';■' '..4 »■'#&- Journal or the Ropal microscopical Societp CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ZOOLOGY -A-HSTID IBOT .A. 3XT Y (principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia) MICROSCOPY, <5ca. EDITED BY R. G. HEBB, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. F.R.S.E. Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen A. N. DISNEY, M.A. B.So. CECIL PRICE-JONES, M.B. Lond. FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY AND A. B. RENDLE, M.A. D.Sc. F.L.S. HAROLD MOORE, B.Sc. Assistant in Botany, British Museum Woolwich Arsenal Minimis partibus, per totum Naturae campum, certitudo omnis innititur quas qui fugit pariter Naturam fugit. — Linnceus. FOR THE YEAR 1908 TO BE OBTAINED AT THE SOCIETY'S ROOMS, 20 HANOVER SQUARE, LONDON, W. of Messrs. WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. and of Messrs. DULAU & CO., 37 Soho Square, London, W. Extra and informal Meetings are held on the 1st, 2nd, and 4th Wednesday evenings of the month. These Meetings are devoted to (1) Pond Life ; (2) Microscopical Optics and Micro- scope Construction ; (3) Bacteriology and Histology. 5. *~ 3 THE Jtopl JJticifMOpcal Jlflstyg. Established in 1839. Incorporated by Eoyal Charter in 1866. The Society was established for the promotion of Microscopical and Biological Science by the communication, discussion, and publication of observa- tions and discoveries relating to (1) improvements in the construction and mode of application of the Microscope, or (2) Biological or other subjects of Microscopical Research. It consists of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-officio Fellows of either sex. Ordinary Fellows are elected on a Certificate of Kecommendation signed by three Ordinary Fellows, setting forth the names, residence, and description of the Candidate, of whom the first proposer must have personal knowledge. The certificate is read at two General Meetings, and the Candidate balloted for at the second Meeting. The Admission Fee is 21. 2s. ; and the Annual Subscription 21. 2s., pay- able on election, and subsequently in advance on 1st January annually. The Annual Subscriptions may be compounded for at any time for 31/. 10s. Fellows elected at a meeting subsequent to that in February are only called upon for a proportionate part of the first year's subscription. The annual Subscrip- tion of Fellows permanently residing abroad is 1/. lis. 6^. or a reduction of one-fourth. Honorary Fellows (limited to 50), consisting of persons eminent in Microscopical or Biological Science, are elected on the recommendation of five Ordinary Fellows and the approval of the Council. Ex-officio Fellows (limited to 100), consisting of the Presidents for the time being of any Societies having objects in whole or in part similar to those of the Society, are elected on the recommendation of ten Ordinary Fellows and the approval of the Council. The Council, in whom the management of the property and affairs of the Society is vested, is elected annually, and is composed of the President, four Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, two Secretaries, and twelve other Ordinary Fellows. The Meetings are held on the third Wednesday in each month, from October to June, at 20 Hanover Square, W. (commencing at 8 p.m.). Yisitors are admitted by the introduction of Fellows (See preceding page.) The Journal, containing the Transactions and Proceedings of the Society, and a Summary of Current Researches relating to Zoology and Botany (principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), Microscopy, &c, is published bi-monthly, and is forwarded post-free to all Ordinary and Ex-officio Fellows residing in countries within the Postal Union. The Library, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cabinet of Objects, is open for the use of Fellows daily (except Saturdays), from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. It is closed for four weeks during August and September. Forms of proposal for Fellowship, and any further information, may be obtained by application to the Secretaries, or Assistant-Secretary, at the Library of the Society, 20 Hanover Square, W. a 2 patron HIS MAJESTY THE KING. |last-|.1 residents. Elected *Sm Richard Owen, K.C.B. D.C.L. M.D. LL.D. F.R.S. 1840-1 ♦John Lindley, Ph.D. F.R.S 1842-3 ♦Thomas Bell, F.R.S 1844-5 *James Scott Bowerbank, LL.D. F.R.S 1846-7 ♦George Busk, F.R.S 1848-9 *Arthur Farre, M.D. F.R.S 1850-1 ♦GEORGE Jackson, M.R.O.S 1852-3 ♦William Benjamin Carpenter, C.B. M.D. LL.D. F.R.S. 1854-5 ♦George Shadbolt 1856-7 ♦Edwin Lankester, M.D. LL.D. F.R.S 1858-9 *John Thomas Quekett, F.R.S 1860 *Robert James Farrants, F.R.O.S 1861-2 ♦Charles Brooke, M.A. F.R.S 1863-4 * James Glaisher^ F.R.S 1865-6-7-8 *Rev. Joseph Bancroft Reade, M.A. F.R.S 1869-70 ♦William Kitchen Parker, F.R.S 1871-2 ♦Charles Brooke, M.A. F.R.S 1873-4 ♦Henry Clifton Sorby, LL.D. F.R.S 1875-6-7 ♦Henry James Slack, F.G.S 1878 ♦Lionel S. Beale, M.B. F.R.C.P. F.R.S 1879-80 ♦Peter Martin Duncan, M.B. F.R.S 1881-2-3 Rev. William Hy. Dallinger, M.A. LL.D. F.R.S. 1884-5-6-7 ♦Charles Thos. Hudson, M.A. LL.D. (Cantab.), F.R.S. 1888-9-90 Robert Braithwaite, M.D. M.R.C.S 1891-2 Albert D. Michael, F.L.S 1893-4-5-6 Edward Milles Nelson 1897-8-9 William Carruthers, F.R.S. F.L.S. F.G.S 1900-1 Henry Woodward, LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S. F.Z.S 1902-:; Dukinfield Hy. Scott, M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. 1904-5-6 * Deceased. COUNCIL. Elected 15th January, 1908. JJresiDcnt. The Right Hon. Lord Avebury, P.C. D.C.L. LL.D. F.R.S. etc. inre-|]tcsiuen.ts. Conrad Beck. Rev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D. D.Sc. D.C.L. F.R.S. F.L.S. F.Z.S. J. W. H. Eyre, M.D. F.R.S. (Edin.). The Right Hon. Sir Ford North, P.C. F.R.S. treasurer. Wynne E. Baxter, J.P. D.L. F.G.S. F.R.G.S. Smtiavies. J. W. Gordon. R. G. Hebb, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P. #rtmt;in) litcmkrs of Council. Rev. Edmund Carr, M.A. F.R.Met.S. * Frederic J. Cheshire. *A. N. Disney, M.A., B.Sc. *George C. Karop, M.R.C.S. Henry George Plimmer, M.R.C.S., L.S.A., F.L.S. Thomas H. Powell. C. Price- Jones M.B. (Loncl.). Percy E. Radley. *Charles F. Rousselet. F. Shillington Scales, B.A. (Cantab.). D. J. Scourfield. E. J. Spitta, L.R.C.P. (Lond.), M.R.C.S. (Eng\). * Members of the Publication Committee. librarian. curators. Percy E. Radley. Charles F. Rousselet. F. Shillington Scales, B.A. (Cantab.). assistant secretary. F. A.. Parsons. CONTENTS. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. PAGE I. — A Reply to Professor Porter's and Mr. Everitt's Criticism upon rny Paper on the Resolving Power, etc. By Edward M. Nelson 1 II. — On the Diffraction Rings for a Circular Opening ; and on the Limit of Resolving Power. (Being a Rejoinder to Mr. Nelson.) By Alfred W. Porter, B.Sc. (Fig. 1) ., 3 III.— Mercury Globules as Test Objects for the Microscope. By J. W. Gordon. (Plate I. figs. 1, 2; and Figs. 2-6) 6 IV.— Light Filters for Photomicrography. By E. Moffat. (Plate I. figs. 3-6) 20 V.— Francis Watkins' Microscope. By Edward M. Nelson. (Figs. 26-29) .. 137 VI. — Eye-pieces for the Microscope. By Edward M. Nelson 146 VII. — A Correction for a Spectroscope. By Edward M. Nelson. (Fig. 30) .. 150 VIII. — On Dimorphism in the Recent Foraminifer, Alveolina boscii Defr. sp. By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S. F.R.M.S. (Plates II. and III. and (Fig. 31) 151 IX.— Gregory and Wright's Microscope. By Edward M. Nelson (Fig. 32) .. 154 X. — Biddulphia mobiliensis. By Edward M. Nelson 158 XI. — The President's Address : On Seeds, with Special Reference to British Plants. By the Right Hon. Lord Avebury, P.O., D.C.L., F.R.S. (Plate IV. and Figs. 67-85) 273 XII. — On the Microscope as an Aid to the Study of Biology in Entomology, with particular reference to the Food of Insects. By W. Wesche, F.R.M.S. (Plates V. to X. and Figs. 114-118) 401 XIII. — Illuminating Apparatus for the Microscope. By J. W. Gordon. (Figs. 119-120) 425 XIV. — Corethron criophilum Cast. By Edward M. Nelson 430 XV. — On Cycloloculina, a new Generic Type of the Foraminifera. With a Preliminary Study of the Foraminif erous Deposits and Shore-sands of Selsey Bill. By Edward Heron-Allen, F.L.S. F.R.M.S., and Arthur Earland. (Plate XII. ami Fig. 138) 529 XVI. — On Dendritic Growths of Copper Oxide in Paper. By James Strachan. (Plate XIII.) 544 XVII. — Some African Rotifers. By James Murray. (Plate XV.) 665 XVIII. — On the Resolution of Periodic Structures. By Edward M. Nelson. (Fig. 157.) 671 XIX.— An Auxiliary Illuminating Lens. By Edward M. Nelson. (Fig. 158.) 673 XX. — Note on a Remarkable Alcyonarian, Studeria mirabilis g. et sp. n. By Professor J. Arthur Thomson. M.A. (Plate XVI.) 675 XXL— The Present Status of Micrometry. By Marshall D. Ewell, M.D. Chicago 682 Vlll CONTENTS. NOTES. PAGE Brachiomonas submarina Bolilin. By the Rev. Eustace Tozer. (Plate XIV.) .. 551 On the Optical Properties of Contractile Organs. By Doris L. Mackinnon, B.Sc. and Fred Vies 553 OBITUARY. Henry Clifton Sorby. (Plate XI.) 431 Charles Stewart 435 Francis H. Wenlmm, C.E. .. 693 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES Relating to |Zoology and Botany (principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), Microscopy, &c, inclining Original Communications from Fellows and Others.* 23, 160, 305, 437, 559, 698 ZOOLOGY. VERTEBRATA. a. Embryology. Marshall, F. H. A., & W. A. Jolly — Removal and Transplantation of Ovaries .. 23 Cuenot, L. — Inheritance of Pigmentation in Mice 23 Iwanoff, J. J. — Artificial Insemination in Nammals .. 24 Hatta, S. — Gastrulation in Petromyzon 24 Wintrebert, P. — Determining Factors in Metamorphosis of Anura 24 „ „ Experiments with Tadpoles 24 ,, „ Experiments with Axolotls 25 Meek, A. — Segments of Head and Brain in Gull 25 Egounoff, Sophie — Development of the Alimentary Canal in the Trout 25 Carmichael, E. S. — Correlation of Ovarian and Uterine Functions 160 Duckworth, W. L. H. — Early Placenta in Macacus nemestrinus 160 Hubrecht, A. A. W. — Formation of Red Blood Corpuscles in Placenta of Galeopi- thecus 161 Disselhorst, R. — Growth of Testes in Birds and Mammals 161 Raspail, Xavier — Incubation in Doves 161 Patterson, J. T. — Amitosis in Pigeon's Egg 161 Schaub, S. — Post-embryonic Development of Ardeidm , 162 Wintrebert, P. — Complementary Spiracles in Anura 1 62 Goldfinger, Gizela — Development of Lymph-sacs in Hind 1 'Amb of Frog .. . . 162 Boeke, J. — Gastrulation in Teleosteans 162 Browne. F.B.— Early Stages of Fresh-water Fishes 163 Ernst, Paul — Monstrosities 163 Dustin, A. P. — Origin of Gonocytes in Amphibians 305 Rubaschkin, W. — Origin of Germ- cells in Mammalian Embryos 306 Elliot, Agnes I. M. — Development of the Frog' s Head 306 Wintrebert, P. — Determining Factors in Metamorphosis of Anura 307 Broman, Ivar — Portal Circulation in the Embryonic Metanephros of Mammals .. 307 Mcller, F. — Studies of Placeut at ion 307 Wilder, H. H. —Bodily Identity of Twins 307 Thompson, D'aroy W. — Shapes of Eggs 437 Assheton, Kichard — Development of Gymnarchus niloticus 440 Kryle, J. — Regeneration in the Pancreas , 441 * In order to make the Contents complete, the papers printed in the ' Transactions' and the Notes printed in the 'Proceedings' are entered here. CONTENTS. IX I'AGB Low, Alexander — Early Human Embryo 441 Regadd, Cl., & G. Dubreuil — Corpus luteum and Hut in Rabbits 441 Landman, Otto— Open Cleft in Embryonic Eye of a Chick of Eight Days .. .. 441 Reese, A. M. — American Alligator 442 Branca, W. — Embryos in Ichthyosaurs 442 Landacre, F. L. — Epibranchial Placodes of Ameiurus 44:! Nirenstein, E. — Poison Glands of Salamander 443 Bles. E. J. — Notes on Anuran Development .. .. 44:; Assheton, R. — Teleostean Eggs and Larvx from the Gambia 443 Grochmalickj, Jan — Regeneration of Lens in Fishes 443 Thilo, O. — Development of Carp' s Swim-bladder 443 Blaizot, L. — Gestation in Acanthi as vidgaris 444 Thomson. J. Arthur — Text-book of Heredity .. •• ,•• •• 559 Kammerer, P. — Transmission of Coercively Acquired Reproductive Adaptations .. 559 Lecaillon, A. — Parthenogenetic Segmentation in Fowl 561 Anikiew, Ar., & others — Early Stages in Development of the White Mouse .. .. 561 Frassi, L. — Very Young Human Ovum 561 Allen, B. M. — Origin of Sex-cells in Rana pipiens 562 Molle, Jacques van — Studies on Spermatogenesis 562 Bambeke, Ch. van — Development of Vertebrate Nerve-cord 562 Filatoff, D., & others — Development of the Head 562 Marcus, Harry— Gill-clej 't Region of Gymnophiona .. 562 Basile, C. — Influence of Lecithin on Determination of Sex 563 Aime, P .—Interstitial Cells in the Ovary of Mammals 563 Carmichael, E. S., & F. H. A. Marshall — Compensatory Hypertrophy in the Ovary 563 Nicloux, Maurice — Passage of Ether Jrom Mother to Faztus 564 Gentes, L. — Infundibular Gland and Choroid Plexus 564 Reichenow, E. — Abnormalities in Hind Limbs of Rana esculenta 564 Schneider, K. C. — Vifalistic Theory of Evolution 564 Lutz, Frank E. — Inheritance of Manner of Clasping the Hands 564 Herring, P. T. — Development of Mammalian Pituitary Body : 698 Rabaud, E. — Orientation of Embryo in Hen s Egg 699 Cuenot, L. — Apparent Anomalies in Mendelian Proportions 699 Davenport, Charles B. — Inheritance in Canaries 699 Mudge, G. P. — Transmission of Coat-characters in Rats 700 Marshall, F. H.TA., & W. A. Jolt — Transplantation of Ovaries 700 Wilson, James -Mendelian Characters among Short-horn Cattle 701 Ries, Julius — New Vieivs concerning Fertilisation and Maturation 701 Ballowitz, E. — Spermatozoa of Seals 701 Roule, L., & I. Audige — Development of Kidney in Teleosteans 702 Roule, Louis — Development of Notochord in Fishes 702 Wintrebert, P. — Embryonic Circulation in Goldfish 702 Regan, C. Tate — Hybrid between Bream and Rudd 702 6. Histology. Andrews, E. A. — Intercellular Connections in Fowl's Egg 26 Dubois, R. — Microbioids of the Purple Gland of Mur ex brandar is 26 Stvdnicka, F. K. — Matrix Tissue 26 Hurthle. K. — Striped Muscle 26 Valle, Paolo della — Tetrads in Somatic Cells 27 Bertkau, F. — Secretion of Mammary Glands 27 Cajal, S. R. — Vindication of the Neuron Theory 27 Suchard. E. — Valves in the Veins of a Frog 27 Bruntz, L. — Glandular Endothelium of Lymphatic Canals and Renal Capillaries in Tadpoles 28 Kolmer, W. — Minute Structure of the Internal Ear 28 Schmincke, A. — Regeneration of Cross-striped Muscle in Vertebrata 28 Harrison, Ross G. — Observations on the Living Developing Nerve-fibre 28 Sterzi, G. — Central Nervous System of Cyclostomes 29 Williams, L. W.— Structure of Cilia .. 163 Retterer, Ed. — Development of Cartilage 163 Terry, R. J. — Neuroglia syncytium 164 Dungern, Emil v. & Richard Werner — Theory of Malignant Tumours .. .. 164 X CONTENTS. Mubius, Karl — JEsthetic Aspect of Animals. . .. 164 I.apicqie, L. — Weight of Brain in Man and Woman 164 Winkler, C.— Eighth Cerebral Nerve 165 Leche. W. — Dentition of Mammals 165 Oldfield, Thomas— New Acanthoglossus 160 Matthew, W. D. — Relationships of Sparassodonta 166 Pettit, A. — Kidney of Elephant 1 60 Leiber, A. — Comparative Anatomy of Tongue of Woodpecker 166 Kloff, Wilhelmina — Circulatory Mechanism in Teleosteans 166 Ncssbacm, M. — Mutation-phenomena in Animals 167 Gill, Theodore — Natural History of the Lumpsucher 167 Daubishire, A. D. — Respiratory Mechanism in Elasmobranchs 167 Holt, E. W. L., & L. W. Byrne — New Deep-sen Fishes from South-west of Ireland 168 Henninger, G. — Labyrinth Organ of Lahyrinthici 168 Weber. Max — Freshwater Fishes of New Guinea 168 Cohn, L. — Swim-bladder in Scixnidie 168 Reed, II. D. — Poison- glands of Catfishes 168 Borley, J. O., & H. Muir Evans — Poison Apparatus of Weever 161) Hooper, Cecil H. — Food of Birds 160 Pixell, Helen L. M. — Structure and Function of Rectal Gland in Elasmobranchs 31)7 Meves, Fr., & Achille Russo— Cytological Notes 308 Wallenberg, A. — Neurological Studies . . 308 Capparelli, A. — Myelin Bodies in Nervous System 308 Nemiloff, A. — Nervous Elements in Fishes 444 Ayers, Howard — Ventricular Fibre of Brain of Myxinoids 444 Joseph, H. — Epidermal Sensory Cells in Amphioxus 444 Schilze. Oskar — Histogenesis of Nervous System 444 Mlodowska, J. — Histogenesis of Muscle 445 Walker, C. E. — Essentials of Cytology 565 Stricht, N. Van der, & others — Histological Studies 565 Schilling, K., & others — Neurological Studies 565 Vles, Fred — Double Refraction Phenomena in Muscle .. .. 566 Herring, P. T. — Minute Structure of Mammalian Pituitary Body 702 Thdlin, Ivar — Spiral Muscle- fibres 704 c. General. * Kidd, W. — Sense of Touch in Mammals and Birds 29 Fitzwilliams, Duncan C. L. — Hand and Foot in Hylobates agdis 29 Pocock, R. I. — Patterns of Cubs of Lions and Pumas 30- Wroui:hton, R. C. — African Mungooses 30 Andersen, Knud— Geographical Races of Lesser Horse-shoe Bat 30 Rothschild, Maurice de, & Henry Neuville — Enigmatical Tooth 30 Perrier, Remy— Genital Organs of Bradypodidas 31 Gisi, Julia — Brain of Hatteria punctata 31 Longstaff, G. B., & E. B. Poulton — Notes on South African Chameleons ., . . 31 Dogiel, J. — Anatomy of Heart in Frog and Turtle 31 Tornier, (4. — Production of Albinism and Melanism in Frogs 32: Begr, L. S. — Fishes of Lake Baikal 32 Pelegrin, C. & V. J. — Buccal Incubation in Arius fissus 32 Johnstone, James— Food of Plaice and Dabs .." 33- ,, „ Teleostean Abnormalities 33 Rennie, John — Oesophageal Pouches in Centrolophus niger Gmelin 33 Mosso, Angei.o — Fish Vertebrae as Prehistoric Amulets 34 Gentes, L. — Nervous Lobe of the Hypophysis and the Vascular Sac 34 Sheak, W. H. — Young Red Kangaroo 308 Smith, G. Elliot — Asymmetry of Caudal Poles of the Cerebral Hemispheres in Man 308 Vasse, G.— Pleural Cavity of Elephant 309 Mulon, P. — Pigment of Suprarenal Glands 309 Arnback-Christie-Linde, Aigusta — Structure of Soricidie 309 Durbe.ce, VV., & A. Fleischmann — Studies on the Cloaca and Phallus in Amniota 309 Gerhardt, Ulrich— Penis in Birds 309^ Pays-Mellier, G., 4 E. Trouessart — Hybrids of Peacock and Cochin-china Hen 310 Hugues, Albert — Fasting Powers of the Swift 310= CONTENTS. XI TAOE Mullkr, B. — Air-sacs of Pigeon 310 Edgeworth, F. H. — Head-muscles in Sauropsiila 310 Stejneger, Leonhard — Herpetology of Japan 311 Fortin, E. P. — Peculiarities of Vision in the Chamxleon 311 Thevenin, Armand — Dinosaurs of Madagascar 311 Smallwood, W. M. — Phagocytic Action of Kidney-cells in Frog 311 Nussbaum, A. — Secretion of Thumb-swelling in Rana 311 Courtis, S. A. — Response of Toads to Sound-stimuli 312 Chaine, J. — Tongue of Teleosteans 312 De Drouin de Boiville, R. — Abnormality of Brook Trout 312 Fowler, H. W. — New Lamprey 312 Lohmann, H. — Faunistic Results of German South Polar Expedition 313 Kukenthal, W. — Bipolarity of Marine Animals 313 Romer, Fritz — Northern Animals 313 Goodrich, E. S. — Scales of Fishes 445 Beebe, C. W. — Seasonal Change in Birds 446 Porta, A. — Muscles of the Tail in Peacock and Turkey 447 Broom, R. — Mammal-like Reptiles 447 Mitchell. P. Chalmers. & R. J. Pocock — Feeding Snakes in Captivity .. .. 447 Nicolle, Ch., & Ch. Comte — Dogs attacked with Kala-azar 447 Gamble, F. W. — Introduction to Study of Natural History 566 Shull, A. F. — Habits of the Short-tailed Shrew 566 Berry, C. 8. — Imitative Tendency of Rats and of Cats 567 Cole, L. W. — Intelligence of Raccoons 567 Hamilton, G. van T. — Unusual Type of Reaction in Dog 567 Szak all, Julius — Ear of Hungarian Blind Mouse 568 Camerano, L. — Quagga of Turin Museum 568 Richon, L., & M. Perrin — Tobacco-poisoning in Rabbits 568 Andrews, C. W. — Prozeuglodon atrox 568 Peterson, O. A. — Chalicotheres 569 Garman, Samuel — Reptiles of Eastern Island 569 Fuchs, Hugo — Independent Bony Epiphyses in Sauropsida 569 Yung, Emile — Variation in Length of Frogs Intestine 569 Kerr, J. Graham — Autostylic and Protostylic 569 „ „ Swim-bladder and Lungs 570 Blumenthal, R. — Function of Spleen in Fishes 570 Stares, E. C. — New Sub-order of Fishes 570 Huber, 0. — Copulatory Appendages of Lseviraia oxyrhynchus 570 Cligny, A. — Species of Trout .. .. 570 Patience, Alexander — Occurrence of Gobius orca in Clyde Sea Area 571 Stock ard, Charles R. — Notes on Polyodon spathula 571 Parker, G. H. — Sensory Reactions of Amphioxus 571 M'Intosh, W. C. — Perforations of Marine Animals 572 Holdhaus, K. — Differentiation of Faunas 572 Herring, P. T. — Action of Extracts of Saccus Vasculosis and Pituitary Body .. 704 Yerkes, R. M. — Dancing Mouse 705 Williston, S. W. — What is a Species ? , 706 Zangger, H. — Functions of Membranes 706 Loomis, F. B. — Neio Horse from Lower Miocene 706 Purdy, R. J. W. — Occasional Luminosity of White Owl 706 Franz, V. — Pecten in Bird's Eye 707 Thomas, Oldfield — New Jerboa from China 707 Pearl, R., & F. M. Surface — Experiment with the Oviduct of the Hen .. .. 707 Waite, E. R. — Asiatic Red-bellied Newt 707 Sweet, Georgina — Anatomy of Australian Amphibia 70S Robinson, R. — Corpora adiposa in Frog 708 Ocana, Jose Gomez — Function of Optic Lobes in Fishes 708 Masterman, A. T. — Mimicry in the Common Sole 708 Tower, R. W. — Production of Sound in Drum-fishes 709 Tunicata. Fechner, Paul — Gill-slit Formation in Ascidians 31 Ritter, W. E. — Ascidians of Calif ornian Coast 34: Xll CONTENTS. PAGB Brooks, W. K. — Homologies of the Muscles of Cyclowlpa 34 Fernandez, Miguel — Structure of Salpa 35 Kerb, H. — Winter-buds of Clavelina lepadiformis 447 Aida, T. — Japanese Appendicular ians 572 Fol, Alice — Regeneration of Test in Tunicates .">7:; Daumezon, G. — Musculature of Compound Tunicates 573 „ „ Development of Dirtoma tridentatum 573 Roule, Louis — Development of Notochord in Larval Ascidians 573 Hitter, W. E. — California?! Ascidians 709 Kert, H. — Winter-buds of Clavellina lepadiformis 709 INVERTEBRATA. Sanzo, Luigi — Nitrogen Metabolism in Marine Invertebrates 35 Sollas, Igerna B. J. — Identification of Chitin by its Physical Constants .. . . 35 Mollusca. Marohand, Werner — Latent Segmentation in Molluscs 36 a. Cephalopoda. Hotle, W. E. — Hectocotylisation and Luminosity in Cuttlefishes 36 Cuenot, L. — Liver of Cuttlefishes 37 Smith, Edgar A. — Octopus with Branching Arms 37 Massy, A. L. — New Cephalopods from the Irish Coast 37 M'Intosh, W. C. — Large Cuttlefish at St. Andrews 170 Marchand, W. — Chromatophores of Cephalopods 313 Doring, Walter — Female Gonads of Cuttle-fishes 573 Hoyle, W. E. — Cephalopods from Sudanese Red Sea 574 /3. Gastropoda. Meisenheimer, J. — Reproduction in Snails 37 Cuenot, L. — Origin of the Nematocysts of Eolidise 39 Conklin, E. G. — Development of Fulgur 39 Palmer, Clayton F. — Structure of Californian Haliotidx 40 McGlone, B. — Development of Lung in Ampullaria depressa 40 Stantschinsky, W. — Structure and Relationships of Oncidium 40 Bartsch, Paul — New Parasitic Gastropod 170 Babbieri, C. — Larval Stages of Cyclostoma. elegans 171 Gbabau, Amadeus W. — Orthogenesis in Gastropods 171 Merton, Hugo — Minute Structure of Ganglion-cells of Tethys leporina 171 Stbebel, H. — Gastropods of the Magellan Province 171 Bastow, R. A., & J. H. Gatliff — New Australian Chiton 172 Heath, Harold — Hermaphroditism in a Chiton 314 Bellion, Mlle. — Sugar-reducing Power in Helix pomatia 314 Vles, F. — Pedal Waves of Reptant Molluscs 314 Russell, E. S. — Environmental Studies on the Limpet 448 Legendre, R. — Experimental Dwarfing of Water-snails 448 Sterki, V. — Philomycus 448 Perrier, Remy, & Henri Fischer— Defensive Glands in Tectibranchs 574 Roaf, Herbert E., & M. Nierenstein — Physiological Action of Extract of Hypo- branchial Gland of Dog Whelk 574 Sykes, E. R.— Chitons from Red Sea and East Africa 574 Perkier, Remy — Defensive Pallial Glands in Scaphander ■ .. .. 710 Pieron, Henri — Sense of Taste in Fresh-water Snails 710 Colton, H. S. — Feeding Habit of Fulgar and Sycotypus 710 5. Lamellibranchiata. Anthony, R. — Supplementary Siphon in Lutraria elliptica 40 Drew, Gilman A. — Nervous System of Razor-shell Clam 315 Debski, Bronislaw — Distribution of Petricola pholadiformis .. .. .. .. :. 315 Kostaneoki, K. — Pathogenetic Development in Mactra 448 CONTENTS. xiii PAGE Igel, J. — Structure of Phaseollcama magellanica 448 Schwarz, R. — Relation between Body and Shell in Bivalves 449 Pelsekeer, Paul — Concentration of Nervous System in Lamellibranchs 449 Weber, F. L. — Sense-organs of Cockles 574 Harms, W. — Post-embryonic Development of Uw'o 575 Williamson, H. Chas. — Studies on Mussels 575 Arthropoda. Woodward, Henry — Arthropoda of British Coal Measures 41 a. Insecta. Carpenter, George H. — Injurious Insects in Ireland 41 MacDougall, R.Stewart — Larch Shoot Moth 41 ,, „ Grain Weevils 41 Matheson, R. — Life-history of A panteles glomeratus 41 Dubois, R., & others — Alleged Fixation of Carbon by Chry salids 42 Foot, Katherine, & E. C. Strobell — Chromosomes in Spermatogenesis of Anasa tristis .. .. 42 Pieron, H. — How Ants find their Nest 42 Wagner, Wladimir — Psychobiology of Humble Bees 42 Santschi, F. — Tunisian Ants „ 43 Adlerz, G. — Solitary Wasps 43 Aurivillius, Ohr. — Forms of the Female of Papilio dardanus 43 Tragardh, Ivar — Termitophilous Tineid Larva 43 Chapman, T. A. — Hibernation of Marasmarcha , 43 Guppy, L„ jun. — Life-history of Cydemon {Urania) leilus 44 Sergent, Edmond & Etienne — Human Myasis due to CEstrus Ovis 44 Jost, H. — Migrations of Hypoderma Bovis Larva in Ox 44 Bernhard, Carl — Viviparity in Ephemeridse 44 Pieron, H. — Autotomy in Orlhoptera 45 Philiptschenko, Jur. — Excretion in Apterygota 45 Silverlock, O. C. — Senses of Ants 172 Wasmann, E. — Nests of Wanderer Ants 172 Walter, L. — Clasping Organs on Wings of Hymenoptera 172 Bugnion, E. — Salivary Glands of Hemiptera 172 Magalhaes, P. S. de — Insects Injurious to Books 172 Cockerell, T. D. A. — Scale Insects of Date Palm 173 Silvestri, F. — Pests of the Olive 173 Piersol, W. H. — Mating of llivellia boscii 173 Bezzi, Mario — Blood-sucking Flies 173 Imms, A. D. — Structure and Behaviour of Larva of Anopheles maculipennis . . .. 174 Holmgren, Nils — Shell-bearing Mycetophila Larva 174 Tiraboschi, Carlo — Relation of Flea* to Plague Dissemination 174 Tillyard, R. J. — Dimorphism in Australian Agrionidse 175 Silvestri, F. — New Order of Apterygota 175 Berlese, A. — Treatise on Insects 315 Janet, Charles — Histolysis of Wing-muscles in Ants after Nuptial Flight .. .. 316 ( erfontaine, P. — Uncommon Dipterous Larva 316 Perez, Ch. — Fat-bodies of Muscidm in Metamorphosis 316 Shelford, V. E. — Larval Habits of Tiger-beetles 316 Donisthorpe, H. St. J. — Life-history and Bionomics of Lomechusa 317 Scott, H. — Variation of Nycteribiidas from Ceylon 317 Jackson, C. F. — Semi-aquatic Aphid 317 Jordan, H. E. — Accessory Chromosome in Aplopus mayeri 318 Bruntz, L. — Excretion in Tliysanura .. 318 Wesche, W. — On the Microscope as an Aid to the Study of Biology in Entomology, with particular reference to the Food of Insects (Plates V. to X. and Figs. 114-118) 401 Jordan, H. E. — Accessory Chromosome in Aplopus mayeri 449 Marsall, Guy A. K. — Diaposematism . . ..' 450 Wilson, E. B. — Accessory Chromosome in Anasa tristis 450 Bordas, L. — Cutaneous Glands of Wasps 450 XIV CONTENTS. PAOE Jeannel, R. — Cave Beetles 450 Dkegener, P. — Development of the Alimentary Canal during Metamorphosis . . . . 4.~>u Matsumura, S. — New European and Mediterranean Gicadinx 451 Hine, James S. — Freezing Insect Larvse 451 Bordas, L. — Odoriferous Gland of Cockroach , 451 Wesche, W. — Genitalia of Male Cockroach 451 Martelli, G. — Insects Injurious to Olives and Figs 451 Silvestri, F. — Study of Thysanura 452 Brontz, L. — Cephalic Glands of Machilis maritima .: 452 „ „ Kidney of Machilis maritima 452 „ „ Labial Excretory Organ in Thysanura 452 Hoffmann, R. W. — Structure of Collembola 452 Kellogg, Vernon L. — Artificial Parthenogenesis in Silk-moth 575 Demoll, R. — Mouth-parts of Solitary Bees 576 Strohl, J. — Copulatory Organs of Solitary Bees ■• 570 Marshall, W. S. — Development of Ovary of Folistes pallipes 570 „ „ Development of Ovary of Phryganid 577 Saling. Th. — Development of Gonads of Tenebrio molitor 577 Meves, F., & J. Dcesbekg — Spermatogenesis of Hornet 577 Otte, H., & others — Spermatogenesis in Insects 577 Rotjbaud, E. — Observations on Glossina palpalis 578 Lubben, H. — Life-history of Thrypticus smaragdinus 578 Steche, 0. — Luminosity of Tropical Lampyridse 578 Wheeler, W. M. — Pink Katydids as Mutants 578 Lefevre, George, & Caroline McGill — Chromosome* of Anasa tridis and Anaz Junius 579 Bugnion, E., & N. Popoff — Wax-glands of Flata {Phromnia) marginella .. .. 579 Mang an, Joseph — Mouth-parts of Blattidte 579 Siltala, A. J. — Development of Caddis-worms 580 Oppenheim, S. — Regeneration of Segments in Ephemerid Larvze 580 Kellogg, Vernon L. — Mallophaga of the Kea 580 Tannreuther, (j. W. — Germ-cells and Embryology of Aphids 5S0 Philtptschenko, Jur. — Head- glands of Thysanura 581 Evans, William — Collembola and Thysanura of Forth Area 582 Bruntz, L. — Excretion in Thysanura 582 Nigmann, M. — Structure and Habits of Acentropus niveus 582 Hewitt, C. G. — House-fly 710 Denioll, R. — Protandry in Insects 711 Cholodkovsky, N. — Gastrophilu* Larva in Human Skin 711 Kellogg, Vernon L. — Reflexes of Silkworm Moths 712 „ „ Inheritance in Silkworms 712 Berlese, A. — Treatise on Insects 713 Metalnikov, S. — Galleria melonella 713 Secqdes, F. — Destruction of Book-ioorms 714 Mecnier, F. — Flies in Amber . . 714 Hammar, A. G. — Nervous Syxtem of Larva of Corydalis cornuta 715 Wesche, W. — Genitalia as Indications of Relationship 715 £. Myriopoda. Williams, S. R. — Habits and Structure of Scutigerella immaculata 31 S Robinson, Margaret — Segmentation of the Head in Diplopoda 319 Verhoeff, Carl W. — Studies on Julidx 452 Silvestri, F. — Cavernicolous Myriopods 453 y. Onychophora. Bouvier, E. L. — Monograph on Onychophora 45 Sedgwick, Adam — Distribution and, Classification of Onychophora 5S3 S. Arachuida. Police, G. — Eyes of Scorpions 45 Trouessart, PI L. — Sarcoptids in Wing-bones of Birds 46 Sergent, E., & E. L. Troiessart — New Type of Sarcoptid 46 CONTENTS. XV PAGE Tragardh, Ivar — Myriopodophilons Mites 46 Castellani, A. — Acarid from Omentum of Negro 46 Williamson, Wm. — Scottish Hydraehnids 46 Montgomery, T. H., jtjn.— Maturation and Fertilization in Theridium 17") Banks, Nathan — Studies on Mites 175 Maglio, C, & W. Williamson — Hydraehnids 17.") Woodward, Henry — New Species of Eurypterus t 175 Bordas, L. — So-called Malpighi 'an Tubes in Scorpions 319 Ellingsen, Edr — Cave Pseudoscorpionidie , 45:; Oppenheim, S., & Friedrich, P. — Regeneration and Autotomy in Spiders .. .. 584 Smith, F. P. — British Spiders . . . . 584 Ellingsen, Edv. — Notes on Pseudoscorpions 584 Deeley, G. P. — New Britisli Records of Water-mites 585 Walter, Charles— Swiss Hydraehnids .. 585 Heinis, F. — Metamorphosis of Species of Echiniscus 585 Eichters, F. — Marine Tardigrada 585 Warburton, C. — Geographical Distribution of Oribatidse 715 Payerimhoff, P. de — New Species of Ksenenia 715 Chamberlin, Ralph V. — North American Lycosidse 715 Trojan, E. — New Mite 716 e. Crustacea. Giaja, J. — Ferments in Crustaceans 47 Herdman, W. A. — "Granny1' Crabs 47 Drzewina, Anna — Autotomy in Grapsus 47 Pieron, H. — Autotomy in Decapods 47 Caullery, M. — Real Nature of Mieroniscidse 47 Racovitza, E. G. — New Cave Isopod 48 Richardson, Harriet — Terrestrial Isopods of the Family Eubelidm 4S Racovitza, E. G. — Cave Isopods 48 Sayoe, O. A. — Primitive Malacostracan 176 Stimpson, William — Brachyura and Anomura from the North Pacific 176 Woodward, Henry — Fygocephalus cooper i 176 Patience, Alexander — Male of D examine thea 176 Vejdoysky, Fr. — Reduction of the Eye in New Gammarid from Ireland .. .. 177 Gurney, R. — Crustacea of East Norfolk Rivers 177 Wilson. C. B. — Notes on Development of Argulidm 177 Bruntz, L. — Nephrocytes of Caprellids 177 Grtjvel, A.— A ntarctic Cirripedia 177 Berndt, W. — Boring Cirripedia 178 Pilsbry, Henry A. — Barnacles of the United States National Museum 178 „ ,, Notes on Cirri pedes 178 Marsh, C. Dwight — North American Species of Diaptomus 178 Drzewina, Anna — Periodic Change in Phototropism of Hermit Crabs 319 McIntosh, D. C. — Variations in the Norway Lobster 320 Patience, Alexander — New British Terrestrial Isopod 320 Smith, G. — Life-history of Sacculina 320 Gruvel, A. — New Barnacles 321 Pesta, Otto — Metamorphosis of Mytilicola intestinalis 321 Calman, W. T. — Stridulating Organ in Crabs , 453 Drzewina, Anna — Hydrotropism in Crabs „ . 453 Police, G. — Visceral Nervous System of Decapods 453 Fulinski, Benedykt — Development of Crayfish 454 Andrews, E. A. — Cambarus montezumse 454 Zuelzer, Margarethe — Regeneration in Asellus 454 Racovitza, E. G. — Neio Marine Isopod „ 454 Bagnall, R. S. — New Terrestrial Isopod 455 Thiele, Jon. — Neio Phyllopods 455 Bradley, J. C. — Species of Corophium 455 Briot, A. — Abnormality in a Crayfish 585 Lloyd, R. E. — Variation of Squilla investigatoris 585 Gelderd, Charles — Alimentary Canal of Schizopods 585 Gurney, Robert — New Species of Cirolana from a Spring in the Sahara .. .. 585 XVI CONTENTS. I'AGE Giudice, P. Lo — Locomotor Organs of Gygebranchitdis 586 Rogknhofeu, Alvis — Maxillary Gland in Isopods 586 Patience, Alexander — Notes on Clyde Crustacea 586 „ „ British Species of Trichoniscoide* 586 Bagnall, Richard S. — New Terrestrial Isopod 587 Coutiere, H. — New Entoniscid 587 Roi, Otto le — Dendrogaster 587 Grater, E. — New Cave Copepod 587 Wilson, Charles Branch — North American Galigidee 587 Nowikoff, M. — Median Eye of Ostracods 587 Walcott, C. D. — Cambrian Trilobites 588 Zdluetta, A. de — Lamippidse 716 Pilsbry, H. A. — Classification of Scalpelliform Barnacles 716 Ballowitz, E. — Headless Spermatozoa of Cirripeds 717 Carpenter, George H., & Isaac Swain — New Devonian Isopod 717 Axmulata. Selensky, W. — Urns of Sipunculids 48 Martiis, L. Cognetti de — Reproductive Apparatus of Kynotus 49 Combault, A. — Calciferous Glands of Earthworms 49 M'Intosh, W. C. — Notes on Poly 'chasts 179 Lepeschkin, W. D. — Nervous System of Saccocirrus papillocercus 179 Morguli, Sergius — Regeneration in Podarhe obscura 179 Konopacki, M. — Respiration in Earthworms 179 Salenskt, W. — Metamorphosis of Echmr us 321 Arwidsson, Ivar — Studies on Maldanidm 321 Andrews, E. A. — Earthworms as Planters of Trees 321 Gunther, R. T. — Systematic Position of Chsstognatha 322 Salenskt, W. — (Esophageal Pouches of Spionidse 455 Jakubski, A. W. — Neuroglia in Leeches , , . . 455 Dehorne, Armand — Thoracic Nephridia of Her melli das 588 Reac, L. dd — Epidermis of Travisia forbesii 588 Malaqdin, A., & A. Dehorne — Polychsets of Amboina 588 Malaquin, A., & A. Bedot — Brain and Nuchal Organ of Notopygos labiatus .. 588 Lefevre, G. — Artificial Parthenogenesis in Tlialassema mellita 588 Ikeda, Iwaji — Remarkable Echiuroids 590 Stephenson, J. — New Indian Oligochast 590 Livanow, N. — Studies on Leeches 590 Benham, W. B. — Neio Zealand Leeches 590 Fior, Giuseppe Dalla — Growth and Asexual Reproduction in Stylaria lacustris.. 590 Izuka, Akira — Breeding of Nereis japonica 717 Goddard, E. J. — Studies 071 Australian Leeches 718 Nematohelrninth.es. Man, J. G. De — Free-living Nematodes 49 Weinberg, M. — Toxic Effect of Sclerosfomum equinum 49 „ ., Toxins Secreted by Parasites 180 Deincka, D. — Nervous System of Ascaris 322 Porta, A. — Peculiar Nematode 455 Rauther, Max — Structure of Nematodes 5yl Martini, E. — Development of Nematodes 591 Schepotieff, A. — Chzetosomatidae 5:>1 „ „ Peculiar Free-living Nematodes 592 Bancroft, Thos. L. — Note on Filar ia immit is 718 Platyhelminthes. Mola, Pasquale — New Cestode from Eagle 50 „ Para-uterine Organ of Taenia nigropunctala 50 Fuhrmann, O. — Classification of Cyclophyllidea 50 CONTENTS. xvii PAGE Dubois, Raphael — Action of Heat on Immature Mussel-fluke 50 Hofsten, Nils von — New Bhabdoccela 50 Meixner, Adolf — Polycladg from the Somali Coast and a Revision of the Stylo- chinm 50 Plessis, G. Du — Neio Marine Triclad 50 Oxner, M. — New Nemerteans 51 Linton, Edwin, & M. Kowalewski — Notes on Cestodes 180 (tIARD, Alfred — Pearl forming Flukes ISO Nicoll, W. — Trematodes from British Birds 180 Salensky. W. — Structure of Haplodiscus 1S1 Cohn, Ludwig — Orientation of the Cestoila 323 Mrazek, Al. — Sterility in Cestodes 323 Looss, A. — Hemiuridie 323 Martin, Loeis — Rhythmic Behaviour of Convoluta Roscoffensis 323 Wilhelmi, J. — Planaria anguluta Mutter 324 Ude, Joh. — Structure of Fresh-water Triclads 324 Surface, Frank JM. — Early Development of a Polyclad 324 Martin, C. H. — Nematocysts of Turbellaria 325 Mola, 1'asqeale — New Tapeworm in Moorhen 455 Rosseter, T. B. — Hymenolepis fragilis 456 Linstow, O. von, & others — Studies on Cestodes 456 Korotneff, A. — Cytological Study of Triclad Pharynx 456 Hallez, P. — Parasite of Cockle 456 „ „ Syncytial Nature of the Gut in Rhabdocoelids 456 Bendl, W. E. — New Species of Rhynchodemus 457 Perez, Charles — Stichostemma h'ilhardi 457 Athias, M. — Trematode in Hibernating Gland of Hedgehog 592 Lebour, Marie V. — Trematodes in Fishes 502 Wilhelmi, J. — Uncertain Species of Marine Triclads 592 Sabussow, H. — Planaria Wytegrensis ■■ ' 592 Caullery, M. — Peculiar Abnormality in Proboscis of a Nemertean 593 Young, R. T.— Histogenesis of Cysticercus pisiformis 593 Leon, N. — Neio Human Tapeworm 718 Cholodkovsky, N. — New Tapeworm in Dog 71 S Fuhrmann, O. — Cestodes of Birds 718 Keeble, F. — Yellow-brown Cells of Convoluta par adoxa .. 718 Martin, Louis — Memory in Convoluta 719 Hallez, Paul — Maturation and Cleavage in Paracortex candii 719 Yatsu, N. — Cell-division in Cerebratulus 720 i Incertae Sedis. Buckman, S. S. — Development of Ribs in Brachiopods 51 Gregory, J. W. — Rotiform Bryozoa of the Isle of Wight 51 Bogolepow, M. — Growth of Tendr a zoster icola 51 Levinsen, G. M. R. — Total Regeneration of Bryozoa 52 Waters, A. W. — Genus Tubucellaria 52 McClendon, J. F. — New Species of Mt/zostoma , 181 Norman, A. M. — Notes on some British Polyzoa 181 Pavlow, A. P. — Genus Aucella 181 Rousselet, C. F. — Fresh-water Polyz«a 268 Schepotieff, A. — Structure of Echinoiieridx 457 Schmidt, F. — Lower Silurian Brachiopods 457 Buckman, S. S. — Brachiopod Homoeomorphy 457 Robertson, Alice — North American lucrustmg Chilostomatous Bryozoa 457 Czwiklitzer, R. — Larva of PediceUina echinata 593 Braem, F. — Spermatozoa of Fresh-water Bryozoa 593 Bonnevie, Kristine — Polyspermy in Membranipora 593 Annandale, Nelson — Bengal Polyzoa 594 Assheton, Richard — New Species of Dolichoglossus .. 720 Greger, D. K. — Colour Markings in Dendy, Arthur, & E. Hindle — New Zealand Holothurians 53 Cowles, R. P. — New Species of Cucumaria 54 Anderson*, A. R. S. — New Echinoid from Indian Ocean 182 Clark, H. L. — Cidaridse, 182 Clark, Austin H. — New Crinoids 182 Fisher, W. K. — New Holothurians 182 Poso, O. — Regeneration of Spines and Fed icella vix in Sea- urcli ins '■>-<'' Reichensperger, & Ernst Mangold — Luminosity of Ophiuroids 326 MacBride, E. W. — Development of Ophiothrix fragilis 326 Clark, Herbert Lyman — Monograph on Apodous Holothurians 327 Trojan, E. — Luminosity of Ophiuroids 458 Reichensperger, A. — Observations on Ophiopsila 458 Clark, H. L. — Japanese and East Indian Echinoderms 458 Bohn, Georges — Habits of Starfish 594 Delage, Yves — Parthenogenesis of Sea-urchins 594 Koehler, R„ & C. Vanet — Littoral Holothurians of Indian Ocean 594 Gadd, G. — Hermaphroditism in a Sea-urchin .. .. 7-! I Vaney, Clement — Antarctic Holothurians 721 Reichensperger, A. — Glands of Crinoids 721 Bather, F. A. — New Antarctic Crinoid 721 Ccelentera. Bedot, M. — Madreporaria from Amboina 54 Herdman, W. A. — Rare British Coral 54 Herouard, E. — Statoblasts in a Scyphistoma 54 Browne, E. T. — Revision of Medusas belonging to the Family Laodiceidte . . .. 54 Motz-Kossowska, S, — Gonophores of Plumularia obliqua and Sertularia operculata 55 Gravely. F. H. — Tubularia indivisa var. obliqua 55 Ekman, Sven* — Cordylophora lacustris 55 Oka, Asajiro — New Fresh-water Medusoid from China 183 Billard, A. — Hydroids of Madagascar and South-east Africa 183 Brooks, W. K., & S. Rittenhouse — Structure and Development of Turritopsis nutricula 183 Clarke, S. F. — Hydroids of Eastern Tropical Pacific 184 Browne, E. T. — Hydroids from North, Side of Bay of Biscay 184 Senna, Angelo — Pelagic Larvse of Actiniaria 184 Wyragevitch, Th. — Halcampella ostroumoici 184 Vaughan, T. Wayland — Recent Madreporaria of the Hawaiian Island and Laysan 1S4 "Walton, Chas. L. — Phellia murocincta 1S4 Kinoshita, K. — Japanese Primnoidx .. .. 185 Hickson, S. J. — Alcyonaria, Antipatharia, and Madreporaria from the North Side of the Bay of Biscay 185 Moser, Fanny — Japanese Ctenophora 185 Roule, Louis — New Types of Alcyonarians .. .. 327 Gravier, Ch. — Association of Alcyonarian and Alga 327 Roule, Louis — Spines of Antipatharia 327 Richter, VV. — Development of Gonophores in Siphonophora 328 CONTENTS. XIX PAGB Ritchie, James — Australasian Hydroid in North Sea 328 Biqelow, H. B. — Nuclear Cycle of Gonionemus murbachii A. G. Mayer :^s Weltnbb, W. — Species of Hydra >~|S Boulenger, Charles L — Cordylophora in Egypt 459 Billard, A. — New Varieties of Hydroids 459 Browne, E. T. — Limnocnida tanganicm in the Niger 459 Kckenthal, W. — New Gorgonids 459 Walton, Charles L. — British Actinian* 460 Lloyd, R. E — Hydroid parasitic on Fish 595 Stiasny, G. — Atlantic Tima at Trieste .. .. 595 Thomson, J. Arthur — Large Antipatharian from Faero Islands 595 Kukenthal, W. — L'evision of Nephthyidie 595 Benham, W. B. — New Zealand Ctenophores 596 Kirkpatrick, R. — New Dictyonine Sponge 596 Annandale, Nelson — Siesta of Spongitta in Tropics 596 ,, „ New Indian Fresh-water Sponges 596 Boulenger, Charles L. — Hydromedusan from Lake Qurun 596 Thomson, J. A. — Note on a Remarkable Alcyonarian, Studeria mirabilis g. et sp. n. (Plate XVI.) 675 Whitney, D. D. — Green Bodies of Hydra vivid is 721 Warren, Ernest — Hydroids from Natal 722 Porifera. Kirkpatrick, R. — African Fresh-water Sponges .. ., 5.) Weltner, W. — Amcebocytes of Spongilliih 18. > Wilson, H. V. — Degeneration and Regeneration in Sponges 186 Kirkpatrick, R. — Antarctic Mo naxonel lids 186 Annandale, Nelson — New Fresh-water Sponges from Calcutta . 186 Haecker, V. — Studies on Radiolarians 186 Chatton, E. — Affinities of Blastulidium psedophtorum 187 Bovard, John F. — Structure and Movements of Condylostoma patens 187 Brodsky, A. — Trichocysls of Frontonia leucas 187 Dobell, C. Clifford — Trichomastix serpentis 187 Seltgmann, C. G., & Lours W. Sambon — Leucocytozoon of Red Grouse 188 King, Helen Dean — New Sporozoon in Toad 188 Johnstone, James — Sporozoan Parasites of Fishe* 188 Graham-Smith, G. S. - Sarcosporidian in Parakeets 188 Negre, L. — Sarcbsporidial Infection in Mice 188 Levaditi, C, & J. McIntosh — Culture of Treponema pallidum 189 Leger, L.. & E. Hesse — New Myxosporidiin Family 189 Castellani, A. — Relation of Spirochseta per tenuis to Yaws .. .. 189 Wilson, H. V. — Coalescence and Regeneration in Sponges 328 Sollas, Ingicrna B.J. — Inclusion of Foreign Bodies by Sponges 460 Minchin, E. A. — Spicules of Leucosolenia 597 Mackinnon, Doris L. — Encystation of Actinosphasvium at Different Temperatures 597 Robertson, Muriel —Haplospor idian of Flounder 598 Protozoa. . Millett, F. W. — Foraminifera of Galway ■. .. 56 Chapman, F. — Tertiary Foraminifera of Victoria 56 Kanitz, A. — Physiology of Pulsating Vacuole in Infusoria 56 Faure-Fremiet, E. — New Hypotrichous Infusorian 5{j Johnstone, James — Ichthyophthirius multifiliis on British Roach M Collins, B. — Notes on Acinetaria 57 I.averan, A. — Trypanosomes of the Upper Niger 57 Laveran, A., & Thibodx — Role of the Spleen in Trypanosomiasis 57 Robertson, Muriel — Trypanosoma of Pontobdella muricata 57 Franca, Carlos — Trypanosomes of Frog a)id Leech 57 Nuttall, G. H. F., & G. S. Graham Smith — Development of Piroplasma canis in Dog 58 b 2 XX CONTEXTS. PAGE Chapman, F. — On Dimorphism in the Recent Foraminifer, Alveolina boscii Defr. «p. (Plates II. and III., and Fig. 31) L51 Awerinzew, IS. — Mi nute Structure of Amoeba proteus, Pall 329 Dobei.l, C. 0. — Degeneration in Opalina 329 Mast, S. O. — Light-reaction* in Volvox 3150 Franca, C. — Trypanosome of the Eel 330 Nicolle, C. — New Piroplasma from a Rodent 330 Dobell, C. C. — Structure and Life-history of Copromonas 330 Ucke, A. — Trichomonas and Megastoma in Human Intestine 331 Fantham, H. B. — Biology and Affinities of Spirochsetae 331 Hoogenraad, H. R. — Rhizopods and Heliozoa of the Netherlands 460 Murray, James — Rhizopods from Gough Island 460 Landacre, F. L. — Protozoa of Sandusky Bay 460 Enriques, P.— Studies on Colpoda 460 Kofoid, C A. — Regeneration in Ceratium 460 Favre-Fremiet, E. — Turbilina instdbilis, a variety of Strombilidium gyrans .. 461 Lesage. J. — Heemogregarine of Leptodactylus ocellalus 461 Chatton, E., & E. Alilaire — Parasites of Drosophila confusa 461 Minchin, E. A. — Hsemogregarine in Blood of a Himalayan Lizard 461 Schellack, C. — Solitary Encystation in Gregarines 461 Zuelzer, Margarethe — Influence of Salinity on Contractile Vacuole 461 Laveran, A. — Trypanosoma congolense 4 67 Avebury, Lord — The President's Address : On Seeds, with Special Reference to British Plaids (Plate IV. and Figs. 67-85) * .. .. 273 Bibliography 335 Lapie, G. — Phytccology of the Eastern Part of Kabylia 466 Foxworthy, F. W. — Philippine Woods 466 i-niROTH, H.— Pendidation Theory 467 White, C. A. — Origin of Parasitic Plants 604 Molisch, H. — Vltramiscroscopic Organisms 605 CRYPT OGAMS. Pteridophyta. Woronin, H., & K. Goebel — ApogamyandApospory 68 Benedict, R. 0. — Genus Antrophyum 68 Lachmann, P. — Root-structure in Ceratopter is thalictroides 193 Christ, H. — Christensen's Index Filicum 194 Poisson, H.— Abnormal Production of Spores in Plat ycerium 194 Binford, R. — Development of Lygodium 194 Hawkins, L. A. — Sporangial Development in Equisetum hyemale 195 Stokey, A. G. — Inner Roots of Lycopodium pithyoides 195 Benson, M. — New Palxozoic Lycopod 195 Lindman, C A. M. — Lycopodium complanainm usbsp. moniliforme 196 Kidston, R., & D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan — Fossil Osmundacex 196 Hickling, G. — Anatomy of Palxostachya vera 196 Coward, K. H. — Structure of Syringodendron 196 Weiss, F. E. — Parichnos in the Lepidodendracex 196 Sperlich, A.— Development of Stolons in Nephrolepis 335 Basecke, P. — Physiological Sheaths in Ferns 336 Christensen. C. — Revision of the American Species of Dryopteris 336 C'lvte, W. N.. & others — North American Ferns .. 336 Rosenstock, E. — Descriptions of New Tropical Ferns 337 CONTEXTS. XXU1 FAG2 Underwood, L. M., & W. K. Maxok — New Species of Lindsxa 337 Christ, H. — Ferns of Paraguay 337 Maxon. W. R. — Tropical American Ferns 467 Copeland, E. B., & others — Philippine Ferns 467 Campbell, D. H. — Symbiosis in Fern ProthaUia 468 Dowell, P. — North American Fern-Hybrids of the Genus Dryopteris 468 Arber. E. A. N., & H H. Thomas— Anatomy of Sigillaria 468 Life, A. C. — Effect of Light upon Spore-germination 605 Bower, F. O. — Ophioglossum simplex 605 Boodle, L. A.— Production of Dwarf Male Prothalli in Sporangia of Todea.. .. 606 Haushberger, J. W. — Water-storing Tubers of Nephrolepis 606 Trundy, A. H., & others— North American Pteridophyta 606 Hieronymus, G. — South American Fern* .. 6U7 Rosenstock, E. — Descriptions of New Species of Ferns 607 Druery, C. T. — Deciduous British Ferns 008 Halle, T. G.— Fossil Pteridophyta 608 Weiss, F. E. — Stigmaria with Centripetal Wood 608 Barnhart, J. H., & W. N. Clute — Deceased North American Pteridologists . . .. 608 Sykes, M. G. — Anatomy and ^Morphology of Tmesipteris 609 Saxelby, E. M. — Origin of Roots in Lycopodium 609 Bruchmann, H. — Types of Embryo- development 'in Selaginella 610 Yamanouchi, S.— Cytology of Reproduction in Nephrodium 726 Renier, A. — Origin of telodendron Impressions of Bothrodendron 726 Bertrand, P. — Leaf -trace in Gijropteris and Tubicaulis 726 Perrin, G. — Conditions affecting Prothalli of Polypodiacese 727 Clute, W. N., & others — North American Ferns . • • • 727 Benedict, R. C. — Some Fern Hybrids in North America 728 „ ,, Ophioglossacese of the United States 728 Benson, M. — Lycopod with a Seed-like Structure 729 Sykes, M. G. — Sporangium-bearing Organs of the Lycopodiacese 729 Pampamni, R. — Lycopodium squarrosum and its Allies 729 Bryophyta. Marchal. El. & Em. — Apospory and Sexuality in Mosses 68 Brothervs, V. F. — Classification of Families and Genera of Mosses 69 Muella, K. — European Hepaticse 69 Dixon, H. N. — Mossflora of Northumberland 69 Sebille, R. — French Mosses 69 Britton, E. G., & others — North American Mosses 69 Luisier, A. — Mosses of Madeira 70 Pitard & others — Muscinese of the Canary Islands 70 Bryhn, N., & A. Hesselbo — Arctic Muscinese 70 Sktchell. W. A. — Sphagna of Alaska 70 Dusen, P. — Mosses of Antarctic America 71 Luisier. A. — Portuguese Species of Fissidens 71 Douin, C. — Genus Ephemerum 71 „ Two Species of Sphxrocatpu< found in France 71 Dismier. G. — Variable Peristome of Philonot is 71 Burrell, W. H. — Peculiar Unattached Mode of Growth of Leucobryitm 72 Horwood. A. R., & others — British Muscinese 197 Stiuton, J. — New and Hare Scottish Mosses 197 McArdle, D., & H. W. Lett — Irish Muscinese 197 Haynes, C. C, & others — North American Muscinese 19S Dismier, G. — Parisian Species of Philonot is 198 Warnstorf, C. — New Species of Sphagnum 198 Herzog, Th. — Trichostomum mutabile Br. and its Allies 199 Nicholson, W. E. — Muscinese of Crete 199 Elenkin, A. A. — New Greenhouse Fissidens 199 Gyorffy, I. — Hybrids of Physcomitrella 199 Loeske, L. — Parallel Forms and Variability of Cell-length in Mosses 200 Servit, M. — Ramification in Muscinem 200 Ernst, A — Androgynous Infioresceuces in I Himortieni 201 XXIV CONTENTS. I'AGE Bonnier, G. — Comparison between Muscinex and Vascular Cryptogams 201 Cardot, J. — Sexuality in the Mouses 337 Lokch. W. — Phenomena of Torsion in Mosses 338 Been, H., & others — Asexual Multiplication in Blasia and Riella 338 Evans, A. W. — Leucolejunea, a New Genus of Hepaticx 339 Sohiffnbb, V. — Bryological Notes 339 Muller, K. — European Hepaticx 339 Nicholson, W. E. — Mosses of Sussex 339 Jackson, A. B. — Mosses of Hampshire and Isle of Wight 340 Ingham, W. — Notes on the Harpidia 340 Krieger, W. — European Forms of Catharinea 340 Sebille, R. — Systematic Position of Mnium riparium 340 Culmann, P. — Swiss Mosses 340 Mlller, K. — Hepaticx of Baden 341 Loeske, L. — Muscinex of the Arlberg Region 341 Warnstorf, K., & othehs — Bryophyta of Austria and Hungary 341 Massalongo, C. — Genus Cephalozi a in Italy 341 Sapehin, A. A. — Xerophytic Mosses of the Limestone around Odessa 342 Gil, A. Casares — Spanish Species of Marchantia 342 Cardot, J. — New Madeiran Moss-genus, Tetraslichium 342 Britton, E. G., & others — North American Muscinex 342 Evans, A. W. — Hepaticx of Puerto Rico 343 "Williams, R. S. — Tropical American Mosses 343 Paris, E. G. — West African Mosses 343 Stephani, F. — Hepaticx of New Caledonia and Tonkin 343 Evans, A. W. — Japanese Hepatics 343 Paris, E.G. — Muscinex of China and Indo-Cliina 344 Levier, E., & others — Indian Bryophyta 344 Bibliography 344 Waddell, C. H., & others — British Mosses 409 Coppey, A. — Notes on European Bryophytes , 409 Zodda, G. — Italian Muscinex 469 Grout, A. J. — North American Mosses 470 Evans, A. W. — Hepaticx of Puerto Rico 470 Dixon, H. N. — Mosses of the Canaries 470 Paris, E. G. — Bryophytes of French Guinea 470 Cardot, J. — Mosses of the Belgian Congo 471 Brotherus, V. F. — Mosses of the Philippine Islands 471 Paris, E. G. — Hepatics of New Caledonia 471 Campbell, D. H. — Studies of Javanese Anthocerotacex 471 „ „ Antiquity of the Hepaticx 471 Meylan, C. — Calypogeia trichomanis and its Allied Forms 472 Dismier, G. — Monograph of Philonotis 472 Paris, E. G. — Note upon Hookeria papillata 473 Luisier, A. — Fruit of Campylopus polytrichoides described 473 Andrews, F. M. — Abnormal Archegonium in a Hepatic 473 Wheldon, J. A. — Harpidium Section of Hypnum 610 Russell, T. H. — Introductory Study of the Muscinex 611 West, W. — Luminosity of Schistostega 611 Cockburn, B., & others — British Hepaticx 611 Bellerby, W. — Sphagnum bavaricum in Yorkshire 612 Cheetham, C. A. — Yorkshire Mosses 612 Dalman, A. A. — Muscinex of Flintshire 612 Stirton, J. — New and Rare Scottish Mosses 612 Coppey, A. — Muscinex of Greece .. 612 Haynes, C. C, & others— North American Muscinex 613 Dixon, H. N. — New South Indian Moss 613 Monkemeyer, W. — Tundra- forms of Hypnum 613 Fleischer, M. — Type Species of Stereohypnum 613 Maheu, J. — Propagula of the Genus Barbula 614 Gtorffy, I. — G aster ogrimmia in Hungary 614 Monkemeyer, W. — Bryum zonatum a Philonotis 614 Schiffner, V. — European Hepatics 614 CONTENTS. XXV Massalongo, C. — Calypogeia in Italy .. .. 615 Arnell, H. W. & C. Jensen — Cephalozia in Scandinavia 615 Humphrey, H. B. — Notes on Calif or nian Hepatics 615 Stephani, F. — Antarctic Hepatic* 615 Lacouture — Illustrated Key to the Genu* Lejeunea 615 Schiffner, V. — Morphology and Anatomy of Bucegia romanica 615 „ ,, Notes on Riccardia and other Hepatics 616 Trabit, R. — Riella bialata 616 Roth. G., & J. Roll — Sphagnum and Sphagnology 729 Schiffner, V. — Grimaldia and Neesiella 730 Leeuwen-Reijnvaan, W. & J. van — Spermatogenesis in Mosses and Liverworts . . 730 Rydberg, P. A. — Arctic Mosses 731 Collins, F. J., & others — North American Mosses 731 Moss Exchange Club — British Mosses 732 Meylan, C — Muscinem of the Jura Range 732 Bottini, A . — Italian Mosses 732 Cardot, J. — New Mosses of Japan and Corea 732 Paris, E. G. — Muscinem of French China 732 Cardot, J. — Bryological Notes 732 Brotherus, V. F. — Subfamilies of Hypnacex 733 Meylan, C. — European Species of Oncophorus 733 Dismier, G. — Pohli 'a annotina and Allied Species 733 Sebille, R. — Grimmia andrxoides 733 Lorenz, A. — Jungermannia in Neio England 734 Stephani, F. — New Descriptions of Hepaticx * 734 Evans, A. W. — New West Indian' Lejeunex = 731 Campbell, D. H. — Tlialloid Hepaticse of Java 734 Dcrand, E. J. — Development of Sexual Organs and Sporogonium of Marchantia .. 735 Thallophyta. Algae. Prowazek, S. — Regeneration of Algx 72 Freund, H. — Influence of External Conditions on the Asexual Reproduction of Algx 72 Walker, N. — Algal Vegetation of Ponds 73 Collins, F. S. — New Green Algse 73 Trondle, A. — Copulation and Germination of Spirogyra 73 Sauvageau, C. — Sargassum bacciferum 74 „ „ Sexuality of Halopteris scoparia 74 „ „ Aglaozonia melanoidea 75 Reinbold, T. — Algx of the ' Valdivia ' Expedition 75 Bibliography 76 Nelson, E. M. — Biddulphia mobiliensis 158 Brand, F. — Staining of Algx 201 Lewis, I. F. — Coleochxte nitellarum 202 Lemmermann, E. — Algx of Mark Brandenburg 202 Quelle, F. — Contributions to the Algal Ilora of Nordhausen 203 Bessil, J. — French Algx collected in the English Channel 203 Batters, E. A. L., the late — Marine Algx of Lambay 203 Borgesen,T\ — Caulerpas of the Danish West Indies 203 Lemmermann, E. — Plankton of the Yang-tze-kiang .. .. 204 „ „ Pliytoplankton of Ceylon 204 Pascher, A. — Swarm-spores of Fresh-ivater Algx 204 Woycicki, Z. — Pathological Groicth Phenomenon in Spirogyra and Mougeotia .. 205 Bergon, P. — Processes of Division, Cell-rejuvenation and Sporulation in Biddtdphia 205 Pavillard, J. — Species of Ceratiu m in the Gulf of Lyons 205 Howe, M. A. — Avrainvillea and Halimeda 205 West. G. S. — Some Critical Green Algx 206 Mann, A. — Diatoms of the Pacific 207 Deichmann, H., & L. K. Kosenvinge — Distribution of Fucacex on the Coast of Greenland 207 Heydrich, F. — Sphxranthera lichetioides 208 XXVI CONTENTS. I'AGB Sauvageau, C. — Fucu8 Living on Sand and on Mud 208 Corbiehe, L.. & L. Mangix — Colpomeni a sinuosa 209 Foslie, M. — 1 Athothamni a of the ' Sea-lark' Expedition 209 BIBLIOGRAPHY 210 Heurok, H. van — Marine Algse of the Channel Islands 345 Lakowitz— Algse of Danzig Bay 315 Yendo, K. — Fucaceae of Japan 345 Setchell, W. A. — Nereocyslie and Pelagophycu8 346 Cotton, A. D. — Colpomenia sinuosa in Britain 316 Borgesen, F. — Dasycladaceie of the Danish West Indies 317 Cushman, J. A. — Tetmemorm in New England 347 Gerneck, R. — Lower Chlorophycese M47 Peragallo, H. — Diatoms in an Aquarium H47 Forti, A. — Fossil Diatoms 348 wSauvageau, C. — L'ose-colour in Species of My xophycese 348 ^yBocAT, L. — Pigment of Oscillatoria Cortiana 318 Jorgensen. E.— Plankton of Mofjord 319 Karsten, G. — Indian Ocean Phytoplankton 319 Bibliography 350 Nelson, E. M. — Corethron criophilum Cast ., .. .. 430 Toni, G. B. de — Nomenclature of Algae 173 Heinze, L>. — Fixation of Nitrogen by Algse 173 Okamora, K. — Japanese Algse 171 Migula, W. — Algse of Middle Europe 171 Mazza, A. — Oceania. Algse 171 Foslie. M. — Calcareous Algse 171 Toni, G. B. de — Griffithsia acuta Zanard 171 Setchell, W. A. — Critical Notes on Laminariacese 471 Gibson, C M. — Scytothamnus austral is 175 Hutchinson, C. M. — Algal Blight en Tea 175 Bally, W. — Structure of Diatoms 175 Margin, L. — Membrane of Diatoms ' 176 Cushman, J. A. — Neic England Desmids 176 Edwards, A. M. — Origin of Calif ornian Petroleum 176 ,, „ Origin of the Bacillarise 177 Prudent, P. — Diatom* of the Jura Lakes 177 Bachmann. H. — Phytoplankton of Scotch and Swiss Lakes 177 Bibliography 177 Peragallo, H. & M. — Marine Diatomacese of France , .. .. 616 Philip, R. H. — Yorkshire Diatoms 617 Heinzerling, O. — Structure of the Diatom Cell 617 Kofoid, C. A. — North American Fresh-ivater Algse 618 ( asares, F. B. — Spanish Fresh-water Algse 618 West, VV. & G. S. — Fresh-water Algse of the West Riding 618 Wollenweber, W. — Genus Hsematococcus 618 Harier, B. A. — Development of H ydrodictyon 618 Hagem, O. — Vrospora in Norway 619 Schiller, J. — Development of the Genus Viva 619 Brand, F. — Cell-wall Structure in Cladophora 619 Heidinger, W. — Development of the Sexual Organs of Voucher ia 620 Davis, B. M. — Spore-formation in Derbesia 620 Borgesen, F. — West Indian Species of Avrainvillea 620 Sykes, M. G. — Anatomy and histology of Macrocystis and Laminaria 621 Cotton, A. D. — New Zealand Species of Rhodophyllis 621 Foslie, M. — Criticisms on Calcareous Algse 622 Kylin, H.— Algse of Swedish West Coast 622 Lemmermann, E. — Algse of Germany 622 I'.rown, H. B. — Algal Periodicity 622 Bibliography 623 Beguinot, A., & L. Formiggini — Italian Characese 735 Robinson, C. B. — Original Meaning of Chara 735 Wissenlingh, C. van — Cell-icall Structure and Ring-formation in (Edogonium .. 736 Sauvageau, C. — Observations on the Germination of some Phseophycese 736 CONTENTS. XXVII PAGE Cotton, A, D. — Leathesia crispa 7:;s Sauvageau, C. — Some Errors of Nomenclature in Phxophycex !'■'>$ Collins, F. S— North American Algas 73S Fobti, A. — Italian Diatoms 738 Cushman, J. A. — Genus Micrasterias in Neio England 739 Walton, L. B. — Zygospores of Spirogyra in Relation to Theories of Variability .. 739 Nordstedt, C. F. O.— Index of Desm'idex 739 Bernabd, C.— Fresh-water Alga of Java 739 Makgix, L.—Phytoplankton off the Coast of Normandy 740 Adams, J.— Irish Algas 740 Setchell, W. A., & F. S. Collins— Algx from Hudson's Bay 740 Vickeks, A., & M. H. Shaw— Algx of Barbadoes •• 740 Sluitek, C. P.— Algx of Dutch West Indies 741 Okamvra. K. — Illustrations of Japanese Algx .. 741 Mazza, A.— Studies of Oceanic Algx 741 Moobe, G. T. — Origin of the Plant Kingdom , 741 Chapman. F. — Fossil Girvanella : a plant .." 741 Bibliography 742 Fungi. Kusano, S. — Cytology of Synchytrium 77 Reed, G. M. — Specialisation in Erysiphacex 77 Spieckerman — Parasitism of Vcdsa 77 Klebahn, H. — Study of Fungi imperfect/' 78 Welsford, E. J., & H. C. Fkaser — Sexuality and Development of Ascomycetes . . 78 Dietel, P. & others — Vredinex 79 Christman, A. H. —Morphology of the Rusts 80 Belli, S. — Neio Boletus 80 Gallaud, I. —Recent Work on Fungi 80 Setchell, W. A. — New Hymenomycetes 81 Stevens, F. L., & others — Diseases cf Plants 81 Mai'Blanc, A. — New or Rare Microfungi S3 Bainier, G. — Mycology from the Ecole de Pharmacie 83 Okazaki, K. — Preparation of Enzyme from a Fungus 83 Studu r-Steinhauslin, B.— Localities of Fungi 83 Scuorstlin, Josef — Staining of Fungus Spores 84 Bibliography 84 Traverso, G. B — Experiments with Sclerospora grumhiicola 210 Wilson, G. West — Studies in North American Peronosporales. II 210 Bainier, G. — Mycotheca of the School of Pharmacy of Paris. XXI. 210 Frabeb, H. C. L. — Cytology of Humaria rutilans 210 Stager, Rob — Biology of Ergot 211 Regel, R. — Gooseberry Mildew in Russia 211 Neger, F. W. — Mycological Notes from 8. America and Spain 211 Fraser, H. C. L., & H. S. Chambers — Morphology of Aspergillus herbariorum .. 212 Gceguen. F. — Conidial Development of Xylaria Hypoxylon 212 Syuow, H. and P., & T. Petch — Remarkable Fungus Forms 212 Weidemann, Carl — Study of Penicillium 213 Lindau, G. — Hyphomycete* 213 MrJLLER, W. — Development of Eiidophyllum Euphorbix-silvaticx 213 Fischer, Ed.. & others — Vredinex 213 Bary. De — Sphaceolotheca on Polygonum 214 Mangin, L. — Growth of Woody Fungi 214 Falck, Richard — Wood-destroying Fungi 215 3U-RRILL, W. A. — Polyporacex 215 Russell, M. W. — New localities for Amanita cxsarea .. 215 Kern, F. D., & OTHERS — Diseases of Plants 215 Salmon, E. S. — Economic Mycology 21 G Molz. Emil — Pathogenic Spotting of Vine Shoots 216 KuoiiDERS, S. H. — Parasitic Fungi from Java 217 Arnold & A. Gokis — Colour Reactions in Russula and Lactarius 217 Froehlich, Hermann — Assimilation of Free Nitrogen by Fungi 217 xxvin CONTENTS PAGE Limmjeb, P. — Chalk Disease of Bread 2)8 Hitter, G. — Fermentation Fungi 218 Neger, F. W. — Fungus-culture of Wood-boring Beetles .. .. 218 Bibliography 218 Pkmberton, J. D. — New Species of Achlya 350 Petch, T. — Hydnocystis Thwaitesii 350 CliAUSSEN, P. — Pyronema confluens 351 Domaradsky, M. — Fruit-development in Aspergillus Fischeri 351 Salmon, E. S. — Notes on some Species of Erysiphaceee from India 351 Viillemin, Paul — Seuratia and Capnodium 351 Bonnier, G. — Origin of Yeasts 352 Lasnier, E. — Biological Study of Glceosporium 352 Lindau, G. — Hyphomycetes 352 Tkanzschel, \V. — Uredinese 352 Hecke, Ludwig — Infection by Smut Fungi 353 Menier, M. — Poisoning due to Amanita Phalloides 353 Lyman, G. F. — Polymorphism of Hymenomycetes 353 Lloyd, C. G. — Phalloids 354 Saunders, J. — Witches' Brooms of the South Midlands 354 Scuellenberg, H. C. — Action of Fungi on Cellulose 354 Gallaud, L, & A. Guilliermond — Sexuality in Fungi 355 Farlow, W. G. — Notes on American Fungi 355 Lloyd, C. G. — Mycological Notes 355 Hohnel, Franz von — Mycological Fragments 356 Hegyi, D. V., & others — Diseases of Plants 35G Bibliography 357 Obituary Notice of W. A. Kellerman 478 Clausen, P. — Development of Saprolegnia monoica 478 Chatton, Edouard, & Francois Picard — Parasitic Laboulbenia 478 Salmon, E. S. — Erysiphaceee of Japan 478 Edgerton, C. W. — Two little-known Myxosporiums 479 Klebahn, K. — Research on Fungi imperfecti .. 479 Lindau, G. — Hyphomycetes 479 Gueguen, F. — Systematic Position of Anchorion and Oospora 479 Dandeno, J. B. — Uredinese. 480 Peltereau, M., & others — Basidiomycetes 480 Hohnel, Fr. v., & V. Litschauer— Contribution to our Knowledge of Corticex . . 480 Pennington, L. H. — Fomes pinicola Fr. and its Hosts 481 Wittmack, L. — Polyporus annosus 481 Bainier, G. — Mycotheea and the Ecole de Pharmacie 481 Faber, F. C. von — Diseases and Pests of Coffee 481 Gussow, H. T., & others — Diseases of Plants 482 Morse, W. J. — Potato Scab in America 483 Baccahini, P. — Fungi Parasitic on the Vine Phylloxera 483 Petch, T. — Fungi Parasitic on Hevea brasiliensis 483 Trotter, A. — N etc Subterranean Parasite 484 Torrend, C. — Notes on Portuguese Mycology 484 Sartory, A. — Peptonificat ion of Milk by Moulds 484 Bibliography 484 Lendner, A. — Zygospores of Sporodinia grandis 623 A'uillemin, Paul — Microsiphonese 623 Kauffman, C. H. — Study of Saprolegniacese 623 Hagem, O. — Norwegian Mucorinex 623 Guilliermond, A. — Sexuality in the Ascomycetes 624 Tubeuf, (J. von — Taphrina Alni-incanm 624 M aire, Rene — Haustoria of Meliola and Asterina 6"J4 Theissen, F., & J. M. Reade — Notes on Ascomycetous Fungi 624 Kawamvra, S. — Spotting of Bamboos 625 Kohl, F. G. — Yeast as a Fermentative Agent 625 Lind. J. — Notes on Glceosporium 625 Klebahn, H. — Research on Fungi Imperfecti 625 Lindau — Hyphomycetes 626 Fischer, E. — Uredineee 626 CONTENTS. XXIX 1 A'.K Mez, C, & Moller — Merulius lacrymans 626 Setchell. W. A. — Notes on Lycoperdon sculpt um 027 Petch, T. — Revision of Ceylon Fungi 627 Coupin, Henri — Effect of Formic Acid on Fungi 627 Rumbold, 0. — Biology of Wood-destroying Fungi 627 Mollisch, Hans — Phosphorescent Fungi (j'27 Seaver, F. J. — Colour-variation in Fungi .. . . 028 Crossland, C, & others — Local Records of Fungi 628 Zellner, J. — Chemistry of the Higher Fungi « 628 Ducomet — Parasitic Fungi 628 Munch, E. — Blue Disease of Pine- wood 628 Salmon, E. S., & others — Diseases of Plants (129 Edgerton, C. W. — Study of Anthracnoses 631 Bibliography 631 Dauphin, J. — Study of Mortierellx , 742 Mucke, M. — Development of Achlya polyandra 742 Guili iermond, A. — Sexuality in the Ascomycetes 743 Schneidek-Orelli, O. — Penicillium as a Fruit Parasite 743 Matruchot, L. — Vegetation of Morchella 743 Fraser, H. C. T., & E. Welsford — Cytology of the Ascomycetes 744 Brooks, F. T. — Notes on the Parasitism of Botrytis 744 Mangin, L., & N. Patouillard — Mould of Fermenting Grain 744 Mangin, L. — Conidial Formation in Aspergillus 744 Olive, Edgar W. — Study of Nuclear Divisions in Rusts 745 Hasler, Alfred, & others — TJredinese - 745 Atkinson, G. F. — Identity of Polyporus applanatus of Europe and North America 746 Bataille, Fr. — Monographs of the Higher Fungi 746 Magnus, Werner — Form-development of Pileate Fungi 746 Coutouly G. de — Note on Phallus impudicus 747 Biers, P. M. — Mushroom Culture 747 Hohnel, F. von — My cological Notes: IV. 747 Burmester, Hermann — Fungicides 747 Crossland, 0. — Yorkshire Fungi 747 Potter, M. C. — Diseases of Plants 748 Transactions of the British My cological Society 748 Jeanmaire, J. — Case of Poisoning by Amanita junquillea 748 Spegazzini, C. — New Fungi from South America 749 Bainier, G. — Mycotheca of the School of Pharmacy. XXVIII 749 Fallada, 0., & others — Diseases of Plants.. , 749 Bibliography 751 Lichens. Nienburg, W. — Development of Lichen Apothecia 84 Zahlbruckner, A. — Text-booh- of Lichens 220 Senft, E. — Noteworthy Lichens 220 Beckman, P. — Dispersal of Lichens 220 Hesse, O. — Lichen Constituents 220 Rosendahl, F. — Brotvn Parmelise 220 Bibliography 221 Fink, Bruce — American Lichens 358 Bibliography 358 Zopf, W. — Chemical Monograph of the Cladonim 485 Harmand, J. — French Lichens , 633 Rechinger, K., & A. Zahlbruckner — Lichens from the Island of Samoa .. .. 633 Merrill, G. K. — Lichen Notes 0:i3 Zopf, W. — Lichens Chemically Considered 633 Rave, P., & Emmanuel Senft— Chemical Constituents of Lichens 634 Bibliography 634 Senft, Emanuel — Chemical Examination of Lichens 752 Bibliography 753 XXX CONTENTS. Mycetozoa. PAGE Legeb, Louis — New Myxomycete PlNOY, Ernest — Cultural Experiments with Acrasiex „ „ Influence of Bacteria on the Culture of Myxomycetes 221 BlfcLIOGRA] ilY 222 Johnson, T. — Spongospora Solani 486 Fabeb, E. 0. von- Existence of Myxomona8 Betas 186 Pinoy, E. — Dimorphism in Myxomycete 486 Wolff, Th, — Unusual Growth of Spumaria alba 187 ! ister, A. & G. — Notes on Swiss Mycetozoa 631 Jahn, E. — Myxomycete Studies 'J1'-' Bibliography 635 Johnson, T. — Spongospora Solani •• •• 753 Kranzlin, Helene— Development of the Sporangia in Trichia and Arcyria] .. .. 753 Schizopliy ta. Schizomycetes. Peju, G., & H. Rajat — Morphology of Human Tubercle Bacilli in Saline Media 86 V\TOOLLEY, P. G. — Subcutaneous Fihro -granuloma! a in Cattle s|j Ellis, D. — Three Iron Bacteria S6 Klein, E. — Susceptibility to Plague of Mats of Diverse Races 87 Andrewes, E. W., & M. H. Gordon — Staphylococci Pathogenic to Man vT Gordon, M. H. — Micrococcus of Epidemic Cerebrospinal Meningitis ^7 Klein, E. — New Plague Prophylactic 88 Huss, H. — Micrococcus producing a Yellow-brown Colour on Cheese 88 Soclima, H. & A. — Etiology of Whooping Cough .. 89 Larrier, L. N., & P. Boveri — Mammilis produced by Acid-fast Bacilli 89 Sergent, E. — Tropism of Bacillus Zopfii 89 Petri, L. — Identity of the Bogna Bacillus (tubercle') of the Olive-tree 90 Jcngano— Renal Infection by a Microbe originating from the Blood 90 Gilbert, A., & A. Lippmann — Anaerobic Bacteria and Gall-stones '•", Rosenthal, G. — Sporulation of the Bacillus Rhewmaticus 222 Gilbert, A., & A. Lippmann — Bacteriology of Tropical Abcess of the Liver .. .. 222 Book, A. — Coli Group of Bacteria 223 Klodnitsky, N. N. — Multiplying of Relapsing Spirochetes in the Body of the Bug 223 Smith, E. F. & (J. O. Townsend — Plant Tumour of Bacterial Origin 223 Hixterberger, A. — Flagella and Capsule of B. Anthracis 223 Beck — Micrococcus Ester ificans 224 Klimenko, W. N. — Bacillus Aterrinus Tschitensis .. .. -24 Molisch, H. — Purple Bacteria 224 Klimenko, W. N. — Bacterium Mariense 225 Lohnis, F. & N. K. Pillar — Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria 225 Russ, V. K. — Cultural Differentiation of Capsulated Bacilli -!26 Hess, H. — Bactridiwm lipolyticum : Fat-splitting Bacterium 3r>9 Tissier, H. — Intestinal Flora of Infants 359 Prowazek, v. — Comparative Study of Spirochetes , .. 360 Gckguen, F. — Bacillus Eudothrix 360 Musgrave, W. E., & M. T. Clegg— Etiology of Mycetoma 361 Kayser, E., & E. Manceau — " La Graisse" in Wines 361 Hansen, E. C. — Action of Absolute Alcohol on Bacteria and on Yeasts 362 Mvller, R. — Blue Pigment produced both by a Diphtheroid Bacillus and by a Streptothrix .'. 362 Stigell, Pi. — Velocity of Progression and the Movement Curves of certain Bacteria 363 Schnegg, H. — Bacterial Disease of Green Malt 363 Bowman, F. B. — New Bacillus of Dysentery 363 Neschczadimenko, M. P. — Streptothrix in Chronic Suppuration 487 Bruckner, J. — Micrococcus catarrhalis Pfeiffer and Gonococcus 487 Rothe — Differential Diagnosis of Gonococcus and certain other Micrococci . . .. 487 Proca, G. — Bacillus fusiforiuis (Vincent) cultivated in Symbiosis 488 Muller-Thurgau, H. — Bacterium cystine 488 Sergent, E. — Studies in Mediterranean Fever 488 CONTENTS. xxxi PAG K Sartory, A., & Clerc — Intestinal Flora of certain Orthoptera 488 HoRircHi, T. — Bacillus causing an Exanthematous Fever 189 Jordansky., V., & N. Kladnitsky— Plague Bacillus in the Bed Bug 489 Verderau, L. — Toxin of Bacillus virgula 48!) Crithari, C. — Syinbiosis of Bacillus vulgaris and Bacillus hutyricus 489 Doyen, M. — Micrococcus neoformans ana Cancer 489 Potter, M. C. — Bacteria as Agents in the Oxidation of Amorphous Carbon .. .. 489 Bibliography 489 Faroy, G-. — Bacillus intermediate to Bacillus typhosus (Eberth) and to Bacillus paratyphosus A (Brion and Kayser) 635 Goxnermann, M. — Jelly-forming Bacteria 636 Perotti, R. — Dicyandiamid-hacteria 636 Beijerinck, M. W. — Lactic Fermentation in Milk 636 Salomon, E. — Differentiation, of Streptococci by Media containing Carbohydrates .. <137 Neumann, K. — Coli-bacillosis 637 Donna, A. Di — Researches in Bacillary Dysentery 637 Ohlmacher, A. P. — Protective and Curative Artificial Immunity 637 Fihrmann, F. — Developmental Cycle of Bacteria'. 637 Klein, E. — Bacillus fcedans and Miscured Ham 638 Morpcrgo, B. — Micrococcus of Osteomalacia and Rickets 638 Babes, V., & D. Manolesco — Diphtheroid bacillus found in Cardiac Vegetations 6 iS Ferrarini, G-. — Bacillus subtil is in the Blood and Tissues 638 Marx, E. — Bacillus Pneumonias Tigris 754 Nieter, A. — Bacillus metatyphosus 754 Nowak, J. — Bacillus of Bang 754 Ellis, D. — Five New Species of Iron Bacteria 755 Beijerinck, M. W. — Lactic Acid Fermentation in Milk 755 Bartoszewicz, St., & J. Schwarzwasser — Tetradiplococcus filiformans Lodzensis 756 Eyre, J. W. H. — Melitensis Septicaemia .. .. 756 Rodella. O. — Lactic-acid Bacilli and Cancer of the Stomach 757 Tschistowitsch, N., & W. Jurewitsgh — Opsonins and A ntiphagins in Pneumococcic Infection 757 Metchnikoff, E. — Microbes of Intestinal Putrefaction 758 Bcsila, V. — Bacterium isolated from the Nervous Centres of Rabid Animals .. .. 758 Babes, V. — Chain-formation by Staphylococcus aureus 758 Skrzynski, Z. — Bacillus Pathogenic to Cats 758 Merlin, A. A. C, E., & E. M. Nelson— Micrococcus melitensis 790 \X\ll CONTENTS. MICROSCOPY. A. Instruments, Accessories, etc. (1) Stands. Watson & Sons' Metallurgical Microscope, " Tlie Horizontal " (Fig. 7) .. .. 91 „ „ " Mint" Metallurgical Microscope (Fig. 8) 93 „ „ Laboratory Dissecting Microscope (Fig. 9) 93 Rohr, M. von — Binocular Instruments 93 Nelson, E. M. — Francis Watkins Microscope (Figs. 26-29) 137 ., „ Gregory and Wright's Microscope (Fig. 32) 154 Beck's "London" Microscope, Begent Model (Figs. 33. :; 4) 227 Societe Gexevoise : Mineralogical and Petrographical Microscopes, with Per- manent Centring and with Objective Botation (Figs. 35, 36, 37) 229 Mechanical Stages (Figs. 38, 39) 233 Micrometer Microscope (Fig. 40) 234 Dissecting Microscope (Fig. 41) 234 Frauenhofer's Screw Micrometer (Figs. 42, 43) .. .. 235 Baxter, Wynne E. — Old Microscope by Shuttleworth '(Fig. 8 >) 305 Leitz' New Petrological Microscope, Type A (Figs. 87-92) 367 „ Museum Microscope (Fig. 93) 371 Bibliography .. 372 "Waterhouse" Museum Microscope (Fig. 121) 490 Konkoly's Large Measuring Microscope (Fig. 122) 491 Vogel-Hale Measuring Microscope (Model C) (Fig. 12H) 492 Vogel's Measuring Microscope (Model 1.) (Fig. 124) 493 Vogel-Wanach Large Measuring Microscope (Model II.) (Fig. 125) 494 Vogel-Campbell's Large Measuring Microscope (Model III.) Fig. 126) .. .. 496 Vogel's Measuring Microscope (Model IV.) (Fig. 127) 497 Toepfer's Universal Measuring Apparatus (Fig. 128) 498 Bibliography 500 Leitz, E. — Engel's Cross-stage with Automatic Adjustment ( Fig. 139) 639 Swingle, W. T., & L. T. Briggs — Improvements in the Ultra-violet Microscope (Fig. 140) 639 Reichert's Movable Mechanical Object-stages (Figd. 141-143) 641 „ New Large Stand B (Fig. 144) 642 „ New Medium Mineralogical Stand A Hi c (Fig 145) 644 „ Large Stand A \ 645 „ New Preparation Microscope (Fig. 146) 645 Dreck, W. — Photomicroscope for Ultra-violet Bays and its Significance for Histo- logical Investigations, especially of Hard Structures 646 Bibliography 646 Ross' New Micrometric Mechanical Stage (Fig. 159) 760 „ No. 2 "Steward" Metallurgical Microscope ''Fig. 160) 761 Reichert's Traveling Microscope (Fi^s. 161, 162) 762 New Steinach Stand C (Fig. 163) 763 „ Neio Stand vi. (Figs 164,165) 765 Hetjsner's Object-stage with Exchangeable Plates (Fig. 16ii) 766 (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. Houdaille, M. — Photographic Objective containing a Uranium-glass Lens . .. 93 Nelson, E. M. — Eye-pieces for the Microscope 146 CONTENTS. XXXIII iw.j: Societe Genevoise : Eye-pieces for Mineralogiaal and Petrographical Mii-roscopes (Figs. 44-46) .. .. ' 235 Reichert's Spectral-ocular (Fig. 147) 646 „ In lex-ocular (Fig. 148) 646 „ Goniometer-ocular (.Fig. 149) 647 „ Objective 64*3 (3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus. Watson & Sons' Vertical Illuminator (Figs. 10-12) '.M „ „ "Grip" Stage-spring (Figs. 13, 14) 94 Barnard, J. E. — Electric Mercuri/ Vapour Lamp for Microscopic Illumination (Fig. 15) .. ' 95 Watson & Sons' New Mechanical Condenser Mount (Fig. 16) 97 „ „ Aplanatic Low-power Condenser (Fig. 17) 97 „ „ Macro-illuminator (Fiiz. 18) 97 Bechstein's Photometer, with Proportional Graduation and Decimally-divided Scale (Figs. 19, 20) 98 Bibliography 101 Pearce's Total Reflexion Refractometer (Fig. 47).. 236 Beck's New Illuminator for High-power Dark-ground Illumination (Fin:'> Rothe, M. E. — Interference Fringes produced by Photograph* in Colours .. .. 648 Photography of very Translucent Diatoms at High Magnifications 649 Dec. 16th, 1908 XX XIV CONTENTS. (5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. TAGE Nelson, E. M. — A Reply to Professor Porter's and Mr. Everitt's Criticism upon my Paper on the Resolving Power, etc 1 Porter, Alfred W. — On the Diffraction Rings for a Circular Opening ; and on the Limit of Resolving Power (Being a Rejoinder to Mr. Nelson). (Fig. 1) 3 Gordon, J. W. — Mercury Globules as Test Objects for the Microscope (Figs. 2-6) .. 6 Fahre. C. — Measurement of Resolution in Microscopy 103 Filon, L. N. G. — New Method of Measuring Directly the Double-refraction in Strained Glass ' 103 Uhler, H. S, & R. W. Wood — Atlas of Absorption Spectra 104 Bibliography 105 Nelson, E. M. — A Correction for a Spectroscope (Fig. 30) 150 Tissot, C, & F. Pellin — Correction of the Astigmatism of Doubly Refracting Prism* 244 Cantor Lectures— 77/eon/ of the Microscope 245 Gaidukov. N. — Application of the fUtramicroscope (after Siedentopf) and of the Microspectral Photometer (after Engelmann) to the Textile and Dyeing Industries 387 Bibliography 387 Bibliography 649 Henri, V. — Influence of the Medium on Brotvnian Movements 649 Bibliography .. .. .. 650 Nelson, E. M.— On the Resolution of Periodic Structures (Fig. 157) 671 (6) Miscellaneous. QrKKETT Microscopical Club 105 Compass Reading to ^^ or ^^ Millimetre (Fig. 54) 245 Caliper with Micrometer Screw (Fig. 55) 245 Qiekett M ieroseopical Club 246 Merlin, A. A. C. E.—Flagellum of the Tubercle Bacillus 388 Quekett Microscopical Club 3^8 Bibliography .. .. 388 Wood. W. J.— Microscopical Matters (Fig. 131) 503 QrKKETT Microscopical Club 505 Smith, J Ciceri — Direct re ding Micrometer-gauge for Cuver-glass (Figs. 132,133) 505 " Brassfoundkr" — Composition of Brass 507 Strachan. James — On Dendritic Growths of Copper Oxide in Paper (Plate XIII.) 544 Ewell. Marshall D — The Present Status of Micrometry 682 Rowntree, C. — Parafftnum liquidum B. P.) as an Immersion Oil 771 Quekett Microscopical Club 771 CONTENTS. XXXV B. Technique. (1) Collecting' Objects, including- Culture Processes. PAGE Wilson, H. V. — Method by which Sponges may be Artificially Reared 105 Abbe, Nakao — Cultivation of Gonococci 105 Bernstein, E. P., & A. A. Epstein— Simple Method of Sterilising Blood for Cul- tural Purposes 106 PlNOY, E. — Cultivation and Preparation of Myxomycetes 1U6 Danteo, A. le — Culture of Anaerobe^ 107 Penard, E. — Collecting and Preserving Fresh-water Ehizopods 107 Cohendy, M.— Intestinal Broth for the Isolation of Essential and Potential Intestinal . Anaerobes .. 107 Rosam, A. — Porous Culture Vessels (Fig. 22) 108 Reid, C., & Eleanor M. — Collecting Fossil Flora 108 Klein, E. — Enrichment Method for Detecting Bacillus typhosus 108 Dunschmann, H. — Simplified Method for Detecting the Presence of Bacillus typhosus 108 Sineff. A. — Simple Thermostat (Fig. 23) .... .. 109 Pr<>ca, G. — Sterilised Bacterial Media for Cultivation of Anaerobes .. .. 109 Harrison, R. G. — Observing Living Developing Nerve-fibres .. .. 109 Levaditi. C, & J. McIntosh — Cultivation of Treponema pallidum .. .. 110 Lebailly, C — Multiplication in vitro of Treponema pallidum 247 Kehsteiner, J. — Cultivation of Anaerobic Bad eria (Figs. 56-61) 247 Harrison, F. 0. & B. Barlow— Isolating the Nodule organism of the Legumiuosse 252 Marino, F. — Method for Isolating Anaerobes (Fig 62) .. ' .. ..' .. .. 252 Sauvageau, G. — Cultivation of Algae .. .. 507 Surface, F. M. — Collecting and Preserving Planocera inquUina 508 Nicolle, C. — Cultivating the Parasites of Kda-azar an i Aleppo Boil 508 GuiLLEMARD. A. — Separation of Bacillus typhosus and Bacillus roll, .. .. 509 Bruckner, J. — Fermentation of Sugars by the Meningococcus and the Micrococcus catarrhalis .. 509 Hata, S — Aerobic Cultivation of Anaerobes.. .. 509 Yamanouchi, Shigeo — Investigating Apogamy in Nephrodium .. 510 Caullery, M., & A. Lavellee — ( 'ollectiAg and Examining the Eggs of Rhopalura ophiccomse (Fig. 134) .. 510 Shearer, (!. — Collecting and Examining Lar ml Nephridia of Polygordius . . .. 511 Davis, B. M. — Collecting and Examining Dolichoglosi ckworth, W. L. H. — Demonstrating the Syncytial Appendages of Placental villi 053 Nemiloff, Anton — Examining the Nervous Elements of Osseous Fishes 053 Wilson, J. T., & J. P. Hill — Examining the Eggs of Ornithorhyncus 653 Wisselingh, C. van — Studying the Structure of CEdogonium 654 Mi yes. F., & J. Duesberg— Demonstrating the Spermatogenesis of Hornets .. .. 054 Boulanger, H. — Micrographic Study of Leather 655 (3) Cutting-, including- Imbedding- and Microtomes. Kolmer, W. — Studying the Structure of Mammalian Ear 113 Federioi, F.— -Use of Sulphuric Ether in Imbedding 113 Seitz, A. L. L. — Demonstrating the Microscopic Structure of Fossil and Recent Iieptilian Bone .. . 254 Hennkderg's Microtome Auxiliaries (Figs. 111-112) 388 Cooper. W. F., & L. E. Robinson — Method of Orientating Small Objects for Examination (Fig. 113) 390 Broer's Simple Microtome for Serial Sections (Fig*. 135-137) .. 516 Fince, C. — Arrangements for Utilising the Entire Cutting-edge of Microtome Razors (Figs. 154-156) ' .." 655 Nebmayer, L. — Celloidin Imbedding 057 Dantschakoff, W. — Preparing Celloidin Sections 658 (4) Staining- and Injecting-. Thoma, R. — Picric-acid Carmin 114 Loeffler, F. — New Method of Staining Micro-organisms 114 Schkresche-wsky, J. — Giemsa-staining of Spirochseta pallida 115 Bultino, D., & G. Quarelli — Staining Sudanophil Leucocytes 115 Pinoy. Fj. — Barrel's Bine 115 Harris, N. MaoL. — New Method oj Preparing the Romanowshy Stain 115 CONTENTS. XXXV11 PAOB Loeffler, F. — Gram's Staining Method I16 Mighailow, Sergius — Studying the Nerve-endings in the Urinary Bladder of Mammals Cepede, Casimir — Staining-tank with Movable Grooves Weidenreigh, F. — Simple Method of Staining Blood-films 116 Herman, M. — Staining the Tubercle Bacillus 255 Bartels, P. — Syringe for the Injection of Lymph-vessels (Vvj;. 63) 255 Bibliography **91 Hoffmann, R. — Staining Streptococcus mucosus 518 Deineka, D. — Demonstrating the Nervous System of Ascari* .. .. •■ ■• 518 Law, W. J. — Demonstrating Nerve-terminations in Teeth, of Mammalia 51S Krzystalowicz, F.. 8 Hamburger, H. J. — New Cold Injection Method •• 658 Zimmermann, A. — Bielschowky's Method for Demonstrating Connective-tissue Fibres 659 Cavazza, L. E. — Demonstrating the Presence of Tannin 659 Betegh, I;, v. — Differential Staining Method for Acid-fast Bacilli 776 Yamamoto, J.— Silver Method for Differentiating the Bacilli of Leprosy and Tubercle 776 Balsz, H. H. — Studying the Sexual Organs of Cestoda J_7^ Gottberg, M., & others — Staining Spirochmta pallida 777 Fischel, H. — Alizarin, a Vital and Specific Stain for Nervous Tissue 778 „ „ Vital Staining of Fresh-water Animals ' ' ° Winiwarter, H. V., & G.Sainmont— Flemming's Triple Staining Method . . ■■ 778 Ciaccio, C. — Localising Burin Bodies in Animal Tissues 779 Bibliography 780 (5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, etc. Reld, C, & Eleanor M. — Preserving Fossil Seeds and L"aves 117 Fornario, G. — Preserving the Colour of Anatomical Specimens •■ 391 Gudernatsch, J. F.— Technique of the Water Method of Sticking Paraffin Sections on the Slide .. 521 Ogilvie, H. S. — Farrant's Medium 780 (6) Miscellaneous. Harvey, W. U. — Dust-excluding Histological Reagent Bottle (Fig. 25) 117 Bather, F. A. — Nathorst's Use of Collodion Imprints in the Study of Fossil Plants 11 i Rawitz' Microscopical Technique 1 1 >s Traviss, W. R. — Forceps- scisxors (Fitrs. t>4-66) 256 Harvey, W. H. — Improved Form of Celloidin Capsule 391 De Jager, L. — Method for Photographing Superficial Bacterial Colonies . .. 392 Sereni, S. — Red Blood Cells in Malaria 392 Bibliography 392 Windsor, F. N. — Examining Seminal Stains 659 Wolff, M.— I'ipette for Microscope Work (Fig. 172) 781 Fatten, C. J. — Mesophotography and it* Application to Delicate Unfixed Embryos 781 XXXVlil CONTENTS. Metallography, etc. PAGE Frikdrich, K. — Melting Point Diagrams of the Binary Systems Galena- Magnetic Pyrites and Galena-Silver Sulphide 118 „ „ Melting Point Diagrams of the Binary Systems, Silver Sulphide- Gopper Sulphide and Lead Sulphide-Copper Sulphide . . . . 118 Walker & C. Hill — Influence of Stress on the Corrosion of Iron 118 Bbilbt, G. T. - Hard and Soft States in Ductile Metals 119 Brown, W. — Densities and Specific Heats of Some Alloys of Iron 119 Lautsch & G. T amman s — Alloys of Iron with Molybdenum 119 Jeriomin, K., & A. Portevin — Copper-bismuth Alloy d Crystals 785 Lewkonja, K. — Binary Alloys of Cobalt 786 Stadeler, A. — Manganese and Carbon •• 786 I \ni.. V. E —Alloys of Zine, Hopper, and Nickel 786 Fbiedrich. K. Copiirr-urst-nic System 786 BIBLIOGRAPHY 787 PROCEEDINGS OF TEE SOCIETY. Meeting, December 18, 1907 12 Leonis and £ Bootis by 8^ inches 3"*315 of aperture ; these results correspond to a limit of and 3" -06 ,. , respectively. These observations are far finer than any I have ever been able to accomplish. Mr. Ellison has thus lowered the value of c to 0-6718, and has increased my percentage of 32 to 45. The values of the microscopical experiments (Nos. 4 and 13) given in my table may be far from correct. The difficulty of these microscopical antipoint measurements is very great indeed ; those with a telescope are mere child's play in comparison. II. — On the Diffraction Rings for a Circular Opening ; and on the Limit of Resolving Power. (Being a rejoinder to Mr. Nelson.) By Alfred W. Porter, B.Sc. (Read November 20, 1907.) There are two different though related questions connected with Mr. Nelson's reply to the paper by Mr. Everitt and myself. The first is, what is the size of the first dark diffraction ring for the case calculated by Airy and others ? and the second is, what is the ultimate resolving power of a telescope for a close double star ? I do not mean to say that these questions are explicitly stated, but Mr. Nelson confuses them both in his original paper and in his reply to our criticism. What I wish to make perfectly clear, first of all, is that our short paper referred only to the former of these questions, viz. the radius of the first dark diffraction ring. Airy's calculation of this radius was for the case of a point source of light : and as a physicist I feel somewhat perturbed that a calculation which was free from any obvious flaw should be called into question. It was with the object of testing the calculation that our measurements were made, with the result that we obtained a practically complete experi- mental verification of the theoretical value. Hence, whatever may be the explanation of Mr. Nelson's data, this explanation is not to be found in incorrectness in the theoretical calculation. Now this was the only point dealt with in our paper. Mr. Nelson in his reply forces upon us a consideration of the second question, viz. that of the ultimate resolving power. It is very difficult to gather the exact mode in which his experiments were made. From his paper we (and others) con- cluded that he moved his stars till the first dark rings came into contact. From his reply, we gather that his two stars were moved to such a distance that they just failed to be seen as two. But this latter does not give one a measure of the first dark ring, as he seems to claim ! Mr. Nelson does not appear to realise that his two star images may be so near as to overlap, and yet show a dark line separating them. I believe that this last fact is at the bottom of the confusion in his statements. When the two stars are a distance apart corresponding to the b 2 4 Transactions of the Society. conventional limit of resolution, the intensity curves are as shown in fig. 1, the dotted curve being the resultant intensity of the overlapping images, each of which has an intensity given by the continuous lines. It will be seen that the intensity in the middle is less than the adjacent maxima by about one-third. Such a proximity of images will give a well-marked band of separation of the images, yet in this case the distance between the maxima is only equal to the radius of the first dark ring. Now a rigorous calculation shows that Mr. Nelson's results cor- respond to a closeness for which the depression of intensity in the middle will have rather more than disappeared. Hence, putting Fig. l. aside errors, which may amount to about 5 p.c, we may say that Mr. Nelson succeeds in seeing the depression of intensity in the middle until it completely disappears. Mr. Nelson is to be con- gratulated in this achievement : it denotes quite exceptionally keen vision ; but he is totally mistaken in thinking that from the distance between his two stars in this case he can calculate the radius of the first diffraction ring. Now in regard to this extremely successful resolution. The usually accepted limit was never intended to be the ultimate value ; it was fixed in a purely conventional way, so as to provide a standard (in terms of which different openings and instruments Diffraction Rings. By Alfred W. Porter. 5 might be compared) which would have a perfectly definite mean- ing, be totally independent of a particular observer's vision, and at the same time represent the resolving power which a good (though not phenomenally good) observer might be expected to read. I have myself taught in my classes for ten years past that this standard is purely conventional, and is easily surpassed. However, accepting Mr. Nelson's data, we must admit the possibility of very considerably exceeding the conventional limit. In order to meet such exceptional cases, I desire to propose a new standard, which shall possess the merit of the old one of being independent of the observer. Let the stars be brought to such a closeness that the central depression just disappears ; it is obvious that this closeness represents the " ne plus ultra " case of resolution for monochromatic light. No one, however keen his vision, will cpiiite succeed in seeing the star double at this limit- ing distance. I propose, therefore, to take this degree of closeness as the ultimate limit of resolving power. It corresponds to the closeness for which the curves of intensity of the individual stars cross each other at their points of inflexion (that is, at the points at which they have no curvature). It is true that even for this degree of closeness, the oval shape of the disk of light may enable one to infer that it is not a single star which one observes. Moreover, if the light is polychromatic, as usual, the tint at the centre of the resultant image may be expected to be redder than on each side ; this, again, will tend to make the limit of resolution lower than we would otherwise expect. But the limit I here suggest is certainly so near the attainable value, even when auxiliary circumstances such as these intervene, that it is confidently put forward as the correct one to employ. Transactions of the Society. III. — Mercury Globules as Test Objects for the Microscope. By J. W. Gordon. (Bead Nov. 20, 1907.) Plate I. (figs. 1, 2). The difficulty of explaining the appearance of certain objects under high magnification led me some two or three months ago to under- take a comprehensive study of the appearance in the Microscope of mercury globules. The hypothesis upon which I worked was that the mercury globule being a simple object of known shape and optical properties I could not be mistaken as to the appearances which it would present, and if in any respect these appearances should prove to be unexpected, they would probably be easily traced to their origin. This hypothesis has not been falsified, although it may be confessed that the appearance of mercury globules under the conditions of high magnification has consider- ably surprised me. The phenomena observed turn out to be due to causes which will, I think, interest the Fellows of the Society. I have therefore sought the opportunity of exhibiting some speci- mens, and placing a short description before this Meeting. The first thing to strike the observer is a phenomenon which certainly ought not to have been unexpected, although I may confess that it surprised me, when I first observed it. A mercury globule occupying the centre of a bright field, and illuminated by a large cone of light from the condenser, presents a strong luminous band about its edge, which is in fact displayed upon its under face. Attention being drawn to the matter, it is quite easy to see that an objective of wide angle must see for a considerable distance round the under face of a spherical object. The diagram (fig. 2) serves to show how this comes about and incidentally to indicate the rule by which the inner edge of this luminous band may be calculated. Taking the ray from the point A to the point E to be an edge ray of the beam which enters the objective, it is easy to see that that ray must come from a point C in the beam received from the condenser, since the angle B A E must be equal to the angle B A C. Moreover, if we draw the perpendicular X Xr through the point A parallel to the optical axis, we shall have the angle E A X equal to the semi-angle of aperture of the objective. This, therefore, is a known angle. In like manner the angle C A X' Mercury Globules as Test Objects. By J. W. Gordon. 7 is the semi-angle of aperture of the beam received from the con- denser. This is not necessarily a known angle, but if it can be ascertained, it is obvious from the diagram that the angle at 0, the centre of the globule, subtended by the illuminated band A G, is equal to half the sum of the angles E A X and C A X'. For writing u and % for these angles respectively, we have ZAOE=Z^-ZAEO = ?A±^>-(|-^ = i(^+%) [1] This bright belt is clearly seen in the photograph (Plate I. fig. 1) of a mercury globule exhibited under these conditions. In addition there is seen in the centre of the globule a bright spot of light reflected from its upper face. The light which thus reaches the Fig.|2. upper face of the globule can only come, and does in fact come, from the lenses of the Microscope, which reflect back and condense upon an object placed in the middle of a field a very strong light received by them from the field. In the photograph this spot of light is seen unfocused since it occupies a position about midway between the vertex of the globule and its equatorial plane, and the Microscope for the purpose of taking this photograph was, in fact, focused upon the illuminated belt which lies immediately below the equatorial plane upon the under face of the globule. But, by focusing up to the principal focal plane of the globule, it being considered for this purpose as a convex mirror, a detailed view may be obtained of the interior of the Microscope. If a mercury globule upon the stage of the Microscope is illuminated by light from a very small source of illumination, and if, further, the condenser is so disposed that the image formed by it of the source of light lies a little above the equatorial plane of 8 Transactions of the Society. Fig. 8. the globule, we then have the conditions, illustrated by fig. 3, under which .Fresnel rings are formed, by the turning back upon itself of a small annular wave-front reflected from a narrow zone lying about the equator on the surface of the globule. Here Z is a section of the reflecting zone. A is a section of the ring upon which an incident annular wave front B C is focused, and A' is a section of the ring to which it is reflected. B D is a section of a surface all parts of which lie at equal optical dis- tances from the ring A'. Under these conditions the illumination at A' will be a maximum, if the 3 v 5 \ distance C D = 0, or — — , etc., and will be a 2 2 minimum, if it is equal to X, 2 X, 3 X, etc. Thus, taking A' in a series of different positions rela- tively to A, we get varying illumination, which passes from maximum to minimum and back to maximum successively, with the result of a system of Fresnel rings. Under these conditions very magnificent dis- plays of Fresnel rings can be produced, especially if the field is darkened by means of a top stop, and they have, in a way presently to be men- tioned, an important application for the purpose of testing and perfecting the centring adjustments of the sub- stage apparatus. Eeturning now to the consideration of the bright spot in the middle of the globule, the first thing that strikes the observer is that a very large quantity of light is there reflected, and that the object on the stage is in fact receiving a very powerful top light from the objective. This impression, upon examination, proves to be well founded. In Plate I. fig. 2 we have a photograph of a small piece of etched tinfoil. This object was illuminated entirely by light thrown back from the refracting surfaces of the Microscope. If metallur- gists wanted only to examine minute pieces of metal like this fragment, which, in fact, measures about y^ inch in diameter, they would not have need to have recourse to any other system of illumination than that which is furnished by reflection from the lenses of the objective. This fact has an important bearing upon the appearance of all small objects seen in the Microscope. To this cause, for example, are due some of the most striking appear- ances presented by diatoms. And it is now apparent to me that to this cause must be attributed the high light shown upon the specimen of Staphylococcus, a photograph of which I showed to the Society in November last. The photograph is reproduced in Plate III. of the Journal of the Society for 1907 (facing p. 10). A very familiar illustration of this effect of top lighting is presented by the well-known appearance of Pleurosigma angulation under a Mercury Globules as Test Objects. By J. W. Gordon. 9 wide-angled lens. The silex of angulation has a deep brownish yellow colour, which may be seen when the specimen is viewed by transmitted light, as, for example, by means of an objective of low angle. The coloration then is seen to be very strong, but if the same specimen be viewed while illuminated from the same source of light through a wide angled immersion lens, the yellow colour will entirely disappear. The silex then appears to be of a brilliant white, and detail which by the transmitted light was wholly invisible comes strongly into view. This is, I think, undoubtedly a case of top lighting, and the distinctive image which a wide- angled lens alone can show is to be attributed to the illumination of the upper surface by top light from the objective. Another very familiar instance of the effect of this top lighting is afforded by the much discussed phenomenon known as an unoccupied aperture. The top light from an immersion objective is given back in very great abundance from its peripheral zones. This may seem to be a natural thing if one considers only that the peripheral zones comprise a large proportion of the whole surface. But there is probably some reason which I have not been able to divine, for assigning to the peripheral zones a reflecting power more than proportional to their area. For if the flooding of the stage with this top light be watched while the observer cautiously opens the iris diaphragm, it will be seen that nothing particular happens untii a certain point is reached in the expansion of the condenser aperture. At that point the top light comes rushing in, and rapidly spreads over the field. If any reflecting surface lies between the object and the objective, the image is almost instantaneously ruined, and all detail is blotted out in a blazing mist of diffused illumination. It will now, I think, be evident why the explanation of the phenomena connected with the unoccupied aperture has given so much trouble to microscopists. They have omitted to consider the great abundance in which the peripheral zones supply this top light, and they have therefore omitted also to consider how all important it is to the use of an immersion objective that the space between the specimen and the first reflecting surface should be filled by an absolutely non-reflecting medium. When the front lens of the objective and the cover glass have different refractive indices, or when the oil interposed between them has a refracting index differing, it may be only slightly, from theirs, there is, of course, a reflecting plane or more than one, interposed between the specimen and the first refracting surface. The same thing occurs of necessity in the case of all specimens which are mounted dry. When from either of these causes such a reflecting surface exists it will, when illuminated by the top light from the objective, interpose an obstacle through which it is quite impossible to see anything except the most strongly marked features of an object. It is therefore not 10 Transactions of the Society. surprising that under these conditions the finer details, which high power lenses are specially employed to reveal, should be lost to view, and it is obvious that the remedy must be to cut off all superfluous light from those zones of the system which send it back in greatest abundance to the stage. When immersion objectives are designed with a view to the separating of the focus of reflection from that of refraction ; or when the optical homogeneity of front lens, immersion fluid, cover-glass and mounting medium are duly considered in setting up the object, we shall be able to use cones of condenser light that will fill our objectives, but until these matters come to be considered in connection with the power of refracting surfaces to reflect light, the appearance of any given object under illumination by large condenser cones must be a mere matter of chance. Another set of phenomena which are largely, though by no means wholly, explained by the top lighting comprises those connected with oblique illumination. It has been already pointed out that the reflected light from an immersion objective appears to play a very important part in the lighting of the object. When this top light is intended to fall sidelong on the object and to illuminate it by cross lights, it must of course be oblique top light. And this can be secured by shading half the objective. There appear to be a large number of oblique illumination effects explainable in this way. The foregoing are general observations. It remains to describe in detail the various applications which I have so far succeeded in making of mercury globules for the purpose of testing the Microscope. The first of these experiments relates to the Fresnel rings, the formation of which is illustrated by fig. 3, already described. It may be pointed out that the number of such rings which can be seen depends upon the aperture of the objective. In the formation of interference bands, as a rule, the outer members of the series fade out of view either because of the overlapping of different members or because the foreshortening of the aperture as seen from the outlying parts of the interference image cuts down its light-transmitting power to such an extent that the illumination becomes too weak to be seen. In the case of the mercury globule, howrever, a different set of conditions obtains. The reflecting zone is most foreshortened, as seen through the innermost rings. Its light-giving power therefore increases as the observer views it through the outer rings of the series, and it seems to be a fact that the limit of the number of rings seen in the Microscope is set by the aperture of the objective. It follows from this consideration that the appearance of these rings can be used as a test for the centring of the globule in the optical axis of the objective. It may, I suppose, be taken for Mercury Globules as Test Objects. By J. W. Gordon. 11 granted, at any rate for practical purposes, that the optical axis passes through the centre of the aperture of the objective. If there be any discrepancy it would, no doubt, be the aperture, and not the optical axis, which would determine the formation of the rings. If, then, the mercury globule lies even at a very small distance out of the optical centre of the objective, the Fresnel rings will be visibly deformed. In one of the Microscopes exhibited this evening a mercury globule is displaced slightly from the optical centre of an objective. The rings, instead of forming a sym- metrical concentric system, form a system in which one side is very much narrowed and the opposite side expanded to such an extent as to be quite unmistakable. To start the centring operations, therefore, the first thing to be done is to place a mercury globule in the optical centre of the objective. For this purpose it is well to swing the condenser clear of the stage, and light the object directly from the lamp or mirror. It is, moreover, convenient in all these experiments to use a circular disc as the source of light, though, of course, the form of the light source is of very little importance when the condenser is out of use. When the observer is satisfied by the symmetrical formation of the rings that the globule lies truly in the optical axis of the objective, he will next proceed to rectify the position of his source of light. This may be done by inclining the mirror, or if the lamp is viewed without a mirror, by adjusting the position of the lamp. This adjustment can be roughly made by observing the illumination of the rings. If the source of light is considerably out of line with the optical axis of the instrument, one part of the rings will appear to be more brightly illuminated than another part. The displace- ment of the light source does not very sensibly affect the form of the rings or their disposition when the light source itself is at a considerable distance from the stage. But it does most materially affect their illumination. It is possible, therefore, in this way to- obtain a collimated source of light. But a still more sensitive test will be presently mentioned. The source of light having thus been adjusted in line with the mercury globule, the condenser may next be swung into position, and now the advantage of the circular source of light becomes apparent. The luminous disk should be of such dimensions that its image has a diameter slightly less than that of the globule. When, therefore, the source of light is truly focused in the middle of the field, it will be entirely occulted by the globule, and the Fresnel rings will be brilliantly seen upon a dark field. If there were no top lighting and no diffused illumination by reflection from the surfaces of the condenser, the Fresnel rings would, under these conditions, be seen on a field absolutely black ; but this variously reflected light causes a considerable illumination of the stage, and the Fresnel rings, therefore, are only feebly seen unless 12 Transaction* of the Society. the beam from the condenser is narrowed down to a small cone. It is, however, quite possible in spite of this diffused illumination, to see the Fresnel rings even in the bright Held. By observing them under these conditions, with the aperture of the condenser opened wide, it is possible to centre the condenser in its turn. Its position will, of course, be central, when the rings are again evenly illuminated. The final centring adjustment remains to be made — that, namely, which concerns the centring of the iris diaphragm. This is, of course, effected in the same way as the centring of the condenser. If when the iris is closed the rings are unevenly illuminated, it must be moved into a fresh position until they are seen to be of uniform brightness in all parts of the field. When this result is reached the centring is completed and well adjusted. The mercury globule being now in position, it may be employed to examine the interior of the objective. For tins purpose it is best to turn the sub-stage condenser aside, and to allow the light from the mirror, or, better still, direct light from the lamp to illu- minate the stage. It is, probably, best even for this purpose to have a circular source of light, but that is not now so important as when observing the Fresnel rings. The light being accurately centred, if we now focus upon the principal focal plane of the globule, which lies about midway between its equator and its vertex, we shall see a series of images formed by the various reflecting surfaces of the objective. The general form of these images is that of a bright field with a circular dark object in its centre, but, with a very narrow cone of incident light, such as we get without a condenser, the bright field may lie reduced to the dimensions of a thin bright outline to the dark ima^e of the globule. What we actually see is a image of the stage with the globule itself at its centre. The diagram (fig. 4) shows generally what I take to be the optical system producing these images. Here one of the concave surfaces is represented by the curve F F, the conjugate point to the point B, the refracting surface F F being con- sidered as a concave mirror, lies at point C. It is brought to a shorter focus very approximately in the principal plane of the globule by the upper surface of the globule, which serves as a convex mirror, and operates as a field lens to shorten the working distance of the concave mirror. The image so formed is seen through the Microscope in the ordinary way. If the point B is at the focus of the condenser, it and its conjugate point C will be brilliantly luminous. But even if it be out of focus, it is sure to shed light enough to be distinctly visible in the dark face of the mercury globule. Mercury Globules as Test Objects. By J. W. Gordon. 13 It will now be obvious that every reflecting surface in the instrument must send a certain amount of light back to the stage. It is not, however, every such surface which concentrates the light sufficiently upon the globule to produce a visible image there. It is a selection only of the reflecting surfaces which thus produce images such as can be examined in the Microscope. I imagine, however, that every separate lens must have at least one surface which thus yields a visible image. That, however, is too com- plicated a problem for me to be able to discuss it to advantage. What is quite clear from a mere inspection of the images so formed is that almost, if not entirely, all the lenses contribute to the collection of images. The multiplicity of such images and their disposition close behind one another — when a very small globule is used as the reflecting mirror — are, indeed, the principal defects of this system of examination. The images will, many of them, be found to come into view simultaneously, and then if, as often happens, they overlap but do not coincide with one another, a confused image results in which it is not easy to discern the outline of the object globule. In the case, however, of a well- constructed lens, the light being accurately centred, these images are all concentric, and the various pictures can be easily dis- criminated even when two or more of them come into focus together. This method of examining an objective will be found to be a very searching test of its mechanical perfection, for any lens not perfectly set will produce an excentric image. Moreover, this mechanical accuracy in the placing of the lenses is itself a con- dition of high optical quality. A single lens tilted to one side may produce but little effect in the ordinary working of an objective. But it will effectually prevent the instrument from yielding the finest results of which its combination is capable. This test, therefore, is of considerable value, and it has the merit not only of being a crucial test, but, in addition, of being one which indicates the nature of any defect detected. It will therefore, I imagine, be found to be a useful addition to the arsenal of the instrument maker, as well as an easily available test by which the microscopist can examine the mechanical perfection of his objectives. The lenses of the objective having been in this way examined, we may now restore the substage, condenser and iris -diaphragm to their places. Then, of course, we shall have to work "with focused light, and the appearance presented by the various images in the mercury globule will be altered accordingly. It will be found that there are two positions of the substage condenser in which definite images beside the image of the mercury globule are given. In one of them, the image is an image of the source of light ; in the other, it is an image of an aperture of the condenser, defined as a rule, of course, by the iris diaphragm. The mercury globule and the 14 Transactions of the Society. source of light having been duly centred, it will be found that these two images afford an easier method of centring the substage mechanism than that already described of observations made upon the Fresnel rings. Thus, the iris- diaphragm being opened wide in order to expose the full aperture of the condenser, we ought, when the source of light is focused in the globule, to see it truly central. If that is the case, the optical axis of the substage condenser is coincident with the optical axis of the Microscope. Then a very minute image of the globule itself will be seen occupying the exact centre of the small image of the source of light. The slightest displacement of the condenser disturbs this arrangement and throws this opaque image of the globule visibly away from the centre of the source of light. This, therefore, is an extremely critical test of the centring of the condenser. The condenser having been centred, you may now alter its focal position so as to bring the aperture of the condenser and the image of the iris into view in the globule. If now the iris be closed, its image will be seen closing either truly upon the image of the globule or upon some excentric point according as the iris is in or out of centre. Here, again, the necessary adjustments are easily made, since their progress can be followed with the eye. There is among the exhibits upon the table this evening one which very strikingly indicates the great abundance in which light comes back from the reflecting surfaces of the optical system. A comparatively large globule, actually of diameter of -^ in., is mounted under a ^-in. objective. The light is so arranged that a strong image is thrown back from the observer's cornea, when his eye is placed accurately at the eye-point of the instrument. The flashing of this image across the centre of the globule forms a very striking object, and it may be observed that in this experiment a very perfect image of the globule is in this way formed, and may be momentarily seen. But it is, of course, impossible to hold the eye stationary enough for anything more than a flash view of this image. Beside the corneal image a coloured and imperfectly focused image reflected from the interior of the eye may also be seen. I mention it not as an object upon which I have any observations to offer, but for the purpose of drawing the attention of others to it who will be able to study it to better purpose than I can. The phenomenon just described may be made the starting point of an almost ideal test for resolving power. In place of the eye, which is a moving object, we may substitute a mercury globule properly mounted at the eye-point of the microscope. It will then reflect light precisely as did the observer's cornea in the last experiment, and if for this purpose we use a small mercury globule (one having a diameter of j^g of an inch is very suitable), it will not impair the observer's view of the stage, when he looks down the instrument. In that case he will see, not the image reflected Mercury Globules as Test Objects. By J. W. Gordon. 