

Life in Mammals, 55
Oscillatory Movements of Convoluta roscof-

fensig, 185
Osmond, F., Microscopic Analysis of

Metals, 378
Osmotic Action of Internal Fluids of
Echinoderms, 66

— Properties of Amphibian Skin, 517
Ostenfeld, C. H., Diatoms and Plankton

from the Faeroes, 90

— Norwegian Pliytoplankton, 88
Osteology and Phylogeny, Comparative,

in Columbiformes, 403

— of the Dugong Flipper, 516

Ostergren, H., Function of Tube-Feet in

Ophiuroids, 656
Osterwalder, A., Contributions to the
Morphology of Saccharomyces, 686

— Peronospora on Rheum undulatum, 93
Ott, E., Anatomical Structure of Hymeno-

phyllacese, 549

Oudemans, A., Two New Forms of Trom-
bidium Parasitic in Man, 308

Outerbridge, A. E.,jun., Recent Investiga-
tions in Cast Iron, 255

Ova and Larvse of Fishes, 54

— Developing, of Frog, Experiments on,

509

— Frog's, Albumin Extracted from, 518

— Lamprey's, Parthenogenetic Develop-

ment, 509

— of Crustaceans and Gastropods, 57

— of Echinoderms, Influence of Carbon

Dioxide, 188

— of Sea-Urchins, 187

— Phagocytic Absorption by Follicle Cells

in Fasting Newt, 509 "

— Sea-Urchin, Fertilised by Starfish

Spermatozoa, 187

— Winter, of Phylloxera, Destruction by

Lysol, 307
Ovary and Poison-Gland in Toad, Correla-
tion, 168

— of Polyxenus lagurus. Development, 179
Overton, E., Osmotic Properties of Am-
phibian Skin, 517

Oviducal Gland of Elasmobranchs, 518
Oviposition in Bombyx mori, 306
Ovule and Seed of Cycadese, 665
Ovum of Spermophilug citillug, Uterine
Implantation, 168

— Study of the Nucleolus in the Maturing,

187

Pacaut, M., Twin Nuclei in Various Types.

of Cells in the Guinea-Pig, 513
Packard, A. S., Classification of Arthro-
poda, 177

— Metamorphoses of Saturnian Moths, 527
Pacoltet, P., Vegetable Pathology, 226
Pacottet, P., Anthracnose of the Vine, 563

— Ferments of Diseases of Wines, 452

— Vegetable Pathology, 563

Paine, A., New Method of Staining with

Iron Hematoxylin, 374
Palseoblattina Douvillei, 650
Palseodiscus and Agelacrinus, 656
Palibin, J., Arctic Algse, 216
Pallasiella, Mysis, and Pontoporeia, Origin,

651
Pallavacmia Flotoioiana, 207
Palms, Germination and Formation of

Primary Root, 664
Palolo Worm of Samoa, 183
Pancreas, Comparative Histology, 637

— Islets of Langerhans, 296

— Liver and Spleen in Sturgeon, Develop-

ment, 511
Papaveraceas, Gametophyte and Develop-
ment of Seed-coats, 667
Pappeuheim, A., Gonococci Staining, 120
Paracca, M. G., New European Lizard, 404
Paramcecium, Nuclear Apparatus, 67

— Nucleus, 660

— Trichocysts, 660
Paramphistomum from Mammals, Three

Species, 532
Parasite, Found in Cases of Enlarged
Spleen, Demonstrating, 477

— of Stigmarian Rootlets, 343

— Peculiar, of the Embryos of Daphnia,.

537
Parasites, Dipterous, of Lepidoptera, 648

— of Edelweiss, 566

— of Fishes, 643

— of Ural Birds, 186
Parasitic Fungi, 345
Parasitism and Viviparity, 513

— in Fungi, On the Origin, 344

— Specialisation in Erysiphacese, 340, 440
Parathyroids, Ablation in Birds, 516
Parish, S. B., Californian Ferns, 323
Parkinson, J., Primary and Secondary

Devitrification in G lassy Igneous Rocks,

125
Parsons, F. G., Sex of Mice, 290
Parthenogenesis and Fertilisation in Echi-
noderms, 311

— in Copeognatha. 649

— in Porthesia, 179

— in Telenomus, 526

— Induced by Carbon Dioxide, 187

— Occurrence, 398
Parthenogenetic Development of Lamprey's

Ova, 509

768

INDEX.

Pascher, A. A., German Fresh-water Algaa,

337
Patella and Olecranon, Homology, 515
Patouillard, N., French Mycology, 227
Paving Sets, Pctrological Examination, 123
Pavlow, W., Haematoxylin Staining of

Nerve-Fibres of the Central Nervous

System, 591
Peach, etc., Slime Bacterium, 231
Peal, H. \V\, Oriental Aleurodidse, 410
Pearl, R., Formol-Sublimate Fixing Fluids,

247
Pearls, Detection by X-Rays, 303

— Formation, 645

— Origin of Fine, 177, 408

— Secretion, 303

Pearson, W. H., British Hepaticfe, 208
Peas, Hybrid, Spermatogenesis, 70
Pec ten, Evolution, 045
Pecten opercularis. Variations, 176
Pediculidse, Grasping Organs, 529

— Structure, 307

Pe'e, P. v., Limbs of Amphiuma, 641
Peklo, J., Mycorhiza of Muscineaa, 566

PgIpCID 1(136 t) 1

Pellegrin, J., Fishes of Chilian Coast, 642
Pellia, Formation of Achromatic Figure,

663
PelmatosphaBia, 311
Peltigera, Studies, 449
Penicillium, Classification, 342
" Pentasomaja " Theory, 534
Peptic Glands of the Superior Region of

the Oesophagus in Man, 296
Pe'rez, C, Imaginal Adipose Tissue in
Muscidae, 527

— Isopod Parasitic in a Sacculina, 530

— Peculiar Parasite of the Embryos of

Daphnia, 537

— Phagocytic Absorption of Ova by Fol-

licle Cells in Fasting Newt, 509
Pe'rez, J., Attraction of Colours and Scents

for In.-ects, 669
Perithecium, Development, 340
Peronospora on Rheum Undulatum, 93
Peronosporese, 339

— and Albugo Lepigoni, Studies on the

Fertilisation, 92

— Contributions to our Knowledge, 91
Perrier, A., Production of Citric Acid by

Citromycts, 690

— Role of Microbes in Alcoholic Fermen-

tation which Stoklasa attributes to
the Zymase isolated from Vegetable
or Animal Tissues, 696
Petalophyllum Ralfsii, 84
Peter, K„ Gastrulation in Lizards, 292
■ — Notes on Development of Lizard, 169
Petersen, M.H.E.,NoteonPhycomycetes,91
Petiolar Glands of Hevea brasiliensis, Struc-
ture, 540
Petit, L., Triple Staining of Vegetable
Tissue, 376

Petit, P., Diatoms from Madagascar, 434
Petri, L., Research on the Genus Strepto-
thiix, 91

— Sporangioles of Endotropic Mycorhiza,

224

— Spore-formation in Naucoria nana, 222
Petrie, G. F., Trypanosome of Rabbit, 660
Petrological Examination of Paving Sets,

123
Petromyzon Glands of Mouth-Cavity, 300
Pfaehler, A., Dispersal of Moss-Spores, 674
Pfeiffer, A., Notched Fine Adjustment for

Optical Instruments, 577
Pfeiffer, H., Bacterial Flora of the Male

Urethra, 455
Phaeidieae, New Genus of, 93
Phagocata, New Species, 05
Phagocytic Apparatus of Cleandrus grani-
ger, 649

— Organ of Decapods, 181

— Organs in Gryllidse, 410
Phascolosoma, Development, 64

Phase Difference, Influence on Images of
Gratings amongst their Spectra, 388, 486
Phellomyces iSclerotiophorus, 221
Philip, R. H., Diatoms New to the Hull
District, 89

— Fragilaria Harrisonii, 556

Phillips, E. F., Occurrence of Partheno-
genesis, 398
Philodina, New Species, 65
Plnsalix, C, Correlation between Poison-
Gland and Ovary in Toad, 168

— Natural Immunity of Vipers, 641
Phoronis, Gonads, 65

Phoronis Mulleri, Regeneration, 418
Phosphates, Inorganic, in Plant Seeds and

in Seedlings, 663
Photinus marginellus, Histology of Light

Organ, 401
Photographic Plate, Differentiation of
Bacillus coll communis and Bacillus
typhosus by Means of, 478

— Plates and Bacterial Light, 572
Grain, 711

Photographing Microscopic Crystals, 242
Photography of Bacteria, On Suiting Con-
trast Screens for, 712
Photomicrography of Rock Sections, 461

— Use of the Esculin Screen, 634
Photosynthesis, 73

Phototropism of Convoluta and Nereids,
519

— of Earthworm, Negative and Positive,

184
Phthiriosis of Vine, 343
Phycomycetes, Note, 91

— Structure and Classification, 219
Phylloxera, Destruction of Winter Ova by

Lysol, 307
Phylogeny and Osteology, Comparative, in
Columbiformes, 403

— of Boidse, 299

INDEX.