15 from his ow,n cornea, but an image reflected from the under face of this new globule, which I will, when further referring to it, speak of as the speculum globule, to distinguish it from the object globule on the stage. It may be convenient at this point to invite you to consider the nature of the optical arrangement thus set up. It is, of course, a very common observation that when two mirrors are placed on opposite walls facing one another we get a great number of successive reflections producing the appearance to the observer placed between them of a long vista of mirror frames and many repetitions of his own head. The same thing would, of course, happen if our mirrors were convex mirrors. But in that case the successive images would very rapidly diminish in size. In the case of plain mirrors the successive images diminish in apparent size as the result of perspective, but in the case of convex mirrors they would diminish not only as the result of perspective but also by reason of the magnifying power of the mirrors themselves. This is what happens in the case of two mercury globules lacing one another. The observer looking, as indicated in fig. 5, past the Fig. 5. speculum globule into the face of the object globule, sees there an image of the inner face of the speculum globule and in that image, which I will speak of as an image of the first order, he sees an image of the second order of the object globule itself as reflected in the face of the speculum globule. This second order image is of necessity a very small image, for it has undergone reduction in size, first by the speculum globule and then by the object globule itself. If now we interpose a lens between these two globules we do not prevent in any way the interchange of reflections between them. The phenomena are, of course, somewhat compli- cated by the magnifying power of the lens, but are not otherwise affected by it. We are thus led to expect that if the optical system of the Microscope were interposed between the two globules of fig. 5, we should still have the second order image of the object globule seen in its own surface. This is what actually happens, and in one of the Microscopes upon the table this evening you will find an arrangement of this sort set up and a brilliant second order image of the object globule exhibited to view. 16 Transactions of the Society. It will be interesting now to consider why the second order image happens to be so conspicuous. If it were simply a question of size, one would expect the first order image of the speculum globule to be more conspicuous still, but, in fact, that image can- not be seen. The reason can easily be assigned. The speculum globule lies in a perfectly dark field, and is illuminated only by light which it reflects from the stage of the Microscope. Only its reflecting surface, therefore, is a visible object at all, and thus the image of the speculum globule, theoretically present in the object globule, is an invisibly dark object. Under very special conditions of illumination it can just be seen. But to bring it into view is a difficult experiment, and one which I have not attempted this evening to demonstrate. The images of the speculum globule being thus excluded, we, nevertheless, have to consider a whole series of images of the second, fourth, sixth, etc., orders. These may all be dealt with in a word by considering only the case of the fourth order image. It will at once be appreciated that this, having undergone four reductions in scale by reflections between the globules, has become an object almost infinitesimally small. In fact it is much too small to be seen, and therefore, of all the images which are theoretically possible, only this second order image of the object globule is, in fact, a visible image. It, how- ever, shines with such effulgence as to constitute it a most striking object, very easily identified and observed. Here, then, we have the primary conditions of a perfect test object: A circular disk which is densely black and of known, that is to say, of calculable dimensions, lying in a bright field and capable by a proper selec- tion of mercury globules, of being made to any desired size, so that we can overpass the resolving power of any imaginable lens. The optical system built up in this way of the two mercury globules mounted one at each end of the Microscope, has some interesting properties. It is to be observed that the two globules do not occupy positions which are conjugate to one another. On the contrary, each occupies what is an apertural plane in the optical system which focuses in the other globule. Consequently, the two principal focal planes of the globules are conjugate to one another, not their two centres. From this it follows that the dimensions of the image seen depend simply on the principal focal lengths involved, and are independent of the exact positions which the globules occupy. This fact is highly convenient, since it enables us to place the speculum globule at whatever distance from the eye lens is most convenient for the observation that we wish to make. The position of the object globule is, of course, definitely determined, since its principal focal plane must coincide with the focal plane upon the stage of the Microscope. But it may be desirable to vary the position of the speculum globule. A Mercury Globules as Test Objects. By J. W. Gordon. 17 glance at fig. 6, which illustrates the optical system, shows that the conditions of illumination are identical over an appreciable range of distance along the optical axis in the region occupied by the speculum globule (gi). It is also clear from this consideration that the light reflected from the surface of the speculum globule does not fill the whole aperture of the Microscope, but passes along certain zones, these zones being more central when the globule is near the eye-lens, and more peripheral when it is remote from the eye-lens. A very pretty experiment can be made by moving the speculum globule slowly from one of its extreme positions to the other. We can then watch the gradual change in the appearance of the imaG;e as it is transmitted through different zones of the system. The most noticeable change is that the colour varies, the image being, as a rule, strongly blue at one end and distinctly red at the other, a good achromatic image being obtained at some intermediate point. The diagram, fig. 6, shows the path of an incident pencil from OBJECTIVE. OCULAR Pig. 6. a point on the object globule in full lines — the path of a reflected pencil in broken lines. It is obvious that the diameter of the black disk seen in the object globule (^/2) can be very easily calculated. Looking down the instrument we have in the field the original of the picture pourtrayed in the object globule, and it is seen under the full magnifying power of the Microscope. It exhibits, of course, a bright field, an illuminated edge of the globule, which melts into the field, and a dark centre, the diameter of which last depends upon the aperture of the objective and the angle at which the light from the condenser strikes the under face of the globule. If this latter factor were known it would be an easy thing to calculate the diameter of the darkened part of the disk by the formula of equation (1), but as the exact angle of the condenser cone depends upon the focusing of the condenser, and as, moreover, the focusing of the condenser may most conveniently be adjusted with reference to the brightness of the resulting image, this cannot very well be made the subject of calculation. But since it is to be seen in the Microscope and of full size it can quite easily be made the subject of measure- Feb. 19th, 1908 c 18 Transactions of the Society. ment. We may, therefore, take the following magnitudes to be known. The optical length of the Microscope ; which may be written L. The equivalent focal length of the ocular; — written /^ The diameter of the speculum globule; — written g1. The equivalent focal length of the objective ; — written f2. The diameter of the object globule ; — written g2. The diameter of the dark patch upon the object globule ; — written D. It will be evident on reference to the diagram, fig. 6, that the apparent size of the second order image in the object globule of its own darkened surface, which may be written d, is, — if; f 2f 2 * * * ^ ' It is evident from this equation that the dimensions of the test object (d) can be varied in two ways ; that is to say, we may alter the size of the object globule or we may alter the size of the speculum globule, and thus, by varying these two elements in the combination, we can produce a black dot of any required dimensions however small. Moreover, the mathematical law is one that works out to a very convenient system in practice. If we alter the size of the speculum globule the value of (d) alters according to a simple proportion, so that we may write the above expression (2) d = Gglm C being a constant ; if everything except the speculum globule is left unchanged. We have thus the means of very gradually altering the dimensions of the test object by substituting speculum globules of slightly varying dimensions. If, on the other hand, we vary the object globule we, of course, alter the value of D at the same time. In fact, D is itself directly proportional to g2, therefore we may write the product g2B = Ci^2. If we assume everything to remain unchanged except the object globule, we may write equation (2) as follows : — a = ^>ig2. It thus appears that by changing the object globule we very rapidly alter the size of the test image, and if we alter the size of both the globules simultaneously, we get finally a value in the form d = 03g1g2i. Under these conditions the size of the test image varies very rapidly indeed. And thus with a comparatively small range of Mercury Globules as Test Objects. By J. W. Gordon. 19 mercury globules it is possible to obtain test objects of all dimen- sions down to such as will be invisible in the finest instruments that can be made, while at the same time we have the power to vary the size of our test object at any point in the series by the finest degrees of change of magnitude. It will do doubt be understood that in the case of the speculum globule it is necessary, and in the case of the object globule con- venient, to have it mounted between glasses in Canada balsam. In the case of the speculum globule, which reflects the image from its lower face, it is necessary to make sure that the lower face is not resting in contact with the glass. If the balsam is at all viscous, the globule may subside into that position in use, and so present a flattened face to the object globule which, of course, entirely alters the dimensions of the resulting second order image. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Fig 1.— Mercury Globule. „ 2.— Etched Tinfoil. 20 Transactions of the Society. IV. — Li'/kt Filters for Photomicrography. By E. Moffat. (Bead November 20, 1907.) Plate I. (figs. 3-6). For a number of years my attention has been directed to light filters in connection with photomicrography, as a means of obtain- ing well contrasted photographs of objects whose natural or faintly stained appearance has occasioned one the greatest amount of trouble, and in many cases had to be abandoned in despair. Some fine pathological preparation, highly valued it may be, and from which the stain has all but disappeared — to unmount and re-stain which might be attended with considerable risk, owing to the fineness of the texture — or some very pale-yellow insect dissec- tion, or other difficult object, has to be photographed : without a filter and orthochromatic plate the attempt would be well nigh hopeless, but given a correctly prepared filter to meet the special needs of the case, the result will be highly gratifying. The spectroscope in such cases is invaluable in the determina- tion of colour and depth of tint required. A simple pocket instru- ment is sufficiently good, but where greater accuracy is demanded, one can easily rig up a table instrument with two cheap tele- scopes — one being used as a collimator, using the object-glass only, and the other is easily converted into a small astronomical telescope ; a dense glass prism and slit completing the arrange- ment. A scale can be made on paper of the principal Fraunhofer lines, and this can be used for recording by artificial light, where the absorption bands appear on the spectrum of the dyes or filters we are about to employ. If we place in a cell of about 1 cm. deep a weak solution of the dye by which the preparation is stained, we shall find that the spectrum is modified, and some parts may be missing altogether, as where the absorption bands appear. Now, to obtain the greatest sontrast, we must photograph in the absorption band region with a filter which will always be the complementary colour, and therefore produce the greatest darkness upon the resulting print, the shadows upon the negative having practically clear glass ; e.g. fuchsin gives a band about midway between D and E, and is well met by a screen or liquid filter composed of a saturated solution of copper acetate and a little potassium bichromate. These may be made up in two Light Filters for Photomicrography. By E. Moffat. 21 separate cells, or mixed together, when a muddy compound will be produced, but by adding acetic acid drop by drop this will clear up, and a fine permanent filter will be the result, this being excellent also for visual work. My experience has been that with these liquid filters a far superior result is obtained than with gelatin-stained films, as the latter when rubbed stop a considerable amount of light. The liquid filters pass a maximum of light, and so reduce exposure to a minimum, and at the same time act as heat-absorbing troughs, enabling the Microscope to keep longer in focus. Monochromatic light is hardly practicable unless the arc lamp is used, and, after all, a bichromatic light is ample for nearly all purposes, and by working with the two chemicals named much good work can be done. A saturated solution of copper acetate in a fairly deep cell, say 25 mm., will cut out the red end of the spectrum and also the orange beyond the D line. A strong solution of potassium bichromate will absorb the spectrum from the violet end through the blue and beyond the F line. A special case may arise where a red sensitive plate and a red filter are required, such as in a faintly-stained methylen-blue preparation, where the absorption band is principally about the C line ; but in practice a good nega- tive can generally be got of this by a deep orange filter and a yellow sensitive plate — these plates being exceptionally good for photomicrographic work, and generally giving greater contrast than the plate sensitised to the whole spectrum. As before stated, insect dissections, and similar objects of a pale-yellow or straw colour — the chitinous substances assuming such tints when mounted in balsam — might be well represented by Bismark brown (Yesuvian), which has an absorption band from the violet end of the spectrum to the F line. A successful result can in most cases be obtained by a filter of gentian-violet, which has an absorption band in D towards the yellow, using an ordinary slow plate and giving a minimum exposure. Excessively rapid dry-plates I have found to be of no advantage, as there is a greater danger of chemical and light fog, owing to the time usually required in development of photomicrographic nega- tives in comparison with field or landscape work, much greater contrast being demanded. Personally, I have found that when the first appearance of the image is from 2^-3 minutes, and is com- pleted in about 15-18 minutes, the best negatives are obtained, pyro soda, with a large quantity of potassium bromide, being the developer used. The accompanying photographs were taken on Barnet ortho- chromatic plates and printed on glossy bromide paper, the light used being a Nernst lamp, 1 ampere on 100-volt circuit, with the addition of an ordinary lantern condenser, the exposure being marked on each. 22 Transactions of the Society. In conclusion, unless a good picture is portrayed upon the ground-glass screen to the naked eye without the use of a magnifier, just as in ordinary photography, the resulting negative will probably be a failure, but by the use of the above simple filters, supplemented by the spectroscope, much may be accomplished upon subjects hitherto considered impossible, and in all cases much useful infor- mation may be acquired. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Fig. 3. — Trypanosoma gambiense. x 1500. Leitz objective ; ^oil-immersion; 6 x compensating ocular ; Barnet ortho plate ; Nernst lamp. Ex- posure, 3 minutes. ,, 4. — Bacillus pestis. x 1200. Potassium bichromate filter. Exposure, 3 minutes. ,, 5. — Poison fang of Spider. Gentian-violet filter. Exposure, 10 seconds. ,, 6. — Gizzard of Cricket, showing teeth. Gentian-violet filter. Exposure, 10 seconds. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY (PRINCIPALLY INVERTEBRATA AND CRYPTOGAMIA), MICROSCOPY, Etc.* ZOOLOGY. VERTEBRATA. a. Embryology. t Removal and Transplantation of Ovaries.^ — F- H. A. Marshall and W. A. Jolly have previously adduced evidence in support of the view that heat and menstruation are iuducecl either directly or indirectly through the activity of an internal secretion or hormone arising in the ovaries, and that the corpus luteum provides a secretion which assists in the nourishment of the embryo during the first stages of pregnancy. In the present paper the investigators show that the existence of ovarian tissue is an essential factor in normal uterine nutrition ; and further, that the nature of the ovarian influence upon the uterus is chemical rather than nervous, since the transplanted ovaries (in rats), while still maintaining their functions (at least, in many cases), had lost their normal nervous connections. It is extremely probable, therefore, that the uterus is dependent for its proper nutrition upon substances secreted by the ovaries, not merely at the heat periods and during pregnancy, when they show their greatest activity, but throughout the whole of the cestrous cycle. Inheritance of Pigmentation in Mice.§ — L. Cuenot continues his important investigations on the inheritance of pigmentation in mice, all of which go to show the general occurrence of Mendelian phenomena. In fact, all the determinants known in mice conform strictly to Mendelian rules. " On ne connait chez les souris que des caracteres mendeliens." * The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and they do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually pub- lished, and to escribe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or ave not been previously described in this country. f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called, but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and allied subjects. X Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, xlv. (1907) pp. 589-99 (2 pis.). § Arch. Zool. Exper., vi. (1907) Notes et Revue, No. 1, pp. i-xiii. 24 sim MARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Artificial Insemination in Mammals.*— J. J. IwanofiE discusses the experiments, sometimes successful, which he and others have made in the artificial insemination of sheep, cows, and mares. He notes, inter alia, that the seminal fluid of hybrids of horse and zebra contains no spermatozoa, that the sperm may be kept successfully in weak solutions of sodium chloride and carbonate, and that the spermatozoa show great resisting power against cold, alcohol, and other untoward conditions. By artificial insemination Iwanoff made a hybrid between a female white mouse and a male white rat. The hybrid was very large. Gastrulation in Petromyzon.f — S. Hatta describes this process in considerable detail. Amongst others he emphasizes the following peculiarities. Blastulation and gastrulation overlap each other to a great extent in the period of their occurrence. The prime cause of this belated mode of development is indisputably due to delay of segmenta- tion on account of an enormous accumulation of yolk within the ovum. " Concrescence " has not been detected at any stage. The macrospheric hemisphere has an activity of its own. " This is an important factor in bringing about the gastrulation in Petromyzon. That such is the case in the Petromyzon ovum, which contains a much larger quantity of yolk than the frog's ovum, and that there is no yolk plug in the former, are very striking facts." To explain this the author assumes that the frog's ovum is secondarily holoblastic, as has already been maintained by Mitsukuri. Determining Factors in Metamorphosis of Anura.$ — P. Wintrebert deals with the bearing of pulmonary respiration on this problem. He finds that in tadpoles of Rana temporaria artificially prevented from exercising this function, metamorphosis is not prevented, although it is delayed. The want of the exercise of the lungs does not prevent their development. At the end of transformation larva?, which up till then have not breathed by their lungs, when transported into open water do not try by taking in surface-air to remedy the asphyxia caused by the atrophy of the branchiae. In particular, when their fore-limbs have no support they do not try by hind-limb movements to keep their heads above water. The absorption of the tail is more complete if the water is abundantly renewed. The tadpoles of R. temporaria die in the same current in which Alytes obstetricans metamorphoses and survives. In this latter form cutaneous respiration in an aquatic medium suffices for blood aeration. Experiments with Tadpoles. §— P. Wintrebert finds that lame of Rana temporaria, transported from water to air, undergo precocious metamorphosis. The gills and tail atrophy, being useless. The para- lysed tail becomes a mere skeleton, but keeps its form. It seems that the abnormal degeneration of the gills and the tail, and the precocious * Arch. Sci. Biol., xii. (1907) 135 pp., 6 figs. See also Zool. Zentralbl., xiv. (1907) pp. 603-4. t Journ. Coll. Sci. Univ. Tokyo, xxi. (1907) Art. 2, pp. 1-44 (3 pis.). % C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) pp. 1154-6. § Op. cit., lxiii. (1907) pp. 403-5. ZOOLOGY AMU BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, KTC. 25 reduction of the alimentary canal, furnish a large amount of absorbed material, and this perhaps hastens the definitive development of the limbs and the formation of the spiracular opening. Experiments with Axolotls.* — P. Wintrebert describes his method of transforming axolotls into amblystomas in an inclined aquarium with an aquatic portion and a relatively dry portion, and with some sponges forming an intermediate area. He tried Powers' method of leaving the axolotls in the water, and suddenly stopping the food supply after a period of super-abundant nutrition. But no transformation was effected in this way. A modification of Marie von Chauvin's method, as above suggested, is usually effective. The importance of the environmental factor has been exaggerated ; the hereditary influence is paramount. Segments of Head and Brain in Gull.f — A. Meek has studied embryos of the Lesser Blackbacked Gull (Larus fuscus). He dis- tinguishes in the prosencephalon three regions or " prosomeres," in the mesencephalon two regions or " mesomeres," and in the rhombencephalon thirteen " rhombomeres." Seven head somites are clearly represented in the gull, but the author finds reasons for concluding that the total number of segments -was lbh. The probable relation of these to the ganglia is indicated. According to the author, the mixed dorsal nerves " were primarily, and are still, largely developed from a series of inter- segmental ectodermal ganglia, and the connection with the brain and spinal cord is a secondary one. The ganglia became connected together by longitudinal commissures forming a chain of ganglia on each side, and extending to a common meeting place in front of the brain — at all events, in the Cyclostomes. Those in the body lost their connection with the spinal cord, but retained their relationship with the ectoderm, thus forming the nerve and organs of the lateral line." " In the head region the ganglia and the nerves arising from them attained a con- spicuous development, establishing the organs of sense, the sensory, and, with few exceptions, the motor nervous system of the region, and extending in certain cases beyond it.'1 The author sees reasons for concluding that " an early transitory attempt at a lateral line formation takes place in the gull, in other birds, reptiles, and mammals." Development of the Alimentary Canal in the Trout. i- — Sophie Egounoff describes the development of the various regions of the trout's alimentary canal. The oesophagus arises from a solid endodermic tract, surrounded by a mesodermic sheath ; its anterior and posterior regions develop differently. The stomach is also solid to start with. In both oesophagus and gullet, the connective tissue, the circular muscles, the longitudinal muscles develop in the order in wbich these are named. The intestine becomes hollow first, and remains long in the form of a cylindrical tube lined by simple cylindrical epithelium. After the intestine has assumed its definitive structure, the pyloric appendages arise by the evagination of the wall. * C.R Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 521 3. + Anat. Anzeig., xxxi. (1907) pp. 408-15 (5 figs.). J Rev. Suisse Zool., xv. (1907) pp. 19-74 (2 pis.). 26 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO b. Histology. Intercellular Connections in Fowl's Egg.* — E. A. Andrews describes bridges of clear protoplasm passing from cell to cell across the cleavage furrows of a young blastoderm, and between cells in the super- ficial layer and deep-lying cells. Whether in the normal living blasto- derm of the fowl's egg there are such cell-connections, and whether they serve to establish physiological communication, remains to be demonstrated, but the supposition that such phenomena are general seems increased by this case. Microbioids of the Purple Gland of Murex brandaris. f — R. Dubois obtained in an alcoholic extract of this gland peculiar doubly refractive droplets like Lehmann's " cells " ; they can give rise spontaneously to " musculoid " fibres. They go through " une veritable evolution," becoming more regularly spheroidal, acquiring a nucleus and a nucleolus, and they develop reddish-brown pigment. They give off pseudopodia (or should one not say pseudo-pseudopodia ?) with apparent spontaneity. Matrix Tissue. J — F. K. Studnicka describes various forms of " Grundsubstanzgewebe," or matrix tissue : — The- young dental papilla in Selachians, the corium and mucus-cartilage of Ammocoetes, the corium and subcutaneous gelatinous layer in the lancelet and Lophius, the pericerebral tissue in Lophius and Ophidium, and the gelatinous and hyaline tissue in the skeleton of Lophius and Orthagoriscus. The matrical substances may arise through the direct modification of the protoplasm of a reticulate embryonic tissue, and may be directly exoplasmic (tooth-papillae of Selachians). The matrical substances may arise not only between individual cells, but also between cell-layers of the embryo, as if they had an intercellular origin. It is highly probable that they arise from structures which resemble the intercellular parts or walls of epithelium, and it is certain that in these cases they are exoplasmic (gelatinous tissue of Amphioxus and Lophius, supporting lamellae and some gelatinous tissue in Ccelentera). The " Grundsubstanzgewebe " may remain without cells, growing and nourishing itself independently, and forming new tonolibrils in its interior (gelatinous tissue of Amphioxus and the vitreous humour). In other cases it may include cells (gelatinous tissue of Lophius, sheaths of the notochord). Finally, there are cases in which an originally cellular matrix-tissue may secondarily lose its cells, and yet remain capable of nutrition and formative processes (filling tissue in the bones of Lophius and Orthagoriscus). Striped MuscleJ — K. Hiirthle describes some interesting observations on striped muscle, made with a view of reaching some definite view as to the nature of the contractile substance. We can only refer to a few points. Kuhne's observation of the movements of a living Nematode * Johns Hopkins Univ. Circular, No. 3 (1907) pp. 9-15 (2 pis.). + C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) pp. 435-8. j Anat. Anzeig., xxxi. (1907) pp. 497-522 (15 figs.). § Biol. Centralbl., xxvii. (1907) pp. 112-27. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 27 withiu a muscle-fibre suggests that the fibrils are firm elastic threads, which were thrust to the side by the worm's movements. If the contractile substance is fluid, it should be affected by gravity, unless the capillary forces are sufficient to antagonise this. An ingenious experi- ment with a centrifugal machine showed that rotations of 1200-1400 per minute did not affect the distribution of the contractile substance, though the force was some 400 times greater than that of gravity. When a fresh fibre is cut with a sharp knife, nothing exudes, and this is surely against the assumption of a fluid contractile substance. But the view that the fibrils are firm elastic threads also present difficulties, especially as to the formation of the transverse disks. Hurthle asks consideration for the idea of functional transverse connections, which appear in certain functional conditions of the muscle and disappear in others. In the process of contraction there may be a strengthening of the framework. If the muscle is regarded as an elastic band, its modulus of elasticity is much lower than occurs in any inanimate body. With Briicke, we must still say " Der Aggregatzustand des lebenden Muskels ist ein Geheimnis eigentlimlicher Art." Tetrads in Somatic Cells.* — Paolo della Yalle has found distinct " tetrads " in various somatic cells of larval salamanders and in the root of the pea. In the metaphase of some mitoses, among the other chromosomes, there are typical tetrads with granular or elongated elements. The author regards the occurrence of tetrads as quite accidental. It is seen whenever a chromosome, with a transversal splitting, divides at the metaphase and the two halves are not separated towards the two poles. It has nothing to do with the re-union of homologous chromosomes. Secretion of Mammary Glands.f — F. Bertkau maintains that the formation of milk is purely a secretory process, and that there is no necrobiosis of any kind on the part of the secretory epithelium. Those who have described necrobiotic processes have been deceived by imperfect technique. The cells, like the muscle-cells of sweat glands, between the membrana propria and the epithelium of the glandular alveoli, are true smooth muscle-cells. Vindication of the Neuron Theory 4 — S. R. Cajal states the case for the neuron theory of His and Forel. He brings forward a series of facts, based on the study of nerve-regeneration, which support the histo- genetic theory of His and Kupffer. He follows that with a statement of the arguments based on embryonic neurogenesis. The result is a convincing vindication of the neuron theory. The illustrations of the paper are remarkably fine. Valves in the Veins of a Frog.§ — E. Suchard finds that there are numerous sigmoid valves in the veins of Rana escuUnta. They are comparable to those of Mammals, and are perfectly developed. They * Atti R. Accad. Sci. Napoli, xiii. (1907) 39 pp. (1 pi.). + Anat. Anzeig., xxx. (1907) pp. 161-80 (7 figs.). j Tom. cit., pp. 113-44 (24 figs.). § C.R. Soc. Biol. Pans, lxii. (1907) pp. 452-3. 28 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO usually occur in pairs, sometimes in threes. The femoral valve which Grruby described in 1 Mi' occurs in the femoral vein before its anasto- mosis with the external iliac. That which Gruby described at the con- fluence of the three tributaries of the superior vena cava is really a complicated system of sigmoid valves. Valves also occur in the toad. Glandular Endothelium of Lymphatic Canals and Renal Capilla- ries in Tadpoles.* — L. Bruntz finds that these elements are true nephro- cytes, comparable cytologically and physiologically to the nephrocytes of Invertebrates, such as the branchial nephrocytes of Crustaceans and the pericardial nephrocytes of Insects. Minute Structure of the Internal Ear.f — W. Kolmer has investi- gated this subject in the pig, calf, goat, and horse, and describes the histology of the ductus cochlearis, Corti organ, stria vascularis, Reisner's membrane, and membrana tectoria. In general the structure of the auditory organ corresponds in these larger mammals, both anatomically and histologically, with the descriptions given by other authors for smaller mammals. In all the forms examined, Held's support apparatus of the Corti organ could be demonstrated with essentially the same structure. Stress in particular is laid upon the " Horhaaren " and their relations in the cochlea, macula? and crista?, which according to Piper have to do with hearing: rather than with static orientation. i& Regeneration of Cross - striped Muscle in Vertebrata4 — A. Schmiucke reviews the literature on this subject and gives an account of his own researches on Ichthyopsida. For example, in Triton tceniatus and T. cristatus regeneration goes on by means of sarcoplasts, which are transformed into long spindle-like elements ; by amitotic nuclear increase syncytial bands arise rich in nuclei and give rise to young muscle fibres. The greater part of the muscle fibres is formed by superposition and confluence of the long spindle elements which have arisen from the sar- coplasts. The mode of nuclear divisions in muscle regeneration is mitotic and in the isolated sarcoplasts amitotic. In fishes regeneration sets in late, in the frog relatively early, in newt, tree-frog and turtle after a longer time. In extent it takes place very slightly in fishes, it goes further in the frog and tree-frog, but only in newts can it be regarded as anything like complete. Observations on the Living Developing Nerve-fibre.§ — Ross G. Harrison has been able to watch what takes place in the end of a growing nerve, and finds that the nerve-fibre develops by the outflowing of protoplasm from the central cells. The protoplasm retains its amoeboid activity at its distal end, the result being that it is drawn out into a long thread, which becomes the axis cylinder. No other cells or living structures take part in the process. The development of the nerve fibre is thus brought about by means of one of the very primitive properties of living protoplasm, amoeboid * Arch. Zool. Exper., vii. (1907) Notes et Revue, No. 4, pp. cxi.-xiv. t Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxx. (1907) pp. 695-767 (4 pis.). % Verh. Phys. Med. Gesell. Wiirzburg, xxxix. (1907) pp. 15-130 (1 pi.). § Amer. Journ. Anat., vii. (1907) pp. 116-18. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 29 movement, which though probably common to some extent to all the cells of the embryo, is especially accentuated in the nerve-cells at this period of development. One of his devices was to excise a piece of medullary cord about 4 or 5 segments long from an embryo frog, and to replace this by a cylindrical clot of blood or lymph of the proper length and calibre. Xo difficulty was experienced in healing the clot into the embryo in proper position. After 2 to 4 days the specimens were preserved and sectioned. It was found that the funicular fibres from the brain and anterior part of the cord, consisting of naked axones without sheath cells, had grown for a considerable distance into the clot. Central Nervous System of Cyclostomes.* — G. Sterzi has pub- lished the first instalment of a treatise on the central nervous system of Vertebrates. He deals with Petromyzon, Myxine, and Homea, dis- cussing exhaustively not only the nervous system, but the associated skeleton, membranes, and vessels. c. General. Sense of Touch in Mammals and Birds.f — W. Kidd has made a careful anatomical study of the palmar and plantar surfaces of a large number of mammals and of a few birds, with special reference to the presence and the pattern of the papillary ridges. He finds that the papillary ridges (which are found chiefly in Primates) are to be regarded as primarily tactile in function, and only secondarily as adaptations to prevent slipping. Thus they occur in places where they cannot possibly help in prehension, e.g. on the extensor surface of the terminal phalanges in Lemur brunneus. Further, the pattern is in many cases such that the ridges cannot possibly tend to prevent slipping, either in walking or prehension. The increasing complexity in pattern, which finds its climax in the terminal phalanges of the human hand, is to be regarded as an adaptation for increasing the delicacy of the touch. Whorls are a further develop- ment of loops and arches. The degree of development of the papilla? of the corium depends greatly upon the importance to the animal of the tactile sense ; thus lemurs have very highly developed papilla, and so also have many birds, for whom maintenance of equilibrium is a daily necessity. Hand and Foot in Hylobates agilis4 —Duncan C. L. Fitzwilliams describes these with reference to form and function, indicating the differences between them and the hands and feet of man. In Hylobates the fingers are capable of flexion and adduction to the middle line, but have little tendency to oppose the thumb, and transverse and longi- tudinal creases are therefore met with. In man, opposition of the thumb to the fingers is one of the most prominent characteristics of the hand, and the creases, in consequence, are oblique. There is much * II sistema nervoso centrale dei Yertebrati. I. Ciclostomi (Padova, 1907) xiii. and 731 pp., 194 figs. t The Sense of Touch in Mammals and Birds. London, 1907, 176 pp., 164 figs. X Ann. Nat. Hist. cxvi. (1907) pp. 155-61. 30 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO less resemblance between a man's and a gibbon's foot than there is between their hands. In fact, the foot of the gibbon more closely resembles the human hand than the human foot. Pattern of Cubs of Lions and Pumas.* — R. I. Pocock finds that bhe patterns of the cubs of lions and pumas are specific characters. These species usually described as uniformly coloured, were formerly marked as their cubs are marked, and in no other way. The pattern of lion cubs is intermediate between the spotted pattern of leopards or jaguars and the striped pattern of tigers. From this it may be inferred that leopards (including jaguars), lions, and tigers are nearly related one to another. On the assumption that spots preceded transverse stripes in evolution, it may also be inferred that the stripes of tigers originated from the fusion of rosettes into transverse chains, as Bonavia main- tained. The pattern of puma cubs affords no support to the belief that pumas are nearly allied either to leopards or lions : it rather suggests that pumas may be regarded as large self-coloured representatives of one of the groups of smaller species of Felis, in the same way that lions may be regarded as large and otherwise modified representatives of a group exemplified by leopards. African Mungooses4 — R. C. Wroughton supplies notes on the various known forms of the section of the Herpestinas— usually known as the Herpestes gracilis group— which are small mungooses with a dark tail-tip, usually black, rarely brown. They vary in size and colour, and occur all over Africa. Four groups of species are recognised, and a diagnostic key is given to the sixteen forms which are distinguished. Geographical Races of Lesser Horse-shoe Bat.J — Knud Andersen adduces evidence to show that there are three distinct races of Rhino- lophus hipposiderus. There is a small southern form {Rh. h. minimus) distributed, broadly speaking, over the Mediterranean sub-region, south- eastwards to Sennaar and Keren ; a large northern form {Rh. hippo- siderus) ranging from the extreme north-west Himalayas (Gilgit) through north-west Persia and Armenia, over the whole of central Europe, north of the Balkans and the Alps ; and a form {Rh. h. mimitus) ap- parently confined to England, Wales, and Ireland. Recently, M. Mottaz has suggested that the two Continental forms are not distinct races, but represent sexual differences only. This view is shown to be incorrect. An interesting point is that the author in an earlier contribution on this subject predicted the existence of intermediate forms in border districts, e.g. south-west Switzerland, and such forms he has now obtained from Geneva. Enigmatical Tooth. — Maurice de Rothschild and Henry Neuville describe in great detail a peculiar tooth from East Africa. It bears some resemblance to the abnormal tusk of an elephant, but the authors cannot accept this interpretation. They conclude that it belonged to * Ann. Nat. Hist., cxix. (1907) pp. 436-45 (2 pis.). t Op. cit., cxvi. (1907) pp. 110-21. % Op. cit., cxix. (1907) pp. 384-9. § Arch. Zool. Exper., vii. (1907) pp. 271-333 (3 pis. and 34 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 31 some unknown large African mammal, recently extinct, or still repre- sented by living specimens, and that this unknown animal was closely related to the Proboscidea. " Semper aliquid novi ex Africa" remains true. Genital Organs of Bradypodidse.* — Remy Perrier describes these, with especial reference to the mode of fixation. In general, he concludes that the persistence of the testes in the abdominal cavity is primitive in Edentates and not a secondary return to an ancestral condition, and that the Edentates are not related to any other order of Placentals, but represent an independent stock dating from the early differentiation of the Placentals into orders. Brain of Hatteria punctata.f — Julia Gisi has made a detailed study of the brain of this interesting reptile. In form and structure it closely resembles the Lacertilian brain. It is more primitive as regards the position and paired differentiation of the cerebellum, in the development of the cortical plates of the cerebrum, in the simple structure of the velum medullare anticum, and the slight thickening of the medulla. The tracts of the nerve-fibres are in general like those in other reptiles, but there are some secondary and quantitative deviations from the Lacertilian type, e.g. as regards the commissura mollis and the stronger posterior commissure. Resemblances to Amphibians are seen in the origins of the 5th, 7th and 8th nerves, and in the independent course of the glosso-pharyngeal and the separated frontal vagus portion. But it must be noted that some of the peculiarities of form and propor- tion, which distinguish the brain of Hatteria, are expressions of growth- adjustments in correlation with the sense-organs and the like, and do not reveal much as to the systematic position of the animal. A relatively primitive position is indicated by the rich development of the epithelial regions, such as the roof of the third ventricle. A median section shows that the thickening of the nervous regions of the brain is relatively slight, and the development of the glandular parts is highly specialised. Notes on South African Chameleons.} — G. B. Longstaff and E. B. Poulton make some observations on colour change in several species of chamasleons. The suggestion is made that in Ghamcdeon dilqns there is a dry season hibernation during which the colours are steadfast. The most interesting point recorded is that when Cpumiliis is subjected to unilateral illumination, the side in deep shadow assumes a brighter tint than that towards the light, which takes on a relatively dark colour. This has the effect of neutralising the shadow on the one side and toning down the high illumination of the other, so that all appearance of solidity is dissipated. Anatomy of Heart in Frog and Turtle. § — J. Dogiel gives an account of the muscles and nerves of the heart in Rana esculenta and Emys caspica. In the frog auricles, ventricle and bulbus, the muscles * Ami. Sci. Nat. (Zool.) v. (1907) pp. 1-37 (2 pis. and 6 figs.), t Zool. Jahrb., xxv. (1907) pp. 71-236 (1 pi. and 21 figs.). X Journ. Linn. Soc, xxx. (1907) pp. 45-8. § Arch. Mikr. inat., lxx. (1907) pp. 780-97 (2 pis. and 11 figs.). 32 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO consist of reticulate bundles of different thicknesses united together, and all apparently consisting of cross-striped elements. The muscles of the sinus-forming veins are grouped in bundles running in various directions ; these are smooth -muscle elements. Between the auricles and the ventricle is an intermediate zone in which neither cross-striped nor smooth-muscle fibres are to be found. Nerves and nerve-cells occur in the veins constituting the sinus, in the auricles, the ventricle, and near the bulbus, and further there is a well developed network on the upper surface of the bulbus. In the turtle the distribution is somewhat similar, but the majority of the nerve-cells occur in the region of the liga- mentum atrio-ventriculare, where this ligament joins on the ventricular base and beside its origin in the auricles. The nerve-fibres run parallel to the muscle-fibres and sometimes penetrate deeply between bundles. The view is thereby suggested that a single nerve-fibre in its course innervates several muscle-fibres and excites them to contraction. Production of Albinism and Melanism in Frogs.* — G. Tornier has experimented with larvae of Pelobates fuscus, and finds that a minimum diet of flesh results in albino frogs, that a maximum produces melanism, and that reddish and greyish colours can be evoked at will by regulating the food-supply. Fishes of Lake Baikal.f — L. S. Berg describes the skeleton of Procottus jeittehi and other Cottidae from Lake Baikal, and discusses the osteology of Cottocornephoridge and Cornephoridre. He gives a synopsis of these three families of Baikal Cataphracti and discusses the systematic position of the various types. A list is given of all the fishes known to occur in the lake, ?>4 in all. Of these there are 17 which are general in Siberian fresh waters, and 17 which are endemic. The en- demic species may be divided into two sets, (a) those which are nearly related to species widely distributed in Siberia (Sal mo alpinus eryfhrinus, Coregonus migratorius, Thymallus arcticus bakalensis, Gottus kneri and C. kessleri) ; (b) those which are quite unique (the sub-family Abysso- cottini, the family Cottocornephoridas, and the family Comephorida?). There are no forms in the Siberian waters, nor in the Arctic Ocean, nor in the Pacific, which come near to these ; thus the absence of a post-clavicle in the Baikal Cataphracti is distinctive. These peculiar forms live at greater depths than any other fresh-water fishes, for they descend to depths of 1600 metres. They are not, the author maintains, relicts of previous geological periods, nor immigrants from the Arctic or the Pacific Ocean, they are sui generis, and have arisen as such in Lake Baikal during its long geological history. They are very ancient forms, very divergent from typical Cottidas, and their resemblances to marine forms are due to convergence. Buccal Incubation in Arius fissus.J — 0. and V. J. Pellegrin com- municate some very interesting facts in connection with the care of the young in this species from the coast of French Guiana, which may be * Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 284-8. f Zoolog. Untersuch. am Baikal-See, Lief. iii. (St. Petersburg and Berlin, 1907) 75 pp. (5 pis. and 15 figs.). X Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 350-2. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 33 briefly summarised. In the female the eggs are to be found in three different stages of development ; the number ripening at one time is about twenty. The male takes these in his mouth, where they remain until after hatching, until, in fact, the yolk sac is absorbed. During the whole of this incubation period the male is condemned to fasting. Food of Plaice and Dabs.* — James Johnstone, as the result of the examination of the stomachs of 114 plaice and 146 dabs caught in the same hauls, has made out an interesting contrast in the matter of their feeding. The dab is an omnivorous feeder, taking anything on the sea bottom from a sprat to a zoophyte, but nevertheless indicating a preference for particular food-animals such as Ophiuroids, crabs, and Lamellibranchs. In the case of the plaice, by far the commonest food- animals appear to be Lamellibranchmolluscs, e.g. Solen. Next in importance come the Polychaste worms, which very seldom afford an exclusive food for the plaice, but are nearly always associated with Lamellibranchs. Both errant and tubicolous forms are eaten. Ophiuroids afford a very exceptional food. In the consideration of the commoner food-animals eaten by each species there is a probable explanation of the ubiquity of the dab as compared with the plaice. Some interesting com- ments are made on the relation of the food supplies to the migrations of fishes. Teleostean Abnormalities.! — James Johnstone describes an herm- aphrodite hake from the West of Ireland. Both ovaries are present and apparently normal, but at the posterior end of each is a testis, which is well developed and larger than the ovary to which it is attached. At the place of union the lumina of the ovaries are continuous with those of the proximal part of the testes. The probability is that the fish was a functional male. The same paper contains an account of a Trigla yurnardus with an abnormal lower jaw. The mouth is reduced to a small crescentic slit, and both jaws are quite immovable. The chief modification of the skull consists in the dwarfing of the bones of the lower jaw. There is no apparent angulare, but this is perhaps ossified with the articulare. This element is greatly altered in form, having its long axis dorsiventral. The lower jaw proper consists of an apparently single bone, which is a flat hoop forming the lower margin of the gape. It is probably due to the fused and completely ossified Meckelian cartilages. (Esophageal Pouches in Centrolophus niger Gmelin.J — John Rennie in a note on the function of these structures records the fact that in a specimen found off the north-east coast of Scotland they were " filled with a soft, creamy, pulpy substance, similar to the contents of the stomach and pyloric caeca," but in a less advanced stage of digestion. He suggests that those fishes possessing such pouches, Stromateidaa and Tetragonuridas, may regurgitate their food ; " and as these pouches are so very thoroughly supplied with spines, it seems possible that some sort of rumination is indulged in." * Proc. and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc, xxi. (1907) pp. 316-27 (2 charts!. t Tom. cit., pp. 309-14 (3 figs.). % Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., No. 61 (1907) pp. 216-1S. Feb. 19th, 1908 u 34 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Fish Vertebrae as Prehistoric Amulets.* — Angelo Mosso gives an account of prehistoric amulets (in the museum of the island Virginia in Lake Varese) which consist of the vertebra? of the pike and of a shark. Nervous Lobe of the Hypophysis and the Vascular Sac.§--L. Gentes points out that the vascular sac or infundibular gland is inde- pendent of the nervous lobe of the hypophysis. They are adjacent dependencies of the wall of the infundibulum, but they are not homo- logous. They co-exist in most Teleosteans, but in Selachians the infundibular gland is seen isolated, and in most Vertebrates above fishes the nervous lobe is seen isolated. In Cyclostomes both are absent. Tunicata. Gill-slit Formation in Ascidians.J — Paul Fechner describes this in Ecteinascidia, Styelopsis, Polycyclus, and Pyrosoma. There appear to be two modes of development in Ascidians. In one the new spiracula (Kiemenspalten) arise throughout independently of those already present. In the other the definite spiracula descend from a few primary slits, from which they arise by division and splitting. After a stage with two pairs of stigmata, there occurs a quickly passing stage with three pairs (which in the later literature are characterised as primary proto- stigmata), and which become very long cross slits, taking up the whole breadth of the pharynx. From the division of each of the primary protostigmata there arise six transverse slits ■ — the secondary proto- stigmata (primary stigmata of van Beneden). By repeated division perpendicular to their length the six first transverse rows of slits arise, each having 12 to 18 spiracula. Ascidians of Californian Coast. § — W. E. Ritter gives an account of the off-shore Ascidians of the Californian region. Fourteen species are described ; the depths, geographical position, and other data as to habitat are given. Of 263 stations occupied by the ' Albatross ' from March to June, 1904, only 16 yielded Ascidians. The data obtained are rather scanty to admit of generalisations, but indications in two directions are rather strong. The off-shore Ascidian fauna is consider- ably richer south than north of Point Conception, so far as concerns the areas worked over, and the deep water along and just beyond the continental shelf is more prolific of this form of animal life than is the shallower in-shore water. Twelve of the species described are new. Homologies of the Muscles of Cyclosalpa.[| — W. K. Brooks com- municates a note on the musculature of this sub-genus of Salpa. While there is much specialisation among the muscles of the various species, there is a very complete series joining the simplest and least specialised form, the solitary S. pinnata, to the most specialised one, the aggregated * Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xlii. (1907) pp. 1162-5 (1 pi.). t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) pp. 499-501. % Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., Ixxxvi. (1907) pp. 523-56 (2 pis. and 2 figs.). § Univ. California Publications, iv. No. 1 (1907) pp. 1-52 (3 pis.). || Johns Hopkins Univ. Circular, No. 3 (1907) pp. 173-4. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 35 S. floridana. The first six muscles are much alike in all the solitary and in all the aggregated forms. The rest of the muscles, from muscle 7 to muscle 16 are no doubt homologous in a general way, but it is impossible to follow out the homology in detail. The solitary forms are more like each other in respect to these muscles than are the aggregated forms. Structure of Salpa.* — Miguel Fernandez describes in young chains of Salpa africana-maxima a papilla-like organ with a ridged surface, which projects from the pharynx into the mantle, on the dorsal surface between the ganglion and the anterior attaching disk. It is larger in proportion to the youth of the chain, and it disappears in the adult. It consists of connective-tissue with inclosed cavities, and is traversed by nerves from the ganglion. Its import is quite obscure. A similar organ occurs under the anterior end of the endostyle, at a short distance from its end, and rather to one side. IN VERTEB RATA. Nitrogen Metabolism in Marine Invertebrates.* — Luigi Sanzo has investigated this subject. He finds in the blood, tissues, and perivisceral fluid of marine Invertebrates a substance (yielding nitrogen with sodium hypobromite) which serves for the preparation of urea from the blood and tissues of Vertebrates. This substance gives all the characteristic reactions of urea, so that until the contrary is proved it may be regarded as identical. In the Mollusca and Crustacea investigated this substance is more abundant in the liver than in the muscles, and in these more so than in the nerivisceral fluid ; it is three times more abundant in the liver of Sepia than in the same organ of Aplysia. This may be corre- lated with the feeding, as Sepia feeds on marine animals and Aplysia on alga?. In Echinoderms the percentage content is very slight, and is three times as great in the Echinoidea as in the Holothuroidea. Identification of Chitin by its Physical Constants.* — Igerna B. J. Sollas points out that the chemical identification of chitin by its characteristic decomposition product, the amido-derivative of sugar known as chitosamin, is often inapplicable because of the small amount available. She has therefore tried to find a method of identifying chitin by determining its physical constants. The specific gravity of chitin from various sources approximates to the value l-398, a number which represents the specific gravity of chitin precipitated from its solution in strong acid. The refractive index lies between the limits 1-550 and 1-557. The bristles of Lumbricus, the pupal skin of Pieris and other Lepidoptera, the radula of Mollusca, and the shell of Sepia, when freed from mineral matter and easily soluble organic substances, have specific gravities and refractive indices which lie between the same limits as those of chitin from various sources. * Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 321-8 (6 figs.). t Biol. Centralbl., xxvii. (1907) pp. 479-91. X Proc. Roy. Soc. Londou, Series B, lxxix. (1907) pp. 474-81. D 2 36 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Mollusca. Latent Segmentation in Molluscs.* — Werner Marchand finds hints of latent metamerism in the four gills of Nautilus, in the four gonads of some bivalves (such as Poromya), in the ccelom pouches, and so on, and infers that the ancestral molluscs had at least three segments — a head segment and two gonadial segments, with separate ducts. He favours Gunther's suggestion that Chgetognatha are related to the ancestral stock from which Molluscs arose, and concludes by maintaining (what his paper at least can hardly be said to warrant) that " we have every reason for speaking of a latent segmentation in molluscs." a. Cephalopoda. Hectocotylisation and Luminosity in Cuttlefishes. f — W. E. Hoyle, in his Presidential Address to the Zoological Section of the British Association, discusses some questions suggested by the study of Cephalopods. Attention is first directed to hectocotylisation, and a useful list of genera is given showing the position of the hectocotylised arm or arms, where this peculiar modification occurs. In this connec- tion he discusses the systematic value of this character, for in every family (with one exception, Sepiolidse) the position of the hectocotylised arm is constant within the limits of the family. The position of Spirula forms the next subject of inquiry. It is regarded as the repre- sentative of a distinct family, and it is not unlikely that it may one day become the type of a division co-equal with Myopsida and (Egopsida. The genera Idiosepius, Sepiadarium, and Sepioloidea are then discussed. It is concluded that the position of the hectocotylised arm is not by itself a sufficient guide to the systematic position of doubtful forms. After discussing Jaeckel's view that the Orthoceras type was firmly attached, and that Belemnites were anchored in the mud, the author proceeds to the luminous organs. These have now been observed in 29 out of about 70 genera of Decapods, and have been found to present a most interesting variety in position and structure. A valuable list is given of the luminous Cephalopods, with bibliographical references, and with notes on the position of the organ, which may occur in nine different situations. It may be noted that the luminous organs are practically confined to the ventral surface of the animal. Another remarkable fact is the existence of organs concealed beneath the mantle and beneath the integument covering the eyeball, which can only be effective by reason of the transparency of the tissues in the living creature. The organs may be glandular or non-glandular, and the latter may be simple, without special optical apparatus, or complex, with more or fewer of the following structures : pigment layer, reflector, lens, and diaphragm. These organs occur in so many and such scattered families that their origin must be polyphyletic. Even in the same species they are not all on the same plan. It is plausible to suppose that they serve as recognition marks, and that they act as searchlights playing over the ground. The production of the light is a phenomenon * Biol. Centralbl., xxvii. (1907) pp. 721-8. f Rep. Brit. Assoc, 1907, 20 pp. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 37 parallel to the production of heat in a contracting muscle, or of electric discharges in the Torpedo. Very noteworthy is the remarkable economy of the illuminant ; a perfectly infinitesimal proportion of the energy expended is wasted on the production of heat. Liver of Cuttlefishes.* — L. Cuenot finds that the liver includes, apart from indifferent replacement-cells, two types : — (1) Goblet safranophilous cells with fat globules (often inclosing a yellow magma with crystals) ; and (2) vacuolar cells. The vacuoles and the magmas are periodically ejected. The vacuolar cells are proved by experiment to be excretory, and they also arrest pigments added to the food. Thus the liver is an absorbing organ — the chief absorbing organ, as in other Invertebrates. In the spiral caecum fats are absorbed, but nothing else. Octopus with Branching Arms.f — Edgar A. Smith gives a descrip- tion of a Cephalopod from Japan, in which five of the eight arms branch more than once, and that irregularly. Such forking appears to be of rare occurrence. The species is that described as Polypus cephea Gray, from a single specimen, now in the British Museum. New Cephalopods from the Irish Coast.! — A. L. Massy describes Polypus profundkula sp. n., which appears to be very nearly allied to Octopus eryasticus Fischer, particularly in the form of the hectocotylised arm ; P. normani sp. n., a graceful form taken at 710 fathoms ; and HelkocraucMa pfefferi g. et sp. n., a minute form with large, oval, pedunculate fins attached to the end of the dorsal surface, and with an extremely large siphon. The occurrence of several other forms not hitherto recorded for British and Irish waters is noted. y. Gastropoda. Reproduction in Snails. § — J. Meisenheimer has made an elaborate study of the bionomics of pairing in Helix pomatia. To procure material he kept snails in a terrarium, and was able to witness the process fifty times, and to secure many interesting photographs and pre- parations. Pairing takes place in May and June, reaching its maximum frequency in the first half of June. Snails in search of mates may be seen to creep slowly about, feeling from side to side, with the forepart of the body slightly raised, and to remain rigid for short periods in that attitude. When two such snails meet, they raise themselves up so that almost the whole base of the foot is apposed, only the hinder part of it and the shell supporting the animal on the ground. This is the charac- teristic attitude, which is maintained throughout the whole process. Breathing is rapid, undulatory movements pass through the foot con- tinually, mouth-papilas and horns are in a state of constant activity, and the whole organism betrays signs of excitement. This preparatory stage is short, and both snails sink downwards in apparent exhaustion. After a pause of about half-an-hour, excitement again becomes manifest, and the movements recommence. One snail usually shows more activity * Arch. Zool. Exper., vii. (1907) pp. 227-45 (1 fig.). + Ann. Nat. Hist., cxix., (1907) pp. 407-10. J Tom. cit., pp. 377-84. § Zool. Jahrb., xxv. (1907) pp. 461-502 (3 pis., 4 figs.). 38 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO than the other, the genital region becomes visible as a whitish spot with the female opening clearly marked, and, after a series of convulsive movements, the spirillum amoris is ejected with a final exhausting effort. It was once observed that both snails discharged their darts simul- taneously, and this is said to be normal in H. nemoralis. The dart usually penetrates the margin of the foot, and the immediate effect of it is to cause increased excitement in the other snail, ending usually in the expulsion of its dart also. This phase may last for a couple of hours, and is followed by a long resting period. In the final stage the position and movements are similar, the genital tract is again prominent, and both male and female apertures are clearly visible. Many unsuccessful attempts may be made before the proper relative position, and the simultaneous extrusion of the organs have been attained, and the sper- matophore of each snail is safely deposited in the receptaculum of the other. Slowly the snails disengage themselves, the genital region is retracted, the head slightly drawn in, but the undulatory movements of the foot continue, and the snails remain together for twTo or three hours until the terminal threads of the sperrnatophores, which still connect the two, are entirely drawn in. During the whole process the snails are quite indifferent to external circumstances. Moving them about, or turning a strong light upon them did not distract them in the least. It occasionally happened that three snails met together and united in the most manifold combinations. Which two ultimately succeeded in pairing depended simply on the chances of position ; there was no hint of any- thing like selection. Some time later the snail hollows out a passage leading down to a roomy chamber in the ground, and, hanging head downwards through this passage, drops the eggs one by one on the floor of the chamber, smooths over the top of their hiding-place, and leaves them to develop. The second part of the paper deals with the morphology and physi- ology of the reproductive organs. The histology of the dart-sac and the mucous glands, and their relation to each other are described in detail. The extrusion of the dart is preceded by the outpouring of a considerable quantity of fluid from the glands. The author differs from v. Ihering and others in that he regards this fluid merely as a lubricant which facilitates the expulsion of the dart, and possibly also the entrance of the penis into the vagina. The spermatophore is an exact cast of the rele- vant male organs, due to the solidifying of the secretion of the flagellum, which is poured out just before and during the passage of the sperms from the vas deferens. The thick head part with its longitudinal ridges represents the anterior part of the penis, while the terminal thread corre- sponds exactly to the lumen of the flagellum itself. The spermatophore is formed just before and during copulation. The observer did not succeed in actually tracing the course of the spermatozoa to the upper end of the oviduct, where, within a diverticulum — the " fertilisation- sac " — the eggs are fertilised. He found numerous spermatozoa within the hermaphrodite duct, and these were in no way distinguishable from those — presumably from another animal — in the fertilisation-sac itself. The question as to their relative immaturity, as suggested by Perez, was not investigated. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 39 In regard to the development of the ovum, an interesting point is the growth after fertilisation of little papillae on the surface of the egg, to form a complete spiny covering, which degenerates again and is cast off within the oviduct. These spiny processes have been described as " pseudopod-like," and as being retracted later, but the author regards them as a protection against multiple fertilisation, and suggests that the fact that it takes this form instead of that of a mere skin-thickening may be due to " phylogenetic reminiscence." In addition to a beautiful series of photographs showing the succes- sive stages in the process of pairing, the paper is illustrated with drawings of all the internal parts, in all phases of rest and activity, extrusion and retraction. These were obtained by killing and immediately fixing snails in process of copulation. Origin of the Nematocysts of Eolidiae.* — L. Cuenot gives strong- reasons for concluding that the nematocysts of the cnidophore-sacs of Eolids do not really belong to these animals. They are not made by the cells which contain them. They come from the Ccelentera on which the Nudibranchs feed. He argues that the nematocysts pass intact through the digestive tract and enter the hepatic diverticula of the papilla? ; they reach the cnidophore-sacs and enter the " nematophagous " cells, where they are arranged so that the end by which discharge is effected is turned towards the free surface of the cell. Cuenot removed the cnidophore-sacs from some Eolids, fed some with a species of sea-anemone, and left the others fasting. In both cases the sacs were rapidly regenerated, growing in the same way as in normal development. The well-nourished Eolids had their nemato- phagous cells equipped with the nematocvsts of the sea-anemone, but the fasting Eolids showed no nematocysts. Eolids do not seem to profit much by their borrowed nematocysts, which are rendered less effective by their position within an internal sac. It is true that some fishes seem to regard Eolids as unpalatable, but it does not appear that this is because of the nematocysts. Development of Fulgur.f — E. G-. Conklin gives an account of the development of Fulgur, devoting particular attention to the influence of the large mass of yolk. The cleavage of the egg of Fulgur is, cell for cell, like that of Crejiidula up to the 56-GO cell stage, the only difference being in the relative sizes of the macromeres in these two genera. In later cleavages many more ectoderm-cells are formed in Fulgur than in Crepidula. The overgrowth of the yolk is very peculiar. By very great extension of the anterior half of the blastoderm, while the posterior half remains relatively fixed, all the organ bases are carried to the posterior margin of the blastoderm, where they form a kind of germ- ring. Subsequently the posterior margin also moves over the yolk, so that the blastopore is finally formed at the vegetal pole. Before the extension of the anterior portion of the blastoderm an apical invagination of ectoderm cells is formed, which eventually dis- * Arch. Zool. Exper., vi. (1907) pp. 73-102 (1 pi., 4 figs.). t Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1907, pp. 320-59 (G pis.). 40 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO appears. The cerebral ganglia arise on each side of the apical invagina- tion. The velar cells arise around the outer margins of the ganglia. By the rapid growth of the anterior portion of the blastoderm these organ bases are forced far apart and posteriorly until they come to lie in the posterior margin of the blastoderm, and by a continuation of the movement they are carried around to the ventral side of the embryo, where the two halves of the organs approach each other and finally unite in front of the mouth. The buccal ganglia have a somewhat similar history. All other organs arise from the median posterior portion of the blastoderm, and chiefly, if not entirely, from two " somatoblasts," strikingly like the origin of post-oral organs in Annelids. All homologous organs arise from corresponding cleavage-cells in Fulgur and Crepidula, and probably all other Gastropods. Great in- crease of yolk does not modify the type of germinal localisation, though it profoundly affects gastrulation and later stages. Structure of Californian Haliotidae.* — Clayton F. Palmer describes the structure of Haliotis rufescms and H. cracherodii, devoting especial attention to the kidneys, the two reno-pericardial canals, the circulation, and the nervous system. Development of Lung in Ampullaria depressa.t, — B. McGlone finds that the lung is a secondarily derived structure, arising as an invagination of what would become a gill filament. The osphradium is similarly a modified gill, and may be the homologue of a gill situated on the left side. Structure and Relationships of Oncidium.:}: — W. Stantschinsky gives an account of three new species of Oncidium from Queensland, and discusses the systematic relationships of the members of this genus. He finds that the sub-genus Oncis includes more primitive types, but annectent forms unify the whole genus. The absence of dorsal eyes in the species of Oncidium is due to secondary degeneration. Most of the Oncidiidas are amphibious, sometimes living in the sea, sometimes on the beach ; but some species seem to have left the water altogether, and illustrate the influence of isolation in species-forming. 8. Liamellibranchiata. Supplementary Siphon in Lutraria ellipticaj — R. Anthony de- scribes a curious abnormality in this common bivalve, namely, the occurrence of an extra siphon, arising apparently as a bud from the dorsal wall of the expiratory siphon. A section shows an external epithelium, a layer of circular muscle-fibres, a layer of longitudinal muscle-fibres, a second layer of circular muscle-fibres, a second layer of longitudinal muscle-fibres, a third layer of circular muscle-fibres, an internal epithelium, and a narrow central cavity. In other words, it has the normal structure of a siphon, but it ends blindly. * Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1907, pp. 396-407 (1 pi. and 4 figs.). t Johns Hopkins Univ. Circular, No. 3 (1907) pp. 176-9 (2 pis.). % Zool. Jahrb., xxv. (1907) pp. 353-402 (2 pis. and 3 figs.). § Arch. Zool. Exper, vii. (1907) Notes et Revue, No. 3, pp. lxxxviii.-xcii. (5 figs.) ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 41 Arthropoda. Arthropoda of British Coal Measures.* — Henry Woodward describes two king-crabs, Bellinurus daldwinisp. n. and B. longicaudatus sp. n. ; a scorpion, Eoscorpius (Mazonia) wardingleyi sp. n. : Geralinura mtcliffei, sp. n. ; and discusses a representative of Anthracomartus Karsch. a. Insecta. Injurious Insects in Ireland.! — George H. Carpenter reports on injurious insects observed in 1906 ; such as the sheep-louse (Trichodectes sj)//trroce])haltis), in regard to which he recommends a second dipping ten days after the first ; the long-horned barley-fly {Elachyptera cornuta) ; the root-gall weevil (Ceuthorhynchus plewostigma) ; the cabbage-stem- borer {Psylliodes chrysocepJtala) ; the mussel scale-insect (Jlytdasjns pomoricm) ; the pine bark-beetle (Hylurgus piniperdd) : the willow-beetle {Phgllodecta vulgatissima). Larch Shoot Moth 4 — R. Stewart MacDongall notes the occurrence in Oxfordshire of Argyrestltia {Tinea) kevigatella, which has not yet found a place on British lists. It attacks young larches, and a single caterpillar can destroy a whole shoot. An account is given of the larvas, pupa?, and adults, and of the life-history in general. The treatment suggested is to break off the affected shoots and destroy them before the escape of the moths. Grain Weevils.§— R. Stewart MacDougall discusses the external appearance, life-history, and practical importance of Calandra granaria and C. oryzce. The females lay one egg in each grain. The grub on hatching feeds on the contents of the grain, and when full fed pupates in the eaten-out hnsk. In favourable conditions the whole life-cycle can be completed in a month. The Ccdandra weevils feign death on being touched or shaken. They lie often for a considerable time refusing to show any signs of life, though handled. Movement may be induced by breathing on them. As remedial measures, fumigation with bisulphide of carbon, sieving or screening the grain, and ventilating are suggested. "&tev Life-history of Apanteles glomeratus.||--B. Matheson gives an account of the life-history of Apanteles glomeratus, a parasite on the caterpillars of the cabbage butterfly. Mating takes place ten or twelve hours after emergence from the cocoon, and the females immediately go in search of their hosts. The eggs are deposited just beneath the epidermis of the latero-ventral region of the earlier stages of the Pieris larvae, so that they are not affected by the moult. The eggs hatch in three or four days, and the larvaa feed on the lymph and fatty tissue of their hosts, avoiding the vital parts. They become mature during the larval life of their hosts and cut their wav out through the skin. In "o' * Geol. Mag., iv. (1907) pp. 539-49 (5 figs.). t Economic Proc. Rov. Dublin Soc, i. (1907) pp. 421-52 (6 pis., 11 figs.). X Journ. Board Agric, xiv. (1907) pp. 395-9 (3 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 412-15 (1 fig.). || Canadian Entomologist, 1907, pp. 205-7. 42 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO summer 50 p.c. and in autumn (>o-7.~> p.c. of the Pieris larvae examined were infested with this parasite, which has therefore considerable economic importance. Alleged Fixation of Carbon by Chrysalids.* — R. Dubois and E. Couvreur refer to Marie von Linden's conclusion that some chrysalids can utilise carbon dioxide, fixing the carbon. The authors have repeated the experiment with Pieris brassica, but without any success. Marie von Linden f responds that there is no doubt that the chrysalids of Pa/pilio podalvrius and of HylopMla prasinana become heavier in an atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide, while they become lighter in atmospheric air. What is true of these need not be true of Pieris brassim, but it may be that Dubois and Couvreur worked with too dry an atmosphere. The assimilation of C02 requires humidity. Chromosomes in Spermatogenesis of Anasa Tristes.^ — Katharine Foot and E. C. Strobell find that there are 22 spermatogonia! chromo- somes ; that none of these retain their morphological individuality throughout the growth period ; that in the early prophase the so-called odd (heterotropic) chromosome of Wilson and Montgomery (i.e. the eccentric chromosome of the later prophases, or metaphase) resembles in no way a nucleolus, and is morphologically wholly unlike the same chromosome figured by Wilson at this stage ; that the 11 chromosomes of the first spindle are all bivalents, and that the 11 chromosomes of the second spindle are all univalents ; that in both the first and second spindles one chromosome — which is believed to be the eccentric chromo- some of the late first prophase — often lags in division, but that normally its final division occurs in both spindles How Ants Find their Nest.§ — H. Pieron points out that there is considerable variety in different species. In Formica fusca, F. cinerea, F. rvfibarbis, Camponotus pubescens, etc., the orientation is predomi- nantly visual ; in Aplmnog aster barbara, A. testaceo-pilosa, etc., which are very blind, the orientation is mainly muscular ; in Lasius flaws and L. fuliginosus it is mainly olfactory. The first method admits of orientation from the greatest distance, the muscular method is only for short distances. There is most frequently a combination of methods. The olfactory method is relatively rare and never exclusively followed. Psychobiology of Humble Bees.|| — Wladimir Wagner gives an account of the pyschobiology of humble bees, in which he deals with the social instincts predominating at different periods of the life-history. He concludes that the common life of the so-called " social insects " represents neither a family, nor a herd, nor a society, and still less a state unity. The study of various forms of biological organisation in the animal kingdom shows absolutely no connection between the life of social insects and true sociality. It represents a special form of sym- * C.R. Soc.^Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) pp. 219-20. t Tom. cit., pp. 428-9. % Aruer. Journ. Anat., vii. (1907) pp. 279-316 (3 pis. and 4 figs.). § C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) pp. 216-17. | Zoologica, xix. (1907) heft 46, p. 1-239 (86 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 43 biosis of a clearly indicated parasitic character ; it lies quite apart from the evolution of sociality in the animal kingdom, with the various stages of which (assemblies, aggregations, herds, etc.) it has nothing in common. Tunisian Ants.* — F. Santschi confirms the reality of the aberrant genus Leptanilla, of which he has obtained three new species, represented by males. They are probably the smallest male ants, yet they are allied to the Dorylinse, in which some of the males (Dorylus) are peculiarly large. Santschi also reports some new and interesting cases of ergato- morphism. Solitary Wasps, t — Gr. Adlerz gives an account of a large number of solitary wasps belonging to such genera as Bumenes, Hoplomerus, Lionotus, Ancistroceros, and Odyn&rus. Forms of the Female of Papilio dardanus. % — Chr. Aurivillius describes some new forms of the very interesting polymorphic female of Papilio dardanus Brown, and takes a survey of previously recorded forms. Termitophilous Tineid Larva. § — Ivar Tragardh describes a Tineid larva from nests of RMnotermes in Zululand. The relations between the larvae and the termites are evidently of a friendly nature. When disturbed, the larva? were seen to make their way to other parts of the nest, coming along one after the other, at regular intervals, as in a procession, each larva being escorted by a few soldiers and workers. The larvae depend upon the material of the nest for food. It seems that the lateral abdominal appendages of the larva function as exuda- tion organs, emitting a strong odour which is attractive to the termites. As appendages, which appear to be homologous, occur in other Lepidopterous larvae, where their function, when known, is stated to be defensive, it is not probable that the Tineid larva has acquired them independently us an adaptation to its termitophilous life. It is more likely that their function has changed from being repulsive to being allurino; organs. ■■st Hibernation of Marasmarcha. || — T. A. Chapman finds that in this Plume Moth the newly-hatched larvae hibernate without feeding. Furthermore, without eating they are able to afford to secrete silk and spin a cocoon. The author does not know of any similar case among Lepidoptera. After prolonged search he found the cocoons in the sand surrounded by minute aggregations of sand particles. The larvae of Marasmarcha (plmodactyla, fauna, tuttidactyla), always occur on plants that form a considerable mass, and it seems likely that the young larvae form their hibernating cocoons amongst the dead leaves and other material of the plant close to the ground, and not on the plant itself, but have, owing to the density of the plant, little difficulty in finding a growing point when they come out in the spring. * Rev. Suisse Zool., xv. (1907) p. 305-34 (7 figs.). t Arkiv Zool., iii. (1907) No. 17, pp. 1-64. % Tom. cit,, No. 23, pp. 1-7 (2 pis.). § Tom. cit., No. 22, pp. 1-7 (1 pi.) [|j Trans. Entomol. Soc. London, 1907, pp. 411-14 (1 pi.) 44 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Life-history of Cydemon (Urania) leilus. * — L. Gruppy, jun., has studied the life-history of this moth in Trinidad. The spherical eggs with longitudinal ribs are laid on the undersides of leaves, usually singly or in pairs; the larvae, with sixteen legs, are particularly active and spring madly about when touched ; after the first moult eight long black hairs appear on the body, and these increase in number with successive moults ; the yellowish-brown glossy pupa lies inside a roomy cocoon of yellowish-red silk ; the transformations occupy nearly six weeks, of which two are in the pupa stage. The larvae usually feed from the underside of a leaf ; when alarmed they drop immediately by a silken thread and remain suspended until the alarm is over ; in locomotion they often lower themselves in a similar way. The haunts of the moth are probably in the forests of Venezuela, whence it migrates annually to Trinidad. Human Myiasis due to (Estrus Ovis.f — Edmond and Etienne Sergent give au account of a human myiasis very common in some mountainous parts of Algeria, where there are fewer sheep than men. The disease is called " Thim'ni," and it is due to the larva? of the sheep bot-fly which live in the facial cavities, producing painful and serious inflammation. Migrations of Hypoderma Bovis Larva in Ox. J — H. Jost gives a remarkable account of the wanderings of the larva of this fly in the tissues of the ox in the course of its development. The eggs, laid upon the skin, are licked off and enter the alimentary canal. About the junction of the gullet and stomach the young larva? are hatched. They penetrate into the submucosa of the gullet, wandering here in abundance during several months (July to November). They then migrate by way of the diaphragm, kidneys, intermuscular connective tissue of the lumbar muscles, vessels, and nerve strands to the vertebrae, passing into the vertebral canal, where they stay usually between December and May. Subsequently the larva? wander through between the vertebra? and pass by way of the intermuscular connective-tissue of the back muscles to the subcutis, which is to be regarded as the last chief place of their assembling. They occur here from January up till July. The "bots" are pathological new formations of connective tissue, and the lining of the exit channel arises by a proliferation of the epidermis cells. Viviparity in Ephemerida?.§ — Carl Bernhard has investigated this subject, with particular reference to Chloeon dipterum. Amongst other results he has arrived at are the following: general conclusions. An Ephemerid is oviparous (1) when in each oviduct several eggs are formed in succession (polyoistic), which then after each other enter the calyx partly during the nymphal and subimaginal life : (2) when the eggs are enveloped in a strong chitinous chorion. An Ephemerid is viviparous * Trans. Entoraol. Soc, pp. 405-10 (2 pis.). t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxi. (1907) pp. 392-9. X Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxvi. (1907) pp. 641-715 (1 pi. and 3 figs.). § Biol. Centralbl., xxvii. (1907) pp. 467-79. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 45 (1) when in each oviduct only one egg is formed (monoistic), which is first observed in the calyx in the imago ; (2) when the eggs are surrounded by a thin, soft, and non-chitinous chorion. The author shows that these characters are related to the different modes of repro- duction. It appears that the larvae of no other Ephemerid are so widely distributed nor so numerous as those of Chloeon dipterum, in spite of the smaller number of eggs in this species. This would seem to indicate that here a smaller number succumb during development than in oviparous species. Autotomy in Orthoptera.* — H. Pieron describes protective reflex autotomy in Mantis religiosa, Empusa egena, GryMus campestris, Nemobius silvestris, various Locustidas and Acrididre, and Forfimla auricularia. Excretion in Apterygota.f — Jur. Philiptschenko deals with the excretory and phagocytary organ of CtenoUpisma lineata F. as a con- tribution to the study of this subject. This species possesses three kinds of excretory structures, viz., the urinary cells of the fat body, the Malpighian vessels and pericardial cells, and a peculiar phagocytary organ, the pericardial septum. In this respect this insect approaches those Orthoptera which possess a permanent phagocytary organ, but between the two types there is nevertheless a whole series of far-reaching differences. &. Onychophora. Monograph on Onychophora.:}: — E. L. Bouvier continues his mono- graphic account of the Onychophora, the present instalment beginning the description of the family Peripatopsidse, which includes the three sub-families Peripatoidinae, Peripatopsinas, and Paraperipatinae. 8. Arachnida. Eyes of Scorpions. § — G. Police has made an elaborate study of these, and denies the alleged dimorphism of the lateral and median eyes. The former have been compared to simple eyes and the latter to com- pound eyes. But they develop in the same way and have the same essential structure. They represent a distinct type of eye. As regards their development and their single lens they may be compared to ocelli, but as regards the structure of the retinal elements (different from that of the simple eyes of spiders, crustaceans, and insects) and the arrange- ment of these, they approach the compound type. In the simple eyes found in most Arachnids, and in many crustaceans and insects, the retinal unit is represented by a single cell, of which the distal part is unpigmented. In the compound eyes of most crustaceans and insects, the retinal unit is a group of six cells (retinule) arranged around an axis. In these eyes the image, before reaching the retinule, traverses the cuticular * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 463-5. t Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxviii. (1907) pp. 99-116 (1 pi.). X Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.) v. (1907) pp. 61-80 (8 figs.). § Zool. Jahrb., xxv. (1907) pp. 1-70 (2 pis. and 3 figs.). 46 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO refractive medium (the crystalline cone), and each unit is impressed by an image. In the eyes of scorpions, the retinal unit is represented by a group of five cells, there is no crystalline cone, the image is refracted only by the cuticular crystalline structure, and there is one image for the whole of the retinules, each being impressed by a portion of the image re- refracted by the crystalline structure. Sarcoptids in Wing-bones of Birds.* — E. L. Trouessart has found a new species of Tyroglyphus (T. antricola), apparently living as a commensal within the cavities of the wing-bones of parrots and other birds. It is likely that they entered while the birds were sleeping, by way of the nostrils, bronchi, lungs, and air-sacs. They probably feed on inhaled spores. Among the Tyroglyphids there were carnivorous mites (Cheletes rapax and G. alacer), probably feeding on the former. New Type of Sarcoptid.t— E. Sergent and E. L. Trouessart de- scribe Mialges anchora g. et sp. n., which lays its eggs on one of the Hippoboscidas (Lynchia maura), a parasite of the domestic pigeon in Algeria. It is probable that the mite passes most of its life on the bird, and only attacks the insect when depositing its eggs. Only the mature females and the larva? have been found. The mite uses the insect's blood as food. This is the first instance of a really parasitic Sarcoptid being found on an insect — indeed, on a cold-blooded animal. The first pair of limbs have no ambulacral sucker, but end in a double grappling- organ like an anchor. Myriopodophilous Mites.J — Ivar Tragardh describes two new forms of Antennophorinre, namely, Neomegistus julidicola and Parameyisti/s con/rater, found in Natal and Zululand on Julida? belonging to the genus Spirostrfiptus. He discusses the question of the various stages in the life-history of the mites, and the relationships of his new genera. The mites do not occur on the Julidse in the winter months. It seems probable that they feed on the offensive fluid which their hosts secrete during the summer. Experiments confirmed this remarkable fact. Acarid from Omentum of Negro.§ — A. Castellani records the dis- covery of two specimens of an Acarid-like parasite, in the fat of the omentum of a negro who had died of sleeping sickness. The colour is dark yellowish, shape oval, palpi very short, six legs well developed, apparently without hairs, each leg composed of five segments. The total body length is 0*55 mm. The parasite resembles Cytoleichm mrcoptoides Heguin, occurring in various internal organs in fowls. Scottish Hydrachnids.||— Wm. "Williamson continues his investiga- tion of Scottish hydrachnids, and gives a list of 26 species collected during 1906. Seven of these are new Scottish records. * Coniptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 598-601. t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) pp. 443-5 (3 figs.). % Arkiv Zool., iii. (1907) No. 28, pp. 1-33 (1 pi., 18 figs.). § Centralbl. Bakt. Parasitenk., xliii. (1907) p. 372. |l Trans. Edinburgh Field Nat. and Micr. Soc, 1906-7, pp. 393-4. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 47 e. Crustacea. Ferments in Crustaceans.* — J. Giaja found in Astacus leptodactylis (as in the snail) a ferment called raffinase. This seems to be absent in marine Crustaceans (as also in marine molluscs). Lactase, also present in Astacus, was found, among marine forms, only in the lobster. In the lobster, however, there was no trace of invertine, which was found in all other Crustaceans experimented with. The gastric juice of Paliaurus vulgaris, which acts on amygdalin, has no action on salicin. " Granny " Crabs.j — W. A. Herdman has a note on what the Port Erin fishermen call " granny " crabs, though they are not necessarily old nor female. They are caught in considerable abundance during July and August, and are promptly killed, the impression being that they are diseased. A " granny " crab, which may be of any size above 4 inches, is generally female, and has a worn and dilapidated appearance, the shell being pitted and stained with black, and the great claws corroded and frequently broken. The surface is frequently overgrown with barnacles and other foreign bodies. The men say that the flesh has a strong bitter taste and a powerful purgative effect. There is, however, in all probability nothing abnormal about these crabs. They are merely individuals which are approaching the time when in every second year a crab of this size will cast its shell. The practice of destroying them is unwarranted. Autotomy in Grapsus. j — Anna Drzewina points out, in answer to Pieron, that autotomy of the claw occurs without violent excitation in specimens of Grapsus varkis, in which the oesophageal commissures have been cut. She does not seek to deny the intervention of the cerebral ganglia in autotomy ; they may have an excitatory or an inhibi- tory action ; but the point is that their intervention is not indispensable. Autotomy in Decapods.§ — H. Pieron distinguishes between "evasive" autotomy, which seems to him " voluntary " in the same sense as an endeavour to escape is voluntary, and reflex autotomy, which is much more general. The muscular contractions which effect autotomy in Grapsus are of the same order as the normal locomotor contractions. Voluntary or evasive autotomy is particularly well developed in Grapsus, but it occurs elsewhere, for instance in hermit crabs. Reflex autotomy is not universally distributed even among the Brachyura. Real Nature of Microniscidse.|| — M. Caullery has given experimental proof of the view held by G. 0. Sars, that Microniscidse are really stages in the life-history of Epicaridae, intermediate between the Epicaridian and Cryptoniscian larva?. Although Bonnier persists in regarding Microniscidas as a distinct family, Caullery thinks that the position held by Sars is incontestable. In the case of Portuuion * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxxiii. (1907) pp. 508-9. t Liverpool Biol. Committee, 21st Report, 1907, pp. 25-6. X C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 493-5. § Tom. cit., pp. 517-19. || Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 596-8. 48 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO kossmanni Griard and Bonnier, parasitic, on Platyoniscus latipes, Caullery lias seen the production of " microniscid " stages. New Cave Isopod.* — E. G. Racovitza describes Spelozoniscus debrugei g. et sp. n., from an Algerian cave. The very convex elliptical body can be rolled into a ball ; the head is without frontal lobes, antennary tubercles, or scutellum, but has a deep antennary grove on each side of the median line ; the antennae are of the Cylisticus-type ; the antennules have two joints ; some of the other appendages resemble those of Cylisticus, others those of ArmadiUidium. Like Eleoniscus, this new genus expresses the tendency of Porcellio-like forms to roll themselves up, but it represents a failure in the solution of this problem. The perfect ball of the widely distributed ArmadiUidium vulgare is a complete solution, but in Spelmoniscus the antennas are kept extended and exposed to attack. Thus Spelozoniscus has had to take refuge in a subterranean habitat, " cet asile que dame nature installa a peu de frais pour ses viellards, ses impotents et ses rates." The new type is colourless, blind, and covered with tactile setre ; it has no longer any near relatives in daylight ; it is an archaic representative of a fauna which has disappeared. Terrestrial Isopods of the Family Eubelidse.t — Harriet Richardson gives an account of a collection of new species of Eubelidas made in Liberia by 0. F. Cook. A new genus, Ethelumoris, is established near Ethelum ; the flagellum of the second antennas consists of two joints, the coxopodites of the first thoracic segment extend along the lateral margin, but arise from the underside of the segment. Cave Isopods. J — E. G. Racovitza reports on 16 cavernicolous species of Isopods, e.g. Trichoniscus dispersus sp. n., Trichouiscoides pyrenmus sp. n., T. tuberculatus sp. n., Anaphiloscia simani g. et sp. n., in the neighbourhood of some of the forms included in the unnatural genus Philoscia, PorceUio manacorisp. n., Cylisticus caver nicola sp. n., Eleoniscus heleiue g. et sp. n. (the new genus presenting a mixture of characters seen in Cylisticus and ArmadiUidium, but most nearly related to Elwna), and ArmadiUidium pruvoti sp. n. Annulata. Urns of Sipunculids.§ — W. Selensky has studied the structure and development of the much-discussed fixed and free-swimming " urns " of Sipunculus nudus, comparing them with the free-swimming urns of Pltymosoma and the fixed urns of Phymosoma and Aspidosiphon. An urn consists of a vesicular cup, a neck, and a ciliated disk. It begins as a bud-like outgrowth from the walls of a blood-vessel ; it consists of the connective-tissue of the wall of the vessel, and is surrounded by endothelial cells, among which there is one at least of the large ciliated * Arch. Zool. Exper., vii. (1907) Notes et Revue, No. 3, pp. lxix.-lxxvii. (9 figs.), t Smithsonian Misc. Collections, iv. (1907) pp. 219-47 (67 figs.). % Arch. Zool. Exper., vii. (1907) pp. 145-225 (11 pis.). § Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1807) pp. 329-36 (4 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC 49 cells tli.it occur in the endothelium of the vessels. The urns arise both on the inside and on the outside of the tentacular vessels, and there is no real difference between those which remain sedentary and those which become free-swimming. There is no doubt that they arise from the Sipunculid-tissue. They are not parasites. They are not phagocytic, but they help, as Cuenot pointed out, to purify the ccelomic fluid by collecting and agglutinating particles. They are, perhaps, comparable to the ciliated organs connected with the nephridia of Hirudinea, which are also derivatives of peritoneal tissue. Reproductive Apparatus of Kynotus.* — L. Cognetti de Martiis describes the gonads and associated structures in this peculiar Madagascar genus of earthworms, and fills up the gaps in the previous descriptions by Rosa, Benham, and Michaelsen. Calciferous Glands of Earth worms. t — A. Combault suggests that these glands have some respiratory significance. They may fix the CO., and thus avoid asphyxiation. The concretions may be the result of the fixing of the CO., in the glands. Some specimens of Helodrilus caliginosus sub-sp. trapezoides, were placed in very dilute lime-water ; after 24 hours the glands were loaded with carbonate of lime. Further experiments confirmed this. Nematohelminthes. Free-living Nematodes. J— J. G. De Man describes 18 species of free Nematodes, all of which (except Eurgstoma terricola sp. n., from the soil) have been collected on the coasts of Zealand. Thirteen are new, e.g., jfflgialoalaimus elegans g. et sp. n., Gobbia trefusiceformis g. et sp. n., Parasabatieria vulgaris g. et sp. n., and Metalinhommus tgpicus g. et sp. n. A useful list is given of all the free marine Nematodes the author has found on the coasts of Zealand. Toxic Effect of Sclerostomum equinum.§ — M.Weinberg has ex- perimented with extracts of this parasite, and has obtained rather important results. He finds that these extracts dissolve the red blood- cells of the horse. The toxic substance is secreted especially by the cephalic part of the parasite, and also by the digestive tube ; it is resistent to a temperature of from 115-120° for 15-20 minutes, and is not specific for the horse, since it acts similarly upon the blood-cells of guinea-pig, rabbit, ox, and sheep. Sclerostomes also secrete a substance with the properties of a precipitin with horse and with rabbit serum. Extracts of larvas have a similar but less marked effect. Other hel- minths found in the horse {Oxguris equi, Ascaris megalocephala, Tamia perfoliata, Tcmia plicata) do not secrete a heematoxin ; it is noteworthy that the only parasite capable of doing so is the only one which lives on the blood of the horse. * Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xlii. (1907) pp. 1138-50 (1 pi.). t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) pp. 440-2. % Tijdschr. Nederland. Dierk. Ver., x. (1907) pp. 227-44. § Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxi. (1907) pp. 798-807. Feb. 19th, 1908 e 50 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Platyhelmintlies. New Cestode from Eagle.* — Pasquale Mola describes a new Cestode, Davainea h&rtwigi, found in the intestine of Nisaetus fasciatus. When the eagle was caught it had in its beak a wall-lizard, in the peritoneal cavity of which cysts were found containing a cysticercus. This, the author considers, is the same Cestode found in the eagle, and that the life-cycle is completed between the two hosts, L. muralis and iV. fasciatus. Para-uterine Organ of Tsenia nigropunctata.t — Pasquale Mola describes this organ, first noted by Crety in 1890. It is a winding tube, running in the middle line over each proglottis. It starts from the uterus and runs forward with an undulating course. An account of its histological features is given, and it is noted that cells pass from this tube to the uterus, forming an abundant parenchyma ex- tending to every small uterine pouch and enveloping the eggs. Classification of Cyclophyllidea.J — 0. Fuhrmann revises the classifi- cation of this order, altering the system proposed by Braun. He re- cognises ten families — Tetrabothrida3, Mesocestoididfe, Anoplocephalidae, Davaineidre, Dilepinidas, Hynienolepidaa, Tseniidae, Acoleinidse, Amabi- linidas, and Fimbriariidse — and nine sub-families, with a total of 66 genera. Action of Heat on Immature Mussel-fluke. § — Raphael Dubois finds that Gymnophallus margaritarum Dubois can survive, for at least 48 hours, temperatures between 35° and 40° C, which are fatal to the mussel. The new form, which results from the influence of the in- creased temperature on the immature fluke, is probably a stage towards the final form. Therefore it seems likely that the final metamorphosis occurs in a warm-blooded animal, which is probably a bird. New RhabdocQela.|| — Nils von Hofsten describes three new Rhab- doccela from moor-lochs in the island of Gotland, namely, Castrada instructa, DaJJijeliu pallida, and D. succincta. Polyclads from the Somali Coast and a Revision of the Stylo- chinse.^T — Adolf Meixner gives an anatomical account of a number of polyclads, 13 species, collected by Ch. Gravier off the Somali coast, and takes this opportunity of making a revision of the previously described members of the family Stylochinse. New Marine Triclad.**— G. Du Plessis gives a description of a beautiful little Triclad, Cercyra verrucosa sp. n. — so-called because of * Biol. Centralbl., xxvii. (1907) pp. 575-8 (5 figs.). t Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 87-90 (2 figs.). % Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 289-97. § C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, xliii. (1907) pp. 502-4. II Arkiv Zool., iii. (1907) pp. 1-15 (1 pi.). i Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxviii. (1907) pp. 385-498 (5 pis. and 2 figs.). ** Rev. Suisse Zool., xv. (1907) pp. 129-41 (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 51 the great development of papillae in a double or triple series on the dorsal surface, which seem to serve as fixing organs. It is only the seventh Triclad found on the Mediterranean shores. New Nemerteans.*— M. Oxner describes two new species which he has found at Roscoff — Amphiporus martyi sp. n., a very transparent form which lives along with Linens ruber ; Prosorochmus delayei sp. n., which is viviparous and hermaphrodite. Incertae Sedis. Development of Ribs in Brachiopods.f — S. S. Buckrnan discusses the development of the ribbed stage in Gincta and Eudesia, and shows that there are various methods by which "similar looking ribbed forms" have been evolved from " similar looking smooth forms." ' It may be of use to quote the general introduction to his study : " The test ornament of Brachiopods is found in three main phases — smooth, ribbed, and spinous. (A striate stage is sometimes interposed between the smooth and the ribbed, but not always.) These three phases are in this anagenetic sequence to one another : in relation to its nearest allies, a costate species of a given series is more advanced than a smooth one of that series, and a spinose one still further than a costate. There are catagenetic developments also in reverse order : in certain Productids the costate stage follows on a spinose ; in Aran- thothyris there are certain cases of the spinose ontogenetic stage being followed by a smooth. If, however, the catagenetic phases be put aside for the present, it may be said that the state of external ornament — smooth, costate, spinose — indicates the position of a Brachiopod as more or less advanced than its fellows." The author gives an interesting table showing sequences of developmental phases of test ornament, in the one case subsequent to Gincta, in the other case prior to Eudesia. Rotiform Bryozoa of the Isle of Wight.} — J. W. Gregory describes Bicavea rotaformis sp. n., which occurs at the base of the cretaceous Holaster planus zone in the Isle of Wight. It consists of a wheel-shaped body borne on a narrow cylindrical stem. Its nearest allies are some specimens from the Danian Chalk of Faxoe, described as Radiopora urn nl a var. stipitata by Pergens and Meunier in 1887. Growth of Tendra zostericola.§ — M. Bogolepow describes the growth of colonies of this Bryozoon on the glass sides of an aquarium. The original " cell " or oozoid formed a chain of blastozoids ; blastozoid buds appeared which formed the beginning of an axis or of axes of the second order ; and so on. Gradually a thick crust resulted. The author watched the processes of degeneration, the formation of " brown bodies," and the process of restoration, and he gives an account of the various appearances presented by the living colony. * Arch. Zool. Exper., vii. (1907) Notes et Revue, No. 3, pp. lix.-lxix. (6 figs.). t Quart. Jouru. Geol. Soc, lxiii. (1907) pp. 338-43 (1 pi.). \ Geol. Mag., iv. (1907) pp. 442-3. § Zool. Auzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 305-16 (7 figs.). ]•; -1 52 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Total Regeneration of Bryozoa.* — G. M. It. Levinsen reports tliiit in some species of Bowerbanhia and Merribranipora, in Valkeria urn and Cribrillina labiata sp. n., and in some other cases, the whole individual is regenerated from the endosarcof the stolon. The zoecia reproduce their polypide a certain number of times, then the zoecium falls off, and the whole individual is replaced from the scar. Genus Tubucellaria.f — A. W. Waters gives a brief account of the species of this genus, in which a description of a new form, T. Zanzibar iensis, is included. Some notes are given upon the ovicells, which appear to differ considerably in structure in different Bryozoa. It is suggested that in the present genus the shape of the opening of the ovicell " seems to be a specific character." The so-called " diminutive polypide " in the ovicellular zocecia is shown to be derived from the substance of the ordinary form. Rotifera. New Marine Rotifera. $ — Carl Zelinka, in a work of considerable magnitude, describes two new species, Synchceta atlantica and Rattulus henseni, as occurring in great abundance in a certain limited area of the Atlantic Ocean, and which were collected by the German Plankton Expedition of 1889. The area inhabited by these two Rotifers, and these two species only, lies in latitude 60° 17' N., and between longitude 14° and 30° W., or about midway between the northernmost coast of Scotland and the southernmost point of Greenland. A few more speci- mens of the same two species were obtained near Bermuda, and then, with the exception of a single dead lorica of a Colurus (or Monurd) obtained in a haul near Ascension, no more Rotifers at all were en- countered in any other parts of the Atlantic Ocean, which was crossed three times. The fine-plankton net was lowered to a depth of 400 m., and the richest catch of Synchceta and Rattulus in the above-named area was obtained in lat. 29° W., and contained, by Henson's method of counting, as many as 364,352 Synchmta and 44,500 Rattulus to every column of water having a surface area of • 1 sq. m. (about 1 sq. ft.) and a depth of 400 m. A vast number of floating eggs of these Rotifers were obtained at the same time. The fact that Rotifers occur at such great depth was not known before, and the barrenness, as regards Rotifera, of the rest of the Atlantic Ocean is certainly very remarkable; The author finally gives an elaborate review and list of all known marine and brackish-water Rotifera, 156 in number, and discusses the question of the origin of this marine fauna. Echinoderma. Luminosity of Amphiura squamata.§ — Irene Sterzinger finds that the luminous organs of this Ophiuroid are at the tips of the tube-feet. * Oversigt k. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Fordhandl., 1907, pp. 151-9 (1 pi.), t Journ. Linn. Soc, xxx. (1907) pp. 126-32 (2 pis.). % Plankton Expedition der Humboldt-Stiftung, 1889, ii. (Kiel, 1907) pp. 1-79 (3 pis.). § Zeitschr. wiss. ZooL, lxxxviii. (1907) pp. 358-84 (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, .MICROSCOPY . ETC. 53 The luminosity is due to mucus, which is secreted by cells of the external epithelium at the tip of the tube-foot. It accumulates in the intercellular spaces, and passes out by apertures in small papilla? at the tip. The luminosity is extra-cellular. The animal produces non-luminous as well as luminous mucus ; both are soluble in hydrochloric acid. Mucus glands occur also in the tube-feet of other Echinoderms, e.g., Astropecten aurantiacus, in the sensory buds of Ophiothrix fragilis, and in the tentacles of Antedon rosacea. The mucus seems to help adhesion in Amphiura squamata and Ophiothrix fragilis, both of which are able to climb up vertical walls. Abnormality in Test of Echinolampas.