769

Phylogeny of Elephants, 55

— of Fusus and its Allies, 644

— of Teleostomi, 4i»5
Phytophthora infestans, 218
Phytoplankton from Brandenburg Lakes,

88

— Norwegian, 88

— of Fresh Water, 336

— of the Volga, 210

Picard, F., Habits of Sphex, 646
Picrocarmin, Method of Staining Sections

Quickly, 592
Picroformol for Fixation, 472
Pictet, A , Influence of Environment on
Caterpillars, 304

— Influence of Humidity on Caterpillars,

305
Pig, Development of Liver, 636
Pigment of Supra- Renal Capsules, 516

— Red and Yellow, of Vanessa, 59

— Spots in Protozoa, Significance, 536
Pigmentation in Mice, Heredity, 290
Pine, Yellow, Diseases, 224

Pinoy, M., Development of Myxomvcetes,

98
Pinus, General View of the Genus, 422
Piroplasma donovani, 314
Piroplasma of Dog, 661
Pisciculture, 521
Pizon, A., Development of Diplosomidse,

57
PlagiotJiecium piliferum, 431
Planar ia simpfissima, 310
Planarian Worms, Preparing, 373
Planarians, Terrestrial, from North-East

Africa, 532
Plankton and Diatoms from the Faeroes, 90

— Dutch, 681

— Marine, Schizophycese, 231

— Method of Concentrating "without Net

or Filter, 247

— Net, 41 Scotia " Closing, 587

— Nets for Gathering, 472

— North Sea, 681

— of Certain Alpine Lakes, 434

— of Danish Lakes, 559

— of Gulf of Trieste, 406

— of Hallstatter See, 88

— of Scottish Lakes, 175

— of the Elbe, 211

— of Wisconsin Lakes, 643

— Scottish Fresh- water, 87

— Thames, 87

Plant Diseases, Annual Record, 226

— Geography on a Physiological Basis, 670

— Growth, Deficiency of Nitrogen, Phos-

phoric Acid, ami Potassium, 74

— Life in the Sihlthal at Einsiedeln, 78
Plants, Amitosis, 315

— American, Naturalised in Spain, 200

— belonging to Different Biologic Types,

Relation between Light Intensity and
Energy of Assimilation, 195

Plants, Cyanogenesis, 77

— Determination of Sex, 669

— Diseases, 445

— Economic, Diseases, 566

— Epiphytic, Mycorhiza, 567

— Flowering, Classification, 427

— Higher, and Cryptogams, Relation, 428

— Icelandic Fodder, 671

— Influence of External Media on Mineral

Constituents and Organic Compo-
sition, 425
of the Nature of the Soil on the Or-
ganic Composition, 195

— Insect Evolution ia Relation to, 646

— Nematode Associated with Decay, 654

— Occurence of Invertase, 547

— of High Regions, Liguitication of Sub-

terranean Organs, 317

— Perception of the Force of Gravity,

545

— Philippine Rubber, 671

— Stimulating Action of some Mineral

Salts on Growth of Higher, 546

— Woody, Hydathodes in Leaves, 196
Plasmodium of Myxomycetes, Nuclear

Changes, 694
Plaxmopara cubensis in Austria, 683
Plates of Nutrose Agar. Preparing, 471
Plehn, M., Bacterium Ci/priuicida, 232
Pleodorina in Ceylon, 556
Pleuel Microtome, 247
Plossl of Vienna, Old Microscope, 355
Plotnikow, W., Moulting Processes in

Insects, 525
Pcecilochsetus, Structure and Habits, 652
Poeket Magnirier, Swift and Son's, 108
Pocock, R. I., Coloration of the Quaggas,
175

— Stridulation in Scorpions, 62
Poison-Gland and Ovary in Toad, Correla-
tion, 168

— Glands and Digestive Glands, Secretory

Phenomena, 169
Polara, G., New Gonad in Holothurians,

656
Polariscope and Microscope Lantern, 580
Poljansky, I., Development of Scorpions,

307
"Pollination of Buckwheat, 319

— of Primrose, 426

Polychseta, Digestive Apparatus, 415

— some Woods Hole Pelagic, 184
Polychsete, New Deep-Sea, 653
Polyclad Turbellarians, Revision of Classi-
fication, 185

Polygordius, New, 64
Polymorphism in Dolchinia, 301

— of Algse, 86

Polyporacese of North America, 222, 566,

689
Polyporus fraxinophilus, 223
Polyspermy and the Culture of Spermato-

zoids, 652

770

INDEX.

Polyxenes lagurut, Development of Ovary,

179
Polyzoa, Jurassic, 533

— Tertiary, of Victoria, 417

Polyzoon, Fresh-water, from Rhodesia, 417
Pondrelli, M., Egg-Tooth in Sauropsida,

171
Pontoporeia, Mysisand Pallasiella, Origin,

651
Poppa, C. M. L., Gill-Arches of Murae-

nidae, 405
Porifera and Coelentera, Spermatogenesis,

31'2, 421
Porosphaera, On the Structure and Affi-
nities of the Genus, 1
Porsild, M. P., Development of Riella, 83
Porta, A., Digestive Function in Insects,

305
Porthesia, Parthenogenesis, 179
Posch-Grinad, K., Mycopathological Notes

from Hungary, 445
Potassium, Influence on the Morphology of

Sterigmatocystis nigra, 194
Potato, Degeneration, 193

— Disease of, 561
Potatoes, Diseases, 569

Potter, M. C, Brown-Rot of Swedes, 228

— The Action of Fungi on Woody Cells,

226
Poulton, E. B., Protective Coloration, 62
Powell, J. G. R., Mounting Diatoms, 377
Powell, T., -jL in. Apochromatic Homo-
geneous Immersion Objective, 482
Preda, A., Algae of the Gulf of Spezia, 337

— Florideae of the Gulf of Spezia, 679
Preparation of Slides for Blood Films, 595
Preparing and Demonstrating the Struc-
ture of Arenicola, 474

— Superficial Fungi, New Method, 117
Preserving Insects, 589

President, The, 126, 127, 128, 129, 134, 135,
263, 487

The Reconstruction of a Fossil

Plant, 725
President's Address : The Evolution of

Vertebrate Animals in Time, 134, 137
Priapulidae of Scandinavia, 531
Prickle Cells, New Method of Staining

Epithelial Fibres and Membrane, 593
Primates, Origin, 297
Primrose, Pollination, 426
Prism-Microscope, Culmann's Monocular

Image-Erecting, 699
Propagation, Vegetative, in the Floral

Region in Epidendrum Elongatum, 540
Protective Coloration, 62
Proteids, Synthesis, 74
Protozoa of Louisiana, 537

— Significance of Pigment Spots, 536

— VolvocineaB and Dicyemidse, Reproduc-

tive Cycle, 312
Protozoal Parasites of the Blood, Method
of Staining, 120

Proweizek, J., Nuclear Changes in the

Plasmodium of Myxomycetes, 694
Prudent, J., Diatoms from the Jura, 211
Pteris Aquilina and Pt. incim, Vascular
System of the Rhizome and Leaf-Trace,
201
Pteropoda, Palaeozoic, 407
Ptychodera erythroea, Anatomy, 533

— flava funafutica, 418

Puccmia Asparagi, Water-Relation, 565

Puccinia, Witclies'-Broom caused by, 688

Pulex irritans, Antennas, 725

Pulfrich, C, Application of the Stereo-
Komparator to Monocular Use, and a
Specially Designed Monocular Compari-
son Microscope, 578

Punnett, R. C, Nutrition and Sex Deter-
mination in Man, 289

— Proportion of Sexes in Shore-Crab, 308
Pycnogonida of West Coast of N. America,

529
Pygopodes, Affinities, 403

Q.

Quaggas, Coloration, 175
Quilter, H. J., Method of Taking Internal
Casts of Foraminifera, 121

R.

Rabenhorst's " Kryptogamen - Flora,"
Fungi imperfecti, 442

Hyphoniycetes, 564

Rabbit, Trypanosome, 660

Racial Variatiou, 198

Radais' Microtome with Vertical Slideless

Carrier, 720
Radium, Action on Micro-organisms, 451

— Rays and Radium-Emanation, Influence

on Development and Regeneration,
636

— Use of, in Section Cutting, 590
Ramon y Cajal, S., Demonstrating the

Tubular Reticulum in the Cytoplasm of

Nervous and Epithelial Cells of the

Earthworm, 372
Bandia Lujse : a New Myrmecophyte and

Acarophyte, 427
Randies, W. B., Anatomy and Affinities of

the Trochidsa, 643
Eaphidium polymorphum, Alga related to,

435
Raspail, X., Asymmetrical Development

of Fowl's Skull, 516
Rathbone, M., Myriactis Areschougii and

Coilodesme californica, 436
Rat-Plague and other Infectious Rat

Diseases, Etiology, 694
Rats, Microbe Pathogenic to, 351
Rattulidae, Monograph, 419
Rautmann, H., The Morphology of the

Glands of Bartholin in Mammals, 295

INDEX.

771

Rawitz, B., Inheritance of Mental Qualities
in Man, 637

Rayleigh's Paper of 1896, Note on a Point
in, 26

Raymond, M. G., Alga Related to Raphi-
dium polymorphum, 435

Receptaculum Seininis and Nuptial Com-
bat in Octopus, 522

Reconstruction of a Fossil Plant, 725

Redeke, H. C, Dutch Plankton, 681

— North Sea Plankton, 681
Reduction Division in Ferns, 315
Observations, 062

Regan, C. T., Phylogeny of the Teleostoini,

405
Regaud, C, Collodionase of Cells, 589

— Electro-thermic Regulator and Electric

Incubators, 465
Regeneration and Development, Influence
of Radium-Rays and Radium-Emana-
tion, 636

— and Non- Sexual Reproduction in Sagar-

tia davisi, 657

— in Lentibularieae, 424

J — in Lumbrieulm variegatis, 184

— in Phoronis Miilleri, 418

— in Relation to Degeneration, 512

— in Starfish, 311

— of Hind Limbs and Tails in Amphibia,

53

— of Trunk and Head Segments in Lum-

bricus variegatus, 414

Regulator, Electro-thermic, and Electric
Incubators, 465

Rehn, J., Revision of the Chiropteran
Genus Maerotus, 516

Reid, C, Fossil British Mosses, 81

Reinbold, T., Marine Algae from the Red
Sea, 216

Reinhardt, A., Hypochorda of Salamandra
Maculosa, 510

Reinke, J., Nitrogen-Assimilation of Fresh-
water Algae, 319

Rejsek, J., Uterine Implantation of the
Ovum of Spermophilus citillus, 168

Remer, W., Rust of Cereals in Silesia, 444

Renault, B., Fossil Algae, 86

— Relation between the Cryptogams and

Higher Plants, 428
Rendle, A. B., Chinese Flora, 428

— Classification of Flowering Plants, vol. i.

Gymnosperms and Monocotyledons,
427

— Completion of Chinese Flora, 670

— Some Problems of, 507
Reproduction, Non-Sexual, and Regenera-
tion in Sagartia davisi, 657

— Sexual, in MucorineaB, 684
Reproductive Cycle in Protozoa, Volvo-

cineaB, and Dicyemidae, 312
Reptiles and Amphibiansof AsiaMinor,641

— and Batrachians, West Asian, 56

— Notes, 404

Reproduction, Oesophageal Glands, 171

Reptilia, Reclassification, 403

Resolving Power of a Microscope, Theories,

364
Respiration in Torpedo, 174

— Intramolecular, 544

— of Filamentous Fungi, 425

— of Fungi, Effect of Chemical Irritation,

544

— of Yeasts, Coefficient, 75
Retina, Studies, 296

Retterer, E., Fixing, Staining, and Mount-
ing Sections of Skin, 593
Rhabdopleura Normani, Notes, 655
Rhamphotheca, Compound, of Birds, 640
Rheinberg, J., 257

— On the Influence on Images of Gratings

of Phase Difference amongst their

Spectra, 388, 486
Rheum undulatum, Peronosphora on, 93
Rhizoctonia violacea, 94
Rhizopods, New British Fresh-water, 190
Rhodes, A. L., Chemotropism of Roots, 319
Rhodomelaceae, Hair-like Growths, 215
Rhynchelmis, Segmentation Spindle and

Centrospheres of Embryo, 482
Rhynchostegium litoreum, 326
Rhynchota, Notes, 307
Ribaga, C, Parthenogenesis in Copeo-

gnathae, 649
Ribes, Sexuality in the Genus, 541
Ribs, Human, Variations, 173

— Sternal, Seventh and Eighth in Man,

402

Ricciocarpus natans, Morphology and Bio-
logy, 327

Rice, E. L., Development of the Gill in
Mytilus, 303

Richard, J., Nets for Gathering Plankton,
472

Richer, P. P., Pollination of Buckwheat,
319

Richter, E., Zeiss' Rotary Projection Slide
Carrier, 459

Richter, M., Sleeping Sickness in Silk-
worms, 179

Richter, O., Pure Cultures of Diatoms, 335,

470

Ricinus communis, Mechanics of Seed-Dis-
persion, 320

Rickards, B. R., Simple Method for Culti-
vating Anaerobic Bacteria, 718

Riella capensis, sp.n., 84

— Development, 83

Ritter, W. E., Habits of the Arboreal

Urodele Autodax lugubris, 174
Robinson, B., Constrictions and Dilatations

of the Ureter, 639
Robinson, C. B., Fucus serratus in America,

213
Rock Sections, Photomicrography, 461
Rolfs, P. H., Diseases of Citrous Trees and

Fruits, 691

772

INDEX.

Holland, L.. French Mycology, 227
Romanowsky-Ruge Method for Staining

Blood-Spores, New Modification, 249
Root Excrescences of Alnus, 445

— Primary, Germination and Formation

in Palms, 664
Rootlets, Stigmarian, Parasite, 343
Roots, Aerotropism, 546

— Cliemotropism, 319
Rosam, K., Preparing Agar, 588
Rosenberger, R. (J., Technique of the Bac-
teriology of the Blood, 116

Rosenvinge, L. K., Hair-like Growths of

the Rhodomelaceae, 215
Roses, Enemies of, 528
Ross' Improved No. 2 " Standard " Micro-
scope, 2:-!6
Ross, H. C, Electric Warm Stage, 72S
R.iss, Thos., Tank Microscope, 380
Rossig, H., Fixing and Examining Cyrri-
pida Larvae, 473

— Call-Formation, 408

Rostowzcn, S. J., Contribution to our
Knowledge of Peronosporese, 91

Rotation Microtome, 248

Rotatoria and Gastrotricha of Ploen, 419

Rotbenbach, — ., New Method for Sterilis-
ing Vessels, 478

Rothert, — .. Spore-Development in Apha-
nomyces, 684

Rotifer, New, 533

of the Genus Drilophaga, 656

Rotifera, New, 655

Rotifers, New, 66

Male, 65

Roule, L., Evolution of Atherinae in
Fresh- water, 521

— New Cerianthid, 312

— Pisciculture, 521

— Systematic Relationships of Antipa-

tharia, 659
Rousselet, C. F., 129

— Adams' Improved Lucernal Microscope,

724

— Fresh-water Polyzoon from Rhodesia,

417

— Old Microscopes, by Dollond and Banks,

727

Rovere, D., New Culture Medium made
with Helix pomatia, 369

Rubber Plants, Philippine, 671

Rugosa, Septa, 190

Ruhland, W., Studies on the Fertilisation
of Albugo Lepigoni and some Perono-
sporese, 92

Runther, M., Cerebral Ganglion and Body-
Cavity of Gordiidae, 416

Ruppia rostellata, Development of Game-
tophyte and Embryo, 193

Russell, E. S., Depastrum, 67

Rust, iEcidium of Maize, 564

— of Cereals in Silesia, 444
Rusts, Cereal, Vegetative Life, 443

Rusts, Cultures, 222

— Infection Experiments, 95

S.