* — R. Fabiani describes in the fossil test of this sea-urchin a peculiar abnormality in the ambulacra! plates, especially in two of the areas of the trivium. The poriferal zones of one series converge rapidly towards those of the other series in the same ambulacrum, they almost unite, and then they suddenly diverge again and follow their usual course. Development of Ophiothrix fragilis. f — E. W. MacBride sum- marises the leading points in the development of Ophiothrix fragilis. An important discovery made in the course of his investigations is that there are two types of development, depending on whether fertilisation is effected naturally or artificially. For example, if the former, seg- mentation results in the formation of a thick-walled blastula ; if the latter, a solid mass of cells or morula results. The abnormal develop- ment has a considerable resemblance to the normal development of Ophiura brevis, and is of interest as showing how far-reaching in its influence on the subsequent development is the condition of the egg at the moment of fertilisation, and the idea is suggested that here, perhaps, is to be found the origin of variations. The author remarks that " we must assume that eggs are capable of fertilisation before they are quite ripe, and that the fact that eggs can be fertilised is no proof that they are fully ripe, or that the resulting development is normal. This con- clusion has, I think, a somewhat important bearing on the experimental studies for which the eggs of Echinodermata have furnished the material. Notably the statements which some authors have made about obtaining ripe eggs from sea-urchins like Strongylocentrotus all the year round must be received with great caution." On the disputed question of the homology of the right hydroccele, it is noted that in Ophiothrix fragilis it is from the beginning on the risrht side of the larva. - New Zealand Holothurians.J — Arthur Dendy and E. Hindle give an account of some Holothurians from Xew Zealand, amongst which they find six new species. Of these Rhabdomolgus novw-zealandicB is the most remarkable; by its discovery the view is confirmed that spicules are really absent in this genus, which has hitherto been dis- credited by systematists, and which must now be revived. * Atti Accad. Sci. Veneto-Trentino-Istriana, iv. (1907) pp. 75-8 (2 figs.). t Proc. Roy. Soc, Series B, lxxix. (1907) pp. 440-5 (4 figs.). j Journ. Linn. Soc, xxx. (1907) pp. 95-125 (4 pis.). 54 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO New Species of Cucumaria.* — R. P. Cowles describes Cucumcnria curata sp. n., from the Californian coast. Many individuals are usually seen together, in the breeding season at least, forming black patches just below low-tide mark. The species is of especial interest on account of the care of the eggs and young. As soon as the eggs are laid they are transferred, probably by means of the tentacles, to the ventral surface of the body, and are kept there until they develop into young forms several millimetres in length. The eggs are large, almost 1 mm. in diameter. Associated with the Holothurian during the breeding season there is a small Nematode which feeds upon the eggs, often de- stroying the whole brood. Coelentera. Madreporaria from Amboina.t — M. Bedot has done good service to students of Madreporarian corals by publishing not only full descrip- tions, but abundant beautiful illustrations, of a large collection (79 species) of Madreporaria from Amboina. Rare British Coral.| — W. A. Herdman dredged from the Train bank, 8 miles off Port Erin, a distinctly rare British coral, Paracyathus pteropus. It was described by Gosse from a specimen found attached to a shell of Cyprina from the deepest part of the Moray Firth, but as the soft parts were unknown to Gosse, a brief description of the Isle of Man specimen was drawn up from the living specimen by Chadwick. The column is cylindrical, not much higher than the corallum ; the disk is flat, or very slightly raised in the centre, without distinct margin ; the tentacles are 28 in number, arranged in two alternating circlets, the stem is tapering, membranous, studded with numerous wans (cnidophores ?), the head is sub-globular and opaque ; the mouth is a lengthened and very mobile slit, with crenulate lips ; the colour of the column, disk, and tentacles is transparent white, and a broad vandyked band of vivid emerald green surrounds the mouth ; the diameter of the corallum is 3 mm. Statoblasts in a Scyphistoma.§ — E. Herouard has found in a Scyphistoma at Roscoff (like Dalzell's " Hydra-tuba "), encysted buds "with a latent life and representing veritable statoblasts." They are formed on the pedal disk and are inclosed in a chitinous envelope. If the envelope be burst, the bud begins to proliferate and forms a polyp. The " statoblasts " are formed during a resting period, and the time necessary is about 15 days. After a statoblast is formed, the polyp moves a short distance on its " pedal sole," leaving the statoblast behind. After coming to rest again, the polyp forms a new statoblast. Revision of Medusa? Belonging to the Family Laodiceidae. || E. T. Browne includes in this re-defined family the following genera : * Johns Hopkins Univ. Circular, No. 3 (1907) pp. 8-9 (2 pis.). f Rev. Suisse Zool., xv. (1907) pp. 143-292 (46 pis.). \ Liverpool Biol. Committee, 21st Rep., 1907, pp. 24-5. § Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 601-3. II Ann. Nat. Hist., xx. (1907) pp. 457-80. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 55 Laodice, Staurophora, Ptychoyena, Staurodiscus, Toxorchis, Melicertissa. The character, now selected as distinctive of the family, is the presence of cordyli, commonly called sensory clubs, on the margin of the umbrella. A cordylus is quite distinct from marginal bulbs and tubercles or sprouting tentacles and cirri. Its shape varies slightly in different genera, but it always has a clear translucent appearance, with- out any coloration, and is free from nematocysts. It is also without otoliths and such concretions as are generally found in sense-organs. Gonophores of Plumularia obliqua and Sertularia operculata. * — S. Motz-Kossowska refers to the general opinion that, among the Calyptoblastea, Medusoids occur only in the Campanulariidae and related families, such as the CampanulinidaB and some of the Lafceidas. In 1902 Torrey found free gonozoids in Haleciidae ; the author has found medusiform gonozoids in Plumularia obliqua Saunders (in which a male Medusoid was seen to detach itself) and in Sertularia operculata L. (in which the liberation of a Medusoid, almost mistakable for that of the former species, is probable). Tubularia indivisa var. obliqua. f — F. H. Gravely found this variety at Port St. Mary, Isle of Man. It is characterised by a single large tentacle covering the umbrella-mouth of each female gonophore and capable of moving to a slight extent. A similar form has been described by Bonnevie and Swenander. The female gonophore shows a single radial canal instead of four — a feature correlated with the presence of the single large tentacle to the base of which the canal runs. The male gonophore shows no radial canals or tentacles, but shows — what the normal T. indivisa apparently does not — conspicuous sterile cells in the outer layers of sperm, these cells often bearing delicate processes that pass inwards towards the spadix. Cordylophora lacustris4 — Sven Ekman discusses the distribution of Cordylophora lacustris Allman in Swedish waters. Porifera. African Fresh-water Sponges.§ — R. Kirkpatrick reports on speci- mens of a new variety of Ephydatia fluviatilis L., collected by J. Stuart Thomson, from a pond near Cape Town. This almost cosmo- politan species has been found in Europe, Asia, and America, but is now recorded for the first time from Africa. A second species, Spon- gillu rerebellata Bowerbank, was obtained from a pond near Cairo by Innes Bey. Thus the two commonest European species have to be added to the list of African fresh- water sponges, of which 21 species are known. The Cape specimen, which is named E. fluviatilis var. capensis var. n., is a strongly marked variety, as regards its oxeas, amphidisks, and gemmules. * Arch. Zool. Exper.,vii. (1907) Notes et Revue, No. 4, pp. cxiv.-xviii. (3 figs.). t Liverpool Marine Biol. Station, 21st Ann. Rep., 1907, pp. 15-17. J Arkiv. Zool., iii. (1907) pp. 1-4. § Ann. Nat. Hist., xx. (1907) pp. 523-5 (11 figs.). 56 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Protozoa. Foraminifera of Galway.* — F. W. Millett has published some notes on Foraminifera collected on the seashore at Galway, by F. P. Balkwill, in 1879-80. Along with Balkwill, he reported on this collection in the Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science, iii. 1884, but as the plates came out roughly, he has had the original draw- ings reproduced by photogravure. The classification and nomenclature have been brought into accordance with modern researches. Among the more interesting forms the following may be noted : — Spirilondina acutimargo, Milwlina auberiana, Ammodiscus shoneanus, Trochammina plimta, Lagena clathrata, L.fimbriata, Pulvinulina patagonica, Lingulina carinata (in Silvestri's genus Ellvpsolingulind). Tertiary Foraminifera of Victoria.! — F. Chapman gives an account of the Foraminifera in the Balcombian deposits of Port Philip. He comments on the abundance of Foraminifera in many of the clays and limestones of the Victorian Tertiary strata, and on the gigantic size and redundant growth of many of the species — an index to the congenial life-conditions. Physiology of Pulsating Vacuole in Infusoria.} — A. Kanitz dis- cusses the relation of temperature to the activity of the pulsating vacuole in Infusoria. The reactions to temperature are such as to render physical explanations, e.g. osmosis, insufficient. They appear to conform to the R.G.T. rule (Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit Temperaturregel), accord- ing to Avhich a raising of the temperature 10° increases the reaction speed from two to three times. The results obtained with the pulsating vacuoles of different Infusoria in accordance with this rule are most readily explained in relation to chemical processes. New Hypotrichous Infusorian.§ — E. Faure-Fremiet describes a new form, which he makes the type for a new genus, Ancystropodium maupasi g. et sp. n. This form possesses a contractile pedicle, consist- ing of a protoplasmic strand, which carries on its left border seven marginal cilia. The species is a highly differentiated one, adapted for fixation by means of its tranverse cilia. The author considers the question of a possible relationship with the Vorticellida?, but regards such a view as untenable. Ichthyophthirius multifiliis on British Roach. || — James Johnstone records the occurrence of this Ciliate upon the skin and gills of roach in Hesketh Lake, Southport. Only the roach were affected, and pike, perch, and eels living in the same water showed no signs of disease. The epidemic produced considerable mortality among the roach for about a month, after which it died out. This appears to be the first record of this Ciliate in British waters. An account of its structure and mode of multiplication is given. * The Recent Foraminifera of Galway. Plymouth, 1908, 8 pp. (4 pis.). t Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) xxx. (1907) pp. 10-35 (4 pis.). % Biol. Centralbl., xxvii. (1907) pp. 11-25. § C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 377-8. || Proc. and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc, xxi. (1907) pp. 292-5 (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 57 Notes on Acinetaria.* — B. Collins describes Ephelota gemmipara Herfcwig and Hypocoma acinetarum sp. n. The former has buds at once tentaculate and ciliated, as Ishikawa observed in the case of E. biitsch- liana. Multiplication occurs by transverse (never longitudinal) fission, by multiple ovoid, tentaculate, non-ciliated buds, and by multiple ciliated buds, which, as noted, sometimes show tentacles before their separation from the parent. A full account of the structure of the animal is given, but the results are mainly in agreement with those of R. Hertwig. It is noted, however, that there is a horse-shoe of large cilia on the dorsal surface of the embryo. The new species of Hypocoma lives on the stalk of Ephelota and on Acineta compressa ; it has a secondarily acquired asymmetry ; there is a single ventral tentacle and an interesting posterior invagination ; the ciliation is in concentric ellipses. It seems that Hypo- coma is not a primitive type — a possible starting-point for the Acine- taria and derived from Uhilodon. It is rather a highly specialised terminal type, morphologically deformed. The affinities between Acine- taria and Ciliata should probably be looked for in the direction of the Peritricha, Trypanosomes of the Upper Niger. f— A. Laveran has sought ex- perimentally to clear up the difficult question of the specific nature of the agents in the Trypanosome diseases of this region. Two oxen in- oculated with the virus of " Mai de la Zousfana " and " El Debab," and quite cured, showed themselves completely refractory to Trypanosoma soudanmse, whence it may be concluded that the Trypanosome of these diseases is really T. soudanense. It is of interest to note that the Trypanosome observed in horses and dromedaries in Algeria exists also in the Upper Niger. It is possible that the centre of infection is this latter region, and that transportation to Algeria is effected by the caravans coming from Timbuctoo. Role of the Spleen in Trypanosomiasis.! — A. Laveran and Thiroux have looked into this important subject. They find that the Trypanosomes found in the spleen during life, or even after death, have the same structure as those taken from the general circulation. Extract of spleen has not, in vitro, trypanolytic properties, nor in animals whose spleen is removed is trypanosomiasis sensibly modified. In trypanosomiasis, as in malaria, the spleen, without doubt, contributes to the freeing of the circulation from the debris of the hsematozoa follow- ing trypanolytic crises, but this seems to be all that it can do. Trypanosome of Pontobdella inuricata.§— Muriel Robertson re- cords her observations on a Trypanosome from the alimentary canal of Pontobdella mvricata. She agrees with Brumpt that this is probably the Trypanosoma rake of the skate. It is evidently of frequent occurrence in Pontobdella, since of 60 specimens examined only one failed to yield examples. A series of forms is described, and points in their minute structure, e.g. the kinetonucleus, are discussed. The flagellum appears to * Arch. Zool. Exper.,vii. (1907) Notes et Revue, No. 4, pp. xciii.-ciii. (3 figs.). t Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 293-5. J Tom. cit., pp. 14-18. § Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc, xvii. (1907) pp. 83-108 (4 pis.). 58 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO be developed from a pair of arrested mitotic figures developed out of the distal of the two segments into which the original kinetonucleus divides. The process of division is described. Trypanosomes of Frog and Leech.* — Carlos France finds that the Invertebrate host of Trypanosoma costatum and T. roiatorium of the frog is a leech. From the leech he has been able to infect the frog. There is a Trypanosome phase in the frog, and a Herpetomonad phase in the leech. The author has also some notes on the culture of the frog's trypanosomes | and on their intra-vitam staining. $ Development of Piroplasma canis in Dog.§ — G. H. F. Nuttall and G. S. Graham Smith describe the appearance of this parasite in unstained preparations, its mode of multiplication, including an account of the nuclear changes, the fate of the various forms as observed in the living blood, and the complete cycle of development within the blood. The mode of multiplication stated briefly is as follows. A free pyriform parasite enters a normal red-blood corpuscle and rapidly assumes a rounded form. It then enlarges and passes through an actively amoeboid stage, at the end of which it again becomes rounded. After a short period of quiescence in this condition, it protrudes two symmetrical processes, which rapidly grow and become pear-shaped. The protoplasm of the parasite flows into these processes, and its body consequently gradually diminishes, until it is represented by a minute rounded mass, to which the pyriform processes are attached. Eventually this also disappears, and, finally, two mature pyriform parasites are left, which are joined together for a time by a thin strand of protoplasm. After a variable time these parasites are liberated by the rupture of the corpuscle, and swim away, to enter fresh corpuscles and repeat the process. Occasionally a single rounded intra-corpuscular parasite gives rise to four or more pyriform parasites by the protrusion of a corresponding number of processes. The authors never observed any forms which could be re- garded as gametes. * Bull. Soc. Portugaise Sci. Nat., i. (1907) pp. 27-8 (2 figs.). t Tom. cit., pp. 5-8 (3 figs.). % Tom. cit., pp. 9-11. § Journ. Hygiene, vii. (1907) pp. 232-72 (3 pis. and 14 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 59 BOTANY. GENERAL, Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants. Cytology, including Cell-Contents. Structure of Nucleus in Relation to Organisation of Individual.* J. B. Farmer has continued his investigations as to the structural constituents of the nucleus and their relation to the organisation of the individual. While recognising the great importance of the nucleus, the author believes that the properties of the individual may be, at least in part, attributed to the interaction of the nucleus with the cytoplasm external to it. Such interaction of cytoplasm and nucleus is seen in the fact that enucleated eggs of one species of echinoderm, when fertilised, give rise to larva? resembling the male parent. It is also seen in the effects of polyspermy, and it is probable that the reason that polyspermy so seldom occurs in healthy cultures, is that a sudden chemical change results from the entrance of the first sperm into the cytoplasm of the egg. Tlie author has proved that in several Fucaceas and in some ferns the entrance of the first sperm into the egg-cytoplasm is followed by the paralysis or disorganisation of other sperms in the neighbourhood. Evidence that cytoplasm is the cause of similar disintegration is also afforded by the Gymnosperms, and most markedly by the Cycads with motile spermatozoids. As to the act of fertilisation, the author considers that not only must there be union of two, and not more than two nuclei, but these nuclei must retain a certain structural basis, and he agrees with Darwin, Weismann, and De Vries in regarding the constituents of the nucleus, and not the nucleus as a whole, as charged with the control of the chemical transformations in the cell, which reveal themselves in the characters of the cell. The chromomeres which constitute the chromo- somes may be compared to ferments which set up in the extra-nuclear cytoplasm, chemical changes which constitute development. The present work favours the Mendelian theory, and it appears that fertilisa- tion is to be regarded as a mechanical mixture of the nuclear constituents rather than the formation of a chemical compound. The units in each of the sexual nuclei retain their individuality, and at fertilisation these units are sorted out into different combinations. Experiments and observations show that the actual number of chromosomes is immaterial, but the usual constancy of number is evidence of the organising function of the cell as a whole rather than of independence of the chromosomes. Chromosome-reduction is * Proc. Roy. Soc, lxxix. B (1907) pp. 446-G4. <)0 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO both a consequence and a condition of sexuality, and affords convincing proof of the existence of persistent structural units, which are directly responsible for the characters manifested by the developing organism. The significance of reduction is in the sorting out of structural entities and in the distribution of entire sets of them in the sexual cells. The relatively small number of chromosomes renders it impossible to regard them as structural entities, and their real importance lies in their structure as similarly organised groups of chromomeres, but not necessarily of the same chromomeres. It is possible that the chromo- meres themselves may prove to be the structural entities of the cell. The constancy in form of the chromosomes is an expression of organisa- tion within the cell, not of unchanging aggregation of the same con- stituents. Evidence is afforded that given a complete set of chromo- somes, whether in single or in duplicate, the complete life-history may be covered, and that the duplicate set arising from sexuality is merely a means of producing variation. The primordia (structural entities), which constitute the hereditary mechanism, impose the limits within which development can take place, but within those limits other conditions, e.g., specific exciting substances, may determine the path actually followed. Cytology of Pollen-mother-cells of Nymphfeacese.* — AV.Lubimenko and A. Maige have made a morphological and cytological study of pollen-development in the Nympkasaceas. The authors draw the following conclusions from their investigation:-. During the prosynapsis stage, the nuclei of the pollen-mother-clls increase in size, until they are 4-5 times larger than the vegetative nuclei. The increase in size of the nucleus is accompanied by a corresponding, but less marked, increase in the size of the cells them- selves. The increase in size of the nuclei may perhaps be considered as the result of delay in nuclear division. During the passage from prosynapsis to synapsis there is a still greater increase in the size of the nucleus in proportion to the size of the cell : this increase in size is the result of enlargement of the nuclear-sac and of the nucleolar and lino- chromatic masses, and is always followed by a slow enlargement of the mother-cell itself. In the spireme stage the volumes of the reproductive nuclei undergo a diminution in size, and are then only six times larger than the vegetative nuclei. This diminution of volume corresponds to a re-establishment of the normal proportions in the nuclear-sac, the nucleolar and the lino-chromatic masses, and is accompanied by the appearance of a well-differentiated nuclear membrane. The chromosomes are formed by concentration of the chromatin at certain points of the spireme ; they are of various forms, and seem to be composed of a varying number of small bodies. During the period which elapses between chromosome-formation and the disappearance of the nuclear membrane, the volume of the nucleus diminishes by one-half. It is probable that the entire spindle is formed exclusively from nuclear substance (linin and nucleolus), and that the cytoplasm has no part in its constitution. * Rev. Gen. Bot., xix. (1907) pp. 401-25 (5 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 61 Cystolith-formation in the Cistacese.* — M. Gard has examined the silicified thickenings which occur in the leaves of many CistaceEe. They are found in epidermal cells, stomata, palisade, and spongy parenchyma, and although they have no pedicel, the larger formations greatly resemble true cystoliths. They are not usually confined to a single cell, but extend through several adjacent cells. They often surround a stoma or the base of a hair. They are analogous to similar formations which have been noticed in the Oleacete, Santalacese, Loranthaceae, and Euphorbiacea3. Although they cannot be utilised in the distinction of species, they appear to be constant in individuals of very different origin, e.g. in C. monspeliensis they always abound in the lower epidermis, while the C. populifolius they surround the stomata ; it may thus prove useful to mention them in anatomical descriptions. Structure and. Development. Vegetative. Centripetal Wood in the Conifer ae.-j-— Ch. Bernard has investigated various members of the Conifers in order to discover how far centripetal wood is developed in the bracts and scale-leaves. The present research is a continuation of that published by the author in 1904, and is especially intended as a reply to the criticisms of Bertrand. The latter wras of the opinion that the so-called centripetal wood was nothing but a diffused mass of cork, developed for physiological reasons. The author re-affirms his former statements, and contends that centripetal wood still exists, although sometimes in a much modified form, in the leaves of conifers, and more particularly in the leaf -tips ; the exist- ence of such wood in the bracts and scale-leaves is also clearly demon- strated. The plants examined include Agathis borneenxis, Katakidozaniia sp., Aru in- aria imbricata, A. Bidwillii, Thuya occidental is, Larix decidaa, Gedrus Libani, Picea orientalis, P. excelsa, Abies cephalonka, Pin us Montana, P. Oembra ; the author believes that the confirmatory results given by these genera tend to showT that all the Coniferas have preserved, at least in those organs which have retained their ancestral characters, the typical centripetal xylem. Stem of Ibervillea Sonorge.J — A. A. Knox has investigated the stem-structure of Ibervillea Sonorce. The author describes the exterior of the stem as having a tendency to the seven-angled type, but later on it is terete. There are five bundles forming an outer ring, while the number in the inner ring varies from five to nine. There are endocyclic and ectocyclic sieve-tubes, as well as commissural sieve-tubes connecting the phloem of adjacent bundles. There is an active inner cambium. The sieve-tubes gradually become obliterated and serve as a secretory system, and their contents provide wound-gum. There is a periderm with phellogen and phellem. There is no true bark nor any deep phellogens. There is a large deposition of calcium carbonate which gives the surface of the stem a greyish appearance. The meristematic * Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 13G-7. t Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1907) pp. 211-44 (50 figs.). % Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxiv. (1907) pp. 329-44 (1 pi. and 2 figs.). 62 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO parenchyma of the medullary rays gives rise to supernumerary masses of phloem in the secondary stem. No interfascicular cambium is present, but there is much dilatation of all the parenchyma. Origin of Leaves and Stem.* — L. Flot has contributed the last of his series of papers dealing with the origin of the leaves and stem. The following are the conclusions formed by the author. The first differen- tiation of the meristematic apex of Phanerogams consists in the forma- tion of foliar outgrowths arising from a layer of cells which ultimately gives rise to a vascular meristem. The latter forms cortex and epidermis both above and below, and in the centre is differentiated into ordinary fibro- vascular tissue. The direction of growth is determined by the different pressures on the terminal bud, being greatest where the pressure is least. The outgrowth thus formed constitutes a foliar segment and ultimately develops into a typical leaf. The stem-structure is first determined by the structure and anastomoses of the young leaf -bases, and when these are complete, the whole mass of cortical and vascular tissue and epidermis constitutes the stem. When once the stem has thus been formed, the lower cells of each leaf-base rapidly multiply and so form internodes, thus causing the stem to increase in length. Increase in thickness may be brought about by increase in the number of bundles, and this is in accordance with the number of leaves ; or it may be due to the appearance of new meristematic layers, but even then it is possible to discover the traces of the primitive leaf -structure. Water-stom^ta of the Lobeliacese.f — M. Tswett has made a careful study of the hydathodes of Lobelia Dortmanna, Lobelia splendens, and Lobelia fulgens. While confirming the descriptions of these structures given by Buchenau and Minden, the author claims that the stomata found in connection with them represent quite a new type. The opening of each stoma is divided into halves by a thickened, cutinised partition which stretches from one extremity of the guard-cells to the other. In several cases this cutinous membrane is continued right over the opening so as to completely close it. Twenty other species of Lobeliaceas have also been examined, nineteen of which have similar stomata, while the remaining one is doubtful. It is of interest to note that the Cainpanulacere, which were also examined, have water-stomata of the ordinary type, and are destitute of a cutinised membrane. The author is uncertain as to the exact physiological meaning of these new stomata, but believes that their early and complex formation points to some important function in connection with the early life of the leaf. Lenticels of Palms. J — G. L. Gatin has studied the development of the lenticels found upon the roots and at the base of the rootlets of certain palms. The author finds that these structures are also found on the petiole of the cotyledon of several distantly related species. They are not confined to plants reared artificially, but may also be found on those growing under natural conditions. They develop where the hypo- * Rev. Gen. Bot., xix. (1907) pp. 169-92 (5 figs.), t Tom. cit., pp. 305-16 (1 pi.). % Tom. cit., pp. 193-207 (13 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICllOSCOPY, ETC. 63 dermal sclerenchyrna is interrupted, owing to the activity of a diffuse layer of active cambial cells. Their structure strongly recalls that of the " Staubgrubchen " of the Marattiaceae, and in their mode of formation they resemble ordinary lenticels. The author objects to the term " pneumathodes," proposed by Jost, and proposes to class the lenticular structures found on palm-roots with those found in the Marattiaceae under the name of "primitive lenticels." It is interesting to note the analogy in structure of the respiratory organs of the palms, the ( Jyathacese and the Marattiaceae. Extra-floral Nectaries.* — E. Schwendt has studied a large number of genera with special reference to extra-floral nectaries. In the Poly- gonaceae the nectaries are simple epidermal formations, and have no typical secreting tissue. In Oossypium and Tecoma radicans there is an ill-defined secreting tissue. In the Polypodiaceas and in Acacia cornigera, glandular tissue is present but no special secretion, while in the Oleaceae there is a typical secreting tissue, and also a specially modified secreting upper surface. Vascular bundles are specially modified in connection with the more complex nectaries. The nectar-secreting upper surface of the Polygonaceas, etc., and the disk-like nectaries in Tecoma radicans are also trichomes. The secreting hairs of the Polygonaceae begin development by radial division of a single epidermal cell, while in the Oleaceae and Gossypium, the first divisions are tangential. The radial walls of the stalk of the trichomes are suberised just before secretion begins. The nectaries of the Polypodiaoese are of a type hitherto unknown, in that the gland can simultaneously secrete nectar both on the upper and under surface of the lamina. Tannin is so abundant in the nectaries that there is reason for supposing that it has some con- nection with the formation of sugar ; it first makes its appearance while the nectary is still in a meristematic condition. There appears to be good reason for the view that nectaries originated as regulators of the passage of water through the epidermis, i.e. that in the first place they . behaved somewhat like hydathodes. Reproductive. Polycarpellary Origin of the Pistil of the Lauracese.f — M. Mirande has studied the pistil in the Lauraceaa, and concludes that the present opinion as to its monocarpellary character is erroneous. The investigations in the Cassythaceae clearly show traces of three carpels, the posterior of which is prolonged into a style and stigma, while the two latero-anterior abort. The ovarian canal which opens at the base of the single persistent style, and brings the ovarian cavity into communi- cation with the exterior, is nothing but au incomplete stylar canal which ends at the level where the two anterior carpels are about to expand. Further investigations made upon other groups of the Lauraceaa confirm these results, and hence the author concludes that the pistil of the Lauraeere is composed of several — usually three — open carpels, one posterior, and two latero-anterior. * Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1907) pp. 245-86 (2 pis.). t Comptes Kendus. cxlv. (1907; pp. 570-i!. 64 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Physiology. Nutrition and Growth. Parasitic Flowering Plants.* — A. Fraysse contributes a summary of his recent papers dealing with the biology of parasitic Phanerogams. The genera examined include Osyris alba, Gytinus Hypocistis, Odontitis rubra, Euphrasia officinalis, Lathrma squamaria, L. clandestine,, and Mtiiwtropa Hypopitys. The author finds that the plants most readily attacked by such parasites as Lathnea, Euphrasia, etc., winch attach themselves by suckers, are those with bacteria-nodules, tubercles, mycorhizas, etc. The suckers are sometimes pericyclic, sometimes endodermic in origin, and probably represent modified roots. The invasion of the parasite usually causes the formation in the host of a cambium zone, a layer of cork or other similar structures for the purpose of isolating the infected region. There may also be much mucilage or gum formed around the point of attack. Some of the green parasites absorb both mineral food and carbon compounds from their hosts, e.g. Odontites, while others only absorb carbon compounds, e.g. Euphrasia. Those without chlorophyll absorb the whole of their food from the host. In all cases, the parasite has a selective power, and by means of diastases converts the absorbed food-materials into compounds suitable for assimilation. Glucose appears to be the principal source of carbon, and thei'e is a special diastase present for converting the starch of the host-plant into this sugar. The latter may be immediately assimilated, or may be absorbed and then reconverted into a form of starch until needed. Tannin may be used, as in Gytinus, as an agent of nutrition and protection. The suckers contain substances which protect the parasite from the toxins secreted by the host. Infection is effected by the agency of cellulose- diastases, and other ferments of a similar character, which are most active when the host offers the greatest resistance. Parasitic Phanerogams and Nitrates. f — M. Mirande has con- ducted experiments with the view of discovering whether parasitic phanerogams absorb nitrates. The method employed was that of quali- tative analysis of the plant-sap by microchemical methods, using the sensitive sulphuric-diphenylamine reaction, and special attention was given to the organs of attachment, roots, suckers, etc. Parasites with little or no chlorophyll do not absorb nitrates from the host-plants, semi-parasites may or may not absorb nitrates. It appears that the reduction of nitrates depends upon the chlorophyll-function, and hence those plants which are destitute of chlorophyll, and thus unable to reduce nitrates, absorb nitrogen from the host-plants in a state of organic combination, thus profiting by the chlorophyll-function of the host-plants. Variation in the power of nitrate-absorption fluctuates with the amount of chlorophyll present. * Rev. Gen. Bot., xix. (1907) pp. 49-69 (13 figs.). t Coniptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 507-9. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 65 Course of Molecular Physiology.*— H. Schoufceden has edited the manuscript of a course of lectures by the late Professor Leo Errera on the application of physical laws to the phenomena of plant physiology. Irritability. Geotropism in the Roots of Lupinus albus.f — P. M. G-eorgevitch has made a cytological study of the roots of Lupinus albus with special reference to geotropism. The root-cap surrounds a columella, which, together with the adjacent cells, is rich in starch-granules. Normally these granules rest upon the physically lower cell-walls. In the normal cells of the root-tip the nucleus behaves as if lighter than the rest of the cell-contents, while the starch-corpuscles appear to be heavier, and follow the direction of the force of gravity, when the position of the root is changed. There is in each cell an accumulation of protoplasm, which stains very deeply, and which bears an important relationship to the position of the starch-granules, for when the root-tip is bent, so that gravity acts at right angles, or parallel to the organic axis, the starch-granules cover the physically lower cell-wall, while the proto- plasmic layer rests upon the morphological lower cell-wall. The move- ment in any direction of the starch-granules is always accompanied by movement of the protoplasmic layer. Also, the cell-nucleus is influ- enced by the force of gravity, and can be either positively or negatively geotropic. The cell-nucleus of geotropically directed roots shows the same structure as that of the ordinary cell-nucleus, and exhibits normal, mitotic cell-division. The cells of the growing root under the influence of gravity behave as if subjected to a one-sided pull or pressure, those on the concave side being short and broad, while those on the convex side are much elongated. Epidermis of Foliage-leaves in Relation to Light-perception. $ — M. Nordhausen has experimented with Fittonia, Impatiens, etc., with special reference to the connection of the epidermal cells with light- perception. Haberlandt's theory that the papillose outer walls of the epidermis act like lenses, throwing light upon the opposite sides of the cells, the plasmic linings of which are sensitive to light, has not been confirmed by the present experiments. Moreover, the reason put forward by Haberlandt for the failure of certain experiments, viz. that the light- sensitiveness is not inherited but acquired, and may, therefore, vary with changed conditions, is criticised by the author, who contends that this sensitiveness would then be constantly changing under normal conditions. The conclusion appears to be that the papilla? of the epi- dermis stand in no direct causal relationship to the perception of light by the leaf -blade. * Cours de Physiologie Moleculaire fait au doctorat en sciences botauiques en 1903 par Leo Errera. Extrait du Recueil de l'lnstitut botanique de Bruxelles, VII. Brussels: Lamertin, 1907, xii. and 153 pp., 20 figs, in text. t Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1907) pp. 1-20 (1 pi.). X Bot. Gesell., xxv. (1907) pp. 398-410. Feb. 19th, 1908 f 66 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO General. Pleistocene Flora of Canada.* — D. P. Penhallow has examined various leaves from the interglacial deposits of the Don Valley, Toronto. The specimens included Acer pleistocenicum, A. torontoniensis, Garya alba, Gercis canadensis, Gyperus sp., Gleditschia donensis, Madura auran- tiaca, Picea nigra, Ostrija virginica, Platanus occidentalis, Populus grandidentata, Primus sp., Quercus alba, Robinia pseudacacia, Tilia americana, and Ulmus americana. The present examination confirms previous conclusions as to the Don flora, and the existence of a climate warmer than the present one. It is now definitely proved that succes- sive northerly and southerly movements of the continental ice-sheet involved corresponding movements in the vegetation, and brought about the elimination of unstable species. The evidence of the Pleistocene clays of Toronto agrees with that of similar deposits at Elmira, New York, etc. Affinities of the Chicoracese.f — L. Dufour has studied the cotyle- dons of this group with special reference to its evolution and affinity. There are two distinct types of cotyledons ; those of the first group are broad, but they rarely exceed 20 mm. in length, while the petiole is often ill-defined. This type of cotyledon is characteristic of Gichorium, Lactuca, Sonchus, Grepis, Taraxacum, Hieracium, etc. The second type is less common, but is found in the genera Scorzonera, Tragopogon, Geropogon, and Podospermum ; here the cotyledons often reach a length of 50-60 mm., while the breadth does not exceed 3 mm. The author regards the present classification of the Chicoraceae as very artificial, and suggests that they should be divided into two groups according to the characters of their cotyledons. One group should comprise such types as Tragopogon, etc., the simplest being Scorzonera and Tragopogon, with undivided leaves, while Podospermum, with its much-divided leaves, is the most highly evolved type. The other group should comprise Gichorium, Lactuca, etc., and here, again, there is a gradual transition from the simple to the much-divided leaf. Both groups appear to have had a common origin in plants with simple leaves, and this character is frequently revealed in the cotyledons and first foliage leaves. Monograph of the Genus Ribes.} — Ed. de Jancewski has published an exhaustive account of this genus, in which he includes as a section, as is now usually done, Grossularia, to which belongs the gooseberry. The genus contains 133 species, for most of which a figure of the flower is given in addition to a very full description of the plant. Harmful Secretion of Sugar in Myrmecophilous Plants.§ — M. Nieuwenhuis von Uexkull-Giildenband has studied myrmecophilous plants, in order to test the opinion of Delpino, Kerner, and others, that the secretion of sugar in extra-floral nectaries, is useful in attracting * Amer. Nat., xli. (1907) pp. 443-52 (2 figs.), t Comptes Rendus. cxlv. (1907) pp. 567-70. % Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneve, xxxv. (1907) pp. 199-517 (202 figs, in text). § Proc. Acad. Amsterdam, ix. pt. 1 (1907) pp. 150-6. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 67 ants which protect the plants against injurious insects. The results of the investigations appear to show that in many plants, the secretion of sugar does much harm, by attracting not only ants, but beetles, bugs, etc., which eat the sugar and also the nectaries, leaves and flowers. This is the case with the orchid Spathoglottis plicata, a shrub-like malvaceous plant, and others. In Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and in Hibiscus tiUaceus, where extra-floral nectaries occur, no sugar is secreted owing to the growth of a fungus in the nectaries, and here the plants are healthy and uninjured by insects. There is no confirmation of Burck's theory that extra-floral nectaries occur near inflorescences, in order to attract ants which serve as a protection against bees and wasps which would bore the flowers. The number of bored flowers stands in no direct relatioii;to such nectaries, but rather in relation to the position of the plants, weather, etc. Moreover, the shapes and positions of the nectaries do not appear to be adapted for ants, and young plants, where most protection is necessary, have no sugar secretion. The ants which are attracted appear to be of a peaceful nature, and unable to afford any protection to plants ; the dangerous ants, which might be of use in this way, are carnivorous and can only be attracted by animal food. The author believes that the real meaning of these nectaries has yet to be discovered, and that new investigations must include plant-physiology as well as biology. Influence of Nectaries on the Opening of Anthers.* — W. Burck has conducted investigations with the object of discovering whether the nectaries and other glucose-secreting tissues influence the opening of the anthers by withdrawing water from them. Experiments conducted upon Diervillea rosea, Digitalis purpurea, Oenothera Lamarckiana, etc., show that water is withdrawn from the anthers by osmosis set up by the glucose-containing tissue found in the stamens and corolla. Other flowers, whose anthers behave differently, have similar tissue, but to a very much smaller extent. In a second series of experiments con- ducted upon SteUaria media, Gerastium semidecandrum, G. erectum, Holostewn umbellatum, and many other flowers having a nectary at the base of each stamen, the bursting of the anthers appears to be due to the osmotic influence of the nectaries, not as in the first group, to simple glucose-containing tissue. While in a third series of experiments upon such flowers as Ranunculus acris, Brassica oleracea, Geranium molle, etc., negative results were obtained, the general conclusions seem to show that nectaries and glucose-secreting tissues play an important part in enabhng the anthers to open at the right time, independently of the hygroscopic condition of the air. Baegagli-Petrucci, G. — Descrizione di alcuni tricomi de Palme. (Descrip- tion of some trichomes of palms.) Nuovo Giorn. But. Ital., n.s. xiv. (1907) pp. 293-5 (1 pi.). Colozza, A. — Studio anatomico sulle Goodeniaceae. (An anatomical study of the Goodeniacese.) Tom. cit., pp. 304-26* (2 pis.). Proc. Acad. Amsterdam, ix. pt. 1 (1907) pp. 390-6. F •> 68 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO CRYPTOGAMS. Pteridophyta. (By A. Gepp, M.A., F.L.S.) Apogamy and Apospory.* — H. "Woronin discusses the question of apogamy and apospory in certain ferns. She has discovered apogamy in Notochlama EcMoniana, N. sinuata, Pellcm tenera, P.flavens, and has followed out the development of the germinating plants in these as well as in Trichomanes Kranssii. And in the latter plant she has also followed out the development of the antheridia and the formation of the prothallium, which usually is a flat expansion arising from a filament. In this plant also she produced apospory artificially. Various physio- logical experiments made by the author are described, and a full summary of her results is given. K. Goebel f has succeeded in producing apospory artificially in various ferns, obtaining prothallia, sporophytes, and intermediate structures. He finds that regeneration is more active in young than in older leaves ; that the product of regeneration is not necessarily a sporophytic struc- ture ; that there seems to be no great difference between the nuclei of prothallia and those of sjwrophytes, and so no sharp distinction between the x and 2x generations. Genus Antrophyum.J — R. C. Benedict treats of the genus A/itro- phyum, giving a synopsis of its sub-genera and of the American species. Four sub-genera are distinguished, one of them being new, Antrophy- opsis, which comprises five African species, A. Boryanum being the type. Nine American species are recognised and re-described. Two of them are new, A. Dussianum from the West Indian Islands, and A. Jenmani from British and French Guiana. Bryophyta. (By A. Gepp.) Apospory and Sexuality in Mosses.§ — El. and Em. Marchal give an account of the methods and results of their experiments undertaken to determine the sexuality of the protonemas obtained by cultivation of portions of pedicel and theca of the maturing sporogonium, Stahl and others having already shown the possibility of obtaining such a protonema by regeneration. Results were obtained with fourteen species, but only those derived from three dioicous species, Bryum caespiticium, Mnium hornum, and B. argenteum, are now published. 1. The aposporic protonema resulting from the regeneration of the sporophyte is morphologically identical with the haploidic protonema ; placed in favourable conditions it is apt to produce gonophytes. 2. These gonophytes are bisexual, like the sporogonium, from which they emanate. 3. This double sexual polarity expresses itself in the * Flora, xcviii. (1907) pp. 101-62 (figs.). + SB. k. Akad. Wiss., xxxvii. (1907) pp. 119-38 (figs.). See also Bot. Gazette, xliv. (1907) p. 317. X Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxiv. U907) pp. 445-58. § Bull. CI. Sci. Acad. Koy. Belg., 1907, pp. 765-89. See also pp. 728-30. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 69 production of synoicous flowers. These latter, however, are always accompanied in a predominant proportion by flowers which, by a latent influence, manifest only male polarity, or very rarely by flowers of female character. 4. The gonophytes which produce these male or female flowers are, nevertheless, also virtually bisexual, this bisexuality revealing itself immediately in the products of regeneration when syncecism reappears. 5. The protonema arising by regeneration of the sporogonium consequently gives birth among species, however strictly dioicous, to a new form, hermaphrodite, or more exactly, androgyno-synoicous, capable of reproducing itself indefinitely in an asexual manner. Classification of Families and Genera of Mosses.* — V. F. Brotherus publishes a further contribution to the section Musci in Engler and Prantl's " Die natiiiiichen Pflanzenfamilien." He finishes the family Hookeriacege and treats of the Hypopterygiacese (with three genera), Helicopkyllaceee (two genera), Rhacopilaceee (one genus), Leskeaceee (twenty-three genera arranged in five groups). A large portion of the group Thuidieas stands over for completion in the next part of the work. European Hepaticse.t — K. Mueller, of Freiburg, publishes the fifth part of his monograph of the European Hepatic* in Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz, and gives full descriptions of the following genera of Marchantiacese with their species : Reboidia, Grimaldia, Neesiella, Firnbriaria, Fegatella, Lunularia, Exormotheca. Dumortiera, Bucegia, Freissia, Marcliantia. Passing on to the second great division of hepatics — Jungermanniales, he begins the consideration of the section Jungermanniaceee Anakro- gynas by describing Sphwrocarpus and Riella. Mossflora of Northumberland.! — H. N. Dixon publishes a list of the mosses he collected in Northumberland in the summer of 1905, and of the species recorded by other bryologists, indicating the probable inaccuracy of some of these records. French Mosses. § — P. Sebille gives a list of some rare or interesting species of the bryological flora of Saone-et-Loire. It consists of 139 species, chiefly authenticated by the late M. Philibert. In subsidiary lists are grouped the species of Mediterranean type, those of Alpine type, and those of the Atlantic coast type. CI. Dismier || gives a list of rare species found in the Vallee de la Voulzie near Provins (Seine-et- Marne). North American Mosses. — E. CI. Brittonlf publishes some notes on the nomenclature of North American mosses, with special reference to a recent part of Brotherus' monograph of mosses in Engler and * Leipzig : W. Engelrnann, i. abt. 3 (1907) pp. 961-1008 (tigs.). t Leipzig : E. Kummer, vi., lief. 5 (1907) pp. 257-320. \ Proc. Berwick Nat. Club, xix. (1907) pp. 305-26. § Rev. Bryolog., xxxiv. (1907) pp. 114-22. || C.R. Congres Soc. Sav., 1906, 3 pp. H Bryologist, x. (1907) pp. 100-1. 70 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Prantl's Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien. A description is given of Pterygophyllum acuminatum Pur., an East Indian species now stated to have Hookeria Sullivantii 0. Muell. as a synonym, having a distribution from Ohio to Guadeloupe and in South America. A. Lorenz* publishes some further notes upon the bryophytes of Waterville in the White Mountain territory of New Hampshire, an incompletely explored region. C. H. Demetriof gives a list of 100 mosses collected in various parts of Missouri. E. J. Window! describes the dehiscence of capsules and dispersal of spores which he had the good fortune to observe in process of execution in Sphagnum growing in a swamp in Vermont on a sunny morning in August. w Mosses of Madeira.§ — A. Luisier publishes a note on some bryo- logical additions to the flora of Madeira collected by C. A. de Menezes. The two genera Cinclidotus and Brachymenium have never previously been recorded for the Atlantic islands. Menezes has discovered Cinclidotus fontinaloides var. madeirensis Card, and Brachymenium pMlonotula Hpe., which latter, like Philonotis obtusata CM., is a Madagascan species. Similarly in the Azores are found species whose affinity is with those of the African islands. Menezes has also discovered a new variety, Astrodontium TreUasei var. latifolium Card. Muscinese of the Canary Islands. || — Pitard, Corbiere and Negri publish an account of the principal Canary Islands, a bibliographical index and a catalogue of the Muscineaa with their stations, including 101 mosses, 20 of which are new to the flora, and 62 hepatics, 18 of which are new records for the Canaries and 3 new to science. Arctic Muscineae.lf — N. Bryhn publishes an enumeration and description of the bryophytes collected during the second Norwegian Polar expedition. These include 57 hepatics and 233 mosses, several of which are new and four are figured. A. Hesselbo ** publishes a list of the Andreaaales and Bryales found in East Greenland, between 74° 15' and 65° 35' lat. N., in the years 1898-1902. They were collected during several expeditions by Kruuse and Hartz, and amount to 132 species, several of them being new to the local flora. Sphagna of Alaska.jf — W. A. Setchell gives a summary of the cryptogamic work of the University of California Botanical Expedition to Alaska in 1899, and adds a list of some previously unreported Alaskan Sphagna, determined by C. Warnstorf, including 21 species and forms. * Bryologist, x. (1907) pp. 102-3. t Tom. cit., pp. 103-6. J Tom. cit., p. 111. § Bull. Soc. Portugaise Sci. Nat. Lisbonne, i. (1907) p. 71. |i Mem. Soc. Bot. France, 1907, 44 pp. i Vidensk.-selsk. Kristiania, 1906, 260 pp. (1 pi.). ** Meddelelser om Gronland, xxx. (1907) pp. 315-32. ft Univ. of California Publications, Botany, ii. (1907) pp. 309-15. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 71 Mosses of Antarctic America.* — P. Dusen publishes the fifth part of his contributions to the bryology of the Magellan region, West Patagonia, and South Chili. It contains records of 34 species, 13 of which are described for the first time, some by Dusen and some by Brotherus. One change of name is announced, from Grimmia pachy- phylla Dus. to G. Dirksouii Dus. Sis plates and two text-figures show the points of the new species. Portuguese Species of Fissidens.f — A. Luisier publishes a note upon some Portuguese species of Fissidens. He describes a new variety of F. serrulatus called Henriquesii. F. Wehoitschii he considers to be only a variety of F. polypkyllus. According to Bottinithe latter species is a variety of F. serrulatus, and F. Welwitschii a mere form of the same. F. polypkyllus var. Newtoui, another Portuguese moss, is described in Husnot's Muscoloffia Gallica. 'bJ Genus Ephemerum.J — C. Douin has made a study of Ephemerum stellatum, and is able to correct and complete the published descriptions of the plant. He gives numerous figures showing the development of the spores, the sterile and fertile plants under different aspects, the leaves, capsule, calyptra, etc. He also provides a key to the European species of the genus. Two Species of Sphaerocarpus found in France.§ — C. Douin dis- cusses in detail the species of Splmroearpus found in France. A close study of much material has shown him that two species, distinguishable only by their spores, occur in France — S. terrestris and S. calif omicus . He describes carefully the development of the spores and shows how the mature tetrads differ in the two species. The 8. terrestris described by Boulay in his Hepatiques, p. 178, is most probably S. califortvicus, which appears to be more common in France than the true S. terrestris. The spores in both species remain permanently united in tetrads. They are larger, yellowish, more loosely reticulated, cristate, not spinose, in S. californicus ; whereas in S. terrestris they are smaller, obscure, black, of much smaller more numerous meshes, with crests very black and bearing numerous sharp black spines. Variable Peristome of Philonotis.|| — G. Dismier discusses the specific value of the interlamellar thickenings of the peristome-teeth in the species of the genus Philonotis. He shows how several recent authors have employed these structures as diagnostic characters, and gives the results of his own observations, that the presence or absence of these structures is unstable and is of no value in the discrimination of species, and that their degree of development varies much from one specimen to another. P. media Bryhn is but P. Macouni (= P. Ryani) with the interlamellar protuberances absent. P. rividaris Warnst. is the same as P. marchica, but has the protuberances inconspicuously developed. * Arkiv Botanik., vi. (1907) 32 pp. 6 plates, figs, in text. t Bull. Soc. Portugaise Sci. Nat. Lisboune, i. (1907) pp. 15-21 (9 figs.>. X Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1907, pp. 242-51, 30G-26 (80 figs.). § Rev. Brvolog., xxxiv. (1907) pp. 105-12 (figs.). || Tom. cit., pp. 112-14. 72 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Peculiar Unattached Mode of Growth of Leucobryum.* — W. H. Burrell describes the common but insufficiently known occurrence of Leucobryum glaucum in the form of unattached flattened balls, measuring 1-2 inches in diameter. They are found with normal attached tufts under beech-trees, where they tend to be kicked about by game-birds and other animals that feed upon beech-nuts. The thick spongy water- retaining nature of the leaves, and the free formation of adventitious buds, are other factors that contribute to the production of the cushions, as the plants contain a sufficiency of water for prolonged independent growth, and the numerous buds swelling out tend to produce a ball of branches radiating from near a common centre. The author cites a description by H. N. Dixon of unattached balls of Porotrichum alopecurum in moist hollows in Weldon Quarries in Northamptonshire. These balls measure 2-5 inches in diameter, and consist of profusely branched stems. Thallophyta. Algse. By Mbs. E. S. Gepp. Regeneration of Algse.f — S. Prowazek has been studying the subject of regeneration of algae at intervals for the last six years, and he now publishes the most important of his results. His investigations were made on the following species : Spirogyra Weberi Kiitz., Mougeotia gemtfiexa Ag., Ulva lactuca, Cladophora, Bryopsis plumosa, Vaucheria sessilis, Valonia, and Ectocarpus. His results are described under the following headings : 1. Phenomena which arise during or immediately after infliction of the wound (irritation and wounding phenomena). 2. Regeneration and reparation phenomena in the narrow sense. 3. Regeneration phenomena which exceed the original limit of form- structure. The paper is illustrated by text figures. Influence of External Conditions on the Asexual Reproduction of Algas.J — H. Freund describes the experiments which he has made on this subject, with the results at which he has arrived. Among some of the conditions with which he experimented are temperature, intensity of light, increase and removal of nutritive salts, etc. The first plant dealt with is (Edogonium pluviale, and after detailing many series of experiments, he gives an interesting comparison between (E. pluviale, (E. diplandrum, and (E. capillar e. Hccmatococcus pluvialis was also treated. A section devoted to general considerations is followed by a summary of the results of this work. In CE. pluviale and H. pluvialis, the external conditions necessary to the formation of zoospores differ according to the previous conditions of growth. The significance of inorganic salts for the formation of zoospores in both algas depends in the first place upon their chemical properties. After treatment with Knop1s nutritive solution, (E. pluviale forms zoospores, if nitrate and phosphate have been withheld. Diminu- * Bryologist, x. (1907) pp. 108-11 (figs.). t Biol. Centralbl., xxvii. (1907) pp. 737-47 (11 figs, in text). % Flora, xcviii. (1907) pp. 41-100. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 73 tion of light does not provoke formation of zoospores in plants grown in nutritive solution : while on the other hand they are produced both by diminution of light and by transference into diluted nutritive solution. (Fj. pluviale also produces zoospores when it has been cultivated in cane-sugar solution and this is replaced by diluted Knop's solution. Resting cysts of H. pluvialis which have lived in old foul water in bright light, develop swarm-spores when transferred to distilled water, or when provided with suitable nitrates (nitrate, nitrite, ammonium salts). Light is not necessary to produce this result, though it enhances the effect considerably. Cysts of H. pluvialis, which have been for a long time in darkness, form swarm-spores when they are again lighted or when they receive cane- or grape-sugar. Algal Vegetation of Ponds.* — N. Walker has examined certain ponds situated above the Bramhope railway tunnel, near Leeds, occupy- ing excavations in clay which were made sixty-seven years ago. He mentions three available sites for algre, and gives the species found on each. Site 1 : Winter shoots of CEnanthe fistulosa which form a pale green zone, from 2-3 yards wide, extending from the edge of the pond to a depth of about 9 in. Several factors which probably control the succession of algal associations are mentioned, and the species occurring in the various months are enumerated. Site 2 : Shoots of Potamogeton natans and Sparganium ramosum occurring in the deeper water (1—3 ft.). The vertical distribution of the alga? on these shoots is in some cases striking, and seems to be affected by surface commotion caused by wind and by differences in the illumination. Species of CEdogonium and Bulbochcete are followed by Spirpgyra Weberi and other filamentous algae, to be displaced in their turn by species of Mougeotia and Desmids. Site 3 : Short decaying shoots of the smaller flowering plants, which cover the floor of the pond in shallower parts not occupied by CEnanthe. The dominant alga is Glceocystis vesiculosa. In one shallow pond with deep mud, Spirogyra longata dominates throughout the year. The movement of Phormidium inundatum along the filaments of Spirogyra from the bottom to the surface is described. New Green Algae. f — F. S. Collins describes five new species, some of which have already been distributed in the Phycotheca Boreali- Americana. They are only in part from New England localities, but so general is the distribution of plants of this class that the author states they may be found in any temperate locality. The species in question are : Pleurococcus marinus, Chcetomorpha chelonum, Cladophora amphibia. Vaucheria longipes, and V. Gardneri. The two species of Vaucheria are figured. Copulation and Germination of Spirogyra.} — A. Trondle is the most recent investigator of Spirogyra. Other writers have left doubtful certain details in the behaviour of the nuclei with regard to sexual pro- cesses, and the present author is able to add fresh facts on these points. He describes phenomena which vary from those generally known, * Rep. Brit. Assoc. York, 1906, pp. 758-9. t Rhodora, ix. (1907) pp. 197-202 (1 pi.). X Bot. Zeit., lxv. (1907) pp. 187-217 (1 pi., 13 figs, in text). 74 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO both in the preparations for copulation and in the topography of the copulating cells. The subject is treated under the headings : 1. Notes on the morphology of the process of copulation ; (a) Spirogyra neglecta ; (b) S. spreeiana. 2. Ripening of the zygotes ; (a) starch and oil ; (b) the chromatophores ; (c) the nuclei. 8. Structure of the ripe zygotes ; (a) contents ; (b) membrane. 4. Germination of the zygotes. 5. Law of numbers and reduction of the chromatophores and chromo- somes. The results are set forth in a detailed summary, and a list of literature is given. The paper is illustrated by a plate and text-figures. Sargassum bacciferum.* — ('. Sauvageau combats the statements of certain authors that S. bacciferum has been found growing attached any- where, and declares definitely that this is not the case. It is to be regretted that the error should have been so widely accepted. The original home of S. bacciferum has never been found, though the species is known in such quantity in the Sargasso Sea, as well as floating in the waters round Cape de Verde, the Azores, Bermuda, New Orleans, Guadeloupe, Brazil, Chili, Australia, New Zealand, and Ceylon. It is rarely thrown up on the shores of Europe. There are two alternative theories as to this species : either it grows in a fixed state on the shores of some country, whence it is wafted by currents far and wide and almost entirely in a sterile condition ; or it has lived and vegetated from time immemorial in a floating condition and propagated itself by budding. Piccone regards it as indicating a former tract of land now submerged, the ancient Atlantis. The present author suggests that collectors might do something towards unravelling this mystery by col- lecting and examining the plants which are growing among the drifting Sargassum, since some of these might be sufficiently characteristic to reveal their place of origin. Sexuality of Halopteris scoparia.f — C Sauvageau, the first dis- coverer of heterogamic sexuality among the Sphacelariaceas, has found organs resembling antheridia in dried specimens of Halopteris brachy- carpa, H. congesta, and H. hordavea. So far as he could tell, the oogonia are unilocular and inclose a single large oogonium. A still more inte- resting discovery has been made by this author, namely that of sexual organs on the well-known species Halopteris (Stypocaulon) scoparia, so widely distributed in Europe, the Atlantic, and the Mediterranean. The asexual organs are very common in winter, although the germination of the zoospores has never been followed. In December 1903, the author collected 2G examples of H. scoparia thrown up on the coast between Biarritz and S. Sebastian, and preserved them without any special care. On examination he found that while 25 of these had only asexual organs, the other one had instead oogonia and antheridia. These organs occupy the same position as the sporangia. The oogonia apparently contain only one oosphere, which measures about 100/*.. In the hope of obtain- ing further material bearing sexual organs, the author collected plants from the warmer seas of Teneriffe, and he also examined plants from * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) pp. 1082-4. t Tom. cit., pp. 506-7. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 75 Banyuls in the Mediterranean, but without success. The sexuality therefore of H. scoparia rests on the testimony of a single specimen, and it may be fairly deduced that the occurrence of antheridia and oogonia is extremely rare. Aglaozonia melanoidea.* — In two interesting notes, C. Sauvageau adds largely to our knowledge of A. melanoidea and its life-history. He succeeded in finding it in the Gulf of Gascony, and now he finds it at Banyuls in the Mediterranean ; besides which the late Anna Vickers dredged it up in the Bay of Naples. After Sauvageau had found it in the Gulf of Gascony, he put forth the theory that A. melanoidea might be the sporophyte of Cutleria adspersa. One objection to this theory was that A. chilosa would then be left without a gametophytic genera- tion ; and another was that A. melanoidea was then unknown in the Mediterranean. This latter objection has been now done away with. The plant found by Anna Vickers is an intermediate state between the sterile plants from Guethary and the fertile ones from Banyuls. These fertile specimens were collected in December 1905 and January 1906, and were found to have sporangia grouped in sori, each of the rows of cells of a sorus being surmounted by an elongated sporangium. At the end of February and at the end of June, the plants were once more sterile, and corresponded with the specimens gathered at Guethary. The sporangia contained eight zoospores, similar to those of A. parvula. The latter species is less common at Banyuls than is A. melanoidea. Cultures of the zoospores of A. melanoidea were made, and the results were extremely interesting. Hundreds of plantlets were produced, all showing the same character. They consisted of monosiphonous, very slender filaments, 2-4 mm. long, having long cells below. The shorter, less branched, plantlets were either sterile or nearly so, while the longer plantlets, much branched halfway up, were very fertile, bearing anthe- ridia and oogonia in all stages of development. None of these plants resembled a young Cutleria : indeed, had their life-history not been known they would have been regarded as a new genus intermediate between Ectocarpus and Cutleria. The author designates this form " form Kuckuck," since that author had previously obtained certain confervoid filaments from a culture of Aglaozonia parvula. The actual position and signification of "form Kuckuck" in the life-cycle of Cutleria cannot at present be stated, but various suggestions are made by the author. Algae of the 'Valdivia' Expedition.! — T. Reinbold publishes his report on the marine algae of the German ' Valdivia ' Deep-sea Expedition (1X98-9). The areas from which the specimens came are the Canary Islands, Cape of Good Hope, Bouvet Island, Kerguelen Island, the islands of St. Paul and New Amsterdam, Sumatra, Nicobar Islands, Diego Garcia (Chagos Archipelago), Mahe (Seychelles), Dar-es- Salaam, Red Sea ; 162 species are enumerated, and -1 of these are new to science. The largest collections were made in Kerguelen, Sumatra, Diego Garcia, Mahe, and Dar-es-Salaam. In his general remarks on * Tom. cit., pp. 139-41 and 271-2. t Wiss. Ergebn. Deutsch. Tiefsee-Exped. ' Valdivia,' ii. 2 (1907) 3S pp. (4 pis.). 76 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO the algae of the Indian Ocean, the author gives a list of areas the algae of which are well known, insufficiently known, and slightly or not at all known, appending the titles of the more important papers, geographi- cally arranged. The unknown areas are the Mozambique Coast, Delagoa Bay, much of the Indian Coast, Persian Gulf, and many small islands. The present paper fills in some of the gaps in treating of the islands of Diego Garcia and Mahe. In studying the algal distribution in the Indian or any other ocean, it is essential to have an accurate knowledge of the various ocean-currents — the most important factor in their distribution, carrying not only those species which float by means of air- vesicles, but also species parasitic upon them and the spores of many other species. The main currents in the Indian Ocean are as follows : South of the equator flows the great equatorial current from east to west, which upon striking the north point of Madagascar splits into two branches — the Agulhas and the Mascarene currents. The latter flows south, while the former, passing round west of Madagascar and sending out a small branch northwards, flows down the east coast of Africa. This warm Agulhas current is met south-east of the Cape of Good Hope (in about 40° S. lat.) by cold antarctic currents which deflect it to the east where it joins up again with the Mascarene current, and these united flow across to Cape Leeuwin, in West Australia, accompanied by cold currents on the southward side. At Cape Leeuwin a portion of this warm current, turning northward, unites again with the equatorial current, thus completing its circuit. Another and less important current runs south of the equator, but north of the aforesaid equatorial current and in the contrary direction — namely, from west to east. By the help of the above currents there is a possible means of communication between the marine floras of the Malay Archipelago and West Australia and those of the Mascarenes and Madagascar, as well as of the east coast of Africa. The rest of the paper is devoted to a consideration of the character of the algal flora of the Indian Ocean. Taken as a whole it does not appear to have any very distinctive flora of its own. In the southern parts the character is that of the subantarctic zone. As regards the tropical parts the west and north have a fairly uniform character, but the east exhibits signs of the influence of West and North Australia and of the Pacific Ocean. Bocat, L. — Sur la Marennine de la Diatomee bleue; comparaison avec la Phyco- cyanine. (On the Marennin of the blue diatom : comparison with Phycocyanin.) [A chemical analysis of the blue coloration of Navicula ostrearia, designated by E. Ray Lankester as Marennin.] C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) pp. 1073-5. Duggar, B. M. — The Relation of certain Marine Algae to various Solutions. [Plasmolytic experiments with various isosmotic solutions of sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, and sugar ; also the poisonous action of certain salts of the alkalies and alkaline earths upon marine algae.] Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, xvi. (1906) pp. 473-89. Edwards, A.M. — The so-oalled "Infusorial Earths," and their Chemical Analyses. Chemical News, xcv. (1907) pp. 241-5. Mazza, A. — Saggio di Algologia oceanica. (Contributions to marine algology.) [A continuation.] Nuov. Notar., xviii. (1907) pp. 177-95. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 77 Sauvageau, C. — Le verdissement des huitres par la diatomee bleue. (The green coloration of oysters by the blue diatom.) [A long treatise, dealing exhaustively with all past work on the subject, and giving a bibliography of 91 works.] Soc. Sci. d'Arcachon, x. (1907) 128 pp. Fungi. (By A. Lorrain Smith, F.L.S.) Cytology of Synchytrium.* — S. Kusano selected for this research a still undescribed species, Synchytrium Purerar'm. He devoted his attention to the relation between parasite and host, and comparisons are drawn between the results obtained and those of other workers in the same field. In the species examined no resting spores are formed, but sporangia can pass the winter within the tissue of the hosts and produce swarm-spores in spring. These spores probably enter by the stomata and find their way to non-chlorophyll, sub-epidermal cells. The parasite grows within the cells of the host, absorbing the walls and those of the neighbouring cells, or compressing them to make room for its large size, and thus, from being intracellular, comes to occupy an intercellular lysigenetic space. When growth finishes, a hyaline mem- brane is formed round it, and the whole contents break up into spores, which are ejected by the swelling up of the surrounding host-cells. Kusano found that the cytoplasm and nuclei of the host remained healthy, and though they eventually disappear, that is due probably to self -disorganisation . l&^ Specialisation in Erysiphacese.-f — G-. M. Reed selected Erysiphe Oichoracearum for a series of experiments in this field. He recalls the work done on these lines, and gives his own results. The spores of the fungus were sown on 23 varieties of Cucurbitaceae belonging to three different genera. There was no difficulty in obtaining inoculation in any instance ; the fungus spores taken from any species when trans- ferred, grew at once on any other species. He contrasts his results with those of Salmon, who found some five physiological species in Erysiphe graminis. He considers that the species he was dealing with probably represents a less primitive form than the one on grass, and that it has become adapted to a larger number of hosts. Parasitism of Valsa.J — Spieckerman examined a number of pear- trees that had died, and found the branches beset with Valsa cincta. In cultures he produced pycnidia, but attempts at infection in the open gave only negative results. He concludes that the Valsa is a wound parasite, that it gains entrance, and then penetrates deeply into the sound tissue. The affected trees were all in a moist locality. An epidemic among cherry-trees was traced to the action of a Cytospora, also a "weak parasite," and the author includes these, and probably * Centralbl. Bakt., xix. (1907) pp. 538-43 (1 pi.). t Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters, xv. (1907) p. 527. See also Bot. Centralbl., cv. (1907) p. 536. X SB. Nat. Ver. Preusz. Rheinl. Westf., 1907, pp. 19-27. See also Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 379-80. 78 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO many of the Valsece, among the forms that may become parasitic in favourable surroundings. Study of Fungi imperfecta* — H. Klebahn is continuing his re- searches in this branch of mycology. He has succeeded in demonstrating the connection between Marssonia juglandis and the ascomycetous form Gnomonia leptostyla, both found on walnut leaves. Klebahn sowed the spores of Gnomonia on young leaves of the host-plant, and produced the Marssonia form. Intermixed with the rather large two-celled Marssoyiia spores he found small one-celled spores that have been wrongly described as a separate fungus under the name Leptofhyrium juglandis. He also made gelatin cultures of the Marssonia spores, which he describes. The perithecia of the Gnomonia fruit carry the fungus over the winter, and to stamp out the disease it is only necessary to destroy the leaves in autumn or before the spring vegetation is formed. Sexuality and Development of Ascomycetes. — Two papers on this subject have appeared recently. The first, by E. J. Welsford,| contains an account of the development of Ascobolus furfurascens. In this fungus the earliest stages show a scolecite of 6-10 usually similar uninucleate cells, which by division rapidly become multinucleate. The fourth cell from the end becomes larger than the others, and forms the ascogenous cell. The protoplasm and nuclei from the other cells of the scolecite pass into the ascogenous cell, where they fuse in pairs and enter the ascogenous hyphae, which rise from that cell. These hyphee grow out, bend over in the usual characteristic fashion, and form the asci. The author considers that the nuclear fusions in the ascogenous cell repre- sent a reduced sexual process. The second paper, by H. C. Fraser,J describes the sexual process in Lachnea stercorea, which the author sums up thus : (1) The archicarp of Lachnea stercorea consists of several cells, and terminates in a large, multicellular archegonium. (2) From the ascogonium a trichogyne, which is at first unicellular, but eventually consists of four, five, or six ccenocytic cells, grows out. Its terminal cell is much larger than the others, and may become continuous with the antheridium. (3) The antheridium, which is not always fully developed, is a unicellular cceno- cytic sac ; its origin could not be traced with certainty. (4) The male nuclei do not reach the ascogonium, but fertilisation of a reduced type occurs, the female nuclei fusing in pairs. (5) Ascogenous hyphs, into which the fused nuclei pass, grow out from the ascogonium, and asci are formed, by the usual method, at their tips. (6) Lachnea stercorea is intermediate, with regard to its sexuality, between Pyronema con- fiuens, on the one hand, and Hiimaria granulata on the other, and with regard to the organisation of its trichogyne, between Pyronema and certain of the Pyrenomycetes. Experiments were also made on spore germination in this species. They were treated with digestive fluids or with dung extract, and germination took place in about fifty hours * Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xvii. (1907) pp. 223-37 (1 pi. and 2 figs.), t New Phvtologist, vi. (1907) pp. 156-61 (1 pi.). I Ann. of Bot., xxi. (1907) pp. 349-60 (2 pis.) . ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 79 after the beginning of the experiment. It was evidently induced by continued warmth and an alkaline medium, the action of which, in part at least is to cause softening of the wall of the spore. Uredinese.* — P. Dietel has described a series of new species of Uredineae from Chili and Brazil, in South America. In most cases he is dealing with only one form of the rust. J. Ivar Liro| gives an account of experiments with the rusts of Finland. For a number of forms he establishes the limits of growth, in others he confirms previous findings, and he gives also an account of his negative results. He experimented with Melampsora Larici-tremulce, P actinia JEcidii-melampyri, P. JEcidii-rumicis, Uromyces Trifolii, Oymno- sporangium, and Gronartium. J. C. Arthur % treats of the Coleosporiaceas, Uredinaceae, and iEcidiaceae in the recent issue of the North American Flora. He describes many new species. A number of names have been changed. The new genera are Necium, Gionothrix in the Uredinaceee ; Cy sting ophora, Dicheirinia, and Discospora in the xEcidiaceae. P. Magnus § publishes a note on the nomenclature of some recent species of Uromyces on Papilionaceae. They have been wrongly named, and Magnus corrects the errors. J. C. Arthur || gives an account of his cultures of Uredinege in 1906, the seventh series of such reports. Many of the cultures yielded nega- tive results, and these are also recorded. One of the most interesting discoveries was the autcecious nature of flax rust, Melampsora Lini. This gives a good prospect of stamping out the rust by destroying the old flax straw on which the fungus lives during the winter. A new species of Diorchidium is described by Th. Wurth.1T The fungus causes deformations of the host-plant, especially of the leaf- stalk. The teleutospores of this fungus are vertically septate, giving two cells on one stalk ; occasionally a third cell was formed at the side of the others. The new species is D. Koordersii. Klebahn** publishes a series of twenty-six culture experiments with various Uredineae. Some of these are amplifications or verifications of previous work, others deal with new questions of relationships and biological species. In his examination of Phragmidium Rubi, he remarks that though the many species of Rubus are closely related and difficult to separate, yet the fungus is very constantly selective in the species on which it grows, infecting some richly and dying out on others. Rene Probstft gives a series of results obtained with culture experi- ments of Uredineaa on Compositse. He found four specialised forms within the species Puccinia Hieracii. He found also that P. Leontodontis grew only on Leontodon hispidus ; that P. Hypochocridis was distinct * Aim. Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 244-6. t Acta Soc. F. & Fl. Fenn., xxix. No. 6 (1900) 25 pp. See also Ann. Glycol., v. (1907) p. 301. X North American Flora, vii. (1907) pp. 83-100. See also Bot. Centralbl., cv. (1907) pp. 136-7. § Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxv. (1907) p. 340. || Journ. Mycol., xiii. (1907) pp. 189-205. 1 Hedwigia, xlvii. (1907) pp. 71-5 (4 rigs.). ** Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xvii. (1907) pp. 129-57. + t Centralbl. Bakt., xix. (1907) pp. 543-4. SO SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO from P. Hieracii, and also from P. montevago, a new form that grows only on ffgpochceris uniflora. He established also two forms for P. carduorum. Wilhelm Muller* has made an exhaustive study of the Melampsoree on species of Euphorbia. He finds that they can be divided into definite classes according to the form of the teleutospore and the thick- ness of the wall. He divides them thus into five different types. He finds, further, that those with elongate spores and thickened apex belong to southern lands, while those with short thin-walled spores are found in Middle and North Europe. It is possible also that the length of the spores corresponds with the length of the palisade cells. Measurements and drawings of the teleutospores of many of the species are given, and the size of both teleutospores and uredospores are printed in tabular form. Morphology of the Rusts.f — A. H. Christman reviews the theories held by successive workers on the origin of the different stages in the life- cycle of the Uredineag, and then proceeds to give his own interpretations which he bases on the examination of certain spore types that do not originate in a fusion-cell. He finds one of these types in the secondary uredospores of Pkragmidium PotentillcB-canadensis. They arise from a large basal cell which contains two nuclei, and is, he considers, equivalent to the basidium or basal cell of the JEcidium and teleutospore stages. Conjugate division of the basal cell-nuclei takes place, and an upper cell is cut off — the first spore initial cell. The division of this cell provides the stalk and the uredospore, the stalk corresponding to the sterile cell in the jEcidiwn. Meanwhile the basal-cell has budded out and formed another uredospore initial cell. The difference between this formation and that of the primary uredosorus is, that in the latter the underlying mycelium is uninucleate, while the mycelium from which the secondary spores arise is binucleate. Christman also examined a teleutospore form, Puccinia Podophylli, and found a similar series of phenomena to that already described. Occasionally trinucleate cells were observed, suggesting possible pathological migrations of nuclei. Christman holds with Blackman that the sporophyte stage begins with the associated nuclei in the basal cell, and that there is a series of asexual reproductive cycles within the sporophyte generation. The gametophyte he considers to be the primitive original generation, and the autcecious rusts probably older than the hetercecious. New Boletus.} — S. Belli describes at some length Boletus sardous sp. n., which grows throughout Sardinia. The very bulbous stem, large pores, and the colour and form of the spores, differentiate it completely from the two species most nearly allied, B. granulatus and B. badius. It grows most abundantly under Cistus trees. The fungus is reproduced in a coloured plate. Recent Work on Fungi. § — I. Gallaud continues his review of the different papers that have been published, especially on the cytology of * Centralbl. Bakt., xix. (1907) pp. 544-63 (31 figs.). t Bot. Gazette, xliv. (1907) pp. 81-100 (1 pi.). % Atti Accad. Sci. Torino, xlii. (1907) pp. 1024-30 (1 col. pi.). § Rev. Gen. Bot., xix. (1907) pp. 459-64 and 506-12 (11 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 81 this large group. In the two contributions cited he confines himself to the Basidioinycetes and Uredinere. He finds that in the first group a much more extensive research is required before any certainty can be reached. He quotes largely from R. Maire, who described the associated nuclei of the Basidiomycetes as a synkarion, and who traces their history throughout the life of the plant. Gallaud also lays much stress on Blackman's research in the Uredineas. New Hymenomycetes.* — W. A. Setchell describes at some length two hypogaBous Secotiaceaj. They are not entirely subterranean, but develop under a covering of dead leaves and other debris. Secotium tenuipes looks when uncovered like a Bolbibius or Coprinus, and is about 2 in. in height. The gleba is formed of anastomosing plates or gills ; the spores are yellowish-brown. The second species, Elasmomyces russu- loides, looks like a young Russula. A section shows the hymenogastroid nature of the pileus. The spores are colourless and reticulate. Diseases of Plants. — F. L. Stevens t has investigated the Chrysanthemum Ray Blight, by cultivating the fungus on agar media, by infecting other plants, and following the development of the parasite. He finds it to be one of the Sphreropsideas, Ascochyta Chrysanthemisip. n. It attacks the flower often while in the bud, blackening the receptacle, peduncle, and stem. No higher fruiting form was distinguished. E. Henry | writes on the pine disease in the Jura forests. The branches affected by the disease become yellowish at the extremities, then red. The voung; branches alone are attacked ; the mycelium penetrates to the cambium and kills it all round the branch. The pycnidia of the fungus, a species of Phoma, are produced in the cortex and pierce the bark. No trees have been killed, and, as the fungus has disappeared once, it is hoped that it will again die out. No remedy for it has been found. A pine disease that has done considerable damage in the Jura has been diagnosed as due to the action of Phoma on the leaves. Prillieux and Maublanc § give an account of the fungus, and they recommend planting of beech-trees among the pines as an almost certain means of checking the spread of the disease. Ch. Bernard || describes a disease of coco-palms caused by Petfalozzia pahnarum. The spores of the fungus were found to germinate very easily and quickly in cultures and to infect fresh plants with equal rapidity, which accounts for the spread of the disease. Only quite young plants suffered. An account is given of methods of killing the fungus. Several instances of fungoid attacks have been notified to the Board of Agriculture. H Helmiathosporium gramineum was found on wheat. Celery plants were suffering from the leaf-blight Oercospora Apii. * Journ. Mycol. xiii. (1907) pp. 236-41 (1 pi.), t Bot. Gazette, xliv. (1907) pp. 241-58 (15 figs.). % Comptes Rendus, cxliv. (1907) pp. 725-7. § Tom. cit., pp. 699-701. |] Bull. Agric. Indes Neerland, ii. (1906). See also Bot. Centralbl., cv. (1907) pp. 433-4. % Journ. Board of Agric, xiv. (1907) pp. 416-17. Feb. 19th, 1908 G 82 SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO These diseases can be checked or cured by suitable spraying. Capno- dium Footii and Splmrotheca Mali were found on the same plum-tree, both of them leaf-fungi, the latter the more deadly of the two. An account is given of gooseberry " cluster-cup disease." * The JEcidia going on the leaves and fruit, the uredo- and teleutospores on sedges. The disease rarely assumes the proportions of an epidemic. L. Petri f has studied and described a malady of olives that has been attacking the plants in Tuscany for two years. It appears as pale, then reddish, yellow depressed spots on the fruit. He diagnosed the fungus causing the spots as CyMndrosporium Olivce- sp. n., one of the Melanconiaceae. Petri found that it was not a wound parasite, but that the glands of the epicarp offer the points of attack. The same writer J describes a disease of pines due to the fungus Cytosporella damnosa sp. n. It attacks the twigs, and the leaves above the point of attack wither and die. The fruits of the fungus are deeply imbedded in the cortex, and do not at first show any disturbance of the bark. The cambial zone is destroyed by the mycelium, which also invades the tracheides of the wood, and disturbs the transport of water and salts to the apical regions. In a further paper L. Petri§ describes the galls produced on the leaves of Azalea indica by Exobasidium indica. The extent of the deformation of the leaves depends on their state of maturity, the later the attack the less change takes place in the tissues. He describes the infection and the course of the mycelium within the plant. The principal change is the multiplication of the vascular elements, and still more the great development of the parenchyma, the latter accounting for the increase in size. H. M. Quanjer |] gives an account of various organisms that are harmful to species of Brassica. He deals chiefly with insects, but he also describes the mischief done by the fungus Phoma oleracea. In the plants attacked, the wood-vessels became hard and filled with brown gum. It has been proved that infection is not conveyed with the seeds. Insects play a considerable part in carrying the spores. J. Behrens % renders a report of plant- diseases in Baden. Plums suffered from the attacks of Monilia, the weather in spring having been peculiarly favourable for the development of the fungus. The occur- rence of rust and smut is also noted, though the harvest was not seriously impaired. L. Mangin ** gives further information concerning the red disease of pines in the Jura. Several of the microfungi found on the trees have been satisfactorily proved to be saprophytes. There remain, however, some that are parasitic and harmful. Among these Phoma abietina and JEcidiiim elatinum are the most noteworthy, but none of them are of any serious importance. * Journ. Board of Agric, pp. 428-9 (8 figs.). + Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 320-5 (5 figs.). t Tom. cit., pp. 326-32 (1 pi ). § Tom. cit., pp. 341-7 (8 figs.). I, Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xvii. (1907) pp. 258-67. *§ Ber. Groszh. Bad. Landw. Vers. August (Karlsruhe, 1906) 109 pp. See also Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xvii. (1907) pp. 270-1. ** Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 934-5. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 83 Diseases of cereals due to ScUrospora graminicola, one of the Perono- sporeae, are described by E. T. Butler.* The fungus causes malforma- tion of the host either in the flower or in the stem and leaves ; a full description of the fungus is given, and a systematic account of the genus. Black disease of peach-trees is due to Gytospora rubescens. F. M. Rolfs f has described its growth and action on the host. He concludes that it is the pycnidial form of Valsa leucostoma. New or Rare Microfungi.J — Under this title, A. Maublanc describes a number of new species of Pyrenomycetes and Fungi imperfecti, in some cases, following the germination of the spores and the development of the mycelium. A new genus, Geratopycnidium, also one of the Fungi imperfecti (Excipulaceae), is recorded. It grows on the excreta of insects on leaves. It does not enter the tissues nor affect the plant in any way. It forms small perithecia, with rather long, tapering beaks, and 2-celled colourless spores. Mycology from the Ecole de Pharmacie. — G. Bainier continues his studies of moulds, giving descriptions of a new species, and notes on species already known. Two new species of Scopulariopsis are described and figured. The conidiophore has the same type of branching as Penicillium, but the general habit of the plants is very different. Gonatobotrys fuscum ; G. simplex and Arthrobytrys superba are also re-described, and their growth and development followed. In a third paper he gives an account of Papulaspora aspergilliformis, and of two new species of Ascodesmis. In these two genera the carpogonium is formed from a single mycelial branch. In the former other hyphaa grow out and form a covering ; in Ascodesmis the asci are naked. All these fungi are carefully figured. Preparation of Enzyme from a Fungus. || — K. Okazaki describes a new species, Aspergillus OkazaMi, and its economical value in the pro- duction of an enzyme. The fungus is entirely white and easily cultured ; spores are mixed with prepared rice, which is then spread on boards and suspended in a suitable atmosphere. In a few days the substratum is covered with the white growth of the fungus. It is mixed with water, allowed to stand for a day, and then precipitated with absolute alcohol. The deposit is washed and dried in the usual manner, and placed on the market. Localities of Fungi. If — B. Studer-Steinhauslin proposes two theories as to the occurrence of fungi in woods : — (1) That the mycelium of certain species is always associated with the roots of special trees, and therefore these fungi and the trees will always be found together. (2) That different fungi require different chemical constituents in the humus, which they find in the leaves of various trees. Some fungi grow * Mem. Dept. Agric. India, ii. No. 1 (1907) 19 pp. (5 pis.). See also Bot. Centralbl., cv. <1907) pp. 573-4. t Science, xxvi. (1907) p. 87. X Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiii. (1907) pp. 141-9 (1 pi. and 7 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 125-40. || Centralbl. Bakt., xix. (1907) pp. 481-4 (1 pi.). i Mitth. Nat. Ges. Bern, 1906 (1907) xvii. pp. See also Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 381-2. 0 2 S4 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO everywhere ; others prefer certain woodlands, but will also grow on other soil ; finally, a third group will only grow in certain special kinds of woods. Staining of Fungus Spores.* — Josef Schorstein has been experi- menting with spores of Morchella esculenta and their reaction to stains. The fungus was kept moist for a time, so that a number of spores ger- minated, then after some delay they were stained. It was found that the germinated spores alone had taken up the stain acid methyl-green, the germinating tube turning blue. After 12 hours the tube became green, and the remaining spores began to show coloration. Schorstein describes the physiological conditions inducing these differences in staining capacity. Fries, O. Rob. — Anteckningar om svenska Hymenomyceter. (Notes on Swedish Hymenomycetes.) [Remarks on habitat and development of various Agaracineae, Tremel- linese, etc.] Ark. Bot., vi. No. 15 (1907) 31 pp. Kern, F. Dunn — New Western Species of Gymnosporangium and Eoestelia. [Three new species of GxjmnosiMrangitml are described on juniper, and three species of Rocstclia on Cratcegus and Amelanchier.~] Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxiv. (1907) pp. 459-63. Morgan, A. P. — North American Species of Agaricaceae. [A continuation of the description of the Melanosporse.] Joum. Mycol., xiii. (1907) pp. 246-55. Murrill, W. A. — Some Philippine Polyporaceae. [A number of old and new species are described under Murrill' s new nomen- clature of the Polyporese.] Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xiii. (1907) pp. 465-81. Patouillard, N. — Basidiomycetes nouveaux du Bresil recuellis par F. Noack. (Basidiomycetes collected in Brazil by F. Noack.) [Seven new species are described.] Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 364-6. Rick — Fungi Anstro-Americani, Fasc. vii.-viii. [A list of 41 fungi, with notes. One new species is described.] Tom. cit., pp. 335-8. Saccardo, P. A., & G. B. Traverso — Sulla disposizione e nomenclatura dei gruppi micologici da sequirsi nella " Flora italica cryptogamia." [The arrangement and nomenclature to be followed in the mycological groups of the " Italian Cryptogamic Flora."] Tom. cit., pp. 315-19. Sydow, H. & P. — Novae fungorum Species, IV. [Ten new species described.] Tom. cit., pp. 338-40. „ ,, Verzeichnis der von Herrn Noack in Brasilien gesammelten Pilze. (List of fungi collected by F. Noack in Brazil.) [Some new species are included.] Tom. cit., pp. 348-63 (1 fig.). Lichens. (By A. Lorrain Smith, F.L.S.) Development of Lichen Apothecia.f — W. Nienburg has examined the apothecia of several forms of Lichens, and draws various interesting conclusions from the results of his research. He finds that in Usnea several carpogonia with trichogynes are developed under the cortex, all * Ann. Mycol. v. (1907) pp. 323-4 (1 fig.). t Flora, xcviii. (1907) pp. 1-40 (7 pis. and 3 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 85 of them disappearing except one only, which forms the subhymenial layer. The hypothecium is entirely vegetative in origin and arises from the cortical cells. He contrasts this development with that of Parmelia acetabulum, in which the hypothecium is a product of the ascogonium, and the ascogenous hyphas rise from the hypothecium through the subhymenium giving it a generative character as contrasted with its vegetative character in Usnea. The author concludes that Parmelia and Usnea are not so closely related as has been supposed, though he states that other Parmelia, may not conform to this type. A further study was made of Cladonia types with a view to throw light on the nature of the fruit in this family — whether the podetium is a secondary thallus or a highly developed excipulum. He quotes the work and views of various workers, and gives his own results. In Bceo- myces he finds the stalk to be an elongate excipulum, in Sphyridium a small typical podetium or secondary thallus, and in Icomadophila a stage between the two forms. Further, he finds that Bceomyces is apogamous, since neither carpogonia nor trichogynes could be discovered. In Icoma- phila he found both organs as well as numerous spermogonia, in Sphyridium carpogonia were much reduced and spermogonia were rare. Nienburg considers that there are not sufficient data to determine the nature of the Cladonia podetia. Mycetozoa. New Myxomycete.* — Louis Leger describes an organism allied to the Mycetozoa, or rather perhaps to the Acrasieae. He found it living as a parasite in the bodies of Coleoptera from Algeria. The vegetative condition is to be found in or between the adipose cells of the insects, more particularly in the genital organs. The youngest stages are ovoid or spherical in form, with one nucleus ; later the form is amoeboid and multinucleate, with from 2 to 8 nuclei. Nuclear division is by mitosis. The vegetative bodies increase by division. At the termination of this stage the substance breaks up into small uninucleate spores, though some- times there are large multinucleate spores also. The Coleoptera do not seem to be seriously incommoded by the presence of the parasite. Leger names it Sporomyxa scauri g. et sp. u. Cultural Experiments with Acrasiese.t; — Ernest Pinoy undertook a research to decide the connection, if any, between bacteria and mycetozoa. Dictyostelium mucoroides had been described as parasitic on bacterial colonies, and Pinoy proved this to be true. He isolated a fluorescent bacterium, and found that the spores of D. mucoroides would not germinate without the presence of this bacterium. He fonnd also that the ruyxaincebre produced from the spores were nourished by the digestion of bacteria in their vacuoles, and that a diastase is formed which he calls acrasidiastase, by aid of which the bacteria are digested. The author examined by similar methods two other members of the group, Dictyostelium purpureum and Polysphondylium violacetnu. * Cornptes Rendus, cxlv. (l'JOT) pp. 837-8. t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxi. (PJU7) pp. 622-50 (i pis.). 86 SUMiMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO He showed, among a series of corresponding results, the necessity for the presence of a bacterium in the culture, and the effects of different bacteria. He also followed the division of the nuclei and the formation of the spore heads. Schizophyta. Schizomycetes. Morphology of Human Tubercle Bacilli in Saline Media.* — G. Peju and H. Rajat find that when tubercle bacilli are grown at 38°C. in peptone broth, to which has been added up to 4 p.c. of KI in a saturated aqueous atmosphere, and if after 15 to 18 days the growth is subcultured repeatedly into fresh similar medium, the bacilli of the later (5th to 6th) generations have become elongated, some forming filaments 50-60 /j. long, some having lateral buddings : these buds appear to elongate into filaments which also have lateral buds, a mycelial appearance resulting ; but dichotomous division was never observed. Subcutaneous Fibro-granulomata in Cattle.f — P. G. Woolley describes cases of subcutaneous granulomata occurring in Chinese cows, with appearances resembling actinomycosis. The tumours consisted of a fibrous envelope inclosing granulomatous tissue and a central cavity containing pus, from which on every occasion the author obtained, after a week or more, by culture on glycerin-agar, minute fine granular grey colonies of non-motile short thin rods ; these stained by the ordinary dyes, but not by Gram's method ; they were not acid-fast, but when stained with carbol-thionin or with 10 p.c. carbol-fuchsin they showed a beaded appearance. Growth was slow, and only obtainable on glycerin- agar. The organism was not pathogenic to monkeys. Three Iron Bacteria 4 — D. Ellis describes three thread bacteria, that are covered with the red hydroxide of iron, and constitute the red deposit in the streams of the neighbourhood of Glasgow. 1. Leptothriz ochracea consists of a number of straight filaments often with unsym- metrical ends, and having a sharply contoured membrane ; they vary in width from 1 ■ 5-2 /x, though when covered with ferric oxide the width may be 3/* or more, and the length attains 300/* or over. Conidia arise by budding, the buds separating by constriction, though this is often delayed and the buds elongate to form new threads. The conidia are oval, 1 • 5 by 1 /a. Multiplication by cell-division also occurs. Motility was never observed. 2. Gallionella ferruginea is usually associated with the preceding, and is seldom found alone. In appear- ance it resembles a hairpin spirally twisted round itself ; the thickness of the threads varies from 0 " 5-1 /*. The author was not able to dis- tinguish any definite membrane. Multiplication takes place by the cutting off of small portions which elongate into new individuals. Conidia formation also occurs. Motility was never observed. 3. Spirophyllumfernitjuieum, the body of the cell is elongated and flattened * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) p. 427. t Ceutralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlv. (1907) p. 214. j Op. cit., 2te Abt., xix. (1907) p. 502. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 87 and spirally twisted, the number of turns varying from a quarter turn up to fifteen or more turns ; the width varies from 1-6 p, the length reaching 200 /x or more ; the middle portion of the cell has a thickness of only about 0*25 fx, whilst the edges are thickened up to 0*5 /x ; there is no definite membrane ; the ends are irregular and unsymmetrical ; conidia formation takes place as in the two previous organisms ; only one doubtful case of vegetative division was observed. Referring to the layer of iron on the membrane that surrounds these organisms, the author considers it to be an instance of the property possessed by vegetable protoplasm of attracting certain non-living substances, and he repudiates the idea that the attraction of the iron has any biological significance. Susceptibility to Plague of Rats of Diverse Races.* — E. Klein has found that the common sewer rat is considerably less susceptible to plague than the tame or white rat. Experimenting on the brown and grey ship rat from South America, the brown and white ship rat from Norway, and the black rat from New Zealand, India, and South Africa, the author found that cultures of white rat B. pestis are by far the most virulent ; next comes B. pestis of the black rat ; but the B. pestis obtained through the brown South American ship rat and the Norway rat was in each case of lesser virulence. Staphylococci Pathogenic to Man.j — F. W. Andrewes and M. H. Gordon, for purposes of differentiation and classification, have subjected a large number of staphylococci, obtained from various sources, to a series of observations, which included besides those dealing with morpho- logical, tinctorial, and cultural characters, eight physiological tests, viz. (1) the clotting of milk within one week at 37° C. ; (2) the liquefaction of gelatin within one week at 22° C. ; (3) the reduction of neutral red within 48 hours at 37° C. under anaerobic conditions ; (4) the reduction of nitrate to nitrite within three days at 37° C. ; (5) the production of acid when cultivated for one week at 37° C. in Lemco-litmus medium containing 1 p.c. maltose ; (6) ditto with lactose instead of maltose ; (7) ditto with glycerin ; (8) ditto with mannite. The authors conclude that staphylococci fall into two groups : (1) Gram-negative cocci (M. catarrhalis, meningococcus, gonococcus) ; (2) Gram-positive staphylococci, of which 8. pyogenes is the commonest example. It exists either as S. aureus, S. citreus, or *S'. albus, according to the partial or complete suppression of its chromogenic properties. The common saprophytic coccus of the skin, S. epidermidis albus, is perfectly distinct biologically, and is identical with the Micrococcus neoformuns of Doyen. Micrococcus of Epidemic Cerebrospinal Meningitis. | — M.H.Gordon reviews the evidence associating the meningococcus of Weichelbaum with epidemic meningitis. The organism is found to be present in pure culture both in the cerebrospinal exudate and in the cerebral ventricles ; the coccus, which is negative to Gram's stain, is in the form of flattened * Rep. Med. Officer Local Govt. Board, 1905-6, p. 431. t Tom. cit., p. 543. X Tom. cit., p. 435. 88 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO bean-like diplococci, or as single cocci, chiefly inclosed in the lencocytee of the exudate ; it is an obligate aerobe ; it grows best on agar contain- ing ascitic fluid ; the author found that nutrose ascitic agar (" nasgar ") was specially suitable ; it also grows well in broth to which 10 p.c. fresh sterile ascitic fluid has been added, and in this medium it lives longer (up to a fortnight) than on solid media ; it is killed by a temperature of 65° C. for 30 minutes. The colonies formed on nasgar, in strong con- trast to colonies of Gram-positive cocci, after 24 hours at 37° C, appear as smooth, translucent, regular, circular, or oval disks, resembling young colonies of B. coli ; the optimum temperature of growth is 36-87° C. ; growth is arrested at 42° C. ; and at 25° C. its pathogenic action is exerted by an endotoxin. Serum of patients suffering from the disease agglutinated the coccus in dilutions of 1 in 10 to 1 in 100, and some cases up to a dilution of 1 in 400, but the commencement of the agglutination reaction bears no definite relation to the onset of the disease. The reactions of the meningococcus and other Gram-negative cocci to glucose, galactose, maltose, and saccharose, are given in a table, and the results show the value of these reactions in differentiating the meningococcus from the other Gram-negative cocci liable to occur in the upper respiratory passages. The organism has also been isolated from the blood, from nasal secretion, and saliva, and has been located in the middle ear, in joints, and in the eye when inflamed during the disease. Its detection in the secretion of the upper respiratory passages is im- portant as indicating the route by which infection has been acquired, or is imparted to others ; but the identification is difficult owing to the presence of other Gram-negative cocci from which the meningococcus has to be differentiated by cultivation. New Plague Prophylactic* — E. Klein has prepared from the necrotic nodules of the bubo or other affected organs, a plague prophy- lactic material of uniform value, and which is readily standardised and preserved. The author claims that by using bacillary masses from the animal direct, a material is secured of greater uniformity and activity than that obtained from artificial medium, and that since the specific toxin produced by the microbe is presumably stored up in the organs of the animal dying of plague, it might be possible by injecting into the animals subfatal doses of this tissue toxin, to confer on them an immunity against B. pestis. As the result of numerous experiments with material obtained from the raw or the heated filtrate of emulsion of dried plague organs, it appeared that appropriate doses injected into rats, were protective in as short a period as seven days, and persisted for many weeks. Micrococcus producing a Yellow-brown Colour on Cheese. t — H. Huss describes the morphological and cultural characters of a micro- coccus isolated from a cheese, the rind of which was stained a yellow- brown colour by the organism. The cheese affected had come from a * Bep. Med. Officer Local Govt. Board, 1905-6, p. 392. t Centralbl. Bakt , 2te Abt., xiv. (1907) p 518. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 89 factory in Saxony. The organism was isolated from the cheese itself, and also from splinters of the wood on which the cheese had stood. It appeared together with many other organisms on plates of nutrient gelatin and agar inoculated from the washings of the samples in sterile water. The author has named the organism Micrococcus chromofiavus ; the coccus measured 0 " 9-1 ' 05 /x in diameter ; it was not motile ; it stained well with carbol-fuchsin, but not by Gram's method ; an obli- gate aerobe, it grew better at 35° C. than at 20° C, and growth was less vigorous on acid than on alkaline media ; gelatin was liquefied ; superficial colonies are round, having a greenish-yellow colour (becoming brown) and a granular appearance ; broth is clouded, and forms an abundant thready yellow deposit after four days at 20° C. Portions of Tilsit cheese placed on filter paper that had been used in filtering a broth culture (24 hours old), showed after a week a yellow-brown coloration. Etiology of Whooping Cough.* — H.and A. Soulima have obtained from each of a number of cases of whooping cough cultures of a small rod-like organism, which appears identical in its morphology and biology with the bacillus of Eppendorf, and also with the microbe of Bordet and Genou. To isolate the organism with certainty, it was necessary to select patients in which the disease had developed without rise of temperature. The expectoration was collected during paroxysms of cough, repeatedly washed in warm sterile " eau physiologique," and used to inoculate freshly prepared blood-agar plates. Mammitis produced by Acid-fast Bacilli, t — L. N . Larrier and P. Boveri inoculated the mammae of female guinea-pigs with various acid-fast bacilli, and compared the resulting mammitis with that pro- duced by Koch's tubercle bacillus. The authors found that, whereas the tubercle bacillus caused a suppurative and ulcerative mammitis accompanied by " adenopathie," which was manifested by the 8th to 10th day, the mammitis produced by the other acid-fast bacilli occurred earlier, was transitory, having ceased by the 0th day, and was benign and un- accompanied by tegumentary ulceration or adenopathy. Tubercle bacilli can be demonstrated in the milk from 10 to 15 days after inoculation, but in the benign mammitis the milk was free from acid-fast bacilli after the 8th day. Tropism of Bacillus Zopfii.f — E. Sergent has observed the direc- tions assumed by ,the filaments of growth in cultures of B. zopfii on gelatin. The author found that this organism is particularly sensitive to the elastic property of the gelatin. When the gelatin is stretched the filaments take the direction of the force of tension ; when the gelatin is compressed, the filaments follow a direction perpendicular to the force of compression. Since gravity is the commonest cause actuating the elasticity of the gelatin, the tropism of B. zopfii may be regarded as geotropic. * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) p. 11. f Tom. cit., p. 15. + Ann. Inst. Pasteur, lxiii. (1907) p. \±1 . 