Sabatier, A., Limbs of Holocephali and

Dipnoi, 299
Saccardo, P. A., New Genus of Phacidieae,

93
Saccharomyces Anomalus, 686
Saccharomyces, Contributions to Morpho-
logy, 686

— Forms of, 341
Saccharomycopsis, 341
Sacculina, Isopod Parasitic in, 530
Sacharoff, N., Function of Iron in Meta-
bolism and Fermentations, 173

Sadeheck, R., Critical Notes on Exoasceae,

219, 440
Sagartia davisi, Habits and Reactions, 658
Regeneration and Non-Sexual Repro-
duction, 657

— lucix, Variation, 658

— paguri, 1 89

Saito, K., Occurrence of Fungus Spores in
the Atmosphere, 345

— Saccharomyces Aiiomalus, 686

Sala, L., Peculiar Structure of Epithelial
Cells of Ovarian and Spermatic Tubes
of Ascarids, 654
Salamandra Maculosa, Hypochorda, 510
Salensky, W., The Phylogeny of Elephants,

55
Salimbeui, A., Spirillosis of Fowls, 100
Salmon, E. S., Cultural Experiments with
Bailey Mildew, Erysiphe gra-
mini8. 341

with " Biologic Forms " of Erysi-

phacese, etc., 563

— Ectropothecium, 552

— Erysiphe Qraminis, 685

— Mycological Notes, 441

— Specialisation of Parasitism in the

Erysiphaceee, 340, 440
Salts, Metallic, Stimulating Action of some

on the Growth of the Higher Plants,

546
Samter, M., The Origin of Mysis, Pallasi-

ella and Pontoporeia, 651
Sandes, F. P., Corpus luteum of Baeyurus

viverrinus, 292
Saperda, Monograph of Genus, 527
Sarauw, G. F. L., Mycorrhiza, 345
Sargent, P. E., Optic Reflex Apparatus in

Cyclostomes and Fishes, 638
Sarnthein, L. G. v., Tyrolean Muscineae,.

326
Sassafras, Jacket Layer, 543
fcassi, M., Anatomy of Anomia ephippium

58
Saunders, A., Alaskan Algae, 437
Sauropsida, Egg-Tooth, 171

INDEX.

773

Sauvageau, C, Alexis Millardet, 672

— Sphacelaria cirrosa. 213

— Sphacelariaeeas, 335, 436
Saxifrages, Swedish, 78
Scale-Insect, New. from India, 307
Scarlatina, Role of Streptococci in Course

of, 695
Scent of the Orange Flower, 538
Scents and Colours, Attraction for Insects,

669
Sch'afer, E. A., Ciliary Movement, 400
Schaffner, J. H., Jacket Layer in Sassafras,
543

— Morphological Peculiarities of the

Nymphaeaceae and Helobiae, 423
Schaper, A., Influence of Radium-Rays and
Radium-Emanation on Development
and Regeneration, 636

— Lens Development under Abnormal

Conditions, 399

Schaudinn, V., Absorption and Emission of
Air and its Ingredients for Light of
Wave-Lengths from 250 n to 100 p, 360

Schiffner, V., Critical Notes on Muscineae,
326

— Revision of Lophozia, 674
Schilberszky, K., Teratology, 7S
Schimper, A. F. W., Plant-Geography up-
on a Physiological Basis, 670

Schionning, H., Saocharomycopsis, 341

Schizophyoeae in Marine Plankton, 231

Schmidle, W„ New Algae from Java and
the Philippines, 678

Schmidt, F., Musculature of BranchioMdla
parasitica, 64

Schmidt, H., Larval Development of
Echinus microtitberculatus, 534

Schmidt, M., German Fresh-water Algaa,
337

Schmidt's Atlas, 211

Schreiner, A. and K. E., Maturation Divi-
sions in Vertebrates, 508

Schrenk, H. v., Diseases of Yellow Pine,
224

— Pohjporus fraxinophilus. 223
Schroder, A., Nematode in Smooth Muscle-
Cells ofNephelis, 309

Schuberg, A., Nematode in Smooth Muscle-
Cells in Nephelis, 309

Schucking, A., Fertilisation and Partheno-
genesis in Echinoderms, 311

Schulthe*s-Schiudler, V., Xerothermic
Localities, 54

Schultz, E., Degeneration in Relation to
Regeneration, 512

— Regeneration in Phoronis Miilleri, 418
Schultz-Schultzenstein, — ., Detection of

Nitrifying Organisms in Sewage

Filters, 716
Nitrifying Organisms in Sewage

Filters, 695
Schultze, O., Determination of Sex, 167

— Staining with Chrom-ha3matoxyliu,593

Dec. 21st, 1904

Schulze, E., Inorganic Phosphates in Plant

Seeds, and in Seedlings, 663
Schulz, W. A., Diptera as Ectoparasites

on South American Lephloptera. 649

— Hymenoptera of West Indian Islands,

60

— Pelecinidae, 61

Schwangart, P., The Endoderm of Lepi-

doptera, 409
Schweikart, A., Egg-Envelopes of Cepkalo-

pods and Chitonidae, 406
Schweinitz , E. H., Composition of Tubercle

Bacilli Derived from Various Animals,

234
Sclerotinia Alni, 439
Sclerotinia and Monilia, 439
Scorpions, Development; 307

— Stridulation, 62

Scott, A., Parasites of Fishes, 643
Scott, D. H., 135, 727

— Germinating Spores in a Fossil Fern,

202
Scourfield, D. J., 127

— British Fresh-water Entomostraca, 63,

414

— Lake Survey, 56

Screen, Use of the Esculin in Photomicro-
graphy, 634

Screens, Contrast, On Suiting for the
Photography of Bacteria, 712"

Scutigeridae, New Genera, 412

Sea-Urchins, Non-Regeneration of Sphae-
ridia, 66

Ova, 187

Seawell, B. L., Method of Concentrating
Plankton without Net or Filter, 247

Secretary, The, Microphotographic Por-
traits of Prof. Quekett, Dr. J. Millar, and
Dr. Letheby, 724

Secretion, Nuclear Changes during, 170

— of Pearls, 303
Section-Cutting, Use of Radium, 590

Lifter, New Form, 376

Sectioning Wheat Kernels, 719

Sections, Fiozen, Preparation by Means of

Anaesthol, 474
Seed and Ovule in Cycadeae, 665
-=r- Coats in some Papaveraceaa, Gameto-

phyte and Development, 667
Seed-Dispersion, Mechanics of in Ricinui

communis, 320

Fungus in Darnel, Demonstrating

Presence, 372

of Lolium temulentum, 225, 692

SeedliDgs of Labiataa, Anatomy, 192
Seeds, Dried, Permeability to Gases, 426

— Inorganic Phosphates in, and in Seed

lings, 663

— Oily, Germination, 668

— Resistance to the Action of Absolute

Alcohol, 426
Seeliger, E. L., Iodine-Calcium Nitrate, a
New Reagent for Cellulose, 250

3 G

774

INDEX.

Segmentation Spindle and Centrospheres

in Embryo of Rynchelmis, 482
Selachians, Rudimentary Amnion, 636
Selaginella, Two Megasporangia, 202
Self-Fertilisation and Cross-Fertilisation

in Solitary Ascidians, 406
Seligmann, C. G., Relation of Secondary
Sexual Characters to an Internal Secre-
tion by the Testicle, 291
Senna, A, New Hyperiid Amphipod, 309
Sense-Organs in Digenetic Trematodes, 532

of the Lateral Line in Amphibia,

Development, 293
Septa of Rugosa, 1 90
Septicaemia, Haemorrhagic, in Animals,

352
of Caraboas, Pulmonary Lesions Pro-
duced by the Bacillus of, 352
Serum, Antistreptococcic, and its Mode of
Action, 696

— of Torpedo marmorata, Toxic Action,

642
Sex Characters, Secondary and Interstitial
Testicular Gland, 290

— Determination, 167

and Nutrition, in Man, 289

in Bees, 179

— in Plants, Determination, 669

— Influence of Mineral Food on, in Di-

oecious Plants, 74

— of Mice, 290

— Recognition among Amphipods, 308
Sexes, Cestode with Separate, 417

— Proportion in Shore-Crab, 308
Sexual Characters, Relation of Secondary

to an Internal Secretion by the Tes-
ticle, 291

— Reproduction of Basidiobolus, 339
in Ceratium, 332

in the IMucorineae, 684

Sexuality in the Genus Ribes, 541
Shaking Apparatus, New Small, 122

— Influence on the Development of Cul-

tures, 697

Sharp, D., Egg-Cases and Early Stages of
some Cassididae, 410

Shattock, S. G., Relation of Secondary
Sexual Characters to an Internal Secre-
tion by the Testicle, 291

Shaw, C. H., Gametophyte and Develop-
ment of the Seed-Coats in some Papa-
veraceae, 667

Sheep, Coccidia, 191

Shells, Orientation of Tridachnids within
their, 304

Shenstone, W. H., Optical Properties of
Vitreous Silica, 363

Shirley, J., Australian Fossil Botany, 77

Shore-Crab, Proportion of Sexes, 308

Shufeldt, R. W., Affinities of Pygopodes,
403

Shull, G. H., Isoetes, 79

Sicyos anoulata, Stem, 70

Sieber, — ., Modification of Teichmann's
Injection Syringe, 118

Silicate of Soda as an Injection Medium
for Macroscopic Preparations, 122

Silicon and Aluminium Alloys, Contribu-
tions to the Study, 125

Silkworms, Sleeping Sickness, 179

Silver Impregnation of Nervous Tissue,
Methods, 477

Silvestri, A., New or Little Known Miocene
Foraminifera, 313

Silvestri. F., Littoral Myriopods, 180

— Neapolitan Myrmecophilous Insects,

180

— New Genera of Scutigeridae, 412
Machilidae, 528

Species of Kcenenia from Italy, 181

Simroth, H., Abyssinian Slugs, 302

— New Type of Gastropod, 302
Sinusoids, the Question of, 537
Siphoneae Studies, 333

Sipunculus nudus, Leucocytes and Similar
Cells, 183

Sister-germ-cells, Differences in the Chro-
mosomes, 531

Skin, Fixing, Staining and Mounting Sec-
tions, 593

— Human, Nerve-Endings, 400

Skull in Toothed Whales, Asymmetry, 402
Sleeping Sickness, Developmental Forms
of Trypanosome found in, 191

Filaria perstans in Relation to, 185

of Silkworms, 179

Trypanosoma, 191

Slide Carrier, Zeiss' Rotary Projection,

459
Slides, Lantern, of Histological Objects,

Preparing, 480
Slugs, Abyssinian, 302
Smallvvood, M. E., Study of the Beach-
Flea, 182
Smallwood, W. M., Natural History of

Eaminea solitaria, 407
Smell, Sense of, in Myriopods, 411
Smith, A. G., Gum and By-Products of

Bacterium Sacchari, 573
Smith, A. L., and others, British Mycology,

346
Smith, F. P., Spiders of the Sub-Family

Erigoninae, 412
Smith, G., Middle Ear and Columella of

Birds, 640
Smith, G. E., Occipital Region of Cerebral

Hemisphere in Man and Apes, 298
Smith, H. M., Breeding Habits of Yellow-

Bellied Terrapin, 636
Smith, I. S., Nutrition of the Egg in Zamia,

541
Smith, J. C, Protozoa of Louisiana, 537
Smith, R., Water-Relation of Puccinia

Asparagi, 565
Smith, R. G, Bacterial Origin of the Forms
of the Arabin Group, 99

INDEX.

775

Smith, K. G., Bacterial Origin of the Forms
of the Arabin Group: the Pararabin
form of Sterculia (Bacterium par-
arabinum sp. n.), 352

— Loss of Colour in Red Wines, 697

— Slime Bacterium from the Peach, etc.,

231

Smith, W., Why is the Human Ear Immo-
bile? 515

Smut, Infection of Cereals by, 689

Snake, Blind, Eyes of, 517

Snyder, J. O., Deep- Water Fishes of Japan,
642

Societe Ge'nevoise, Mineralogical Micro-
scope, 359

Travelling Microscope, 359

Sbderbaum, W. G., Icelandic Foilder-
Plants, 671

Soft and Hard States in Metals, 595

Soil, Fungi, 446

— Influence of the Nature of, on the Or-

ganic Composition of Plants, 195
Solenocaulon, 535
Solenogastres, Habits, 523

— Heart, 408

Solids, Surface Structure, 124

Solifugse, Wing-like Lateral Organs, 412

Sollas, I. B. J., Haddonella, 67

Sorauer, — ., Injury by Frost followed by

Fungoid Attacks, 224
Sorbitic Steel, 481
Soredia, Formation in Lichens, 572
Sorica, Parasitic on Ferns, 446
Soulier, A., Revision of Annelid Genera,

415
Spatangoids, New Genus, 311
Spaulding, M. H., Anatomy of Corolla

(Cymbvliopsis) speetabilis, 645
Species, New, of Ecballocystis, 334
Spectroscope, Direct-Vision, Attachment
for Reading the Lines in, 390

— on a New Method of Reading the Lines,

257
Spectroscopes, Heele's Miniature, 246
Spencer, W. K., Palaeodiscus and Agela-

crinus, 656
Spengel, J. W., Anatomy of Ptychodera

erythrxa, 533

— Ptychodera flava funafutica, 418
Spermatogenesis in Enteroxenos Ostergreni,

523

— in Porifera and Ccelentera, 312, 421

— of Blatta germanica, 650

— of Hybrid Peas, 70
Spermatozoa of Decapods, 181

— of Discoglossus pictus, 168

— Starfish, Sea-Urchin Ova Fertilised by,

187
Spermatozoid, Development in Chara, 558
Spermatozoids, Culture and Polyspermy,

652
Spermogonium, Taxonomic Importance,

344

Sperrnophilus citillus, Uterine Implantation

of the Ovum, 168
Sphacelaria cirrom, 213
Sphacelariacese, 335, 436
Sphaeridia, Non-Regeneration in Sea-

Urchins, 66
Sphex, Habits, 646
Spicules of Silicious Sponges, Preparation,

589
Spiders of the Sub-Family Erigoninse, 412

— Structure of Heart and Origin of Blood-

Cells, 412
Spiess, O, Digestive System of Hirudinea,

531
Spinellus chalybeus and the Spinellus

Group, 339
Spirillosis of Fowls, 100, 454
Spirotsenia, Genus, 334
Spitta, E. J., 132

— On Suiting Contrast Screens for the

Photography of Bacteria, 712
Spleen, Enlarged, Demonstrating a Para-
site Found in, 477

— Pancreas and Liver in Sturgeon, De-

velopment, 511
Sponges, Silicious, Preparation of Spicules,

589
Sporangia of Halimeda, 556
Sporangioles of Endotropic Mycorhiza,224
Spore-Development in Aphanomyces, 684
Formation in Naucoria nana, 222

— Staining, Simple Method, 722
Spores, Germinating, in a Fossil Fern, 202
Sporodiniopsis, Myxolibertella and Myxo-

sporium, 444
Spring-Tails, New British, 527
Ssiuitzin, D., Sense-Organs in Digenetic

Trematodes, 532
Stafford, J., Trematodes from Canadian

Fishes, 417
Stage, Stokes' Metallurgical, 108

— Warm, Electric, 728

Stahl, E., Protection of Lichens against

Animals, 450
Staining and Fixation of Eumesostomina,
591

— Blood-Spores, New Modification of

Romanowsky-Ruge Method, 249

— Epithelial Fibres and the Membrane of

Prickle Cells, New Method, 593

— Fixing and Mounting Sections of Skin,.

593

— Flagella, Modification of Van Ermen-

gem's Method, 593

— Gonococci, 120

— Granule, Vital and Supravital, 119

— Hematoxylin, of Nerve-Fibres of Cen-

tral Nervous System, 591

— Hyphomycetes in Horny Tissues, 722

— Intra-Vitam, of the Protoplasmic Gran-

ules of the Cornea, Method, 375

— of Bacteria difficult to Stain, in Sections,

of Skin and other Organs, 374

3 g 2

776

INDEX.