90 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Identity of the Rogna Bacillus (tubercle) of the Olive-tree.*- L. Petri obtained on peptone-glucose agar-plate cultures made from the contents of a young olive tubercle an abundant production of yellow colonies of Ascobacterium lutewn Babes ; cultures made from other tubercles developed chiefly the sporing bacillus of Schiff-Giorgini ; but in other cultures, besides these two organisms, were the colourless colonies of a third organism, which soon assumed a milk-white colour, and consisted of non-sporing rods corresponding to Smith's bacillus. The author found that these three organisms are always simultaneously present in the olive tubercles in varying proportions, and he compares their morphological and cultural characters. From the results of many inoculation experiments on healthy plants, the author found that only pure cultures of Smith's bacillus caused positive infection, and he considers that the positive results obtained by other workers with the other two organisms were due to the use of impure cultures. Renal Infection by a Microbe originating from the Blood.j — Jungano has isolated from a case of cystitis, besides many other bacterial forms, a small anaerobic motile bacillus, :J>-4//, long by 0 ■ 5/x, with rounded ends, staining badly by aniline dyes, and not by Gram's method, and having no capsule, and forming no spores ; in broth it clouded the medium, but formed no deposit ; it grew well on agar, forming small round yellow-coloured colonies ; it produced no gas ; it grew on gelatin without causing liquefaction ; after 18 days at 22° C. it formed typical stalactite cultures. It was not pathogenic to rabbits, but produced subcutaneous abscesses in guinea-pigs. The author has named the organism B. albarran. Owing to the peculiar conditions of the case, the author considers that the renal infection originated from the blood. Anaerobic Bacteria and Gall-stones.! — A. Gilbert and A. Lippmann report that by making anaerobic cultivations from the core of gall- stones they have obtained evidence in 82 p.c. of the cases examined of the presence of anaerobic bacteria, of which Bacillus fundi/liformis was the most frequent. Aerobic control cultures only gave B. coli, or were sterile. * Centralbl. Bakt., 2te Abt., xix. (1907) p. 531. t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) p. 302. J Tom. cit., pp. 405-7. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 91 MICROSCOPY. A. Instruments, Accessories, etc.* (1) Stands. Watson and Sons' Metallurgical Microscope, " The Horizontal." f This instrument (fig. 7) is designed for bench work and for photo- graphic purposes. It possesses great conveniences for fine work, and is extremely stable. It is attached to a bench or some firm base by means of screws. The body is of extra large diameter, and has a sliding draw- Fig. 7. tube. It is fitted with rack work and pinion for focusing. The stage has mechanical movements and rotates concentrically. The vertical and horizontal movements are divided and read by verniers to -^ mm. ; the stage is focused by means of coarse- and fine-adjustments. A compound substage with screws to centre and rackwork to focus, and also double mirror, are included for transparent objects. A Hook's joint handle with connecting device is provided for operating the fine-adjustment of * This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illuminating and other Apparatus ; (4) Photomicrography ; (5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. t Watson and Sons' Supplement to Catalogue No. 2, p. 8. Fig. 8. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES. 93 the stage when a photomicrographic camera is in vise, and a bullseye condenser is included for illuminating opaque objects. Watson and Sons' "Mint" Metallurgical Microscope.* — This instrument (fig. 8) is substantially tke same as the " Works " model, previously described in the Journal,! but is not so large nor so massively constructed. The body is of large size, and fitted with rackwork and sliding draw-tubes. The stage is of the raising and lowering type, and has mechanical movements, and partial rotation. The instrument is made with either the horseshoe or tripod form of foot. Watson and Sons' Laboratory Dissecting Microscope.^ — The frame of this instrument (fig. 9) is constructed of mahogany ; the sides slope at a convenient angle ; the glass stage, 4| in. square, is removable. The arm, which carries lenses, has a spiral rack-and-pinion adjustment. The mirror is on gimbals. Fig. 9. Binocular Instruments^ — M. von Rohr's book with the above title treats the subject from three points of view — theoretically, historically, systematically. Part I. (theoretical) discusses the theory of vision (pages 1— ID). Part II. (historical) devotes the following 174 pages to the various types of binocular instruments, and describes in detail their fluctuations in utility during each of the last five decades of the nine- teenth century, the period 1890-1900 being one of marked recovery. Part III. is a very interesting and useful chronological bibliography under numerous heads and sub-heads. (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. Photographic Objective containing a Uranium-glass Lens.|| — In connection with the increasing use of colour filters, it has occurred to * Watson and Sons' Supplement to Catalogue No. 2, pp. 6-7. t See this Journal, 1904, p. 105. X Watson and Sons' Catalogue, 19th edition, 1907-8, p. 71. § Die binokularen Instruments Berlin: Julius Springer (1907) 223 pp. 90 rigs. || Bull. Soc. Franc. Photog., xxiii. (1907) p. 212. See also Zeit. lnstrumentenk., xxvii. (1907) p. 233. 94 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO M. Houdaille that it might be of advantage to make the objective itself act as a filter. After consultation with the firm of Parra-Mantois, a uranium-glass, 10 mm. thick, absorbing 10 p.c. of the visible rays, and 50 p.c. of those incident on the photographic plate, was selected. From this glass a compound objective was cut from a design calculated by the author. The results w7ere compared with those obtained by a colourless objective. With equal exposures the negatives obtained by the uranium- glass were clearer and could be longer developed. The tones corre- sponding to the yellow rays were deepened, and those corresponding to the blue weakened, while the plates were uniformly bright to the very circumference. (3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus. Watson and Sons' Vertical Illuminator.* — This apparatus is made in two forms : (1) with a prism ; (2) with a disk of very thin glass. In the prism form (fig. 10) light concentrated by a bullseye is passed through a small aperture in the side of the illuminator. It is then reflected through the objective to the specimen, the objective acting Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. as its own condenser. In the glass disk pattern (fig. 11) the light is conducted in the same way as in the prism form, but the reflection is effected by means of a very thin disk of glass set at an angle of 45° to the optic axis. Another variety of the disk pattern is seen in fig. 12. It is of square form with an iris diaphragm mounted on a plate sliding in a groove, allowing the light to fall obliquely or directly upon the reflecting glass as desired. This vertical illuminator can only be employed with Microscopes having a body of large diameter. If necessary, the iris diaphragm may be mounted on an excentric, so that vertical adjustment also may be obtained. Watson and Sons' " Grip " Stage-spring, f — Four advantages are claimed for this pattern (figs. 13, 14) : (1) free rotation of the spring ; (2) firmly fixed butt ; (3) removal of spring and butt with perfect ease ; (4) non-liability of objectives to catch the spring, which lies quite flat * Watson and Sons' Supplement to Catalogue No. 2, p. 17, 3 figs, t Watson and Sons' Catalogue, 19th edition, 1907-8, p. 12. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 95 except at top. As the illustrations show, the fitting socket which is inserted in the stage is sprung, and though the middle passes a conical- shaped pin, to which at the top a little screw-head is attached. By Fig. 13. Fig. 14. screwing on this head the fitting socket is expanded, and hence the butt is held firmly. To release the apparatus the screwing action is reversed. Electric Mercury Vapour Lamp for Microscopic Illumination. J. E. Barnard gives the following description of the mercury vapour lamp (fig. 15) exhibited by him on April 17th, 1907. The type of lamp' used for the experiments here described, is that made by the Bastian Mercury Lamp Co. Owing to its convenient size and shape, and small current consumption, it has been found most suitable for microscopical purposes. Owing to the fact that, when mercury vapour is in a condition of in- candescence, the light emitted by it con- sists spectroscopically of bright lines, which are evenly distributed over the visual spectrum, it has therefore been found to have considerable possibilities for microscopic work. The Bastian lamp is of the arc lamp type, the light being produced between two bodies of mercury instead of between two carbons. Being inclosed within a sealed glass tube there is no loss of the mercury whatever, and the lamp once set up in operation continues to work with- out adjustment or renewal of any kind, until the " life " of the " burner " por- tion of the lamp is exhausted. This " life " in the nature of things must have some limit, though it is difficult to say at present what that limit is. Probably 3000 hours may be regarded as a fair average, though burners have been tested continuously for over 700O hours without any sensible diminution in their efficiency, and it is quite possible that improved methods of manufacture may render a life of 6000 hours the rule rather than the exception. The lamp as now in use commercially, is, in fact, an arc lamp, that is to say, it is in working much the same as a carbon arc. The differ- ence, however, is that in the mercury lamp the arc itself is very long, and constitutes the source of light. Id the carbon arc this is not the Fig. 15. '96 SUMMARY QF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO case, the carbon poles themselves, either one or both, being the source of light. It is. with this lamp, quite easy to obtain monochromatic light, as it is obviously only necessary to screen off the bright lines in the spectrum which are not required, and the one which remains will then constitute a source of light which is not merely monochromatic, but is of one wave- length. The brightest lines in its spectrum lie in the region of the orange-yellow, green, and blue-violet, and it is these three that are <>f use. There are a number of faint lines, but for the purpose now described they are not of any importance, and are not sufficiently bright to interfere in practice with the result. The necessary colour-screens can be made by staining gelatin films with a suitable dye, or a more exact and convenient method is to use glass cells in which is placed a solution of the dye employed. By means of a direct- vision spectroscope it is easy to observe the exact concentration of the solution that is required, and no undue absorption of light therefore occurs. The following combinations of dyes in aqueous solution have been found satisfactory : — Eosin and filter yellow K (Fuerst Bros.) will filter out all but the orange-yellow line. The eosin should be sufficiently concentrated to exclude the green line, the filter yellow K, being used only to subdue the violet and ultra-violet. This screen is perhaps the one of most value for either visual or photographic work, as the position of the line in the spectrum is that of the greatest visual luminosity. In photomicrography its application will be sufficiently obvious. Naphthol-green and filter yellow K will give a light that is visually a brilliant green, but spectroscopically transmits some yellow as well. The green, however, predominates so largely that for visual work it is very useful where a considerable quantity of light is required. Tartrazine will transmit the yellow and green lines, but in this case the yellow predominates, the green being somewhat subdued. To obtain the green line only, a solution of acid-green must be used together with filter yellow K, and this gives a source of green light for microscopic work, either visual or photographic, which it is difficult to imagine can be improved upon. The violet line is more easy to isolate, as it can be filtered off with a screen of methyl-violet or gentian-violet. It lies rather far in the spectrum towards the ultra-violet, so that visually it is not of great use, but its possibilities in photography are obvious. The illustration herewith shows the form of lamp made by the Bastian Co., and suitable for microscopic work. It has an automatic tilting device, so that immediately the current is switched on the arc is struck and the lamp lights. The process is therefore similar to the starting of a carbon arc, in which the two poles have to touch one another before any current passes or light is produced. When the mercury bridges over the gap between the poles and is allowed to flow back again, some mercury is vaporised in the tube and the light is at once emitted. The length of the glass tube is dependent on the voltage of the supply, and the polarity of the current must be arranged so that the mercury commences to vaporise at the negative pole, the residual mercury being driven back into the bull) at the positive pole. For microscopic work it possesses the additional advantage that there is practically no radiant heat. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 97 Watson and Sons' New Mechanical Condenser Mount.* — In this mount (fig. 10) a tube of the universal substage size is fixed below the ;Fig. 16. iris-diaphragm, which can be carried by rackwork out of the optical axis for obtaining effects when testing objectives for oblique illumination. The apparatus includes also a rotating ring to carry dark-ground and oblique light stops. Watson and- Sons' Aplanatic Low-power Condenser.! — This condenser (fig. 17) is suitable for low and medium powers, up to a numerical aperture of 0*65. It has a power of § in., and a numerical *\j^r Fig. 17. Fig. 18. aperture of 0*5, of which 0'48 is aplanatic. The diameter of the back lens is 0*6 in. Watson and Sons' Macro-illuminator.^ — This is a single achromatic combination of 1*25 in. clear aperture and 2 in. focus (fig. 18). It is suitable for illuminating large objects under low powers. The lens is mounted to fit into the substage close to the object, so as to focus the image of the source of light on the objective. Watson and Sons' Catalogue, ISth edition, 1907-8, p. 98. t Loc. cit. t Loc. cit Feb. 19th, 1908 H 98 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Bechstein's Photometer, with Proportional Graduation and Decimally-divided Scale.* — This instrument, which is made by Schmidt and Haensch of Berlin, is an improved form of certain others manufactured by the same firm, and is shown in figs. 19 and 20. The following advantages are claimed for it : — (1) Easy portability and small weight ; (2) absence of unit-marks ; (3) convenient legibility in the Fig. 19. graduations ; (4) simple calculation with extreme accuracy of measure- ment ; (5) long range of measurement both downwards and upwards ; (6) special protection of the parts important for the constant of the given medium ; (7) universal application ; (8) moderate price. It will be seen from the figures that the instrument consists essentially * Zeit. f. Instrumentenk., xxvii. (1907) pp. 178-83 (6 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 99 (1) of a comparison light-source 0, whose intensity can be weakened by a double sector S ; (2) of a Lumrner-Brodhun comparison cube P. adjustable both for equality as well as for equality and contrast ; (3) of a tube h3 (fig. 20) for the reception of the light to be measured h 2 100 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO and of the apparatus G' (fig. 1!)) necessary for the decimal enlargement of the measuring-scale ; and finally (4) of an inspection contrivance V for the purpose of the proper adjustment of the light-source to be measured. The weakening of the light emitted from the electric com- parison light-source 0, and diffusely refracted through the three plates vv v2, v3, set in the light-and-dust proof revolver D, is effected by the fixed sector and rotating light-beam. The sector-measuring apparatus consists of two equally large detached sectors operated by a handle g and symmetrically arranged about a diameter ; they rotate over another pair similarly arranged but of different size. Between the sectors are slits forming the four arms of a cross. The opalescent glass plate vx (fig. 20), regarded as self-luminous, is focused through the lens-combination L1? L2, sharply on to the wedge-shaped lens IK. The plane formed by the sectors coincides with the focal plane of IK ; the eye-cap with the aperture A is in the focus of the lens L, adjustable in the tube h. Thus at A the sector-slits above referred to are sharply defined. For fuller explanation the course of the rays must now be considered in a reversed direction, i.e., originating from A. A sharp image of the eye-cap would now be formed at a (rig. 20), but, on account of the refraction of wedge-lens IK this image would be laterally displaced from the principal axis. If rotation be imparted to the lenses IK, L2, Lx, which are all set in a tube rotatory about the principal axis, the image at a will describe a circular path in a direction opposite to that of rotation. In its subsequent course the light falls on the plate vv whose illumination would be in- termittent on account of the slits between the sectors ; but this illumination could be made uniform to the eye if sufficient velocity of rotation were imparted, and the intensity of illumination would be pro- portional to the aperture-angle of the sectors. The lenses L1? L2, which take part in the rotation, are continuously penetrated at the same distance by the rays, and could not affect the proportionality. The sector-adjustment can be read off on the circle S by means of the index N. The graduation extends to 10, each main graduation being divided into tenths. A small electric motor rotates R. The comparison-lamp O is electric incandescent, and is secured within its chamber by strong clamps. This lamp-chamber is adjust- able by push action in the axis of the instrument, the movement being read off on the scale T, and the brightness can be regulated within the limits of the current-intensity. Some adjustment of light- intensity is also attained by passing the light through more than one plate v (blue tinted if preferred) of the revolver D. To secure uni- formity of diffusion through the revolver plates, the electric lamp, approximately a point, should be mounted in an Ulbricht globe ; the opal glass plate is then opposite a uniformly illuminated gypsum screen, and transmission of the glow-threads is prevented. The position of the rotatory upper structure H2 in the main body H is governed by the screw s3 and the circular scale H. The glass strips kv h2, are for attaining contrast, and can be applied to the Lummer-Brodhun cube LB by small levers externally controlled. The light to be measured falls on LB from /x or M through the tube hvfi being intended for measurement of illumination and M for measurement of intensity. The lens LC not only produces image-formation from (j. or M at the aperture A of the ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 101 eye-cap under simultaneous use of the cube LB and the lens L, but serves also to adjust the tube hY with regard to the light to be measured. When all the upper structure is in adjustment, LC produces on a ground-glass disk n provided with a mark an approximately sharp, image of the light-source to be measured. A mirror is set at v so that the experimenter can conveniently observe the proper orientation of the instrument. The screen c rotates on d by means of the external handle g2. It is moved aside when the adjustment of LC is in process but, on release, automatically resumes its first position and effectually prevents the interference of any light from the observer's position with that diffused through the revolver plates. The equation of observation is B = c S, where B = the illumination strength in metre-candles, c = the intensity, and S = the sector-opening as given on the graduated scale at S. Then, if light of unit metre-candle is passed through //., and if equality or equal contrast is obtained when S = 10, it follows that c =0*1. If, the instrument remaining in the same adjustment, illumination of 10 metre-candles is presented at ft, S would equal 100, a number beyond the sector-range (graduated from 1 to 10). A plate rotatory about C is now brought into the position m2, where it transmits only 0 • 1 of the light ; thus c now equals 1*0; in the position m3 it would transmit 0*01 of the light, and c would now equal 10. These positions are all known by marks external to the chamber G-, and thus by product of the values of r, and S the candle-power of an illuminant is known. Further weakening of the light-source can be effected by rotation of the tube r, which is fitted with windows of such a size that they transmit 10 _1, 10 ~2, etc., of /x. For the measurement of smaller illuminations a mirror of gypsum is placed obliquely before fx. The diffuse reflecting power of gypsum is greater than the transmissibility of the opal glass plates, and therefore the brightness of the source is increased. Diminution of the comparison-light must be effected, if necessary, by any of the means provided, and the calculation made as before. Bell, L. — Physiological Basis of Illumination. [The author discusses many familiar difficulties of vision, e.g. the well known trouble found at twilight in trying to work by a mixture of natural and artificial lights.] Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Set., xlviii. (1907)pp. 77-96 (6 figs.) Eeprinted as a separate pamphlet. (4) Photomicrography. Turneretscher's Apparatus for Photomicrography.* — The full title of G. M. Turneretscher's treatise is given below. The apparatus is the outcome of many years' experience, and is adapted to the photography of objects in their natural size, as well as to enlarged or diminished re- productions. In all cases the apparatus lends itself to the easy deter- mination of the proportion between object and image. The camera is * Apparate zur Herstellung von wissenchaftlichen photographischen Auf- nahmen und von Mikrophotographien bei schwachen Vergrosserungen unter bequemer Einhaltung eines genauen, Grossenverhaltnisses zwischen Objekt und Bild. Museumskunde, iii. (Berlin, 1907) pp. 158-70 (4 figs.). Also as a separate pamphlet. 102 K'MMAHY OF (TL'L'KNT liKSFAIiCHES HELAT1NG TO always set in the vertical position, and fig. 21, which omits the bellows, shows its adaptation to the more delicate requirements. F is an iron horseshoe-shaped foot carrying a vertical board B which acts as the pillar of a Microscope. On the lower half of this board two projecting bearers T support a mirror S, 15 by 17 cm., rotatory about a hori- zontal axis, and removable, if required, by single hand-use. To the upper half of this vertical board is attached an arrangement V which allows the object-table to rise or fall about 6 cm. by the action of a micrometer screw M. By means of a lengthening rod, applied at a ball- joint K over the rack of the micrometer screw, the micrometer screw itself can be actuated at a greater distance away — a necessity often felt Fig. 21. with increased bellows extension. Thus the fine-adjustment is attained by movement of the object-stage, which has the advantage that for a selected objective and a selected bellows length the magnification is a known quantity. The arrangement of the upper part of the apparatus closely resembles that of a Microscope. A sleeve H fitted to the hori- zontal slab A carries a tube C15 57 mm. wide and 105 mm. long, within which, on its under side, a second tube D, cloth covered, is inserted, its lower end being threaded for the reception of an ordinary micro- objective, or projection-objective, E. For diminutions or for photo- graphy in natural size, other tubes C2 of similar width and thread can be inserted. At the upper end of the tube C, a short tube G can be used for carrying the narrower tube g of an ocular. This arrangement, of course, reproduces a Microscope, but is useful for determining the ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICItOSCOPY, ETC. 103 most convenient position of the object. When it is required to produce photographs by the objective alone, a special tube J is provided, 75 cm. long, open at its upper end, but carrying at its lower end a diaphragm of 25 mm. diameter. The tube is controlled by push-movement, and can be manipulated until a perfect image is obtained. The object-stage is 12*5 by 15 cm., and has three grooves at its narrow sides for various exchangeable accessories. A blackened metal plate R, with object- clamps, inserted into the uppermost groove, forms the object-stage proper. The second groove is for an opal disk to secure uniformity of illumination. The third groove is for obtaining a dark background, the mirror S being removed and the wooden box Q (blackened inside) put in its place. In the case of larger objects, dark-ground illumination is secured by removal of the box and by placing the object on black card- board. For transparent objects on a bright ground, the mirror itself serves as an object-stage, and is placed in the uppermost groove. For opaque objects on a bright ground, a strong illumination is directed from above on to the object, whilst the mirror (now an opal glass plate) is illuminated from a weaker source. This method has the advantage of almost eliminating the shadow. (5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. Measurement of Resolution in Microscopy.* — C. Fabre discusses the theory of microscopical resolution, and emphasises the results of his experiments with Grayson's test-plates. He has found plate No. 6, de- signed for use with objectives of large aperture, especially satisfactory. On this plate the lines of the first group are at intervals of 10,000 to the inch ; those of the next group contain double that number ; and in the last group there are 120,000 to the inch. A prolonged use con- vinced the author that this plate is the best means of measuring the resolving power and the defining power of an objective. The length and the regularity of the lines give also a very clear notion of the curvature of the field of the objective under examination. The author also points out that knowledge of the resolving power of a lens may prevent false decisions as to the existence, or otherwise, of micro- organisms in an object. New Method of Measuring Directly the Double-refraction in Strained Glass.j — L. N. G. Filon describes his method for the above. A horizontal beam of parallel homogeneous light is made to impinge normally on a vertical face of a rectangular horizontally-placed glass slab, subject to vertical flexure. If Cx = stress-optical coefficient for the ray polarised in the plane of the cross-section, and for light of the given wave-length ; M = bending moment ; I = moment of inertia of the cross-section about the " neutral axis " ; and T = thickness of the slab, then the points at which the disturbance is in the same phase can be shown to lie upon a straight line inclined at 0, to the vertical, where O MT #i = --y — . Such a slab under flexure will deflect the wave-front like * Mem. Acad. Sci. Toulouse, vi. (1906) pp. 142-9. t Proc. Roy. Soc, Series A, lxxix. (1907) pp. 440-2 (1 fig.). 104 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO a prism, and will do the same, but to a different extent, to the wave polarised in the perpendicular direction. If the beam of light be analysed by means of a grating, the spectrum lines all appear doubled, the two components being oppositely polarised. The shift, so produced, can be measured, and 0i therefore obtained ; hence, C\ is known. Similarly C2 can be found. Thus the absolute changes in the two indices of refraction can be calculated, and this not only for one kind of light, but for as many kinds at once as there are lines visible in the spectrum under observation. Atlas of Absorption Spectra. — This is a very excellent collection, by H. S. Uhler and R. W. Wood, of photographs of absorption spectra. For their production a mirror and a concave grating were employed, the light from the source passing through a wedge-shaped layer of the solution under investigation, after reflection from the mirror. This layer is placed horizontally over the slit, which is also horizontal, the path of the rays being vertical. Through a tilting arrangement adapted to the containing cell its angle is variable. Its edge is at right angles and in the same plane as the direction of the slit. Three exposures of different but relatively uniform duration were usually given to each plate. As source of light a Nernst lamp was used for wave-lengths between 0'65/x and 0*326^, and for wave-lengths between 0-326/x and 0*2 //., and as an index a specially arranged spark discharge between electrodes of an alloy of cadmium and zinc on the one hand, and of brass on the other was used, the spark spectrum photo- graph being superposed on that from the Nernst burner. The authors recommend water as a solvent of the substances investi- gated as being free from absorption in the ultra-violet. But a recent determination of the refractive indices of water has shown that for the extreme wave-length 0'185/x. this is not the case.* As Professor Wood points out in the introduction, several workers have made a series of photographs of absorption spectra previously, but with them, the end in view was not a book of reference. Work of this kind was undertaken under the auspices of the Royal Microscopical Society in 1893, the outcome of which were the F and 6 line screens described subsequently in this Journal^ and also a screen for use in orthochromatic photography 4 On that occasion the sun alone was used as light source, the fine absorption lines of the solar spectrum in no way interfering with the observation of the comparatively broad absorption bands of the substances under investigation, and showing their position at a glance. In this way most of the anilines now described, besides others, and the principal salts of copper and chromium were then photo- graphed. But the present authors, by employing light from the artificial sources described, have extended the range to the ultra-violet, and finally have published their work, together with a descriptive table of the substances investigated, and of the results obtained. This table gives the commercial as well as the chemical name of each, and also that of * Proc. Roy. Soc, 1906. t See this Journal, 1894, pp. 164-7, and 1S95, pp. 145-7. % Journ. Roy. Photo. Soc, 1895. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 105 the maker. The whole forms a very complete and accurate book of reference. Die neue Spektralmethode der Lippmannsohen Farbenphotographie. Centralbl. Zeit. f. Opt. u. Mech., xxviii. (1907) pp. 219-21 (2 figs.). Die Pb.otograpb.ie in nattirlichen Farben. Tom. cit., pp. 254-5. (6) Miscellaneous. Quekett Microscopical Club. — The 443rd Meeting of the Club was held on November 15, the President, Dr. E. J. Spitta, F.R.A.S., F.R.M.S., etc., in the chair. Mr. James Murray communicated a valu- able paper, which was read by Mr. D. J. Scourfield, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., on " PhiJodina macrostyla Ehr., and its Allies." Mr. F. P. Smith made some remarks on "British Spiders taken in 1907," and dealt with some twenty species, of which one, Tarantula nemoralis, taken at Bexhill High Woods on June 21, is for the first time recorded as British. At the 444th Ordinary Meeting held on December 20, the President in the chair, Mr. J. I. Pigg, F.R.M.S., exhibited lantern photomicro- graphs illustrating the development of the prothallus from the spore of the maidenhair fern. A paper communicated by Mr. E. M. Nelson, F.R.M.S., on " Some Hairs upon the Proboscis of the Blow-fly," was read by the Hon. Sec. Four kinds of hairs were described. Mr. E. F. Law exhibited a number of lantern slides in colour obtained by the Lumiere autochrome process. They were photomicrographs, mostly x 1000, of the oxidisation colours obtained by heat-tinting the polished surfaces of phosphor-bronze, gunmetal, and various commercial cast- irons. B. Technique.* (1) Collecting Objects, including' Culture Processes. Method by which Sponges may be Artificially Reared.j — H. V. Wilson gives the following method. Into a tub about GO x 30 cm., and covered with glass, a half-dozen sponges, freed from live oysters and crabs, are put. They are raised from the bottom on bricks. The tub is emptied, filled, and flushed for some minutes, thrice daily. Direct rays of the sun should be avoided. In the course of some weeks the sponges regenerate, giving rise to small masses of undifferentiated tissue. When in this condition, if these masses be attached to wire gauze and suspended in a live-box floating at the surface of the open water of a harbour, the masses will in a few days grow and re-develop spores and oscula, flagellated chambers, and skeletal arrangement of the normal sponge. Cultivation of Gonococci.J — Nakao Abe uses a meat extract, which he prepares as follows : 500 grm. of chopped-up beef are immersed in 1000 c.cm. of tap-water, and placed in a refrigerator for 18-24 hours. * This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- cesses ;. (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ; (4) Staining and Injecting; (5) Mounting, including slides, preserving fluids, etc. 'r (6) Miscellaneous. t Science, xxv. (1907) pp. 912-15. % Centralbl. Bakt. Orig., lte Abt., xliv. (1907) pp. 705-9. 106 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO The fluid is then passed through a paper Alter, and afterwards through a Chamberland filter. The reddish germ-free filtrate is preserved in test-tubes or flasks, and if prevented from drying, the stock will keep for weeks. For cultivation purposes it is mixed with solid or liquid peptonised media. Thus, with 2 p.c. nutrient agar, the procedure is as follows : test-tubes containing some 5 c.cm. of 2 p.c. nutrient agar are liquefied and cooled down to 40-50° (."'., and then 1-2 c.cm. of the meat extract are added ; in about a minute the medium is ready for use. Simple Method of Sterilising Blood for Cultural Purposes.* — E. P. Bernstein and A. A. Epstein place 400 c.cm. of fresh ox-blood in a sterile Erlenmayer's flask of 500 c.cm. capacity, in which have been previously placed 30 c.cm. of 1 p.c. ammonium oxalate solution and | c.cm. of 40 p.c. formalin. After shaking, and then allowing to stand for i hour, an equal quantity of sterile physiological salt solution is added to the blood. After 24 hours the blood may be used for cultural purposes. One part of the diluted blood is added to 15 parts agar or broth, so that the tubes contain about 1 : 3G000 formalin. Cultivation and Preparation of Myxomycetes.f — E. Pinoy culti- vated Dictyostelium mucoroides on a medium composed of 20 grm. agar, 50 grm. linseed, and 1 litre of water. This was heated to 117° C, and after having been distributed into glass vessels was sterilised at 115° C. for \ hour. As the medium could not be filtered, the impurities were got rid of by keeping the medium at 37° C. until the extraneous matters had sedimented. When the agar had set, the clear portion was cut off and was used. On this medium spores were sown, and cultures asso- ciated with bacteria were obtained. The presence of one or more kinds of bacteria seems to be indispensable for the nutrition of the fungi, and all, with the exception of B. pyocyanms, were Gram-negative. For examining the cultures the condensation water was used, and preparations made as hanging drops, or in Van Tieghem's cells. For examination in vivo, neutral red was found to be the best stain, as it ■colours not only the partially digested bacteria, but also has the property of indicating the reaction of fluids, turning yellow if they be alkaline, and red or blue purple if acid. Hence it indicates the acid or alkaline reaction of the liquid in the vacuoles. Neutral red does not affect the living organisms, but if in excess the myxamcebae are killed, and there- fore stain. For fixed preparations Laveran's method was adopted. A film is made in the usual way, and when dry is fixed with alcohol for ten minutes. It is then stained with the following mixture : 4 c.cm. of 1 per thousand aqueous eosin, 6 c.cm. distilled water, 1 c.cm. Borrel's blue. The stain is allowed to act for 15-20 minutes, and then the film is differentiated with a 5 p.c. tannin solution. The results obtained by the foregoing method were controlled by two other procedures, viz. staining with Heidenhain's iron-hasmatoxylin after fixation in sublimate, and by Borrel's method. This consists in fixing with the following fluid : water 300 grm., acetic acid 20 grm., osmic acid 20 grm., platinum chloride 2 grm., chromic acid 3 grm., then staining with ^ * Journ. Infect. Diseases, iii. (1906) pp. 772. ~ t Aim. Inst. Pasteur, xxi. (1907) pp. 622-56 (4 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, .MICROSCOPY. ETC. 107 magenta red and differentiating with picro-indigo-carmine, followed by alcohol and oil of cloves. Culture of Anaerobes.* — A. le Dantec describes a method for culti- vating anaerobes. It depends on the slow diffusion of gases through liquids in capillary tubes. Tbe upper end of a pipette is drawn out into a capillary neck ; broth, previously 1 toiled, cooled and inoculated with an anaerobic organism, is drawn in as far as the upper cylinder above the constricted neck, and the lower end of the pipette is then closed in a flame. Satisfactory anaerobic growth occurs in the medium contained in the body of the pipette. Collecting and Preserving Fresh-water Rhizopods.t — E. Penard, in describing his methods, states that the collecting of these creatures is as simple as possible. In ponds, streams, and marshes he closes the mouth of a small test-tube with the thumb and plunges the whole arm in the water, so as to bring the test-tube level with the organic felt which usually covers the bottom, then on raising the thumb the water rushes in, carrying with it the surface mud, which is alwavs richest in organisms of all kinds. For collecting in deep lakes, a very simple dredging apparatus is used, which brings up strips of brown organic felt which covers the bottom mud, and which alone contains the Rhizopods. Details as to finding and isolating the creatures so collected will be found in the paper, as well as the various methods of preparing them as microscopic objects. It need here only be mentioned that the author fixes the Rhizopods with absolute alcohol, stains them with borax- carmin, and mounts them in balsam, the whole process being performed on the mounting slip. Intestinal Broth for the Isolation of Essential and Potential Intestinal Anaerobes. J — M. Cohendy prepares this medium as follows : 1. The stomach, tongue, liver, intestine, and pancreas of the dog, sheep, pig, or fowl are washed and defatted. 2. Then the stomach and tongue, pounded up together, are mixed with 7 c.cm. HC1, and 500 cent, water, and incubated at 40° C. for 18 to 20 hours. 3. To 500 grm. of intestine, liver, and pancreas, pounded up together, are added 1100 c.cm. of water and macerated for 18 to 20 hours at 24° 0. 4. The two fluids are mixed together, and, after boiling for 2 minutes, strained through a fine sieve. 5. After alkalinising, the fluid is cooled down to 50° C. and the white of one egg to every 250 c.cm. is added. 6. Boil for 2 minutes, filter, cool to 50° C. ; add the white of an egg to every 500 c.cm., sterilise at 120° C. for 20 minutes. 7. Add 0 ■ 9 grm. anhydrous glucose to every 100 c.cm., filter through Chardin paper. 8. Distribute into sterilised tubes or flasks ; sterilise for 20 minutes at 115° C. To make solid media with agar, add between (6) and (7), i.e. before the glucose, and with the white of egg 8' 5 grm. agar, but sterilise for 45 minutes at 120° C. Then proceed as before. The foregoing embraces the general principles, but for certain details * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) p. 135. t Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, x. (1907) pp. 107-16. t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 649-51. 108 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Fig. 22. the original should be consulted. The author has, from an experience of six years, found that essential as well as potential anaerobes form colonies in these media within 24 hours at 38°. Porous Culture Vessels. * — A. Rosam calls attention to the value of a utensil, used for keeping butter cool in hot weather, for cultivating micro-organisms which require moisture and darkness. In shape it is somewhat like a dish-cover, and is made of porous earthenware. It is constructed to hold water between its inner and outer surfaces, and is filled or emptied from the top. As shown in the illustration (fig. 22) it is placed on a dish and is of sufficient size to accommodate several Petri's capsules. Collecting Fossil Flora .f — C Reid and Eleanor M. Reid obtained specimens from the brickearth of Tegelen-sur-Meuse bv following three or four seams to a place where each was overlaid by barren clay. Samples from the seam were then cut out and placed at once in clean boxes for re- moval. Afterwards the clay was taken out and allowed to dry thoroughly. When dry, about half a pound of clay was placed in a sieve and water poured over it. All the floating particles were collected with a earners-hair brush and placed aside. The washing was continued until the vegetable material was free from mud. The muddy filtrate was next passed through four sieves with increasingly finer meshes, the residues from each being separately collected and placed in jars with clean water. The residues were then examined in water with suitable lenses, and everything determinable picked out. The selected seeds were then stored in suitable bottles. Enrichment Method for Detecting Bacillus typhosus.} — E. Klein has devised an enrichment method for detecting Bacillus typhosus in polluted material. He used beef broth mixed with bile salt and malachite-green adjusted in the following maimer : To 400 c.cm. of faintly alkaline beef broth were added 5 c.cm. of 5 p.c. aqueous solution of sodium taurocholate and then malachite-green (Xo. 120 Hochst) in the proportion of 1 : 1500. The medium was decanted into tubes (10 c.cm. each), and then sterilised. Tubes examined 24 hours after inoculation with the suspected fluid showed that B. typhosus had grown freely, i.e. had become enriched, while the progress of B. coli had been inhibited. Subcultures were made on Drigalski plates. The use of malachite-green for inhibiting the growth of B. coli was discovered by Loeffler.§ Simplified Method for Detecting the Presence of Bacillus typhosus. ||— H. Dunschmann recommends a medium of the following * Centralbl. Bakt., 2te Abt., xx. (1907) p. 154 (1 fig.), t Verb. k. Akad. Wetenscb. Amsterdam, xiii. (1907) pp. 1-26 (3 pis.). % Lancet, 1907, ii., pp. 1519-21. § See tbis Journal, 1906, p. 612. II C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 483-5. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 109 composition for isolating B. typhosus from stools, etc. : 3 p.c. agar, 1 p.c. gelatin, 3 p.c. peptone, 3 p.c. lactose, 0*7-1 p.c. taurocholate. The taurocholate is prepared from ox-bile by precipitating with alum, and then treating the filtrate with perchloride of iron. The resulting fluid is filtered until quite clear. This filtrate, which is strongly acid, is neutralised with sodium carbonate, and after addition of some animal charcoal, is evaporated on a water-bath. The residue is treated with alcohol and filtered, the treatment being repeated twice, and then the dry residue dissolved in water to make a 10 p.c. solution, after which it is sterilised at 110° C. Simple Thermostat.* — A. Sineff describes an effective incubator which any person can make. It is made of cardboard or a thin wood used for box-making. It has a lid through which a thermometer is in- inserted (fig. 23), and at its lower part, just above the bottom, a couple of slits for the insertion of an iron plate. Convenient sizes are 20 x 20 x 20 cm. or 30 x 20 x 20 cm., the iron plate being 18 x 50 cm. As shown in the illustration, the iron plate is heated by means of a paraffin lamp or other source of heat, after the manner of the early hot-stage. The apparatus is said to be capable of working within 0 ■ 5°. Sterilised Bacterial Media for Cultivation of Anaerobes. f — GL Proca finds that used and sterilised cultures of certain bacteria form excellent media for cultivating anaerobes in the presence of air. The tubes should be sterilised at 65-70° C, and inoculated directly they have cooled sufficiently. In broth the growth is scanty, but more abundant cultures are obtainable by pouring the inoculated medium over agar or serum slopes. Instead of cultures, thick suspensions of bacteria may be used, and agar tubes be liquefied, and, after inoculation, be rapidly cooled down. Good growth takes place in the depth of the medium provided the surface be covered with a broth culture sterilised at from 65-70° C. The cultures used were those of B. coli, B. typhosus, and Vibrio cholera, and the anaerobes cultivated were B. tetani, B. botulinus, a club-shaped bacillus isolated from earth, and a bacillus obtained from a case of gangrene. Observing Living Developing Nerve-fibres. J — The method em- ployed by R. G. Harrison was to isolate pieces of embryonic tissue known to give rise to nerve-fibres, such as the whole or fragments of the medullary tube or ectoderm from the branchial region, and to observe their further development. The pieces were taken from frog * Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlv. (1907) pp. 191-2 (1 fig.). t C.B,. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 620-1. % Amer. Journ. Anat., vii. (1907) pp. 116-18. Fig. 23. 101 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO embryos about 3 mm. long, at which stage, i.e., shortly after the closure of the medullary folds, there is no visible differentiation of the nerve elements. After carefully dissecting it out, the piece of tissue is re- moved by a fine pipette to a cover-slip upon which is a drop of lymph freshly drawn from one of the lymph-sacs of an adult frog. The lymph clots very quickly, holding the tissue in a fixed position. The cover-slip is then inverted over a hollow slide, and the rim sealed with paraffin. When reasonable aseptic precautions are taken, tissues will live under these conditions for a week, and in some cases specimens have been kept alive for nearly four weeks. Such specimens may be examined from day to day under high powers. Cultivation of Treponema pallidum.* — C. Levaditi and J. Mcintosh have obtained cultivations of Spirochetes by means of the following method. They inserted collodion bags charged with infected material into the peritoneal sac of monkeys. The material used was obtained from syphilised monkeys. From the cultures thus made were obtained organisms morphologically identical with Treponema pallidum, but with- out pathogenic power. (2) Preparing- Objects. New Method of Fixation.! — Wl. Rudnew places pieces of freshly killed animals in the ordinary ether-alcohol solution of celloidin, and after 3 or 4 weeks removes to thick celloidin solution. The pieces are then stuck on wood-blocks and hardened in 70 p.c. alcohol, and sec- tioned in the usual way. Unlike most inventors, the author does not claim that this method is perfect : indeed he admits that it has defects which he hopes to remedy, but in the title of the paper points out that it is specially adapted for the study of the nervous system. Fixation and Preparation of Nematohelminthes4 — E. Andre finds that boiling water gives the best results. When small the animals should be placed in a capsule and boiling water poured over them ; this should not be allowed to act longer than the fraction of a second, and then the animals must be plunged into cold water. Large worms should be placed in a glass tube of a diameter a little larger than that of the animal. The tube is plunged into boiling water, and after one or two seconds transferred to cold water. If these large worms are to be sectioned they must be cut up into lengths of several centimetres before immersing in the appropriate fluid. For staining in toto an alcohol fluid is recommended, for the reason that while hot water is a fixative it is in no sense a preservative. Small thread-worms, to be mounted whole as microscopical specimens, should be transferred after fixation to the following medium : distilled water 80, glycerin 10, formol 10, placed in a watch-glass or capsule. The vessel should be uncovered but protected from dust. When the fluid has evaporated to the extent of several cubic centimetres the animals may be mounted in glycerin or glycerin-jelly. This method of * Ann. Inst. Pasteur., xxi. (1907) pp. 784-97 (2 pis.) f Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxi v. (1907) pp. 243-53. % Tom. cit., pp. 278-9. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Ill fixation by means of boiling water and preservation in formol-glycerin is also applicable to small Arthropoda. Apparatus for Rapidly Cooling Paraffin.*— C. U. A. Kappers describes an apparatus (fig. 24) for rapidly cooling paraffin blocks. It consists of a metal box A, which has an opening B for connecting with the water supply. The table C has two steps, the object being to accommodate blocks of different sizes. A piece of one side D is cut out so that the level of the water in the tank is just below the upper surface of the blocks. When the upper surface of the paraffin has become sufficiently hard to bear the water, the aperture D is closed by means of a glass plate. The apparatus is supported upon a basin by means of four arms. Studying the Development of Ophiothrix fragilis.f — E. W. MacBride made observations on and also drawings of living larvae. Those used for sections were fixed in 1 p.c. osmic acid, followed by Muller's fluid. The sections were made by the celloidin-paraffin method and the procedure similar to that already described by the author in the case of Echinus esculentus. It was found that the celloidin became badly cracked if the sections were left drying on the top of the thermo- stat for longer than 40 minutes. When it was necessary to supplement the information obtained from views of the living larva? by whole mounts of preserved ones, these were cleared from osmic acid by immer- sion in water or weak alcohol. The vessel containing them was then placed (open) inside a larger one, on the bottom of which was a layer of chlorate of potash crystals, over which strong hydrochloric acid was * Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1907) pp. 254-7 (1 fig.). t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., li. (1907) pp. 557-606 (6 pis. and 4 figs, in text). 112 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO poured. The larger vessel was closed. The euchlorine gas evolved soon oxidised the black deposit of metallic osmium on the tissues. In the orientation of sections the postero-lateral arms of the larva; were of the greatest assistance, for they persist until the metamorphosis is quite complete, so that they mark a constant plane amidst the varying position of the other organs. This plane is called the frontal plane, and most of the sections were cut parallel to it. Sections parallel to the median sagittal plane of the larva were also employed, as were transverse sections when they became necessary in order to elucidate special points. Studying the Adenoid Tissue of the Spleen, etc.* — C. Ciaccio adopted Levaditi's Spirochceta method for studying the fine structure of the adenoid tissue of the spleen, lymphatic glands, and intestine. He fixed in 10-15 p.c. formalin for 24 hours, and, after a short washlin dis- tilled water, immersed the tissue in 90° C. alcohol for 24 hours. After re- moval of the alcohol in distilled water, the pieces were passed into 1 * 5 p.c. silver nitrate for 3 to 4 days at 38 °C. On removal they were again washed in distilled water, and then placed in the reducing solution, which consisted of 2 p.c. pyrogallic acid plus 15 p.c. formalin. After reduction, the pieces were passed successively through water, alcohols, and xylol to paraffin. The sections were examined unstained and stained : the best staining solution was Pianese's fluid (acid-fuchsin, Martin's yellow, and malachite-green). Examining the Trophospongia of Striated Muscle.f — E. Holm- gren examined the striated muscle of Insecta, Crustacea, Amphibia, fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. At first the author's trichloracetic- resorcin-fuchsin method was employed, but was afterwards supplanted by Golgi's silver-chromium method. The solution consisted of 4 parts of 4 p.c. bichromate of potash and 1 part 1 p.c. osmic acid, the material being immersed therein for 6 to 8 days at 30-31° C. This was followed by 0*75 p.c. silver nitrate solution for 24 to 48 hours at the same temperature. The material was then placed in alcohol, frequently changed, for 24 hours, then xylol, xylol-paraffin, and pure paraffin. Carnoy's and Flemming's fluids were also used, the sections being stained with Heidenhain's iron-hamitoxylin, acid-fuchsin, and picro- carbol-fuchsin. Fixation of Insect Larvae. $ — W. D. van Leeuwen has devised a mixture which he has found very useful for fixing insects, especially during metamorphosis. It consists of 1 p.c. picric acid in absolute alcohol 6, chloroform 1, formalin 1, acetic acid \ part, or less. The mixture should be freshly prepared. The insects, pupaj, larvge, imagos are left in the fluid for 24 hours or so, and then transferred to 90 p.c. alcohol for 3 days, and afterwards preserved or further treated in any desired manner. Good sections can be obtained by the benzol-paraffin method. * Anat. Anzeig., xxxi. (1907) pp. 594-601 (7 figs.), t Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxxi (1907) pp. 165-247 (8 pis.). \ Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 316-20. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 113 Studying the Interstitial Cells of the Ovary.* — P. Aime worked with the ovaries of several species of mammals. These were at different stages of development, ranging from the early foetal state to the adult condition. The material was fixed in Bouin's fluid (formol-picro-acetic acid), Fleinming's strong fluid, Tellyesnicky's bichromate-acetic acid mixture, sublimate, sublimate and platinum chloride, and also by Altmann's special method. After a few days' immersion the material was washed. The best results were obtained from pieces which were washed in running water for 12 to 48 hours. The paraffin sections were stained with iron-hasmatoxylin and eosin or light-green, Delafield's hgematoxylin, or with iron-hsematoxylin plus picric acid-fuchsin, or eosin and light-green. Sections from pieces fixed with Flemming were stained with the triple safranin, gentian-violet and orange mixture, or with sufranin and light-green. Altmann's method was adopted for showing the granules of the interstitial cells. Schouten, S. L. — Methode zur Anfertigung der glasernen Isoliernadeln, ge- horend zu dem Isolierapparat fur Mikroorganismen. [A description of the apparatus and method of making the glass needles for the author's isolating apparatus. A full description of the method has previously appeared in this Journal, (1905, pp. 758-60).] Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1907) pp. 258-68 (15 figs.). (3) Cutting', including1 Imbedding "and Microtomes. Studying the Structure of Mammalian Ear.f — W. Kolmer gives at considerable length the results of his experiences for examining the auditory apparatus of certain domestic mammals. The difficulties to be overcome are the prevention of distortion of the soft parts and the effective removal of the lime salts from the bone. Injection of the fixative, after washing out the blood, through the carotid, is tedious but gives good results. The best method of decalcification seems to be to imbed the fixed material in celloidin, and then immerse in some decal- cifying medium, nitric acid for choice. Most of the well-known fixatives were tried (Flemming, Hermann, sublimate, sublimate and picric acid, formol-bichromate-acetic). Small objects were imbedded in paraffin, large ones in celloidin. The sections were stained with some hematoxylin solution, and contrast-stained with Congo-red or acid-rubin, or by Bielschowski's and Cajal's methods. Use of Sulphuric Ether in Imbedding.^ — F. Federici describes methods for using sulphuric ether for imbedding in paraffin, and also in celloidin and paraffin He found that while sulphuric ether at ordinary temperature was a poor solvent of paraffin, its solvent power increased proportionately to the temperature. Recalling Heidenhain's method of paraffin imbedding by the aid of carbon bisulphide, § he removed pieces of tissue from absolute alcohol to ether, and after a few hours trans- * Arch. Zool. Exper., vii. (1907) pp. 95-143 (3 pis.). t Arch. Mikr. Anat. u. Entwickl., lxx. (1907) pp. 697-706 (3 pis.). X Anat. Anzeig., xxxi. (1907) pp. 601-3. § See this Journal, 1902, p. 111. Feb. 19th, 1908 r 114 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO fared them to a mixture of ether and paraffin (ether 5 c.cm., paraffin m.p. 50° C. = 4 grm.) for 3 or 4 hours, and then for a similar -period to a second solution (ether 5 c.cm., paraffin m.p. 50° C. = 4 grm.), The ether and paraffin solution is easily made by placing fragments of paraffin together with the ether in a well stoppered bottle and incubating at from 30-40° C. ; care must be taken not to bring the bottle near an open flame. After the second impregnation in the ether-paraffin mixture, the pieces may be transferred to pure paraffin m.p. 50° C. As ether readily dissolves celloidin, the author saw his way to perfect a method for a mixed imbedding. In this method the pieces are re- moved from absolute alcohol to ether for 12 to 24 hours, and then to a 3-4 p.c. solution of celloidin in ether. This is followed by the ether- paraffin solutions, and finally by pure paraffin. From blocks made by this latter method sections may be obtained which are not only very thin, but form ribands quite easily. Such sections may be stuck on the slide by the water, albumen or Schallibaum's methods. While section- ing, the block does not require moistening with alcohol, though when the cutting is finished, it is advisable to cover the surface with paraffin. (4) Staining- and Injecting1. Picric-acid Carmin.* — R. Thoma finds that picric-acid-carmin is of great use for double staining, for staining nuclei and for decalcified osseous tissue. 1 grm. of picric acid is dissolved in 100 c.cm. warm distilled water, and filtered. To the hot filtrate is added 0 ■ 5 grm. red carmin. The mixture is warmed until the powder is dissolved, is constantly stirred and brought to the boil once. It is allowed to cool slowly, and after about 24 hours is filtered. Picric-acid-carmin stains sections in about 20 minutes. The sections are washed in tap-water and differentiated with 1 p.c. picric acid solution. After several washings in water the sections maybe examined in glycerin or dehydrated and mounted in balsam. New Method of Staining Micro-organisms.t — F. Loeffler describes the following methods for staining micro-organisms, especially spiro- chastae, gonococci and diphtheria bacilli. The film is fixed with ethyl- alcohol, and then treated with 3 drops of 0 ' 5 p.c. solution of sodium arsenate and 1 drop of 0*5 p.c. solution of malachite-green-zinc- chloride (Hochst). This is warmed for one minute and then the preparation is carefully washed. 5-10 drops of Giemsa stain are mixed with 5 c.cm. of J p.c. glycerin, and brought to the boil. The film is then treated for 4-5 minutes with the hot solution, and afterwards washed with a stream of water. Another procedure given consists in mixing 4 parts borax (2 • 5 p.c), methylen-blue (1 p.c), with 1 part polychrome methylen-blue, and then adding an equal quantity of 0 • 05 p.c. brom-eosin B extra or extra A. G. (Hochst). The preparations are treated with the warmed solution for one minute, and then immersed in a solution consisting of saturated * Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1907) p. 139. t Deutsche Med. Wochenschr., 1907, No. 5. See also Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Ref., xl. (1907) pp. 307-8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 115 aqueous solution of tropseolin 00 5 parts, acetic acid 0*5, water 100. They are then washed with water. In order to decolorise the prepara- tions more slowly, the tropasolin solution may be diluted 5-10 times with water. Giemsa-staining of Spirochseta pallida.* — J. Schereschewsky ex- poses the prepared slide, the film being still moist, to osmic acid vapour for a few seconds, and after drying in the air fixes in the flame and then treats it with Giemsa's stain in the following way : 13 drops of Giemsa solution are diluted with 10 com. of 0*5 p.c. glycerin and heated to boiling, and if no precipitate occurs the film is treated therewith. Aiter 2 or 3 minutes the solution is poured off, and if the preparation be not sufficiently stained, the operation is repeated. After a short wash the preparation is mopped up with blotting-paper, dried, and examined in the usual way. Staining Sudanophil Leucocytes.f — D. Bultino and Gr. Quarelli used the following solutions for staining the fat globules in leucocytes : 0 • 2 p.c. solution of Sudan iii in absolute alcohol, and aO'l p.c. solution of brilliant Kresyl-blue in the same medium. The authors found that the percentage of sudanophils is much increased in all suppurating affections and in pneumonia. Borrel's Blue.! — E. Pinoy states that Borrel's blue is conveniently made by mixing 100 grm. distilled water, 1 grm. silver oxide, and 1 grm. medicinal methylen-blue. The mixture should be kept in a yellow glass bottle. After three weeks, during which period the flask should be shaken from time to time, it is filtered. The maturation may be hastened by keeping the fluid at 37° C. Its staining property depends much on the quality of the methylen-blue. New Method of Preparing the Romanowsky Stain.§ — N. MacL. Harris gives the following procedure. Make up a saturated solution of Griibler's aqueous yellow eosin in methyl-alcohol and preserve ; then mix 2 grm. medicinal methylen-blue and 9 grm. sodium bicarbonate, and triturate in mortar. Remove to beaker of 250 c.cm. capacity and mix in 25-30 c.cm. distilled water ; steam sterilise for an hour and a quarter. Grind up the black residue, mix with 200-250 c.cm. water and add 10 c.cm. of 4 p.c. sodium hydrate. Extract with chloroform and then evaporate off the chloroform in a water-bath. The resulting mass is made up largely of methylen-violet, variable amounts of methylen-azure, and other substances. Dissolve the mass in methyl-alcohol ; this makes the stock solution of crude methylen-violet and azure. To make the staining fluid, take of the stock solution 60 c.cm.. of methyl-alcohol 33 c.cm., of the stock eosin solution 1-1 • 5 c.cm. Bottle and add from 0* 05-0 '15 grm. methvlen-blue. The staining of blood-films is carried out by Wright's method, the film being covered with the solution, which is allowed to act for one * Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlv. (1907) pp. 91-4 (1 pi.). t Rev. Clin. Med. Florence, 1907, pp. 321 and 337. See also Brit. Med. Journ., 1907, ii., epit. 108. J Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxi. (1907) pp. 633-4. § Johns Hopkins Hosp., Bull, xviii. (1907) p. 281. I 2 116 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO minute. A similar amount of water is added and allowed to stand for five minutes. Wash for 1-2 minutes in running water. If dysenteric stools are to be stained, the dye should be allowed to act for 2 minutes, while for Treponema pallidum 10 minutes may be necessary. Gram's Staining- Method. *— F. Loeffler has tested a number of methyl-violets and gentian-violets in their relation to Gram's method. The best results were obtained with methyl-violet 6 B and B N in 10 p.c. solution freshly dissolved in 1-2 '5 p.c. aqueous carbolic. Sections taken from alcohol were placed in the stain solution for 2 to 10 minutes, washed in water, transferred to Gram's iodine solution for 2 minutes, then into 5 p.c. aqueous nitric acid or sulphuric acid for 1 minute (or for 10 seconds into 3 p.c. alcoholic hydrochloric acid), and finally into absolute alcohol until completely decolorised ; cleared in xylol, and mounted in balsam. Studying the Nerve-endings in the Urinary Bladder of Mammals. Sergius Michailowf treated the material by the supravital method. Pieces of quite fresh bladder were immersed in the Ringer-Locke fluid, to which methylen-blue had been added, and when sufficiently stained the tissues were fixed with 7-10 p.c. molybdanate of ammonium. The pieces were then washed with water, dehydrated, and mounted in balsam. Occasionally the material was stained with Grenadier's alum-carmin. Staining-tank with Movable Grooves. % — Casimir Cepede describes a staining-tank with movable grooves. These slots or grooves are like the tanks made of glass or porcelain, and are of such dimensions that the pieces can be easily removed. This device enables the various parts of the tank to be easily cleaned. Simple Method of Staining Blood-films.§ — F. Weidenreich places in a watch-glass or capsule some 5 c.cm. of 1 p.c. osmic acid solution, and adds 10 drops of acetic acid. Perfectly clear slides are laid over the glass pan and exposed to the action of the paper for 2 minutes ; the capsules should be covered during the exposure with a bell-jar. The blood obtained in the usual way is then made into a film on the side of the slide which has been exposed to the paper. The slide is at once returned to the bell-jar for about 1 minute. When the film is quite dry the slide is passed thrice through the flame and then is flooded for about a minute with a very dilute solution of potassium permanganate (pale red hue). The film is then washed with water and mopped up with filter paper, after wrhich it is ready for staining, for which purpose the following are suitable : Ehrbch's tri-acid mixture, Giemsa, gentian- violet, eosin-methylen-blue, haematein. * Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Ref.. xi. (1907) p. 78. t Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxxi. (1907) pp. 254-83 (2 pis.). % C R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 485-7 (2 figs.). § Folia hamatologica, iii. (190G) 7 pp. See also Zeitschr. Wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1907) pp. 301-2. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 117 (5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, etc. Preserving Fossil Seeds and Leaves.* — C. Reid and Eleanor M. Reid treated the fossil seeds they had collected f in the following way. A few seeds were removed from the store-bottles and washed in water to remove the formalin or salicylic acid used for their temporary preserva- tion. Then a thin film of wax (paraffin filtr., 45° C. G-riibler) was melted on a glass plate or Microscope slide. The seeds or leaves were placed, still wet, on the film, and the plate immediately heated to a temperature just sufficient to melt the wax. By this procedure the seed is impregnated with wax and rendered so tough that it could be easily handled. The superfluous wax was then removed with blotting-paper, or by brushing the surface with benzine. In the case of leaves it was found best to place them between two glass plates charged with films of wax ; they then become quite flat, and were easily photographed. When the wax is hard one plate is warmed and slid off, and the exposed surface of the leaf cleaned with benzine. The second glass was then warmed until the leaf could be slid to a clean part of the plate, and no excess of wax remained. The toughened leaf could then be lifted off and mounted on a card like an herbarium specimen. (6) Miscellaneous. Dust-excluding Histological Reagent Bottle.^ — The bottle (fig. 25) devised by W. H. Harvey differs from the ordinary type in the structure of the neck, which ends abruptly without any lip. The pipette has a glass cover or dome, through which it passes, sufficiently large to receive the neck of the bottle. The cover must be at least 1 mm. longer than the neck, to prevent fracture at the union of pipette and cover. As a further precaution, a thin rubber or felt washer may be placed upon the shoulder of the bottle. Nathorst's Use of Collodion Imprints in the Study of Fossil Plants. — By the term " collodion im- print " is meant, says F. A. Bather,§ the impression of any surface on a thin film of collodion. An impression is obtained by letting a drop or two of collodion, dissolved in ether, fall on the surface to be copied. The ether evaporates rapidly, so that the film is hard in 2 or ?> minutes. When dry it is removed to a slide, and preserved dry under a cover-slip held in position by gummed strips of paper or by Canada balsam. When the imprint is very sharp, the film may be preserved in glycerin-jelly without its distinctness being much impaired. It is advisable to throw away the first made, as it usually retains some dust from the surface of the object, the following films being free from this. Fig. 25. * Vevh. k. Akad. Wetenscb. Amsterdam, xiii. (1907) pp. 1-26 (3 pis.). t See this Journal, ante, p. 108. t Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1907) p. 2S0 (1 fig.). § Geol. Mag.,iv. (1907) pp. 437-40 (1 fig.). 118 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO The film placed on the slide is examined under the Microscope by transmitted light ; quite high powers may be used, and photomicrographs taken. The illumination should be oblique, the mirror being shifted until the best effect is obtained. Though such collodion films have long been used in the measurement of microscopic objects, and by botanists f< >r copying the cuticular surface of living plants, Nathorst was the first to employ the method in the study of fossils. Rawitz' Microscopical Technique.* — This manual, by B. Eawitz, aims at giving as complete an account as possible of the present con- dition of microscopical technique, in a handy form, and suitable for reference in the laboratory. The work is divided into two parts, the first dealing with the various methods of research, and the second with the application of these methods to the different organs and tissues. The volume is but little adorned with illustrations, there being but eighteen altogether, and all of them old friends. Metallography, etc. Melting Point Diagrams of the Binary Systems Galena- Magnetic Pyrites and Galena-Silver sulphide.f— K. Friedrich has employed for this work lead sulphide with «7 " 1 p.c. Pb, magnetic pyrites with 62*35 p.c. Fe, and silver sulphide with 99*6 p.c. Ag2S. Both equilibrium diagrams are simple, consisting of two branches meeting at the eutectic point, and the horizontal eutectic line. A lower horizontal at 175° C. in the galena-silver sulphide diagram indicates a transformation point in AgjS. The melting points are, lead sulphide 1114° C, magnetic pyrites "l 187° C, eutectic (70 p.c. PbS) *63° C, silver sulphide 835° C, eutectic (77 p.c. Ag.,S, 23 p.c. PbS) 630° C. Photomicrographs are given. Melting Point Diagrams of the Binary Systems, Silver sulphide- Copper sulphide and Lead sulphide-Copper sulphide.^ — K. Friedrich gives the equilibrium diagrams. Ag.2S and Cu2S appear to form an unbroken series of mixed crystals. A minimum occurs at 70 p.c. AgoS (677° C), there is no eutectic. 1121° C. is the melting point of copper sulphide. The lead sulphide-copper sulphide diagram has two branches meeting at the eutectic point 51 p.c. Cu2S, 540° C. No ternary com- pounds exist. A dilute solution of iodine in potassium iodide was used for etching the sections. Influence of Stress on the Corrosion of Iron.§ — Walker and C. Hill measured the potential given by pure Swedish iron, stressed in tension in a testing machine, against a normal calomel electrode, in ferrous sulphate solution. Below the elastic limit the potential change is exceedingly small. Somewhere above the elastic limit the potential rises suddenly. Out of a considerable number of specimens broken in * Leipzig : W. Engelniann (1907) 438 pp. + Metallurgie, iv. (1907) pp. 479-85 (21 figs.). X Tom. cit., pp. 671-3 (7 figs.). § Mechanical Engineer, xx. (1907) p. 155. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 119 tension, the potential of six reached a constant value shortly after fracture. The difference between the initial and final potentials varied from 0-0019 to 0*0077 volt. The conclusion is drawn that even beyond the elastic limit the corrosion of iron is not greatly affected by stress. Hard and Soft States in Ductile Metals.* — Gt. T. Beilby, in con- tinuation of his previous work on this subject, has sought to define more accurately the temperature range over which crystallisation takes place in metals hardened by cold work. Hard drawn wires of gold, silver and copper were heated to various temperatures. Observations were made of the microstructure, the mechanical stability (by determining the load which would give a permanent extension of 1 p.c), the E.M.F. given by a thermocouple consisting of a hard wire and a wire previously heated to the given temperature. The change in elasticity was deter- mined by taking the pitch of the note given by reed vibrators of different metals annealed at various temperatures. The following are among the author's conclusions. The most severe mechanical working of a metal always produces a mixed structure of the hard and soft phases. It has not yet been found possible to produce a homogeneous specimen of metal entirely in the hard state. The temperature ranges over which (1) re-crystallisation, (2) loss of mechanical stability, (3) development of thermal E.M.F. between wires in the hard and soft states, (4) complete restoration of elasticity in hardened metal occur, coincide with each other closely. The maximum amount of change in gold, silver and copper occurs between 200° and 800° C. The change is essentially the develop- ment of the crystalline from the non-crystalline condition. Densities and Specific Heats of Some Alloys of Iron. J — From measurements made on a large number of alloys, quenched in water from a bright red heat, W. Brown has determined the effect upon the specific volume and specific heat of iron, of additions of carbon, manganese, nickel, tungsten, silicon, chromium, copper, cobalt and aluminium. The results are expressed as change per 1 p.c. of added element. By applying these results to the calculation of dissipation of energy per cycle in armature cores, the superiority for this purpose of silicon steel to pure iron or other alloys is demonstrated. Alloys of Iron with Molybdenum 4— Lautsch and G. Tammann have sought to determine the equilibrium diagram. The metals melted in magnesia tubes were heated to 1800°-1850° C, and the protected thermocouple inserted when the temperature had fallen to 1600° C. Alloys with more than 70 p.c. molybdenum could not be made homo- geneous in this way, the molybdenum not dissolving completely. Abnor- malities apparent in the curve, which theoretically cannot occur in a two-component system, have led the authors to put forward the hypo- thesis that owing to the slow formation of a compound the system must be considered as one of three components — iron, molybdenum and the * Proc. Roy. Soc, Series A, Ixxix. (1907) pp. 463-80 (12 figs.). See also Nature, lxxvi. (1907) pp. 572-4 (2 figs.). t Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc., ix. (1907) pp. 59-84 (6 figs.). X Zeitschr. Anorg. Chem., lv. (1907) pp. 386-401 (18 figs.). 120 SUMMARY OF CUBEENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO compound ;/■. The equilibrium diagram is accordingly shown in the three dimensional system. If iron and molybdenum could be mixed at 1800° C. so quickly that the compound x had not time to form, two series of mixed crystals only would be formed. The compound x and iron do not form mixed crystals. Alloys prepared by the alumino- thermic process, and thus heated to a much higher temperature, contain distinctly more of the compound x. The structure of alloys prepared in either way is not altered by heating to 1200° C. and quenching, showing that the differences are not due to reactions occurring in the solid state. It appears that the amount of the compound present slowly increases as the temperature rises. A similar case is that of aluminium and antimony. Copper-bismuth Alloys. — K. Jeriomin* gives the equilibrium diagram, differing considerably from Gautier's. No compound is formed. If mixed crystals exist, their concentration is very low — less than 0 ■ 5 p.c. copper in bismuth, or bismuth in copper. The eutectic contains not more than 0*5 p.c. copper. A. Portevin f has also determined the equilibrium diagram, and states that neither compounds nor solid solutions are formed. The eutectic contains very little copper. Crystals of copper are found in the alloy with 0 • 3 p.c. copper. Zinc-cadmium Alloys.^ — G. Hindrichs gives the equilibrium diagram, showing no compounds or solid solutions. The eutectic com- position and temperature are £2*6 p.c. cadmium and 270° C. The thermal results were confirmed by microscopic examination. Antimony-lead Alloys. § — W. Gontermann has re-determined the equilibrium diagram, because of some discrepancies and omissions in previous determinations. No compounds or mixed crystals are formed. A peculiarity was noted in the cooling curves of the alloys from which antimony first crystallises. The eutectic point is apparently double, two halts occurring at temperatures about 5° C. apart. After showing that this cannot be due to the formation of a compound or to changes occurring in the solid state, the author suggests the explanation that the double halt is due to the difference in solubility of large and small crystals of antimony. Special Cast Irons. || — By adding nickel in increasing amounts to (1) white iron, (2) grey iron, L. Guillet prepared a series of nickel cast irons. Microscopic examination showed that nickel favours the forma- tion of graphite. Similar tests were made with manganese. The author arrives at the general conclusion that those elements which enter into solution in iron (nickel, aluminium, silicon) . promote the formation of graphite, while the elements which form a double carbide with cementite (manganese, chromium) tend to prevent graphite formation. * Zeitschr. Anorg. Chexn., lv. (1907) pp. 412-14 (1 fig.). t Rev. de Metallurgie, iv. (1907) pp. 1077-80 (4 figs.). % Zeitschr. Anorg. Chern, lv. (1907) pp. 415-18 (1 fig). § Tom. cit., pp. 419-25 (2 figs.). || Comptes Kendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 552-3. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 121 Thermo-electricity of Nickel.* — H. Pecheux has measured the E.M.F. developed by thermocouples prepared from copper and three specimens of commercial nickel, varying- somewhat in chemical com- position. The notable effect of impurities in the nickel, and of anneal- ing, on the E.M.F. developed is shown. Blowholes in Steel Ingots.f — E. von Maltitz discusses the forma- tion and prevention of blowholes. Though the gas found in them consists almost wholly of hydrogen and nitrogen, the gas evolved during solidification contains a large proportion of carbon monoxide, and it appears that the formation of blowholes is largely due to the evolution of carbon monoxide. The solvent power of molten steel for ferrous oxide (the source of the carbon monoxide) increases as the temperature rises, and at the same time the affinity of iron for oxygen increases more rapidly than that of carbon for oxygen. Thus carbon monoxide is given off when highly heated molten steel (containing both ferrous oxide and carbon in solution) is cooled, as by stirring with a steel rod. The liberation of carbon monoxide probably induces the simultaneous liberation of hydrogen and nitrogen. Melting- Points of the Iron Group Elements.} — G. K. Burgess has obtained the following values by a new radiation method : — Iron 1505° C, cobalt 1464° C, manganese 1207° C, chromium 1489° C, nickel 1485° C. Minute quantities of the metal were placed on an electrically heated platinum strip within a brass tube through which hydrogen was passed. The particles were microscopically observed through a mica window, and the temperature of the platinum strip was taken by a Holborn-Kurlbaum optical pyrometer at the instant when the metal was seen to melt. Melting- Points of Palladium and Platinum.§ — G. W. Waidner and G. K. Burgess have selected the values, palladium 1546° G. and platinum 1753° C., from the results given by radiation and other methods. Electrolytic Corrosion of Brasses.||— A. T. Lincoln, D. Klein, and P. E. Howe have subjected to electrolytic corrosion in normal solutions of some sodium and ammonium salts a series of copper-zinc alloys representing most of the different solid solutions, annealed at 400° 0. for several weeks. For the alloys of 50 p.c. or more copper the corrosion product (precipitate resulting from corrosion) has practically the same composition as the alloy. For alloys of low copper content the corrosion product is nearly pure zinc. While the amount of corro- sion in sodium chloride decreases with increase in copper content of the brass, in other solutions the reverse was found to be the case. * Cornptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 591-3. t Bull. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng., xvii. (1907) pp. 691-726. t Bull. Bureau of Standards, iii. (1907) pp. 345-55 (1 fig.). § Tom. cit., pp. 163-208. || Journ. Phys. Chem., xi. (1907) pp. 501-36 (12 figs.). 122 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Alloys of Iron with Chromium.* — W. Treitschke and G. Tammann have investigated the equilibrium diagram. Owing to the high viscosity of molten chromium at 1(>0<>° C, it was found necessary to heat the alloys to 170<> C. in magnesia tubes in order to secure complete mixing of the fluid metals. With more than 1(1 p.c. chromium the cooling curves no longer indicated the transformation points of iron. The peculiarities of the freezing point curve are explained in the same way as for the iron-molybdenum alloys, by the existence of a compound x with a relatively slow rate of formation. The system thus becomes a ternary system. The diagram, and the microstructure of the alloys, are discussed in detail. Alloys of Potassium with other Metals.j — D. P. Smith has deter- mined the equilibrium diagrams of the binary alloys of potassium with aluminium, magnesium, zinc, cadmium, bismuth, tin, and lead, and gives a table summarising his results. Potassium is not miscible in the liquid state with aluminium and magnesium, and only partially miscible with zinc, cadmium, and lead. Compounds were found in each series except the potassium-aluminium and potassium-magnesium systems. Owing to the rapidity with which the alloys oxidised, microscopic examination was difficult. Some sections were cut and examined under paraffin oil. Metallography of Cast Iron.} — E. Heyn and 0. Bauer have sought to determine the range of temperature in which graphite is formed, in two series of alloys, the first containing about 4 p.c. silicon, 3 p.c. carbon, the second about 1"5 p.c. silicon, :-5#2 p.c. carbon. The samples were slowly cooled from a temperature well above the melting point, and quenched at different temperatures. One sample of each series was slowly cooled to atmospheric temperature, the cooling curve being taken. Graphite was estimated in each sample, and sections were microscopically ex- amined ; total carbon and silicon were also determined. The results indicate that iron alloys containing 1*2-4 "25 p.c. silicon and 2 • 7— 3-12 p.c. total carbon solidify as white iron, and that nearly the whole of the graphite is formed in the temperature interval of 40° C. below the end of solidification. E Heyn discusses the literature of the subject. P. Goerens§ and E. Heyn || deal with the formation of kish. Crystallisation and Structure of Steel.1T — A. Bajkow has made analyses and microscopic examination of octahedral crystals found in blow-holes in steel castings. In three specimens the carbon was 0 • 54-0* 98 p.c, manganese 0' 78-1* 06 p.c. All the crystals contained inclusions of slag in crystalline form. Osmondite.** — H. M. Howe gives an account of the experimental results from which Heyn and Bauer deduced the existence of this new * Zeitschr. Anorg. Chem., lv. (10 to 70 p.c. cobalt the melt splits up into two liquid layers on cooling. Confirmation of the diagram was obtained by micro-examination : the separation into two layers was not evident in the sections, probably on account of the small difference in specific gravity of the two liquids. The etching re- agents were hydrochloric acid for the copper-rich alloys, and ferric chloride for the alloys of low copper content. Sorbitic Rails. §— By experiments carried out on 1*5 m. lengths of steel rail, F. Limbourg has shown that the hardness, tensile strength, and stiffness (indicated by deflection in a drop test) of rails may be considerably raised by treatments of the kind suggested by Stead and Richards. The treatment consisted in quenching the rails hot from the rolls, in water, and reheating to temperatures ranging from 450-650° C. ; or in immersing in water till no longer red, and cooling in air, the in- ternal heat of the rail effecting a partial annealing. Iron-carbon System. || — A. Portevin considers that the multitudinous investigations of this system have led to the final establishment of the theory of equilibrium. He gives a clear account of the diagram ex- pressing the labile equilibrium between iron and cementite and the stable equilibrium between iron and graphite. The numerous references in the course of the paper constitute a useful bibliography. * Comptes Rendus, cxlv (1907) pp. 1283-4. t Rev. de Metallurgie, iv. (1907) pp. 833-84 (38 figs.). I Tom. cit., pp. 983-8 (8 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 989-92. || Tom. cit., pp. 993-1005 (3 figs.). 12G PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. MEETING Held on the 18th of December, 1907, at 20 Hanover Square, W. Mr. Conrad Beck, Vice-President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the Meeting of the 20th of November, 1907, were read and confirmed. The List of Donations to the Society since the last Meeting, exclu- sive of exchanges and reprints, was read, and the thanks of the Society were voted to the donors. From Bernard Rawitz, Lehrbuch der Mikroskopischen Technik.\ rp7 p , r , (8vo, Leipzig, 1907) f ** ^u0l/isner- Eug. Warming, Dansk Plantevsekst. 2 Klitterne, F elet further stated that this agreed with the experience of the Germ; Mankton Expedition of 1889, who found no rotifers in the Atlantic .opt in two limited and widely separated areas, the one in the North A I lantic midway between North Britain and Greenland, where two species -, nchceta 'and Rattuhis) were found in enormous numbers, and the oth off Bermuda, where the same two species were again encountered. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 129 The Chairman thought the paper was one of great interest, which they would be very pleased to see in the Journal. As regards the occasional presence of large numbers of rotifers, he might say he had a similar experience some time ago in Westmorland ; on one occasion he found the lakes swarming with certain forms of animalculse, while a short time afterwards he was unable to find any. Mr. Wesche said that one of the forms illustrated showed some lateral appendages, which he thought very remarkable, and so far as he knew, were absolutely unique amongst the Bdelloids ; it was numbered 5 on the plate, and described under the name of Gallidina pinniger. The appendages, he thought, might be of similar function to the blades on the shoulders of the common species Polyarthra platyptera Ehr., giving a sudden movement to the animal to enable it to escape the jaws of some predacious enemy. In the matter of finding large numbers of a species in a particular place at one time, and none whatever at another, would be the experience of every collector, as it had often been his. Mr. Barnard remarked that Bacterium indicum was phosphorescent in the tropics, and sometimes appeared in very large quantities, which he thought might possibly be accounted for by the presence of nutri- ment. The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Mr. Murray for his paper, and to Mr. Rousselet for reading it. The Chairman reminded the Fellows that their next Meeting would be their Anniversary, at which they usually had an address from their President. He regretted to say, however, that this time they would be without this, as Lord Avebury found he would be quite unable to be present owing to his having to be elsewhere to receive an additional honour conferred upon him, the date of which function could not be altered. His Lordship had expressed his great regret at not being able to be present at the Annual Meeting, but had intimated that the Society should not lose the benefit of his address, which he hoped to give them on a future occasion. In substitution for the address, they had arranged for a paper to be read, " On the Microscope as an Aid to the Study of Biology in Entomology, with special reference to the Food of Insects," by Mr. W. Wesche. As the next would be their Annual Meeting, it was necessary to elect two Auditors of the Society's accounts, and on behalf of the Council he nominated Mr. J. M. Allen. Mr. C. L. Curties was then proposed by Mr. Marshall, and seconded by Mr. Ersser, as Auditor, on behalf of the Fellows. The names of these two gentlemen having been submitted to the Meeting, they were declared to have been duly elected as Auditors. The following list of Fellows, proposed by the Council as the Officers and Council of the Society for the ensuing year, was then read by the Secretary, and would be submitted for election at the Annual Meeting on January 15th, 1908 : — President — Lord Avebury. Vice-Presidents — Mr. Beck, Dr. Dallinger, Dr. Eyre, and Sir Ford North. Treasurer — Mr. W. E. Baxter. Feb. 19th, 1908 130 PROCEEDINGS OK THE SOCIETY. Secretaries- -Mr. J. W. Gordon and Dr. R. G. Hebb. Ordinary Members of Council — Messrs. Carr, Cheshire, Disney, Karop, Pliminer, Powell, Price - Jones, Radley, Rousselet, Scales, Scourtield, and Spitta. Librarian — Mr. P. E. Radley. Curator of Instruments — Mr. C. F. Ronsselet. „ Slides— Mr. F. S. Scales. The thanks of the Society were cordially voted to Messrs. Baker for the loan of the Microscopes under which the slides of Selenite were exhibited that evening. It was announced that the Rooms of the Society would be closed from Tuesday, December 24th, to Monday, December 30th. New Fellow. — The following was balloted for and duly elected an Ordinary Fellow of the Society : — Mr. Chas. R. Scriven. The following Instruments, Objects, etc., were exhibited : — Mr. J. E. Barnard : — Luminous Bacteria. Mr. Eustace Large : — Twin Selenites, two crystals, crossed ; ditto, angled ; ditto, zig-zag, narrow ; ditto, ditto, broad ; ditto, mitred angle ; ditto, double mitre ; ditto, rhomboid ; ditto, compound rhomboid ; ditto, natural and artificial wedge ; Double-image prism on Objective ; Reflecting Table Polariscopes, under two of which were selenite designs lent by Mr. C. L. Curties. Mr. J. Inderwick Pigg : — Microphotograph, front page of ' Daily Mail.' The Society : — ■ | in. Objective, by Andrew Ross. ANNIVERSARY MEETING Held on the 15th of January, 1908, at 20 Hanover Square, W., E. J. Spitta, Esq., L.R.C.P., etc., in the Chair. The Minutes of the Meeting of the 18th of December, 1907, were read and confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman. Messrs. T. D. Aldous and F. Orfeur having been appointed to act as Scrutineers, the ballot for the election of Officers and Council for the ensuing year was proceeded with. An old Microscope, presented to the Society by Mr. Michie, per Sir Frank Crisp, was exhibited by Mr. Rousselet, who read a description of the instrument and assigned it to Jones, the successor of Adams, as the maker, who probably constructed it about 100 years ago. The thanks of the Meeting were unanimously voted to Mr. Michie PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 131 for his donation, to Sir F. Crisp for having forwarded it, and to Mr. Rousselet for his description of it. Mr. C. Beck exhibited and described a new method of showing bacteria by dark-ground illumination, being a modification of the para- bolic illuminator, used in conjunction with a Nernst lamp and mono- chromatic blue light. The new apparatus was devised by him to obviate the inconvenience caused by the oil running down the reflecting surfaces of the illuminator and allow a perfect focusing adjustment for the light. It was pointed out that when bacteria were shown on a bright ground they appeared only like black lines, whilst when seen on a dark ground they were rendered far more distinct, although their appearance varied somewhat according to what parts reflected light most brilliantly. In general the appearance seen was that of a brilliantly illuminated envelope and bright nuclei ; if there was a twist in the specimen under observation they would get nodes of light at the twists, whilst in other cases an extremely brilliant circular patch would be seen in one place. In employing this method it was important to have a perfectly clean slide only containing the creatures it was desired to examine, since every particle in the field would be strongly reflective and a mass of brilliant material in the background prevented the examination of objects in the foreground. He thought this method of illumination was well worth considering, as being much more likely to give a correct idea of what was being seen, than if the ordinary method was employed. The construction and action of the parabola was explained by means of diagrams on the board. The Chairman said there could be no question as to the difficulty of getting photographs of unstained bacteria seen in the ordinary way, and the process described by Mr. Beck certainly seemed to be worth atten- tion. The only difficulty which occurred to him in connection with the matter was that it was limited to a numerical aperture of 1, but he thought their hearty congratulations were due to Mr. Beck for what he had accomplished. Everything new was of value, for even if it was not apparent at the moment it might be in the future, when it was most convenient to find a piece of apparatus, just what you wanted, read) to hand. Mr. Beck said the angular aperture was limited by the fact that in looking at bacteria they were seen in water which had a refractive index of 1 • 38. The actual angle of the illuminator was from 1-1 to 1 • 5, but this was cut down by the water. If seen in oil the angle would, of course, be higher. The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Beck for his com- munication. Mr. J. W. Ogilvy exhibited and described a new Microscope by Leitz ; diagrams showing the mechanism of the fine-adjustment were placed upon the table. The Annual Report of the Society for 1 907 was then read by Dr. Hebb. 132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR 1907. FELLOWS. Ordinary. — During the year 1907, 15 new Fellows have been elected, and 2 reinstated, whilst 11 have died, 14 have resigned, and 6 have been removed. Among the deaths the Council regrets to notice the names of two distinguished Fellows, Dr. Czapski, of whom an obituary notice has already appeared in the Journal, and of Professor Charles Stewart, who was Secretary from 1878-82. The list of Fellows now contains the names of 395 Ordinary, 1 Corresponding, 42 Honorary, and 81 Ex-Officio Fellows, being a total of 519. FINANCE. Subscriptions have been paid with the usual regularity. To avoid a repetition of a debit balance at the end of the year. £163 19s. Id. India 3 per Cent. Stock has been sold, realising £139 14s. Hd. This is part of £1033 13s. Qd. invested during the past 7 years. It is hoped that it will not be necessary to part with more of the invested funds, but to prevent this it becomes important to maintain the roll of Members at its normal strength by electing Fellows in the place of those who cease to be such by death and resignation. JOUENAL. In the Transactions are recorded 17 important papers, of which 11 deal with optical and microscopical subjects, the remaining fi being biological. The valuable summary of current researches relating to Zoology, Botany and Microscopy has maintained its accustomed high standard of excellence, for which the Society is indebted to the continued care and energy of the editorial staff. LIBRARY. The Library is in good order ; the number of volumes has been increased by the donation and purchase of some important works. The Shelf Catalogue is in progress, and it is hoped to complete it by the end of the current year. INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. The Instruments and Apparatus in the Society's Collection continue to be in good condition. During the past year the following additions have been made : — Feb. 20, 1907.— A Powell and Lealand Microscope, No. 2, of 1885, and Accessories ; a Powell and Lealand Microscope, No. 3, of 1848, and Accessories ; a Hugh Powell Tank Microscope and Accessories ; a W. J. Salmon Microscope, with Eye-piece ; a W. Mathews Microscope, with Eye-piece ; Portion of a Goniometer, by Powell and Lealand ; Five Low- power Objectives, by S. Highley ; Miscellaneous Apparatus. All pre- sented by Mr. Peyton T. B. Beale. March 20. — A Solar Microscope, by Nairne. Presented by Mr. F. R. Tindall Lucas. May 15. — A Traviss Expanding Stop for Dark-ground Illumination Presented by Mr. H. Ausbuttel. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 133 Oct. 16. — A Warington's Universal Microscope. Presented by Mr. J. E. Ingpen. Dec. 18. — An old Object Glass, J, in., by Andrew Ross, made in 1842, and said to be the second made. Presented by Mr. J. E. Ingpen. CABINET. The slides, many of them unnamed, presented to the Society by Dr. J. W. C. (Ilaisher, have been overhauled and classified ; and great progress has been made in the examination and classification of the extensive collection of Mr. James Hilton. It is proposed to make a complete examination of the whole of the Society's Collection of Slides, and eventually to supply a classified Catalogue. TOOLS. The Society's standard sizing gauges for nose-pieces and objectives, with the plug and ring gauges, are in good condition, as are the plug and ring gauges for eye-pieces and substage fittings. There are in stock, for sale, 5 pairs of sizing gauges and 6 pairs of hand chasers. The Treasurer presented his Cash Statement and duly audited Balance Sheet for the year 1!)07. He called attention to the fact that there was a considerable falling off in the number of the Ordinary Fellows of the Society. Their high- water mark in this respect was reached in 1891, when they numbered 663, since which time they had been decreasing, until now they had rather less than 400. He hoped everyone would do his best to increase the number during the coming year. He might mention that though their finances had gone to the bad by about £18, they must consider that they had an increase of books in the library, as well as an increased stock of Journals for whatever these might be worth. Mr. J. M. Offord said they had heard the Report and the Treasurer's statement, and though they must regret to hear that their numbers were falling off, he thought they would agree that in other respects the account given was satisfactory. He had much pleasure in moving that the Report and Balance Sheet be received and adopted, and that they be printed and circulated in the usual way. Mr. Imboden having seconded the motion, it was put to the Meeting and carried unanimously. A vote of thanks to the Honorary Officers of the Society for their services during the year was proposed by Mr. D. J. Scourfield and seconded by Mi-. Ersser. The Chairman said he was quite sure he need say nothing to com- mend this vote to the Fellows present, who were all well aware of how much they owed to the labours of their officers and especially to their Honorary Secretary. Fellows were often quite unconscious of the work which every " evening " entailed, and be did not think there were many present who would not especially couple with this vote of thanks — and with considerable pleasure too — the name of Dr. Hebb, their much esteemed Secretary. The motion was then put to the Meeting and carried by acclamation. Dr. Hebb, in responding, said he was much obliged to those present 134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. •w 'O © © CN l^ O oooototoooco I— 1 o © © O © 0-, -H ■*O05«5»l^t»H'* ICO i— rH r-1 — I— 1 r— t I— I 1—1 rH . O CN ?N CI HH 05 (SMOMCMCNCOHM ifO M <*i -NMWO © *HtM co m o «y i— 1 rH w+ ITS CN VI ; ; ; C5 | CD . . CD • . *H OS ■* Ci rP '. : • i— I H . : i— 1 IO (M so CO CO c v 1-H ■* *— < . . • • • w OS • • r--' £ o - • ' ; ; 5 " ' C- p3 1—1 • t3 : ■ ', o . • CO • • * > _j_3 > > d a> an If p . °3 • a : o P cd CD . . CO : 3 : : : CJ CO "« OO^-C CJS H p. . CO oo ."2 a :-^1 ' : co a x o O «0 O o lO 02 O ■ CI '-W a ^ i— 1 co © a p O e3 J f3 P §.2 PPh ■ Q p • • ■-+J o o r^ o ,- O O CO O CN -t< -tl CO t^ rH X r. t— 1 R 2o|l :1 : d „'rH co X) P w , « 2 -3 T3 ?? •so : o « §p^^ H§ Pr-i O i^r ^,2^5 : o c go tco.^ S s ) > ) i ) ) 1 cd CtJ W . *-g 53 •*-* S. SQcg S3 P-S c ft2i 1 • p • • CD • t*- « S* O O M fl CD 3 O CD cd S r o PS o OS rH P pd »j P3 -3 W Ph W 02 Pn Ph « W 01 PC i CO . tH . . CD • r*> r. .. - r. •• s CO Ph CD : cd . h co ■° -p — p 8 h • *h CD r« 'C el XfflOOCCNOtlOOtO fiocoooao^'N ICO CO <5J 1 CD HH> PQ H « i—i ^^ i— i rH " CC Ph ' T3 tH co hn*. owtNwao •o S CD a 5 2 - § (*»•-< S co £2 PS tf O-el Sp£ i— 1 1— i i— i OMWOt C+I rH CO ^ t— i t> o 1-1 > .... -P°^ &P .2 p - ® 8 S gp g-3 •HH 03 *= >- • H « "II H Sh -P .2 ^ co g 3 "1 p2 H CO £ :o : " CD 00 £ o K V. • CD • o 2L, oo « • 8 ■ < : 1 : CO a CD 'fi ._ . CD , hJ p o CD c CO p 0 00 tj'Sh . • .2 ' nn ^ 1. .i-H CD J- c s : otfl a • • P a «» " c8 tn .2 2 2h • C CO * r^ tO O , •£ — CO H>l lO CO 1 - ao a- CP U-« 1- en S3 © © © C c » © c *-— o a ° ft i r i © a — H r-H ^ i cd a> > CD ; O O t C5 "<■< ■*" ^^ t3 p cs _5 A 111 P cS H 3 ^ «k • H » • 2 ">' j= «. t. *" -2 \j M- - >- O t3 s y. P -e o u ■ rH .fc. CO . — " — . CO 'A co ^ w 2 O £ P S < += CD 55 — .s|sa c- cdS — a — ^ fc 03bO * 5 T3 r^ ►? p b r> tP cd t3 rP P *» 03 -P _h" -*-» " •H J} E* P CU.2 § a 5 co m a CD W _P CD HH > ■s^ £ * Ha a » C CD o--3 •§'§ dS -mCQ P K p -p ^C -rH §"8 S)S CD r-J - oJ c trn CD » 5 5J rQ CD . S .2 rt p >> 03 ■& x.i CD o *i S3 "^ 0) £ CO cS 3 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 135 for their vote of sympathy and thanks, but thought he ought to ask them to include their Assistant-Secretary, Mr. Parsons, without whose help it would be quite impossible for him to carry on the work. A vote of thanks to the Auditors and Scrutineers was then proposed by Mr. Gardner and seconded by Mr. Pigg. The Chairman in putting this to the Meeting remarked that Auditors and Scrutineers were very important people and well deserving of their thanks. The work they undertook was a labour of love, and he was afraid like most labours of love was very likely to be easily forgotten, so he hoped the Fellows present would receive the motion with pronounced acclamation. The motion was unanimously carried. The Scrutineers having handed in their report as to the result of the Ballot, the Chairman declared the following gentlemen to have been duly elected as the Officers and Council of the Society for the ensuing year : — President— The Right Hon. Lord Avebury, P.C. F.R.S., etc. Vice-Presidents— Conrad Beck ; Rev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D. D.Sc. D.C.L. F.R.S. F.L.S. F.Z.S. ; J. W. H. Eyre, M.D. F.R.S. (Edin.) ; The Right Hon. Sir Ford North, P.C. F.R.S. Treasurer— Wynne E. Baxter, J.P. F.G.S. F.R.G.S. Secretaries— J. W. Gordon ; R. G. Hebb, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P. Ordinar// Members of Council — Rev. Edmund Carr, M.A. F.R.Met.S. ; Frederic J. Cheshire ; A. N. Disnev, M.A. B.Sc. ; George C. Karop, M.R.C.S, ; Henry Geo. Primmer, F.L.S. ; Thomas H. Powell ; C. Price- Jones, M.B. (Lond.) ; P. E. Radley ; Charles F. Rousselet ; F. Shil- ling-ton Scales ; David J. Scourfield ; E. J. Spitta, L.R.C.P. (Lond. M.R.C.S. (Eng.). Librarian — -Percy E. Radley. Curator of Instruments, etc. — Charles F. Rousselet. Curator of Slides — F. Shillington Scales, B.A. (Cantab). The Chairman then called attention to what might, he said, be termed a novel situation. For some years past the Meeting, instead of having two Secretaries present had never had more than one, upon whom, they all were aware, had fallen the heat and burden of the day. To-night, however, the novel situation to which he had referred would take place, for the Fellows were about to see the vacant chair once more filled, and filled he was glad to say, by one whom he believed would be a very active worker in the interests of the Society. He therefore, without further delay, would at once ask Mr. Gordon, whom the Fellows had elected to the vacant chair, to come upon the platform and take it. He hoped sincerely that Dr. Hebb would start his co-secretary to work at once, and give him plenty of it too, so that the numerous details of the secretarial office might be shared for the future in a more fitting and appropriate manner. Mr. Gordon in suitable terms expressed his thanks to the Chairman for his kind words and to the Fellows of the Society for his election. The Chairman said they were to have had a paper that evening read by Mr. AVesche, " On the Microscope as an Aid to the Study of Biology in 136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. Entomology, with particular reference to the Food of Insects." Unfor- tunately— and he knew they would all regret it — Mr. Wesche was unable to be with them, having been laid aside by severe illness. He had, however, sent in his paper that afternoon, and a number of slides in illustration of the subject to be exhibited under Microscopes in the room, whilst five lantern slides were ready for the lantern to be shown upon the screen. Dr. Hebb having read some portions of the paper which had been marked by the Author, The Chairman, in moving a vote of thanks to Mr. Wesche for this communication, again expressed his regret at the enforced absence of its Author, whose work was always so thorough that his papers were neces- sarily long and rather difficult to epitomise, so that the one before them would have to be read to be properly understood. The thanks of tin- Meeting were also voted to Dr. Hebb for reading the extracts and to Mr. Imboden for preparing the slides which had been shown on the screen, as well as to Messrs. Baker for the loan of the Microscopes under which the mounted preparations had been exhibited. Mr. J. E. Barnard's paper " On an improved type of Mercury Vapour Lamp" was deferred to a future Meeting, as the Author was unable, to be present in consequence of a severe cold. It was announced that at the Meeting of the Society on March 18 the President would give the Annual Address, entitled " On Seeds. with special Reference to British Plants." The following Instruments, Objects, etc., were exhibited : — The Society : — An old Microscope, Jones' most improved type, presented by Mr. A. S. Michie. . Messrs. R. & J. Beck : — Living Bacteria under ordinary illumina- tion ; Living Bacteria under dark-ground illumination. Mr. J. W. Ogilvy : — Five Microscopes by Messrs. E. Leitz, stands AB C D F fitted with their new fine-adjustment. Mr. W. Wesche : — The following slides under Microscopes in illus- tration of his paper. Portion of abdomen of a dragon-fly, Archibasis ? from Borneo, snowing fragments of an Anthomyid ; Portion of abdomen of earwig, Forficula auricularia, showing fragments of Aphides ; Portion of abdomen of dragon-fly, EnalJagma civilis, from Indiana, U.S.A., showing fragments of lepidopterous larva ; Abdomen of Oncodes gib- bosus, showing intestine — these insects are without mouth-parts and this food was taken while in the larval stage, and is only found in the female insect ; Portion of thorax of Rhantus ? water beetle, showing the eye of a fly, Chironomus ; Extremity of abdomen of fly, Syrphus balteatus, showing pollen granules ; Portion of abdomen of fly, Enipis livida, showing hairs and scales of gnat, C'tdex ; Portion of abdomen of fly, Norrellia spinimana, showing hairs and scales of gnat, C'ulex ; Por- tion of abdomen of bee, Apis melifica, Ligurian variety, showing pollen of several flowers ; Abdomen of fly, Nycteribia hermanii, parasitic on bats, showing blood ; Portion of abdomen of fly, Scataphila despecta, showing diatoms ; Portion of abdomen of fly, Hylemyia strigosa, showing spores of fungus. Also the following lantern slides : Broken-up Aphides in the stomach of earwig ; Remains of fly in dragon-fly, Enailagma civilis ; Remains of caterpillar in same ; ditto, ditto, another place ; Pollen in abdomen of fly, Syrphus balteatus. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. APRIL, 1908. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. V. — Francis Watkins' Microscope. By Edward M. Nelson. (Read November 20, 1907.) Mr. J. Scott Underwood has kindly sent for inspection an old Microscope signed " Fra. Watkins, Charing Cross, London." One point of interest in this instrument is its sumptuous construction ; the limb, body, foot, and all the fittings, down to the handle of its box, are of solid silver. Silver Microscopes are not unknown, I have myself seen three besides this one. Watkins appears to have been an Anglo-French- man; he published a book in French entitled " L'Exercice du Micro- scope," 12mo, London. A copy of this work is in the Society's library, and the date of the hall mark upon the Microscope is the same as that of the publication of the book, viz. 1754-5. A reference to fig. 26 shows the general construction of this Microscope. It has a folding tripod foot, from which rises a vertical pillar ; * to the top of this pillar an inclinable limb is attached by a compass joint ; this limb carries the body, the stage, and the mirror. To discover how much is original in this Micro- scope it is necessary to examine some of those which pre-date it. In the " New Universal Double " Microscope, by George Adams, in 1746 f (fig. 27), we find a folding tripod foot with a vertical pillar : the body is attached to this pillar and the mirror to the foot. For focusing the " Universal Double " Microscope the coarse -adjust- * The folding tripod foot with vertical pillar was first used by Edmund Culpeper (at ye Crossed Swords in Moore fields), as a stand for Wilson's "screw barrel " Microscope, circa 1730. t Micrographia Illustrata. Adams, 1746. Plate iii. It is stated that the Microscope is made either of brass or of silver. April 15th, 1908 L i:;x Transactions of the Society. ment is effected, as in John Marshall's Microscope, by sliding the body up or down the pillar to a line numbered with the same number as that of the power used, and for a fine- adjustment thu stage is actuated by a screw at the foot of the pillar. Adams' Microscope had a rotating wheel of six powers. * This wheel was Fig. 26. very large ; it had six spokes ; the powers were set at the end of the spokes, the upright pillar being the axis upon which this wheel rotated. Now, if we return to Watkins' Microscope, some improvements of first importance will be found, the principal one of which is the introduction of an inclinable limb to carry the body, stage, and *"The first rotatingT nosepiece was designed by Le pere Cherubin d'Orleans, capucin, (Francois Laserre), 1681. Francis Watkins' Microscope. By E. M. Nelson. 