Staining Preparing and Mounting Fresh-
Water Fauna, 472

— Protozoal Parasites of the Blood,

Method, 120

— Sections Quickly with Picrocarinin,

Method, 592

— Spore. iSiinple Method, 722

— the Myelin in Sections of Nervous Tis-

sue Previously Treated by Marchi's
Method, 476

— Triple, of Vegetable Tissue, 376

— Trypanosoma, 375

— Vital, of Corelhra plumicornis, 376

— with Chrom-Hasruatoxylin, 593

Iron Hematoxylin, New Method, 374

Stamens, Development in the Interior of
the Ovary of Melandryum, 321

— Replacement by Carpels in Wallflower,

669
Stand, Swift's Continental, 105
Starch-Sheath, Function, 195
Starfish, Regeneration, 311
Statkewitsch, P., Action of Induction

Shocks of Ciliata, 68
Statocysts of Cephalopods, Demonstrating,

117
Stead, J. E., Notes on the Structure of an

Alloy which on Freezing Separates

into Solid Solutions and a Eutectic,

379

— Segregatory and Migratory Habit of

Solids in Alloys and in Steel below
the Critical Points, 254
Stebbing, E. P., New Scale-Insect from
India, 307

— Thauasimus in the Himalayas, 411
Steel and Alloys, Segregatory and Migra-
tory Habit of Solids below the
Critical Points, 254

. Iron Castings, Influence of Varying

Casting Temperature on the Pro-
perties of, 595

<— Influence on, of Sulphur and Manga-
nese, 254

— Sorbitic, 481

Stefansen, S., Icelandic Fodder Plants,

671
Stein, A., Rapid Hardening and Imbed-
ding, 590
Steiner, J., Lichens from Socotra, 98
Stem of Sicyos angulata, 70
Stempell, W., Nosema anomalum, 190
Stephens, J. W. W., Modification of van
Ermen^em's Method of Staining Fla-
gella, 593

— Non-Flagellate Typhoid Bacilli, 574
Stereo-Komparator, Application to Mono-
cular Use, and a Specially Designed
Monocular Comparison Microscope, 578

Sterigmatocydis nigra, Influence of Potas-
sium on the Morphology, 194

— versicolor, 442

Sterilising Vessels, New Method, 478

Stern aspis, Branchial Vessels, 652
Steuer, A., New Copepod Genus, 63

— Plankton of Gulf of Trieste, 406
Stevens, F. L., American Mycological

Notes, 228

Stevens, N. M., Development of Planaria
simplizsima, 310

Stevenson, W. C, Differentiation of Bacil-
lus typhosus and Bacillus colt communis
by Means of the Photographic Plate, 478

Stiassnie, M., Photogrammetric Focimeter
for Microscopical Optics: an Instrument
for Verifying Microscopes, 715

Stichopus japonicus, Habits and Life-
History, 188

Sticking Celloidin Sections, 723

to Slide, New Method, 373

— Paraffin Sections to Slide, Method, 374
Stift, A., Enemies of the Sugar Beet, 176
Stingelin, T., Holopedidae, 309

Stokes, W. B., Metallurgical Stage, 108

Stole, A., Experiments in Molosoma hem-
prichii, 184

Stomata and Leaf-form of the Dwarf
Plants of the Wiirzburg Limestone, 539

Stone, H., Timbers of Commerce and their
Identification, 671

Stone, W., Racial Variation, 198

Stoney, G. J., 728

Stordy, R. J., Domestication of Zebras, 515

Stopes, M. C, Ovule and Seed of Cycadese,
665 ,

Strasburger, — ., Observations on Reduc-
tion-division, 662

Streptococci, Role in the Course of Scarla-
tina, 695

Streptothrix in a Dog, 99

— Research on the Genus, 91
Stresses, Sudden, Influence of Structure

upon Strength, 379

Stridulatiou in Scorpions, 62

Stringer, E. B., An Attachment for Reading
the Lines in a Direct- Vision Spectro-
scope, 390

— Old Microscope by Bate, 354

— on a Method of obtaining Monochro-

matic Ultra-Violet Light, 392

— on a New Method of Reading the Lines

in the Spectroscope, 257

— on the Separation of Ultra-Violet Light,

263
Structure, Anatomical, of Hymenophyl-
laceaj, 549

— in Metals, Evolution, 723

— Influence upon Strength under Sudden

Stresses, 379

— of an Alloy which on Freezing separates

into Solid Solutions and a Eutectic,
Notes on, 379
Stschelkanovzew, J. P., Maturation in

Viviparous Aphides, 180
Stummer-Trauufels, R. R. v.. Anatomy and
Histology of Myzostoma, 64

INDEX.

777

Sturgeon, Development of Pancreas, Liver

and Spleen, 511
Stysauus, Morphological and Biological

Researches, 94
Sub-Species of Mustelidse, 406
Substage, Watson's "Argus," 107
— Watson's Compound, 108
Suctoria, New Type, 313
Sugar Beet, Enemies, 176
Sulphates, Reduction by Bacteria, 351
Sulphur and Manganese, Influence on

Steel, 254
Superstage, Levelling, 252
Supra-cricoid Cartilage in Man, 298

renal Capsule of Amphibians, 639

Capsules, Pigment, 516

of Guinea-Pig, Minute Structure, 514

Surface Structure of Solids, 124
Svedelius, N., Saprophytic Gentianacese,

70
Swaen, A., Development of Layers and

Organs in the Terminal Bud and Tail

of Teleost Embryos, 511
Swedes, Brown-rot, 228
Swift and Son's Continental Stand, 105

Dichroiscope, 123

Double-Image Prism for Peno-
logical Microscopes, 111

Light Modifiers, 110

Newly Designed Histological and

Physiological Microscope.
103
Microscope for Bacteriologi-
cal Research, 101

Pocket Magnifier, 108

Simple Dissecting Microscope, 101

Swim-Bladder, Development, 512

of Fishes, Physiology, 520

Symbion, Polynoid, of Hydmcorallinse, 653

Symbiosis and Anaerobes, 233

Symmetry, Inverse, in Gastropods, 303

Synanthy in Lonicera, 72

Syncephalis, Notes, 93

Synthesis of Proteids, 74

Syringe, Injection, Modification of Teich-

manu's, 118
Szily, A. v., Origin of the Vitreous Hu-
mour. 294

T.

Tables, Laboratory, Ebonising, 479
Taniguchi, N., Fi'laria Bancrofti, 654
Tank Microscope, by Thos. Ross, 380 _>
Tannins, Vegetable, and some Glucosides,

Micro-chemical Researches, 76
Tansley, A. G., and Lulham, R. B., Vascu-
lar System of the Rhizome and Leaf-
Trace of Pteris Aquilina and P. indsa,
201
Tardus Spectrum, Development, 109
Tattersall, W. M., Ceylonese Cephalo-
chorda, 175

Taxonomic Importance of the Spermogo-
nium, 344

Taylor, T. H., Habits of Chironomus, 60

Tegumentary Colorations, 297

Teichmann's Injection Syringe, Modifica-
tion, 118

Telenomous, Parthenogenesis, 526

Teleost Embryos, Development of Layers
and Organs in the Terminal Bud and
Tail, 511

Telenstei, Oral Breathing-Valves, 405

Teleostomi, Phylogeny, 405

Tellyesniczky, K. v., Sticking Celloidin
Sections, 723

Temperature, Casting, Influence of Vary-
ing on the Properties of Steel and Iron
Castings, 595

Tentacular Apparatus in Madrepora,
Modification, 659

Teratology, 78

— of Fungi, 690

Ternetz, C, Assimilation of Atmospheric
Nitrogen, 543

Terrapin, Breeding Habits of Yellow-
bellied, 636

Testicle and Spermatic Ducts of Lemurs
in Captivity, 291

— Mammalian, Interstitial Cells, 53

— of Lobster, Maturation Divisions, 529

— Relation of Secondary Sexual Cha-

racters to an Internal Secretion by

the, 291
Testicular Gland, Interstitial, 291

and Secondary Sex Characters,

290
Testimony, Expert, and Microscope, 716
Testis, Interstitial Tissue, 514
Thanasimus in the Himalayas, 411
Thaxter, R., Myxobacteriacese, 567
Thayer, A. H., Protective Coloration, 62
The'el, H., Development ot Echinus miliaris,

187
Theobald, F. V., Economic Entomology,

178

— Economic Zoology, 172

Theories of Microscopical Vision : a Vindi-
cation of the Abbe Theory, 610, 728

Thesing, E., Simple Method of Spore-
Staining, 722

Thienel, — ., Minute Structure of Blood-
vessels, 171

— Structure of Mammalian Blood-Vessels,

400

Thienemann, A., Anal Gills in larva of
Glossoma holtoni and Some Hydropsy-
chida?, 410

Thor, — ., Comparative Anatomy of Mites,
308

Thyng, F. W., Hypophysis in Amblysto-
ma, 517

Tick Fever, 68

Timbers of Commerce and their Identifica-
tion, 671

778

INDEX.