139 mirror. This is, so far as I know, the earliest example wherein this design is to be seen ; and it should be borne in mind that this design is the basis upon which the modern Microscope is built. This plan was afterwards adopted by Adams in his " Variable " Microscope,* 1771 (fig. 28), which he tells us was designed by a nobleman, who did not wish his name to be published. I was of opinion, until I had seen the Watkins Microscope, that the " Variable " of the anonymous nobleman was the prototype of the modern Microscope, but it is clear that the " Variable " is nearly a quarter of a century later than this signed and dated example of Watkins' Microscope. The coarse-adjustment focusing arrange- Pig. 27. ment of Watkins' Microscope differed from those of its day, inasmuch as the stage, which slides up and down the limb, is placed to a number similar to that of the power used (in fact, there are two sets of numbers, marked S and D : S indicating the set of numbers to be used with the simple, and D those with the " double," or compound, Microscope), whereas in earlier instruments it was the body, and not the stage, that was moved in this way. Watkins' Microscope has a neat form of spring-clamp to fix the stage in a definite position. The fine-adjustment, which in Watkins' Microscope is worked by a screw at the end of the limb, moves Micrograpkia Illustrata, ed. 4, plate ii. L 2 140 Transactions of the Society. the body, but in Adams' " Universal Double " Microscope the screw, at the bottom of the pillar, moves the stage. Watkins in this design has therefore reversed the motions of Adams' earlier Microscopes by changing a stage tine into a coarse- adjustment, and a body coarse into a fine-adjustment. The principal fault in Watkins' design is that the instrument is too much like a split-cane fishing rod. It is all on springs ; it cannot be touched without its shaking like an aspen. The folding tripod is a spring ; the compass joint on the limb is in a totally wrong position, viz. at the end where it manifestly is devoid of any Fig. 28. balance ; the difficulty, therefore, of bringing this Microscope, on account of its instability, to a correct focus can be imagined. The arm which holds the body, and which is at right angles to the limb, is a thin plate of silver, far too weak for its work. It is important thus to trace the faults of this old Microscope, for by doing so we are enabled to find out what influence the design had in Microscope construction ; for if we examine the Microscope that next followed it, viz. Adams' " Variable " (fig. 28), we shall see what points in Watkins' design were retained, and what rejected as faulty. We find, then, that the folding tripod, vertical pillar, and the inclinable limb are retained, but the limb Francis Watkins' Microscope. By E. M. Nelson. 141 has now a much stouter form of joint,* and the point of its attach- ment is in the best position for stability. The plate by which the body is attached to the limb has a strengthening bracket below it. One cannot help thinking that the noble designer of the " Variable " Microscope must have been acquainted not only with this design of Watkins', but also with its faults, which he specially corrects while following the Watkins' design in the main. Eeturning again to Watkins' Microscope, we find the wheel of powers much improved. The seven | powers are mounted between two disks of silver 1 ■ 15 in. in diameter. This form of the wheel of powers lasted until the early part of the nineteenth century, for it was afterwards adopted by Adams, Benjamin Martin,! and still retained in the " Most Improved Compound " Microscope of Jones in 1798. If a digression is allowed, it may be explained that the nobleman's " Variable " was optically of a very advanced type. The Huyghenian eye-piece had, in addition to the field-lens, a double eye-lens ; there was, besides, another lens lower down the tube, to act as a back lens for the various powers — this was probably copied from Benjamin Martin. § The " Variable " had a very im- portant novelty, for the powers were not placed in a wheel, but were mounted in separate " buttons," so that they could be com- bined, which was of course a great advance, for by this means the spherical aberration was reduced, and so a larger aperture could be used. The nobleman's " Variable " was therefore the first Micro- scope to possess an objective which was a " combination." If any one takes the trouble to examine a good specimen of an old non- achromatic Microscope, they will find that the image, field, etc., are not at all bad, so far as they go : the one drawback is lack of aperture. The spherical and chromatic aberrations were so great that the apertures of the object-glasses had to be reduced to a pin's point. The fault, therefore, with all of them is too much empty magnifica- tion. The best form ever attained in pre-achromatic days was either Wollaston's doublets (1829) or Coddington's Microscope (1830). These instruments will show the watered-silk appearance upon a strongly marked Podura scale just breaking up into small exclama- tion marks. * Joints of this form were in common use for Gregorian and other telescopes at that time. t Lindsay's Microscope, patented 1743, had seven powers mounted in two strips, four in one, and three in the other. X At the sign of Hadley's Quadrant and Visual Glasses, near Crown Court, Fleet Street. § I have made exhaustive experiments with Martin's back lens, and find that it is an advantage because it increases the N.A., and still more the Optical Index, as it lowers the power. The focal length of the lens is 5| in. See this Journal, 1898, p. 474, fig. 81. 142 Transactions of the Society. The measured foci of Watkins' seven powers* are as follows No. 7 . . 0-95 in. No. 3 . . 0-28 in. „ 6 . . 0-55 „ „ 2 . . o-ii „ „ 5 . 0-78 „ „ 1 • . 0-086 „ „ 4 . . 0-46 „ The powers with the compound body attached would, therefore, range from about 30 to 430 diameters. Nos. 5 and 6 obviously have been transposed. There are three lieberkuhns, diameters — 1 • 3 in., focus 0 ' 6 in. ; 1*1 in., focus 0 • 4 in. ; 0*8 in., focus 0 • 3 in. This is an improvement upon Lindsay's plan of a single conical speculum, which had to do duty for all the powers. Dr. Lieber- kiihn's compass Microscope, made by Cuff (1743) had a separate spherical mirror adjusted to each of its four powers, thus pre-dating Watkins'. The body of Watkins' Microscope is 6 in. long, 1^ in. diameter at its widest part, and elegantly tapered. Adams' " New Universal " (fig. 27) is probably the earliest Microscope to possess a body with this kind of taper. This taper survived a long time, for it is found in Coddington's Microscope of 1830, t and in 1843 a remnant of it is left by Hugh Powell at the bottom of the tube ; J Beck and Eoss never tapered the body, but the Lister-Tulley, made by Smith in 1826, was tapered at the bottom ; so tapered bodies lasted about 100 years. The eye-piece is Huyghenian, and a very good one ; the eye- lens is a plano-convex of 1 in. focus, and the field-lens an equi- convex of 2 in. focus, the distance between them being If in. Calculation shows that to obtain the best results the eye-lens ought to have a focal length of 0*865 in., and the distance between the lenses ought to have been 1 • 785 in., so the old eye-piece is not so far wrong after all. The fine-adjustment screw, which is placed at the bottom of the limb, has 30 threads to the inch. This position for the fine- adjustment screw is derived from Adams' " New Universal Double " (fig. 27) ; the difference between them should be noted, Adams' at the bottom of the pillar, Watkins' at the bottom of the limb. There is an old Microscope in the Society's cabinet with the * Culpeper and Scarlet's Microscope had five powers ; Wilson's screw barrel si*x powers, foci 0" 5, 0 3, 0-16,0-08, 0-05,0-02. Lieberkiihn's compass Micro- scope, made by Cuff (1743) had four powers, foci 1-0, 0-6, 0*3, 0-08. A Benjamin Martin (circa 1760) has six powers ; their measured foci are as follows : 1 • 25, 0-96, 0-46, 0-37, 0'31, 0-13. The highest power was always numbered 1. It is curious to note that the screw-thread of the " pipe " in Benjamin Martin's Microscope is almost identical with that of the Society's standard thread — it readily screws on the nose-piece of any modern Microscope ! t Coddington's Optics, pt. ii., pi. 13, fig. 190. See this Journal, 1898, p. 474, fig. 82. This is Gould's Pocket Microscope {1828), made by Cary, 181 Strand. It is very similar to Coddington's, the foci and lens distances are the same, but the lenses, for cheapness (it may be presumed), are all equi-convex. t See this Journal, 1900, p. 289, fig. 79. Francis Watkins Microscope. By E. M. Nelson. 143 same construction.* Varley's f (1831) and Pritchard's % (1838) Microscopes, made by Hugh Powell, were the last of this form. The arm is only attached to the limb by three small knitting- needles — these can be seen in fig. 26, the centre one, upon which the fine-adjustment screw-thread is cut, is the thickest, viz. 12 B.W.G., the other two, which are 17 B.W.G., act as guides. The mirror, 1| in. in diameter, is both plane and concave ; this is a very early, if not the earliest known example of a plane and concave mirror. The limb is a dovetailed prism ; this is probably the earliest instance of its use in Microscope construction. The stage is 1 ' 4 in. wide and 2 in. deep, the distance of the optic axis from the limb being 1^ in. The stage is unlike those of other makers : on its upper side it has a spring-clip for " sliders," and on the lower one to hold a tube. Attention has already been called to the well designed spring-clip to hold the stage at any place on the limb. The pillar is 4£ in. long, and it, like the stage, is of artistic form. A single Microscope in form just like this one was presented to the Society by Colonel Tupman in 1905 ; it was thought to have been made by Lindsay,§ but now it is clear that it is by Watkins. This Microscope is packed in a very handsome box (6f by 5f by 2 in.) made of oak, covered with shagreen, the hinges and clips being of silver. This ends the description of the Microscope itself, but in the same cabinet there is packed, besides the shagreen box, a solar projection apparatus, also made of silver. The projec- tion Microscope was invented by Dr. Lieberklihn, and in 1740 exhibited by him in London. The Microscope passed through the axis of a ball, which fitted in a socket in a window shutter ; the Microscope was pointed directly to the sun, the projection being effected by means of a single lens, i.e. the simple Microscope. Le pere Cherubin d'Orleans had, iu 1671, placed a telescope in the axis of a similar ball-and-socket in a window shutter for the purpose of projecting the solar disk ; this may have suggested the idea of the solar projecting Microscope to Dr. Lieberklihn. John Cuff,|| in 1743, greatly improved the solar projection Microscope by fitting a mirror to it, and by arranging matters so that the position of this mirror could be adjusted from the inside of the room, so that it was capable of rotation by cat-gut passing round a pulley, and its inclination could be varied by means of a rod. It was, in brief, a simple form of heliostat, which could be worked by hand. * See this Journal, 1903, p. 587, fig. 143. t Op. cit., 1900, p. 283, figs. 70-73. X Microscopic Illustrations, Goring and Pritchard, figs. 12, 17, 21. § At yo CM CM CO o 00 n £s rH CD o CM CM rH rH CS CD CO CO t- iO lO = 8 rH -* to o 00 o rH to 00 o CO CO to o o CO CO 00 CM 1-1 CM CM o o CO CM T-i CM CM o ■Jl 0 O o ft CO -?- 3 CC Cm po- ^ ■«» M H O W GO p^ 00 00 CS o CO CM CM to to o 00 oo 71 rH o to CO in a» OS CO CM o CS CD o rH rH . o a co rH 00 CO t- CM rH rH o rH tr- o CD tr- 00 CO rH CM fe- es CO t- o o o o o i-l o o o o a' "* OS o o CS rH CS t- CO o CM to CO rH oo o 04 a cs CM i-t ^n CO to -T CM t- CM rH CO . t- a co CO t- CS to rH CD CM rH O 00 t- CS CM CO CO to rH O o o o rH o O o o R» to o CO CO CM to CO CS CD to 00 CO o CO 1-1 to a cm rH CO rH to -* CM to to rH CS CD rH fr- . CS a -* CM CO CO rH rH CM fr- ee rH CM CD O 00 rH CO oo 00 CO rH CO CD ee CM o o o o CM o o O O A CD CO CS to CO CD CM t- i-H 00 CO 00 rH CD CD CM fe- iH a »C rH OS rH CD to t- to OS rH CM rH C7S rH es rH . CM 3 CD to 00 t- CM CO CM t- o CM CM to CM CO CO fr- o 00 t- t- CM O o O o CM o o o o a °° t- CM OS o CM CO oo o l-{ 00 rH CM CM rH o 1-H a oo rH CO CM t- CD o CC CO CM rH CO * 00 o t- rH rH CM o o CM CM rH CM rH o O CM a 03 o o M s- C CO Ph rQ ^ •*^ a 03 PS ^£ CO H -3 o 0 ■* H © II H & PC! o • CO a © iH CO >o rH P || fc r-i <1 ci W £h N O cm CO h-l I 00 CO 1 o t— i CO f— i CO w © ►J « ■"4 H 8 II 02 id on T-< r~ -H -* CM r- c CO CO uo CD CO ■* o CO (M - t- CM CM L~ lO o> rH -<* © CM o CM CO © © © o CO r~ s CM o o CO CM CO o o o o © © © SI . »o CO CO c- o 01 -r* a S t- © t- 00 00 »o a b co CM CM 00 CO © -H CM © CD UO CD Ol o CO CO © rH -* CD CM © .~ CO rH rH CO CM -* T-i o o o o O © o CO CM r— h- h- CM 00 l-l s CM o rH CO CO UO CO CM o O 00 oo CM 7-t CO rH © tH on t~- o O CO CO o rH o L— o t~ rH rH rH rH -* CO ^ U0 >o o O CD h- © © CM co U0 rH r-t tH CO CO CM o O O o o © © O o CO in t* 00 r* iH rH S a © © "0 U0 00 uo © uo CM CO © © © rH rH rH rH CM rH r~ ~ r~ CM CO 10 rH t^ rH CM CN CM rH © © CM CM O lO 00 T* O o O o o © © 1-t C72 rH o T-i O b CM 00 rH CM U0 CM lO © g g rH CD r~ © CO »o © CI rH rH CM rH 00 CO CO o CO rH CO CD or) UO m o> UO ,s 00 CM CM t- CO © © O o O o o © © <* rH o ■-- cc on T*H rS E rH uo CM t- 00 oo l> g uo CM 00 oo CM 01 OS rH CM rH CM :m © t^ l> h- t- o 8 rH CO r~ r^ t^ © r~t ,~j CO CO 00 t- rH oo rH o o o © T-< © t- - h- — o ~1 o © UO © CO £ © 00 CO © >c t- rH U0 U0 £ rH CO © t^ CO © t- © © -rH t- CM CM Cli CM rH CM co -rH © © on on © ^ t- U0 © rH rH Of) r~ t- © © t- CO ,g CM CO CO o t- -* rH "* © -* 7—t o o i-{ © T-t r-{ © © T-t T-H o fc- t— o -* CO CO c- uo rH CO CM UO U0 rH CO uo 1 -rH s © on CO o 8 00 o o en 00 rH UO CM © tf> ,s o CD CO TH c- CO -1 U0 CO CM CM O o rH © CM CM © rH CM u CO r) r*» f*» 0 Tt T3 | O o rH r* cq 'e s^. 1 a PQ % Eye-pieces for the Microscope. By E. M. Nelson. L49 In Table II., the figure over the inches column relates to the long tube, and that over the millimetre column to the short tube. Eings are to be placed over the eye-piece tubes to maintain the value of t ; the eye-pieces are therefore " parfocal." As stated previously, " parfocal " eye-pieces were, in 1839, made by Powell, who has continued to make them ever since. It was probably Cornelius Varley who suggested this idea to Powell. A correction is needed with regard to the statement in my previous paper that Varley was the first to fit a draw-tube adjust- ment between the eye-lens and the field-lens of the Huyghenian eye- piece, for subsequently, while cleaning a signed Benj. Martin Micro- scope, I discovered a similar draw-tube which clearly pre-dates Varley's design. My acknowledgments are due to Mr. W. B. Stokes for correc- tions and useful suggestions. 150 VII. — A Correction for a Spectroscope. By Edward M. Nelson. (Read December 18, 1907.) It is the common experience of everyone who has worked with a spectroscope that the image of the slit is represented by curved lines, especially when high up in the spectrum. Now curved images are due to the spherical aberration of an oblique pencil. Therefore we know by the curved image upon the plate that we are dealing with an oblique pencil ; and although rays which have been parallelized by the collimator and passed through the prism are supposed to fall upon the telescope in a direct manner, a little consideration will show that the prism has, by its refraction, never- theless rendered their incidence oblique. The correction for this «rror is obvious. The telescope objective should be mounted upon Fig. 30. a pivot so as to be capable of rotation about a vertical axis ; an indicator pointing to an arc, graduated in wave-lengths, would be convenient for setting the objective at any required position. It would be desirable and very simple to make this adjustment automatic (see fig. 30), by fixing an arm B to the pivot A, carrying the object-glass of the telescope, and by means of a spring making this arm bear upon a horizontal excentric, C, fixed to the axis of the pillar D. Then, as the telescope was rotated round the axis D of the pillar, the arm B would be moved by the excentric C, and the object-glass turned upon its pivot A. By this means, the lines in a spectrum would be rendered perfectly straight, because the incidence would be always direct, and what is more important, the lines would be made critically sharp. It is difficult to understand why spectroscopists have for so long been content with a curved image of a straight object, and fuzzy images. 151 VIII. — Or Dimorphism in the Recent Foraminifer, Alveolina boscii Defr. sp. By Fkedekick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S., Palaeontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne. (Bead February 19, 1908.) Plates II. and III. Preliminary Remarks. — The spindle-shaped tests of Alveolina boscii will be familiar to all who have examined dredgings from moderately shallow water in tropical regions. In the fossil state, species of the same genus are found in Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene limestones in various parts of the world. With regard to the occurrence of dimorphism in this genus — the phenomenon of the two stages in the life-history of the organism, in which the shell commences either with a large central chamber (form A), or a small one (form B) — our knowledge is limited to one instance, for the form B seems only to have been noticed, by Munier Chalmas, in a fossil species.* In that example the micro- spheric form was distinguished by a very small central chamber, surrounded by five simple chambers, which were not subdivided. Occurrence and Description. — The usual form of the test in Alveolina boscii, as found in our coral beach sands and shallow water dredgings, is that having a comparatively short fusiform shell with a large central chamber. It has lately been my good fortune to meet with the form B of this species in some material kindly handed to me by Messrs. Charles Hedley, F.L.S., and C. J. Gabriel, who dredged it from the Great Barrier Eeef, at Cairns Keef, near the Hope Islands, Queens- land. These dredgings consisted mainly of large foraminiferal tests beloDging to the genera Orbitolites (0. eomplanata, Lam.), Alveolina (A. boscii, Defr. sp.), Polystomella (P. craticulata, F. and M. sp.), and Polytrema (P. miniaceum, L. sp.). The Alveolinm were nearly all of the usual type (form A), but a few exceptions occurred in which the test was of extraordinary length. Since the microspheric shell is generally larger than the megalospheric, it seemed highly probable that at last we had met with examples * Schlumberger, Ch., " Sur le Biloculina depressa d'Orb., au point de vue du dimorphisme des Foraminiferes." Assoc. Franc, pour l'Avan. des Sciences, Congres de Rouen, 1883, p. 526. See also Lister, in Ray Lankester's Treatise of Zoology, pt. i. 1903, p. 111. [I am indebted to my friend, Mr. F. W. Millett, for a copy of this paper, which does not appear to be in any of the Melbourne Libraries.] 152 Transactions of the Society. of the microspheric form. Some careful preparations of these tests confirmed that opinion, and photographs of the sections are now reproduced. In form A the central chamber, or megalosphere, is ovoid or kidney-shape, and in the present example has a longer diameter of 250 //,. The succeeding chamber is nearly spherical in optical section, and is immediately followed by a series of shallow cham- bers lengthened along the principal axial line, and secondarily sub- divided into chamberlets, at first in a single row, and afterwards increasing to two or three superposed series with intermediate floors. The increasing complexity of the serial arrangement of chamberlets with the growth of the shell is seen on the apertural face of the test, which has a generally cribrate appearance. In form B the central chamber, or microsphere, has a diameter of 33 fi, succeeded by two fairly short and shallow crescentic Pig. 31. — Triloculine series of the central disk in Alveolina boscii (form B). chambers, and three larger, all of which are simple, as previously stated of Munier Chalmas' fossil example. These chambers of the central disk are arranged on the triloculine plan (see fig. 31), and not on the peneropline, as Lister * infers from Schlumberger's note on the fossil occurrence. Following upon these are the normal chambers of the test, which extend the whole length of the shell, and are subdivided into several rows of chamberlets, as in form A, and showing successional increase in the number of floors or horizontal partitions, as in the megalospheric type. In form A, however, the segments of the convolutions are compara- * Loc. supra cit. EXPLANATION OF PLATES II. and III. Fig. 1. — The two forms of Alveolina boscii Defr. sp. From the Great Barrier Reef, (Cairns Reef), Queensland, x 1^- ,, 2. — A longitudinal, median section through a megalospheric test of A. boscii. Great Barrier Reef, x 16. „ 3. — A longitudinal, median section through a microspheric test of A. boscii. Great Barrier Reef, x 16. „ 4. — Central area of the megalospheric form (A) of A boscii. x 184. ,, 5. — Central area of the microspheric form (B) of A. boscii. x 184. JOURN. R. MICR. SOC., 1908. PI. II. x U x 16 £:*•** Form A 'W«H x 16 Form B F.C. photomicr. DIMORPHISM IN ALVEOLINA BOSCH, Defr. sp. JOURN. R. M1CR. SOC, 1908. PI. III. Form A 5 Form B F.C. photomicr. DIMORPHISM IN ALVEOLINA BOSCH, Defr. sp. The megalosphere and microsphere. X 184. On Dimorphism in Alveolina boscii Defr. sp. By F. Chapman. 153 tively higher and shorter, and consequently the chamberlets are elongated in a vertical direction, or coincident with the minor axis of the test. This peculiarity of its internal structure is seen ex- ternally in the general shape, which is constant throughout the growth of the foraminifer ; as will be readily recognised from an inspection of the two photographs (Plate II. figs. 2, 3). The lengths of the tests in forms A and B, of which slightly enlarged photographs are now given, measure 7*5 mm. and 18*25 mm. respectively. Concluding Observations. — It is already well recognised that, whilst almost every type of rhizopod shell can be readily referred to the asexual stage A, the alternating sexual stage, characterised by the microsphere, is undoubtedly rare, and often extremely so. Schaudinn, Lister, and others, who have contributed so much to our knowledge of the life-history of this group, conclusively show that the megalospheric form is the stage fitted for a quiescent- conditioned reproduction of the species, and that the megalospheric form can repeatedly give rise to other asexual, megalospheric individuals. When, however, non-related individuals of the same species are introduced, the zoospores of different parentage can conjugate, and result in the production of microspheric examples. In the case of Alveolina the same rule holds good, and in a very marked degree, for individuals of the melagospheric form occur out of all ordinary proportion to the microspheric form, which, as has already been shown, is known for certain only in two solitary instances, one as a fossil, the other as a recent form ; although it is probable that in some instances the long slender tests of the microspheric shell of the living species may have been passed over unnoticed as merely abnormally elongate examples. Apropos of the last remark, it is of interest to note that W. B. Carpenter, in his " Introduction,"* says : " The length of the longest complete specimen in my possession is 0 • 35 of an inch, but I have a specimen whose shape is nearly cylindrical (the A. quoyii of d'Orbigny), which, though incomplete at one end, measures 0'50 of an inch." The A. quoyii\ referred to by Carpenter is, in all probability, another instance of form B, as may have been Carpenter's own imperfect specimen. * Introduction to the Study of the Poraminifera, 1862, p. 99. t Ann. Sci. Nat., vii. (1826) p. 307. April 15th, 1908 M 154 IX. — Gregory and Wright'* Microscope. By Edward M. Nelson. (Read December 18, 1907.) An old and rare book has just turned up which bears upon the evolution of the Microscope at an important period of its history, viz. when it was just beginning to crystallise into its present form. If you will refer to this Journal for 1899, p. 325, a description will be found of an interesting Microscope presented by Dr. Dallinger. This Microscope, not signed, was thought to be of Benjamin Martin's workmanship; now, however, it is possible to read its history more accurately. The book from which this new information is derived, pub- lished in 1786 by Messrs. Gregory and Wright, opticians, No. 148 Leadenhall Street, describes a " New Universal Microscope, which has all the uses of the Single, Compound, Opaque, and Aquatic Microscopes." The plate in the book from which fig. 32 is copied shows that this Microscope is almost identical with that in the Society's cabinet. It has the same folding tripod- foot with the compass joint at the bottom of the limb, it has the same shaped body with a coned end, and the movement of the body, backwards and forwards and also in arc, is the same, even to details of ornament. There is the same holder for either the substage condenser or for the lieberkiihn, and the same Benjamin Martin pivoted super-stage. The difference between the instru- ments is that Gregory's is a stage, and the other a body focuser. It is evident that in Gregory's Microscope we see a Benjamin Martin's latest type of instrument — in brief, a small edition, without accessories, of the magnificent instrument he made for George III., which is in the Society's cabinet. The limb, which is pivoted by a compass joint to the top of the tripod foot, is an equi- lateral prism ;* the rack is cut into the base of this prism at the back, and the pinion, which protrudes at right angles from the base of this triangle, moves up and down with the stage. If we now examine the limb of the Microscope presented by Dr. Dallinger, we shall find that it is a tube of circular section, with an inner tube actuated by rack-and-pinion, and a third, a push-tube, inside this one to hold the body. The push-tube is the coarse-adjustment, and the rack-and-pinion the fine-adjustment. It is evident, there- fore, that Dr. Dallinger' s is a later and improved form of * See this Journal, 1903, p. 589, fig. 144. Gregory and Wright1 s Microscope. By E. M. Nelson. 155 Gregory's. Now we know from the book that the date of Gregory's is 1786, and therefore we can say with certainty that Dr. Dallinger's was not made by Benjamin Martin, as he died in 1782. It is more than probable that Gregory and Wright became Benjamin Martin's successors, and were the makers of the Microscope presented by Dr. Dallinger. It is interesting to notice the name of Gregory's Microscope " Single, Compound, Opaque, and Aquatic." In early days Microscopes were termed " single " and " double," because they consisted of one or two Fig. 32. lenses, but after the " body lens " (field glass) was added by Monconys, in 1660, the word " double" became inappropriate, and it appears that " compound " was substituted for it by Dr. Smith in 1738 (Compleat System of Optics) ; in this he was followed by Benjamin Martin (Optical Essays), 1770. " Double " was last used by Wood (Master of St. John's College, Cambridge), in his Optics, 1818, but "single" lasted for nearly a century longer, until it was displaced by Wollaston's invention of the doublet in 1829, and so, in 1830, we find the word " simple " in Coddington m 2 156 Transactions of the Society. (Optics, Part II.).* " Single " is found for the last time in Potter's Optics, Part 1., 1847. " Opaque " is meant to convey the information that lieber- kuhns (invented 1738), are supplied for the illumination of opaque objects. The term "Aquatic " requires a longer explanation. In 1755 Cuff made Ellis's Aquatic Microscope, or what would now be called a dissecting stand. The lens-holder was so mounted that the lens could be moved backwards and forwards, as well as in arc, over an object upon the stage. This movement of the lens over the object, instead of the object under the lens, was at that time thought a great deal of because it was said that aquatic animals were disturbed by the movement of the stage. These movements were still in use in 1852, for they are seen in a dis- secting stand by Andw. Eoss. f All Microscopes having these movements were said to be " aquatic." Martin's super-stage, found in numerous models of that time, consists of a plate of brass with three holes in it, the centre one 1\ in., and those on either side "7 in. in diameter. There was a pivot on the lower side which fitted into a hole in the stage, permitting the plate to be moved in arc. A watch-glass for holding living animals in water was placed in the large central aperture, and a piece of plain glass in one of the side holes for holding objects suitable for examination by transmitted light ; in the other hole was fitted a piece of ivory, black upon one side and white upon the other, for holding objects which were to be illuminated by a lieberkuhn ; a white object would be placed upon the black side of the disk, and a black object upon the white side. So Martin's super-stage was an ingenious and useful adjunct to Microscopes of that date. The total height of this Microscope was 14 in., the body being 6 in. when the draw-tube was closed. These are the same dimensions of Benjamin Martin's " No. 1," which is illustrated on page 474, fig. 81, of this Journal, 1898. From Watkins' and Gregory's Microscopes was evolved, in 1798, Jones's % " Most Improved," which is, in essential particulars, the form of the modern Microscope. Jones's " Most Improved " has a foot with an upright pillar, to the top of which is hinged, by a compass joint, a limb which carries the magnifying portion, the object and the illuminating apparatus, and this is the form of every Microscope at present in use, for if we examine the most aberrant form, viz. Powell's No. 1, we find a gipsy tripod foot, which is merely a foot and pillar in one piece ; the bent claw obviously falls under the same category. * Barlow, Ency. Metrop., art. Optics. " Simple is found in the index, but the word in the text is " single." (Accompanying plate is dated 1822.) f Quekett on the Microscope, 2nd ed., p. 59, fig. 37; copied in this Journal, 1900, p. 428, fig. 109. J W. and S. Jones, 135 next Furnival's Inn, Holborn. Gregory and Wright's Microscope. By E. M. Nelson. 1 57 It has been said that the modern Microscope was evolved from Straus Durckheim's drum Microscope, made by Oberhaeuser in 1835, but between that and the hinged limb Microscope of the present day there is nothing in common, and no continuity. Before closing, allow me to correct a mis-statement in a former paper (see this Journal, 1901, p. 729), where in a description of a Powell Microscope of 1840, presented to the Society by Messrs. Watson, I stated, upon the authority of Hannover,* that Fraunhofer was the designer of the screw-stage micrometer. A similar state- ment is made in the 9th ed. Ency. Brit., art. Fraunhofer. The screw-stage micrometer and webbed eye-piece are described by Benjamin Martin in his Optical Essays (1770),f page 48, and were fitted to his large instrument in our cabinet. Fraunhofer was not born until five years after Martin's death. A correction is also needed in a paper on the rackwork coarse- adjustment (see this Journal, 1899, p. 262, Synopsis), where I stated that the Microscope " Body-focuser," one inch of rack in slot in tube (telescope form) ; example in Society's cabinet," was made by Benjamin Martin, circa 1776 ; for this, read made by Gregory and Wright, circa 1795. * English Translation, 1853, p. 67, pi. 1, fig. 12. t Martin's Optical Essays are not dated, but we learn from Adams on the Microscope, 1798, p. 21, that they were published in 1770. If.x X. — Biddulphia Mobiliensis. By Edward M. Nelson. (Read February 19, 1908.) This diatom may be popularly described as being of the well- known Isthmia type, and consequently much like a pocket cigar- case. Probably a diatomist would say that the Isthmia was a Biddulphia, but as this note is written for microscopists in general, and not for diatomists only, it will be better to describe this Biddulphia as being like an Isthmia, a common microscopical object. Upon the side of this diatom strise, which count 41,000 and 32,000 per inch (1,610 and 1,260 per mm.), can be seen with a low power, but with any lens of moderate aperture the diatom can easily be dotted. When the object is examined under the most critical condi- tions, with a very large axial solid cone of illumination, a suitable blue-green screen, and a power of not less than 2,000 diameters, the primary areolations will be found to contain a very minute secondary structure. This structure is so delicate that it is not possible to hold the image for long at a time. In general, four small dots will be perceived in each primary, and if this had been all, it would have been better not to mention the fact, because the image might merely be a diffraction phenomenon ; but the investigation was continued until some primaries which had five, and even six, secondary dots in them had been found, thus proving that this secondary structure is an entity. The diatom was sent to Mr. Merlin, who has kindly examined it, and has confirmed the observation that all the primaries do not have the same number of secondary dots. It is to be regretted that this note is not accompanied by even a rough drawing of these secondaries. The image is excessively difficult, and cannot be held long enough to draw ; the eye has repeatedly to be rested in order to get even a momentary glimpse of this tenuous structure. This is, so far as I know, the smallest primary in which any secondary structure has been seen. There can be no doubt that secondary structures which have been found to be present in so many species of diatoms are of great importance to the organism, Biddulphia Mobiliensis. By E. M. Nelson. 159 and it may be suggested that they are placed there to guard the internal plasma from bacterial attacks. The subject is of some interest to microscopy, as these secondaries have only been seen with long-tube Microscopes, and it is very probable that this resolution will never be reached by a short-tube Microscope. It has often been asked, Which is the better instrument of the two ? A decisive answer can at once be given to this question. If the instrument is required for the examination of the most minute structures, the long-tube is the better ; but if it is required for other things, such as portability or cheapness, then a short-tube may be preferable. But so long as a Microscope is employed for the highest purpose, such as the revelation of the minute unknown, then a long-tube has no rival. The ultimate appeal concerning any very minute structure must go to a long-tube Microscope. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY (PRINCIPALLY INVERTEBRATA AND CRYPTOGAMIA), MICROSCOPY, Etc.* ZOOLOGY. VERTEBRATA. a. Embryologry.t Correlation of Ovarian and Uterine Functions.} — E. S. Carrnichael and F. H. A. Marshall find that the removal of the ovaries of young animals (rodents) prevents the development of the uterus and Fallopian tubes, which remain in an infantile condition. The subsequent growth and general nutrition of the animals seem to be unaffected. The removal of the ovaries in adult rodents leads to fibrous degeneration of the uterus and Fallopian tubes (most marked in the mucous membrane). Tbe animals' subsequent health and nutrition remain good. These observa- tions for the most part support the evidence obtained clinically in the human subject after surgical operation. The removal of the uterus in a young animal has no influence in preventing the further development of the ovaries, which are capable of ovulating and forming corpora lutea after adult life has been reached. The removal of the uterus in an adult animal does not give rise to any degenerative change in the ovaries, if the vascular connections of the latter remain intact. These latter observations do not support the con- tentions of those surgeons who advocate sub-total hysterectomy, believing that the functional activity of the ovary is in some way dependent on the presence of the uterus. Early Placenta in Macacus nemestrinus.§ — W. L. H. Duckworth finds that the decidual formation in this case is that known as decidua * The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and they do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually pub- lished, and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have not been previously described in this country. f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called, but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and allied subjects. \ Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Series B, lxxix. (1907) pp. 387-94. § Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc, xiv. (1907) pp. 299-312 (8 pis.). SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES. 161 •compacta basalis, no decidua reflexa being present. The " wall " or cir- cumvallation described by Selenka in Semnopithecidse is not present. The uterine tissues immediately beneath the area of attachment of the blastocyst, and also for some distance on either side of this, are oedema- tous. Immediately beneath the blastocyst there is even an accumulation of a fibrinous exudation, by which the apparently degenerating cells of the uterine epithelium are thrust off. There is no evidence of the transformation of cells either of the uterine epithelium or of the glan- dular lining into syncytial masses. The evidence of the sections leads to the conclusion that the intervillous spaces are not lined by any deri- vatives of maternal cells, but by embryonic ectodermal cells. The epithelial lining cells of the uterine glands seem to play no permanent part in the formation of placental tissues. The embryonic tissue which has permanent relations in the placenta as ultimately constituted is identified with Voigt's Grundschicht of the villous processes (Pcytotro- phoblast of other authors). In the stage described there was no meso- derm in the embryonic villi. Formation of Red Blood Corpuscles in Placenta of G-aleopithecus.* A. A. W. Hubrecht finds clear evidence of haematopoiesis, not only in the maternal mucosa, but also in the embryonic trophoblast. He finds that the blood corpuscles thus formed circulate in the maternal blood- vessels only. Incidentally he adds evidence in favour of the view that the red blood corpuscles in mammals are not equivalent with cells, but must be regarded as nuclear derivatives. j&"- Growth of Testes in Birds and Mammals.f — R. Disselhorst calls attention to various facts which show that the growth of the testes in birds and mammals is for a long time relatively independent of that of the body generally. While other organs are showing their maximum rate of growth, the testes remain in a latent state. This condition is paralleled by that of the testes in hibernating animals, and in birds out- side of the breeding season. The author refers to a paper which he published in 189s, J in which he discussed the changes of weight in the gonads at different periods of life. Incubation in Doves.§ — Xavier Raspail notes that a turtle-dove (Turtur auritus) twice in succession left its eggs on the eighteenth day, the eggs not developing. A carrier pigeon did the same four times on the eighteenth day, the eggs not developing. He concludes that the birds become aware of the futility of brooding any longer. The turtle- dove is very sensitive, knowing when " a profane hand " has, in its absence, touched the eggs or the young, and leaving them in conse- quence ; it is surprising that it does not become sooner aware that the eggs are not developing. Amitosis in Pig-eon's Egg.|| — J. T. Patterson finds that amito.sis plays an important role in the development of the pigeon's blastoderm. * Proc. Acad. Amsterdam, Section of Sciences, ix. (1907) pp. 873-8. t Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 113-17. J Arch. wiss. Tierheilkunde, xxiv. (1898) heft 6. § Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxii. (1907) pp. 89-90. || Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908). pp. 117-25 (24 figs.). 1(32 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO A study of the regional occurrence of mitosis and amitosis reveals the fact that the former is found mainly in slowly and the latter in rapidly growing parts of the blastoderm. The idea that the cells which divide by amitosis are on the road to degeneration receives no support from the facts here recorded. Amitosis is probably the result of special physiological conditions which create a stimulus to cell-division, but what these conditions are we are unable to say. Post-embryonic Development of Ardeidse.* — S. Schaub has studied Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea and Nyctieorax griseus, with special reference to the changes in the proportions of the body during post-embryonic development, the changes in the scales of the feet, and the distribution of the feathers. He discusses the pterylography in its developmental and phyletic aspects. Emphasis is laid on the primary geometrically precise disposition of the feathers, which is interpreted in con-elation with the strains on the skin. There may have been a primitive diffuse- ness of distribution from which the geometrically orderly arrangements have evolved, but a secondary diffuseness may arise in the definite plumage. Powder-down feathers are peculiarly specialised down-feathers forming a dust whose function seems to be analogous to that of the preen gland. There is no fat about the powder : the greasy feeling is due to the mechanical nature of very flexible minute horny plates. The powder is formed by the degeneration of a cellular sheath around the barbs. But the powder-down feathers of different birds are very diverse, and are rather analogous than homologous structures. Complementary Spiracles in Anura.f — P. Wintrebert has corrobo- rated in Alytes obstetricans and Rana temporaria the observation of H. Brauss (on Bombinator) that the opening from the branchial chamber at the beginning of the metamorphosis occurs even in the absence of the anterior limbs. He does not regard this as an " ontogenetic remi- niscence," but gives an ingenious interpretation of the growth-conditions which lead to the perforation. Development of Lymph-sacs in Hind Limb of Frog.J— Gizela Goldfinger has studied this on the developing and regenerating limb, and finds that lymph-capillaries ramify, form a network, and coalesce with obliteration of their walls, so that sacs result — a confirmation of Kanvier's view. Gastrulation in Teleosteans.§ — J. Boeke maintains that in Teleos- teans (muraenoids) the process of gastrulation is ended as soon as the prostomial thickening has been formed, viz. at the beginning of the covering of the yolk. At that moment the " Anlage " of the entoderm is clearly differentiated, and the ectodermal cells begin to invaginate to form the chorda and mesodermic plates ; the concentration of the cells towards the median line begins ; the long and slender embryo is formed out of the broad and short embryonic shield. The blastula cavity, in * Zool. Jahrb., xxv. (1907) pp. 305-404 (2 pis. and 18 figs.). t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 439-41. % Bull. Acad. Sci. Cracovie, No. 4 (1907) pp. 259-76 (1 pi.). § Proc. Acad. Amsterdam, Section of Sciences, ix. (1907) pp. 800-8 (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. L63 the cases in which it is developed, has disappeared as such ; all the following processes, the longitudinal growth of the embryo, the covering of the yolk by the blastoderm ring, the closure of the yolk blastopore, belong to the notogenesis, and we are no more entitled to reckon these processes to gastrulation proper than we are to do that of the covering of the yolk by the entoderm in Sauropsids. Early Stages of Fresh-water Fishes.* — F. B. Browne gives a brief account of the early stages in the life-history of the pike, the perch, the bream, the roach, and the stickleback. Monstrosities. t — Paul Ernst discusses numerous human monstrosities in the light of experimental embryology and phylogeny. He shows in an instructive way how recent researches on the influence of abnormal conditions on ova and embryos throw light on familiar teratological phenomena in man. There is less light to be got from phylogenetic considerations, but illustrations of arrested development are common. The paper is illustrated by a grim series of plates showing monstrosities. b. Histolog-y. Structure of Cilia.J — L. W. "Williams has studied the action of cilia,, especially on Gastropoda larva, and has been led to a modification of the theory of their structure. All protoplasmic processes, cilia, flagella, pseudopodia, and Acinetarian tentacles, are of essentially the same structure, and consist of a contractile protoplasmic sheath enclosing a solid or fluid non-contractile core. Primitively the sheath is con- tractile throughout, and is not marked off structurally or functionally from the rest of the ectoplasm. Secondarily the sheath becomes differentiated into contractile and non-contractile portions. The contractile protoplasm of velar cilia and ctenophore plates is practically confined to the base of the cilium. Parker has shown that in reversible cilia, e.g. in Metridium, the contractile substance must occur in two bands on opposite sides, and that irreversible cilia have probably only one band. Ballowitz has shown that spermatozoan flagella have a fibrillar axial structure surrounded by a sheath of uneven thick- ness ; others have shown that the axial rod supports an irregular con- tractile protoplasmic sheath. The core of the pseudopodium, which is to be regarded as the simplest cilium, is fluid. In higher stages of ciliary development a solid, which is elastic in cilia and flagella and inelastic in pendulous pseudo- podia, replaces the fluid core. Development of Cartilage. § — Ed. Retterer finds that in embryonic development the first trabecular of fundamental substance are elaborated by the chromophilous protoplasm of the cellular syncytium which repre- sents the primordium of the cartilage. From their first appearance they show zones or lamellae, alternately light and dark. To begin with, the * Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc, viii. (1907) pp. 478-88 (2 pis.). t Verh. Schw. Nat. Ges., 89th Jahres. in St. Gallen, 1907, pp. 129-G9 (19 figs., mostly plates). J Amer. Nat., xli. (1907) pp. 545-61 (2 figs.). § C.K. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 3-6. 164 SUMMARY OK CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO trabecule run from cell to cell-forming an alveolar system. Later on, the cells begin to elaborate concentric layers around each cell, and the cartilage takes on the features of the adult cartilage. Neuroglia Syncytium.* — R. J. Terry finds that the neuroglia of the brain of Batrachus (opsanus) In a is a syncytium comparable in form and structure with that of human and pig embryos. Theory of Malignant Tumours.j — Emil v. Dungern and Richard AVerner discuss the influence of external stimuli on the growth and multiplication of cells, and expound the following thesis. All cells have in themselves several regulation-mechanisms which inhibit a persistent increase of the growth and multiplication. By diverse stimuli these inhibitory arrangements may be temporarily weakened or put out of gear, so that exaggerated assimilation and proliferation set in. The inhibitory arrangements may be regenerated, but it is not possible experimentally to render them permanently futile without destroying the rest of the cellular organisation. Thus it is not possible to induce experimentally an unlimited proliferation of cells, such as occurs in malignant tumours. '■to* ./Esthetic Aspect of Animals.}— Karl Mobius discusses the aesthetic value of the various forms of animal life. A pleasant aesthetic emotion at the sight of a beautiful animal has an objective and a subjective basis, both very complex. On the one hand, there are definable qualities of symmetry, proportion, balance, coloration, which please us ; on the other hand, we read into the animal the qualities of a human artist, and we praise the freedom and individuality, the unity and harmony, and fre- quently the effectiveness and significance which its beauty expresses. In estimating an animal's aesthetic value, it is very important to see it in its natural setting and to see it alive. Beauty of form pleases us more than beauty of colour — it goes deeper, it has more meaning. A large part of Mobius's beautifully illustrated book is devoted to a consideration of what might be called the canons of animal architecture. All styles are not equally pleasing, and there are reasons for this. Thus the human eye does not like to look, we are told, at animals which are un- symmetrical, whose bodies lack unity, whose parts are monotonously repeated, which lack a centre for the eye to rest on, which are so un- conventional, like crabs, as to be broader than they are long. Whether one agrees or not with the illustrious author, who has been for so long familiar with beautiful animals, and with the display of them in the museum at Berlin, one cannot but be interested in his discussion of a fascinating subject. Weight of Brain in Man and Woman. § — L. Lapicque notes that the average weights of the brains in adult Europeans are 1360 grm. for men and 1220 for women. But the average weights of the body are * Anat. Anzeig., xxxi. (1907) pp. 27-30 (2 figs.). f Das Weseti der bdsartigen Geschwiilste, erne biologische Studie. Leipzig : 1907, 159 pp. See Biol. Centralbl., xxvii. (1907) pp. 767-8. \ Astbetik der Tierwelt. By Prof. Karl Mobius. Jena : Fiscber (1908) 128 pp., (3 pis., 195 figs.). § C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 432-5. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 165 66 und 54 kilogrm. "When this is taken into account, the result is- practically equality between the sexes. Eighth Cerebral Nerve.* — C. Winkler discusses the central course of the nervus octavus, and its influence on motility. Previous researches have shown tbat the distribution of the eighth nerve is much more complicated than was surmised before, and Ewald has shown that dis- turbances of locomotion in pigeons follow the removal of the labyrinth on one side or on both sides. "Winkler finds that the course of the octavus fibres- and their distribution towards different centres in the medulla oblongata, pons, and mesencephalon is different in detail in pigeon, rabbit, dog, cat, mouse, and man, and that the functional troubles, consequent on section of the octavus in pigeon, rabbit, dog, and cat are also different in detail. The mode of the central distribu- tion of the eighth nerve does not warrant a sharp distinction between that of the N. cochlearis and that of the N. vestibularis. It is necessary to ask whether the cochlear, whose end-organ is endowed with the function of hearing, does not exert a certain influence upon the muscular system, and whether the vestibular, endowed with important significance for motor functions, does not contribute also to the function of hearing. "Winkler thinks that by the octavus-fibres, centres are innervated, whence originate long tracts towards the lateral and anterior columns of the medulla providing the motor centres with fibres, and that even primary octavus fibres, though in a slight degree, follow the same path. We cannot do more than indicate the general nature of this memoir, in which the author seeks to establish a correlation between the distribu- tion of the octavus fibres and the physiological role of the nerve. Dentition of Mammals.! — W. Leche continues his important in- vestigations on the ontogeny and phylogeny of mammalian dentitions. In the present instalment he deals with the families Centetidge, Soleno- dontidse, and Chrysochloridas, which he discusses not only as regards their teeth, but in respect to the entirety of their characters. His most general result is that the Insectivora should be classified as follows :• — I. Sub-order Centetoidea - II. Sub-order Brinacoidea III. Sub-order Soricoidea [ Family 1. Chrysochloridai. „ 2. Centetidas. „ 3. Solenodontidse. „ 4. Leptictidae. „ 5. Erinaceidas. | „ 6. Soricidas. i „ 7. Talpidae. Leche gives some interesting illustrations of convergence, e.g. between Erinacevs and Ericulus, Notoryctes and Chrysochloris ; in the special sesamoid associated with the flexor digitorum profundus in Chrysochloris, compared with Notoryctes and Necrolestes, he finds an illustration of progressive evolution ; in Chrysochloris, again, he sees an example of the preservation of a primitive type by specialisation ; Hemicentetes may be * Verb. k. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, xiv. (1907) pp. 1-202 (24 pis.). t Zoologica, xx. Heft 49 (1907) pp. 1-157 (4 pis. and 108 figs.). L66 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO described as a persistent young stage of Centetes ; in the history of the Itli deciduous premolar of Hemicentetes nigriceps, there is a good instance of " function-change," and among other interesting points emphasized is the evolution of similar forms of teeth along different paths and the I insistence of a hypobasal chorda dorsalis in the skull of /'e/itetes and Ericulus. New Acanthoglossus.*— Oldfield Thomas describes a new long- nosed Echidna (Acttntlioglossus goodfplloivi sp. n.) obtained by Walter Goodfellow in the island of Salawatti. The genus has not hitherto been recorded out of New Guinea itself, and there mainly or entirely at high altitudes, for which the thick coat of A. bruignii is admirably suited. The island of Salawatti is throughout comparatively low, and it is not surprising that the species of Acanthoglossus occurring there should have a coat much more spinous and less hairy than in any of the forms of A. brnignii. Relationships of Sparassodonta.* — W. D. Matthew discusses this interesting group of extinct mammals found in the Tertiary formations of Patagonia. They appear to have taken the place of true Carnivora in South America during most of the Tertiary period, as the carnivorous Marsupials do in the modern fauna of Australia. The Sparassodonts appear to be related to Marsupials, such as Thylacinus, rather than to Placentals, such as the Creodonts and modern Carnivora. Kidney of Elephant.} — A. Pettit describes the kidney of Elephas (Loxodon) africanus, which consists of a variable number of lobes sur- rounded by a sort of muscular sacking. In some other mammals smooth muscle-fibres have been found associated with the capsule and calices of the kidney, and even in the renal parenchyma. It is possible that the marked development in the African elephant may have to do with the evacuation of the urine from the immense organ, but there are no facts to prove this. The kidney of the elephant has,' as usual, a " pluri-reniculate " stage, but the peculiarity is that this persists, though with a tendency to a reduction of the number of lobes, in the adult. It is intermediate between the " conglobate " and " pluri-reniculate " types, and is remarkable for the system of contractile partitions. Comparative Anatomy of Tongue of Woodpecker.§ — A. Leiber pub- lishes a monograph dealing with the structure, comparative anatomy, mechanism and phylogeny of the woodpecker's tongue. He deduces the somewhat complicated anatomy of this organ from the simpler relations observed in the genera C'itta and Certhia, where the development is less extreme but in the same direction. Circulatory Mechanism in Teleosteans.|| — Wilhelmina Kolff finds that the propulsion of the blood is due not merely to the action of the heart, but to numerous subsidiary factors — the negative pericardial pres- * Ann. Nat. Hist., xx. (1907) pp. 498-9. t Geol. Mag., iv. (1907) pp. 531-5. % Arch. Zool. Exper., vii. (1907) Notes et Revue, No. 4, pp. ciii.-xi. (2 rigs.). § Zoologica, xx. Heft 51 (Stuttgart, 1907) pp. 1-79 (6 pis. and 13 figs.). |j Atti R. Accad. Lincei Roma, xxi. (1907) pp. 479-90 (5 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 167 sure, the respiratory movements, and the muscular contractions in swimming. In the eel the normal frequency of beats is greater than that of the respiratory movements, in Bar bus fluviatilis and Telestes mutkdlus it is less. Stimulation of the vagus nerve produces diastolic arrest ; cutting it results in acceleration. Warming the water results in increasing the rapidity of the cardiac rhythm up to a maximum which is not exceeded ; when the temperature is lowered, the frequency diminishes. Mutation-phenomena in Animals.* — M. Nussbaum calls attention to cases such as the differences in the optic chiasma in nearly related species of fishes. In one the right is uppermost, in another the left is uppermost ; and there are many similar instances in regard to which an apparent abruptness of change must be postulated. In other words, there is a certain discontinuity in the adult results, though these results are reached by continuous ontogenetic development. But it is hardly to details of this sort that de Vries1 concept of mutation refers. Natural History of the Lumpsucker.f — Theodore Gill gives an interesting account of the peculiarities, habits, and relationships of the lumpsucker. The skeleton is very remarkable because of the extreme reduction of the bones and the inverse development of cartilage. All the bones, however, are there, but existent in a reduced state or as thin membrane-like pieces fastened to the cartilaginous mass. The relation- ships of Cyclopterids are with the Sculping or Cottidse, which have the bones firm and well ossified, and very little persistent cartilage. A review is taken of the different genera. The lumpsucker is widely distributed in the North Atlantic, both horizontally and vertically. It frequents cold waters : it is a " bottom fish," though it may be found swimming freely ; it is rather lethargic, but very active and fierce in the breeding season ; it feeds on crustaceans, medusae, worms, and shell-less molluscs. The spawning season lasts from February to June. The male keeps a watchful guard over the eggs, not merely defending them from intruders, but aerating them by waving his pectoral fins and spouting water from his mouth, as Fulton has shown. An account of the larva? is given, and the vivid paper ends with a discussion of the lumpsucker's dubious palatability. Respiratory Mechanism in Elasmobranchs.J — A. D. Darbishire has elucidated several interesting facts in connection with the breathing in various types. In the dogfish, water is drawn into the mouth and spiracle by the expansion of the whole phargyngeal region ; water is pre- vented from entering the gill slits by their automatic closure, the gill covers being in part passive agents in determining the respiratory cur- rent. The differences between the dogfish and ray in their respiratory mechanism all relate to the flat shape and ground habitat of the ray. In the former the greater part of the inhaled water enters through the mouth, in the latter through the spiracle — solely through it when the fish is at rest. In the dogfish water never enters solely through the * Mutationserscheinuugen bei Tieren. (Bonn, 1906) 24 pp. t Smithsonian Misc. Coll., iv. (1907) pp. 175-94 (16 figs.). \ Journ. Linn. Soc, xxx. (1907) pp. 86-94 (3 figs.). 168 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO spiracle : it is occasionally ejected from it ; in the ray the current can he definitely reversed for a considerable number of respiratory acts. In Ilh inn the water is drawn into the mouth by the undulation of the gill covers, which are thus active agents in determining the respiratory current. The spiracle in Rhina is only capable of slow and imperceptible opening and closing ; it does not open and shut rhythmically as in the case of the ray and dogfish. New Deep-sea Fishes from South-west of Ireland.* — E. W. L. Holt and L. W. Byrne describe the following new species collected by the ' Helga ' — Lremonema latifrons, from 720 fathoms ; Cyttosoma JielgcB, from 540-660 fathoms ; Oneirodes megaceros, from 775-795 fathoms. Labyrinth Organ of Labyrinthici.f — G. Henninger describes the structure and position of this accessory respiratory organ in Anabas scandens, Macropodus viridi-auratus, and Trichogaster fasciatus, and relates experiments which show that atmospheric air is used by these fishes. He discusses the afferent and efferent blood-vessels and the rete mirabile in the organ, as also the fact that the heart contains " mixed blood." Freshwater Fishes of New Guinea. J — Max Weber points out that the river fishes of New Guinea belong to two groups :— (1) afluvio- marine group, which is Indo- Australian, or Indo- Pacific, and which may be met with, also, for instance, in Ambon or Celebes, and (2) a charac- teristic Australian contingent. Of the latter, 24 in number, none is known from the sea. Of the 12 species of Melanotseniidaj known from New Guinea, and of the 12 species from tropical or sub-tropical Australia, not one is common to the two regions, although the differences between some of the species are very small. The author concludes that the connection between Australia and New Guinea must have been not earlier than in the Pliocene, and the breaking up of it in the Pleistocene. Swim-bladder in Scisenidae.§ — L. Cohn describes the complications of the swim-bladder in Collichthys lucida, Otolithus argmteus, and other Scisenids. In some genera, e.g. Corvina, there are species with swim- bladders without diverticula, with simple cornua, with dichotomously forked cornua, and with dendriform outgrowths. In Otolithus gracilis the first pair of diverticula form 3 to 4 branches, and extend for- wards to the auditory capsule, with which the branches are closely connected ; the second pair grow dorsallv, and surround with their branches the under side of the first and second vertebrae ; then follow numerous outgrowths, extending downwards to right and left ; each outgrowth divides into a dorsal branch and a ventral branch, the former branching much more than the latter. *& Poison-glands of Catfishes.||— H. D. Reed describes the poison- glands of the " stone cats " and " mad toms," species of Nbturus and * Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, i. (1908) pp. 86-95 (1 pi. and 1 fig.). t Zool. Jahrb., xxv. (1907) pp. 251-304 (4 pis. and 3 figs.). % Proc. Acad. Amsterdam, Section of Sciences, ix. (1907) pp. 462-5. § Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 433-40 (4 figs.). || Amer. Nat., xli. (1907) pp. 533-66 (5 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 169 SchUbeodes found in North American streams. These catnshes have an axillary pore, which is the opening of a gland. Experiments with S. gyrinus indicate that the secretion of the gland is poisonous. In addition to the axillary glands, S. gyrinus and S. noctunrus have similar glands developed about the pectoral and dorsal spines, with ends pro- jecting slightly through a slit in the epidermis. Spine-glands are not found in those species which possess well developed seme upon the spines. The glands are invaginations of the epidermis ; the gland -sheath is modified corium ; the clavate cells of the skin become the secretory cells ; the ordinary epidermal cells form a supporting network ; there are no muscles for forcing out the secretion ; the cell-walls are evidently ruptured by the pressure of their contents, and in this way the spines are constantly anointed with the poisonous secretion. Poison Apparatus of Weever.* — J. 0. Borley describes the poison- glands of Trachinus draco and T. vipera, which are lodged in five or six rays of the dorsal fin and in a spinous outgrowth of the opercular bone. The opercular gland consists of a capsule of connective-tissue, a rich network of capillaries, and very large secretory cells in radiating columns. The secretion appears in two states : masses of finely granular material, and highly refringent colloidal substance, either two secretions or two stages of one secretion. It is highly probable that there is a perpetual waste of secretion into the sea, though this is minimised by the closeness with which the sheath fits the spine. Where the spine issues from the substance of the operculum it is still at the bottom of a tube sunk in the operculum, this tube being the sheath. This tube wrinkles down about the spine as the latter enters a victim until about one-third of the spine is uncovered. H. Muir Evans f has made some experiments on the action of the weever's poison. He refers to the previous investigations of BottardJ and Briot,§ but his own work was independent of these. An injection of the poison into gold-fish, frog, mouse, and guinea-pig, produced local paralysis. Marked haemolysis was seen in the blood of pigeons and various mammals. The poison is probably an "amboceptor," which unites with the endocomplements of the blood-cells. Food of Birds. || — Cecil H. Hooper has gathered together a number of facts in regard to the food of birds, especially of those that are important practically. A few examples may be given. The amount of insect-food eaten by sparrows is comparatively small. Bullfinches do much harm to fruit-buds, especially gooseberries. Blackbirds destroy much fruit, but are harmless or useful at other times, eating worms, grubs, etc. Starlings devour leather- jackets and wireworms, but destroy much fruit. Missel-thrushes eat many fruits, but outside the fruit season they do no harm. The song-thrush devours fruits, but also insects, snails, and worms. Greenfinches are a terrible pest among hops ; * Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc, viii. (1907) pp. 369-73 (1 fig.). t Tom. cit., pp. 355-68 (1 fig.). $ Les Poissons Venirneux, 1889. § C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, 1902-4. || Journ. Board of Agriculture, xiv. (1907) pp. 402-12. April loth, 1908 n 170 SUMMABY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO they eat newly sown and sprouting seeds, and fruit-buds : they eat very few insects, but many weeds. Chaffinches eat various kinds of larvge, green-fly, etc., but destroy fruit-buds, freshly sown and sprouting crops. Rooks destroy leather- jackets, chafer larvae, wireworms, caterpillars, slugs, young voles, but also eggs and young of fowls and partridge, certain fruits, and freshly sown seeds. The jackdaw eats cockchafer grubs, wire- worms, and leather- jackets ; like the rook, it will strip trees of walnuts, and where numerous, is destructive to peas and grain crops. It is a very destructive bird to the eggs and young of game-birds and poultry, and will completely clear the nests of small birds of their eggs and young. The wood-pigeon seems to have no redeeming feature from the farmer's point of view. Blue-tits are great insect-eaters ; they collect caterpillars from fruit trees, but they also spoil apples, pears, and other fruits. The blackcap, whitethroat, and robin are insect-eaters, but levy some toll on fruits. The wren, willow-wren, goldcrest, hedge-sparrow, tree-creeper, spotted flycatcher, pied wagtail, goatsucker, martin, swallow, swift, etc., are all useful and above reproach. The goldfinch is very useful as a weed seed-eater, as it splits the seeds before eating them. Larks seem to do considerable damage to growing crops, strawberries, peas, cabbage, and green crops. Of course the author points out that in many cases the verdict is still indecisive ; the facts require to be more numerous and precise. Particular attention is given to the black-headed gull, which eats earthworms, wireworms, leather- jackets, slugs, and much vege- table and animal matter considered " neutral " from a practical point of view. If it gets plenty of insects and worms, it does not take to fish or cereals. INVERTEBRATA. Mollusca. o- Cephalopoda. Large Cuttlefish at St. Andrews.* — W. C. M'Intosh, in his recent contribution of notes from the Gratty Marine Laboratory, records the occurrence of a large specimen of Ommastrephes sagittatus, d'Orb., stranded on the rocks near St. Andrews. The length of the mantle from the tip of the tail to the collar was 25 in., the pen measured 23 in., the eight arms had an average length of IZ\ in. ; the tentacles were unfortunately absent. A description of the suckers is given. #. Gastropoda. New Parasitic Gastropod. f — Paul Bartsch describes Eulima ptilo- crinicola sp. n. found on Ptilocrinus pinnatus, dredged by the ' Albatross ' in 1588 fathoms off British Columbia. The three specimens had the proboscis deeply inserted in the side of the body of the Crinoid, and it was necessary to sever it in order to release the shell. The parasitic habit, the texture, and weak malleations of the surface, recall certain forms of Stylifer, but the absence of the mucronate apex and the presence of the operculum make it necessary to refer the new form to Eulima. * Ann. Nat. Hist., xx. (1907) pp. 172-5 (3 figs.). t Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxxii. (1907) pp. 555-6 (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 171 Larval Stages of Cyclostoma elegans.* ■ — C. Barbieri gives an account of the larvae of this common terrestrial Prosobranch. There is a well developed velar region, without cilia, covered by a layer of vacuolated epithelial cells. There are two vitelline sacs, right and left, the latter the larger. Both are composed of vacuolated cells. The liver develops in the right vitelline sac and in the proximal portion of the left. The more differentiated part of the left vitelline sac atrophies. A considerable tract of the oesophagus consists solely of vacuolated cells. The kidney and the pericardium develop from a common rudiment, and the heart arises as an introflexion of the pericardial wall. At an early stage the pedal gland is formed, and has two distinct ducts and openings, but the proximal parts of the ducts afterwards coalesce. The supra-pedal gland is formed much later and independently of the pedal srland. There are folds on the dorsal surface of the mantle which mav be regarded as a rudimentary branchia. Orthogenesis in Gastropods.! — Amadeus W. Grabau discusses the occurrence of orthogenetic variation, i.e. progressive variation along definite and determinate lines, in various Gastropod types, such as Fulgur and Melania. The Melanias, to which he refers in most detail, form a group of highly " accelerated " Gastropods in which the spines, a specialised feature, appearing late in the phylogeny of most Gastropods, have become a dominant character, appearing before the ribs have disappeared. Many " phylogerontic " members of this group, forming terminals of genetic series, retain their ornamentation only in the young, the adults becoming smooth. In several lines extreme accentuation of certain characters at the expense of others has resulted in grotesque forms. All the characters, however, appear and disappear in a regular progressive manner both in ontogeny and in phylogeny. The Melanias therefore constitute an excellent group from which illustrations of ortho- ontogenesis and ortho-phylogenesis may be obtained. Minute Structure of Ganglion-cells of Tethys leporina.ij:— Hugo Merton describes the canalicular system within the ganglion-cells of Tethys. There is a genuine network which penetrates the entire endoplasm, and forms a meshwork around the nucleus. The close relations between the chromophilous substance and the network point to a reciprocal interaction between the two, which is probably of import- ance in the metabolism of the ganglion-cell. Gastropods of the Magellan Province^ — H. Strebel completes his survey which includes 236 species and varieties, of which 209 are marine. In the present instalment he deals with Acmcea, Fissurella, Patinella, Siphonaria, Stephanoda, etc. The characteristic species are Trophon geversianus, laciniatus and decolor, Voluta ancilla, Photinula violacea, Patinella mar/ellanica, Nacella cymbularia, Fissurella alba, Euthria plumbea and magellanica. * Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 257-84 (21 figs.). + Amer. Naturalist, xli. (1907) pp. 607-46 (3 pis.). % Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxviii. (1907) pp. 327-57 (2 pis.). § Zool. Jahrb., xxv. (1907) pp. 79-196 (8 pis. and 6 figs.). S 2 172 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO New Australian Chiton.* — R. A. Bastow and J. H. Gatliff describe Enoplockiton torri sp. n. from the coast of Queensland. If the reference to Enoplockiton is correct the species is very interesting geographically, for the other species of the rare genus, E. niger Barnes, occurs oe the coast of Peru. " The head-valve is studded with numerous bright, clear, amber eyes, not ocelli, but real and very human-looking eyes ; these also occur on the lateral areas and on the posterior valve. . . . The girdle, with its radially striated scales, is ■ unmistakably well secured to the very numerous and deeply-cleft teeth in the insertion plates. . . . The whole of the dorsal sculpture is granulate." Arthropoda. a. Insecta. Senses of Ants.f — 0. C. Silverlock has made a number of interesting -experiments on the reactions of ants to heat and light. He shows that some ants at least feel a rise in temperature of not more than -3° C. He confirms Lord Avebury's conclusion that the ultra-violet rays affect the ants as true light rays. The ants change their position by reason of their dislike to the colour of the ultra-violet rays, and also by reason of the smaller amount of heat transmitted through the violet end of the spectrum. Nests of Wanderer Ants.| — E. Wasmann has been able to obtain some information from E. Luja in the Congo regarding the hitherto unknown nest of Dorylus (Anommd) wilverthi. It was found at the foot of a tree in the forest ; it included in its upper portions numerous myr- mecophilous beetles quite different from those which accompany the armies on the march ; the latter were found in the deeper parts of the nest. A number of interesting details are given, and the author refers to some other records of the nests of wanderer ants. Clasping Organs on Wings of Hymenoptera.§ — L. Walter gives a thorough description of the interlocking of the fore and hind wings in ants, bees, wasps, and other Hymenoptera. The hind wing bears clasping hooks (distal and sub-basal) and marginal bristles. The hooks are in- serted into a groove formed by a recurving and folding in of the posterior margin of the fore-wing. But the details of the arrangement are in- tricate. The development has been worked out, and the precise function in flight is analysed. Salivary Glands of Hemiptera.|| — E. Bugnion describes the principal and the accessory salivary glands of Pentatoma grisea, Graphosoma linea- tum, Syrbmastes marginatus and Pyrrhocoris apterus, besides giving an account of the salivary pump and the excretory ducts. Insects Injurious to Books. — P. S. de Magalhaeslf makes some notes on a species of Lepisma, a small beetle somewhat like Anobium biblio- * Proc. R. Soc. Victoria, xx. (1907) pp. 27-30 (2 pis.). t Nature Notes, xviii. (1907) pp. 165-9. % Atti Pontif. Acad. Rom., lx. (1907) pp. 224-9. § Smithsonian Misc. Coll., iv. (1907) pp. 65-87 (4 pis.). I| Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., xxiv. (1907) pp. 639-42. <|f Bull. Zool. Soc. France, xxxii. (1907) pp. 95-100. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 173 tkecarmn, and a small species of Tinea. The small beetle is described as Dorcatoma bibliophagum. It sometimes bores through a row of several volumes. Carbon sulphide is the best remedy, but as the fumes injure the colour of the books and are not without danger, F. Secques * suggests placing the infected books for two or three days in an air-tight receptacle, containing vapour of formol at a temperature of 50° or 60°. To remove the insects from inaccessible nooks in the library, small vessels with formol may be placed in the vicinity, or even powder of trioxymethylene. It is noted, however, that the vapour does not kill the cocoons. . Scale Insects of Date Palm.f — T. D. A. Cockerell describes Parla- toria bhinchardi, found on date-palms transported from Africa to Arizona. The female is dormant through the winter ; the male seems to be very short-lived, dying after impregnating the female. The larvae, which crawl about restlessly for some time, are probably carried from tree to tree by insects and birds. Attention is also directed to the marlatt scale (Phmucococcus marlatti), discovered many years ago by C. L. Marlatt on date-palms imported from Algeria. E. H. Forbes J discusses methods of exterminating these date-palm scales, recommending especially good pruning and firing infected trees with gasoline. Pests of the 01ive.§ — F. Silvestri continues his account of the inju- rious insects which infest the olive. He deals in detail with the important Prays oleellus, one of the Hyponoineutidae, and more briefly with numerous other pests. Mating of Rivellia boscii.|| — W. H. Piersol describes the curious mating habit of this fly, which he studied near Toronto. The female runs about on the leaves in small circles or spirals, varied by an occa- sional straight course. The wings are moved slowly up and down, with occasional pauses for a second or two. The much smaller male follows closely, and when the pace admits touches the female on the abdomen with his proboscis, or with an anterior leg. Sooner or later he mounts, the penis is extended and taps the abdomen of the female two or three times, when the latter also becomes extended (automatically, for it happens even when the male's attentions are not acceptable), and copu- lation begins. The wings keep in constant motion, great excitement is exhibited, and a droplet of colourless fluid from the male's proboscis is transferred to the female, who eats it. This transference of a globule is repeated many times before the pair separate. There are many curious details in this connection. There is some evidence of choice on the female's part. The author refers to the passage of some secretion from the mouth of the male pigeon to his mate as a possibly analogous case. Blood-sucking Flies.1T — Mario Bezzi takes a survey of the species in the genera Stomoxys, Glossina, Glossinella, Siphona (Hcematobia) ami Lyperosia, and describes a few new forms. * Bull. Zool. Soc. France, xxxii. (1907) pp. 100-1. t Bull. Agric. Exper. Station Univ. Arizona, No. 5G (1907) pp. 185-92 (5 pis. ). X Tom, cit., pp. 193-207 (5 figs.). § Boll. Lab. Zool. Scuola Agric. Portici, ii. (1907) pp. 83-184 (68 figs.). |] Amer. Nat., xli. (1907) pp. 465-7. If Rend. R. 1st. Lombardo, xl. (1907) pp. 433-60. 174 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Structure and Behaviour of Larva of Anopheles maculipennis.* A. 1). I nuns gives a preliminary account of the larvae of this mosquito, collected in the neighbourhood of Cambridge. The various systems in the body are described. The large oenocytes are segmentally arranged in clusters ; the small oenocytes, which are very numerous, have no definite arrangement. The imaginal buds are well developed and easy to discover. They are superficial in position, being situated just below the hypodermis, and the primitive invaginations of the buds remain permanently open. In another paper f he describes the external features, digestive and respiratory systems. Perhaps the most interesting structure in the digestive system is the peritrophic membrane, a thin, probably chitinous tube which completely incloses the food as it passes through the mesen- teron. It appears to protect the mesenteric epithelium from abrasion by hard and resisting particles of food. Like other chitinous mid-gut linings, it is shed at ecdysis. On the respiratory system certain tracheal branches are described which are very thin-walled, and which by envelop- ing the terminal chamber of the heart probably enable the blood to come into close contact with their contained oxygen, and in this way form a kind of " lung." Tracheal anal gills are also present, which are well supplied with blood, and probably function as accessory respiratory organs. Shell-bearing Mycetophila Larva.J — Nils Holmgren describes the anatomy of the larva of Mycetophila ancyUformans sp. n. which carries a black shell, and which was at first mistaken for an Ancylus. It occurs on the leaves of a species of Barnbus in the primeval forests of Bolivia and Peru. A diagnostic description of the imago is also given. Relation of Fleas to Plague Dissemination. § — Carlo Tiraboschi gives a very full discussion of this subject, bringing together all the known facts regarding the role of rats and mice, their distribution, and the morphology of their fleas. The paper also contains a systematic account of the families Pulicidse and Sarcopsyllidge, together with notes on the Pediculi and Acarid parasites of the rat. Rats and mice play an important part in disseminating plague ; it is quite established that fleas are disseminated from rat to rat, from rat to man, and from man to man. The fleas concerned in plague dissemination are Pulex cheopis Roth., Ceratophyllus fasciatus Bosc, Ctenopsylla musculi Duges, Ctenocephalus felis Bouche, and Ctenocephalus canis Curtis ; the most probable species in transference from rat to man are P. cheopis, P. irritans, Ctenocephalus felis, C. canis, and, perhaps, Ceratophyllus fasciata, but chiefly P. cheopis. This last-named species is widely dis- tributed on rats in the plague-infested regions of India and Australia. The facility with which it is transported naturally by man in the absence of rats renders it very important. Neither the Sarcopsyllidaa, lice, nor Acarids are of significance in this connection, and bugs ordinarily do not play an important role in the dissemination of plague. * Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc, xiv. (1907) pp. 292-5. t Journ. Hygiene, vii. (1907) pp. 291-318 (2 pis. and 1 fig.). t Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxixviii. (1907) pp. 1-77 (5 pis. and 2 figs.). § Arch, de Parasitol., xi. (1907) pp. 545-620 (15 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 175 Dimorphism in Australian Agrionidae.* — R. J. Tillyard records •dimorphism of the females in two Australian genera. These two con- tain the smallest and weakest species of the dragon-flies known in Australia, a point which the author regards as strengthening the contention that the existence of dimorphic females is in some manner or other connected with the preservation of the species. The forms exhibiting dimorphism are Ischnura delicata Selys 9 and Ar/riocnemis splendida Martin ? . The two genera referred to, though differing widely in their wing-structure, have many points of similarity. New Order of Apterygota.f — F. Silvestri describes Acermtomon g.n., represented by A. doderoi sp. n. It was found in humus at Genoa and other localities in Italy. Antennae and cerci are absent ; the oral apparatus is suctorial ; there are eleveu abdominal segments and a very primitive anal segment ; the genital aperture is unpaired on the eleventh urosternite ; there is a supra-anal and a sub-anal lamina ; there are no eyes, but there are two ocelli (?). It is the most primitive insect as yet discovered, and requires a special order — Protura. 5. Arachnida. Maturation and Fertilisation in Theridium.J — T. H. Montgomery, jun., has studied the eggs of a common spider, Theridium tepidariorum, and describes the ovarian ova, the stage of the first maturation spindle, the stage of the second polar spindle, the pronuclei and cleavage nuclei, and the frequent occurrence of polyspermy. Studies on Mites.§ — Nathan Banks has made a catalogue, with bibliographical references, of the mites of the United States, which will be of great service to those working at this group. A preliminary list by Osborn and Underwood, published in 1886, included 99 species in 28 genera. The present list gives 450 species in 133 genera, " yet this is probably less than a third of the entire Acarid fauna of the United States." It may be noted that a synopsis of genera || was published in 1904. Hydrachnids. — C. Maglio ^f gives a list, revised and criticised, of Italian Hydrachnids. He has made a number of new records, and the total number of species amounts to 86. W. Williamson** records 18 species (in 12 genera) from Scottish Lakes ; Lebertia porosa Sig Thor, and Oxus ovalis Muller are additions to the two previous lists for Scotland, and Huitfeldtia rectipes Sig Thor is a new British record, the genus having been hitherto recorded from Norway only. New Species of Eurypterus.ft — Henry Woodward describes, from the Coal-measures to the north-west of Ilkeston, Ewrypterus moyseyi sp. n. and E. derbiensis sp. n. * Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1907, pt. 2, pp. 382-90. t Boll. Labor. Zool. Scuola Agric. Portici, i. (1907) pp. 296-311 (18 figs.). J Zool. Jahrb., xxv. (1907) pp. 237-50 (2 pis.). § Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus , xxxii. (1907) pp. 595-625. || Op. cit., xxviii. (1904) pp. 1-114. i Rend. R. 1st. Lombardo, xl. (1907) pp. 953-74. ** Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh, xxvii. (1907) pp. 302-7 (7 figs.). -tt Geol. Mag., iv. (1907) pp. 277-82 (1 pi.). 176 SUMMARY Off CURRKNT RESEARCHES RELATING TO «• Crustacea. Primitive Malacostracan.* — 0. A . Sayce describes Koonunga cursor g. et sp. n., a remarkable Crustacean from fresb-water reedy pools near Melbourne. He regards it as the most primitive sessile-eyed Malacos- tracan hitherto known. Its nearest ally is the stalk-eyed Anaspiih* tasmanue G. M. Thomson, which it resembles in general appearance, but it requires the definition of a new family (Koonungidae). The thorax has its anterior segment fused with the head, leaving seven distinct subequal segments. The eyes are sessile, there is no antennarv scale, the mandibles have a single dentate cutting-edge and molar ex- pansion without any " spine-row " or its equivalent. The maxillipeds are like those of Anaspis, but without any trace of gnatho-basic lobes. The branchiae and the swimming branches of the legs are like those of Anaspida?. The last pair of legs is flexed in the opposite direction to the preceding ones. The pleopods are uniramous, except the first two pairs in the male. As is well known, Anaspides differs from other Schizopods in having no vestige of a carapace, and in having eight distinct thoracic somites. This new form differs markedly in having sessile eyes, in having no antennary scale, and in the coalescence of the first thoracic segment with the head. The loss of stalked eyes, carapace, and scale-like exo- podite on the antenna, marks Koonungia as the most primitive sessile- eyed Malacostracan at present known, and it is no doubt a very ancient type. It is remarkably active — running, swimming, and springing forcibly forwards. It shuns strong light. Brachyura and Anomura from the North Pacific. f — William Stimpson, who died in 1872, made an important report on the crabs and hermit-crabs collected by the North Pacific Exploration, 1853-6. This report was at first supposed to have been destroyed by a fire in 1871, in which much valuable material was lost, but it was afterwards found at the Navy Department, and has lain for many years unpublished at the Smithsonian Institution. It is now published as an historical document, under the able editorship of M. J. Rath bun, who has given the current or accepted names where these differ from Stimpson's. The illustrations are from pencil drawings, made, it is supposed, by Stimpson himself. Pyocephalus cooperi.J — Henry Woodward discusses this primitive Schizopod crustacean from the Coal-measures, devoting particular atten- tion to the marsupial plates of the adult female. There are six or seven broad, scale-like, imbricated plates or oostegites forming the marsupium in which the eggs and the immature young were carried. Male of Dexamine thea.§ — Alexander Patience describes this form, which has hitherto escaped observation. The reason is probably due * Victorian Naturalist, xxiv. (1907) pp. 117-20. t Smithsonian Misc. Coll., xlix. (1907) 240 pp. (26 pis.). % Geol. Mag., iv. (1907) pp. 400-7 (1 pi. and 2 figs.). § Ann. Nat. Hist., series 8, i. (1908) pp. 117-22 (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1 i i to the fact that the male being apparently always smaller than the female might be passed over as a younger specimen, and to the fact that the distinctive first gnathopod (with a somewhat deep sinus on the upper margin) seems to be habitually tucked away among the mouth- organs when it is not in use. The author gives a synoptic table for the discrimination of Tritceta gibbosa, Dexamine then, and D. spinosa, and notes that the first two are widely distributed in the Clyde sea-area in depths up to 35 fathoms. It is also shown that D. dolichonyx is the male of Tritwta gibbosa. Reduction of the Eye in New G-ammarid from Ireland.* — Fr. Yejdovsky describes Bathyonyx de Vimesi g. et sp. n., discovered by W. F. de Vismes Kane, from 130-150 ft. deep, in Lough Mask. It is intermediate between Grangonyx and Gammarus, and is peculiarly in- teresting in showing what may be regarded as the first stage in the degeneration of the eye. Crustacea of East Norfolk Rivers.f — R. Gurney gives an interest- ing account of the Crustaceans in the tidal regions of these rivers, and shows that a number of marine forms have become habituated to a considerable proportion of fresh-water. The brackish-water species, Heterotanais gurneyi Norman, was found in abundance in fresh-water. Good figures are given of Gyathura carinata Kroyer, a new record for Britain. Notes on Development of Argulidse.ij: — C. B. Wilson gives for the first time an account of the newly-hatched larvse of two of the common American Avgulids, Argulus ftmduli, a salt-water form, and A. maculosus, a fresh-water form. He also gives a description and figure of the male of A . catostomi. In each case the form described is the only one needed to complete a full account of the species. Nephrocytes of CaprellidsJ— L. Bruntz describes in Protella pkasma three pairs of cephalic and six pairs of thoracic nephrocytes. There are also nephro-phagocytes all along the thorax and above the heart. They eliminate carminate of ammonia when that is injected into the general cavity of the body, and they are able to capture particles of Chinese ink. These cells and the blood-corpuscles are the only phagocytic elements in Caprellids. There is no phagocytic organ analogous to that in Gammarids. Antarctic Cirripedia.|| — A. Gruvel makes a preliminary report on the operculate Cirripeds collected by the ' Gauss.' He notes Pachylasma giganteum, from near the Cape of Good Hope, hitherto recorded only from the Mediterranean, various species of Balanus, TubicincV a tracheal is, Tetraclita porosa, and a single new species, EJminius crista} linns, so named because of the transparent walls and opercular pieces. * Ann. Nat. Hist., xx. (1907) pp. 227-45 (2 pis.). t Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat Soo., viii. (1907) pp. 410-38 (1 pi. and 1 fig.).. J Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, xxxii. (1907) pp. 411-24 (4 pis.). § Arch. Zool. Exper., vi. (1907) Notes et Revue, No. 3, pp. lvi.-ix. || Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxii. (1907) pp. 104-6. 178 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Boring Cirripedia.* — W. Berndt proposes a revised classification of the Acrothoracica, or boring Cirripedia. The sub-order Pygophora in- cludes the family Cryptophialidae (Cryptophialus) and the family Koch- lorinidse (Kochlorine, Lithoglyptus, and Weltneria). The sub-order Apygophora includes the family Alcippidas (Alcippe). Barnacles of the United States National Museum, f — Henry A. Pilsbry gives an account of the pedunculate Cirripedes and the sessile family Verrucidae in the United States National Museum. He deals with the following- genera : — Mitella, Lithotrya, Scalpellum, Oxynaspis, Dpus, Pacilasma, Megalasma, Octolasmis, Gonchoderma, Heteralepas, Alepas, and Verruca. The Pedunculata from North American coasts number 56 species, and the Verrucidse 5 species. The pelagic forms, with one exception, are widely distributed forms, already known from many Atlantic and Pacific localities. One pelagic species, Alepas pacifica, is an interesting form commensal on large medusa?. The deep- water forms, both of Lepadida? and Verrucidse, support the opinion advanced by Hoek, Annandale, and others, that deep-sea Cirripedes have ■a very wide distribution. Notes on Cirripedes. — Henry A. Pilsbry % describes some new Japanese and North-Western Pacific Cirripedes — Scalpellum g 'onion otum, S. weltnerianum, and Balanus orcutti. In another paper, Pilsbry § discusses the genus Megalasma, which is distinguished from Paicilasma by the structure of the carina, which has wide sides near the base, and a well-developed oblique plate or septum within the base, bridging across the cavity of the carina, and terminating above in two projections or teeth. The species of Pacilasma occur chiefly on the carapaces of crabs, while Megalasma has been found mainly on sea-urchin spines and on other Cirripedes. A key to the various species is given. North American Species of Diaptomus. || — C. Dwight Mason has made a useful revision of the North American species of this cosmopolitan genus, which is so prominently represented in fresh-water plankton. All the North American species (34) are peculiar to the country, and some have a relatively restricted habitat. Isolation has probably had an important role in the evolution of the species, and it seems likely that Diaptomus is very susceptible to environmental stimuli. Peculiar bizarre characters are more apt to appear in species living in shallow waters, and with a narrow range of habitat. There is a marked distinction between deep-water and shallow-water species. There is no reason to think that, under ordinary circumstances, the species are distributed in any way except by water carriage. Various groups of species — oreyonensis, teni/icaudatus, leptopus, signicauda, and albuqi'er- quensis — are distinguished, and a systematic description is given of all the species. * Arch. Natur., lxxiii. (1907) pp. 287-9. t U.S. Nat. Museum, Bull. No. 60 (1907) x. and 122 pp. 11 pis. and 36 figs.). J Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1907, pp. 360-2. § Tom. cit., pp. 408-16 (1 pi. and 7 figs.). || Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., xv. (1907) pp. 381-516 (14 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY. ETC. 179 Annulata. Notes on Polychaets.* — W. C. M'Intosh describes GenetylUs citrina, a new Phylloclocid, which approaches G. lutea Malmgren. The setigerous region is supported by a black spine and carries shorter bristles with shorter terminal processes than in G. lutea. The author also discusses in some detail the reproduction of Nereis diversicolor, and finds that, so far as observed at St. Andrews, there is no foundation for the statement that the Scotch representatives are hermaphrodite, and still less that they are viviparous, as mentioned by Max Schultze, by the " Cambridge Natural History," and by Gravier. Nervous System of Saccocirrus papillocercus.f — W. D. Lepeschkin finds that each metamere has two pairs of ganglia, with a cross-shaped commissure between each pair ; that each metamere has six pairs of nerves, of which i. ii. and iv. are motor, while iii. v. and vi. are sensory ; that the 6th nerve has associated with it a strongly refractive body, probably a sense-organ ; that the lateral sense-organs in each segment are well developed ; that there is a setose glandular sensory region along the back ; and that the ventral cord includes colossal nerve-fibres and giant ganglion -cells. The complexity of the nervous system is against the view that Saccocirrus is a primitive type. Regeneration in Podarke obscura.J — Sergius Morguli notes that when this Polychast regrows a posterior half, the regrown part is for a time transparent and without chitinous cuticle. Gradually the old tissue has its chitinous layer thinned off, and the new part becomes chitinised. Finally, the old and new parts are covered by a continuous layer of uniform thickness. The author finds in this " a case of trans- mission of materials from all parts of the old tissue to provide for the building up of the new tissue," but his facts are not convincing. He concludes that it is the organism as a whole, and not the exposed cut surface, that is concerned with the regeneration of the lost tissue. By interesting experiments in Lumbriculus, the author § has con- vinced himself that little worms grown from parts which have a high regenerative capacity have a similar capacity. The ratio between the rates of posterior regeneration in the mother-pieces is very nearly like that between the rates of regeneration in their regenerated offspring. " The property of regeneration passes over to the new tissue, together with the protoplasmic material it is built of." Respiration in Earthworms. || — M. Konopacki has made an elabo- rate physiological study of the respiratory processes in various species of Lumbrkus, in normal and in peculiar conditions. The intensity of the respiration differs in different species ; it is directly proportional to the temperature. Earthworms can live for 6 to 30 hours without * Ann. Nat. Hist., xx. (1907) pp. 175-85 (1 pi.). t MT. Ges. Freund. Naturw. Moskau, xcviii. (1907). Tagebucb Zool. Abtb... iii. pp. 1-9 (2 pis.). See also Zool. Zentralbl., xiv. (1907) p. 435. %• Obio Nat., viii. (1907) pp. 217-19. § Tom. cit., pp. 219-21. || Bull. Acad. Sci. Cracovie, No. 5 (1907) pp. 357-431 (15 figs.). 180 SUMMARY OF CUKRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO oxygen, but go on excreting carbon dioxide during that time almost at the normal rate. The intramolecular respiration is very important, and there is evidence of enzymatic processes in the respiration, and of a certain regulative power in abnormal conditions. But most of the results are of a technical physiological character, and not readily summarised here. Nematohelminthes. Toxins Secreted by Parasites.* — M. Weinberg has already main- tained that the species of Sclerostomum infesting the horse secretes toxic substances which dissolve the red-blood corpuscles, hinder coagulation, and produce a precipitate in the serum. He seeks to extend this to cesophagostomiasis," of which he has studied thirty cases in monkeys, and to ankylostomiasis. Platyhelminthes. Notes on Cestodes. — Edwin Linton f describes Calyptrobothrium minus sp. n., from the Torpedo. The bothria are in pairs, prominent,, very flexible in life, with the relatively large suckers characteristic of the genus. The general plan of a mature segment is like that of C. occidentale. Figures are given of two free segments in coitu, and of the everted cirrus with spermatozoa issuing from the apex. It is noted that free segments are capable of making progressive movements^ during which the anterior end is elongated so as to resemble the neck of certain distomes. The resemblance is heightened by the almost con- stant presence of a rounded knob at the anterior end. The surface of the joint is slightly roughened by very minute serrations which project posteriorly, so that the spasmodic contractions, aided by a kind of flowing peristalsis, constantly propel the segment forward. M. Kowalewski % briefly discusses two avian Cestodes, Aploparaxis penetrans Clerc, from the intestine of Limnocryptes gallinula, and Hyme- nolepis compressa Linton. Pearl-forming Flukes. § — Alfred Giard discusses Gymnophalh/s somaterm Levinseu, the young form of which he has found in Donax and Tellinaceas at Boulogne, the adult probably occurring in Oedemia or some other sea-bird. He also deals with G. bursicola from mussels and Saxicava rugosa, the adult form of which occurs in the eider-duck. Trematodes from British Birds.|| — W. Nicoll describes a large number of forms — Spelotrema excellem sp. n., from the herring-gull ; S.feriatum sp. n., from Pel idna alpina, Totanus calidris and JEgialites hiaticula : Tocotrema jejunum sp. n., from Totanus calidris ; Gymno- phallus dapsilis sp. n., from Oedemia fusca and 0. nigra, Maritrema gratiosum, and two other new species of this new genus. * Ann. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 25-7. t Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, xxxii. (1907) pp. 275-84 (7 figs.). % Bull. Acad. Sci. Cracovie, No. 7 (1907) pp. 774-6 (1 pi.). § C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 416-20. || Ann. Nat. Hist., xx. (1907) pp. 245-71. /OOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY. ETC. 18 1 Structure of Haplodiscus.* — W. Salensky describes certain parts of this interesting and very primitive representative of the Turbellaria Acoela. The subject of his study was H. ussoivii from Messina and Naples. The parenchyma is discussed in detail. The central paren- chyma consists of two epithelial layers, a dorsal and a ventral, which meet in the horizontal plasma ; these two layers correspond to the dorsal and ventral walls of the alimentary canal of other Turbellaria ; the oral or digestive parenchyma is a part of the central parenchyma and presumably of endodermic origin. The frontal organ is an aggre- gate of skin-glands opening at the anterior tip of the body ; the secretion is probably offensive and defensive. Delage's suggestion that the organ is sensory is not, however, dismissed, for a strong nerve passes to the organ from the brain. The post-cerebral cell-mass is very like an aggregate of ovarian cells, but it seems to have no connection with the gonads, and is probably glandular. The vas deferens and the seminal vesicle are described. Incertae Sedis. New Species of Myzostoma.t — J. F. McClendon describes three new species — M. cubanum, M. evermanni, and M. cerriferoideum, found on Crinoids and Ophiuroids in the Smithsonian Institution. Previously J he gave an account of those collected on the ' Albatross ' expedition to Japan. Notes on some British Polyzoa.§ — A. M. Norman discusses Micro- pora impressa (Moll.) from Guernsey, Terebripora ditrupm sp. n. from the calcareous shell of the Annelid genus Ditrupa from Shetland, Schizo- porella alderi (Busk) which show considerable variation in its mode of growth, Eschariaa dutertrei (Audouin), Phylactella pygmc&a (Norman) from Shetland, of which a figure is given for the first time, and Gellepora surcularis (Packard). Genus Aucella.|| — A. P. Pavlow gives a monographic account of this Brachiopod genus, discussing the relationship and distribution of the numerous species, and taking account of Aucellina and other related types. Rotifera. New Rotifera.^f — C. F. Rousselet gives a description and figures of Brachiotius sericus, a new species characterised by the structure of the lorica, which is covered all over with fine longitudinal wavy lines giving the appearance of watered silk, and also by a posterior overhanging, more or less pointed, projection of the carapace. The author further describes Brachiomis quadratus var. rotundas, a new variety, and gives accurate figures of Brachiomis rubens Ehrenbg., which appears to have been wrongly figured and described in Hudson and Gosse's monograph. * Bull. Acad. Soi. St. Petersbourg, No. 18 (1907) pp. 819-42 (8 figs.). + Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, xxxii. (1907) pp. 63-5 (2 figs.). % Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xxiii. (1906) pp. 119-30 (3 pis.). § Ann. Nat. Hist., xx. (1907) pp. 207-12 (1 pi. and 1 fig.). || Nouv. Mem. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, xvii. (1907) pp. 1-84 (6 pis.). ^ Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, (1907) pp. 147-54 (2 pis.). 182 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Echinoderma. New Echinoid from Indian Ocean.* — A. R. S. Anderson describes Breynia vredmburgi sp. n. from the Andamans. It agrees in some respects very closely with B. carinata and B. multituberculata from the Indian Oligocene. It is distinguishable in many respects from B. aus- tralasue, and is remarkable for the large number of ambulacra! plates traversed by the sub-anal fasciole, which includes no less than eight modified pairs of pores, a larger number than is known in any other Spatangoid. Cidaridse.f — H. L. Clark has revised this family, giving diagnoses of the genera and the recent species, with the usual artificial keys and bibliographic references. It seems that Gidaris is nearest to the ancestral form and the centre from which the different genera have come. Whether Tylocidaris represents a more primitive type, because of its imperforate tubercles, is an open question. The other genera (21 are recognised) fall into three groups, but the lines between these groups are not clear enough to warrant any recognition of subfamilies. New Crinoids. — Austin H. Clarkf describes Ptilocrinus pinnatus g. et sp. n. from the North Pacific, near Moresby Island, 1588 fathoms. It is remarkable in being the only stalked Crinoid known from the Eastern Pacific (see infra), with the exception of the closely related Galamocrinus diomedce. from the Galapagos Islands. The basals are completely anchylosed into a funnel-shaped cup as in Bathycrinus ; the arms are five and unbranched, with about sixty joints ; the stem is com- posed of 360 joints, smooth and very slender, and unusually flexible. The author also discusses the species of Bathycrinus, and makes a new name, B. australis, for one of them. Clark also describes § Phrynocrinus nudus g. et sp. n. from the south coast of Nipon, Japan. The calyx is acorn-like, and quite different from that in any known Crinoid ; there is a broad naked space between the small radials ; no interradial plates could be made out ; and in many features this new form is so peculiar that it requires a special family, Phrynocrinidae. Another new form is Bathyrinus pacificus, from near the same locality, a representative of a genus hitherto known only from the Atlantic. In a third paper || the author describes Eudiocrinus tuberculatus sp. n., and records two other species of this Comatulid genus, all from Japanese waters. New Holothurians.1T — W. K. Fisher describes 18 new species of Holothurians from the Hawaiian Islands, and a new genus Opheodeso?na, represented by 0. spectabilis and by three species included in (Ester- gren's Euapta. In this new type there are numerous madreporic canals, distributed around the ring canal. A cartilaginous ring is sometimes * Journ. and Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, iii. (1907) pp. 145-8. t Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, li. (1907) pp. 165-230 (11 pis.). X Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, xxxii. (1907) pp. 551-4 (3 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 507-12 (4 figs.). || Tom. cit., pp. 569-74. if Tom. cit., pp. 637-744 (17 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 183 present, when perforations are along the anterior border, not along the posterior border as in Synaptula. The two large lateral holes in the handle of the anchor plate are absent ; the central hole is larger than Euapta, and rounded, not acute, on the outer edge. The plates are otherwise as in Euapta. The calcareous ring has conspicuous anterior projections. Tentacles and anchors are as in Euapta, and retractors are present. Coelentera. New Fresh-water Medusoid from China.* — Asajiro Oka describes Limnocodium kaivaii sp. n. from the Yang-tze-kiang, about 1000 nautical miles from its mouth. The umbrella is hemispherical ; the velum projects inwards for about a quarter of the breadth of the sub-urnbrellar diameter ; there are over 256 tentacles of seven different sizes ; the diameter was about 20 mm. The author compares this new form with L. sowerbyi (whose native habitat remains unknown), and with Limnocn ida from Tanganyika, Victoria Nyanza and the Niger. Systemati- cally the affinities of Limnocodium (the generic diagnosis of which is enlarged), are with the Olindias group, and the author is inclined to place it nearer to the Leptomedusae than to the Trachomedusas. Hydroids of Madagascar and South-east Africa. t — A. Billard reports on a collection of 38 species, of which six are new, and the chief interest of his report is probably that at least eight of the species are characteristically Australian, while 18 are common to Australia and these South-east African regions. -"&* Structure and Development of Turritopsis nutricula.J — W. K. Brooks and S. Rittenhouse describe the structure of this Medusoid. It is compared with Gallitiara, and with a new genus (Modeeria in part), for which the name Mccradia is proposed. The ova of Turritopsis arise in the ectoderm of the manubrium ; they grow by the absorption of the primitive ovarian cells, and when mature are densely crowded with large yolk granules. Dehiscence takes place at a definite time, from 5 to 6 o'clock in the morning. The egg is spherical and membraneless. Matu- ration and fertilisation occur in the water after the eggs are deposited. Cleavage is total and nearly equal, at first regular, afterwards very erratic. A solid morula results, whose cells form a syncytium. Parts of eggs divided during cleavage continue to develop normally in every respect except size. Cell- walls re-appear peripherally and establish the ectoderm, the mesoglcea appears, and the endoderm is late of being differentiated in the internal syncytium. There is some evidence of amitotic division in the late segmentation. The planula becomes attached by nearly its entire side, and is trans- formed into a root. The first hydranth develops from a bud from about the middle of the root. The tentacles develop in indefinite whorls, each whorl with four tentacles. Annot. Zool. Japon, vi. (1907) pp. 219-27 (1 pi.), t Arch. Zool. Exper., vii. (1907) pp. 335-96 (2 pis.). % Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxxiii. (1907) pp. 129-60 (6 pis.). 184 SUMMARY OF OUBEBNT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Hydroids of Eastern Tropical Pacific* — S. P. Clarke reports on the Eydroids collected by the ' Albatross' (1904-5). The collection is surprisingly small, including only 12 species. At 112 stations no Eydroids were obtained. The following- are new — Pennaria pacifica, Gampanula/ria obliqua, Obelia striata, Campanulina denticulata, and < 'ladoearpus (//stomas. It is interesting to find that two of the species, Thiuaria tubal if or mis and Zygophylax chazalei, were hitherto known only from the Atlantic side of the isthmus of Panama. The label in the bottle with Campanulina denticulata records a depth of 2*45 fathoms, something unusual, but not unequalled for Hydroids. Alhnan records Stylactis vermicola and 31onocaulis imperator from 2900 fathoms. Hydroids from North Side of Bay of Biscay/]-— E. T. Browne reports ou a collection of 37 species, including two new species Bimeria arborea and B. biscayana, and several rare deep-sea forms. Pelagic Larvae of Actiniaria.J — Angelo Senna reports on those collected on the voyage of the ' Liguria ' in 1903-5, under command of the Duke of Abruzzi. In the family Cerianthidae he describes four new forms of Dactylactis ; in the Zoanthidae, three larvae of Zoanthella and several of Zoanthina. The structure of these forms is fully discussed. In the same connection we may note the account given by 0. Carl- gren § of northern forms : Arachnactis and other larvae of Cerianthidae ; the larva? of Peachia hastata parasitic on Medusae ; and various pelagic forms, e.g. of Sagartia viduata, Zoanthina and Zoanthella. Halcampella ostroumowi.|| — Th. Wyragevitch describes this new Actinian from the Black Sea. It is cylindrical, vermiform, delicate, semi-transparent, with 12 longitudinal stria1, with 24 tentacles. It changes its shape incessantly and rapidly. Eight mesenteries reach the oesophagus, but only four of these are fertile. The author found no acontia, no sphincter, and no septostomes. It seems likely, though not certain, that the young stages occur within the gastro-vascular system of Aurelia aurita, and some facts bearing on this question are recorded. Recent Madreporaria of the Hawaiian Island and Laysan.^f — T. Way land Vaughan deserves to be congratulated on his magnificent mono- graph of these Madreporarians. He discusses the classification, the species problem, the distribution and the factors determining it, the faunal affinities of the Hawaiian forms, and then proceeds to a systematic account with special attention to the morphology of the hard parts. The photographic plates are of great excellence. Phellia murocincta.** — Chas. L. Walton found this beautiful little sea-anemone near St. Ives, under stones in a small dark cave, along with * Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xxxv. (1907) pp. 1-18 (15 pis.). f Jouru. Mar. Biol. Assoc, viii. (1907) pp. 15-36 (2 pis. and 1 fig.). X Raccolte Planctoniche (R. 1st. Stud. Sup. Firenze), iii. (1907) pp. 81-198 (4 pis., 37 figs.). § Nordisches Plankton (Brandt and Apstein) lief v. (1906) pp. 65-89 (10 figs.). || Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourg, xxii. (1905, received 1907) pp. 85-98 (14 figs.). U Bull. U.S. Museum, No. 59 (1907) pp. 1-222 (96 pis.). ** Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc, viii. (1907) pp. 47-8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 185 young specimens of Actinia equina, Germs pedunculatus, and a number of Depastrtim cyat/iiforme. It was J in. in diameter when expanded ; the "epidermis" was not dense (as in Gosse's description), but free and easily removed ; the column was usually much flattened during the day, pillar-like at night ; no acontia were emitted ; there were 36 tentacles. much more active at night than during the daytime ; the colouring harmonised very exactly with the surroundings. Japanese Primnoidse.* — K. Kinoshita gives a preliminary account of a number of interesting new species of Primnoidae from Sagami and Kagoshima : — Plumarella spinosa, Thouaretta typica, Dicholaphis deli- cata (g. n.), Galigorgia granulosa, Primnoa pacifica, Stachyodes irregu- laris, S. trannulata, and Calyptrophora ijimai. It will be very interest- ing to see the full descriptions of some of these, e.g. of Primnoa pacifica, for P. lepadifera or reseda has been hitherto the only known representa- tive of the genus. Alcyonaria, Antipatharia, and Madreporaria from the North Side of the Bay of Biscay.f — S. J. Hickson reports the occurrence of Alcyonium coralloides (= Sympodium coralloides), Gorallium maderense (= Pleurocorall ium maderense), Isidella elongata, Acanella arbuscula, Acanthogorgia ridleyi ; Stichopathes spiralis, Parantipathes larix, Schizo- pathes crassa ; Garyophyllia clavus, Demophyllum cristagalli, and Loplio- helia prolifera. Of these records the most interesting is that of Gorallium maderense. Only one other specimen of this species has hitherto been obtained, and no specimen of the family has hitherto been recorded from the Bay of Biscay. Japanese Ctenophora.| — Fanny Moser reports on a collection made by Doflein off the east coast of Japan, which included Ocyroe maadata, Beroe cucumis, B. forsJcdli, B. hyalina sp. n., Hormiphora japonica sp. n., Pandora mitrata sp. n., Bolina mikado sp. n. The dis- tinctions of the genera Neis, Pandora, and Beroe are discussed. It is pointed out that in B. cucumis the gastral vessels are unbranched, and that the ramifications of the meridional vessels on the stomach-wall end blindly, whereas in B. ovata the gastral vessels are branched, and the ramifications of the meridional and gastral vessels on the stomach-wall form an anastomosing network. Agassiz's Idya roseola is identical with B. cucumis. Porifera. Amcebocytes of Spongillids.§ — W. Weltner gives an account of the seasonal changes in Ephydatia fluviatilis, and devotes special attention to the amcebocytes. He maintains that in the growing sponge these elements form the mesogloea, the skeleton, and the gemmules ; that they are the agents in the new growth in spring and in the reparation of injuries. They are the most important elements in the sponge body, for they can replace all the others. * Annot. Zool. Japon, vi. (1907) pp. 229-34. t Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc, viii., (1907) pp. 6-14. X Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 449-54. § Archiv Natur., lxxiii. (1907) pp. 273-86(2 figs.). April 15th, 1908 o 186 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Degeneration and Regeneration in Sponges.* — H. V. Wilson notes that siliceous sponges in confinement give rise to small masses of un- differentiated tissue, which in their turn are able to grow and differen- fciate into perfect sponges. In a species of Stylotella the process as a whole has been worked out. The oscula and pores close, the canal system is in some degree suppressed, the sponge shrinks and becomes like Spongilla in its winter state. It may subdivide into numerous masses, which recover their differentiation in open water. In other cases a large part of the sponge dies, but living fragments remain, which can recover. Minute masses may occur over the general surface, or they may be scattered throughout the body. These small remnants behave like plasmodia ; they are aggregations of syncytial protoplasm studded with nuclei. Wilson has showm that when suitably exposed in open water they can form perfect sponges. This production of regenerative tissue has been seen in Mkrociona, but only in Stylotella has the author directly proved the regenerative power. Maas has described in degenerating Sycons the formation of compact cords of cells showing amoeboid pheno- mena. It may also be noted that in 1886 J. Arthur Thomson described and figured what he called "regenerative capsules" in Spongelia pallescens, without, however, following up their history. Antarctic Monaxonellids.f — R. ] Kirkpatrick reports on the Monaxonellida brought home by the ' Discovery ' — a collection of 43 species, of which 24 are new. The following new genera are established — Sigmaxinyssa, Cercidochela, and Hoplahithara. New Fresh-water Sponges from Calcutta.:}: — Nelson Annandale describes the following new species — Spongilla proliferens, S. crassissinw, Fphydatia indica, Trochospongilla latouchiana, and T. phillottiana. Protozoa. Studies on Radiolarians. — V. Haecker § gives a detailed account of the structure and development of the skeleton in Ccelographidge, with special reference to the highly differentiated condition seen in Cozlogr •aphis antarctica. Thus the central capsule is inclosed in an internal shell, which consists of two halves and is beset with small teeth on the aboral margin on both sides. Each of the shell-halves bears a high helmet-like galea elongated towards the oral side, and at the base of the galea is drawn out into a tube or rhinocanna extending towards the oral shell-margin. The Coelographidre are not separable from the Ccelodendridas, and the sub-order Phseodendria is proposed. Within this there are five sub-families, characterised by their skeletons. The author deals with eight genera and seventeen species. W. Mielck || deals with Acanthometridse from New Pomerania, and works out a notable simplification of the systematic relations. * Science, xxv. (1907) pp. 912-15. t Ann. Nat. Hist., xx. (1907) pp. 271-91. X Journ. and Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, iii. (1907) pp. 15-26 (7 figs.). § Arch. Protistenk., ix. (1907) pp. 139-69 (20 figs.). || Wiss. Meer. Abt. Kiel, No. 10 (1907) pp. 41-105 (5 pis. and 20 figs.). See also Zool. Zentralbl., xiv. (1907) pp. 621-8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 187 Affinities of Blastulidium pgedophtorum.* — E. Chatton has studied this parasite which Ch. Perez found in the eggs and young partheno- genetic embryos of Daphnia obtmct. It was found on species of Simocephalus, < 'hydorus, and Lynceus, and Chatton has seen enough of it to enable him to say that it must be removed from among the Haplosporidia and placed among the Chytridinese. Structure and Movements of Condylostoma patens.f — John F. Bovard has studied this large Ciliate. He describes the thin, transparent, homogeneous, very elastic pellicula ; the hyaline threads or myonemes which form the primary ridges marking the surface ; the cilia which arise from furrows along the sides of the myonemes ; the membranellae which seem to arise from a fusion of rows of cilia ; the broad, thin, trans- parent, undulating membrane which lies in the buccal groove and is attached at the base of the right oral lip : and so on. The movements of the animal are directly dependent on the shape of the body. Normally the animal moves in a circle to the left when gliding. This is caused by the bend of the posterior end of the body towards the left. The spiral swimming is the result of the curvature of the body, and not wholly dependent on the oblique position of the cilia. The motor reaction is the same as for other Protozoa. It consists of a backward movement, a turning toward a structurally defined side, and then a movement forward. It is of the same type in cut pieces as in whole individuals, but is modified by the form of the pieces. Trichocysts of Frontonia leucas.J — A. Brodsky finds relatively large trichocysts in this Infusorian. Each shows three parts— head, neck, and body. After expulsion from the ectoplasm they increase ten or twelve times in length. They appear to arise in the deeper parts of the endo- plasm near the nucleus. In contact with water the trichocyst becomes like a flattened sphere, and is the subject of violent agitation. A spiral line is seen in its interior, which uncoils with extreme rapidity into a long thread with the debris of the envelope as a minute body at one end. Trichomastix serpentis.§ — C. Clifford Dobell describes this new species of flagellate Infusorian from the rectum of a boa-constrictor. It is perhaps the same as Grassi's 3fonocercomonas coronellce, Hammer- schmidt's Cercomonas colubrorum, Monocercomonas colubrorum, and Bodo colubrorum. It is usually oval or pyriform in shape ; it has three flagella at the anterior end directed forwards, and another longer flagellum directed backwards ; there is a basal granule (like a Trypanosome's blepharoplast) at the origin of the flagellum ; a flexible axial rod runs through the animal ; there is a well-marked cytostome. The creatures are very active. They divide longitudinally, and the details of the division are described. In the degenerative processes, leading on to death, giant forms twice the normal size were sometimes observed, and these divided abnormally, commonly giving rise to three or four daughter-cells. * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 34-6. t California Univ. Publications, Zool., iii. (1907) pp. 343-G8 (1 pi. and 21 figs.). j Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (xxiv.) (1907) pp. 644-5. § Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., li. (1907) pp. 449-58 (1 pi. and 2 figs.). 0 2 188 .SUMMARY OF CI'KKKNT KKSKAKi IIKS RELATING TO Leucocytozoon of Red Grouse.* — C. G. Seligmanrj and Louis W. Sambon publish a preliminary note on Leucocytozoon lovati sp. n. from the blood of Lagopus scoticm. Only the fully grown sexually differen- tiated sporonts have been observed, and these are briefly described. They are contained in oval or spindle-shaped elements, with the ex- tremities usually drawn out into fine long threads not unlike flagella. These elements appear to be blood-cells greatly altered by the parasites they inclose. The infected bird was not considered to have suffered from " grouse disease." New Sporozoon in Toad.f — Helen Dean King describes Bertramin oufonis sp. n. from Bidder's organ in the common American toad Bufo lentiginosiis, and points out that the bodies Knappe described in 1880 as spermatozoa in this organ are probably stages in the life-cycle of Bertramia. Bidder's organ is undoubtedly a rudimentary ovary, and in the light of our present knowledge regarding the origin and develop- ment of germ-cells, it is inconceivable that functional spermatozoa could be formed in and from the cytoplasm of rudimentary ova that are destined to undergo degeneration. Sporozoan Parasites of Fishes. J — James Johnstone records a heavy infection of the skin of the sole with Lymphocystis johnstoni. The cysts are colourless, very opaque, and easily discernible to the naked eye. and of average diameter 0'32 mm. An account is also given of a Myxosporidian invasion of the cartilaginous layer of the sclerotic in Gadus esmarlrii, H. M. Woodock has examined preparations of the cysts, and describes the spores ; he concludes that there is here a new species of Myxobolus, distinguished by the size of the spores. It is the first Myxosporidian recorded for the Gadidas. He proposes the name Myxobolus esmarhii sp. n. Sarcosporidian in Parakeets. §— G. S. Graham-Smith describes the cysts and spores of a presumed Protozoon parasite from the heart, gizzard, and other muscles of young parakeets (Psittacus undulatus). Injection of cyst material into the abdominal cavity, and feeding experiments failed to infect adults, although naturally infected young forms died. The parasite, though differing in many respects, more closely resembles Bhinosporidium kinecdyi than any other cyst-producing protozoon. Sarcosporidial Infection in Mice.|| — L. Negre has experimented on this subject. He finds that young mice are more easily infected than old ; 45 days elapse between ingestion of spores and the appear- ance of the parasites in the muscles ; 80 to 90 days elapse from the time of infection until the spores possess maximum infecting power. At the beginning of infection the parasites in the abdominal muscles are more developed than those elsewhere ; when the infection is slight they are most numerous in the abdominal muscles. Inoculation by skin or * Lancet, 1907, ii. pp. 829-30 (3 figs.) t Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1907, pp. 273-8. % Proc. and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc, xxi. (1907) pp. 295-8, 304-8 (1 pi. and 1 fig.). § Journ. Hygiene, vii. (1907) pp. 552-7 (2 pis.). |l O.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 374-5. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 189 peritoneum cannot be effected, and if the spores are preserved in water for 3 or 4 days they become inert. Amongst mice living together the proportion infected is greater than amongst a similar number living apart. There is an intestinal stage of the parasite which is discharged with the excrement, and infection occurs by ingestion of such material, but this stage has not been isolated. Culture of Treponema pallidum.* — C. Levaditi and J. Mcintosh, by means of collodion sacs containing material from syphilitic lesions placed in the peritoneal cavity of the rabbit, successfully obtained cultures of this organism. As many as twelve passages were effected, and the organisms were more numerous at the end than at the beginning. It was proved that an exchange between the contents of the sac and the fluid of the peritoneal cavity is indispensable, and that the presence of anaerobic microbes favoured the culture. The Treponema of the cultures possesses a filiform prolongation at the extremity resembling the analo- gous formations described by Borrel in Schaudinn's T. pallidum. It multiplied by transverse fission. The cultures not being pure, the authors cannot affirm that all their forms are T. pallidum, but on morphological, biological, and staining reaction grounds, they consider that the two types are to be associated. A loss of pathogenic activity resulted, which is attributed to the new conditions of life of the organism and to the impurity of the cultures. New Myxosporidian Family, f — L. Leger and E. Hesse describe a new Myxosporidian, a parasite of the gall-bladder of the sardine. It is extremely rare, and has always been found associated with Ceratomyxa truncata Thelohan. It possesses only one polar capsule, and is dis- tinguished from Myxoholus piriformis by the form of the valves, the direction of the valve suture, the absence of vacuoles in the sporoplasm, monosporic pansporoblasts, and its free life in the biliary fluid. For this form, Coccomyxa morovi, the authors propose a new family Coccomyxidas, intermediate between the Phamocystes and Cryptocystes. Relation of Spirochaeta pertenuis to Yaws.J — A. Castellani has made out some definite points in connection with the relation of this Spirochmta to yaws. It is always present in eruption material obtained from persons suffering from the disease. When filtered off, the material is inert. Monkeys are infected by inoculation with such material, and may be also with blood from the general circulation and from the spleen. Sjiirochceta pertenuis is frequently present in the spleen and lymphatic glands. Yaws is generally conveyed by actual contact, but experiments have proved that it may be conveyed by flies, and possibly by other insects. * Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxi. (1907) pp. 784-95. t Comptes Renclus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 85-7. I Journ. Hygiene, vii. (1907) pp. 558-69. H)0 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO BOTANY. GENERAL, Including- the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants. Cytology, including' Cell-Contents. Cytology of the Pollen of the Nymphseaceae. * — W. Lubimenko and A. Maige have completed their researches upon the pollen-mother- cells of the Nyrnphseacese, with the following results. In the prosynapsis stage there is a simple nuclear network with chromatin granules ; during synapsis the nuclear membrane bursts, while the network forms a spongy mass round the nucleolus, and the chromatin granules fuse to form corpuscles. During the spireme stage the chro- matic thread fills the nuclear cavity, but there is no longitudinal splitting at this stage. The chromosomes are formed by condensation of the chromatin at different points of the spireme. The first and second mitoses are normal, but in the telophase of both, a transitory granular plate appears at the equator of the spindle, which probably represents a remnant of one of the ancestral divisions of the pollen-mother-cells. Also in the telophase the mother-cell is simultaneously divided into four daughter- cells. In this respect, the two species studied resemble the Dicotyledons, while the simple nature of the prosynapsis and the early dissociation of the pollen-mother-cells brings them near the Dicotyledons. There appears to be a certain ratio between the masses of the nucleus and of the cell, both in the vegetative and reproductive tissues, and this ratio varies in a very definite way in the different cycles of development. The three pollen mitoses differ from a vegetative mitosis by bringing a larger mass of chromatin into play, and by the larger quantity of nuclear contents, which are very rich in chromatin. The third mitosis results in the formation of two nuclei, a large vegetative nucleus and a small generative one ; this difference in volume may be attributed to an unequal division of the chromatin in this mitosis, which would thus play an important function in chromatic reduction. Cell and Nuclear Division in Basidiobolus ranarum.f — Edgar W. Olive studied this fungus on material cultivated from the intestine of a frog. He found that the processes of division were the same in both beak and vegetative cells with some minor differences. Cell-division takes place by the gradual growth of a cell-plate from the wall inwards like the narrowing of an iris diaphragm. The mitotic figure consists of a broad barrel-shaped spindle ; the chromatin plate in the centre consists of a mass of numerous minute chromosomes, and at each pole * Rev. Gen. Bot., xix. (1907) pp. 474-501. See also this Journal, 1908, p. 60. f Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 404-18. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 191 there is a disk- or crescent-shaped mass — the pole-plate. Beyond each pole-plate there is a granular aggregation of archoplasm, from which towards the close of the karyokinetic process there extend radiations into the surrounding cytoplasm. In the late stages the daughter-nuclei move further and further apart as the fibres disappear. Aleurone Grains of Grasses.* — A. Guilliermond contributes some remarks upon the aleurone grains of grasses. The grain is a spherical spongy mass, one of the interstices of which contains a very large globoid. During the earlier hours of germination, the proteid is partially dissolved, and the aleurone grain is transformed into a little vacuole occupied by one or two large granules which represent the insoluble part of the proteid, while near or upon the edge of this vacuole are numerous globoids. Subsequently the proteid entirely dissolves and nothing remains but the globoids, which also dissolve by the tenth day. The aleurone grains of grasses are analogous to those of the lupin, but have less proteid, which is nothing but a thin layer around the globoids, while the globoids themselves are of smaller size, also the proteid is in- soluble in potash after fixation in alcohol. This type of aleurone grain is found in wheat, rye, oats, and barley ; maize is similar, but the globoids are larger and there is rarely more than one in each grain. Structure and Development. Reproductive. Fertilization in Cypripedium.t — L. Pace has investigated the phenomenon of fertilization in Cypripedium spectabile and parviflorum. and less fully in pubescens and candidum. It appears that two cells are formed by the mother-cell, but no wall is formed in the second division, even when the nuclei of both " daughter-cells " divide, as may rarely occur. Two megaspore nuclei are used in the formation of the embryo-sac, and may be related to double fertilization. The completed embryo-sac has only four nuclei. Double fertilization is probably constant, and the primary endosperm nucleus results from the fusion of the polar nucleus, one synergid and one male nucleus. Endosperm of four nuclei has been found. The presynaptic nucleus gives evidence of the pairing of threads, probably of paternal and maternal origin. The gametophyte has 11 chromosomes, the sporo- phyte has 22, while the" endosperm probably has 33. An interesting comparison is made of the successive stages of development of the animal egg and of the eggs of Lilium and Cypripedium respectively. These two genera show only one more division from the mother-cell to the egg than in the maturation of the animal egg, and thus have the fewest divisions reported in the angiosperms. Development of Saxifraga granulata.^ — H. 0. Juel has investigated the development of Saxifraga granulate, with the following results. The nucleus of the embryo-sac-mother-cell contains a single homogeneous chromatin -thread during the synapsis and spireme stages, in the next * Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 768-770. t Bot/Gazette, xliv. (1907) pp. 353-74 (4 pis., 1 fig.). I Nov. Act. Reg. Soc. Sci. Upsala, i. (1907) pp. 1-39 (4 pis.). 192 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO stage this thread is drawn round so as to form a double thread, the two parts of which intertwine during the succeeding stage and give rise to a double chromosome. The reduced number of chromosomes is about thirty. The stigma and upper part of the style has an endotrophic conducting tissue, while the rest of the pistil has an ectotrophic con- ducting tissue, which is distributed over the placenta, but only forms a narrow band on the side near each carpel. The upper surface of the placenta is swollen between the points of insertion of the seeds ; this arrangement, together with the conducting tissues, serves to direct the right course of the pollen-tube. While the nuclei are in the pollen-tube no special sheath could be seen surrounding them, but when they reach the embryo-sac a bladder-like sheath is visible, which soon disappears. The pollen-tube discharges its contents into the single synergid. After the division of the central nucleus the embryo-sac divides up into smaller cells round the antipodals, and these small cells fill up the remaining space. Two kinds of endosperm are formed : a basal portion which develops quickly, and a central portion which develops later at the expense of the basal portion. The nucellus-tissue is rich in starch and forms a perisperm during the development of the endosperm ; it has quite disappeared, however, in the ripe seed. Fats and proteids are found in small quantities in the basal endosperm and in the embryo, but in larger quantities in the central endosperm. Starch is found in the embryo. While the seed is ripening, tubercles grow out from the bases of the funicles, which serve for seed-dispersal. Physiology. Nutrition and Growth. Biological Chemistry.* — When Raulin published his study of the growth of a mould in an artificial solution he remarked on the advan- tage that seemed to accrue to the fungus from the admixture of certain chemical elements. Maurice Javillier has taken up the subject, and has again proved the favourable influence of infinitesimal quantities of zinc on the growth of Sterigmatocystis nigra. It acts as an antiseptic and prevents the development of foreign organisms that would damage the culture. Irritability. Sleep-movements of Leaves.f — W. Pfeffer has investigated the sleep-movements of plants, and finds that they are the result of light and heat reactions set up by daily changes in illumination and tempera- ture. The sleep-movements disappear when the temperature and illu- mination are uniform, and never appear in plants raised under such conditions, although by establishing a daily change of light and tem- perature movements reappear in the one case and are induced in the other. Such movements can only be brought about by gradual and not by sudden change, and are the result of internal activities tending to the establishment of a position of equilibrium corresponding to the new * Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1212-15. t Abhandl. Math. Phys. Kl.k. Sachs. Ges. Wiss., xxxiii. (1907) pp. 259-472 (36 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1(J3 conditions. As a rule the light-stimulus increases as the amount of light decreases. In uniform light and temperature the movements do not cease at once, but gradually, the rhythm being similar, but the amplitude decreasing. Some plants, e.g. Mimosa and Albizzia, have a very rapid time reaction, while others, e.g. Phaseolus, only respond after a considerable period. The two former genera are affected both by increase and decrease of light, while the latter is only affected by the increase of light in the morning. In plants like Phaseolus, which have a long reaction time, the process of stimulation continues for some time after the cause of the stimulus has ceased. Flowers which exhibit sleep-movements behave in the same way as foliage-leaves, e.g. the tulip and crocus behave like Mimosa, and flowers with slow time reactions behave like Phaseolus. In general, plants which respond to changes in temperature will also respond to changes in light, the same movements being produced by change in either condition. CRYPTOGAMS. Pteridophyta. (By A. Gepp, M.A., F.L.S.) Root-structure in Ceratopteris thalictroides.* — A posthumous paper by P. Lachmann has been published, on the origin and develop- ment of the roots and rootlets of Ceratopteris thalictroides. The subject is treated of fully under three heads : (1) Origin of the roots ; (2) Development of the root ; (3) Origin and Development of the rootlets ; and a resume is given at the conclusion of each part. The author finds that the first ten or twelve roots of Ceratopteris emanate from the stem, while the later ones proceed from the leaves, where they occupy the basal region of the petiole. As regards the development of the root, the mother-cell produces groups of elements, usually composed of one rootcap-segment and of three series of cortico-stelic segments. These are all described in detail. The centre of the stele is occupied by large cells or potential vessels which, in most ferns having a binary root, are differentiated into large scalariform vessels and consequently do not form a pith. The formation of the tissues composing the central cylinder is clearly centrifugal, while their differentiation is centripetal. A study of the rootlets of Ceratopteris shows that they are disposed in two rows diametrically opposite and produced by two series of sextants, predestinated for their formation and for that of the ligneous bundles. The division of each of these sextants is described. The apex of the rootlet frees itself by piercing the piliferous layer of the root-mother. The author has never seen the intra-lacunary rootlets described by Poirault. From the very base the rootlet possesses its piliferous layer and two quite distinct cortical zones ; consequently, there is no epistele. The connection of its conducting tissue with that of the root is established across the pericycle of the latter, without the production of a " pedicule pericyclique " analogous to that described by Van Tieghem and Douliot for other species. The paper is illustrated by thirty-seven figures. * Rev. Gen. Bot., xix. (1907) pp. 523-56 (figs, in text). 194 SUMMARY OK CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Christensen's Index Filicum.* — H. Christ publishes some remarks upon the " Index Filicum " of Carl Christeusen, which has beeh'-in the hands of the public for a little more than a year. The " Index " is a great advance in systematic pteridology, achieving its emancipation from the two cardinal errors of the old Hookerian school, viz. a blind insistence upon the importance of the indusium and sorus as characters for the formation of genera; and secondly, the forcible inclusion of the less well-marked species as varieties and forms under arbitrarily created species-types. Christensen has revived many genera and species created by Presl, Fee and Mettenius, which for years have been treated with suspicion or neglect in the " Species Filicum " and " Synopsis Filicum," Christensen being able to recognise the validity of a genus or species without prejudice to the particular part of the plant in which the proper character is situated. Hence Christensen's system of classification is a natural and not an artificial one. Christ's criticisms embrace ques- tions of geographical distribution, nomenclature, synonymy, the genera of Diel's system, and so on. Abnormal Production of Spores in Platycerium.t — H. Poisson describes and figures a plant of Platycerium biforme which in the warm fern-house of the Paris Museum produced spores on the upper surface of one of its sterile fronds. He endeavours to account for this abnormal occurrence. Development of Lygodium. J — R. Binford has studied the develop- ment of Lygodium circinnatum with a view to testing its value as an intermediate type in the line of evolution from Marattiacere to Poly- podiacese. Lygodium is chosen as representing Schizaaacege. The author describes his results under the headings : Arrangement and order of sporangia ; the stalk : the tapetum ; the wall ; the sporogenous mass ; sterile sporangia ; relationships. He finds that the family to which Lygodium belongs has some characteristics which cannot be considered as intermediate in the line of evolution mentioned above, but belong to this family only. The sporangium has a marginal initial cell w7ith early divisions of the dolabrate (zwei-schneidig) type, and this is not reported for any other ferns. The single sporangium in each sorus, the large sporangium and spores, and the indusium, which in cross-section shows the tissue regions of the foliage leaf, are characteristics which in nature or degree of development belong only to this special group of ferns. Notwithstanding the fact that the Schizagaceaa form a clear link in the chain of evolution of the annulus,-the author considers that the peculiarities mentioned above are so striking and apparently so well established, and the relations of Lygodium are so ancient, that we can hardly consider it to be very close to the evolutionary line that leads to the Polypodiaceae. It seems rather to have appeared very early in the evolution of leptosporangiate ferns and to have progressed in a line somewhat divergent from the main line leading to the Polypodiaceae. * Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) pp. 145-55. + Bull. Soc. Bot. France, liv. (1907) pp. 108-10 (figs.). X Bot. Gazette, xliv. (1907) pp. 214-24 (37 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ■ ETC. 195 Sporangial Development in Equisetum hyemale.* — L. A. Hawkins gives an account of the development of the sporangium of Equisetum hyemale, and claims that the plant " is of the eusporangiate type ; the sporogenous tissue comes from a single cell ; the first wall is peridural, the inner cell being sterile, while the sporogenous tissue comes entirely from the outer cell ; the tapetum comes from the cells surrounding the sporogenous mass ; there are two types of sporangia differing in develop- ment and governed by the direction of the second division ; many of the sporocytes are disintegrated during the formation of tetrads." Inner Roots of Lycopodium pithyoides. t — A. G. Stokey describes the structure and development of the roots of Lycopodium pithyoides, an epiphytic Pteridophyte transplanted from Mexico to Chicago. It resembles a young Pinas sylvestris ; and practically every leaf is a sporo- phyll. But more striking than the general habit is the appearance of the stem in transverse section. The stele is small, and not remarkable, but is conspicuously surrounded by numerous smaller heavily sheathed steles. These are the " inner roots " described by Strasburger as existing in certain species of Lycopodium. They arise in acropetal succession at any point of the stele, and, instead of penetrating the cortex at once, and emerging as aerial roots, they turn downwards, and, boring through the cortex, emerge finally at or near the base. This habit is associated with erect forms of Lycopodium, both terrestrial and epiphytic. Stokey describes the development and structure of these roots in L. pithyoides, giving some comparative notes on other species. New Palaeozoic Lycopod. J — M. Benson describes shortly a new palaeozoic Lycopod with a seed-like structure. The vegetative organs of this plant, Miadesmia membranacea, were discovered by Bertrand in 1894, in sections of a calcite nodule from the Gannister beds of Hough Hill. From an examination of much new material, further details are known as to the vegetative organs, as well as a fairly complete account of the reproductive organs. Miadesmia was very minute, with a slender stem and without any trace of skeletal tissue. It is the first palaeozoic Lycopod of herbaceous character known structurally. The megasporo- phylls were identified by D. H. Scott in 1001, and they show a more advanced type of seed habit than has hitherto been met with in Cryptogams. The megasporangium gives rise to but one thin-walled spore, which in development and structure resembles an embryo-sac and germinates in situ. An integument surrounds the sporangium, leaving but a small orifice as micropyle. This is surrounded by numerous long processes of the integument, which formed a collecting and incubating apparatus for the microspores. There is no trace of an envelope about the microsporangium. The carpellary leaf was shed at maturity, and resembles a winged seed. Apart from structural modi- fications of the megasporophyll, Miadesmia is most closely allied to * Ohio Naturalist, vii. (1907) pp. 122-8 (2 pis.). See also Bot. Gazette, xliv. (1907) p. 78. t Bot. Gazette, xliv. (1907) pp. 57-63 (2 pis.). X Proc. Roy. Soc, Series B, lxxix. (1907) No. B 534, p. 473. 196 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO in m-specialised species of Selaginella, such as S. selaginoides, but the foliage leaves show the archaic leaf base comparable with that of Lepido- dendrese. Lycopodium complanatum subsp. moniliforme.* — C. A. M. Lind man describes and figures a new subspecies of L. complanatum found in Sodermanland, Sweden, in great quantities in 1895, at a station which the author has failed to rediscover. Fossil Osmundaceae.t — iR. Kidston and D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan describe and figure two new species of Osmwidites, 0. Dunlopi, and 0. Gibbiana, both obtained from Jurassic rocks near Gore, Otago district, New Zealand. They give a detailed account of the minute structure of the stem, leaf base, and roots ; and compare the structure of 0. Dowkeri Carr. and 0. sJcidegatensis Penhallow, adding a chapter on theoretical considerations and the ancestry of the Osmundaceae. Anatomy of Palseostachya vera.} — Gr. Hickling has made a careful re-investigation of the anatomy of Paheostachya, and describes the general features of the fossil cone, the structure of its axis, its cortex and medulla, the vascular system, vascular supply of the appendages, sporangiophore bundles, bracts, sporangiophores, sporangia, spores. He thereby brings to light certain new features and corrects some errors of observation made by Williamson. He discusses the affinities of the cone, and holds that Palceostachya vera is a Calamarian fructification •characterised by axillary sporangiophores. Structure of Syringodendron.§ — K. H. Coward describes the structure of a portion of a fossil plant from the Lower Coal Measures of Shore sent to the Manchester Museum by Lomax of Bolton. They were tangential sections of bark, and at A. C. Seward's suggestion were compared with Syringodendron, and found to agree. Syriagodendroii is the bark of Sigillaria. The pairs of scars in rows exhibited by the speci- mens are interpreted as having been caused by the parichnos strands which have nndergone subsequent growth. There is evidence that the parichnos strands acted as respiratory organs. Parichnos in the Lepidodendracese.jl — F. E. Weiss gives a resume of all that has been published upon the parichnos in these fossil plants, the structure of the organ and the nature of its function. He gives the results of his own study of a series of slides in the Manchester Museum, figures a re-construction of the leaf-cushion Lepidoden droit, and shows bow the aerenchyma of the parichnos of the leaf, communicating with that of the middle cortex of the stem and with that of the roots, constituted a respiratory system for those parts of Lepidodendron and Sigillaria which were imbedded in a water-logged soil. * Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) pp. 131-2 (figs.). f Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, xlv. (1907) pp. 759-80 (6 pis.). t Ann. of Bot., xxi. (1907) pp. 369-86 (2 pis.). § Mem. Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc, li. part 2 (1907) No. 7, 6 pp., 1 pi. and figs. || Tom cit., No. 8, 22 pp., 1 pi. and figs. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 197 Bryophyta. (By A. Gepp.) British Muscinese. — A. R. Horwood * treats of the extinction of numerous species of lichens, hepatics and mosses in Charnwood Forest during the past 70 years, as a consequence of the disafforestation, drainage, increasing smoke and gases from collieries and brick and pipe works, and dust from quarries and cement works. The same thing is going on to a less extent in many parts of England, and the author urges that a competent investigation of the local cryptogamic floras should be made before it is too late. A. Ley f gives a list of 62 mosses in his additions to the flora of Herefordshire. They are rarer species and varieties, and are either new to the county or recorded from new stations. H. Whitehead^ records the luxuriant occurrence of Ricciella fluitans in a pond on Golding's Hill during the autumn of 1906. The author adds a few general remarks upon the habit and structure of the members of Ricciaceae. New and Rare Scottish Mosses. §— J. Stirton gives an account of some new and some rare mosses collected mostly at or near Arisaig in the West of Scotland. The following 11 species and a variety are described as new to science : — Dicranum leiophyllum, Trichostomum episemum, Barbida Umosella, Schistidium nodulosum, Grimmia polita, Rhacomitrium consocians, R. divergens, Bartramia subvirella, Pohlia tenerrima, OUgotrichum exiguum, 0. hercynicum va,r. fastig latum, Hypnum teichophyllum. All but the Hypnum and Dicranum are barren plants. Among the rarities mentioned are fruiting specimens of Ulota phyllantha and U. scotica ; of the former probably not more than a dozen capsules had been previously found. It is remarkable that capsules of U. phyl- lantha have never been found save when the plant grows intermingled with U. Bruchii in a fertile state. Other rare species are Barbida Umosa, B. exiguella, B. icmadophila, Hypnum corrugatulum, H. cana- riense. Irish Muscineae.— D. McArdle|| publishes lists of 71 species and varieties of mosses and 20 hepatics, collected on the island of Lambay, which lies off Howth in Co. Dublin. These records are part of the results obtained during 1905-6 from an organised attempt to determine the natural history of the island. The rocky coast yielded an abundance of material of a few genera ; the caves of the north shore were found to be monopolised by a few appropriate species ; in the inland and marshes were several species of Hypnum. A new variety of H. splendens is plentiful in a rocky pasture. A great difference is revealed between the hepatic flora of the island and that of the Hill of Howth. The same author IT gives a list of 68 mosses and 4?> hepatics of Co. Mayo, collected in a remote mountain district near Lough Corrib, the Finny River, etc. * Journ. of Bot., xlv. (1907) pp. 334-9. t Tom. cit., pp. 317-29. X Essex Naturalist, xiv. (1907) p. 276. § Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., No. 63 (1907) pp. 171-80. || Irish Naturalist, xvi. (1907) pp. 99-104. % Tom. cit., pp. 332-7. 198 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO In the limestone of Cong is the Pigeon Hole cave ; here Lejeunea MacTcaii grows plentifully; here also are found Wurhynchium pumilum, E. Tees- dalei and E. tenellum. At Curranamona a small quantity of Andrecea crassinervia was collected. The moss flora is often poorly developed in the district. H. W. Lett* points out that Polytrkhum attenuatum \< not rare in Ireland, as 1). McArdle has stated, but is abundant in Co. Down, and has been found in eleven other Irish counties. North American Muscinese. — C. C. Haynesf concludes her account of the species of Lophozia of the United States, selected from the writings of A. W. Evans, but illustrated by herself. G. E.Nichols J gives a list with synonymy of the five species of Amblystegiella found in the United States, and supplies an account of the history of the genus. J. M. Holzinger§ explains the series of errors which have been made by authors over the moss now designated Homalotheciella subcapillata Card., and shows why the name Burnettia has to be dropped. A. Lorenz || publishes some illustrated notes on Radula tenax Lindb., which has never previously been figured. It occurs in New Hampshire, Massa- chusetts, and Connecticut. Parisian Species of Philonotis.^f — G. Dismier has revised the species of Philonotis found in the environs of Paris, and shows that, whereas three species only of this difficult genus, P. fontana, P. calcarea, and P. marchica, have been recorded as occurring there, in reality two other species, P. ccespitosa and P. capillaris, also occur. Further, P. marchica really does grow in the district, though all previous records of it are shown to be false. This species has often been confounded with others, especially with P. fontana and P. cmspitosa. It differs in having its leaves shaped like an elongated isosceles triangle with curvi- linear sides, concave at base, not plicate, carinate, with margins flat, and bearing sharp teeth along the whole length, with cells always papillate •on their upper angles, with tissue translucent, and nerve thin throughout. He says that P. cozspitosa does not seem to have become sufficiently well known hitherto ; its principal distinguishing characters are that the tufts are but little radicelliferous, the stems are slender, the leaves relatively large, homotropous (a rarely absent character), falcate, flat (not plicate), with tissue translucent, and often composed of square or rather long rectangular cells. The lower leaves of sterile plants should always be examined, since the upper leaves and those of male stems are nearly always misleading ; hence the bad naming of many specimens. New Species of Sphagnum.** — C. Warnstorf begins a paper on new European and extra European Sphagna, in which he gives descriptions of 27 species of Sphagnum, belonging to the cymuifolium, subsecundum, mucronatum, acutifolium, and cuspidatum groups. The descriptions are detailed and are in some species supplemented by figures. * Irish Naturalist, xvi. (1907) p. 348. t Bryologist, xi. (1908) pp. 1-3 (1 pi.). % Tom. cit., pp. 4-5. § Tom. cit., p. 7. || Tom. cit., p. 9. i Bull. Soc. Bot. France, liv. (1907) pp. 196-200. ** Hedwigia, xlvii. (1907-8) pp. 76-124. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 199 Trichostomum mutabile Br. and its Allies.* — Th. Herzog has made a thorough study of the variable species T. mutabile and all the supposed allied species and varieties. He has had more than 250 specimens through his hands, and he is therefore able to form a broad and just view of the mutability of the species. As a result, he sinks T. Morale Mitt., T. cuspidatum ttchimp., and T. lutescens (Lindb.), and disposes of many varieties, taking as the name for this collective species T. mutabile Br. Unfortunately, the forms are so numerous that the author finds it impossible to point out a really fixed type to serve as a true variety of T. mutabile, in the ordinary sense ; and he has, therefore, set up what he calls " ideal types " as indicating the main lines of divergence. These are founded on forms more or less easily diagnosed and distinct from each other : densum, Morale, mutabile, and cuspidatum. The inter- mediate forms are designated by a special system of nomenclature, explained by the author. He then treats of difference in growth, the foliage-characters, leaf-form, and anatomy, form of the capsule, size and variety of structure of the peristome. Finally, the author describes fully the types and sub-types, giving full geographical distribution of each, followed by a chapter on phylogenetic conclusions and a diagram of form-affinities. Muscinese of Crete.f — W. E. Nicholson publishes a list of 91 mosses and 13 hepaticas collected by him during a fortnight's stay in the island of Crete. The sun was already beginning to dry up the vegetation, which added to the difficulty of the collector. The region examined was in the neighbourhood of Kandia, in which the most productive locality was the bed of the Kairatos and the adjacent ravines close to the recent excavations of Knossos. The author also crossed the island, and was thus enabled to gain a fairly good general idea of the moss flora. He finds the mosses of the subalpine zone, which are so rich in Central Europe, to be poorly represented in Crete. There was no species of Dicranum, Rhacomitrium or Hylocomium, and the genus Hypnum was represented by H. mpressiforme only. A cave on Mount Ida, at a height of 5000 ft., was thickly hung with mosses, among which Neckera turgida predominated. The author points out that many localities remain unexplored, which offer an interesting field for work. New Greenhouse Fissidens.J — A. A. Elenkin describes and figures Fissidens Waldheimii, a new species of moss which grows abundantly on the trunks of Dicksonia antarctica in the glasshouses of the Imperial Botanic Garden of St. Petersburg. It was associated with Pt&rygophyllum hepaticcefolium and Rhacopilum convolutaceum. This Fissidens fruits in winter, and much resembles F. adiantoides, but the leaves lack the hyaline margin of that species, the spores are verruculose, and the stems are rufescent below with radicles almost to the apex. Hybrids of Physcomitrella.§ — I. Gyorffy has investigated the com- parative anatomy of Physcomitrella patens, P. Hampei, Physcomitrium * Nova Acta Acad. Cses. Leop. -Carol., lxxiii. (1907) pp. 451-81 (7 pis.). t Rev. Bryolog., xxxiv. (1907) pp. 81-6. \ Bull. Jard. Imp. Bot. St. Petersbourg, vii. (1907) pp. 1-8 (2 pis.). § Hedwigia, xlvii. (1907) pp. 1-59 (figs.). 200 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO pyriforme, and P. splicer icam, and gives a detailed account of his results. He states that just as Funaria hybrida, Ditrichum Breidleri, D. astomoides are hybrid mosses of known parentage, so also is Physcomi- trella Hampei, the mother of which is always P. patens, but the father may be either PJvyscomitrium sphcp/ricum or P. pyriforme or P. eurysto- mum. The author very carefully describes the structure of the respective parents and of the resulting hybrids. He finds that the hybrids in their vegetative parts (oophyte) correspond with the mother species, P. patens ; but in the asexual generation (sporophyte) they inherit the characters of the father species. Parallel Forms and Variability of Cell-length in Mosses.* — L. Loeske has been studying the parallelism of forms in various species under the influence of similar external conditions. In this sort of work the study of herbarium specimens is of very little help ; the plants must be observed in their natural habitats. He discovered a new variety, Hygrohypnum subsplmricarpum var. cataractarmn, in a cascade in Algau, a form remarkable for the long and even excurrent costa in its leaves (the costa of the type being but three-quarters of the length of the leaf). He thereupon turned his attention to Amblystegium fallax and its var. spinifolium, which Roth and others claim to be a distinct species ; and he has come to the conclusion that A. fallax is a flowing- water form of A. filicinum, that A. fallax var. spinifolium is a parallel form of A. irriguum, and A. noterophiloides a parallel form of A. fluviatile. Warnstorf indeed combined the two latter into one species. Gratoneuron irrigatum is, Loeske thinks, a mixture of parallel forms of G. commuta- tum and G.falcatum growing in mountain streams. The rest of Loeske's paper treats of the increase in length of the prosenchymatous cells of the leaf in species of Gratoneuron and Hygroamblystegwm, this lengthening- being proportional to the increased length of the leaf under the influence of running water ; this is associated with a strengthening of the midrib. Loeske recounts some observations made by him of change of form in mosses under change of environment. Ramification in Muscineae.t — M. Servit has been incited by the researches of Yelenovskv to examine the mode of branching in Muscineae. On the whole he confirms the results of that author, but he also publishes fresh observations and adds to those already made. In liverworts two modes of ramification are recognised : (1) the terminal branching in which the branches arise exogenously ; (2) the intercalary endogenous formation of shoots. Leitgeb distinguishes two modifications of the former method. This division is based on the behaviour of the shoot in an early stage, but the present author shows that the fully developed plant does not always correspond with the young stages. Velenovsky describes certain so-called angular leaves (angular blatter) for the vas- cular cryptogams only, but Servit here describes and figures similar growths for liverworts, notably Mastigobryum trilobatum, where this axillary bract is inserted on two branches. He discusses monopodial and dichotomous branching as it occurs in the hepatics, in which group the former mode of branching characterises the erect growing species, * Allgem. Bot. Zeitschr., xiii. (1907) pp. 119-22. t Beih. Bot. Centralbl., xxii., Abt. 1 (1907) pp. 287-93 (figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 201 and the dichotomous the closely creeping species. The mosses branch monopodially. The sphagna are so peculiar in their ramifications as to confirm the view that they form an isolated moss type. Androgynous Inflorescences in Dumortiera.* — A. Ernst has made a special study of two Javan species of Dumortiera, D. trichocephala N. ab E., and D. velutina Schiffn., and compares hi$ results with the work done in other species of the genus by Leitgeb and Goebel. He describes the habit and place of growth of the two species under con- sideration, and then gives a short description of their male and female receptacles. Besides these, he finds in D. trichocephala frequently, and more rarely in D. velutina, inflorescences of mixed sex, that is, shoots which have come to bear sexual organs, the rays of which do not all bear organs of similar sex. These are by no means exceptional growths, as in Preissia commutata, but quite common in D. trichocephala on plants collected from many localities in Java. This species differs, therefore, from the generality of Marchantioideae Cornpositae in being monoecious, not dioecious, inasmuch as it possesses male, female, and mixed in- florescences, on different branches of the same plant. Statistics are given as to the occurrence of mixed inflorescences in both D. tricho- cephala and D. velutina. Comparison between Muscinese and Vascular Cryptogams.! — G. Bonnier reviews the theories put forward from time to time by various authors as to an analogy between the respective parts of plants in these two groups, but he condemns them all as being untenable, and pronounces the Muscineae to be a group by itself, occupying a special position in the vegetable kingdom. He then proceeds to examine possible intermediates between Muscineae and Vascular Cryptogams on the one hand and Muscineae and Thallophytes on the other, the former of these considera- tions being the subject of the present paper. This he does, after a few preliminary remarks, under the following headings : (1) Comparison of the Gametophyte in Muscineae and Vascular Cryptogams ; (2) Com- parison of the Sporophyte ; and (3) Comparison of the mode of multiplication. In conclusion, he points out that notwithstanding comparisons and homologies, the Muscineae present great differences from other plants. Though Anthoceros resembles Vascular Cryptogams in its gametophyte, it differs profoundly in its sporophyte ; and though an alga of the Florid eae in protonema, sporogonium and thallus may have a general development very comparable with that of a moss, it differs profoundly in the origin of the spore mother-cells, the archegonium and antheridium. Thallophyta. Algse. (By Mrs. E. S. Gepp.) Staining of Algae.} — F. Brand has made interesting experiments, proving that the use of various reagents is not only a convenient means * Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxv. (1907) pp. 455-64 (1 pi.), t Rev. Gen. Bot., xix. (1907) pp. 513-21 (figs, in text). t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxv. (1907) pp. 497-506. April 15th, 1908 p 202 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO of determining their identity, but that it also leads to certain scientific deductions. He finds that a given reagent has the same effect on all parts of the same species, be they vegetative or rhizoidal, zoospores, or germinating plantlets. This fact is of great importance in the dis- crimination of forms belonging to polymorphic species, and would, for instance, prevent confusion between the young stages of Cladophora, which resemble Gongrosira, and the true Gongrosira which reacts to a different stain. Instances are given of the effect of various stains on certain genera of algee, which have been soaked for 24 hours in water containing a percentage of acetic acid ; all the material employed, except where specially stated, was from dried plants. The author then describes a new species of Gongrosira, G. lacustris, which he discovered during his staining experiments. A new form of Coleochcete scutata, f. lobata, is also described, which the author con- siders as representing merely a biological form of typical C. scutata. There is no sign on it of reproductive organs, and it has not reappeared in the year of writing. Coleochsete nitellarum.* — I. F. Lewis remarks on the structure of G. nitellarum, and compared specimens collected at Long Island with the original German plants described by Jost in 1895. | Lewis notes two peculiarities of structure — the thin, delicate cell-walls, and the broad, flat shape of the cells, and explains both these phenomena by the endophytic habit of the species. He points out that his Long Island plants are strictly monoecious, the antheridia being usually produced in the immediate vicinity of the oogonia. The mode of origin of antheridia and oogonia is described, and an account given of fertilisation as observed in stained preparations. The nucleus of the oogonium is central in the cell, and some- what larger than the vegetative nuclei. The nucleus from the spermatozoid, at first small, increases in size as it approaches the oogonial nucleus, until two nuclei of approximately the same size lie side by side in the centre of the oogonium. The nuclei fuse while the chromatin is in the resting condition. Immediately after fusion, neighbouring vegetative cells send up branches over the oogonium to form the characteristic cortex of the oospore. Formation of the zoospores is described, and the author shows that there is here an indication of the formation of a multilocular sporangium similar to that in certain Phaeophyceae. Division of the nucleus is indirect, and does not take place until the single pyrenoid and chromatophore have first divided. The only exception to this rule is in the case of the antheridia, where the chromatophore and pyrenoid remain undivided in the mother-cell. Algae of Mark Brandenburg-.} — E. Lemmermann publishes the second part of his work on the algae of Brandenburg. He completes the systematic treatment from Phormidium to Rivularia and the genera of Camptotrichiaceas ; and then proceeds to deal with the class Flagel- latae from a general point of view. His remarks cover the structure of * Johns Hopkins Univ. Calendar, Notes Biol. Lab., March 1907, pp. 29-30. t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. xiii. X Kryptogamen-Flora Mark Brandenburg, iii. part 2 (1907) pp. 129-304. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 203 the cell, movement, nutrition, multiplication, formation of colonics, phenomena of attraction, occurrence, seasonal dimorphism, parasites, and symbiosis. A list of literature on the subject is given, and the opening lines of the systematic treatment of the group are included in this part. Contributions to the Algal Flora of Nordhausen.* - - F. Quelle gives a list of 31 species new to the district collected by himself. Among these is Surirella anceps Lewis, which up to the present time has only been recorded once, and that was from the Notch Valley in the White Mountains, United States, in 1S60. The conditions in which this species is found living in the Hartz Mountains are much the same as those of the original habitat. The author describes some of the characteristic features of the species. Names are given of certain Cyanophycere which constitute "water-bloom " at two localities. French Algae collected in the English Channel.! — J. Bessil gives an account of an algological excursion lasting three days to the environs of Saint- Vaast-la-Hougue, and of Barfleur in the English Channel, the objects being to observe marine algae in situ, to study them alive in their habitats, to obtain an idea of the marine flora in its diverse facies, to learn how to collect, determine, and study algae, to become familiar with their forms and names. He recounts what was done each day, and gives lists of the algae found. Marine Algae of Lambay4 — The late E. A. L. Batters made a list of about 200 species of algaa collected at Lambay, an island off the coast of Co. Dublin, during a week in April 1906, during the combined attempt of zoologists, botanists, etc., to investigate the natural history of the island. Twenty of the species have never previously been recorded from the coasts of the island, and only one species has been recorded previously from Lambay. Many of the common species were absent at the time of the investigation. The algal flora of the island on the whole resembles most nearly that of the Isle of Man and the Clyde sea area. Caulerpas of the Danish West Indies.§ — F. Borgesen writes an ecological and systematic account of the Caulerpas of the Danish West Indies, and divides his remarks into two sections, a General and a Systematic part. In the General part he deals first with the external conditions under which the Caulerpas live in the Danish West Indies, describing the three localities as " somewhat exposed," " sheltered," and in " deeper water." On much exposed shores he has never found any of these plants. Under " the rhizome and root of the Caulerpas and their variations under different external conditions," the author describes (1) epiphytic or mud-collecting Caulerpas ; (2) sand and mud Caulerpas ; and (3) rock and coral-reef Caulerpas. In the sand- Caulerpas the roots " first grow vigorously without division some cms. down into the bottom, and then suddenly become divided into numerous * Mitth. Thiiriug. Bot. Ver., 1907, pp. 36-9. t Bull. Soc. Bot. France, liv. (1907) pp. 269-80. X Irish Naturalist, xvi. (1907) pp. 107-10. § Mem. Acad. Roy. Sci. Lett. Danemark, ser. 7, iv. (1907) pp. 339-92 (figs, in text). p 2 204 SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO rhizoids, whereas the roots of the rock and coral Caulerpa, on the contrary, are commonly directly divided into several branches, which by degrees are divided into a great multitude of thin rhizoids." The form of the rhizoids may vary in the same species according to the substratum on which it grows. Under the heading of " The different types of assimilation-shoots in Caulerpa, and their ecological adaptation to the surrounding external conditions," the author criticises the published views of Reinke as to their uniformity of external conditions, and maintains that among Caulerpas there is sufficient variation in this respect to account for much of the variety of form in the genus being caused by adaptation. He divides the genus into species which have (1) leaf-like, bilateral assimilation-shoots, and (2) radial species, and he finds that Caulerpas must be regarded, to a great extent, as ecologisms which are highly variable and adapted to particular growing places. There are, of course, certain variations which are not ecological, but the whole subject must be treated by means of experiments, and more knowledge is required before the variability of the species can be satisfactorily explained. Nine species are recorded from the Danish West Indies, on each of which the author gives critical notes and adds illustrations. Plankton of the Yang-tze-kiang.* — E. Lemmermann publishes the first records of the plankton of Chinese rivers. He took six samples between Chingkiang and Kiukiang, and he enumerates the species f ouud therein, which included 10 Schizophycese, 8 Chlorophycege, 5 Conjugates, 1 Flagellate, 54 Bacillarige ; he makes remarks on some of the species and describes several novelties. Finally, he states that the plankton of the Yang-tze differs from that of previously examined rivers by the predominance of Lysigonium varians De Toni, Synedra ulna Ehrenb., S. longissima var. subcapitata Lemm., Surirella calcarata Pfitz., and Diaptomus, the presence of Pediastrum clathratum Lemm. and Surirella elongata Lemm., and the absence of certain typical forms. Phytoplankton of Ceylon.f — E. Lemmermann publishes the first records of phytoplankton from Ceylon. The material was collected by Borgert and Willey, partly in Gregory Lake near Nuwara Eliya, and partly in Colombo Lake. From Gregory Lake are recorded 4 Schizo- phyceas, 6 Chlorophyceas, 4 Conjugatae, 2 Flagellatae, 1 Peridiniale and 10 Bacillariales. Remarks are made on the species of Melosira and Pediastrum, which occur there ; a new species, Lyngbya Borgerti, is described, as well as a new variety, ceylanica, of Dinobryon cylindricum. In Colombo Lake were found 6 Schizophyceae, 9 Chlorophyceae, 3 Con- jugate, 1 Flagellate, 3 Bacillariales. The phytoplankton of this lake is poor, and the species, with three exceptions, are not well represented. All except two are found in European waters. Swarm-spores of Fresh-water AlgaB.J — A. Pascher publishes an account of his experiments, extending over four years, on certain Chloro- * Archiv Hydrobiol. u. Planktonkunde, ii. (1907) pp. 534-44 (1 pi.), t Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Systematik. xxv. (1907) pp. 263-8. See also Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) Beibl., p. 69. + Stuttgart : Luerssen, Bibliotbeca Botanica, xiv. heft 67 (1907) 116 pp. (8 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 205 phyceae, arranged under the following headings : — 1. Variation of zoo- spores of certain Chlorophyceee, notably Ulothrix zonata, Stigeoclonium (4 species), Draparnaudia glomerata, Tribonema and Oedogonium. 2. Development of zoospores, witli special regard to intermediate forms of swarm-spores. 3. Systematic treatment of Ulotrichales, divided into Tetrakontre and Dikontse. The paper is illustrated with 8 plates, repre- senting the variations by mathematical curves. Pathological Growth-phenomenon in Spirogyra and Mougeotia.* Z. Woycicki has investigated further the effect of coal-gas on plants, and adds to our knowledge on the subject. He finds that the quantity of this gas which is present in laboratories exercises a strong influence on the cells of Spirogyra when kept there. Various experiments were carried out on species of Spirogyra and Mougeotia, short accounts of which are given in the present preliminary note, and further details are promised shortly. The results are a further confirmation of the views of Richter. Processes of Division, Cell-rejuvenation and Sporulation in Biddulphia.f — P. Bergon gives the results of five years of careful study of the biology of Biddulphia mobiliensis Bailey. Despite prolonged observation he has failed to determine the fate of the motile microspores after their escape from the sporangium. He describes in detail the process of cell-division, the disposition of the nucleus and endochrome in the resting state, the orientation and symmetry of the cell. As regards the formation of auxospores, he finds that in B. mobiliensis they do not arise from the most diminutive cells, but from cells only slightly less than medium size. He therefore prefers to regard this phenomenon as a rejuvenation of the cell, rather than as a method of re-establishing its size. He gives a long and minute description of the details of sporula- tion, which he finds to occur at a fairly constant season in the year, depending, however, rather on the weather. At Arcachon sporulation occurs between the extreme end of December and the end of February ; that is, in the time of greatest vegetative intensity. Fine cold weather is particularly favourable to the process. He thinks that there is a correlation between rejuvenation and sporulation, since he has found the two processes going on side by side in great abundance. He gives a series of measurements of the cell in repose, in rejuvenation, and in sporulation. Species of Ceratium in the Gulf of Lyons.J — J. Pavillard publishes notes upon all the species of Ceratium found in the Gulf of Lyons. These are 27 in number, and one of them is new to science. His system is to regard as a species every form that is sharply defined by constant characters, rather than to group them as varieties of a specific type, or as forms of the same variety. In this he follows Schrceder. For some of the species he gives dimensions, which as a rule are invariable. Avrainvillea and HalimedaJ — M. A. Howe publishes the third part of his Phycological Studies, and in it he deals almost entirely with the * Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxv. (1907) pp. 527-9. t Bull. Soc. Bot. France, liv. (1907) pp. 327-58 (4 pis.). X Torn, cit., pp. 148-54, 225-31 (1 fig.). § Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxiv. (1907) pp. 491-51G. 206 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO two genera above mentioned. His first section is devoted to remarks on the sporangia of Halimeda tridens (under which name he refers to what we commonly call H. incrassata) and of H. Tuna. The sporangia of H. tridms have not been hitherto recorded, and they are here com- pared with those of H. Tuna. They are uniformly yellowish-brown or burnt-umber colour, and the sporangiophores are most densely clustered along the upper margins of the segments, especially at the apices of the lobes ; they may, however, emerge from any part of the segment and sometimes completely cover its surface. The author then presents his views on the American species of the H. Tuna group, in which he recognises three distinct species — E. Tuna, H. discoidea, and H. scabra. He attributes a certain amount of importance to the degree of calcifica- tion, as well as to the size and shape of the peripheral and subperipheral utricles. The next section is devoted to a treatment of the American species of the H. tridms group, in which the author describes a new species H. simulans, and recognises three other species. One of these is the H. monile Lam., generally regarded as being a form of PL. incrassata. A key of the four species of this group is given. An important fact is recorded in this paper, namely, the finding for the first time of the sporangia of Avrainvillea, which the author has discovered in the species A. nigricans Decne. They consist of clavate and fusiform to pyriform and subglobose bodies, borne on filaments raised above the surface of the thallus. Sometimes the sporangium only contains a single spore, but the usual number is three, four or five, rarely six, seven or eight. The author regards them as aplanospores. The final section of the paper deals with the American species of AvrainviUea, of which the author describes four with synonymy and key. He adds finally a note on U. tomentosa Murray and U. luteofusca Murray. Some Critical Green Algae.* — G. S. "West publishes notes on six members of the Chlorophyceas, about which nothing or little is known. Three of these are new species, and one is transferred to another genus. The first alga dealt with is Polgclmtophora simplex, the discovery of which adds a second species to that genus. The author describes it in detail, and points out the differences between it and Glceochcete Witt- rockiana Lagerh. P. simplex is a member of the Chlorophyceas, and its cells, which are not enveloped in mucilage, are each furnished with two to four simple bristles. G. Wittrockiana, on the other hand, is one of the Myxophyceae, with its cells enveloped in a copious mucilage, and its bristles frequently possess short spuivlike branches. Brachiomonas sub- marina Bohlin is next described, belonging to a genus only observed hitherto from Norway and Sweden. Phyllobiuni sphagnicola is another new species, and constitutes the first recorded instance of a Phyllobium occurring on the leaves of a Sphagnum. Kirchneriella subsolitaria, the third new species, differs from the three previously known members of that genus in the subsolitary habit and the entire absence of mucus. Tetraedron platyisthmum has been known as Cosmarium pi at y isthmian Archer, who recorded it from Ireland. West now finds it in collec- tions of algas from the boggy hollows in the Lewisian gneiss of West * Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) xxxviii. (1908) pp. 279-89 (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 207 Sutherland, and is able to give a fuller description of the plant, showing that it is not a Desinid. Finally, the author records Chodatella quadriseta Leuimermann, from Studley Park, Warwickshire. Diatoms of the Pacific* — A. Mann reports on the Diatoms collected by the 'Albatross' in the Pacific Ocean during the years 1888-1904. He first describes the methods employed for examining the samples to see if they contained diatoms, as well as the way of mounting the speci- mens. Many of the samples were destitute of diatoms, but some, even as deep as 987 and 1744 fathoms, were particularly rich in them. The importance of the study of diatoms is pointed out as an aid in deter- mining the extent and direction of ocean currents and the origin of the materials composing the sea bottoms. This is partly owing to the inde- structibility of their siliceous remains, those which were formed centuries ago being as well preserved as those of this year's product ; and partly to their extreme minuteness, which allows them to be readily transported by even quite slow ocean currents or surface drifts from their places of origin to remote points and finally sifted down upon the sea bottom. Another point is the enormous number of known species, over 4000, some of which are peculiar to certain localities, there being a tropical, temperate, and frigid flora. The author then goes on to show that certain species were found in certain areas, one instance being that of Biddulphia favus, which forms a practically unbroken chain from Cali- fornia to the Hawaiian Islands. Other important facts concerning the geographical distribution of diatoms are given. The main part of this report consists of an annotated catalogue of genera and species, in which a certain number of new species are described. Synonymy, references to literature, and critical notes follow each record. A list of data of the stations at which diatoms were collected by the ' Albatross,' and a full bibliography complete the work, which is illustrated by 11 plates. Distribution of Fucacese on the Coast of Greenland.!— H. Deich- mann and L. K. Rosenvinge write a criticism of a publication by K. J. V. Steenstrup on the question whether the upper limit of the Fucaceae zone can be regarded as indicating variations of sea-level. A short resume is given of the views of this author, and then the views of the present writers are set forth. They deal principally with the " Isf od " or coating of ice which is formed during the winter on the rocks at the edge of the sea, and stretches from a point above high-water mark to a point more or less below it. Deichmann has made a careful study of this Isfod and describes the manner and time of its growth and the effect it has on the algae. He maintains that it is not harmful to the littoral flora as has been supposed, but that the bare zone lying between high-water mark and the lowest limit of terrestrial vegetation is the result of other causes. The zone is too much splashed by sea-water to allow of the successful growth of land plants, while marine algae cannot easily exist where there is an insufficient supply of water. The distribution of the Isfod varies in different parts of the region * Contrib. U.S. National Herbarium, x. (1907) pp. 215-422 (11 pis.), t Bot. Tiddsk., xxviii. (1907) pp. 171-84 (photos.). (French resume.) 208 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO examined, but the authors show that its presence is not destructive to marine algae. Sphaeranthera lichenoides.*— F. Heydrich discusses this plant, which was figured so long ago as 17*6 by Ellis and Solanderf; indeed, their figures are pronounced to be far the best existing to this day. He criticises adversely the views held by Foslie on the limits of the species and its forms, which views have been incorporated in De Toni's Sylloge Algarum. Heydrich considers that of the material he has examined, two large groups can be made; the first, consisting exclusively of plants which grow on Corallina, and are found more often on the North- European coasts ; the second, all those which do not occur on Gorallina, but on stones, large algaB and rhizomes of Posidonia, and inhabit the Mediterranean. The first form he calls pusilla, the second depressa. The figure of Ellis and Solander \ represents Heydrich's f . pusilla, but f . depressa has never been figured. A third form, growing on Rytiphlaza pinastroides in Jersey is called f . densa and forms a link between S. lichen- oides and 8. Philippi. The manner of attachment to the substratum is discussed and the differences are considered by the author to be of value in the determination of the species. The structure of the procarp is considered in detail, and both antheridia and tetrasporangia are described. Fucus Living on Sand and on Mud.§— C. Sauvageau has found two species of Fucus — F. spiralis and F. vesiculosus — growing at Arcachon on clayey sand. The plants of F. spiralis measure only a few centimetres, rarely a decimetre. The older plants throw out at their base new fronds on a very short perennial stipe, but these shoots never become trans- formed into stolons. Propagation takes place exclusively by the germi- nation of oogonia. The plants are attached to the sand by means of rhizoids, which are the prolongation of the intertwined hypha? or fibres of the stipe ; these become generally welded together to form the disk of attachment in plants of Fucus which have passed their first youth. Thus it is seen that F. spiralis adapts itself to a life on sand by preserv- ing the characters of its early stages. Living side by side with F. spiralis is found F. vesiculosus, similarly affixed to the sand by a bouquet of rhizoids. It attains, however, a greater height, namely, 10-15 cm., and it grows more rapidly. The large fronds are usually without vesicles, and the few vesiculiferous individuals observed were not fertile ; indeed, the fructification, almost constant in F. spiralis, is on the contrary rare in F. vesiculosus growing on sand, while large plants of this species fixed on a solid base are abundantly fertile. The author records also F. lutarius, growing on stretches of mud at a tide level intermediate between that of F. vesiculosus and F. platycar- pus var. spiralis (F. spiralis), forming scattered tufts which are weighed down at low water. Their base, more and more enveloped in mud, is never fixed to any solid substratum, and new fronds arise from the midrib of the enveloped portion. Thus the plants multiply by vegetative * Beih. Bot. Centralbl., xxii. Abt. 2 (1907) pp. 222-30 (1 pi.). t Zoophytes (London, 1786) p. 131, tab. xxiii. (figs. 10-12). j Loc. cit. § C.R. Soc. Biol. Bordeaux, lxii. (1907) pp. 699-703. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 209 means, which accounts for the absence of reproductive organs. By its habitat, its sterility, and its mode of multiplication, F. lutarius appears to the author sufficiently distinct from F. veskulosus and F. axillaris. He considers it is probably an adaptation of one of these two species to a particular habit of life. This opinion is strengthened by the variation in the distribution of the cryptostomata, which is not yet of a definite character. Colpomenia sinuosa.* — L. Corbiere publishes a note upon Colpomenia sinuosa, recording its presence at numerous stations on the coast of Cherbourg as well as 20 kilometres to the west. He has no doubt that millions of plants of it exist in the English Channel to the north of Cotentin, though at the time of writing it had not been observed on the oyster beds of St. Vaast. Specimens were collected at Les Flamands, near Cherbourg, so long ago as March 1906. L. Mangin shortly discusses points of interest in connection with this alga, and states that he has found it at St. Vaast among rocks to the north and east of the Isle of Tatihou. It has also been found in water of varying degrees of salinity, and the author hopes to give shortly more information on the degrees of salinity and of brackish water in which the plant can live. He points out that in certain states C. sinuosa may be confused with Leathesia difformis ; but the former has a dense cortex, composed of polyhedral cells closely adpressed, while L. difformis has a filamentous external cortex, composed of cells easily separated. The confusion can only take place in autumn, since Colpomenia appears in autumn and winter, while Leathesia is a summer plant, appearing in June. Lithothamnia of the ' Sealark ' Expedition.! — M. Foslie has worked out the collection of Lithothamnia made by J. Stanley Gardiner in the Chagos Archipelago, Saya de Malha Banks, Seychelles, and other of the surrounding reefs and islands. He opens his paper with remarks on the different species which occur in the different localities, and makes interesting comparisons with the coral-reef building flora of other parts of the world. He finds a close correspondence between the area in question and the Maldives, the only region of the Indian Ocean which has been well worked hitherto. It appears that three or four species are the important reef -builders in the littoral region and in the upper- most part of the sublittoral region. These are Lithophyllum onkodes, L. craspedium and Goniolithon frutescens ; while L. Kaiseri (pallescens) also contributes to the formation of reefs, and in depths of about 60 fathoms Lithothamnion indicum and L. australe play their part. The author finds also that where Lithothamnia occur in great abundance, covering entire atolls, the number of species is small, but the number of individuals is enormous. This is the case at Chagos, Coetivy, certain places in the Maldives, at the Ellice Islands (Funafuti), and at the Gilbert Islands in the Pacific. In places where Lithothamnia do not appear in such large quantities the number of species is much larger. There seems to be a considerable correspondence between the Litho- thamnia in the Indian Ocean and those in large areas of the Pacific l&v * Bull. Soc. Bot. France, liv. (1907) pp. 280-4. t Trans. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) ser. 2, vii. (1907) pp. 93-108 (2 pis.). 210 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Ocean within the tropics ; and this concerns several of the species them- selves as well as their mode of occurrence, particularly such as determine the general aspect of the vegetation. The author describes 13 species collected on the ' Sealark ' Expedition, one of which is new. Ok am uk a, K. — Icones of Japanese Algae. Tokyo : (1907) i. Nos. 1-3. Fungi. (By A. Lorrain Smith, F.L.S.) Experiments with Sclerospora graminicola.* — G. B. Traverso pub- lished some time ago an account of a Sclerospora found on plants of Setaria italica, which varied somewhat from the typical form Scl. grami- nicola. Further gatherings of the fungus have enabled him to examine it more carefully. He finds that the conidial forms of the two are iden- tical, but all attempts to infect plants other than S. italica have failed, and he has also found the fungus richly infesting S. italica in a field, and leaving untouched the plants of S. viridis that grew there also in abundance. Traverso considers that he is dealing with a new biological form, var. Setarim-italicce.. Studies in North American Peronosporales. Il.f — G. West Wilson discusses in this paper the two tribes Phytophthorese and Rysotheceae, which normally germinate by means of zoospores. The latter includes the genera Basidiophora, Sclerospora, Rhysotheca, and Pseudoperonospora. Rhysotheca, a new genus, includes the greater number of species usually referred to Plasmopara, the type species being Plasmopara viticola. Two species are assigned to Pseudoperonospora : P. cubensis and P. Geltidis. The former causes a somewhat widespread and serious disease on Cucurbitacege. P. Celtidis is the only member of the order which affects a tree — it grows on Celtis occidentalis,andi& somewhat rare. Mycotheca of the School of Pharmacy of Paris. XXI. £ - O. Bainier gives a further series of interesting studies of various fungi. Two additional species of Syncephalastrnm were cultivated and are now described and figured ; they differ from the previously known species in having stolons. Piptocephalis Freseniana was also grown and the development watched ; zygospores were produced on the mycelium cultivated with Mucor fragilis on a crust of bread moistened with water. A new species of Trichurus is described ; it resembles somewhat a Stysanus, but the fructification is beset with long bristles. A new genus and species of Hyphomycetes (Dematicese) Chlamydomyces diffusus is described and compared with Trichocladium asperum and Acremoniella utra. All three are closely related. Cytology of Humaria rutilans.§ — H. C. L. Fraser has made a careful study of this Discomycete with a view to ascertaining the * Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital., xiv. (1907) pp. 575-8. + Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxiv. (1907) pp. 387-416. \ Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiii. (1907) pp. 218-41 (4 pis.). § Ann. of Bot., xxii. (1908) pp. 35-53 (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 211 development of the ascogoniuin, spores, etc. She finds that the ascocarp originates as a tangle of septate hyplne, each cell containing one or a few nuclei of two sizes, the smaller fusing in pairs and so producing the larger, thus constituting a process of reduced fertilisation or apogamy. The cells containing these nuclei form ascogenous hyphae ; as they develop, their nuclei increase in size ; the two terminal nuclei undergo simultaneous karyokinetic division, showing sixteen chromo- somes. The further formation of the ascus and the various phases of nuclear division are followed in detail. The spores are outlined by radiations passing from the centrosome ; near the base of the spore vacuoles may take part in the process. Biology of Ergot.* — Rob. Stager publishes a continuation of his studies on Clavkeps purpurea. He finds that, though the sclerotia lie 4 to 6 months in the soil without germination, growth can be hastened by more favourable conditions of moisture and warmth. From theasco- spores produced on sclerotia collected from Festuca arundinacea, he in- fected Anthoxanthum odoratum and Melica nutans successfully, the latter especially so. Later the infection experiments were extended to Poa alpina and Bromus erectus, in both these cases unsuccessfully. Other grasses were also infected, and Stager finally established that he was dealing with typical Clavkeps purpurea. He next experimented with Clavkeps taken from Poa annua, and as a result proved that he was dealing with a biological species of C. purpurea. Further experiments are to be undertaken. Gooseberry Mildew in Russia.f — R. Regel communicates the history of the first appearance of the American mildew in central Russia. It was seen first at Winnitzy, in Podolia, in 1895, in the garden of a man who was keenly interested in American fruit trees, which he had im- ported in considerable numbers. Along with the fruit trees he had also brought over the disease. Mycological Notes from South America and Spain.J — F. W. Neger records two species of Chytridiaceas found by him in Chili : Synchytrium Taraxaci, in which the sporangia are rather larger than in the European forms, and Syn. aureum, on a species of Plantayo. From Patagonia he records Urophlyctis major, on Rumex mar it im us, hitherto found only sparsely in Germany. Two species of Erysiphaceaj, also from Pata- gonia, were diagnosed, one, Sphce,rothera spiralis, new to science. Notes are added on several fungi from southern Spain, notably Ant mi- liaria erkophila, which, at a slight elevation, forms little pustules on the leaf, which, as a rule, contain perithecia as well as the conidial form. At a higher elevation, the vegetative mycelium grows so luxuriantly that balls are formed the size of a hen's egg or larger. These are either formed of sterile mycelium or with conidiophores only. Perithecia never occur at the higher altitude. Changed conditions of temperature and humidity account for the wide differences in the development of the * Centralbl. Bakt., xx. (1908) pp. 272-9. t Gartenflora, lvi. (1907) pp. 357-8. J Centralbl. Bakt. xx. (1907) pp. 92-5. 212 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO fungus. It is always superficial, but damages tbe host-plant by ex- cluding air and light. Morphology of Aspergillus herbariorum.* — H. C. L. Fraser and H. S. Chambers have made a cytological study of the development of this fungus. All the cells are multinucleate as well as the ascospores and conidia ; the latter contain about four nuclei at maturity. The archicarp arises as a narrow branch from the mycelium ; it is at first aseptate, but cell-walls soon appear and cut off a septate stalk, a unicellular trichogyne and a unicellular ascogonium. The antheridium arises separately, and consists of a long stalk, at the apex of which is a small antheridial cell. It either fuses with the tip of the trichogyne or degenerates before reaching this stage. It seems probable that such fusion sometimes takes place ; at other times it is replaced by the fusion of ascogonial nuclei in pairs. The ascogonium then becomes septate, and each cell produces ascogenous hyphffi, from which arise the asci in which eight spores are formed. The authors suggest several new terms to explain the different forms of nuclear fusion other than the normal syngamy : viz. homoiogamy — a fusion of two sexual nuclei of the same kind ; hylogamy — fusion of one sexual with one vegetative nucleus ; and pseudogamy — fusion of two vegetative nuclei. In Aspergillus either normal syngamy or homoiogamy takes place. A comparison is made between Aspergillus and other Ascomycetes, and the relationship of the group to the Uredineae and the red algae is indicated. Aspergillus is regarded as a primitive ascomycetous type, from which most others can be derived. Conidial Development of Xylaria Hypoxylon.f — F. Gueguen kept this fungus in a moist chamber, and made observations on the forma- tion of conidia, etc. He found that the stromata were positively phototropic ; the elongation of the clubs and the production of conidia took place only under the influence of light. The basidia produce at their tips a large number of conidia, which do not germinate until they have attained complete maturity. The region of growth of the " club " is subterminal a few milli- metres below the tip ; the basidia that bear the conidia rise from medullary hyphae. Remarkable Fungus Forms. — H. and P. SydowJ describe anew species, Xylaria obesa, 15 cm. high and 10 cm. thick, which grew on wood in Eastern Africa. The stroma is at first smooth and with a yellow covering, the fruiting portion being distinguished by wrinkles and folds. T. Petch § publishes an account of a Sclerotium found in termite nests, which had already been seen and described by Berkley as Sclero- tium stipitatum. Petch was able to develop from these the ascus form of Xglaria nigripes. When a comb from the nests is kept under a bell-jar, it produces a conidial Xylaria. T. Petch concludes that this fungus was continually kept in check by the ants as a weed. When the nest is deserted in wet weather, Xylaria grows from the comb ; if * AnD Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 419-31 (2 pis.). t Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiii. (1907) pp. 186-217 (2 pis.). % Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) p. 400. § Tom. cit., pp. 401-3. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 213 in dry weather, a Sclerotium is formed, Sc. stipitatum. Large sclerotia give rise to a perithecial Xylaria ; the smaller sclerotia produce only conklhil forms. Study of Penicillium.* — Carl Weidemann sums up the work of various writers on this genus, and gives a sketch of the species examined and established by them. He lays special stress on the necessity of always recording the substratum on which the fungus has been growing, and also in culture experiments he considers it advisable to test the develop- ment on a variety of substances. He has followed this plan in his examination of seven species, P. olivaceum, P. italicum, P. camemberti, P. roqueforti, P. Juglandis, P. Muses, and P. Jciliense. The last three are new species discovered by him on various substances ; several of the others, as the names indicate, grew on cheese. He gives in each case a microscopic description of the species and adds the observations made on the cultures on gelatin, rice, sugar, milk, tannin, etc. The species are all illustrated. No ascomycetous fruit was found for any of the species. Hyphomycetes.t — The fascicle just issued by G. Lindau deals with some of the largest genera of Hyphomycetes, Helminthosporium, Brachy- sporium, and Cercospora. The latter is parasitic on leaves, stalks, etc., and is often the cause of considerable damage to cultivated plants. A large number of species are described, and the genera are illustrated, sometimes by drawings of several species. Development of Endophyllum Euphorbiae-silvaticse.l — W. Midler describes this fungus, which lives in the stems and leaves of Euphorbia amygdaloides, and which takes two years for its full development. The rhizome buds become infected by the spores, the fungus remains dormant during the winter and grows in spring with the growth of the host-plant. In April and May pyenidia and sometimes aecidia are formed. After a second winter the mycelium attacks the meristem of the plant and causes the characteristic deformations. Pyenidia are again formed and teleuto- spores in cup-like sori on the under side of the leaves. The growth of the plant is seriously retarded, and flowering is hindered or entirely prevented. Uredineas. — Ed. Fischer § reports on Gymnosporangium in Switzer- land. He distinguishes two classes ; those in which the teleutospores grow on Juniperus Sabina, and those with teleutospores on J. communis. Five species have been distinguished, but Fischer thinks there are pro- bably more than that number included in the group. His inoculation experiments proved this in more than one instance. F. Urech || reported a case of Puccinia Garicis having been found growing on a nettle stalk, forming a sorus, about 10 cm. in length, and causing a bending of the stalk. Though diligent search was made, no second instance of its occurrence was found. * Centralbl. Bakt., xix. (1907) pp. 675-90, 755-69 (8 figs.). t Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen Flora, i. abt. 9, lief 106 (Leipzig, 1907) pp. 49-112. % Centralbl. Bakt., xx. (1908) pp. 333-41. § Arcb. Sci. Phys. Nat., xxiv. (1897) pp. 494-6. || Tom. cit., pp. 497-8. 214 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Eriksson * writes on the significance of the Barberry in the propaga- tion of wheat rust. There are seven different biological forms of Puccinia graminis in which the aacidium is to be found on the Barberry, but the gecidiospores will only reinfect the grass from which it originated in the first instance— all other crops are safe from that particular rust. Eriks- son notes also that aecidiospores from the Barberry do not germinate easily, and he concludes from his study of the subject that it is quite safe to cultivate the Barberry, as it plays a comparatively small part in rust propagation. J. 0. Arthur f publishes the results of his series of culture experiments for 1907. In the first 17 recorded, no results were obtained. A second list of 22 includes those species which had been already experimented with, but in which additional knowledge was gained as to germination, etc. He records further H species of Uredinese that were successfully cultivated for the first time. W. Miiller % has undertaken an exhaustive study of Melampsora on Euphorbiacefe. He has established 7 biological species in M. helioscopice. There is one that grows on Euphorbia helioscopia alone, the other forms are confined to different species of Euphorbia. The author has also made observations on the time of teleutospore germination, the duration of the period of incubation, etc. Walther Krieg § publishes the results of an extended series of similar- experiments with the Uromyces that form their aecidia on species of Ranunculus. He has established some new biological species, and fixed the limits of growth of the many forms dealt with. Sphaceolotheca on Polygonum. |] — De Bary separated this genus from Ustilayo because the hyphaj were not entirely converted into spores as in the latter genus. Four species are now known : Sph. Hydropipieris on Polygonum Hydropiper ; Sph. borealis on P. Bistortm ; and Sph. Polygoni-vivipari, which were included by De Bary under the first- mentioned. H. C. Schellenberg in the paper before us describes the appearance and development of all of these, and gives the reasons for separating them. The fourth species, Sph. alpina sp. n., on P. alpinum, is also carefully described ; in it, the spore layer is found between the leaf-sheaths and the flower-stalks, and infection7 probably takes place during the development of the flower. The so-called columella of this fungus is composed of sterile hyphse that surround the vascular bundle of the host ; similar hyphae clothe the wall of the attached capsules. Growth of Woody Fungi. H — L. Mangin has made observations on the growth of some of the larger Polyporeae. He calculated that a large fructification of Unyulina fomentaria measuring 3*50 m. in circum- ference and 20 cm. thick, had grown entirely in not more than 11 months. Similar observations had been made on U. betulina, of which the growth is similarly rapid ; a few months only are necessary for the growth of woody fungi 40 cm. and more in width. * Illustr. Landw. Zeit., No. 41 (1907). See also Centralbl. Bakt., xx. (1907) pp. 188-9. t Jouru. Mycol. xiv. (1908) pp. 7-26. J Centralbl. Bakt., xix. (1907) pp. 441-60. § Tom. cit., pp. 697-714 and 771-88. || Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 385-95 (1 pi.). 1 Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiii. (1907) pp. 155-6 (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 215 Wood-destroying Fungi.* — Richard Falck has made a biological study of those fungi that are destructive to living trees, to felled tree?, or to worked wood. He enumerates the different fungi of these groups, each showing a different type of mycelium. In all of these, there is an internal mycelium. In a fourth series, which embraces Merulius (dry rot), some Polyporege, etc., a surface mycelium is formed. These are compared and the rate of growth of the different hyphaa noted and tabulated. It is constant for each species, and depends on the dimen- sions of the mycelium, a purely physical consideration. Polyporaceae.t — The North American flora is gradually being published, and W. A. Murrill has charge of the Polyporaceae. He treats these according to his own rearrangements of genera and species. He recognises 4 tribes : Porieas, with 8 genera ; Polyporeae, with 47 genera ; Fomiteaa, with 10 genera ; and Daedaleae with 5 genera. The new genera are Fuscoporia, Fuscoporella, Fomitiporia, Fomitiporella, Tinctoporia, Melanoporella, and Melanoporia. A very large number of the species described are new to science. New Localities for Amanita caesarea.J — This edible agaric is very common in Italy and southern France, but less frequently met with further north. M. W. Russell publishes a list of places where it has been gathered : Fontainebleau, Versailles, etc., with some new localities also in the north. The fungus is usually found on sandy soils. Diseases of Plants. § — F. D. Kern gives an account of the occur- rence of ScUrotinia in the State of Indiana. The fungus in the conidial stage is known as Monilia fructiyena, and causes rotting of certain stone fruits. Peaches or plums finally shrivel up and become mummified — on these dried fruits the ascospore-form Sclerotinia fructiyena is pro- duced. It is rarely found, as it takes two years to develop, and occurs on fruits that have been covered over by humus for some time. The same author || gives a list of diseases that have been identified in the State of Indiana for some years past. These are classified under root- diseases, affecting absorption of food materials ; stem-diseases, affecting ascent of sap and transpiration ; those on wood, interfering with absorption and transfer of water ; those on bark, affecting transpiration only ; and on leaf, affecting transpiration and assimilation. T. Petch ^[ describes a disease of the tea-plants in Ceylon, caused by the fungus Massaria thekola sp. n. It attacks the stem. E. J. Butler ** also describes diseases from the East Indies. On Areca Catechu, a species of Phytophthora attacks and destroys the upper parts of the tree. Another fungus, probably a Basidiomycete, destroys the roots ; and on other palms he found a Pythium, which lived on and destroyed the sheathing leaves of the crown. * Hausschwammforschungen, Jena (1907) pp. 53-154. See also CentralbL Bakt., xx. (1908) pp. 348-51. t North American Flora, ix. pt. 1 (1907) 72 pp. New York Bot. Gard. X Bull. Soc. Bot. France, liv. (1907) pp. 25-6. § Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. (1906) pp. 134-6. II Tom. cit., pp. 129-33 (1 fig.). Tf Circ. and Agric. Journ. Roy. Bot. Gard. Ceylon, iv. (1907) pp. 21-30 (1 fig.). See also Ann. Mycol. v. (1907) p. 445. ** Agric. Journ. India, i. (1906) 12 pp. (2 pis.). See also Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 450-1. 21G SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO The same writer, along with II. M. Lefroy, * undertook experiments with Mncor exitiosus on insects of the locust tribe, to see if the fungus would attack these and so aid in reducing their numbers. Tin- experiments all proved the futility of the attempt. The fungus did no harm even when introduced as a wound-parasite into the bodies of tin- locusts. W. Harris f has published a paper on vine culture, and adds an account of the fungoid diseases which attack it. These are Sphacelous ampelinum, Lee-stadia Bidwelli, Peronospora viticola, Uncinula spiralis, Oidium Tucker i, and Glozosporium. fructigenum. Various remedies are suggested for these diseases. P. HariotJ describes an Oidium of the genus Microsphcera that infested an oak. Its development coincided with a prolonged time of wind from the north-east. A. Maublanc § gives a study of the fungi that infest Conifers, with a more detailed description of Fusicoccum abietinum, which attacks the branches and kills the tips, or sometimes fastens on branches several years old with equally serious results. The diseased portion is easily recognised by the coloration of the affected part, which becomes a blackish-brown. Economic Mycology. || — An account of various fungous diseases of fruit trees which have done serious damage in the Kent orchards has been published by B. S. Salmon. These are chiefly cherry leaf scorch (Gnomonia ery thro stoma) and apple scab or black-spot (Fusicladium dendriticum). Both of these have done great harm. Salmon recom- mends spraying with Bordeaux mixture as an effective and proved remedy. He notes also the first appearance in England of Urophlyctis Alfalfa on lucerne plants. It forms galls on the crown of the plant, and completely destroys it. He also redescribes the American gooseberry mildew (Sphmrotheca mors-uvce), confined so far to a few localities in the Mid- lands, but quite certain to spread rapidly if measures are not adopted to stamp it out. In a second paper 1f he describes a serious disease of potatoes that has appeared in England within the last ten years, and forms black scabs on the tubers. It is due to a chytridiaceous fungus, Oh/rysophlyctis endobiotka, which, as Salmon points out, has erroneously been described by several writers as CEdomyces leproides, a totally different fungus. Growers are specially warned against diseased seed. The fungus has appeared so far chiefly in Scotland and the north of England, where whole crops have been rendered useless. Pathogenic Spotting of Vine-shoots.** — Emil Molz has examined the spots on the young stems of the vine, and finds they are due to a * Agric. Res. Inst. Pusa, Bull. No. 5 (1907) 5 pp. See also Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) p. 451. t Bull. Jamaica Dept. Agric, v. (1907) pp. 1-26. See' also Bot. Centralbl., cv. (1907) pp. 670-1. % Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiii. (1907) pp. 157-9. § Tom. cit., pp. 160-73 (6 rigs.). || Report S.E. Agric. Coll. Wye., 1907, 58 pp. (26 pis.). •([ Leaflet, Black-scab or Warty Disease of Potatoes, S.E. Agric. Coll. Wye., Opp. (6 pis.). ** Centralbl. Bakt., xx. (1908) pp. 261-72 (2 pis. and 13 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 217 variety of causes. Often they resemble lenticels, but in section they may be distinguished by the absence of the loose cells that fill the cavity of the lenticel. Instead of these there is a massing of dead brown cells cut off by a cork-layer, which mark the position of old lenticels that have lost their function. Other spots mark the place of glands that have now become brown and withered. The fungus, Uncinula necator, causes spots to form round the place where its haustoria have pierced the epidermis. Fungicides, such as Bordeaux mixture, and hail, also cause damage to the young shoots, and the fungus Sphaceloma ampelinum gives rise to extended black patches. Parasitic Fungi from Java.* — S. H. Koorders gives the results of prolonged and careful culture experiments with Qlwosporium elasticce, Colletotrichum Ficus, and their ascomycetous form, Neozimm&rmannia elasticce sp. n. They all grow on Ficus elastica, causing sometimes con- siderable damage, though never entirely destroying the host. In addition to these two forms of fungi imperfecti, various other growth-forms were identified belonging to the same life-cycle, mostly conidial forms that were produced in the cultures, or that grew saprophytically on decaying vegetation. All the different stages are described and figured. The author has studied another series of fungi on the same host, a number of them being new species, and the following genera also new : Neohen- ningsia (Aspergillacese), Wetitiomyces (Perisporiacese), Lindauomyces (Stilbacere), Wiesneriomyces, and Acrotheciella (Tuberculariacese). Colour Reactions in Russula and Lactarius.f — I. Arnould and A. Goris, following the example of lichenologists and of Boudier for the Ascomycetes, have employed a chemical solution as a means of distinguishing between different species. The substance sulfovaniliaue (water 2 parts, sulphuric acid 2 parts, vanilin % gramme) had been used by Ronceray to test certain lichens for the presence of orcin. On the application of the reagent the tissues of most of the larger fungi tinge rose of varying shades. In certain species of Lactarius and Russula, the tissue turns rose, and the cystidia and laticiferous cells blue. Russulce that are very acrid turn rose and blue. Russula rosea becomes entirely rose-coloured, and R. vesca and R. lilacea give the same reaction ; in R. lepida the hymenial layer becomes rose-violet. R. delica has numerous cystidia and laticiferous cells, which colour blue, while in R. cyanoxantha only the tips of the cystidia take the blue colour. Simi- lar variations of colour are noted in Lactarii. Further tests will be made in a future season. Assimilation of Free Nitrogen by Fungi.| — Hermann Froehlich selected four Hyphomycetes for experiment, Macrosporium commune, Alternaria tenuis, Cladosporium herbarum, and Hormodendron clado- sporioides. Incidentally, he established the autonomy of the last two species. All of these are saprophytes, and live on plant remains. They * Verh. k. Akad. Wet. Amsterdam, xiii. No. 4 (1907) iv. and 264 pp. (12 pis. and 61 figs.) t Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiii. (1907) pp. 174-8. See also Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1199-1200. X Jahrb. Wiss. Bot., xlv. (1907) pp. 256-302 (3 figs.). April 15th, 1908 Q 218 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO are all aerobic and require oxygen for their devolopment ; no fermenta- tion was produced in any of the cultures. Froehlich established the assimilation of free nitrogeu in all of these fungi : it was highest in Macrosporium commune, lowest in Hormodendron. The combined nitrogen is thus made available for the use of chlorophyll plants. He also proved in a series of cultures what has been long surmised, that Penieillium glaucum and Aspergillus niger also assimilate free nitrogen from the atmosphere. Chalk-disease of Bread.* — A sample of bread that had been left wrapped in parchment for some time was found to have developed a growth of a white chalky fungus. P. Lindner examined it and found it to be a new species, Endomgces fibuliger. It has the power of forming hat-shaped spores and can ferment various sugars, thus resembling Willia yeasts ; but it does not give a yeast generation free from mycelia in fermenting liquids. Fermentation Fungi. f — CI. Putter has proved that a spherical yeast may be imitated by cultivating Mucor racemosus in a nutrient solution ; if the yeast-cells are placed in solution that contains no acid, mycelia are again formed. ■.- Fungus-culture of Wood-boring Beetles.! — F. W. Neger has carried on an investigation, begun by H. G. Hubbard, as to the fungus- food and fungus-culture of certain ambrosia beetles. In the passages formed in the wood by the beetles the fungus growth called ambrosia is constantly found. Neger tried to grow these fungoid bodies, but they invariably died off without further development. He established, how- ever, that the fungus was brought into the passages by the beetles, and that the ambrosia fungus is one that infects pine-needles, probably a Ceratostomella. He found, further, that very frequently Graphium — the conidial form of Ceratostomella— grew abundantly in the passages. The beetles do not purposely carry in fungus spores, as do the ants, but the conidia cling to their bodies and are carried with them to any new wood that is attacked by them. Bebgamesco, G. — Clitocybe Pelletieri. [A new species of Agaric from Italy.] Nuovo. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xiv. (1907) pp. 527-8. Bubak, Fh. — Adatok Magyarorszag gombaflorajahoz. (Contribution to the fungus flora of Hungary.) [A number of new species have been found and described, especially among the Sphasropsidese.] Novenytani Kbzlemimiek (1907) 42 pp. See also Ann. MycoL, v. (1907) pp. 439-40. Hennebebg, W. — Ein Beitrag zur Bedeutung von Gips, Kohlensaurem Kalk und Soda fur die Hefe. (The significance of gypsum, carbonate of lime and soda, in the culture of yeast.) [Yeast-cells die off where there is a lack of alkali.] Centralbl. Bakt.,xx. (1908) pp. 225-9. * Wochensch. Brau., xxiv. (1907) pp. 469-74. See also Journ. Inst. Brewing, xiii. (1907) pp. 735-6. t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxv. (1907) p. 25. See also Journ. Inst. Brewing, vii. (1907) p. 733. J Centralbl. Bakt., xx. (1908) pp. 279-82. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 219 Hohnel, Fr. von — Mykologisches. [Notes on various species of fungi, Leptosphmriamodesta and Cladosterigma ficsisporiim, the latter one of the Dacryomycetinese.] Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., lvii. (1907) pp. 321-4. See also Ann. Mycol, v. (1907) p. 440-1. Jaap, O. — Weitere Beitrage zur Pilzflora der nordfriesischen Inseln. (Further contributions to the fungus flora of the North Friesian Islands.) [Several new species are described, and a large number listed.] Schrift. Nat. Ver. Schlesiv. -Hoist, xiv. (1907) pp. 15-33. See also Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) p. 44. Kellebmah, W. A. — Behm's First Beport on Guatemalan Ascomycetae. [A few species are new, the others are determined.] Joum. Mycol., xiv. (1908) pp. 3-7. Kusano, S. — A New Species of Taphrina on Acer. [Four species are already known : the author describes a fifth, T. nikkoensis.'] Bot. Mag. Tokio, xxi. (1907) pp. 65-7 (1 fig.). See also Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) p. 441. Miehe, H. — Thermoidium sulfureum g. et. sp. n. [A new heat-fungus, isolated from self-heating plant remains ; sulphur coloured ; spores produced from cells of the hyphse.] Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell, xxv. (1907) pp. 510-15 (6 figs.). Morgan, A. P. — North American Species of Agaricaceae, the Melanospora. [Seventeen species are described.] Joum. Mycol., xiv. (1908) pp. 27-32. Oeetel, G. — Phoma Kuhniana sp. n. [The fungus was found on runners of cultivated Viola odorata; it has minute perithecia and minute spores.] Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) p. 431. Peck, C. H.— New Species of Fungi [Six species of Basidiomycetes.] Joum. Mycol., xiv. (1908) pp. 1-3. Petch, T.— Note on Ustilago Treubii Solms. [The writer notes the frequent occurrence of this gall-forming Ustilago in Ceylon. He adds measurements to the original diagnosis.] Ann. Mycol, v. (1907) p. 403. Rttz, W. — Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Pilzflora des Kienthales. (Contributions to the fungus flora of the Kien Valley (Bernese Oberland). [A special study was made of Chytridiacese and Uredinese, and a number of new forms were determined.] Mitth. Nat, Ges. Bern (1907) p. 168. See also Bot. Centralbl,,cv. (1907) p. 602 Sartory & Demanche — Etude d'une levure (Cryptococcus Bogerii sp. n.). [Study of a pathogenic yeast.] Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiii. (1907) pp. 179-85. Straszer, P. Pius — Vierter Nachtrag zur Pilzflora des Sonntagberges. (Fourth contribution to the fungus flora of the Sonntagberg, N. Austria.) [This completes the list of 1348 species.] Verh. k.k. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, lvii. (1907) pp. 299-340. Sydow — Mycotheca Germanica, Fasc. xii-xiii. (Nos. 551-650). [Several new species are included in the list, and diagnoses are given of these and of several others, with explanatory notes.] Ann. Mycol, v. (1907) pp. 395-99. Vill, A. — Fungi bavarici exsiccati. (Bavarian fungi, 8th cent.) [This is a continuation of Allescher and Schnabl's Exsiccati. chieflv micro- forms.] Gerolshofen (1904). See also Bot, Centralbl., cv. (1907) pp. 664-5. Q 2 '220 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Lichens. (By A. Lorrain Smith, F.L.S.) Text-book of Lichens.