Ti8chler, G., Vegetative Life of Cereal
Rusts, 443

Tissues, Animal Alleged Alcoholic Fer-
mentation, 173

Production of Glucose, 173

Toad, Correlation between Poison-Gland
and Ovary, 168

Toad's Egg, Influence of Constant Agita-
tion on Development, 635

Tobler, F., Cell-Growth and Plant-Form
in Marine Algae, 217

Tondera, F„ Function of the Starch-
Sheath, 195

— Stem of Sicyos angulata, 70

Tongue, Human, Sensory Nerve-endings,

638
Torpedo marmorata,Toxic Action of Serum,

642
Torpedo, Respiration, 174
Torre, K. W. v. D., Tyrolean Muscinese, 326
Torrey, H. B., Habits and Reactions of
Sagartia davisi, 658

— Regeneration and Non-Sexual Repro-

duction in Sagartia davisi, 657
Tortoise, Abnormal, 404
Torula, Micro-Chemistry and Cytology, 69
Tower, W. L., Wings of Beetles, 306
Townsend, A. B., Histology of the Light

Organ of Photinus marginellu*, 401
Transmission of Acquired Characters, 292
Transmutation of Various Stages in Diato-

maceae, 334, 435
Transpiration, 668
Tranzsohel, M., Experiments with Heter-

oecious Rusts, 95
Traverso, G. B., Eriksson's Mycoplasma
Hypothesis, 343

— Tripliragmium, 443

Traverso, J. B., Cercosporella compacta,

sp. n., 686
Trees and Fruits, Citrous, Diseases, 691
Treasurer's Account, 1903, 133
Trelease, W., Fungi of Alaska, 570
Trematodes, Digenetic, Sense-Organs, 532

— Epithelium, 655

— from Canadian Fishes, 417
Triadenum virginicum, 321
Trichocysts of Paramcecium, 660
Trichomanes (sect. Didymoglossum), 80
Trichothecium roseum, 342
Tridachnids, Orientation within their

Shells, 304
Trionychidae, Existing Genera, 404
Triphragmium, 443
Triton marmoratus and Triton cristatus,

Hybridisation, 636
Trochidae, Anatomy and Affinities, 643
Trolldenier, — ., Streptothrix in a Dog, 99
Trombidium, Two New Forms, Parasitic in

Man, 308
Troughs, Kingsford's Glass, 479
True, F. W., Photographs of Living Fin-
back Whales from Newfoundland, 403

Truffaut, G., Influence of External Media
on Mineral Constituents and Organic
Composition of Plants, 425
Trypanoplasma of the Minnow, 421
Trypanosoma and Trypanosomiasis, 313
Trypanosoma dimorplion in Horses, 537
Trypanosoma in Birds, 190

— in Indian Birds, 313

— in Sleeping Sickness, 191
Trypanosome found in Sleeping Sickness,

Developmental Forms, 191

— of Rabbit, 660
Trypanosomes, Cultivating, 116
Trypanosomiasis and Trypanosoma, 313
Tsetse-Flies, 648

Tube-Feet in Ophiuroids, Function, 656
Tubercle and other Acid-Fast Bacilli, Re-
sistance to Decolorising Agents, 249

— Bacilli Derived from Various Animals,

Composition, 234

Detection in Organised Sediment by

Means of Centrifugalising or Sim-
ple Sedimentation, 117

Fat, 234

— Bacillus, Chemistry, 455

Tubular Reticulum in the Cytoplasm of
Nervous and Epithelial Cells of Earth-
worm, Demonstrating, 372
Tulips, Botrytis Disease, 342
Tullberg, T., Labyrinth of Fishes, 174
Tunicata, Development of Branchial Appa-
ratus, 301
Tunicates, Cephalopoda and Echinoderms,

Digestive Ferments, 56
Turbellaria, Fresh-water Representative of

a Marine Genus, 417
Turbellarians, Development, 416
Turner, A. J., Australian Lepidoptera, 409
Turner, C, Development of Cocconema,

681
Turner, F., Australian Botany, 201
Tuszon, J., Formation of False Heart-wood

in the Red Beech, 691
Tutr, J. W., Natural History of British

Lepidoptera, 648
Typhoid, Bacterial Diagnosis by Means of
v. Drigalski-Conradi Medium and
Agglutination, 369

— Fever, Blood Cultures, 246
Tyrogylphidae, British, 181

U.

Ulpiani, C, Uric Acid Bacterium, 99

Ulrich, E. O., Revision of Palaeozoic
Bryozoa, 655

Ultra-Microscopic Investigation of Colour-
matters and their Physiological
Significance, 114

Objects, 243

Observations in Solutions of Pure

Glycogen, 6

INDEX.

779

Ultra-Microscopical Particles, Apparatus
for Examination, 702

Simple Method for the Observa-
tion, 362

— -Violet Light, Method of Obtaining

Monochromatic, 392
Rays, Filtration through a Selection

of Jena Optical Glass, 363
Transparency, New Kinds of Glass

of Increased, 464
Umbrids or Mud-Minnows, 642
Underwood, L. M., Ferns of the Philip-
pines, 202

— Linnseus's System of Ferns, 81

Unna, P. G., New Method of Staining the
Epithelial Fibres and the Membrane of
Prickle Cells, 593

Urediuese, 687

— American, 221, 565

— Fertilisation, Alternation of Genera-

tions, and General Cytology, 221, 687

— Mycoplasma, 565

— New Species, 443

— Notes, 343
Uredinopsis, 343

Ureter, Constrictions and Dilatations, 639
Uric Acid Bacterium, 99
Urodela, Abnormalities, 517

— Visceral Arches, 510

Urodele, Arboreal, Autodax lugubris,

Habits, 174
Ustilago tragopogi-pratensis, Copulation in
Conidia, 689

— violacea, 564

Vacuum Microscope, 361

Vaillant, L., Mitsukurina Owstoni, 643

Vanessa, Red and Yellow Pigment, 59

Van Gieson Method, Modification, 592

Vanha, J. J., Disease of Potato, 564

Vanilla, Mycorhiza, 425

Variation Notes, 516

— Racial, 198

Vascular Cryptogams, Development, 322

— System of the Rhizome and Leaf-trace

of Pteris Aquilina and P. Incisa, 201
Vast, A., Culture of Oospora destructor, 442
Vegetable Pathology, 226, 563

— Tissue, Triple Staining, 376
Vegetation, Forest, in Southern Switzer-
land, 670

Vegetative Form of Yellow Rust, 95
Veins of the Liver, Development in Rabbit
and Sheep, 399

— Segmental, in Amphioxus, 522
Venation, Genealogical Study of Dragon-
fly Wing, 180

Vertebrate Animals, Evolution in Time,

137
Vertebrates, Maturation Divisions, 508
Vertical Illuminator, on the, 165, 257

Vezey, J. J., 126, 135, 488, 724

Viala, P., Anthracnose of the Vine, 563

— Phthiriosis of the Vine, 343

— Vegetable Pathology, 226, 563
Vigier, P., Accommodation-apparatus in

Compound Eyes, 525

— Muscular Fibres of the Molluscan Heart,

646
Vigouroux, — ., Contributions to the Study

of Alloys of Aluminium and Silicon, 125
Viguier, C, Influence of Carbon Dioxide

on Ova of Echinoderms, 188
Viguier, R., Anatomy of Seedlings of

Labiatse, 192
Villagio, — ., Preserving Insects, 589
Vine, Anthracnose, 563

— Phthiriosis, 343

Violet Flower, Variation, 540

Vipers, Natural Immunity, 641

Vire, A., Influence of Light and Darkness,
297

Visceral Arches of Urodela, 510

Vision, Microscopical, Theories of: a Vin-
dication of the Abbe Theorv, 610, 728

"Vital Staining," Is there a? 375

of Coretltra plumicomis, 376

Vitreous Humour, Origin, 294

— Silica, Optical Properties, 363
Viviparity and Parasitism, 513

Volgt, M., Rotatoria and Gastrotricha of
Ploen, 419

Volk, R., Plankton of the Elbe, 211

Volkart, A., Parasitic Fungi, 345

Volvocinese, Protozoa and Dicyeuiidae,
Reproductive Cycle, 312

Volz, W., Sumatra Fishes, 56

Lizards, 56

Vorticella, Stalk, 660

Vries, H. d., Fertilisation and Hybridisa-
tion, 290

Vuillemin, P., Membrane of Zygospores,
439

— Notes on Syncephalis, 93

— Spinellus chalybeus and the Spinellus

Group, 339

— Sterigmatocystis versicolor, 442

— Zygospore of Mucorini, 93

W.

Waddington, H. J., Exhibition of Speci-
mens of Marine Objects mounted by, 257
Wager, H., Function of the Nucleolus, 662
WTainio, — ., Antarctic Lichens, 572
Walker, E. W. A., Effect of Certain Dyes
upon the Cultural Characters of the
Bacillus typhosus and some other Micro-
organisms, 573
Wallace, R. J., Grain in Photographic

Plates, 711
Wallflower, Replacement of Stamens by
Carpels, 669

780

INDEX.