* —A. Zahlbriickner has just issued the last fascicle dealing with lichens in the Pficmzmfamilien. It concludes the Ascolichenes, and gives an account of the Hynienolichenes. The latter include only the three genera Cora, Gorella and Dictyonema, all of these containing only tropical or subtropical species in which the symbiont is a cyanophyceous alga, and the fructification that of a Basidiomycete. An index of the genera completes the volume. Noteworthy Lichens.! — E. Senft has examined a peculiar growth found by A. Zahlbriickner on the thallus of Physma dalmaticum. It arose either intercalary on hyphae of the thallus or terminal on these hyphae. There was no cellulose reaction, and the author considered it to be probably a change in the hyphae due to an enzyme, whereby they were rendered mucilaginous. Dispersal of Lichens.} — P. Beckman has considered the case of those crustaceous rock lichens that have neither soredia nor hymenial gonidia, such as Gasparrinia murorum, Lecanora sordida, Hmnatomma ventosum, etc. The spores must be chief agents in the spread of these forms, but the mode of growth of the thallus must also play a part ; the areolae into which they are divided tend to become further apart, and in time, by weather-action, to become loosened from the substratum and carried about by the wind. All these scattered areolae represent one individual plant. In the case of several species of Rhizocarpon with a creeping and spreading hypothallus, the spores start new individuals at different centres which tend to meet each other, thus presenting a decussated thallus. The thallus of these forms is also often cracked, but the cracking serves probably only for aeration and not for dispersal. Lichen Constituents. § — 0. Hesse has examined the chemical con- stituents of a large series of lichens, a continuation of previous work in the same field. He found a new acid in Usnea articulata, which he designates articulat-acid, and two in Ramalina armorka, armorica-acid and armor-acid. He found also new substances in the brightly -coloured Tornabenia (Physcia) chrysophthalma and T. flavicans. Other lichens yielded various acids already known. Brown ParmeliaB.|| — F. Rosendahl has brought his anatomical study of the group to bear on their systematic position, and at the end of his * Engler and Prantl's Nat. Pflanzenfamilien, Leipzig: W. Engelmann, i. Abt. 1, lief. 230 (1907) pp. 193-249 (24 figs.). t SB. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien Math.-Nat. Kl., cxvi., Abt. 1 (1907) pp. 429-38 (1 pi.). See also Bot. Centralbl., cv. (1907) p. 630. \ Engler, Bot. Jabrb., xxxviii. (1907) Beibl., pp. 1-72 (10 figs.). See also Ann. MycoL.v. (1907) pp. 459-60. § Journ. prakt. Cbemie, Neue Folge, lxxvi. (1907) pp. 1-57. See also Bot. Centralbl., cv. (1907) pp. 628-9. || Nova Acta Abh. k. Leop.-Car. Deutscb. Akad. Nat., lxxxvii. (1907) pp. 403-59 (4 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 221 paper he draws up three different tables of arrangement, each embodying the results of his observations and discoveries. He divides the series of the lichens broadly into two classes : those with a many-layered cortex, and those with a narrow cortex of about two cells. In the many-layered cortex he distinguishes an inner layer of living cells and an outer of crushed and dead cells. In each species he has given details of the structure, the presence or absence of isidia, soredia, trichomes, fat-cells, and rhizoids, and he describes the developments of the ascogonia and spermogonia. Calcium hypochlorite has been found useful in differen- tiating species ; some tinge red when it is applied, others show no change of colour": The red coloration is usually due to the presence of lecanor-acid. The paper is illustrated by microscopic drawings and by photographic reproductions of nearly all the species discussed. Hue, A. — Trois Lichens Nouveaux. (Three new lichens.) [Two species of Stereocaulon and one Solorina from the East (Japan and Java).] Bull. Soc. Bot. France, liv. (1907) pp. 414-21 (2 figs.). ,, Heppiearum ultima e familia Collemacearum tribubus nonnullas speoies morphologice et anatomice elaboravit. (Morphological and ana- tomical study of some species of Heppia, a " tribe " of Collemacese.) [A description of the genus Heppia, with which the author unites several other genera.] Mem. Sc. Nation. Sci. Nat. Math., xxxvi. (1907), 44 pp. See also Ann. My col. v. (1907) pp. 460-1. Jatta, Antonio. — I Licheni dell' Erbario Tornabene. (The lichens of the Tornabene herbarium.) [A list of 86 species or varieties collected in Sicily.] Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital. xiv. (1907) pp. 529-38. Lesdain, Bouly de. — Notes Lichenologiques. (Lichenological notes.) [A number of new varieties are diagnosed, and notes published on various species.] Bull. Soc. Bot. France, liv. (1907) pp. 442-6. Nils on, Berger. — Die Flechten vegetation des Sarekgebirges. (Lichen flora of the Sarek Mountains.) [288 species were determined, 5 of them new to science. The author makes a new genus Parmularia for the section Placodiuni of the genus Lecanora.~\ Nat.-Wiss. Unters-Sarekgebirg. in Schivedisch-Lappland iii. Botanik (1907) pp. 1-70. See also Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) p. 461. Steiner, J. — Lichenes Austro-africani. (Lichens of Southern Africa.) [Lichens collected by H. A. Junod and Dultre. Several new species are determined and diagnosed.] Bull. Herb. Boiss., ser. 2, vii. (1907), pp, 637-46. See also Ann. Mijcol., v. (1907) p. 462. „ ,, Ueber Buellia saxorum und verwandte Flechtenarten. (On Buellia saxorum and allied lichen species.) Verh. k.k. Zool. Bot. Oes. Wien., lvii. (1907) pp. 340-71. Mycetozoa. (By A. Lorrain Smith, F.L.S.) Influence of Bacteria on the Culture of Myxomycetes.*— Ernest Pinoy concludes his paper on this subject. The action of bacteria on * Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxi. (1907) pp. 686-700. 222 SUiM-MAUY OK CURRENT KKSKAHCHES RELATING TO the Acrasieae has been already recorded. He now studies them in con- nection with the development of true Mycetozoa, Didymium difforme and Didymium diffusion. In nature the sporangia of these Myxomy- cetes always contain numerous impurities, including a large series of Bacteria. He proved by his cultures that the spores would not develop without the accompanying bacterium, Bacillus luteus Fliigge. The author draws attention to the formation of cysts in the sporangium ; they are larger than the spores and without ornamentation on the surface. These can persist for several years ; a sclerotium is but an assemblage of cysts. He verified the observation that from the spores of D. effusum and Spumaria alba zoospores are only formed in liquid media ; on a solid substratum the spores give rise to myxamcebee. Further experiments were made with Plasmodiophora Brassicce,. Pinoy describes his methods of preparing and obtaining pure cultures. He finds that bacteria always accompany the spores. Their role in the host-plant seems to be to destroy the tissue and secure the escape of the Plasmo- diophora, but they exercise also some extracellular influence, as cultures that contained no bacteria showed no signs of growth. It is evident that the bacteria are introduced into the roots by the Plasmodiophora, and then follows a true symbiosis between the two organisms. Stdegis, W. C. — The Myxomycetes of Colorado. [About 100 species have been published, with descriptive notes ; one new species and two varieties are included.] Colorado Coll. Publ. Gen. Ser. 30, Sci. Ser. xii. (1907) No. 1, pp. 1-43. See also Ann. MycoL, v. (1907) p. 445. Schizophyta. Schizomycetes. Sporulation of the Bacillus Rheumaticus.*— G. Rosenthal, from observations on two varieties of the bacillus of Achalme, viz. B. per- fringens and B. rheumaticus, finds that when subcultures of these two organisms in albumen water are plunged into boiling water for two minutes they all give a positive growth on incubation, but if exposed for four minutes the cultures of B. rheumaticus are apparently killed, whereas those of B. perfringens give a late but abundant growth with irregular forms ; the same results were obtained when the cultures were boiled for half a minute, showing that the two varieties have unequal resistance to heat. Cover-slip preparations showed, in the case of the perfringens cultures, typical sporulation ; but with B. rheumaticus, besides some bacilli, there were a number of bodies about the size of Staphylo- coccus aureus, that stained by Gram's method, resisted badly the decolora- tion by acids when stained by Ziehl's method, and when unstained were slightly refringent. Bacteriology of Tropical Abscess of the Liver.f — A. Gilbert and A. Lipmann have examined pus from two cases of tropical abscess of the liver. In the first case the pus was slightly odorous and of a brown colour, and cover-slip preparations showed a number of cocci and rods * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) p. 577. f Tom. cit., p. 565. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 223 that stained, and a few bacilli that did not stain by Gram's method ; aerobic cultures gave only Staphylococcus aureus having no pathogenic action on rabbits, but from cultures in the depth of agar were isolated B. perfringens, Enterococcus, B. ramosus and B.fragilis. In the second case the pus was also slightly odorous and brown in colour, and cover- slip preparations showed a few cocci and a number of bacillary forms, none of which were stained by Gram's method. Ordinary broth and agar cultures gave no growth, but anaerobic cultures showed a small growth of Enterococcus and a large development of B. funduliformis, which probably masked the development of other germs. The authors consider that with more complete bacteriological examinations the number of non-microbial cases of hepatic abscess would be diminished. # Coli Group of Bacteria.* — A. Buck concludes from the results of his researches on this group of organisms that in the same bowel there may occur at the same time many varieties of B. coli. About 25 p.c. of all these bacteria were agglutinated by the serum of the same individual, or by other sera, in dilutions of 1 in 30. Strains of B. coli that are cultur- ally alike may be separated by their serum reactions. A readily agglu- tinating strain will agglutinate at a higher dilution with a strange serum than with that of its own host. The agglutination of B. coli is not interfered with if the strange serum is from a typhoid patient. Multiplying of Relapsing Spirochetes in the Body of the Bug.f N. N. Klodnitzky has observed the development of Spirockastes of relapsing fever in the tissues of the bug. Using Giemsa's stain the author examined the morphology of the contents of normal and of infected insects. During the first 3 to 5 days after infection the pre- parations showed individuals with well marked spirals, but in later specimens there was an unusual development of threads felted together or arranged in skeins, or like twisted hair. These threads were usually stretched, and rarely wavy ; they were also observed in hanging drops. Later specimens obtained about the 30th day after infection showed that these threads had broken up into rods of various forms and lengths. Plant Tumour of Bacterial Origin.! — E. F. Smith and C. 0. Townsend have isolated a motile bacillus from a tumour or gall found on a cultivated daisy. The organism is aerobic, and grows on ordinary nutrient agar and potato, and also in broth, which becomes slightly clouded, and has a tenacious fibrous pellicle ; it produces no gas within 12 days on sugar or alcoholic media ; casein is separated from litmus milk, with the production of an alkaline reaction ; it does not licpiefy gelatin ; a temperature of 25° C. is most favourable to the growth on agar or in broth ; the bacillus has 1-3 polar flagella. Inoculation of roots, and young shoots and stems of healthy daisies, tobacco plants, tomatoes, potato, sugar beet, and peach trees, caused the formation of galls. Flagella and Capsule of B. Anthracis.§ — A. Hinterberger was never able to observe that B. anthracis possessed true flagella, but, by * Ceutralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xiv. (1907) p. 577. t Op. cit., xlv. (1907) p. 126. % Op. cit., 2te Abt., xx. (1907) p. 89. § Op. cit., lte Abt. Orig., xlv. (1907) p. 108. 224 SUMMARY OV CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO treating with ammonia and staining with silver colloid, the author appears to have established the areas surrounding the bacilli as true capsules. Micrococcus Esterificans.* — Beck describes this organism as resem- bling Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, and producing a characteristic fruity aroma. The aromatic substance is insoluble in alcohol, but dissolves in ether, chloroform, and sulphide of carbon. Butter treated with broth cultures of the coccus, keeps fresh for about five days longer than ordinary butter made from the same cream. It is suggested that this organism might be useful in the manufacture of butter, by improving its taste and keeping property. Bacillus Aterrinus Tschitensis.f — W. N. Klimenko has isolated from the air of his clinical laboratory, at Tschita, a bacillus that pro- duces a brown pigment ; it is an actively motile rod with rounded ends, resembling B. mesentericus vulgaris ; it occurs most often singly, rarely in pairs, and sometimes forms threads ; it has a single centrally-placed oval spore ; it stains by ordinary analin dyes and by Gram's method, but is not acid-fast : it is a potential aerobe : the optimum tempera- ture is 36°-40° 0. On agar the colonies appear after 16 to 20 hours, and by reflected light both superficial and deep colonies have a white colour with a lustreless wrinkled surface ; but after 48 hours the deep colonies by transmitted light, and the superficial colonies by reflected light, have a dark brown colour ; after the fourth day a production of brown pig- ment commences to diffuse into the medium around the superficial colonies. Pigment is also formed by colonies grown on gelatin, and the medium commences to liquefy after the third day, and on the surface of the liquefied gelatin there floats a pellicle which develops a brown- black pigment ; growth on agar containing sugar or glycerin shows no formation of gas ; pepton-broth is clouded, a pellicle being formed which develops a brown-black pigment ; on potato the growth is at first dry and wrinkled, but later is thick and greasy, having the colour of cafe-au-lait, the colour of the potato itself being unaltered ; milk is clotted, the coagulum being subsequently dissolved. The organism is not pathogenic. It closely resembles B. mesentericus niger and B. lactis Gorini. Purple Bacteria. J— H. Molisch has classified these organisms into two groups, viz. those that deposit sulphur granules in their bodies and those that do not. Each of these is again subdivided into two sub-groups or families, according as the cells are free or are associated, and these families comprise separate sub-families, depending on the form of the cell division, the property of swarming, and on the morphology of the cells. The author finds that the susceptibility of those bacteria to light extends to all the visible and invisible ultra red rays. On examining the giving off of oxygen under the influence of light, it was found that carbonic acid was not assimilated, so that the colouring matter of these organisms is not analogous to chlorophyll. * Centralbl. Bakt., 2te Abt., xix. (1907) p. 594. f Op. cit., 2te Abt., xx. (1907) p. 1. J Op. cit., 2te Abt., xx. (1908) p. 289. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ^ETC. 225 By extracting cultures with alcohol the author obtained a green colouring matter, " bacteriochlorin," which was quite distinct from chlorophyll, and gave an entirely different spectrum. By extracting the bacteria thus freed from bacteriochlorin with carbon disulphide, " bacteriopurpurin " was obtained. The combined spectra of these two colouring matters corresponded with the spectrum of the living bacteria. Bacterium Mariense.* — W.N. Klimenkohas isolated this bacillus from the spleen and blood of an apparently healthy guinea-pig. The round- ended rods, which are actively motile, and possess 8 to 12 peritrichal flagella, are usually single, sometimes in pairs, rarely forming threads ; they stain by the ordinary dyes, but not by Gram's method, and are not acid-fast ; metachromatic granules may occasionally be demonstrated. The organism is a potential anaerobe, but the best growth is obtained under aerobic conditions at 'M° G. The colonies on gelatin resembles those of B. coli and B. typhosus, and the medium is not liquefied ; on Conradi-Drigalski and on Endo's media, development resembles that of B. typhosus. In milk no change is apparent for the first six days, but it then becomes transparent and of a yellow-brown colour, with a deposit at the bottom of the tube, the reaction becoming more and more alkaline. Growth on potato is similar, but less vigorous than that of B. coli. This bacillus has no denitrifying properties, it produces no indol, and its growth on all media containing carbohydrates causes an alkaline reaction. It is pathogenic for white rats, white mice, rabbits, guinea pigs, and pigeons. Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria, f — F. Lohnis and N. K. Pillar have examined the soil from rice fields on the Malabar coasts, near Trawankur, for the presence of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Tubes of soil extract +0*5 p.c. K.,HP04 received respectively 1 p.c. mannite, 1 p.c. glucose, 1 p.c. tartaric acid, and were neutrabsed with soda ; to one set of these tubes was added 1-2 p.c. of Ca C03, a controle set being free from chalk. All the tubes were then inoculated with the soil. The amount of nitrogen being measured before and twenty days after inoculation. In the mannite tubes with chalk the increase of nitrogen was 4-l mg. per 100 cm., which was 0*86 mg.more than in the mannite tube without chalk. In the glucose tubes the nitrogen increase was 3 ' 38 mg. and 0*56 mg. more than in the tubes con- taining chalk. In the tartaric solution tubes the increase of nitrogen was only 1*7 mg., and this was 0*14 mg. less than in the chalk contain- ing tubes. Microscopically Azotobacter was not observed, but besides several strains of B. pneumonice, B. radiobacler, B. subtilis, B. oxalaticus, Micrococcus sulphurous, B. turcosum, B. chrisoglcea, B. lipsiense, the author isolated two new species, B. malabarensis and B. tartaricum. B. malabarensis is a strong nitrogen fixer, especially in mannite solu- tions ; it occurs as large, stout rods, with numerous flagella ; it is * Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlv. (1907) p. 481. t Op. cit., 2te Abt., xix. (1907) p. 87. 226 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO slightly motile, stains by Gram's method, and forms spores; when grown on gelatin it liquefies the medium. B. tartaricum is not a marked nitrogen fixer ; it occurs as short rods, which are not motile, do not stain by Gram's method, do not form spores, and do not liquefy gelatin. Cultural Differentiation of Capsulated Bacilli.* — V. K. Russ •examined a number of capsulated bacilli belonging to the four groups of (1) B. lactis aerogenes, (2) B. pneumonia, (3) B. mucosus ozcence, (4) B. scleromatis, in respect to their production of acid and alkaline with carbohydrate media, and their reactions to coloured media of Endo's fuchsin, and Loeffier's green solution. The carbohydrates used were dextrose, galactose, lsevulose, lactose, maltose, saccharose, starch, arabinose, dextrin, mannite, dulcite, and erythrite. The tests showed that only B. scleromatis produced alkali, or had no action with lactose ; only B. ozarnce produced acid with erythrite ; that B. aerogenes and B. ozcence both formed acid, whilst B. friedldnderi and B. scleromatis both gave alkaline reaction, or had no effect with dulcite. On Endo's lactose fuchsin agar, the aerogenes group behaved as the coli group, producing a deep red colour ; the B. friedldnderi and B. scleromatis behaved as B. typhosus, or had no effect, and with B. ozamce the medium was coloured pink. The author gives a table of the results obtained with four solutions of Loeffier's green, and finds that though B. lactis aerogenes has very marked characters with these solutions, the test is not of practical use in differentiating the other three groups. The author also refers to other capsulated organisms not included in the above four groups, and shows in what way they are allied biologically according to the above tests. It appears that B. capsulatus of Pfeiffer, and B. mucosus capsulatus of Fasching, are both indentical with B. lactis aerogenes. * Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xliv. (1907) p. 289. • le^al • ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 227 MICROSCOPY. A. Instruments, Accessories, etc.* (1) Stands. Beck's "London " Microscope, Regent Model. | — This instrument is shown in fig. 33, and is designed for the most exacting research. The stage is square, 4 in. by 4 in., surfaced with ebonite, and provided with a mechanical stage, with racks and pinions, giving traversing motions of 2 in. in the horizontal direction and 1 in. in the vertical direction, each motion being provided with graduations by which the positions of ob- jects can be registered and refound. The mechanical stage is removable, leaving the stage free for large dishes, and four spring-clip holes are provided. An iris diaphragm is set in the thickness of the stage, and is actuated by means of a lever extending to the stage edge. This diaphragm has a slightly curved form, so that when closed to a small aperture it is within one or two hundredths of an inch of the stage level. By this construction the iris may be closed even when an Abbe con- denser in the substage is at its highest position, and when the light from the condenser is in focus upon the object. There is, therefore, no risk of damage being done to the stage iris diaphragm when focusing the condenser, as it does not come in contact with it at any position. The substage is focused by means of a spiral rack-and-pinion adjustment, and is carried on a massive bracket which swings to one side on a strong centre. The condenser (fig. 34) can, therefore, be instantly swung out of the optic axis to one side by means of the same milled head which actuates the focusing adjustment. As soon as the condenser has been racked down to its lowest limit, it swings clear of the stage. The sub- stage is provided with centring screws. The limb of the instrument is made with a large aperture forming a handle, through which the entire hand can be passed for lifting and manipulating the instrument ; no strain is put on any working parts of the Microscope when it is lifted in this manner. The fine adjustment is of a more sensitive pattern than that of the " London " model, being about four times as delicate, each division on the drum representing TooWo m- This fitting is placed almost directly behind the Microscope body, so that the weight does not overhang the fitting to any great extent, and thus a fine adjustment can be made which, in spite of its extreme delicacy, is equally sensitive to the * This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illuminating and other Apparatus ; (4) Photomicrography ; (5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. t R. and J. Beck, London, Special Catalogue, 1908. 228 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES DELATING TO Fig. H3. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 229 large and a small smaller motion. The milled head is made with a diameter, so that for moderate powers the small milled head can be rapidly revolved, thus giving a quick motion ; the larger milling enables full advantage to be taken of the delicate adjustment with high powers. Fig. 34. Societe G-enevoise : Mineralogical and Petrographical Microscopes, with Permanent Centring and with Objective Rotation. — A section of this instrument, numbered 2426 in the maker's catalogue, is shown in fig. 35. The system has the advantage of remaining always centred. The stage carries a column on which slides the objective-holder, and to this latter the objective is applied by means of a spring clamp, which facilitates rapid change of objective. The Microscope tube is mounted on a strong column and moves independently of the objective. There is an opening in the tube above the objective for inserting optical lamellae or for a revolver of plates of mica and quartz. Fig. 36 shows model No. 2429 of the same firm. The purpose of the instrument is the same as with the last, and similar advantages are * Catalogue of the Societe Genevoise pour la construction d'instruments de physique et de mecanique, 1907. 230 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Fig. 35. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 231 Fig. 36. 232 SIWIMAKY nv r['|;|;i,\T I; KSK A R| 'I I Ks RELATING TO claimed. The difference is in the limb which supports the tube; the limb being solidly attached to the base and carrying the rackwork at its Fig. 37. upper end. The tube movement is independent of that of the objective. Fig. 37 shows model No. 2481 in section. Here the nicols rotate while the stage is fixed, and this arrangement gives a means of suppress- ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 233 ing all decentring of the microscopic stage in relation to the optical axis of the Microscope. The rotation of the nicol is obtained by means of a pillar, parallel to the Microscope, and bearing two pinions engaging in two small stages supporting the polarisers and analysers. The polariser is fitted with a quick-movement screw tor raising or lowering. The object-stage can be rotated, as desired, independently of the nicol ; it carries a pivoting condenser.* Mechanical Stages.f — Fig. 38 represents a mechanical stage designed for use with the above mineralogical and petrographical Fig 38. Microscopes. The apparatus is constructed with crossed carriers for centring ; it has a coarse-adjustment by raekwork, and a fine-adjustment byJa micrometer screw with divided head. Fig. 39. Fig. 39 shows Fedorow's stage.! It is made in two forms : a small model, with two movements of rotation ; and a large model, with four * There is a great resemblance to Swift's patent, which has, however, perhaps run out. — Ed. f Catalogue of the Societe genevoise pour la construction d'instruments de physique et de mecanique, 1907, No. 2421 (fig. 2121a). % Op. cit., Catalogue No. 2192. April 15th, 1908 R 234 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO such movements. The illustration refers to the latter model, and is considered by the makers to be self-explanatory. Micrometer Microscope.* — This instrument, mounted on a stand (fig. 40), has a movable thread at the focus of the ocular for sub- Fig. 40. dividing the spaces on a graduated bar. The ocular field is about 9 mm. Magnification from 30 to 40. Fig. 41. Dissecting Microscope.f— This instrument (fig. 41) has the arm and dissecting stage, and is independent of the Microscope stand. The objective, which has a rack-and-pinion adjustment, is composed of three doubles. * List Phvs. and Mech. Instr. Soc. genevoise, 1907, p. 37 (1 fig.), t Tom. oit., pp. 97-8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 235 Frauenhofer's Screw Micrometer.*— This instrument is fitted to a telescope or Microscope of low power, and is mounted on a brass column. It is provided with turning movements so that it can be used vertically Fig. 42. Fig. 43. (fig. 42) and horizontally (fig. 43), and measurements taken in all directions. The micrometer can change places with the shelf, so that the instrument may serve as Microscope with micrometric shelf. The tripod folds up. (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. Societe Genevoise : Eye-pieces for Mineralogical and Petrog-ra- phical Microscopes.! — Fig. 44, numbered 2442 in the maker's cata- logue, represents an auxiliary nicol, with divided circle for use above the ocular. Figs. 45, 46, numbered 2485 by the makers, show Babinet's * List Phys. and Meek. Instr. Soc. genevoise, 1907, pp. 36-7 (2 figs.), t Catalogue (1907) of the Soc. genevoise pour la construction d'iustrumentsde physique et de niecanique, p. 12. R 2 236 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO compensator in genera] view and in sect inn. Xo description is furnished with the illustration. • Fig. 44. Fig. 45. Fig. 46. C3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus. Pearce's Total Reflexion Refractometer.* — This instrument (fig. •47), numbered 2190 in the catalogue of the Genevan firm, has been made after the designs of F. Pearce. The general view recalls that of Abbe's refractometer, but Pearce's optical arrangements are suitable for measurements upon large as well as upon small fragments. In case of large fragments, an objective 0' and an ocular A' replace the objective * Soc. genevoise pour la construction d'instruments de physique et de rne- canique, Special circular, 1907. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOI'V, ETC. 237 0 and the ocular shown in the figure. The magnification of this com- bination is from 3-4 diameters, and the separating power is sufficient to insure under good conditions evaluation to the fourth decimal. This illiliinlliJ!'"' minium HWIIIjjiliiiiillp . i !l!!lll!IU!l!l;i Fig. 47. objective 0' is formed of an achromatic lens combined with a plano- concave lens of the same glass as the hemisphere. This latter lens, whose concave surface has a radius of curvature equal to that of 238 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO the hemisphere, is intended to nullify the influence which the spherical surface of the hemisphere exerts on the paths of the rays. The objective 0' can also be provided with a correction lens, when using the combination for the vision of very distant objects by re- flexion on the plane surface of the hemisphere ; this property is use- ful for the adjustment of the hemisphere. For small fragments the combination used consists of an objective 0, composed of an achro- matic lens of about 40 mm. focal length, with a correction lens and a special ocular. This ocular fits with gentle friction into the tube u of the instrument, and bears at its anterior end a network in the focus of the objective ; the anterior lens (divergent) giving, in combination with the objective, an enlarged image (4-5 diameters) of the object placed on the hemisphere. This image is formed in the plane of an iris diaphragm i, which, for more convenience, can be laterally displaced by the aid of the screws r. The image is viewed by the'loup /. When the loup I is replaced by another of a focus giving vision of the net, this optical combination, which is a real Microscope, is converted into a telescope directed on infinity, and by it the phenomenon of total reflexion can be observed. A nicol prism N fitted wTith a graduated circle can be easily adapted to either of the two combinations without derangiug the observations. Perfect centring of the objective is obtained by the action of three screws not shown in the figure, and that of the hemisphere by the three screws 1, 2, 3. The makers supply full instructions for the use of the instrument. Beck's New Illuminator for High-power Dark-ground Illumination.* This apparatus permits of dark -ground illumination, with object-glasses Fig. 48. as high as a TV in. oil-immersion. The principle is that of a reflecting paraboloid, specially designed to obviate the difficulty arising from the immersion fluid running down the side of the paraboloid and the consequent impossibility of adjusting the focus. The new illuminator is made of two parts, which may be more or less separated, and tin's enables the light to be focused, according to the thickness of the slip on which the object is mounted, and the oil is kept away from the reflecting surface. The lower portion consists of a reflecting paraboloid B (fig. 48), reflecting parallel light to a focus at C, with a concave upper surface. The upper portion of the apparatus is in the form of a lens A, with focus at C, the upper surface of which is placed in immersion contact with the under surface of the slip ; the curved side is concentric * R. and J. Beck, London, Special Catalogue, 1908. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. 239 with the focus C, and truncated to such an extent as to stop all light of less obliquity than 1*0 N.A. from reaching the object. Therefore when dry lenses, or oil-immersion lenses, with no greater angle than 1*0 N.A. are used, no direct light enters the Microscope, but the objects are illuminated by an annular ring of very oblique light, and are seen due to the light which they reflect. By moving the paraboloid B up or down by means of the lower milled ring which rotates the sleeve in which it is held, the lens A being retained in contact with the slide, the light is accurately focused and the maximum brilliancy obtained. Various forms of bacteria, viewed by this method, show different structure, and it would appear to be a hopeful method of obtaining an increased power of examining living micro-organisms. A powerful light is essential. An incandescent gas lamp, with a bullseye Fig. 49. to project a parallel beam upon the mirror of the Microscope, gives good results. The Nernst electric lamp forms an excellent light for this purpose. But whatever light is used it should be parallelised by means of a bullseye or aplanatic condenser. Fig. 49 shows the Nernst lamp on stand complete with an aplanatic Herschel condenser. New Microscope Lamp.* — C. Troester has devised a lamp by which light is transmitted from its source to the Microscope through a straight, internally-polished tube (fig. 50). The source of light is an incandescent burner, with a metal chimney having an opening in front. The tube is so fitted that it can revolve in a vertical plane, and about a point in the centre of the incandescent body. The Microscope mirror is placed close to the end of the tube and arranged to catch the central beams. A convex lens is inserted at the lamp end, and a blue glass disk at the Microscope end. The light obtained is said to be more powerful than * Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlv. (1907) pp. 574-5 (1 fig.). 240 SUMMAUV OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO the best daylight. The apparatus, which takes up little space and is easily arranged, is made by E. Leitz. Fig. 50. Foucault's Heliostat.* — In this instrument (fig. 51), which can be adapted to different latitudes, the mirror has a diameter of 30 cm. Fig. 51. * Catalogue (1907) of the Soc. genevoise pour la construction d' instruments de physique et de rnecanique, pp. 87-8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 241 Wollaston's Goniometer.* — This instrument (fig. 52), the circle of which is 140 millimetres in diameter, is provided with regulating screw apparatus for centring crystals, and vernier reading to 30 seconds. ""WliiiiiaiiiiiiiiH F.g. 52. Fig. 53. The same instrument, as improved by Mallard (fig. 53), has, in addition, a collimator with slit of various forms and an adjustable support for the black mirror. * List Pkys. and Mech. Instr. Soc. Genevoise (1907) pp. 4S-9. 242 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Reglet for Direct Reading in Microscopic Measurements. * — To facilitate quick measurement with camera-lucida drawings, F. Guegueii has contrived a simple apparatus such as every microscopist would he able to make to suit his instrument. The Microscope having been first slanted at a suitable inclination to the vertical, a rectangle is cut out of & piece of celluloid, the longest side of this rectangle being equal to the vertical distance separating the base of the micrometric screw from the table on which the Microscope is placed. This transparent rectangle, being placed upright on its narrow side in a plane parallel to the plane of symmetry of the Microscope, is cut obliquely across the corner by a line parallel to the axis of the instrument. The reglet thus formed gives a means of always insuring the same slope of tube. When the instrument has been thus inclined and provided with a micrometer objective and a camera lucida at a variable angle, the micrometric scale seen under the various magnifications employed, is drawn successively on the table. For strong optical combinations a tenth, or perhaps a fifth of a millimetre would be drawn : for weak enlargements the entire scale would be drawn. Each of these traces having been afterwards geometrically sub-divided into fractions, whose smallest division would equal 1 //., it will only remain to counter-draw side by side on the sheet of celluloid the various graduated scales (this can be done by the aid of a graver or scalpel), and record their values. The appropriate part of the celluloid sheet, when used for measurement, would be superposed on the drawing obtained by the camera-lucida. Grimsehl's Liliput-projection Lantern.t — This instrument is made by A. Kriiss, of Hamburg, to the design of Professor Grimsehl. Its optical peculiarity is a short-focus illuminating lens. The light-source is an electric arc lamp requiring a current of 1 • 5 amperes. The whole arrangement is extremely compact, and being mounted on a pillar-stand -can be raised or depressed at pleasure. A Micro-object Locater.J — S. E. Dowdy writes : "When showing a mixed slide of objects under a low power to friends or to a class, the necessity often crops up for locating a particular specimen which has been picked out by the observer. There is an eye-piece on the market, fitted with an index-needle, specially devised to overcome this difficulty ; but it is expensive, and is very little, if any, more effective than the contrivance which any working microscopist can make for himself. All that is wanted is a circular piece of glass capable of fitting between the eye-piece lenses, resting on the diaphragm usually to be found in the eye-piece tube. This glass must be ruled off into small squares. If one possesses a glazier's diamond, the glass can be cut and ruled at home ; but any optician could get it done for a small sum. If, how- ever, it is preferred to make it at home, and no diamond or glass-cutter is available, here is an alternative method of manufacture. Get a cir- cular glass, such as is used in phonograph reproducers, just the right * C.R. Soc. Biol, de Paris, lxiii. (1.07) pp. 117-18. t Central. Ztg. f. Opt. u. Mech., xxviii. (1907) pp. 307-8 (2 figs.). j English Mechanic, lxxxvi. (1908) pp. 5G4-5. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 243 size. Now dip it in a solution of gelatin, draining off the superfluous liquid, and allowing it to dry. The squares can then be scratched on the film side with a pin. In whichever way the glass is prepared, it must have the squares numbered consecutively in small figures. When this glass is inserted in the eye-piece, each square covers a small portion of the field, and the squares being numbered, the location of any par- ticular object can easily be signified to any number of observers.1' (4) Photomicrography. Scheffer's Microscopical Researches on Plate-grains. — W. Scbeffer has devoted much attention to the above subject, and his results are herewith summarised under the titles of his respective articles. Microscopical Researches on the Effect of the Persulphate and Ferri- cyanide Reducers, as also on the Re-developing of Bleached Negatives with Alcoholic Developers* — The author's object was to investigate the reason for the difference in action of Lumiere's ammonium persulphate reducer (soft result) and Farmer's ferricyanide of potash reducer (harsh result). Suitable preparations were made, and the gelatin films sectionised by the microtome, and examined microscopically. It was found that the effect of the ferricyanide was limited to the upper part of the surface, all grains then being dissolved, while in the lower part they were not touched. The persulphate, on the other hand, penetrated the whole film, and thus reduced all grains in an equal proportion. The author quotes Werkner's redevelopment formula, which is especially suited for changing harsh negatives into soft ones without loss of image in the transparent part. Note on the Reversed of Solarised Negatives with Farmer's Reducer. ,| If a bromide negative is exposed under a photometer in such a way that the more transparent area of the field appears already as a positive by solarisation, and the negative obtained by this is reduced afterwards with Farmer's reducer, then a part of the reversed (by solarisation) regions is changed again into a negative. This is best to be seen in those places where the solarisation has not gone too far. Microscopic examination showed that in the solarised parts the grains were equal in size and evenly distributed over the whole thickness of the film. In the less exposed parts the size and quantity of grains in the upper parts were both greater. Under certain circumstances, reduction with ferri- cyanide of potassium would invert the relative portions of transparency of these two parts, e.g. if the reducer had penetrated down to the half of the two films equally. In one case the greater quantity of the grains would have dissolved, and only a very slight opacity remain ; in the other, comparatively more of the grain would remain unattacked, and consequently the parts, formerly more opaque, would be relatively more transparent after reduction. Microscopical Researches* on 'the Size and Distribution of the Plate- grains. % — The author illustrates his researches by a series of nineteen * British Journ. Photog.. liii. (1900) pp. 964-5 (9 tigs.). + Tom. cit.. p. 1027 (2 figs.). i Op. cit., liv. (1907) pp. 116-20 (19 figs.). 24-4 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO photographs, showing various stages and results in the development of a plate The first stage of development always seemed to originate in the protrusion of small rod-like processes, usually knob-terminated, from the grains. These processes, or filaments, seemed to be more numerous on the smaller grains than on the large ones. The impression suggested to the observer was that the results were in the nature of an explosion, which took place during the exposure, small bodies being apparently shot away from the grains and making their way through the gelatin either in straight or in irregularly curved lines. Both the terminal knobs and the filaments acted as germs, at which development com- mences. Sometimes the filament is hardly visible even with the highest power oil-immersions. Thus the germs at which the formation of the developed grain commences are situated outside the original grains, and also the further stages of development are outside the original grains. The developed grains are always clumsily-aggregated masses. It would seem that in an exposed film the grains may be divided into three classes : — (1) Original grains, i.e. grains which have germs round themselves, which germs are the points where development commences. These original grains are not dissolved by development. (2) Dissolving grains — grains which show no germs, and which are dissolved either partly or entirely by chemical development. (3) Developed black grains. Jficroscopic Researches on the Plate-grain* — In this article the author examines the relations of " dissolving " and " original " grains under different conditions of development and exposure. He infers that the solubility of the dissolving grains in chemical developers is governed by the exposure, and that the solubility increases at the com- mencement corresponding with the exposure up to a maximum, after which it decreases with the increasing exposure. He also found that the solubility of the dissolving grains, as* well as the size of the developed grains, corresponded with the concentration of the developing solution. The size of the developed grains also depended on the number of grains in unit volume of the gelatin. &v Mees, C. E. K. — Screen-plate Colour Photography. [The author describes some twelve processes, and discusses the scientific principles which underlie them.] Journ. Soc. Arts, lvi. (1908) No. 2878, pp. 195-204 (6 figs.). (5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. Correction of the Astigmatism of Doubly Refracting Prisms.t — C. Tissot and F. Pellin refer to the deformation of image produced in various degrees by all doubly refracting prisms. In the case of a nicol, it is only the extraordinary rays which contribute to the image, i.e. rays which do not, in general, remain in the plain of incidence. The result is a dyssymmetry which can be proved by an easily shown astigmatism. Thus, if a homocentric beam, limited by a narrow circular diaphragm, be * British Journ. Photog., liv. (1907) pp. 271-3 (7 figs.). t Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 866-7 (3 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC 245 received on a nicol provided with a convergent lens, two real perfectly distinct foci will appear capable of reception on a screen. The astigma- tism is still more clearly seen with a polarising Microscope. The authors show, however, that an image as sharp as when there is no interposition of a nicol can be always obtained by superposing on the ocular a cylin- drical lens of suitable power, orientated so that the axial section coincides with the plane of symmetry of the prism. Cantor Lectures : Theory of the Microscope.* — A series of Cantor Lectures in December and January last were given by C. Beck on the theory of the Microscope. The author did not treat the subject on the usual lines, but devoted his attention mainly to the instrument as at present in actual use, with especial reference to practical considerations. Although he fully recognises indebtedness to others, e.g. E. M. Nelson and J. W. Gordon, his lectures contain much novelty and originality, and will be found to include many points which have recently occupied the attention of microscopists. The first two lectures discuss lenses, and the author gives it as his opinion that the limits of constructive excellence have been practically attained. The third lecture deals with diffraction, and the fourth with practical applications of theory. (6) Miscellaneous. Compass Reading to gfo or ^Vo Millimetre.!— This instrument (fig. 54) measures objects 3 millimetres thick. The amplification is ob- tained by a lever and a Microscope having at its focus a glass micrometer. Fig. 54. Caliper with Micrometer Screw.} — This instrument (rig. 55) is mounted on a cast-iron foot, has a ratchet head, and exerts a uniform * Journ. Soc. Arts, lvi. Nos. 2875-8 ; and as a reprint. t List Phys. and Mech. Instr. Soc. Genevoise, 1907, p. 44. % Tom. cit., p. 41. 246 SUMMAItY of cuim;knt ukska KGHES 1,'KLATING to pressure on the object measured. The larger size measures to approxi- mately 5^j of a millimetre. Fig. 55. Quekett Microscopical Club. — The 445th Ordinary Meeting of the Club was held on January 17, the President, Dr. E. J. Spitta, F.R.A.S. F.R.M.S., in the Chair. Owing to the unfortunate absence through illness of the authors, neither of the two papers announced were read. Messrs. Baker exhibited with the lantern a number of slides, mostly of pond life. Mr. E. Large, using the projection polariscope, exhibited some very interesting and beautiful sections of selenite crystals, also some photomicrographs of twinned crystals. At the 446th Ordinary Meeting, which was also the 42nd Annual General Meeting, Professor E. A. Minchin, M.A. (Oxon.), was elected President. The usual reports, which were very satisfactory, were presented by the Committee, Treasurer, Librarian, and Curator. Dr. E. J. Spitta, F.R.A.S. F.R.M.S., the retiring President, delivered the Annual Presidential Address, taking for his subject " The Photo- graphy of Very Translucent Diatoms at High Magnifications." Refer- ence was made to the difficulty of obtaining contrast between the object and the background, and this being due to the nearness of the index of refraction of the mounting medium to that of the silex of the diatom (l-43) (Canada balsam is 1'52), it was advised that, if possible, diatoms to be photographed under high powers should be mounted in realgar, the "index of visibility " of which is 121, that of Canada balsam being only 9. The "fog" seen round dot markings was stated to be caused by the fact that no lens, or combination of lenses, can represent the image of a point as another point, but such must be shown as a disk of more or less sensible diameter. This " fog " is got rid of in the following manner : — A negative is made on a fast plate, and is developed preferably with hydrokinone to obtain maximum contrast. A positive ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 247 is made from the negative, by contact, on a second fast plate. From this positive a second negative is made, and subsequently from this a second positive, both by contact, on slow " process " or "lantern " plates. Lantern slides showed the great improvement and practical absence from the " fotr " thus obtained. B. Technique.* (1) Collecting- Objects, including- Culture Processes. Multiplication in vitro of Treponema Pallidum.! — C. Lebailly finds that liver and spleen infected with Treponema pallidum are excellent cultivation media for these organisms. Pieces of liver and spleen were cut out, with the usual precautions, from the body of a foetus and incubated for 45 days. Examination at the end of 15 days showed a great increase in the number of Treponemata : at the end of 45 days there was no apparent increase in the number, and many were much degenerated. Cultivation of Anaerobic Bacteria.! — J. Kursteiner finds that two chief methods have been employed for the cultivation of anaerobic organisms : (1) in which oxygen is apparently not excluded, as with media containing reduced substances, or portions of organic tissue, or as in mixed cultures with aerobes ; (2) in which oxygen is excluded, either by covering the lower or upper layers of the medium with glass, mica, or paraffin, by boiling the medium, by vacuating, by substituting another gas for the oxygen, by absorption of the oxygen, or by a combination of these principles. The author describes the most practical methods of R. Bum and of J. H. Wright. 1. Burri employs a glass tube the size of an ordinary test-tube, closed at either end by wool plugs and sterilised for two hours at 160° to 180° C. ; a number of rubber corks kept under sterilised water ; a sterile Petri dish, a scalpel, and a sheet of clean white filter -paper ; 2 p.c. glucose-agar is prepared and sterilised, and when cooled to 42° C. is inoculated and poured into one of the glass tubes, which is then plugged with wool and a rubber cork, stood in cold water to solidify the medium, and incubated at 30° C. or 37° C, and finally on the top of the solid medium a few c.cm. of fresh sterilised agar are poured and quickly solidified. After the colonies have appeared the rubber cork is removed, and the cylinder of agar is allowed to slide out of the tube on to the filter-paper, where it is dried ; sections of the medium 1-2 mm. in thickness are then made with the sterilised knife, and transferred directly to a Petri dish, placed on a dark ground ; by carefully made cuts a colony is then removed from one of the sections * This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- cesses; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ; (4) Staining and Injecting ;(5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, etc. ; (6) Miscellaneous. t Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 312-14. X Centialbl. Bakt., 2te Abt. xix. (1907) pp. 1-26,97-115, 202-20, 385-88 (6 figs.). 248 SUMMARY OK OUJUliENT RESEARCHES DELATING TO mid examined microscopically and subcultured to determine whether the organism is obligate anaerobe or not (fig. 56). 2. By the method of J. H. Wright, an ordinary test-tube containing 8-10 c.cm. of some fluid medium is inoculated, and a sterile plug of wool is pushed down in such a way as to touch the medium ; on to this Growth free zone «§§r* Growth free zone Rubber stopper Fin. 56. plug sodium pyrogallate solution is dropped, and the tube is at once closed with a rubber cork. A refinement of this method was devised by Burri, who flamed the wool plug lief ore it was pushed into the tube, and after it had been pushed down a second wool plug was introduced, and this was soaked with the pyrogallate solution, the tube being then ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSOOPV, KTC. 249 closed with a rubber cork, thus avoiding much risk of contaminating the medium (fig. 57). This modified method is also applied to plate cultivations ; a small — Rubber stopper Hygroscopic cotton wool stopper saturated with alkalin pyrogallol Fig. 57. Sterile dry plug of non-hygroscopic wool Inoculated medium 3 cm.. Fig. 58. Rubber stopper Hygroscopic cotton wool stopper saturated with alkalin pyrogallol Sterile dry plugof non-hygroscopic wool A Anaerobe plate glass dish 80 by 80 by 7 mm. being used to hold the medium, and which, after inoculation, is passed into the tube, which is plugged and corked as before (fig. 58). The author also describes a method for cultivations under conditions completely free from oxygen. The apparatus is shown in tig. 59 ; it consists of a long tube holding sterile broth, and communicating at the middle with a short tube, in which is the inoculating material, and both tubes are corked, like the modified Wright's tube (fig. 57) ; after stand- ing at 37° C. for five days, the long tube is inoculated, and after 18 hours the broth is clouded. The absence of oxygen is demonstrated by control tubes, the long arm containing a clear solution of pyrogallic acid, the April 15th, 1908 s 250 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO shorter tube a solution of caustic potash, the tube being corked as before ; after 10 days at 37° C. the contents of the tubes are mixed, and no sign of brown coloration occurs. Light bacteria may be used as oxygen indicators. The author refers to the absolute anaerobic cultivation of Stiller, and to the extreme diffi- Inoculation material ifS Rubber stopper Hygroscopic cotton wool stopper saturated witb alkalin pyrogallol Sterile dry plug of nou-hygroscopic wool :^r£r ) Sterile broth Fig. 59. culty of attaining it, on account of the air adhering to the surface of the glass culture tube and contained also in the medium ; these traces of oxygen may be readily removed by employing an obligate aerobic micro- organism, but the amount of oxygen may be too minute to enable the light bacteria to emit light. By means of B. mesentericus the author was able to free his medium from oxygen as quickly as with a light bacterium. The author next considers the method of effecting a number of sub- cultures in continuous oxygen-free condition. The apparatus (fig. 60) is a development of the double culture tube (fig. 59), and consists of 4 to 16 tubes, joined at the middle, the level of communication be- tween succeeding tubes being higher than between those immediately ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 251 preceding ; the series of tubes contains fluid medium ; the right amount of liquid necessary to allow succeeding tubes to be filled from the pre- ceding by tilting the whole apparatus, is previously tested and the levels marked. The tubes are sterilised and inoculated with B. mesenteric us. ^> ^ I / Sterile cotton •} wool plug before sealing off Hygroscopic wool plug saturated with alkalin pyrogallol Sterile, dry, non-hygroscopic wool plug Nutrient fluid Fig. 60. and after 10 hours the broths are clouded ; the first tube is then inocu- lated with a loopf ul of B. pvtrificus broth, and all the tubes are closed anaerobically as before ; subcultures were made from tube to tube every two days, and after the appearance of growth in the last tube this was opened, and on microscopical examination was found to be typical B. putrificus, with no evidence of involution forms. Similar results were obtained, in a long series, by using light bacteria in place of B. mesen- tericus, and subculturing other anaerobic organisms. The author further modified the tubes by drawing out the upper portions into narrow necks, which, after receiving the two plugs of wool as before, were sealed in the flame instead of being corked (fig. 61). s 2 252 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Referring to the use of paraffin in excluding oxygen, the author demonstrated by several experiments, employing light bacteria, that paraffin is useless, since it not only allows the passage of oxygen, but can store it up. The author concludes from his observations, that both obligate and falcultative anaerobes can live for a number of generations, without any functional alteration, in complete exclusion from free oxygen. The similar behaviour of these two classes of organisms expresses the fact that potential anaerobes are just as good representatives of anaerobic life as the essential anaerobes, over which they have the advantage of bein<„r able to grow normally also in air. Isolating the Nodule Organism of the Leguminosse.* — F. C. Harrison and B. Barlow have examined upwards of thirty species of Papilionaceas, and with two exceptions, found nodules developed on the roots. To isolate the nodule organism the authors employed a medium consisting of wood ashes, which contains phosphate, sulphide and chloride of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and iron, but no nitrogen, to which was added some form of sugar. Fresh ashes were shaken up in water, boiled and filtered, and to various strengths of the aqueous filtrate 2 to 5 p.c. of maltose were added. Ash maltose agar was also used. To isolate the Pseudomonas radicicola, the root of the plant is washed under a tap, and a nodule is removed with forceps and immersed in an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid and mercuric chloride crystals for two to three minutes ; it is then placed on a filLer-paper moistened with the same solution, and cut open by a specially made knife needle, previously flamed, and portions of bacteroidal tissue are removed into sterile water in a Petri dish. From the resulting emulsion cover-slips were prepared and stained, and ash agar plate cultivations were made and incubated at 20° C. No other organisms were detected in the nodules besides the Pseudomonas radicicola. On ash maltose agar, in two to three days it forms a raised, transparent, wet, shining, spreading growth, which draws out into a fine thread when touched with a needle. Cultures on this medium remain alive for over a year. The organisms are small rods, often swollen at one end, and rarely branched ; they are actively motile, and a single polar flagellum may be developed ; the cell- contents are not uniform, often concentrated in bands, and varying with the species of the legume, the condition of infection and growth, the age and size of the nodule, and the portion of the nodule examined. They stain well with ordinary dyes, but are decolorised by Gram's method. The authors give some reports showing the benefit obtained by the distribution of pure cultures of Pseudomonas radicicola in Canada. Method for Isolating Anaerobes.f — F.Marino describes the following simple method for isolating anaerobic bacteria. ;>>0-:'>.r> c.cm. of a mixture of ordinary agar and 3-5 p.c. glucose are distributed into large test- tubes. When required for use such a tube is melted, and on attaining a temperature of 42°, 1 c.cm. of rabbit or horse serum is passed in ; the * Centralis. Bakt., 2te Abt. xix. (1907) p. 264. t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxi. (1907) pp. 1005-8 (2 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 253 serum has been previously heated to 55° for 20 minutes. It is then inoculated with the material to be examined ; from this first tube, a second is inoculated, from the second a third, and often a fourth from the third. After the inoculations, the contents are poured into the larger half of a Petri's capsule, and covered with the small part turned upside down ; the pair is then covered With a still larger half (fig. 62). [^j^^^^^^^^^ Cultivation media Fig. 62. After ;> or 4 days' incubation, one of the halves is removed and any colonies descried are fished out by means of a glass pipette. When dealing with very slowly growing anaerobes, especially in intestinal contents, it is advisable to add 3 p.c. lactose as well as the foregoing constituents. When the microbes are isolated it is quite easy to cultivate them in a liquid medium. (2) Preparing- Objects. Fixation Methods and Elimination of Artefacts.* — G. Rubenthale has obtained satisfactorv results towards the eliminating of artefacts produced by existing fixation methods, by endeavouring to minimise the shock produced on the living tissue by the reagent, and, besides in- sisting on the principles of isotony and isothermy, the author advocates diminishing the sensibility of the tissne by ansesthesia, and a slow appli- cation of the fixation reagent, commencing with weak solutions and gradually increasing them until the desired result is obtained. Isotony is attained by placing the specimen in the medium to which it natu- rally belongs — muscle into blood-serum, nerve into cerebrospinal fluid, embryonic tissue into amniotic fluid, etc. Anaesthesia is conferred by immersing the tissues in solutions of hydrochlorate of cocaine or chloral hydrate. These methods, however, increase the duration of the fixation process, and to somewhat obviate this effect the author reduces the size of the specimen. A detailed account is given of the technique employed. Studying Spirochseta Balbiani and Spirochasta Anodontse.f — H. B. Fantham examined these two Spirochetal in their natural environment as far as possible. When a style was present, the freshly extracted structure was mounted in a drop of sea-water or fresh-water in the cases of Ostrea and Anodonta respectively, and placed in a moist chamber. The organisms were thus kept alive from 3 to G hours while the style was examined in sections in the laboratory at a tempera- ture above that normal to the animals. The fluid contents of the stylo were pressed out and the still wet smear fixed with osmic acid vapour, or hanging drops of the parasites in their natural medium were made * Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1907) p. 133. t Quart. Joum. Micr. Sci., lii. (1908) pp. 1-73 (:J. pis, and 11 figs, in text). 254 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO and thus examined. Methylen-blue in \ p.c. solution effectively stained the parasites. For examining the parasites in the fixed condition, osmic acid vapour was found to give the best results. The wet film obtained from the style was in the vapour of 2-4 p.c. osmic acid for 1-4 minutes. Dried films, after fixed in ethyl or methyl-alcohol, also gave good results. The most successful stains were gentian-violet (Ohlmacher's formula, which contains formalin), hematoxylin (Delafield's, Ehrlich's, and Heidenhain's formulas), Giemsa, Leishman, alcoholic safranin, and Loeffler's methylen-blue. For revealing structural details in the mem- brane, gentian-violet and iron-hsematoxylin were most useful. The various modifications of Eomanowski were much less successful than the hematoxylin stains. Sections were made of the style of Anodin which had been fixed in Flemming's fluid : these were stained with hema- toxylin solutions, Giemsa and methylen-blue. Demonstrating the Histogenesis of Nerve-fibrils. * — D. J. Pesker opened the abdominal cavities of gravid white mice killed with chloro- form, and removed the embryos separately or together with the membranes and the uterus. The material was fixed in the following fluid : alcohol (96 p.c.) 96-97 c.cm. ; ammonia (10 p.c.) 4-3 c.cm. In this fluid, changed after 24 hours, the embryos were left for 2 days. The larger embryos were cut in several pieces after 24 hours. On removal from the fixative, the pieces were washed in water and then transferred to 1| p.c. silver- nitrate and kept for 3 or 4 days at 37° C. When withdrawn from the silver solution, the objects were mopped up with blotting-paper and placed in the following solution for 24 hours in diffuse daylight : pyrogallic acid, 2 ; formalin, 5 ; distilled water, 100. Paraffin sections were then prepared in the usual way, and these were treated for 5 to 15 minutes with 1 p.c. gold-chloride solution, from which they were directly transferred to 5 p.c. hyposulphite of sodium for 10 to 12 minutes. The sections were then submitted to prolonged washing in water, and after- wards mounted in the usual way. (3) Cutting-, including: Imbedding- and Microtomes. Demonstrating the Microscopic Structure of Fossil and Recent Reptilian Bone.f — A. L. L. Seitz remarks that one of the greatest difficulties in obtaining microscopical preparations of fossil bones is their fragility, and tendency to crumble in manipulation. His method was to surround the pieces with a mixture of resin and wax (9-1), and then to remove slices with fine fret-saws, or with circular saws and emery. The slices thus obtained were stuck on stout slides with a mixture of resin, wax, and hard balsam (9-1-1), and then ground down with emery on rough glass, and afterwards, if necessary, polished with smooth glass. The flattened surface was then fixed with the resinous mixture to another slide, and the first one removed by careful heating and manipu- lation. The other surface of the slice is then ground down on an emery wheel with water until it is about 1 mm. thick, when it is * Archiv Mikrosk. Anat. u. Entwickl., lxxi. (1908) pp. 333-49 (1 pi.). t Nova Acta Leopold-Carol. Acad., lxxxvii. (1907) pp. 229-400 (14 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 255 further thinned down by means of the first-mentioned method, and when of suitable thickness may be mounted straight away or first stained with a 1-3 p.c. eosin solution for the purpose of detecting traces of organic matter. Several pages full of precautions to be taken during the different stages are given, but for these details the original should be consulted. (4) Staining: and Injecting-. Staining the Tubercle Bacillus.* — M. Herman recommends the following method as being superior to the Ziehl-Nielsen procedure. He uses a 1 p.c. solution of ammonium carbonate in distilled water as a mordant, and a 3 p.c. solution of crystal-violet (methyl-violet 6 B) in 95 p.c. ethyl-alcohol. The solutions are mixed when required for use in the proportion of 3 of mordant to 1 of stain. The sections or smears are hot-stained in the usual way and then decolorised with 10 p.c. nitric acid and 95 p.c. alcohol. The author claims that by this method many more tubercle bacilli are to be demonstrated than by any other. Syringe for the Injection of Lymph-vessels, f — P. Bartels gives the following description of a syringe (fig. 63) used by him for anatomical Fig. 63. purposes, and especially for the injection of lymph-vessels : A. The syringe barrel (1) consisting of a graduated glass tube, having at one end (2) a metal nozzle, and at the other end (3) a metal ring, both being provided with a knob for a bayonet lock. B. A metal club con- sisting of a rod (4) and a piston (5) in the middle of which a ring is cut out for a washer. C. A metal junction piece (9) fitted to the * Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxii. (1908) pp. 92-6 (1 fig.), t Anat. Anzeig., xxx. (1907) p. 613 (1 fig.). 256 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO bayonet lock of the nozzle (2), and holding a glass canule (7) fixed by a strip of leather (8). D. A metal cover to fit into the metal ring (3) of the syringe, and to which are attached rings to take the index and middle fingers and thumb. (6) Miscellaneous. Forceps-scissors. — W. R. Traviss exhibited at the October 1907 Meeting * an instrument which is at once a pair of scissors and a folding nxmn 1 p.c, while at 982° C. the bars became supersaturated on the outside. Case-hardening. f — G. S. Scott, in the course of experiments on the influence of time, temperature, and composition of cementing material, has found that the materials which give the most rapid case-hardening effect either contain nitrogen or have the power of utilising atmo- spheric nitrogen. Gaiillet's mixture (60 p.c. wood charcoal, 40 p.c. BaC03), is very effective. Samples of mild steel, cemented in a non- nitrogenous material (sugar carbon), were found to absorb less carbon than samples (1) cemented in the same way, but previously heated in an atmosphere of ammonia-gas at 550° C, or (2) cemented in the same material through which passed a stream of ammonia-gas. Heating in ammonia-gas was found to produce twinning ; the author suggests that nitrogen induces the formation of y-iron, and that this is the explana- tion of its effect in accelerating; carburisation. *& Hardened Steels.J — P- Longmuir examined the microstructure of a large number of commercially hardened tools, carbon 0 ' 5 to 2*0 p.c. The good tools were found to consist of hardenite, alone or with cementite or ferrite, and had a characteristic absence of definite structural pattern. The tools spoilt in hardening frequently showed marked patterns, and martensitic, austenitic, and troostitic appearances were noted. The effect of different heating and quenching temperatures on a 1*15 p.c. carbon steel was determined. Uniformity of structure in tool steel is only obtained by quenching in a certain range of temperature. Hardening of Steel.§ — L. Demozay states at some length the conclusions, many of which are of an obvious character, drawn from extensive series of experiments, in which the rates of heating and of cooling of steel, under widely varying conditions, were determined. The heating curves given are of value. The transformation point on heating varies between two temperatures, the maximum value being the transition temperature at the centre of a very small sample rapidly heated, the minimum that of the surface of a large sample slowly heated. For a given temperature of heating-bath the maximum rate of heating diminishes from outside to centre of the sample. * Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., lxxv. (1907, 3) pp. 114-19 (22 photomicrographs). t Tom. cit., pp. 120-36 (12 figs.). X Tom. cit., pp. 137-43 (lb photomicrographs). § Tom. cit., pp. 144-78 (49 figs.). 260 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Constitution and Treatment of Steel.* — A. Portevin applies the equilibrium diagram of the iron-carbon system to the constitution and thermal treatment of steels and cast irons. The constituents, micro- scopically distinguished in a polished section, may correspond (1) to the phases in stable or labile equilibrium at the ordinary temperature ; (2) to the phases in equilibrium at a higher temperature, preserved unchanged by quenching ; (3) to states of transition between the phases as in (2) and as in (1). The author briefly describes the mode of production of the known constituents, including osmondite, but purposely leaving out of account Benedicks' ferronite and Kourbatoff's troosto-sorbite because so little is known regarding- them. ■'&"- Binary Alloys of Copper, t — R. Sahmen has determined the equilibrium diagrams of the systems cobalt-copper, iron-copper, man- ganese-copper, and magnesium-copper. The component metals of each system are miscible in all proportions in the molten state. In the cobalt-copper and iron-copper systems, mixed crystals occur at both ends of the diagram. Temperatures of magnetic and thermal trans- formations were determined in these series. Manganese and copper form a continuous series of mixed crystals with a minimum freezing-point at 866° C. and about 65 p.c. copper. Magnesium and copper form two compounds, Cu2Mg and CuMg2, melting-points 797° C. and 570° C. Etching reagents used were ammoniacal solution of hydrogen peroxide, and dilute sulphuric acid, used electrolytically. Binary Alloys of Nickel. J — G. Voss gives the results of his determinations of equilibrium diagrams for the binary alloys of nickel with tin, lead, thallium, bismuth, chromium, magnesium, zinc, and cadmium. Tests were made of magnetic permeability, temperatures of magnetic transformation were determined, and the alloys were micro- scopically examined. Owing to the low boiling-points of zinc and cadmium, the diagrams for the systems containing these metals only cover the range, 0-27 p.c. nickel and 0-15 p.c. nickel, respectively. The compounds found were Ni3Sn2, Ni3Sn, Ni4Sn. NiBi, NiBi3, Ni2Mg, NiMg2, NiZu3, NiCd4. With tin, lead, and thallium, nickel is not completely miscible in the liquid state. Binary Alloys of Aluminium. §— A. G. C. Gwyer has determined the equilibrium diagrams for the alloys of aluminium with copper, iron, nickel, and cobalt, with which metals aluminium is completely misci I »le in the molten state. Aluminium does not mix in any proportion with lead i >r cadmium : no alloys are formed therefore, and the diagrams for these two binarv systems are the simplest possible. The compounds are CuAl2, CuAl, Cu3Al, FeAl3, NiAl3, NiAl,, NiAl. Co3Al13, Co2Al-„ CoAl. Thermal results were confirmed by microscopical examination. The author considers that Carpenter and Edwards assumed the existence of Cu4Al on insufficient evidence, and points out that they did not mention 'CuAl, though its existence was indicated by their thermal results. A * Rev. de Mitallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 24-33 (10 figs.). + Zeitsehr. Anorg. Cbem., lvii. (1908) pp. 1-33 (27 figs.). % Tom. cit., pp. 34-71 (42 figs.). § Tom. cit.,pp. 113-53 (30 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 261 comparison is made between the three metals of the iron group in their behaviour with aluminium. Binary Alloys of Calcium.* — The electrolytic production of pare metallic calcium in large quantities has rendered the study of its alloys possible. L. Doriski has investigated its alloys with zinc, cadmium, aluminium, thallium, lead, tin, bismuth, antimony, and copper, and gives incomplete equilibrium diagrams. Owing to the powerful affinity of calcium for oxygen, the great amount of heat evolved when calcium is dissolved in molten metals (causing an explosive reaction in some cases), and the destructive action of high calcium alloys on the Jena glass and porcelain tubes used, the alloys were pre- pared only with great difficulty. Some of the high calcium alloys were melted in vacuo. Most of those of low calcium content were prepared by dropping calcium in small amounts into the metal heated considerably above its melting-point. Calcium is remarkable for its readiness to form compounds. The following were found : — CaZnu„ CaZn4, Ca2Zn3, CaZn (?), Ca4Zn, CaCd3, CaCd, Ca3Cd, (?), CaAl3, CaTl3, CaTl (?), CaPb3, CaSn3. Compounds with antimony and bismuth pro- bably exist. Microscopic examination confirmed the diagrams deduced from thermal analysis. Impact-testing on Notched Test-pieces. f — Ehrensberger considers this to be a useful addition to testing methods, affording additional information on mechanical properties, and makes the following re- commendations as the result of an investigation of the test. The machine to be a Charpy pendulum, one of three types giving respectively 250, 75, and 10 kilogram-metres striking energy. In the test-piece 160 x 30 x 30 mm. a hole 4 mm. diam. is drilled in the centre of the length, parallel to one face and 15 mm. distant from it ; a cut is made from the hole to the opposite side. A rounded notch is thus produced. The width of test-pieces cut from plates and similar material may be less than 30 mm. The test-pieces are machined cold, and must not after- wards be heated. The results to be expressed as energy absorbed per square centimetre (" spezifische Schlagarbeit "). The test-piece to be completely broken. The numerous diagrams and tables of tests on different steels with variously shaped notches show the necessity for standardisation of methods. Constitution of Manganese Cast Irons. J — L. Guillet retracts his former statement that cast irons of high manganese content do not contain y-iron. What appeared to be pearlite was, in fact, the eutectic mixed crystals-cementite. The addition of nickel or manganese to cast iron in sufficient quantity produces y-iron. In the case of a grey iron the addition of manganese produces y-iron before the graphite has dis- ppeared. Increase in manganese is accompanied by an increase in amount of carbide. ■> Zeitschr. Anorg. Ghem., lvii. (1908) pp. 185-219 (8 figs.). t Stahl und Eisen, xxvii. (1907) pp. 1797-1809, 1833-9 (19 figs.). (Report of committee appointed by the German Association for Testing Materials to inves- tigate this method of testing.) \ Gomptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 74-5. 262 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Heat Treatment of Copper-zinc Alloys.* — G. 1). Bengough and 0. F. Hudson have investigated the effect upon niicrostructure and mechanical properties of Muntz metal of annealing at different tem- peratures. The brass contained 60'43 p.c. copper, 39*21 p.c zinc, 0*33 p.c. lead, and was rolled hot to round bars, which were finally reduced slightly by cold rolling. In this state the metal had a considerably higher tensile strength and elongation than in the cast condition. Brass of this composition is normally constituted of a and /3 solid solutions. On heating, a dissolves progressively in (3 with rise of temperature ; at 720° C. /? is the sole constituent. By quenching at different temperatures, alloys containing the two phases in different proportions may be obtained. Test bars quenched after heating to a temperature high enough to produce a notable increase in the proportion of /3 give a slightly increased maximum tensile stress and a greatly diminished elongation. /3 appears to be brittle. Dilute ammonia solution was used for etching ; a etched light, ft dark. By varying the strength of the solution a completely reversed effect may be produced. Piping and Segregation.! — H. M. Howe and B. Stoughton have studied these phenomena in ingots cast from wax containing green copper oleate (1'5 p.c). The wax was coloured by the addition of a little red cerasine, which does not segregate. The predictions made by Howe concerning the influence of casting conditions upon piping and segregation were verified. £ Measurement of Extension of Tensile Test-pieces. § — W. J. Lambert claims great accuracy, combined with simplicity, for a method of measuring small extensions, which consists in projecting a magnified image of the gap between knife edges attached to the ends of the test-piece, on the focusing screen of a photomicrographic apparatus. The extension is readily calculated from the increase in width of the image of the gap, given the magnification. Recovery of Steel from Overstrain. || — E. C. Hancock has show n that a carbon steel and a steel containing 3 " 5 p.c. nickel, when over- strained in either tension or compression, lose their elasticity for stresses, both of the same and of the opposite kind. Recovery takes place through rest and more rapidly on warming. Influence of Stress on the Electrical Conductivity of Metals.1T W. E. Williams has determined the effect of hydrostatic pressure upon the resistance of wires of lead, aluminium, bismuth, and manganin. The resistance of lead and aluminium is diminished by pressure, that of bismuth and manganese increased, the change in each case being proportional to the pressure. * Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., xxvii. (1908) pp. 43-52 (30 figs.). t Bull. Amer Inst. Mining Engineers, xvi. (1907) pp. 561-73 (17 figs.). X See this Journal, 1907, p. 382. § Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., clxix. (1907) pp. 349-51 (2 figs.). || Phil. Mag., xiii. (1907) pp. 688-93 (8 figs.). 1 Tom. cit., pp. 635-43 (3 figs.). ZOOLOGY, BOTANY AND MICROSCOPY, ETC. 263 Bach, C. — Investigation of a Copper Tube split in use. Zeitschr. Vet: Deutsch. lug., li. (1907) pp. 1667-9 (12 figs.). Campbell, W. — Heat Treatment of Medium-Carbon Steels ^Influence of Speed of Cooling on Physical Properties and Structure. Metallwgie, iv. (1907) pp. 772-8 (50 figs.). D i eg el, C. — Age-cracks in Copper Alloys. Rev. de Metallurgie, iv. (1907) Extraits, p. 67S. Giolotti, F. — Practical Value of Metallography. Rassegna Mineraria (1907) pp. 277-82. Guillet, L. — A New Chromium Tool Steel. [The properties and micro-structure of an accidentally made " steel," containing 2*18 p.c. carbon, 14-88 p.c. chromium, are described.] Rev. de Metallurgie, iv. (1907) pp. 1025-6 (2 figs.). ,, ,, Industrial Application of Metal Microscopy. Le Genie Civil (1907) pp. 111-13. Harbord, F. W. — Action of Toothless Circular Saws. [Microscopic observations of disk and cut metal lead to the explanation that the action proceeds through fusion of the metal cut.] Engineer, cv. (1908) p. 187 (8 figs.). See also Nature, lxxvii. (1908) p. 419. Janecke, E. — The Ternary System, Lead-cadmium-mercury. Zeitschr. Phys. Chem., lx. (1907) pp. 399-412 (7 figs.). Juptner, H. von — Application of the Laws of Physical Chemistry in the Metallurgy of Iron. Journ. Iron, and Steel. Inst., lxxv. (1907) pp. 59-85 (7 figs.). ,, ,, Microstructure of Steel. Oesterr. Zeitschr. fur Berg-und Uilttenwesen, (1907) pp. 161-4, 177-80. Kerdyk, F. — Microstructure of a Broken Shaft. [The failure of a propeller shaft is ascribed to faulty heat treat- ment.] Dingler's Polytech. Journ. (1907) pp. 683-5. ,, „ Metallographic Practice. Stahl und Eisen, xxvii. (1907) pp. 1892. Moissan, H. — Vaporisation of Metals. Proc. Roy. Inst., xviii. (1907) part 2, pp. 377-91 (1 fig.). Moldenke, R. — Production of Malleable Castings. Foundry, xxxi. (1907) pp. 257-9. M o stow its c h, W. — Lead-oxide and Silica. Metallurgie, iv. (1907) pp. 647-55 (2 figs.). Puschin, N. — Potential and Constitution of Metallic Alloys. Zeitschr. Anorg. Chem., lvi. (1907). pp. 1-45 (17 figs.). See also Journ. Soc. Chem. lnd., xxvi. (1907) pp. 1141-2 ; xxvii. (1908) pp. 77 and 126. Journ. Russ. Phys.- Chem. Ges., xxxix. (1907) pp. 353-99, 528-66. FvUER, R.— Form of Melting-point Curves in Binary Systems. Zeitschr. Phys. Chem., lix. (1907) pp. 1-16 (7 figs.). Saposhnikow, A., & J. Kaniewski — Hardness and Microstructure of Lead- antimony Alloys. Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., xxvii. (1908) pp. 126-7 (abstract). Saposhnikow, A., & M. Sacharow — Hardness and Microstructure of Cadmium-zinc Alloys. Tom. cit., p. 127 (abstract). Shemtschushny, S., & N. Jepremow — Phosphorus Compounds of Man- ganese. Tom. cit., p. 77 (abstract). Shemtschushny, S., G. Urasow, & A. Rykowskow — Alloys of Man- ganese with Copper and Nickel. Tom. cit., p. 77 (abstract). [The four papers, references to which are given above, appeared in Journ. Rtcss. Phys. -Chem. Ges., xxxix. (1907). 264 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES. Sauvecr, A. — Graphic Representation of the Solidification of Eutectic Alloys. Electrochcm. and Met. hid., vi. (1908) p. 18 (1 fig.). Sahmen, R., & A. v. Vegesack — Application of Thermal Analysis to Three- component Systems. Zeitschr. Phys. Client., lix. (1907) pp. 257-83 (12 figs.) pp. 697-702(3 figs.) ; lx. (1907; pp. 507-9 (1 fig.). Sieverts, A. — Occlusion and Diffusion of Gases through Metals. Zeitschr. Phys. Cliem., lx. (1907) pp. 129-201 (8 figs.). Stribeck, R. — Spherical Test-pieces of Hardened Steel. Zeitschr. Ver. Deutsch. Ing., li. (1907) pp. 1444-51, 1500-6, 1542-7 (23 figs.). Shuddem agen,~C. L. B. — Demagnetising Factors for Cylindrical Iron Rods. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts, and Sci., xliii. (1907) pp. 185-256 (25 figs.). Stromeyer, C. E. — Further Experiments on the Ageing of Mild Steel. [The author considers that the existence of an ageing effect is confirmed by the results of the further mechanical tests given. See this Journal, 1907, p. 640.] Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., lxxv. (1907) pp. 86-113 (29 figs.). Wawrzinirk — Elastic Properties of Steel. Mctallurgie, iv. (1907) pp. 810-15 (3 figs.). ,, ,, Metal Microscopy. Stahl und Eisen, xxvii. (1907) p. 1892. Explosion of Thermal Storage Drum at Greenwich. [A report on the microstructure of the faulty plate is included.] Engineering, lxxxv. (1908) pp. 113-17 (17 figs.). See also Engineer, cv. (1908) pp. 57, 82-4, 91-2, 96-7. Mitteilungen aus dem Koniglichen Materialprufungsamt, xxv. (1907) pp. 157-231. [Contains a section describing the year's work in metallography.] 2 1);". PEOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. MEETING Held on the 19th of February, 1908, at 20 Hanover Square, W. A. N. Disney, Esq., M.A., B.Sc, in the Chair. The Minutes of the Meeting of the 15th of January, 1908— being the Anniversary Meeting of the Society — were read and confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman. The List of Donations to the Society (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received since the last Meeting, was read, and the thanks of the Society were voted to the donors. From J. M. Hulth, Bibliographia Linnaeana. Partie I., Livraison 1.1 Kungl. Vetenskaps (8vo, Upsala, 1907) J Societeten i Upsala Conrad Beck, Cantor Lectures on The Theory of the Micro- 1 scope. Delivered at the Society of Arts, Nov. and Dec. > The Author. 1907. (8vo, London, 1908) ) Slide, A Iveolina boscii .. .. Mr. F. Chapman. Mr. J. E. Barnard exhibited and described an improved type of mercury vapour lamp. The lamp exhibited on a former occasion had been improved on, and the one now shown was made with a thicker and shorter tube. This gave a sufficiently large source of light to enable critical illumination to be obtained with a well filled field, when using medium powers. The effect of using this new form of lamp was shown under two Microscopes in the room, one with a screen, giving absolutely monochromatic green light, the other without a screen, the soft blueish light in which was very pleasant to work with, and, owing to the entire absence of red rays, constituted an excellent illuminant for visual microscopic work. Mr. J. W. Gordon inquired if Mr. Barnard had satisfied himself as to the absence of any short-length waves of light, which might prove injurious to the user. The danger which lurked in that sort of thing had been brought home to them lately by the fact that Dr. Hall Edwards had lost his arm through incautious operating with X-rays, at a time when the risks of damage from that source were unknown and unsuspected. Mr. Barnard said this risk was really nil, owing to the incan- descent mercury vapour being inclosed in a glass tube, which of course absorbed practically all the ultra-violet rays. A further safeguard in April loth, 1908 I 266 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. the case of glass tubes which were transparent to ultra-violet rays, was to use a screen of a solution of sulphate of quinine between the light and the Microscope, which completely absorbed all these rays. Mr. C. L. Curties exhibited a number of slides under Microscopes in the room, illustrative of the stages in the life-history of the Culicidaj ; the labels attached to each were, he thought, sufficiently explicit to render it unnecessary for him to further describe them. Votes of thanks to Mr. Barnard and to Mr. Curties for their exhibits were unanimously passed. Attention was called to some excellent stereo-photographs sent for exhibition by Mr. Dollman, and placed upon the table, with stereoscopes, for the inspection of the Fellows present. Mr. E. M. Nelson's paper on " Eye-pieces for the Microscope " was taken as read, the greater part of it consisting of numerical tables which, though of considerable value, it was thought would prove uninteresting reading. The paper would, however, be printed in the Journal. The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Nelson for his paper. The Rev. Eustace Tozer read a paper on " The Life-history of a new Protophyte," which he illustrated by six lantern slides, and by living and mounted specimens under Microscopes, showing the various methods of reproduction. He also exhibited micro-slides of Rotifers, stained and mounted in Canada balsam by a new process. The thanks of the Meeting were voted to the author. Mr. F. Chapman's paper, " On Dimorphism in the Recent Forami- nifer, Alveolina boscii" was read by Dr. Hebb, specimens in illustration being exhibited under the Microscope. Mr. Earland said that he had examined Mr. Chapman's specimens, and was under the impression that he had observed similar ones on several occasions, when examining dredgings in which Alveolina boscii was plentiful. It had never occurred to him, however, that the variation might be due to dimorphism, he had always regarded it as an abnormal variation. Such questions could only be answered, in the majority of species, by the cutting of thin sections through the median line, a process requiring the greatest skill and delicacy of touch. He had often tried, but very rarely succeeded in the operation. Mr. Chapman was well known for his skill in these matters, and he was to be congratulated on the interesting discovery resulting from his work. A vote of thanks to Mr. Chapman for his paper was unanimously passed. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 267 Mr. Nelson's paper, on " Biddulphia Mobiliensis," was read by Dr. Hebb — the concluding portion dealing with the comparative values of long and short-tube Microscopes in the examination of minute structures. Mr. C. L. Curties exhibited on the screen a number of lantern slides of various microscopic objects, for which the thanks of the Meeting were unanimously voted. A description of a micro-object locater, devised by Mr. S. E. Dowdy, and exhibited applied to a Microscope in the room, was read by Dr. Hebb. It was announced that at the next Meeting of the Society the President hoped to be able to give his address, " On Seeds, with Special Reference to those of British Plants." New Fellow. — The following was balloted for and duly elected an Ordinary Fellow of the Society : — Mr. Eric Graham Saunders. The following Objects, Instruments, etc., were exhibited : — The Society : — The following Stereo-photomicrographs, by Mr. Dollman : Blow-fly's tongue x 300 ; Medusa of Opercular ella x 20 ; Medusa of Schyzohydra tergemma x 80 ; Plumatella x 16 ; Tubular ia crocea x 8 ; Volvox globator x 50; an Object-locater, sent for ex- hibition by Mr. S. E. Dowdy ; Slide of Alveolina boscii, in illustration of Mr. Chapman's paper. Mr. J. E. Barnard : —An Improved Mercury Vapour Lamp. Mr. C. L. Curties : — Eight Slides, illustrating the life-history of some Diptera : Culex, pupa, larva, male, female ; Tanypus, pupa, larva, male, female ; and Lantern Slides of various microscopic objects. Mr. J. I. Pigg :— Scale of Dogfish, stained with hematoxylin. Rev. Eustace Tozer :— Drawings, and six Lantern Slides, and the following Slides under Microscopes in illustration of his paper, A New Protophyte : (1) Living forms ; (2) Direct reproduction of parent-form, small ; (3) Canada balsam mount, showing flagella ; (4 and 5) Bud- cysts ; (6) Zoospores from bud-cysts ; Micro-slides of Rotifers, stained, and mounted in Canada balsam by a new process. T '1 268 l'KOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. MEETING Held on the 18th of March, 1908, at 20 Hanover Square, W. The Right Hon. Lord Avebury, F.R.S., etc., President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the Meeting of the 19th of February, 1908, were read and confirmed. The following Donation to the Society was announced, and the thanks of the Meeting were voted to the donor. From Woodward, Horace B., History of the Geological Society of ( afrf^aTRnkptv London (8vo, London, 1907) {^f London V Mr. J. Ciceri Smith read a description of a direct-reading micro- meter gauge, which he exhibited in the room ; the mechanism of the instrument being further illustrated by diagrams. Mr. Smith said this micrometer would be found very convenient for rnicroscopists. It was an improved cover-glass gauge, with an auto- matic calculating index, upon which the thickness of the glass in decimal fractions of an inch was seen at a glance, and upon the divided-thimble half divisions ( = iroV o m0 could be read off. A full description of the instrument, with illustrations, will be published in next issue. The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Mr. Smith for his exhibition and explanation. Mr. C. F. Rousselet gave the following account of a series of mounted specimens of the rarer species of fresh-water Polyzoa, which were ex- hibited under Microscopes in the room. The fresh-water Polyzoa received a good deal of attention from zoologists about the middle of last century, but Professor xAJlman, by the publication in 1856 of his monograph of this group, appears to have almost exhausted the subject as far as Great Britain is concerned, for during fifty years afterwards no new species were discovered in England, with the single exception of the remarkable Victorella pavida, found by Saville Kent in 1868. Naturalists abroad, in America, Germany, India, Japan, etc., have been more active, and have brought to light about a dozen new species of great interest, and it is these rarer and mostly foreign forms which my exhibit this evening is intended to illustrate. The well-known and common species, such as Lophopus, Cristatella, Plumatella, Fredericella sultana, and Paludicella, have often been ex- hibited, and are not here this evening. The forms represented are the following : — 1. Victorella pavida Saville Kent was first found at one of the earliest excursions of the Quekett Microscopical Club, on September 12. 1868, in the Victoria Docks. Some years afterwards, in 1885, it was found again by Dr. Bousfield, in the Surrey Canal, and in March 1906, guided PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 269 by this gentleman, I obtained it once more at the same spot, after an interval of 21 years. Lastly, I found it in the Surrey Commercial Docks, at a Quekett Club excursion on October 5 of last year. This species is also known from Germany. It is always found attached to the stems of the hydroid Gordylopliora lacustris, with which it seems to have entered into a symbiotic arrangement for mutual support and food supply. I cannot enter into any description, beyond saying that it is a very small species of a marine type, with a circular lophophore of only eight tentacles. The specimen under the Microscope is the first ever prepared with tentacles fully extended. 2. Victorella symbiotica. Last year* I described a second species of this genus, which was brought by 'Dr. Cunnington from Lake Tan- ganyika. It was found completely imbedded in a sponge, the long narrow tubes penetrating through its substance, to enable the creature to expand its tentacles above the surface of the sponge. This species also seems to possess sufficient intelligence to see the advantage of entering into a similar symbiotic arrangement with a sponge for protection and food supply. 3. Pott siella erecta. — In 1884 Mr. Edw. Potts, of America, published a very short account, without figure, of a new Polyzoan under the name of Paludicella erecta, which he had found attached to submerged stones in the Pennsylvania Canal in his neighbourhood. In 1887 Professor Kraepelin, of Hamburg, having obtained some specimens from Mr. Potts, changed the generic name into Pottsiella in his monograph of the German Fresh-water Bryozoa, having recognised that its affinities are quite different from those of Paludicella. Last August, at my request, Mr. Potts was good enough to send me some living specimens to Boston, where I was able to prepare a few fully expanded, and the specimen under the Microscope is the first one so obtained. Later in the year, after the cold weather had set in, Mr. Potts sent me some stones with the died-down tubes of this species, and from the creeping stolons of some of these, new tubes have been formed in my aquarium, and for the first time in England I have seen the living Pottsiella expand its circular lophophore of about twenty-two tentacles. 4. Urnatella gracilis is another rare American species which was discovered and described by Leidy in 1851, in the Schuylkill River. The same stones lately received from America to which Pottsiella is attached, have also a number of Urnatella, and here again I revived in my aquarium the first living specimens ever seen in this country. Urnatella is a fresh-water representative of another marine type — Pedicellina. 5. Arachnoidia Ray-Lankesteri. — In 1903 Mr. Moore brought this remarkable Polyzoan from Lake Tanganyika, where it was subsequently found again by Dr. Cunnington, and the slide exhibited here is from this expedition of 1905. It is also of a marine type with rounded flat cells, closely adhering to shells and stones, with a tall erect tube at one end, from which the animal protrudes its circular lophophore of sixteen tentacles. * Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1907) pp. 250-257 (2 pis.). 270 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 6. Hislopia lacustris is a peculiar species found by Carter in 185 (&S Fig. 76. Fig. 77. Fig. 78. Fig. 79. Figs. 76-79. — Geum urbanum. Fig. 76, young style; Fig. 77, older; Fig. 78, still older ; Fig. 79, ripe fruit. Cucurbit a CEiE. — Our only British species of this family is the Common Bryony. The fruit is a berry, red or orange in colour, and the leaves are deciduous. This accords with the suggestion made already. The seeds are flat and nearly orbicular. Crassulace^e. — The seeds are generally small, and therefore easily carried by the wind. They adhere also to almost any surface. KiBESiACEiE. — The fruits are berries with more or less sweet juice. The seeds are suspended on long stalks. SaxifragacE;E. — The fruit is a capsule, which, as in so many cases, opens at the top, so that the seeds are jerked out by the wind. As a rule they are very small. Those of S. o]jpositifolia are decidedly papillous, which would tend to make them adhere the more closely to the fur of animals. In Parnassia and Drosera, as in some other plants of a similar habit (Narthecium, etc.), the testa is spongy and loose in texture. 288 Transactions of the Society. This would make it lighter and enable it to float, or perhaps prevent it from sinking too deeply into the herbage of the Sphagnum in which it so often lives. Each of our species of Drosera differs somewhat from the others in the texture of the surface of the seeds. There must, I suppose, be some reasons for these differences, but they are not very apparent. In D. intermedia the seeds are densely covered with small elevated points, as in some species of Arenaria, Silene, and other Caryophylleae. These would, no doubt, lighten the seeds. Umbellifeile. — There are two carpels, coherent into a 2-celled ovary, each cell containing one ovule, suspended from the top. The fruit is 2-celled, dividing into two portions (mericarps) often suspended at the top of single or double axis. The surface has ten ridges, sometimes produced into wings. The furrows between the main elevations are sometimes occupied by subordinate ridges. The seed is pendulous. The fruit is often compressed ; sometimes laterally, in which case a slice cut through the seed has an oval form, the division being across the narrow diameter. When the compression is from back to front, the division is across the broadest diameter. In this order the seeds are comparatively uniform, and the main differences occur in the fruits. The fruits are dry and in some cases eaten by birds, but the principal modes of dispersal are by hooks or wings. It might have been expected that these different methods of dispersal would have prevailed in different groups of the order. As, however, we have seen in other cases, this is not the case. Hooks, for instance, occur in several genera (Sanicula, Anthriscus, JDaucus, Caucalis) by no means nearly allied. Anthriscus vulgaris, for instance, in which the carpels are armed with hooked bristles, is so nearly allied to Chcerophyllum temulum and G. sylvestre that Bentham in the " Handbook of the British Flora " places it in the same genus as C. Anthriscus. In Eryngium the carpels are covered with chaffy scales, which are longest on the primary ridges. These would serve to lighten the fruit, but they would also help to entangle them in the fur of animals. In other cases the persistent styles are recurved, forming hooks which would serve for the same purpose [uEgoptodium, Slum, Pimpinclla). Winged fruits occur in Angelica, Smyrnium, Crithmum, Myrrhis, Sium, etc. These, as we should expect, are glabrous. In Scandix Pecten-veneris the fruit is developed into a long beak, and when the bases of the carpels split away, they diverge widely. Perhaps this facilitates their being torn off by any passing animals. The aquatic species, as usual, are glabrous. In some Umbellifers, The President's Address. By Lord Avebury. 289 especially those of dry regions, the seeds are extraordinarily light. Araliace.^e. — Of this order we have only one species, the Ivy, Hedera Helix. It is as a rule the last of our English species to flower. The fruit is a black, 5-celled berry, with one seed in each cell. These are somewhat irregular in form, convex on the back, and wedge-shaped from being arranged round a centre, so that the five together form a sphere. LokanthacE/E. — The fruit of this interesting plant is also a berry, the Mistletoe (Viscum), and no doubt is intended for dis- persal by birds. It is white, and contains a single seed imbedded in a peculiarly glutinous pulp, which serves to make it adhere to the bark of any branch on which it is deposited. For seeds which rest on the ground such a provision would be unnecessary. CoRXACEyE. — The fruit of the Cornels is, in ordinary language, a berry, but technically it is a drupe, i.e. a berry in which the " pericarp " consists of two distinct layers, the outer one fleshy or pulpy, the inner one dry and cartilaginous or woody. This layer is, in Comus, very hard, and no doubt effectually protects the seeds when the fruit is eaten. It is 2-celled, with one seed in each cell. The fruit of C. sanguinea is black, and thus conspicuous against the leaves, which are a bright red in autumn. C. suecica has red fruit. Caprifoliace^e. — The fruit is a berry, generally 1 -seeded, green in Adoxa, but generally either red or black. The fruits are evi- dently intended for dissemination by birds, and the actual seeds are protected as usual in such cases by the hardness of the inner coat or " endocarp." In the Honeysuckle the divisions of the cells soften or dis- appear. Stellat.e. — Of this family, or sub-family, we have four genera. In Bubia the fruit is a small, black, 2-lobed berry. In the large genus Galium, G. Crucictta has almost succulent fruits. In others, for instance G. boreale and G. Aparine (Cleavers), the fruits are hooked. With the exception of G. boreale, which has hooked bristles on the fruit, the perennial species are smooth, while the annual species have reversed spines or hooks, if not on the fruit, at any rate on the stems. I am inclined to suggest that parts of the plant are torn off and carried away, the fruits, of course, going with them. In G. tricomc the pedicels are turned back, and thus form a hook. The rough fruits of Sherardiu are surmounted by the enlarged calyx, which has spreading teeth. SolanacEtE. — The Solanacepe have two carpels, cohering into a two-celled ovary. The fruit is technically a capsule, a berry either dry or pulpy, or a " pyxidium," i.e. a box with transverse dehiscence, as in the Pimpernel. June 17th, 1908 x 290 Transactions of the Society. In two of our four English genera, Solanum and Atropa, the fruit is a many-seeded berry. In Solanum the fruits are deeply, but finely pitted and rugose, and are no doubt scattered by birds when eating the pulpy fruit. In S. nigrum the fruit is black. In S. Dulcamara, which has a climbing or straggling habit, they are red and very conspicuous in autumn after the fall of the leaf. On the Continent they are some- times black, sometimes red, sometimes yellow or yellowish-green, and are said to come true from seed. Atropa Belladonna has a rather large, black berry. In Datura Stramonium the fruit is a large, globular, prickly capsule, which opens at the top. The seeds are large, numerous, and wrinkled, flattened by mutual pressure, and black. In our fourth genus, the Henbane {Hyoscyamus niger) the fruit is also a capsule. It is crowned by the persistent and en- larged calyx, which forms a cup, from which the seeds are gradually scattered by the wind, when the cap of the capsule has been thrown off. The seeds are numerous, laterally much compressed, reniform, and approximately orbicular, but varying a good deal in shape and size. They are somewhat deeply pitted. Valeriane;e. — The fruit is small, dry, and seed-like, 3-celled, each with one ovule, two of winch, however, come to nothing. The empty cells, no doubt, serve to lighten the seed. In Centranthu and Valeriana the border of the calyx develops into a beautiful feathery pappus. In Valerianella. there is no pappus. The fertile cell is larger than the others. The fruits present curious little differences in the different species. DiPSACEiE. — In this order, which is very nearly allied to the Valerianese, though in appearance more nearly resembling Com- posites, we have two genera, Dipsacus and Scabiosa. In Dipsacus the bracts surrounding the flower-head form a sort of cup surround- ing the seeds, and from which they are ejected. In the Fuller's Teasel, which is generally regarded as a mere variety of D. sylvcstris, but the origin of which is not known, the scales are hooked. In Scabiosa the calyx terminates in fine bristles, which must often get entangled in the hairs and wool of passing animals. Composite. — Of this great family we have nearly fifty British genera. As to the number of species, there are great differences of opinion. This is due in great measure to the difficulty of determining the number of species in the very complex and variable genus Hieracium. The ovary is inferior, 1-celled, 1-ovuled. The fruit is always dry ; it is an " achene," generally sessile, sometimes provided with a long beak. The modes of dispersal of the seeds, or, to speak more techni- cally, the achenes, are very various. When they are small, as in the Daisy, they probably adhere to the feet of animals, especially in wet weather. In many cases, no doubt, they are carried by s The President's Address. By Lord Avebtiry. 291 birds. In Bidens the achenes terminate in barbed bristles. In the Burdocks {Arctium) the bracts surrounding the flower-head are strongly hooked at the apex, and evidently arranged so that the whole head should be carried away by some passing animal. In a large proportion of the species the achenes are distributed by the wind in consequence of the presence of a pappus. In some cases it is but slightly developed. In Arctium it has possibly degraded, being replaced by the hooked barbs. Other genera possibly represent cases in which it is even now being evolved. In Centaurea, for instance, it is short, and cannot be very efficient. In many genera, however, it is highly and beautifully developed. The hairs of the pappus are in some species simple, and in others, which seem to represent the highest development, plumose. The life-history of the plant seems often arranged with refer- ence to them. In the common Dandelion the bud lies prostrate on the ground ; when the florets are ready to open, the flower-stalk raises itself so as to get all the sun, and be as conspicuous as possible to insects. Every evening and in wet weather it closes, so as to preserve its precious charge from too much wet. I once kept one awake, however, all night by keeping it in the light of an Argand lamp. When the flower is fertilised, the stalk once more becomes horizontal, or nearly so, thus endeavouring to avoid the dangers which might befall it if it remained upright while the seeds were maturing. This takes about a fortnight, and when the seeds are ripe the flower-stalk again rises perpendicularly, thus assum- ing the position most favourable to assist in the dispersal of the achenes by the wind. Where the grass is short, as for instance on lawns, the intelligent plant keeps its flower-stalk also short ! In the Dandelion {Taraxacum), the Lettuce {Lactuca), and some others, the achenes terminate in a long beak. The object of this, perhaps, may be to carry the upper end further from the disk of the flower-head, and thus give more space for the expansion of the pappus. In the species hitherto mentioned, the seeds are all alike. In Leontodon hirtus, however, most of the fruits have a well- developed pappus ; but those of the outer row have none. In Hypochceris glabra the pappus of the outer florets is sessile, while the inner ones are on a long beak. The common Calendula. (Marigold) (fig. 80) of our gardens is an even more interesting case. Three devices for dispersal are united in each head. The outer achenes (fig. 81) are narrow, and bent into a curve forming three parts of a circle, and well adapted to hang on to the fur of any passing animal. Then follow a certain number which are puffed out with wide wings (fig. 82), and are evidently intended for dispersal by wind. Towards the centre the achenes are smaller, and much resemble small green or brown X 2 292 Transactions of the Society. caterpillars (fig. 82). These, it has been suggested, are picked up by birds, and then dropped when they discover their mistake. Between the extreme types there are many intermediate forms. Side view. Front view. Section. Hooked form. Winged form. Grub-like form. Fig. 80. Fig. 81. Fig. 82. Figs. 80-82. — Seeds of Calendula officinalis, showing various forms. Ericaceae. — The fruit is a capsule, a berry, or a drupe. The ovary has generally as many cells as the lobes of the corolla, with one to many seeds in each. The genera with berries are Vaccinium, Aroutus, and Arcto- staphylus. Vaccinium, Vitis-idaza, V. Oxycoccus, and Aroutus Unedo have red berries and evergreen leaves. Vaccinium Myrtillus, V. uliginosum, and Arctostaphylus alpina, have black berries and deciduous leaves, in accordance with the general rule. In the remaining genera, Andromeda, Loiseleuria (Azalea), Mcnziesia, Calluna, Erica, Pyrola, and Monotropa, the fruit is a capsule. The seeds are small. In Monotropa, as in so many parasites, the seeds are very small. They are nearly cylindrical, and covered with a loose testa, produced at both ends. In Andromeda Polifolia the seeds are black and glossy, as is so often the case in species where this arrangement prevails. Those of Calluna are reticulated and light. CAMPANULACEiE. — The fruit is a capsule, with many-seeded cells. The seeds are numerous and minute, and, as in other cases, are jerked out by the wind or by passing animals. In the latter The President's Address. By Lord Avebury. 293 case they would readily adhere to the fur, and so be carried away. In some species of the genus Campanula the capsule opens as usual at the top or near the top (C Bapunculus, C.patula, C.persici- folia, C. cenisia, C. hybrida, etc.) In others, on the contrary, the openings are at or near the base (C. rapunculoides, C. rotundifolia, C. Trachelium, C. latifolia, C. Medium, etc. I have suggested as the explanation of the difference that in the former species, how- ever, the capsules are upright, in the latter group they hang down. In both cases, therefore, the openings are at the upper end, so that the seeds cannot drop, but must be shaken out. Pklmulace^;. — The fruit is a one-celled capsule, containing more or less numerous seeds. In Primida, Lysimachia, Cyclamen, and Samolus, it opens at the top ; in Anagallis and Centunculus transversely, the upper half becoming detached, leaving the seeds in a sort of cup. Along sztSt Fig. 83. — Anagallis arvensis. Wall of the capsule, c c, elongated cells along the line of dehiscence. the line of dehiscence (fig. 83) the cells are elongated transversely, and are but slightly attached to one another, while above and below they present irregular outlines, which tend to keep them together. The seeds are attached to the receptacle by their ventral face, while the outer one is rounded or flattened by the walls of the capsule. They are more or less pitted. Aquifoliace^e. — The holly is a typical berry-bearing tree. If we speak of a berry, the holly is one of the first we think of. Botanic- ally, however, the fruit is a drupe rather than a berry. The ovary is 3-5, generally 4-celled, with one seed in each cell. The fruit is red, as usual with evergreens, and we all know how they show up against the green leaves. Lentibulariace^e. — Fruit, a capsule. "We have two genera, 294 Transactions of the Society. Pinguicula and Utricularia (plate IV. fig. 2). The seeds of Pin- guicula are relatively large, oblong, terete or nearly so, with a furrow on one side corresponding to the raphe, netted, with the meshes in longitudinal lines, light brown and shining. They are slightly prolonged at the base and the funiculus is partly persistent. They are very light and adhere readily to the fingers, so that they could often be carried away by any animal treading on them. The British Utricularias are all water-plants, celebrated for their curious " eel traps," which serve to capture minute water- animals. The seeds are small, oblong and striated. Jasmixace^e. — The structure of the fruit presents again, in this family, great differences. In some genera it is a capsule, in others a berry. We have two genera, Fraxinus, the Ash, with dry capsules, commonly called keys, which, including the wing, are about an inch and a half in length, thin and light, so that they are easily carried by the wind. They have a slight twist, as in other similar fruits, and this probably tends to carry them further. Such winged fruits are very typical of high trees. On the other hand, our second genus of the family, Ligustrum (the Privet), like so many other bushes and low trees, has a berry fruit. In the early stages there are two ovules in each cell, but, as in so many other cases, only one comes to maturity. The fruit is black, and the leaves nearly evergreen. It is evidently intended to be eaten by birds, and the embryo is pro- bably protected by the hard endosperm. Apocynaceje. — The fruit consists of two oblong or elongated capsules or follicles, each of a single cell, diverging as they ripen. Vinca minor, the lesser Periwinkle, is the only truly British species. It has oblong-cylindrical seeds, terminated abruptly at each end. They are probably disseminated by birds and small quadrupeds. Geistianace^e. — Fruit a capsule, dehiscing along the margins of the carpels ; many-seeded. The fruit is generally a capsule, but sometimes, though not in British genera, a berry. The capsules of Limnanthemum, as in some other water-plants, sink below the surface while the seeds are ripening. As in so many seeds which are intended to be scattered from capsules, those of Gentiana Amarella are pitted and glossy. Polemoniace;E. — The fruit is a 3-celled capsule, opening by three valves opposite the middle of the cells. The seeds have a narrow wing, but are probably more effectively dispersed by being jerked from the capsule. CoNVOLVULACEyE. — The fruit is either a capsule, with valves detaching from the septum, or a berry. In most of our species there are four seeds, each forming a quarter of a sphere, so as to fill up the capsule. The President's Address. By Lord Avehcry. 