Wandolleck, B., An Abnormal Tortoise,

404
Ward, H. B., Determination of Human

Entozoa, 655
Ward, L. F., Cycadeoiclea Reichenbachiana,

664
Warfield, L.M., Blood Cultures in Typhoid

Fever, 246
Warm Stage, Electric, 728
Warnstorf, C., Mosses of Mark Branden-
burg, 552
Warren, E., Structure and Development of

Dirtomum cirrigerum, BIO
Wasielewski, W. v., Amitosis in Plants, 315
Wasps of Spain, 526
AVas^chew, J. W., Parthenogenesis in Tele-

nomus, 526
Wassilieff, A., Spermatogenesis of Blatta

germanica, 650
Water, Accumulation in Leaf-sheath of
Musa ensete, 668

— Analysis, Sanitary, Bacteriological Me-

thods, 116

— Kelation of Puccinia Asparagi, 565

— Supplies, Growth of Algae in, 559
Watson and Sons' Compound Substage, 108
Glass Troughs Designed by Kings-
ford, 383

Metallurgical Auxiliaries, 251

Mounting Device designed by W.

Rosenhain, 382

New " Argus " Microscope, 238

Substage, 107

Mounting Device, 478

Objective Changer, 382, 461

" Works " Metallurgical Micro-
scope, 105
Watterson, A., Effect of Chemical Irrita-
tion on Respiration of Fungi, 544
Webster, F. M., Habits and Development
of Neocerata rhodopliaga, 528

— Life History, Habits and Taxonomic

Relations of a New Species of Oberea,
528
Weevils of Crozet Islands, 648
Weigert, K., Modification of the Van Gie-

son Method, 592
Weis, F., Relation between Light Intensity

and Energy of Assimilation in Plants

Belonging to Different Biologic Types,

195
Weiss, F. E, Fossil Fungi, 447

— Parasite of Stigmarian Rootlets, 343
Weltner, W., The Origin of Mysis, Palla-

siella and Pontoporeia, 651
Wendelstadt, — ., Regeneration of Bone and

Cartilage, 293
Wennersten, O. V., Teratology, 79
Werner, F., Notes on Keptiles, 404

— Reptiles and Amphibians of Asia Minor,

641

— West Asian Reptiles and Batrachians,

56

Wesche, W., 126

— New Male Rotifers, 65 '

— The Mouth-Parts of the Nemocera and

their Relation to the Other Families

in Diptera, 28
Wesenberg, C, iEgagropila Sauteri, 213
Wesenberg-Lund, C, Plankton on the

Danish Lakes, 559
West, G. S., British Fresh-water Algae. 679

— New British Fresh-water Rhizopods,,

190

— West Indian Fresh-water Alga?, 680
West, W., and'G. S., British Desmidiaceaa,

680

Scottish Fresh-water Plankton, 87

Wettstein, E., Structure of Cryptoplax

larvxformu, 58
Whales, Photographs of Living Finback,
from Newfoundland, 403

— Right, Migrations, 55

— Toothed, Asymmetry of Skull, 402
Ear, 402

Wheat Kernels, Sectioning, 719
Whetzel, H. H., New Method of Preparing

Superficial Fungi, 117
White, T. C, 135
Wieland, G. R., Polar Climate in Time the

Major Factor in Evolution, 197
Wildeman, E. de, Randia Lujse: A New

Myrmecophyte and Acarophyte, 427
Wilder, H. H., Early Development of

Desmognathus fusca, 400
Wilfarth, H., Deficiency of Nitrogen, Phos-
phoric Acid and Potassium in Plant-
Growth, 74
Wille, N., Schizophyceaa in Marine

Plankton, 231
Williams, C. E., Life History of Gongylus

gongyloides, 410
Williams, J. L., Studies in the Dictyo-

taeeae, 557
Williams, L., Alternation of Generations in

the Dictyotacese, 214
Williams, R. S., North American Mosses,

82 83
Wilson, C. B., Argulidae, 182
Wilson, E. B., Maturation of Germ-Cells

and Mendel's Law, 290
Wimmer, G., Deficiency of Nitrogen,

Phosphoric Acid and Potassium in

Plant-Growth, 74
Wines, Ferments of Diseases of, 452

— Red, Loss of Colour, 697
Wings of Beetles, 306

Winslow, A., Bacteriological Methods in
Sanitary Water Analysis, 116

Winslow, G. M., Abnormalities in Urodela,
517

Wintrebert, P., Regeneration of Hind
Limbs and Tail in Amphibia, 53

Wissel, C. v., Chitons from the Pacific, 644

Wisselingh, C. v., Abnormal Nuclear Divi-
sion, 70

INDEX.

781

Witches'-Broom caused by Puccinia, 688

Witte, C J., Notostigmuta : New Sub-
order of Acari, 650

Wolcott, R. H., North Americau Species of
Limnesia, 650

Wolf, E., Winter Eggs in Copepods, 309

Wolterstorff, W., Hybridisation of Triton
marmoratus aud Triton cristatus, 636

Wood, Centripetal, in Leaves of Conifers,
663

Wood, W. J., Ebonising Laboratory Tables,
479

Woodcock, H. M., Myxosporidia of Fiat-
Fish, 661

— Note on Flossiella muris, g. et sp. n.,

— Neogamous Gregarines, 536
Wood-destroving Fungi, 224
Woodward, H., 725, 726

— President's Address : The Evolution of

Vertebrate Animals in Time, 137
Woodworth, W. McM., Palolo Worm of

Samoa, 183
Woolley, P. G., Hamiorrbagic Septicaemia

in Animals, 352

— Some Pulmonary Lesions Produced by

the Bacillus of Haeniorrhagic Septicae-
mia of Caraboas, 352
Wosnessensky, E., Coefficient of Respira-
tion of Yeasts, 75
Woycicki, Z., Sexual Reproduction of

Basidiobolus, 339
Wright, A. E., 262

— On certain New Methods of Measuring

the Magnifying Power of the Micro-
scope and of its Separate Elements,
261, 279

— Preparation of Slides for Blood Films,

595
Wright, J., Micro-Fauna of Boulder Clay,

68
Wright's Collecting Bottle, 115
Wygaerts, A., Reconstitution of the Nucleus

and Formation of the Chromosomes, 663
Wylie, R. B., Morphology of Elodea

canadensis, 318

Xerothermic Localities, 54

Yakovleff, N, Septa of Rugosa, 190
Yasuda, A., Comparative Anatomy of
Japanese Cucurbitaceae, 538

Yeast Extract, Experiments, 75

— Growth in Mineral Solutions, 686

— Nucleus, 441
Yeast-Plant, Nucleus, 69

Yeasts, Coefficient of Respiration, 75
Yellow Rust, Vegetative Form, 95
Yendo, K., Caiderpa anceps, 211

— Corallineae of Japan, 336

— Distribution of Marine Algae in Japan,

217

— Geuicula of Corallineae, 679

— New Species of Ecballocystis, 334
■ — of Hedophyllum, 212

— Three New Japanese Algae, 216

— Uses of Marine Algae in Japan, 217
York, H. H., Agar Method for Imbedding

Plant Tissues, 719

— Embryo-sac and Embryology of Ne-

lumbo, 542
Yung, E., Olfactory Sense in Helix Poma-
tia, 57

Zamia, Nutrition of the Ejrg, 541
Zarnik, B., Segmental Veins in Ainphi-

oxus, 522
Zebras, Domestication, 515
Zederbauer, E., Sexual Reproduction in

Ceratium, 332
Zeiss, Apparatus for Examination of Ultra-
Microscopical Particles, 702

— Compound Lens with Iris Diaphragm,

460

— Rotary Projection Slide Carrier, 459
Zenker's Fluid, Mollification, 474
Zieler, K., Staining of Bacteria difficult to

Stain in Sections of Skin and other

Organs, 374
Zikes, H., New small Shaking Apparatus,

122
Zoological Essays, 171
Zoology, Economic, 172
Zopf, W., Contributions to our Knowledge

of the Chemistry of Lichens, 231
Zschimmer, E., New Kinds of Glass of

Increased Ultra-violet Transparency, 464
Zschokke, F., Cestodes of S. American

Marsupials, 185
Zwackh-Holzhausen, W. R. v., Lichen

Flora of Heidelberg, 230
Zygospore Formation in Mucoraceas, 562

— of Mucorini, 93
Zygospores, Membrane, 439

Zykoff, W., Structure of Mesostoma naso-

nofii, 185
Zymase aud Alcoholic Fermentation, 547

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