295 We have two genera — very different in habit and appearance. Convolvulus has an indehiscent capsule. In C. sepium the seeds are rather large and heavy. In the smaller species we have a somewhat rare case, the form of the capsule depending on the number of seeds which are fertilised. If the capsule has its full complement of four seeds, it is 4-angled. In Cuscuta europcea (the dodder) the capsule bursts transversely at the base. It seems probable that the long, filiform, twisted and curling stems often get torn away by passing animals, carrying the seeds with them. Boragine^e. — The ovary as a rule is deeply 4-lobed, with a simple style inserted in the centre. The fruit consists of four small nuts, resembling seeds, and inclosed in, or surrounded by, the calyx. In Symphytum the seeds are hard, smooth, and polished, resem- bling small pebbles. They are probably distributed partly by water and partly by birds. Those of Lithospenmini are similar, and in L. officinale bright blue, which makes them very conspicuous. Birds are fond of them, and, as they are so slippery, must often drop them about. In Myosotis, the Forget-me-not, the calyx tube contracts more or less over the nutlets, so that they generally remain for some time together. The species may be divided into three groups. In M. ccespitosa, M. palustris, and M. repens, the hairs on the calyx are straight and depressed. The nutlets readily adhere to the fingers, and may probably thus be carried about by animals. In M. versicolor, M. arvensis, and M. collina, this is evidently the case. The calyx is covered with bristly hairs, many of which are hooked. They cling tenaciously to any woolly or rough surface. In M. sylvatica there are three kinds of hairs, adpressed and short, long and arching, while some are hooked and of intermediate length. The most highly modified fruits in this direction are those of the Hound's-tongue, Cynoglossum. The nutlets separate from the receptacle, and only remain attached to the central axis by the produced upper ends, which makes them more liable to be carried away by animals. Tins is still further promoted by the fact that the nutlets are densely covered with conical, " glochidiate," or many-barbed warts, which readily catch in, and hold tight to any woolly or rough surface. OROBANCHACEiE. — The Orobanchacese are all parasitic, and, as is usual in such cases, the seeds are small, in some species so small as to resemble dust. The fruit is a capsule. Green leaves are entirely wanting. ScrophulariaceyE. — The fruit is generally a capsule, sometimes, however, though rarely, and not in any of our British species, a berry. The seeds are generally more or less sculptured, though 296 Tin a suctions of the Society. some are smooth. These are generally quite small. Those of some species of Linaria (L. vulgaris, L. Pelisseriana) and Rhinantft/us Grista-galli are winged. In Linaria Cylribalaria, which lives habitually on walls, the flowers face outwards, but after they are fertilised the flower-stalks turn towards the wall, thus tending to protect the seeds and often to sow them in some cranny. They are ridged and very light, so as to be easily carried about by the wind. In other species of Linaria the capsules open at the top, and the seeds are jerked out by the wind, as is also the case with those of the Foxglove {Digitalis 'purpurea). The seeds of Veronica are peltate, being attached to the placenta by the middle. In some species they are deeply cup-shaped, owing to the curvature of the edges, so as to occupy all the space available in the cells of the capsule. This makes them very light, and thus esily carried by wind (plate IV. fig. 3). The species differ much in the size of the seed, those of the aquatic species being very small. In the Snapdragon the seeds are covered with high longitudinal ridges. These would serve to lighten them, and perhaps tend to protect them from being eaten, as well as against great cold. A similar arrangement occurs in some foreign species, notably, for instance, in Maurandia Barclayana. Those of Euphrasia are of an unusual type. They are large, oblong, narrowed to both ends, flattened on one side and ribbed longitudinally. The ribs are greyish. Mclampyrvm offers a very interesting case. The seeds mimic the cocoons of ants. They are of the same form, size, and colour, white with a black spot at one end. I have observed that they are, as a matter of fact, carried away by ants, being, I think, taken for cocoons (plate IV. fig. 4). Labiate. — Ovary of two carpels, each with two cells, free or in pairs. Fruit consisting of four achene-like lobes or nutlets. The fruit of the Labiatse recalls that of the Boraginere. As in that order, it consists of four nutlets, which, however, in the Labiatse are as a rule smaller, and do not present so many differ- ences. They closely resemble, and are often taken for seeds. The calyx in the Labiate is either small or tubular, and the base is always narrow. When the nutlets are small they are more or less spherical ; when they are larger they are often more or less trigonous by mutual pressure (plate IV. figs. 5a, 5b). The nutlets having assumed the character and functions of seeds, have also developed a style of sculpture which is generally confined to true seeds. They are often netted or covered with small warts. Some of the larger forms are remarkable in being variegated or spotted (Galeopsis angustifolia, G. versicolor, G. Tetrahit, Lamium The President's Address. By Lord Avebury. 297 amplexicaule, L. hybridum, etc.)- No explanation of this has yet been suggested. Many species have a ring of hairs in the throat. This would tend to protect the nutlets when young and delicate, but its principal use perhaps may be to prevent them from falling out, unless thrown out by a high wind, which of course would increase the distance to which they would be jerked. It is remarkable that in the genus Calamintha, the ring of hairs is present in C. arvensis and C. officinalis, but does not occur in C. Clinopodium. It would almost seem as if in some species — for instance, in Mentha rotundifolia (Mint), Nepeta Cataria, and in Marjoram, Origanum vulgare — the nutlets are intended to be dispersed in the calyx, and in the latter species the bracts also appear to aid in the dispersal. In Marrubium vulgare the calyx has ten spinous teeth, one for each rib, recurved and strongly hooked at the tip. Stachys sylvatica also has recurved teeth. In some species the calyx teeth are covered with long, bristly hairs, which, besides their usual function, may serve to assist the dispersal of the seeds. In the Mint (Mentha sylvestris) the surface is covered with little points and depressions, and in water absorb moisture, and swell up into globular, transparent sacs. In Salvia Verbenaca, and other species of the genus, the nutlets become mucilaginous when wetted. This perhaps may be useful in causing them to adhere to damp ground. In S. pratensis the nutlets when placed in water emit long colourless filaments, which are more or less spirally coiled. In & Horminum the mucilaginous tissue in places extends to half the depth of the whole, and as soon as it comes in contact with water it swells out with great rapidity, increasing to many times its original thickness. It develops into thick threads, which move and, so to say, wriggle about like so many worms. The Skull-cap (Scutellaria) is so called because the calyx bears a curious resemblance to an ancient helmet, with the visor down. The upper lip is closely pressed down on the lower one, thus pro- tecting the nutlets. When ripe the top of the helmet flies off at a touch, and the nutlets are at the same time jerked away. In Galeopsis versicolor the calyx has stiff glandular hairs, which would cause it to be torn off if brushed against by animals. The seeds are large and peculiar. It is now a weed of cultiva- tion, but no doubt its peculiarities go back to a period before the cultivation of corn (plate IV. fig. 5a). The nutlets are large, oblong, bluntly trigonous in the lower half, strongly rounded or convex on the upper half of the inner face, which slopes away to the ridge forming the two lateral edges, convex on the dorsal aspect. The surface is granular and dark brown, more or less densely marked with grey specks. The nutlets of Ajvga are also peculiar. Those of Ajvga reptans 298 Transactions of the Society. (plate IV. figs. 6a, 6b) are large and strongly netted, the meshes beins: arranged in longitudinal lines. The base of the inner face is angled, with a Hat crescent-shaped area on either side of of the angle where they come in contact with one another. Those of A. Chamcepitys (plate IV. figs. 7a, 7a) are more elongated, united for more than half their length, and prominently netted with strong, obtuse ridges, the meshes being arranged in longitudinal lines. In Teucrium Botrys (plate IV. figs. 8a, 8b) the nutlets are globular, relatively large, united over a considerable area at the base, netted with broad ridges, and a deep pit in each mesh, more or less covered with sessile mealy glands. Verbenace^e. — This family differs from the preceding princi- pally in having the ovary entire. The fruit is four-celled, with one seed in each cell, and at maturity separates into four nutlets, each of which is oblong, truncate at the apex, four- to six-ribbed on the dorsal aspect. The seed, which is entirely filled by the embryo, closely conforms to the interior of the nutlet. That of V. teucroides (plate IV. fig. 9), a native of Brazil, has a somewhat peculiar form. Plantagixe^e. — The fruit is a capsule, opening transversely, or indehiscent. The seeds are sometimes few and comparatively large, in other species more numerous and smaller. Wind is probably the principal agent in distribution, but birds feed on them, and no doubt sometimes drop them. In some species they are mucilaginous. Chexopodiace^e. — The ovary is 1 -celled. The fruit a utricle, that is to say the outer covering formed of the ovary, loosely surrounds the single seed, or in some rare cases the fruit is a berry. The flower is often persistent, and incloses the fruit. This pro- bably facilitates dispersal by wind. The seeds may be either vertical or horizontal, both forms occurring in the same genus, and even in the same species (Cheno- podium Bonus- Hcnricus, C. ruhrum). In this family also we meet cases where, as in Chenopodium fcetidum, the testa is mucilaginous. In Atriplcx hortensis there are two kinds of seeds. They differ in size and colour. The larger seeds are the more numerous. Larger seeds suborbicular, laterally compressed and concave on the sides', entirely encircled by the embryo, which is annular and peripheral, thickest round that edge containing the cotyledons of the embryo. Testa pale yellowish-brown, or testaceous, thin but tough, very shallowly rugulose on the surface. The concavities at the sides are due to the shrinking of the central endosperm or to the fact of there not being sufficient to fill the seed properly. The smaller seeds are reniform-orbicular or simply orbicular, laterally compressed, but biconvex. Testa black, shining and show- ing itself through the membranous utriculus, finely but distinctly The President's Address. By Lord Avebury. 299 rugose, very dark reddish -brown by transmitted light, crustaceous and brittle. They are mixed indiscriminately on the panicle. The large brown ones germinate much more quickly than the small black ones, which would seem, under natural conditions, to be more adapted to remain in a resting condition in the ground during the winter and germinate in spring. If such is the case they would enable the plant to exist in a colder climate than the large ones would. The plant occurs in Britain as a garden escape. Some fruits inclosed in the dry wing-like perianth were dropped in a tumbler of water, and all of them floated for seven days. At that time, contrary to what might have been expected, the larger fruits containing the larger-sized seeds with the thin grey testa and covered by the broad perianth segments had sunk, and the seeds had commenced to germinate. At the end of twenty-one days many of the seedlings had risen above the water, and the cotyledons, already green, had commenced to expand. The small black seeds with the crustaceous testa, covered by a small perianth, were still floating after twenty-one days, and on examination proved to be quite fresh and sound. A. hastata also has two forms of fruit. POLYGONACE.E. — Fruit a berry, utricle, or nut. In our English species the fruit is a small, seed-like nut, inclosed in the persistent flower, and containing one seed. The prevailing form is trigonous. There are three styles, indicating the presence of three carpels. The persistent perianth leaves evidently serve as wings. The sepals of the Docks {Ilumex) have one or more, often red, glands. These perhaps induce birds to carry them off, thinking they may be sweet and good to eat. The persistent sepals no doubt lighten the fruits, and in some species are deeply toothed or laciniate, which would help to entangle them in the fur of animals. In Polygonum Hydropiper the nutlets are of two forms, triquetrous or biconvex. The latter are much the more numerous. In P. Persicaria also there are two forms (plate IV. figs. 10a, 10b, 10c, lOd). In P. viviparum, a high Alpine form, more than one-half of the flowers on the lower part of the stem are replaced by small bulbils or enlarged buds that fall away and reproduce the plant. At high elevations the growing season is often so short and the conditions so adverse that the plant is unable to produce and mature seeds before the return of winter. The flowers on the upper portion of the stem seldom ripen seeds, but fall away some time after flowering. This Polygonum may be compared with Sasrifraga ccrnua, which produces numerous clusters of bulbils along the stem, and usually only one flower on the top. S. stellaris and S. nivalis sometimes behave in the same way. Akin to the above are the viviparous forms of Poa alpina and Pestuca ovina. 300 Transactions of the Society. Thymele^e. — The fruit is a nut, drupe, or berry. We have only one genus, Daphne, with two species, which are small shrubs. The fruit is a berry, with one large seed. D. Mezereum flowers early, and the red 1 terries show up well against the green leaves. D. Laureola has black berries. The leaves are persistent. The fruits are poisonous, but not apparently to birds. El^eagnace.e. — The order is a small one, and we have only one British species, the Sea Buckthorn, Hippophae rhamnoides. The fruit bears a close superficial resemblance to that of Daphne, but the structure is very different. The base of the calyx, or at least of the perianth, is in this genus persistent, and assumes the character of a pulpy berry, inclosing a nutlet, also of uncommon construction. The ovary wall is thin and membranous, enveloping a large oblong-obovoid seed, with a crustaceous, smooth, and shining black testa. In this country Hippophae is confined to the sea-coast, but on the Continent and in Asia it extends far inland, especially on river banks, and ascends to a considerable height. Though it belongs rather to the domain of entomology, I may mention that the full-grown caterpillar of the Hawkmoth (S. hip2)opha;s), which feeds on this species, bears (and is the only one which does so) large yellow spots closely resembling the fruit, both in size and colour. Santalace^e. — Of this family we have only one species, Thesium linophyllum, an inconspicuous shrubby plant nestling amongst the dwarf herbage of chalky downs, and of parasitic habit. The fruit is a small green nutlet, marked with several longitudinal ribs. There are three ovules, but as a rule only one comes to maturity. ARiSTOLOCHiACEyE. — Fruit an indehiscent, ovoid globular cap- sule, crowned by the persistent perianth. EuphorbiacE/E. - The fruit is dry or fleshy, naked or some- times adnate to the perianth. The seed is pendulous. Of the three genera, Euphorbia has three carpels, each containing a single seed, Mercurialis, Dog's Mercury, has a 2-celled capsule, with two seeds, or rarely 3 cells with three seeds ; while Buxus, the Box, has a 3-celled capsule with one or two seeds in each cell. The seeds of our western European Euphorbiacere are as a rule smooth, but in E. Lathyris they are rugose and reticulated ; in E. Helioscopia, E. pterococca, E. Taurinensis, E. segetalis, and E. Peplus, they are alveolated or pitted ; in E. jmbescens ridged ; in E. Myrsinxtes and E. pithyusa rugose ; in E. cxigva tuberculated ; in E. portlanclica irregularly pitted ; in E. sulcata longitudinally, and in E. falcate transversely, furrowed (plate IV. figs. 11a, lib). The capsules are in some species rough, verrucose (E. spinosa, E. hyberna), or even hairy (E. i^ubesccns). In some species it is possible that the capsules are disseminated with the seeds in them. The President's Address. By Lord Avebury. 301 The seeds in some species resemble small beetles, such as Lady- birds, and may perhaps be carried by birds (plate IV. figs. 12a, 126). In Mercurialis perennis the capsule is hairy and may easily be carried away with the seed by rabbits and other animals. The Box lives on chalk hills, and the seeds are also probably transported in the same way. EmpetracE/E. — Empetrum, the Crowberry, is a low heath-like shrub. The fruit is a drupe ; it is 6- to 9-celled with a seed in each cell. The walls are in two layers : the inner (endocarp) is thick and bony ; the outer one fleshy. When ripe the fruit is black, globular, and about the size of a pea. CALLlTRiCHlNEiE. — Callitriche is an aquatic floating herb. There is no perianth. The fruit is entire, with a single seed. Urticace.e. — The fruit is small, dry, rarely succulent (the Mulberry), 1- seeded. We have three genera ; the Nettle, the Pellitory, and the Hop. In the Nettles ( Urtica), the fruit consists of a minute nutlet, inclosed in the persistent calyx, which bristles with short stiff hairs, and thus probably adheres to the feet and fur of animals. The fruit of the Pellitory (Parietaria) is formed on the same plan. In the Hop {Humulus Lwpulus), the achene is broadly ovoid subcompressed, smooth, and somewhat glossy. The seed con- forms to the interior of the achene, and the embryo is coiled up so as to fit itself in. Each fruit is inclosed by the incurved base of a large membranous bract, more or less densely covered by yellow glands. The large and light catkin is readily blown about by the wind, which is evidently the principal agent in the dis- semination of the seeds. UlmacEvE. — Ovary, 1- to 2-celled. Fruit, a samara or a nut; 1-seeded; seed inverted. In the Elm {Ulmus montana), the ovary is 2-celled with one ovule in each cell, only one of which, however, develops into a seed. The fruit is a samara, flat, thin, and leaf-like, slightly thickened at the centre, broadly ovate or orbicular, six to nine lines long, with a notch at the top. The seed is suspended in a small cavity near the centre of the fruit. The trees flower in February and March, before the leaves appear. The fruit ripens, detaches itself, and is carried away by the wind in June. The wing develops on both sides, from the base of the calyx, along the stalk of the fruit, and the fruit itself, to the style, beyond which it extends on both sides. AMENTACEyE. — The ovary may be 1- or several celled, but the fruit is always 1 -celled, and is either a nut or a several-seeded capsule, opening with two valves. The catkin scales sometimes form an involucre, around or below the fruit. The wide distribution of the order over the world indicates great antiquity. The anemophilous character of the flowers and their independence of insects tend to corroborate this view, while 302 Transactions of the Society. the willows suggest to us how plants may have originally passed from anemophilous to entomophilous fertilisation. In the species with large edible fruits (hazel, oak, Spanish chestnut, etc.), as in some other similar cases, the cotyledons are thick and fleshy, and remain in the seed. In the two former they are piano convex, and each occupies one-half of the interior of the nut, to which it conforms. Those of the Spanish Chestnut are more or less wavy, and ruminate, or unequally folded. The fruits are more or less inclosed in a cupule or involucre. In the Birch it takes the form of a scale consisting of a bract and two bracteoles, connate into one piece, trifid at the apex, and falling with the nutlet. They closely overlap one another, forming a cylindrical spike. In the Alder they form an oval spike, and the scales when mature spread out, and let the nutlets drop away. In the Hornbeam to the right and left of the bract there is a three- lobed bracteole, partly enveloping the nut, enlarged and leafy upwards, especially the one in the middle. In the Hazel there are two greatly enlarged bracteoles, more or less toothed or fringed at the margins. There are originally two ovules in each cell, but only one comes to maturity. The cupule of the Oak consists of many bracteoles, united into one piece but carried with the free imbricated points of the bracteoles. It forms the well known cup in which the acorn sits. There are two ovules in each cell, but only one matures. The fruits of the Spanish Chestnut are inclosed, two or three together, in a cupule of four pieces, which are densely covered with long prickles. These open when the fruit is ripe, but serve to protect it when young, and also, no doubt, assist in its dis- semination. In this species also there are two ovules, but only one seed. The cupule of the Beech consists of four lobes or valves, covered on the back with numerous loose, pointed scales, perhaps representing the original bracteoles. It incloses two or three fruits, which are more or less winged at the edges. The coty- ledons are folded up like a fan, so as to occupy the interior of the nutlet. The seeds of the Willow (Salix), as already mentioned, are minute, furnished with long silky hairs, and further lightened by a hollow, not being quite filled by the embryo. In the Poplar also the seeds are minute, and have a parachute of silky hairs. The fruits are very varied in form and structure. In some (Willows and Poplars) the fruits are minute, and provided with, and carried about by long silky hairs ; in the Birch and Hornbeam they are winged, and transported by the wind ; in others (Oak, Beech, Hazel, Spanish Chestnut, etc.) they are large and carried about by animals as food. The fruit of the Alder, The President's Address. By Lord Avebury. 303 which grows near streams and lakes, is light, and probably carried mainly by water. The arrangement of the seeds is also very interesting. Fig. 84 is a diagram of a nut with the parts somewhat separated from one another, so as to show the relations more clearly. The micropyle m is at the apex of the seed. The ovule, however, is not straight and orthotropous, which would be, or at any rate seem to be, the simplest arrangement. Quite the contrary, for we find a long placental axis pi, which extends to the apex of the nut, from which starts a raphe r, which returns about half-way back again to the place where the true attachment or chalaza ch is situated. I am not pre- pared to suggest any circumstances which would render this complex arrangement specially adapted to present conditions. It would seem as if it would be simpler, and give Nature less trouble, if the ovule sat directly with its base on the stalk, thus doing away with both the placental axis pi and the raphe r. This view is strengthened by the fact that such an arrangement has actually m. Fig. 84. been nearly attained by the Oak. The ovule in this genus is theo- retically anatropous, but the placental axis and the raphe are both greatly shortened, so that the distance which the nourishment has to traverse is much less, though the actual place of attachment remains the same. The Oak, in fact, seems to have appreciated the difficulties of the situation, and to have in great measure neutralised them. Is it fanciful to imagine that some ages hence the Oak may be practically orthotropous ? (fig. 85). But why should these species be anatropous if it is an advantage to be orthotropous I On this question some light is thrown by the fact that while one seed only comes to maturity, the ovary contains originally several cells, each with one or two ovules, though none of the others comes to anything. They can, however, easily be seen, either at the apex of the seed, as in the Nut and Beech {Fagus), or, as in the Oak, near the base. Their presence appears to indicate that these species are descended from ancestors, the fruit of which was composed of several cells, each with more than one seed — a state of things, therefore, very unlike the present, and in which the anatropous condition would be an 304 Transaction* of the, Society. advantage. It' this view be correct, the structure of the fruit in the Nut, Beech, aud others becomes peculiarly interesting, because it represents a case in which the present arrangements are not those, in all respects, most convenient to the plant, and renders it probable that the same explanation may apply to other cases of difficulty. The seeds of the Willow closely resemble those of Epilobium ; like them are inclosed in a capsule, and are wafted about by means of a tuft of long hairs. In Epildbium, however, these are situated at the summit, in Salix at the base of the seed. In Epilobium the hairs can easily grow upwards and overlap several seeds above them. When the capsule opens, moreover, they are thus more readily dried by the outer air. In Salix, on the other hand, the capsules are short. The hairs, therefore, grow along the seeds. If they started from above, they would have to turn round and downwards, which would be a disadvantage ; but starting as they do from the base of the seed, they are able to accommodate an additional length, equal to that of the seed, and when the capsule begins to open the free ends escape into the open air. The Amentaceee complete the Dicotyledons. If the Society approve, I shall hope to deal with the Conifers and Monocotyledons next year, and then terminate with some general remarks. It only remains for me, in conclusion, to thank the Society for their kind and constant support, and for the honour they have conferred on me in electing me to the Presidency for another term of office Note. — For permission to reproduce figs. 67 to 85, from " Notes on British Flowering Plants," by Lord Avebury, we are indebted to the courtesy of Messrs. Macmillan and Co., Limited. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES' RELATING TO ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY (PRINCIPALLY INVERTEBRATA AND CRYPTOGAMIA), MICEOSCOPY, Etc.* ZOOLOGY. VERTEBRATA. a. Embryology. t Origin of Gonocytes in Amphibians.^ — A. P. Dustin has made a study of the origin of the sex-cells in Amphibians, with a view to deter- mining (1) what part of the embryo gives rise to the first rudiment of the sexual organ, and (2) whether the cells of which the primary rudiment is composed go to form, in whole or in part, and with or without the assistance of other elements, the later definite sex-cells. After reviewing the literature on the subject, the investigator describes his researches on Triton alpestris, Ranafusca, and Bufo vulgaris, the larvae of Rana being studied up till the final metamorphosis. He found that the course of development was fundamentally the same in Triton and Rana, but that some stages which were successive in Triton were simultaneous in Rana. His general conclusions are as follows. The first rudiments of the reproductive organs of Amphibians are paired, symmetrical, and of purely mesoblastic origin. These rudiments represent morphologically a part of the primitive ccelom (gonocoele). They do not exhibit rneta- meric arrangement except in the Urodela, where traces of such arrange- ment may be discerned. The unpaired genital rudiment of Amphibians results from the union along the median line of the paired bilateral primordia. The rudiments of the definitive bilateral glands result from the emigration of the cells of the primary rudiment into a peritoneal crest projecting into the ccelom, and ultimately from the localised pro- liferation of the cells of the peritoneal epithelium, forming the crest and investing the primary gonocytes. A certain number of the cells of * The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and they do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually pub- lished, and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have not been previously described in this country. t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called, but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and allied subjects. X Arch. Biol., xxiii. (1907) pp. 411-522 (2 pis.). June 17 th, 1908 Y 306 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO the primary bilateral rudiment become actual sex-cells ; the rest degene- rate at ontogenetic stages varying according to the species. A second lineage of gonocytes arises by modification of the germinative cells due to the proliferation of the peritoneal epithelium. These invest the surface of the reproductive organs and form a germinative epithelium. The number of gonocytes is subject to considerable fluctuations. The gonocytes of both first and second lineage may become capable of fer- tilisation. They never fuse together, and never become follicular cells. If from any cause sexual development is arrested, these cells undergo degeneration. The last part of the paper discusses the bearing of these results on the general theory of the evolution of genital organs. The author con- siders that they bring the organogenesis of the reproductive organs entirely into line with what is known in regard to other Vertebrates, differing in this opinion from Bouin, whose investigations on Rana led him to regard Weismann's theory as inapplicable, and even to deny that there is any cellular specificity. Origin of Germ-cells in Mammalian Embryos.* — W. Paibaschkin finds that in the rabbit on the thirteenth day the ccelomic epithelium of the median part of the Wolffian body attains the character of a germinal epithelium. At this stage there are found also single germ-cells outside the germinal ridge, lying mainly under the aorta in the mesenchyme tissue. On the eleventh day the germinal epithelium (in the old sense) is not formed, only single germ-cells are to be found in the epithelium of the median part of the "Wolffian body. On the tenth day no germ-cells are to be found here, although single germ-cells are found in the dorsal parts of the mesentery, and in larger numbers in the ventral mesentery and surrounding the hind gut. These last exhibit amoeboid movement. The youngest stage at which germ-cells were traced was in ninth-day embryos, in which they lie close to the epithelium on the hind gut and mainly in its ventral section. Thus it appears that the place of origin of the germ-cells lies at some distauce from the germ-gland region, and that the germ-cells occur much earlier than has hitherto been assumed. &* Development of the Frog's Head.f — Agnes I. M. Elliot deals with the development of the segments of the occipital region of the skull. In front of the myotome associated with the first spinal nerve and its ganglion there are in the 9 mm. tadpole two myotomes. Cartilaginous arches appear in connection with these and fuse with the parachordals from which they are still distinct in a 20 mm. tadpole. Both these myotomes and a rudimentary ganglion associated with one of them disappear, while the cartilaginous arches corresponding to them form the occipital region of the skull. The vagus arises by numerous roots. It is suggested that the hinder roots may represent ventral roots of the nerves of the missing post-otic segments and also of the segment in which the first myotome is developed. The segmentation of the post- otic region of the skull agrees in Rana with that in Necturus. * Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 222-4. t Quart. Jouru. Micr. Sci., li. (1907) pp. 647-57 (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 307 Determining Factors in Metamorphosis of Anura.* — P. Wintrebert has experimented with tadpoles of Rana temporaria, and finds that tad- poles of about 43 mm. long removed quite abruptly from the water to moist air are not injuriously affected, and that in fact metamorphosis is sharply accelerated. Portal Circulation in the Embryonic Metanephros of Mammals. t Ivar Broman finds in the embryos of man, pig, and mole blood-vessels in the rudiments of the metanephros. In a human embryo of 16 mm. these were very distinct, as also in an 8 mm. mole and in pigs of 14-22 mm. It was suspected but not confirmed that the vessels branched off from the arterial vasa efferentia of the primitive kidney. On the other hand the author has traced some of these to the posterior cardinal veins, and others to the venae revehentes of the pronephros. Hence it is assumed that the kidney vessels found are all veins, and that the one group is afferent and the other efferent. In other words, the meta- nephros of the mammals examined very probably possesses at this stage (before the kidney arteries have developed) a so-called portal circulation. Studies of Placentation.— F. MullerJ describes the pre-placentary and placentary stages in the squirrel, and compares them with those in other rodents. Hans Strahl§ gives an account of the uterus puerperalis of the hedgehog, which is very distinctive, differing in many ways from that of rodents. Bodily Identity of Twins. || — H. H. Wilder has made a study of the ridge patterns of the hands and feet of twins. As the patterns are ordinarily very variable he thought that they might illustrate the organic agreement of the twin individuals more exactly than bodily form, physical measurements, features, etc. He found a remarkable agreement, and gives an illustration of the right hand of each of a pair of twins which shows this in a striking way. While he admits that caution is necessary in drawing conclusions, he suggests that in the case of twins resulting from the bipartition of a siugle egg the agreement of the ridge figures is due to the dominance of a determining substance within the egg, which even here fixes the form they are to assume. The agreement is only in the larger features and does not extend to individual lines, so that the theory involves the notion that the details are determined by forces acting later on in development. b. Histology. Structure and Function of Rectal Gland in Elasmobranchs.f — Helen L. M. Pixell has studied the rectal gland, which Sanfelice and Howes called the appendix digitiformis, in Scijlliam eanicula and Raja punctata. It has a compound tubular structure, the walls of the tubules consisting of low cylindrical cells interspersed with numerous goblet-cells. * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 257-9. f Anat. Anzeig., xxxi. (1907) pp. 94-7. X Proc. Acad. Amsterdam, Section of Sciences, ix. (190G) pp. 380-9. § Op. cit., xiii. (1907) pp. 1-22 (3 pis.). || Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 193-200 (2 figs.), t Tom. cit., pp. 174-8. Y 2 308 SUMMARY OF CUBBEN1 RESEARCHES RELATING TO Testing for area, which has been said to be abundant in the gland, gave no result. An extract of the gland confirmed Blanehard's statement as to the presence of ferments similar to amylopsin and lipase. Cytological Notes. — Fr. Meves * describes the mitochondria, or " chondriokonts " (chains, or rods or granules), in embryonic cells, and supports Benda's view that they must be regarded as definite and in- dividualised components of the cells. Achille Russot discusses the origin of the mitochondria and the formation of the deutoplasm in the oocytes of mammals. Neurological Studies. — A. Wallenberg! gives an account of his researches on the brain and cranial nerves, with especial reference to the sensory tracts, in Teleosteans and Selachians. F. Livini § describes the cerebrum and thalamencephalon of a marsupial, Mypsi/primnus rufescens, with especial reference to the nerve-tracts. Myelin-bodies in Nervous System. || — A. Capparelli describes cor- puscles containing myelin in the central nervous system of higher animals, and discusses their relations to the protoplasmic prolongations of the nerve-cells. They occur chiefly in the grey matter of the brain and spinal cord, as egg-shaped or spherical bodies, with an envelope of a nervous network, the meshes of which are sometimes so close as to suggest a homogeneous membrane. This network surrounds true myelin masses. These myelin-bodies are in contact with the protoplasmic end- ings of the nerve-cells and with the surface of the cell. They pro- bably supply nutritive and functioning material for the nerve-cells and nets. [c. General- Young-^ R,eci Kangaroo.1T — W. H. Sheak describes a young red kangaroo (Ifacropus rufus Desru.) which was born in the Barnum and Bailey menagerie. He first saw it when it was beginning to put its head out of the pouch, and was apparently about two months old. A month later it began to come out of the pouch, but would run back when alarmed, going in head first and turning round, but leaving the tail and hind legs protruding 18-20 in. The mother was very solicitous for his safety, and at first tried to prevent his coming out by hold- ing him with her paws. The father shared the cage, but took no notice of the young one. The young one showed the brick-red colour of the father from the first. It was seen to protrude its head from the pouch and nibble at the grass while the mother was feeding. Asymmetry of Caudal Poles of the Cerebral Hemispheres in Man,** G. Elliot Smith deals with this subject and with its influence on the occipital bone. The area striata is described, and its relations to the * Anat. Anzeig., xxxi. (1907) pp. 399-407. t Atti (Rend.) R. Accad. Lincei Roma, xvi. (1907) pp. 292-6. X Anat. Anzeig., xxxi. (1907) pp. 369-99 (46 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 1-11. || Op. cit., xxx. (1907) pp. 580-8 (10 figs.), f Amer. Nat., xli. (1907) pp. 724-5. ** Anat. Anzeig., xxx. (1907) pp. 574-8 (3 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 309 squama occipitalis and the direction of the Yenous sinuses. A sym- metrical form of brain is commoner in negroes than in Egyptians or Europeans. In this respect the negro is distinctly more Simian than the non-negroid races. In the white races there seems to have been a greater specialisation of the two cerebral hemispheres than in the case of the negro, and in the former the resulting dissimilarity of shape in the cerebral hemispheres produces a cranial asymmetry. The symmetry of the negro cranium is thus a sign of inferiority. Pleural Cavity of Elephant.* — G. Vasse has had an opportunity of examining the lungs of a fully grown female elephant in the Portu- guese colony of Gorongoza. He publishes a note establishing the fact that the lungs are quite free in the pleural cavity. " They detached with the greatest facility — just as easy as the respiratory apparatus of a ruminant — and at no point did any adherence exist." Pigment of Suprarenal Glands. f — P. Mulon establishes a rela- tion between the amount of pigment and the functional actiYity in the gland. He finds that in guinea-pigs, when the suprarenale have functioned loug, or much, or one has taken up the work of two, there is an increase of pigment and a reduction of fat. Structure of Soricidse.f — Augusta Arnback-Christie-Linde, with a view of clearing up questions of relationship amongst the Insectivora, has planned a memoir upon the structure of the Soricidas. In the present instalment she deals with the integument, musculature (except that of the pelvis), brain, sexual apparatus, digestive organs, spleen, respiratory system, heart and vessels, as illustrated in several species of Crocidura and of Sorex. General phyletic conclusions are deferred until the skeleton and teeth have been dealt with. Studies on the Cloaca and Phallus in Amniota.§— W. Diirbeck and A. Fleischmann conclude these studies. The present memoir deals with the external genitals of the adult pig, and the development and transformations of the phallus in the pig embryo, and the external genitals of the house-cat. A tabular review of the genital development in Mammalia is given by Diirbeck, and Fleischmann reviews the facts and offers some general theoretical considerations. t3^ Penis in Birds. ||— Ulrich Gerhardt refers to the usual statement that a true penis is confined to RatitaB and Lamellirostres. A rudi- mentary one is said to occur in Grax, Grypturus, and a few other Carinataa. Gadow quotes Tschudi's report as to a penis H in. long in Penelope abourri. Gerhardt has found a similar organ in Grax alector. In its structure it resembles that of some Anatidse, like Dendrocygnus and Mergus. The author also found a well-developed penis in Tinamus rufescens, quite different from that of Grax, but resembling that of Apteryx. * Comptes Reudus, cxliv. (1907) p. 1230.; t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) pp. 905-6. X Morphol. Jahrb., xxxvi. (1907) pp. 463-514 (35 fi*s.) § Tom. cit., pp. 515-69 (4 pis. and 29 figs.). || Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 649-51. 310 SUMMARY 01' CURKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Hybrids of Peacock and Cochin-china Hen.* — G. Pays-Mellier and E. Trouessart record the successful hybridisation of Pavo cristatus var. nigripennis £ and Gallus gallus var. sinensis ?. The male parent was the more prepotent. The authors remark that the hybrid of Pavo cristatus and NumMa meleagris has been known for long, and they refer to Gallus x Nurunl" and to the crossing of Phasianus with the nearly allied genera Chryso- lophus, Genweus, and Catreus, and with the more distant genera Gallus, Acomus, Lophwa, and Tragopan. The alleged crossing of Crax alberti and the fowl seems doubtful. Fasting Powers of the Swift.j — Albert Hugues refers to Brehm's statement that a swift can fast for six weeks, and relates some of his own observations, the most striking case being that of a fast of 21 days less 3 hours, during which the weight decreased from 57 to 21 grm. Air-sacs of Pigeon.^: — B. M tiller has made a study of the morphology of the air-sac system of the pigeon, with a view to throwing more light on the problem of its function. After giving a description of the methods by which he succeeded in hardening the air-sacs in a rela- tively distended condition, and in obtaining an idea of the relative degrees of expansion during the various phases of breathing, the author gives a general account of the air-sac system, its distribution, and its relation to the diaphragmatic membranes. The pulmonary and abdominal dia- phragm, the lungs, the ostia, and the different air-sacs with their diver- ticula, are then described in detail, followed by a critical consideration of the most important hypotheses as to the function of the air-sacs. The author concludes that their importance as respiratory organs has been over-rated, and believes that their effect is mainly mechanical. He regards them as structures selectively developed for the purpose of in- creasing the size of the thorax without increasing its weight, and for facilitating the movements of the organs in it, especially the heart. The air-spaces are not organs with a positive function, but rather empty spaces whose value lies in their emptiness, and their shape is of no im- portance, their asymmetry being simply due to the asymmetry of the spaces they have to occupy between the viscera. The connection with the lungs is a consequence of their phylogenetic development, and has no physio- logical significance other than that they assist in renewing the air in the trachea. A copious bibliography is appended. Head-muscles in Sauropsida.§ — F. H. Edgeworth has investigated the head musculature in Gallus and other Sauropsida. The distinctive features of birds as compared with living reptiles are set forth in detail. Birds resemble the Rhynchocephalia in possessing an upper portion of the mandibular myotome inserted into the pterygoid process, but the adult condition in the latter group is clearly a secondary modification correlated with a fixation of the ptery go-quadrate. These are features * Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1203-5. t Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxii. (1907) pp. 106-8. t Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 1. (1907) pp. 365-414 (5 pis.). § Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., li. (1907) pp. 511-56 (39 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 311 of resemblance which at first sight suggest a very distant Chelonian rela- tionship for birds, but which are in reality only ancestral traits, which are also present in embryonic stages of other Sauropsidan groups. The Rhyncocephalia have preserved two features more archaic than are found in any other Sauropsidan group— the continuity of the ceratohyal and the condition of the branchio-hyoid muscle — but in the upgrowth of the external pterygoid muscle and in the condition of the lingual muscles they are less primitive than the Chelonia. Like the Chelonia and Crocodilia they have preserved a fixed pterygoid bone. These are but a few of the many points of an instructive and important memoir. Herpetology of Japan.* — Leonhard Stejneger gives a valuable systematic account of the amphibians and reptiles of Japan and adjacent territory, with analytical keys, notes on variation and distribution, and abundant illustrations. Peculiarities of Vision in the Chamgeleon.t — E. P. Fortin refers to the acuteness of the chamseleon's vision for near objects. The pre- cision with which it picks up a very small insect at a distance of 15 cm. is remarkable. This acuteness of vision is mainly due to peculiarities in the fovea, which has a remarkable resemblance to that of man. The visual field of the chania3leon is small compared with man's, but the eyes are raised up, have highly developed muscles and great freedom of move- ment. This makes up for the small visual field. From an opthalmo- logical point of view there is much interest in the way the chameleon can alter the shape of its pupil. The independence of movement possessed by each of the eyes is seen also, according to Huot, in sea- horses and pipe-fishes. Dinosaurs of Madagascar.^ — Armand Thevenin finds that most of the Dinosaur bones found in Madagascar are of Jurassic or Cretaceous age. _ All the Jurassic bones belong to Bothriospondylus madagascariensis, a Dinosaur 3*5 m. high and 15 m. long. It resembles Morosaurus, a North American form, and Cetiosaurus oxoniensis, and appears to have lived about the same time as these two. Phagocytic Action of Kidney-cells in Frog.§— W. M. Smallwood gives an account of a case of Ram pipiens, in which one of the fatty bodies was found in a haemorrhagic condition. Examination of sections revealed the fact that within the fatty body the blood-cells were under- going degeneration, and that this was even more the case in the kidney. It was rare to find in the kidney any red cells with a nucleus, and the cells of the tubules as well as the tubules themselves were filled with disintegrating blood-cells in all stages of degeneration. The tubule-cells were evidently behaving in a phagocytic manner. It was found on examination that the ilium had been broken, and it seems likely that this breakage was the cause of the haemorrhage. Secretion of Thumb-swelling in Rana.||— A. Nussbaum finds that by stimulating the Ramus cutaneus antebrachii et manus lateralis of the * Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., No. 58 (1907) pp. i.-577 (35 pis. and 409 l/gs.). t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, hdv. (1908) pp. 316-7. % Cornptes Rendus, cxliv. (1907) pp. 1302-4. § Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 201-5 (8 figs.). || Op. cit., xxx. (1907) pp. 578-9 (2 fig*.) 312 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO N. brachialis longus inferior (ulnaris), lie obtained a widening of the exit duct of the thumb-gland, which he regards as a sign of increased secretion. The experiment was performed upon a copulating male of Ranafusca. Response of Toads to Sound-stimuli.* — S. A. Courtis has made a study of the response of toads to sound-stimuli during the breeding season. He removed a female which had been seized by two males and placed her about 10 feet away. One of the males uttered a shrill trilling note sustained for 15-20 seconds. The female immediately swam to- wards him and mating took place. This experiment was repeated with many pairs, and the distance between males and females wTas increased to 30 feet, but in every case the females responded to the call of the males. Only a few of the males uttered the call, and other males moved in the direction of it. The observer's general conclusions are that both male and female toads can hear and locate in space the call of the male ; that the response is unintelligent and mechanical ; that to the sound of the mating call a motor response is given which serves to bring the sexes to the same place ; that motion is the stimulus which starts the clasping reflex ; that neither sex is able to recognise the other without actual contact ; and that toads do not profit quickly by experience. Tongue of Teleosteans.t— J. Chaine has examined this organ in a series of types. He finds that it is completely devoid of muscle, but possesses resisting ligaments. The commonest relation observed is that of two lateral ligaments separated throughout their entire length. A second type is that exhibited in Callionymus hjra, which possesses only one aponeurotic formation extending from the extremity of the ento- glossa to the hyoidean apparatus covering the whole breadth of the ventral face of the tongue. A third type — the most complex — is exem- plified in the pike, which has two very powerful ligaments, an external and an internal. The latter is inserted on the entoglossa behind the former. Both are in the form of a small flat band. Abnormality of Brook Trout.| — R. de Drouin de Bouville describes a peculiar condition which seems not very uncommon in Salvelinus fontinalis. The joint between the lingual and the basihyal is enormously stretched, its resistance becoming inadequate to maintain the curvature of the cornua of the hyoid and the branchial arches. These pieces straighten out, affecting in their movement the operculum and the branchiostegal rays. The fishes look as if they had a projecting collar. According to the author all this is due to adeno-carcinoma of the thyroid gland, which brings about the displacement of the branchial and oper- cular skeletal pieces. New Lamprey.§ — H. W. Fowler establishes a new genus, Oceano- myzon, with 0. wilsoni as the type. The supra-oral lamina is not especially contracted, its two converging teeth are well separated and distinct. The infra-oral lamina is crescentiform and spout-like at the middle, with denticles obsolete. The innermost teeth of the disk, or * Amer. Nat., xli. (1907) pp. 677-82. fCR. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) p. 924. j Op. cit., lxiv. (1908) pp. 229-31.J § Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1907, pp. 461-66 (2 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Ml.:! those along each side of the orifice, are bicuspid, large, and similar to those on the supra-oral lamina. In this combination of characters, the new type, which was found in the open Atlantic, differs from Bathymyzon and Petromyzon. A small black fresh-water lamprey, Abbott's Ammo- codes cepytera, also known as Lampetra wilderi Gage, is re-named Lam- pet ra (epytera (Abbott). Faunistic Results of German South Polar Expedition.* — H. Lohmann summarises the distributional data. The distribution of 01igocha3ta and Isopoda does not support the idea of the previous existence of an Antarctic Continent uniting the three Southern Con- tinents. Regarding plankton — Pteropods, Salpa, Appendicular ia, Tin- timiEB — the Antarctic region is throughout richer in species than the Arctic. The majority of the polar forms deviate widely, yet bipolar varieties and species groups have been proved. Of sea mites, only Halicaridas were found in the Antarctic region. Of these a small species group of Polymela proves to be bipolar. This family also predominates in the Kerguelen Islands. On St. Paul and at the Cape the Antarctic species and most of the Kerguelen forms are absent. A brief description of the sea mites found is given. &* Bipolarity of Marine Animals.t — W. Kukentkal discusses this subject, treating of littoral, abyssal, and pelagic forms. A number of littoral animals show marked bipolarity. With regard to abyssal forms no very valuable results appear to have been attained, yet the author regards the existence of bipolar animals as possible. It is most strongly indicated amongst plankton. The author considers that migrations of different kinds have been the cause of bipolarity, e.g. in the case of pelagic forms from the warm water areas. The floor of the sea has probably been the former connecting path for many littoral forms ; in others the west coasts of the continents may have made an exchange possible. Northern Animals.} — Fritz Romer has published an interesting lecture on the northern animals in their relation to the fauna of tem- perate zones, and in their special adaptations to boreal conditions. INVERTEBRATA. Mollusca. a. Cephalopoda. Chromatophores of Cephalopods.§ — W. Marchand reviews the literature— more particularly the works of Rabl, Steinach, Chun, and Hertel — on the subject of the structure and function of these bodies. The play of colour in the skin of Cephalopoda is conditioned by the iridocytes and by the chromatophores. The latter possess a distinctive * Schrift. Natur. Vereiu. Schleswig-Holstein, xiv. (1906) pp. 1-14. See also Zool. Zentralbl., xiv. (1907) pp. 392-3. t Veroffentl. Institut. f. Meereskunde, heft 11 (1906) 28 pp. See also Zool. Zentralbl., xiv. (1907) p. 392. % SB. Senckenberg. Nat. Ges., 1907, pp. 63-112. § Zool. Zentralbl., xiv. (1907) pp. 289-301. 314 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO motor apparatus. On every chromatophore may be distinguished a peculiar pigment-body and a number of radial fibres issuing from it. There is a diversity of opinion as to whether the pigment-body is unicellular or multicellular. Both Chun and Steinach found that the radial fibres, often anastomosing, occasionally pass directly over into the skin musculature. Chun found in Bolitama that there is a connection between one (and of ten several) of the radial fibres and fine side-branches of the skin-nerves. Numerous observations on the physiology of the chroinatophores are quoted, but at present unification of the results seems difficult. 3. Gastropoda. Hermaphroditism in a Chiton.* — Harold Heath has found that Trachydermon raymondi is normally hermaphrodite. In the early stages ova appear in typical fashion ; when the animal becomes half-grown (4-5 mm. long) some of the primitive sex-cells form clusters of sper- matozoa. In 1851 Middendorf reported hermaphroditism in Amicula pallasi, but Plate, in 1899, failed to confirm this, and thought that Middendorf has misinterpreted sperm mother-cells as immature ova. With this single and doubtful exception, all known Chitons have been reported as dioecious, but Heath has shown that Trachydermon raymondi is an indubitable exception. The number of spermatozoa is always comparatively small, and they are seemingly shed almost continuously during tlie winter and spring. A number occur grouped together during the breeding season, so that a large number of spermatozoa is not so essential as with the majority of species. The young are brooded over by the parent as in Chiton poli, Ischnochiton imitator, and a few other species. The gonad seems to arise as two proliferations of cells of the anterior pericardial wall, and each gonoduct seems to be almost wholly an outgrowth of the wall of the gonad, and not in large measure an ectodermal product. Sugar-reducing Power in Helix pomatia.f — Mile. Bellion finds that the liver, albumen-gland, and muscles of Helix jjomatia contain substances which have a sugar-reducing property, and that in the period of activity following hibernation these substances are considerably diminished. This diminution is particularly marked in the liver. Pedal Waves of Reptant Molluscs.! — F. Vies finds that there are several interesting varieties in the type of wave-motion to be seen on the foot of creeping Molluscs. These are classified, first, as direct, i.e. those in which the waves are propagated in the same direction as that in which the animal is moving ; and retrograde, where the waves move in an opposite direction, i.e. from front to back. The direct forms are further sub-divided as follows : — monotaxic, with one or more waves visible traversing the whole width of the foot, e.g. Helix, Li max, Arion ; ditaxic, having two systems of waves, each occupying one-half of the * Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 10-12. + C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 238-40. X Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 276-8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 315 foot with the median line unaffected by the waves, e.g. Haliotis, Trochus (these forms move rapidly) ; tetrataxic, with four systems, two sets of lateral alternating waves, seen in small species of Littorina. Amongst the retrograde forms, both monotaxic (e.g. Chiton), and ditaxic (e.g. Littorina littorea and L. rudis) occur. It is noteworthy that the retro- grade forms correspond with the locomotor waves in various other Invertebrate types, e.g. Oligochajtes, Nemerteans, Gephyreans, insect larvas, etc. 8. Lamellibranchiata. Nervous System of Razor-shell Clam.* — Gilman A. Drew has made experiments with Ensis directus, which is well suited for the physio- logical study of the nervous system. Continued stimulation of any portion of the body has in time an effect on all the ganglia. The siphons, collar, and foot may be so gently stimulated as to cause them to be with- drawn without disturbing organs that receive their nerves from other ganglia. The relation of the ganglia of a pair is intimate. Stimulating nerves connected with one, causes organs connected with both to respond promptly. Association fibres, by which ganglia communicate with each other, are found only in commissures and connectives. Although the anterior pallia! nerves are united, so that a connection is formed between the cerebral ganglia, and the circum-pallial nerves con- nect the cerebral and visceral ganglia of corresponding sides, there is no evidence that the ganglia are able to communicate through them. Both cerebral and visceral ganglia are provided with sensory and motor cells. The pedal ganglia are apparently dependent upon the cerebral for initiative. When the pedal ganglia are isolated from the others, stimu- lation of the surface of the foot causes only local responses, due to the direct stimulation of muscle-fibres. It would seem that the sensory neurons have neither endings nor collaterals in the pedal ganglia, but are continued to the cerebral ganglia. Impulses may pass in both directions through any of the commissures and connectives. Stimulation may cause impulses to be sent by roundabout connections when the usual connections are destroyed, but the stimulation must be of considerable duration, and the result is often considerably delayed. Distribution of Petricola pholadiformis.t — Bronishnv Debski points out that C. Boettger's record of this mollusc in the German " Watten- See " recpiires to be supplemented by other records of its occurrence in England in 1896 and subsequently, and in Belgium in 1903. Arthropoda. a. Insecta. Treatise on Insects.!— A. Berlese's treatise on insects continues to appear, the latest part dealing mainly with the alimentary system, in- cluding the Malpighian tubules. The first volume is nut yet completed, but the 800th page lias been reached and the 1000th figure. * Journ. Exp6r. Zool., v. (1908) pp. 311-26 (1 pi.). t Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) p. 1. X Gli Insetti, Milano, 1908, pp. 713-800 (1 pi. aud figs. 892-1000). 316 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Histolysis of Wing-muscles in Ants after Nuptial Flight.* — Charles Janet lias previously described the histolysis of the vibratory muscles of the wings of ants after the wings are lost. He now inquires into the fate of the ordinary non-vibratory muscles associated with the wings. Here, too, there is necrobiosis, a sort of premature senescence. Finally the remains of the muscle undergo digestion. There is no phagocytosis. Uncommon Dipterous Larva.f — P. Cerfontaine describes a rare dipterous larva of the genus Mkrodon, of which a few specimens were found in the stumps of hornbeam and oak trees near Liege. The general aspect, form and movements of this larva are so peculiar and Gastropod- like, that it is not surprising that it should have been classed as a mollusc before its metamorphosis was observed. The investigator gives an account of the general structure of the larva, and describes and figures in minute detail the various chitinous structures on the surface of the body. The results agree in the main with those of Hecht, but he finds that the buccal armature is much more complex than Hecht described, and that the so-called chitinous stylets are simply the extremities of the antenna?. He also finds on the dorsal surface a series of sensitive organs which have not hitherto been described. These organs are of the same type as those on the ventral surface, but have a much more elongated cone ; they are metamerically arranged. Just before metamorphosis not only the larval respiratory mechanism but the respiratory horns of the nymph, and the outline of the stigmata of the perfect insect, can be seen. As metamorphosis was not observed it was impossible to determine to which of the two species, 31. mutabilis or 31. devius, the specimens in question belong. Fat-bodies of Muscidae in Metamorphosis.! — Ch. Perez states that for a time during metamorphosis the fat-body functions as a storing kidney (rein d'accumulation). As the imaginal organs develop they digest within their protoplasm some of the inclusions. Whenever the Malpighian tubes are differentiated they commence to function even before the emergence of the imago ; the urates provisionally heaped up in the fat-cells are dissolved and circulated. They reach the cells of the Malpighian tubes, and finally pass from their lumina to the intestine as an abundant meconium. Larval Habits of Tiger-beetles.§ — V. E. Shelf ord gives a preliminary account of the habits of the larvae of some American tiger-beetles, which he reared from the egg in a glass-covered vivarium. The species chiefly described is Ckindela purpurea, but other eleven races were studied at the same time. Adults were caught in April and mating took place in a few days, there being no " courting " on the part of the male. Some days later the female bored vertical holes, 7-9 mm. in depth, and deposited a single elongated egg of a clear translucent cream-colour in each hole. About fifty eggs were laid by one female. Small larvae appeared in two weeks. The first larval stage lasts about a month. * Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1205-8 (1 fig.). t Arch. Biol., xxiii. (1907) pp. 368-410 (2 pis.). % C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, Ixii. (1907) pp. 909-11. § Jouru. Linn. Soc, xxx. (1908) pp. 157-88 (4 pis.). ZOOLOGV AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 317 The larvae hibernate in the third stage, emerging in April and feeding till June, when pupation takes place. The perfect insect hibernates again and does not become sexually mature until the first warm days of the third spring, when it lays its eggs and dies. In other species the eggs are not laid till midsummer, and the imagos emerge the following July and mature quickly, so that adult life lasts only two months. Tem- perature, moisture, and' food influence the length of the stages. Pig- mentation and final hardening of the cuticle takes place in the pupa in those parts which are employed in the final ecdysis, and the bristles of the imago assist in the removal of the exuvium. Life-history and Bionomics of Lomechusa.* — H. St. J. Donisthorpe communicates some interesting facts regarding this beetle, which is a dweller in the nests of the robber-ant, Formica sanguined, and whose life-history has been worked out by Father Wasmann. Lomechusa possesses short aborted labial palpi and patches of golden hairs upon the abdomen, whence the ants obtain a sweet secretion. The secretion exudes from orifices under the hair. The beetles ask to be fed by the ants by tapping them with their antenna?. They may, however, feed them- themselves, sucking the honey given to the ants, and biting at dead ants and larvae. In courtship the male and female Lomechusa face each other, bringing their antennae and mouths together, and tapping each other quickly. In copulation the male turns his tail over his head, meeting the upturned female abdomen which is in front. The male in these circumstances is carried hanging back in the air or walking on the tips of his front pair of legs. They separate, and after caressing each other the process is repeated and copulation resumed. Lomechusa defends itself successfully against the attacks of foreign ants, F. rufa, F. exsecta, etc., introduced into the nest. They emit an odour when seized, which comes from glands in the posterior part of the abdomen. The larva mimics the ant larva ; it is valued and protected by the ants themselves ; they feed it and place it even upon their own larvae, many of which it devours. Some interesting facts are stated regarding the relation of Lomechusa to the production of " pseudogynes " in the ants' nests. Eecently this beetle has been found to be not uncommon in England. Variation of Nycteribiidae from Ceylon. | — H. Scott has examined a hundred specimens of Cyclopodia sylcesi Westwood, a parasite upon Pteropus medius in Ceylon, with a view to ascertaining to what extent variation occurs. He records that in 57 males there is no appreciable variation in size, structure, and colour. In the 43 females only one striking variation was noted, viz. in the numbered arrangement of the large tubercles on the dorsal surface of the abdomen. These are so variable that they cannot be relied on as a specific character. Semi-aquatic Aphid. :£ — 0. F. Jackson describes Aphis aquaticus sp. n., which was found infesting Phihtria canadensis and other aquatic plants. Three pairs of lateral wax-glands on the thorax make a secretion which keeps the insect from getting wet, and other adaptations to the semi-aquatic life are noted. * Trans. Entorn. Soc. London, 1907, pp. 415-20. t Tom. cit., pp. 421-8. t Ohio Naturalist, viii. (1908) pp. 243-9 (1 pi.). 318 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Accessory Chromosome in Aplopus mayeri.* — H. E. Jordan traces the history of the accessory chromosome in the Phasmid, Aplopus mayeri, from its first origin in the secondary spermatogonia, through its various changes during the growth and maturation processes, to its final disappear- ance in thr head of the ripening spermatozoa. He reserves theoretical considerations for future discussion, and summarises the results of his investigation as follows. The accessory chromosome appears in the resting stage of the secondary spermatogonia as a chromatin nucleus characteristically close to the nuclear wall. At the last spermatogonia] division it passes over into the resting stage of the primary spermatocyte without entering a reticular stage, as do the ordinary chromosomes. Both the primary and secondary spermatogonia have a metaphase group of thirty-five chromosomes. Metaphase groups of the follicle cells of the ovary contain thirty-six chromosomes. Synapsis occurs in the early stages of the growth period by an end-to-end union of pairs of univalent elements. Equatorial plates of primary spermatocytes contain eighteen chromosomes. The accessory chromosome passes undivided to one pole of the first maturation spindle, and thus produces a dimorphism of the daughter-cells and the resulting spermatozoa. The first maturation division is reductional, the second is equational. Equatorial plates of secondary spermatocytes show a disparity in the number of chromosomes ; one group contains a large U-shaped element peripherally and numbers eighteen ; those groups which lack a body of such form contain only seventeen chromosomes. The accessory chromosome can be traced as a specific structure from the resting stage of the last order of spermato- gonia through all the various phases of synapsis and maturation, until it disintegrates in the head of the ripening spermatozoon. Excretion in Thysanura.f — L. Bruntz finds labial renal organs opening to the exterior in MacMlis and Lepisma. There are also nephro- cytes like fat^cells in the connective-tissue which bounds the pericardial sinus in MacMlis. Similar elements in Lepisma, but quite unlike fat- cells, occur in connection with the pericardial sinus. Phagocytosis is exhibited by blood-corpuscles and by the pericardial septum in some species {Lepisma saccharin a and Ctenolepisma lineata). P, Myriopoda. Habits and Structure of Scutigerella immaculata.J — S. R. Williams has studied this member of the Symphyla, that interesting group of Arthropods that seems to partake to a certain extent of the characters of the millipedes, the centipedes, and the Thysanuran order of insects. It lays eggs and hatches its young (in the latitude of southern Ohio) during late May and early June. The time of laying is influenced by the temperature. In the laboratory at least the adult is needed to keep off destructive fungi from the eggs. The egg is covered by a vitelline membrane and a much-ridged chorion. The larva has seven pairs of legs and ten dorsal scutes, and is * Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 284-95 (35 figs.). t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (190S) pp. 231-3. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxxiii. (1907) pp. 461-85 (3 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 319 hatched more nearly like the adult than in Diplopods. It is more like the adult than the newly-hatched IMhobius among Chilopods. " It is, therefore, a highly specialised young rather than a generalised ancestral form such as the hexapod larva of other Diplopoda is considered to be." • It seems probable that Scutigerella is carnivorous, and it seems to secrete a peritrophic membrane about the contents of its mid-gut, as do some of the lower insects. The first joint of a typical walking leg is moved by five slender muscles, which originate on the dorsal scutes. In its mode of loco- motion, though not in its rate, S. immcmdata resembles the Diplopods. Ecdysis seems to occur shortly before oviposition. The most common method of escape from the cast skin is by freeing the head and then creeping forward out of the old husk ; but this is not the only method. Segmentation of the Head in Diplopoda.* — Margaret Robinson has examined embryos and larvae of Archispirostreptus from South Africa, from which she draws certain conclusions as to the head seg- ments. The embryo has two additional head -segments, the possession of which would seem to give the Diplopoda a place in the Arthropod system nearer to the Chilopoda and Hexapoda than that recently assigned to them. These additional segments are (1) a tritocerebral segment representing the tritocerebral rudiments found in Hexapoda and Scolopeinlra, and also the tritocerebral segment in Crustacea ; (2) a pair of rudimentary roaxillas lying in front of the pair which forms the gnathochilarium in the adult. These are probably homologous with the first maxillae in Chilopoda and Crustacea, and with the super- linguae (Folsom) of Hexapoda. The gnathochilarium is probably a part of the head, and the post-maxillary segment of Heymons and Silvestri is purely a body segment. 8. Arachnida. So-called Malpighian Tubes in Scorpions.f— L. Bordas has studied these structures in Buthus europceus, and finds that they are inextricably associated with the liver, being, in fact, excretory ducts of that organ, differing in detail from the large ducts which open into the gastric region. «. Crustacea. Periodic Change in Phototropism of Hermit Crabs.f — Anna Drzewina finds that specimens of C'libaiiarius misanthropus Risso in an aquarium show periodic changes from positive to negative phototropism, which approximately synchronise with the changes of the tide. During the period corresponding to neap tides the Pagurids show marked and very constant negative phototropism, but as the tides become higher towards the spring-tides, positive phototropism sets in. The possible meaning of the parallelism is discussed, but, as the observer points out, there is need for extended observations. * Quart. Joum. Micr. Sci., li. (1907) pp. 607-24 (1 pi., G figs.), f Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxii. (1907) pp. 167-9. X Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1208-9. 320 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Variations in the Norway Lobster.* - - D. C. Mcintosh has examined a large number of specimens of the Norway lobster {Nephrops norvegicus), procured from Newhaven fishmarket or trawled in the Firth of Forth and the Moray Firth. In regard to the relative size of males and females, it was found that less than 1 per cent, of the females and 30 per cent, of the males examined were over 16 cm. in length ; while 20 per cent, of the males, as against 80 per cent, of the females, were under 12 "5 cm.; so that in general the female adult is shorter than the male. Of 5894 specimens only 703, or scarcely 12 per cent., were females. It was found, however, that the proportion of females was much greater in hauls taken with a smaller meshed net, and it is suggested that the well-known scarcity of females in boxes procured for laboratory purposes may be partly accounted for by the method of capture. It was found that variation in the number and arrangement of the male genital apertures was not uncommon. The normal aper- tures were present in every case, but in 6 • 5 per cent, there were addi- tional openings, the variation ranging from the normal two up to six. These extra openings occur without any regard to bilateral symmetry. The number of individuals showing abnormality decreases as the extent of the abnormality increases. Particulars as to the material examined, the number and extent of variations, etc., are clearly arranged in tables. New British Terrestrial Isopod.f — Alexander Patience describes Trichoniscus linearis sp. n., from Kew Gardens, where it was found under flower-pots along with Haplophthalmus danicus Budde Lund. Another species, T. stebbingi, was found in the flower-pots, and six other Trichoniscidas were taken at Kew on the same day. The new species is at once distinguished from all the other British species of Trichoniscus by its conspicuously linear form, approaching nearer to T. pygmceus, G-. O. Sars, in this respect than any other member of the genus. Life-history of Sacculina.J — G-. Smith has experimentally infected Carcinas mamas with this parasite and followed out the life-history. It is briefly as follows. The eggs undergo maturation in the brood-pouch and are self -fertilised. Development up to the nauplius stage proceeds here ; the nauplii are expelled to the exterior and lead a free-swimming existence for four days, undergoing four moults. The cypris stage is reached on the fifth day, and after two or three days of free existence the cypris larvae attach themselves by their antennules to a hair upon any portion of a young crab, preferably upon the appendages. The cypris casts off its thoracic appendages, the ectoderm draws away from the shell and comes to surround a mass of mesodermal cells ; it secretes a chitinous coat, and in this manner the Kentrogon larva is formed. The cypris shell, including all the larval organs, is thrown off. The embryonic cells of the Kentrogon, consisting of ectoderm and mesoderm, pass through an ectodermal hollow dart into the haemoccele of the crab, and are carried in the blood-stream till they reach the intestine. They are inclosed in a thin chitinous cuticle. The Saccidina interna * Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, xvii. (1908) |pp. 129-42. t Ann. Nat. Hist., i. ser. 8„ pp. 280-2 (1 pi.). X Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc, li. (1907) pp. 625-32 (6 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 32 L migrans now proceeds to grow rapidly, to throw out roots in all direc- tions, while the central tumour grows down the intestine toward the junction of thorax and abdomen of the crab. At this time the adult organs are differentiating in the most posterior portion of the central tumour, which soon arrives at the position of evagination of the adult Sacculina. Here differentiation proceeds, and the pressure of the growing tumour upon the epithelium of the crab causes it to degenerate, and thus when the crab next moults a hole is left in the new chitin, through which the Sacculina protrudes and so gains the exterior. New Barnacles.* — A. Grovel makes a preliminary note on the collection of stalked Cirripeds made by the German Antarctic Expedition. It includes four new species of Scalpellum. Metamorphosis of Mytilicola intestinalis.f — Otto Pesta gives an interesting account of this Copepod parasite of MyUlus gallpprovincialis, in whose life-cycle are included extremes of feeding habits, from those of a free life to that of parasitism. At the change of habit, swimming legs are transformed into crawling ones, their now useless or even in- jurious bristles becoming either rudimentary or thorny. Thorny bristles may secure fixation. Similar transformations occur in the thoracic limbs. A reduction of the number of segments sets in when the gut lumen of the host is nearly filled up by the further growth of the parasite, and a long worm-like creature results, which moves by alternate extension and contraction of certain body segments. For definitive onward move- ments the legs, now greatly modified, serve as struts pressing rhythmically upon the gut-wall. Annulata. Metamorphosis of Echiurus.J — W. Salensky returns to a study of the development of Echiurus, and gives an account of the assumption of the definitive form, the differentiation of the skin, and the establish- ment of the larval and adult nervous system. Studies on Maldanidae.§ — Ivar Arwidsson has studied a large number of Scandinavian and Arctic Maldanidae, and gives an account of the whole family, in which he recognises five sub-families — Luinbriclymeniaj, Rhodininae, Nicomachinae, Euclynieninas, and Maldaninae. The elabo- rate memoir contains descriptions of numerous new forms. Earthworms as Planters of Trees.|| — E. A. Andrews gives an account of some observations showing that earthworms may aid in the germina- tion of the seeds of at least one important kind of tree, by their habit of plugging up the mouth of their burrows. On May 3 it was noticed that the ground under a group of silver maple trees was covered with the little key-fruits or samaras that had fallen from the trees, and in many places these were collected into little heaps a foot or more apart. Each * Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxii. (1907) pp. 157-62. t Zeitschr. Wiss.Zool., lxxxviii. (1907) pp. 78-98 (1 pi.). % Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersbourg (1908) No. 3, pp. 307-28 (16 figs.). § Zool. Jahrb., xxvi. (1907) pp. 1-308 (12 pis.). || Amer. Nat., xli. (1907) pp. 711-14. June 17 th, 1908 z 322 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO heap contained from twelve to fifty fruits, some lying loose, some partly buried, and bound together with earth and a few fibres, probably grass. The ground for a radius of several inches round each heap was markedly free from seeds and clean, so that it seemed as if the earthworms had reached out as far as possible and dragged back all the seeds they could find to the mouths of their burrows. In every collection, three, four, or more seeds had sprouted, while outside the heaps not a single sprouting seed was found. Several weeks later some dozens of young trees, three or four inches in height and with two or three pairs of leaves, were found under the parent trees, standing, with the remains of the heaps still visible about them, apparently on the site of the earthworms' burrows. Systematic Position of Chsetognatha.* — R. T. Gunther concludes that this class approaches in its structure and development nearer to the Mollusca than to any other group. He points to the following resemblances : — the worm-shaped body, which recalls the Amphineura Aplacophora ; the bilateral symmetry in general, and particularly of the body-cavity ; the presence of an abdominal sac behind the anus ; the absence of undoubted segmentation ; the jaw armature in Sagiita and Proneomenia ; buccal and visceral commissures in the nervous system ; the pre-oral ciliary wreath or velum ; the endoskeleton in the head of Nautilus and Spadella ; the lateral and tail fins in Sagitta and the Dibranchiate Cephalopods ; the two paired openings from the cavity of the gonads ; the hood and the circumoral propodium of Cepha- lopods ; the development of the eggs within a follicular epithelium and their growth upon stalks ; the tendency in pelagic molluscs for shell, mantle, gills and foot to disappear, e.g. PhylJirho'e. On the ground of these and other observations, Chajtognatha are regarded as the living representatives of that phyletic stage which is represented by veliger larva?, and from such a free-swimming ancestor the creep- ing Polyplacophora, worm-shaped Aplacophora, and the swimming Cephalopods may have arisen independently. A systematic scheme of the Mollusca is put forward in which Chastognatha and Cephalopoda are grouped together as Nectomalacia, and all other Molluscs as Herpeto- malacia. The characters of these groups are defined. Nematohelminth.es. Nervous System of Ascaris.t — D. Deincka describes the sensory and motor nerve-cells. He recognises two types of sensory cell. Those of the first type are connected with each other by means of their short processes, along which the neurofibrils of one cell pass over into the body of another, and also by means of central processes which, branching greatly as they meet, form an intimate network. The cells of the second kind are connected by means of short, greatly branched dendrites. The two kinds of cell are closely intermingled in the sensory end apparatus ; they share by means of their fibrils in the formation of the thin nerve-tufts of the papillae, and also form the network of delicate nerve-branches which constitutes the main mass of the papillae The motor-cells are * Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 71-2. t Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxix. (190S) pp. 242-307 (9 pis. and 7 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 323 only connected more or less closely with one another when they possess strongly branched dendrites which form networks. There are four types of motor-cell. Platyhelminthes. Orientation of the Cestoda.* — Ludwig Cohn makes some striking suggestions on this subject. He holds that the key to the morpho- logical significance of the Cestode body is to be found in the oncosphere. Its front end is the hook-bearing end, which in movement is directed anteriorly. In all taded Cysticercoids the embryonal booklets of the oncosphere are found on the caudal appendage, which is thus to be regarded as the anterior end of the Cysticercoid. There is a stage in all Cestodes when the whole anterior body is lost, and in the proliferating scolices we have animals which without possessing a real anterior end, i.e. a head, fix themselves by the hinder end to the gut wall, and hang with their relatively most anterior end freely suspended in the gut. This thesis thus assumes (1) that in Cestodes the anterior and the posterior body arise separately from a middle piece ; (2) that the hinder part detaches itself aud alone enters into the composition of the sexual animal ; (3) that the zone of growth of Cestodes occurs not on the front end close behind the head, but, on the contrary, away from it. These points are fully discussed in the paper. Sterility in Cestodes.f — Al. Mrazek found an example of Tatria acanthorhyneha which possessed only male organs and a receptaculum seminis. Another individual possessed in the youngest (anterior) pro- glottids distinct rudiments of single parts of the sex-organs, e.g. cirrus sac, etc., but in the oldest proglottids had not the slightest trace of these organs or their rudiments. It is regarded as probable that the develop- ment had proceeded so far and stopped, and that the rudiments then disappeared. It is possible that these phenomena have some relation to the rare cases of Cestoda in which the sexes occur separate. Hemiuridse.l — A. Looss deals with the anatomy and classification of the members of the Distomid family Hemiuridas, giving a detailed account of its sub-families, genera, and species. The members of this family are inhabitants of the alimentary canal of marine bony fishes. They are entirely or nearly cylindrical, and in some, though not in all, the body consists of two regions, trunk and abdomen (Schwanzanhang). The skin is always unarmed, and the suckers, which are muscular and powerful, are set close together. The eggs are extremely numerous, thin-shelled, and relatively small, usually about 0 " 02 mm., exceptionally 0 ' 03 mm. in length. *&' Rhythmic Behaviour of Convoluta Roscoffensis.§— Louis Martin has made some new and interesting observations on this subject. He finds that darkness inhibits the movements, which synchronise with the tides. Convoluta does not rise in darkness, or if it have done so, it * Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 51-66. + Centralbl. Bakt. Parasitenk., xlv. (1907) p. 234-5. X Zool. Jahrb., xxvi. (1907) pp. 63-180 (9 pis.). § Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 555-7. 324 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RKSF.ARCHES RELATING TO descends. An interesting exception is the fact that on moonlight nights, and ('specially at full moon, the rhythm is maintained, and that even although the sky is dark. It is also found that various physical. chemical, or physiological influences are capable of disturbing this rhythm. Planaria angulata Muller.* — J. AVilhelmi clears up the confusion in connection with the terminology of Planaria angulata Muller. The name has been given to a Nemertine, a marine Triclad, and a larva whose development has been regarded by several embryologists as in the category of Polyclads. P. angulata Muller must be classed as a Nemertine. The form named by Agassiz as P. angulata has no claim to the title, and further, in consequence of his brief description, is difficult to identify again, although many circumstances point to its being the Bdellurid which lives upon Limulus. Owing to Agassiz' uncertain de- termination there is great doubt as to the value of the observations made by Balfour and by Korscheldt and Heider on the development of P. angulata. Structure of Fresh-water Triclads.f — Job. Ude has published a memoir dealing with the anatomy and histology of Planaria gonocephala Dug., Dendrocodum angarense, and D. punctatum. An examination of the characters of Planaria tvgtegrensis, as stated by Sabussows, shows it to be much more probably a variety merely of P. gonocephala. Early Development of a Polyclad.J — Frank M. Surface has studied the early stages in the development of Planocera inquilina Wh. The cleavage is strictly spiral in the dextral sequence until a late stage (forty-four cells). Three quartets of ectomeres are given off in alter- nating dexiotropic and Inotropic directions. At the next division a fourth quartet is formed, the cells of which are of very large size and contain most of the yolk. The " macromeres " are very minute cells, which remain at the vegetative pole until the closure of the blastopore. The markedly degenerative character of their nuclei and the small amount of cytoplasm indicate that they degenerate without giving rise to any structure. At the stage with forty cells there are formed at the animal pole four small " apical " cells, like those in Annelids and Molluscs. At the forty-four-cell stage the posterior cell of the fourth quartet, ±d, buds a single large cell into the interior of the embryo. Both of these cells, 4 d and 4 d2, next divide bilaterally. Of these four cells the two upper and inner give rise to a portion of the mesoderm, and possibly a small part of the endoderm. The lower pair of cells, lying on the surface of the embryo, give rise to practically all of the endodermal part of the alimentary canal. Thus the history of this cell, 4 d, shows a remarkable resemblance to its homologue in Molluscs and Annelids. The three anterior cells of the fourth quartet, 4«, 4&, and 4^, seem to function only as the bearers of food-yolk, and apparently give rise to * Zool. Jabrb., xxvi. (1907) pp. 1-10. t Zeitscbr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxix. (1908) pp. 308-70 (3 pis. and 3 figs.). X Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1907, pp. 514-59 (G pis.), ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 325 no morphological structure. The very large nuclei of these cells can be followed until the beginning of the pharyngeal invagination. The yolk in these cells breaks up into spherules, probably through the action of enzymes from the large nuclei. This liquefied yolk is afterwards absorbed by the endoderm cells. A large portion of the ectoderm is formed by the successive budding or delimination of small cells from larger, deeper-lying cells. A portion of the mesoderm, chiefly that part lying around the pharynx, is de- rived from cells of the second quartet, and thus corresponds to the '; secondary " mesoblast or " larval " mesenchyme of Annelids and Molluscs. In the spiral cleavage, the segregation of the ectoblast in three quartets, the formation of a large part of the mesoderm from 4 d, the formation of the apical cells, and in many other details, the development corresponds to that of Annelids and Molluscs. On the other hand, in the development of the entire alimentary canal from a portion of the mesentoblast, 4 d, and in the consequent degeneration of the " macro- meres " and of the remaining cells of the fourth quartet, this Polyclad is unique. Nematocysts of Turbellaria.*— C. H. Martin has experimentally proved in a series of Turbellaria that their nematocysts are derived from their food. For example, if Microstoma lineare is fed upon Gordylo- pltora, the nematocysts of this polyp are found under its skin. Ordi- narily its nematocysts are derived from Hydra, upon which it feeds. The same process probably occurs in the other Turbellaria, with the possible exception of Anonymus virilis, and therefore there is no ground for the generally accepted homology between nematocysts and rhabdites. Rotifera. New French Rotifers.f — P. de Beauchamp describes Proalides te/itaculatas g. et sp. n., a remarkable footless Notommatid adapted for free-swimming. It has affinities with Proales, Taphrocampa, and possibly Adadyla. The author also describes Proales similis sp. n. and Rattulus cylindricus Imhof, var. chattoni var. n. New Scottish Rotifers.} — James Murray, in a supplementary note on Scottish Rotifers collected by the Lake Survey, gives lists of species found, mostly in moss, in various parts of North Scotland, Orkney and Shetland. Amongst these are the following new species : Philodina convertjens, CaUidina minuta, C. circinata, C. plicata var. hirundella, which are described and figured. '&■ Stomachal Excretion in Rotifera.§ — P. de Beauchamp describes a process observed in the stomach of Rotifera in which a selective action is exercised whereby from amongst the substances swallowed, e.g. * Quart. Joum. Micr. Sci., lii. (1908) pp. 261-77 (1 pi.). t Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxii. (1907) pp. 148-57 (3 figs.). I Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, xlvi. (1908) pp. 189-201 (2 pis.). § Comptes Rendus, cxliv. (1907) pp. 1293-5. 326 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO chlorophyll, some parts are digested and retained in the form of baso- phil globules and fat, while others are excreted from the cells into the gut in the form of strongly acidophile grains. Echinoderma. Regeneration of Spines and Pedicellarise in Sea-urchins.* — 0. Poso has experimented with Sphatrechinus granulans, Echinus microtuber- culatus, and Strongylocmtrotus lividus, and finds that there is regeneration of spines and pedicellariae. He was led to this research by the state of some of the sea-urchins collected at Naples some time after the eruption of Vesuvius in 1906, which showed delicate spines, disproportionately young looking. On a sudden change from a large reservoir to a small glass vessel a specimen of Sphavrechinus shed most of its spines and seemed about to die. It recovered, however, and began to regenerate what it had lost. Luminosity of Ophiuroids. — Reichensperger f has studied Ophiop- sila annulosa (Sars), 0. aranea Forbes, Amphiura flliformis Midler, and A. squamata Sars. In the first there are peculiar glandular structures in the lateral spines ; in A. flliformis there are similar structures in all the spines. In A . chiqjei, which is not luminous, there are no glandular structures of this sort, but they occur again in A. squamata. In 0. aranea, however, they are not to be found. Reichensperger thinks that in the three species above noted the glandular structures associated with the spines are the luminous organs. He does not agree with Irene Sterzinger's conclusion that in A. squamata the tube-feet produce luminous mucus. Ernst Mangold % has studied the same four species, and he also has concluded that the luminosity is associated with skeletal plates and spines, not with tube-feet. He criticises Irene Sterzinger's argument. He also discusses the climbing powers of Ophiuroids, and concludes that the attachment of the tube-feet is not mainly due to a secreted glutinous substance. The theory that the fixation is due to glutinous secretion is not convincing. There is more to be said for the theory that the tube-feet may act as muscular suckers. Development of Ophiothrix fragilis.§ — E. W. MacBride communi- cates the results of his investigation of this subject. The early develop- ment varies with the condition of the egg at the moment of fertilisation, and the development of the unripe egg resembles in certain features that of Ophiura brevis. The ccelome originates as a single vesicle from the apex of the archenteron, and this appears to be true for all classes of Echinoderms. This segments into three somites on each side. The middle somite on the right occasionally assumes a five-lobed form, proving beyond doubt that it is a right antimere of the water-vascular system. Metamorphosis is initiated by a preponderant growth of the organs of the left side, which affects the larval arms and the sides of the oesophagus, and which not only carries the hydroccele round the * Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 14-16. t Biol. Centralbl. xxviii. (1908) pp. 166-8. J Tom. cit., pp. 169-76. § Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., li. (1907) pp. 557-606 (6 pis, 4 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 327 oesophagus, but also the rnadreporic pore and the left anterior coelorne, so that these come to be near the right hydrocoele. The origin of the perihsernal canals is described. From their walls originate the motor ganglion cells and in all probability the ventral intervertebral muscles. The primitive germ-cells originate from the left posterior coelome covering the stone canal, Monograph on Apodous Holothurians.* — Herbert Lyman Clark has completed a valuable monograph on the Synaptidse and Molpadiidse. It has been based on the collection of over two thousand specimens in the United States National Museum, and is intended as a complete account of all the apodous Holothurians known to science. The author deals with structure, functions, habits, inter-relations, development, and classification. Of Synaptidae there are 21 genera and 88 species ; there is every reason to believe that the common ancestor was a small 10- tentacled apodous form, probably with wheel-shaped calcareous particles ; Rhdbdomolgus seems to be the nearest living representative of the ancestral stock, though it is not necessarily close to it ; Polyplectana, Protankyra, Polycheira, and Acanthotrochus are the most highly special- ised forms on the four different branches on which the Synaptid genera may be arranged. Of Molpadiidse there are 8 genera and 46 species ; the ancestor of the group was probably a 15-tentacled pedate Cucu- marian ; to this it may be that Himasthleplbora is nearest, while Gephyrothuria is also primitive. The author is to be congratulated on the completion of a very fine piece of work. Coelentera. New Types of Alcyonarians.f — Louis Eoule refers briefly to two new types which he found in a collection from Amboina. The first is Pachyclavularia erecta g. et sp. n., in which the mesoglcea of the basilar membrane is so thick that the encrusting mode of growth characteristic of Clavularids is replaced by one more or less erect. The second is a Virgalarid — Svavopsis elegans g. et sp. n., which has no pinnules or calices. Association of Alcyonarian and Alga. J — Ch. Gravier describes a case of association in very large numbers of a unicellular alga with an Alcyonarian, Sarcophytum mycetoides Grav. In the first stages the alga? are regarded as parasitic, but once established and its nutrition assured, the relationship becomes symbiotic. The case is regarded as parallel with that of Convoluta and its green cells. O' Spines of Antipatharia.§ — Louis Roule has investigated the ques- tion of the morphological significance of these structures. His con- clusion is that they are abortive branches, and correspond to branches of the axis. Antipatharians with undivided colonies have only these abortive structures, while those that branch exhibit a normal develop- ment. These conclusions have been arrived at by a comparison of Antipatharians with a complete colony of a new Gorgonid genus Rhopalonella, from the Antarctic seas. * Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, xxxv. (1907) 231 pp., 13 pis. t Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 946-7. X Op. cit., cxliv. (1907) pp. 1462-4. § Tom. cit., pp. 1453-4. 328 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Development of Gonophores in Siphonophora.* — W. Richter lias studied this in Rhizophysa, Physalia, and Hvppopodius. Only some of the more general facts elucidated in the paper can be quoted here. In all the gonophores — male and female — examined, the origin of the radial canals from stomach-grooves, independently of the bell-nucleus, is established. The germ-cells arise in the endoderm ; only in Physalia could the ectodermal origin of the spermatoblasts be proved with any probability. In none of the forms does a wandering of the germ-cells to the ectoderm take place. The development of the gonophores into the medusoid structure goes on in the usual way in the female gono- phores and in the male of Hippopodius. The male of Rhizophysa shows a simplification in so far as that a typical bell-cavity is not developed ; further development is by a downwardly directed growth, accompanied by a progressive blending of the tamiolas edges. The most important result is the demonstration that the old A^assiz-AVeismann theorv of the origin of the Medusa cannot be held for the Siphonophora, as Goette has already shown for the Hydromedusae. A new light is here thrown upon the question of the origin of the Siphonophora from the Hydromedusae. Australasian Hydroid in North Sea.f — James Ritchie gives an inter- esting account of a colony of S&rtularia elonyata picked up in the North Sea. The colony was complete, with naturally terminated stems and perfect pinnae, upon practically every one of which in the more mature colonies are perched exceedingly delicate, loosely attached gonangia. The preservation of these delicate structures is regarded as evidence that the colony was not artificially transported, e.g. in ballast on board some ship loading at an Australasian port, but was borne on ocean currents. Nuclear Cycle of Gonionemus murbachii A. G. Mayer.} — H. B. Bigelow gives an account of the mitosis in the somatic cells of adult tissues of this Ccelenterate, of its entire course of spermatogenesis, the early nuclear development of the oocyte, and the nuclear phenomena connected with fertilisation. An interesting point is that in fertilisation nuclear union may take place either by fusion or by apposition ; the determining factor is believed to be the relative sizes of the nuclei at the time of their union. In the first cleavage spindle there are the full number of somatic chromosomes. In the second cleavage there is a reduced number, each of which is a bivalent structure resulting from the pairing of univalent chromosomes. The number of chromosomes in the third cleavage has not been observed, but in the fourth and subsequent cleavages all nuclei have the full somatic number of chromosomes. Porifera. Coalescence and Regeneration in Sponges.§ — H. Y. Wilson de- scribes the formation of plasmodial masses in moribund specimens of Mkrociona prolifera. When fragments are squeezed through a cloth so * Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxvi. (1907) pp. 557-618 (3 pis. and 13 figs.). t Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, xvii. (1907) pp. 80-3 (1 pi.). X Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xlvii. (1907) pp. 287-399 (8 pis.). § Journ. Exper. Zool., v. (1907) pp. 245-58 (4 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 329 that the cells pass out, the same kind of phenomenon is seen. The cells aggregate into true syncytial masses with pseudopodia. The syncytia fuse into an incrustation, and regeneration occurs. Flagellate chambers appear in great abundance, canals arise as isolated spaces which come into connection with one another ; oscula are developed. The syncytia consist mainly of spheroidal granular cells (amcebocytes or archasocytes), but collar cells and more or less hyaline cells also enter into their com- position. The author also describes the fusion of the larvae of a species of Lissodendoryx, and makes some very interesting general suggestions, e.g. by comparing the behaviour of the dissociated cells of sponges with the plasmodium formation in Mycetozoa and Proteomyxa. The ten- dency to fusion exhibited by two similar sponge-syncytia is probably adaptive. The additional safety from enemies and accidents, accruing from increase in the size of the mass, more than compensates for the reduction in number of the individual masses that start to grow. Experiments show that masses of considerable size are frequently able to withstand conditions that wipe out very small masses. Protozoa. Minute Structure of Amoeba proteus, Pall.* — S. Awerinzew has investigated the structure of Amoeba by the aid of sections. The protoplasm immediately beneath the outer p:llicle is highly vacuolar, but the vacuoles are very small in comparison to those layers within. Here there is a layer of radially arranged relatively large vacuoles, and within this a central region in which the nucleus lies, and in which the vacuoles increase in size and numbers from its periphery towards the centre. The vacuoles of this central protoplasmic mass are on the whole larger than those of the layer immediately beneath the pellicle. The walls of the vacuoles are beset with granules. The nuclear structure resembles that of the protoplasm. The nuclear vacuoles of the external layer nearly all show chromatin corpuscles, stainable with nuclear stains. Similar corpuscles occur also in the walls of the meshes of the remaining nuclear mass. These, however, appear to be distin- guished by their chemical qualities from the peripheral nuclear granules, and are smaller in size. The appearances of protoplasm and nucleus here described have nothing to do with reproductive processes, but represent a stage in those transformations induced by heightened feeding and the accelerated growth consequent on this. Degeneration in Opalina.f — C. C. Dobell describes the degenerative changes undergone by Opalina when the host is starved for some time. It changes form and assumes all sorts of indefinite shapes. These modified Opalina do not divide in the normal manner, but simply con- strict off pieces, which completely lose their cilia and give rise to globules of a substance of high refractivity in their cytoplasm, which are " eosinophile " in character. These globules ultimately run together into large masses within the cell. The chromatin of the nucleus in these atrichous forms becomes massed in granules at the periphery, whilst the * Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 45-50. t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., li. (1907) pp. 633-46 (1 pi. and 2 figs.). 330 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO nucleus itself increases sometimes to double the original diameter. In the larger atrichous forms, division may take place, both of nucleus and cytoplasm. Buds may be given off without nuclei, but they appear to dis- integrate and die. As a rule, the chromatin of the nucleate forms is cast out into the cytoplasm, and later to the outside, when the organism dies. The author discusses the " extraordinary parallel " which exists in the changes he describes and certain so-called "sexual" processes in Protozoa. Light-reactions in Volvox.* — S. 0. Mast describes in detail the reactions of V. globator and V. minor to light. The eye-spots are situated on the outer posterior surface of the individuals. Volvox rarely moves exactly in the direction of the light-rays, but deflects, apparently under the influence of gravity, up or down or to the side, the degree of deflection being least for strongly positive colonies exposed to light of optimum intensity. The motion is regulated by the relative intensity of the light on opposite sides of the colony. Orientation is not the result of "trial and error," but is brought about by motor reactions in the individuals composing the colony. Volvox is positive in comparatively low, and negative in comparatively high light-intensities, but there is great varia- tion in regard to this, depending upon the physiological state of the colonies. Weber's law seems to hold for the light-reactions of Volvox. Trypanosome of the Eel.f — C. Franca gives an account of Trypano- soma granulosum Laveran and Mesnil, which is very abundant in Anguilla vulgaris in Portugal. The species has very distinctive nuclear characters, and it occurs in two well-marked varieties, parva and magna. Culture in the blood of the eel gives rise to " herpetomonad " forms. No endocellular stages are found in the eel's blood. New Piroplasma from a Rodent.} — C. Nicolle describes a new Pwoplasma from Ctenodactylus gondi Pallas, an Octodont of North Africa. It appears to be common ; it resembles the Leishman body in appearance, and has the peculiarity of dividing into four, not two, daughter-cells. The author names it Piroplasma quadrigeminum. Structure and Life-history of Copromonas.§ — C. C. Dobell gives an account of Copromonas subtilis from the rectum of Rana temporaria, and discusses various points in flagellate morphology. There is an asexual and a sexual cycle in the life-history. During the former, multiplica- tion takes place by longitudinal division. After a time the monads conjugate in pairs, and reducing divisions of the nuclei take place, followed by encystation. The cysts are capable of being dried up. These are swallowed by frogs and toads, and reach the rectum by way of the digestive tract. As a rule the cysts do not liberate their contents (a small hyaline monad) until the fseces have left the frog, but some- times the monads emerge from their cysts and lead a semi-parasitic life in the large intestine. Development does not appear ever to be com- pleted inside the frog. * Journ. Comp. Neurol, and Psych., xvii. (1907) pp. 99-180 (15 figs.). t Bull. Soc. Portugaise Sci. Nat., i. (1907) pp. 94-102 (1 pi.). t C.R Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiii. (1907) pp. 213-16 (1 fig.). § Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., lii. (1908) pp. 75-120 (2 pis. and 3 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 331 Trichomonas and Megastoma in Human Intestine.* — A. Ucke has observed organisms in fresh fasces which he is inclined to regard as stages in the development of Trichomonas. Besides the typical pear- shaped organism, pointed posteriorly, with three flagella anteriorly, undulating membrane, nucleus and vacuole, there were the following phases : — The pear-shaped body is rounded off, and becomes oval. The vacuole increases in size and the protoplasm is crowded into the periphery. After the whole has become spherical the protoplasm is collected at two opposite poles, whilst it thins out in the equatorial plane. Here there begins a segmentation, which gradually increases and leads to the segmenting off of two spherical but smaller bodies of a signet-ring form. It is regarded as probable that further division goes on. Out of 188 cases examined, the author found 9 infected with Megastomum entericum, which occurred in both vegetative and encysted forms. Biology and Affinities of Spirochsetae.f — H. B. Fantham discusses the movements, structure, and general affinities of Spirochceta {Trypano- soma) balbianii Certes and Spirochceta anodontm Keysselitz. The motion of these organisms is resolvable into at least two components — (1) a vibratory motion of flexion of the body mainly for progression ; and (2) a spiral or corkscrew movement of the body as a whole, due to the winding of the membrane. The membrane is a spirally wound lateral extension of the ectoplasmic periplast. It is characteristic of the genus Spirochceta as now defined. Only asexual modes of multiplica- tion, principally by longitudinal fission, are known with certainty. Spirochetes are regarded as having affinities both with bacteria and the Protozoa ; they are undoubted protists. The author is inclined to accept the protozoan nature of these organisms, and considers that a provisional new class of the Protozoa, viz. Spirochaetacea, might be instituted for their reception when our knowledge of them is a little more extensive. * Centralbl. Bakt. Parasitenk., Orig., xlv. (1907) pp. 231-3. t Quart. Journ. Micr. ScL, lii. (1908) pp. 1-73 (3 pis. and 11 figs.). 332 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO BOTANY. GENERAL, Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants. Cytology, including- Cell-Contents. Blepharoplast and Centrosome of Marchantia polymorpha.* — End. Escoyez has studied the so-called centrosomes which occur in the spermatic mitoses of Marchantia polymorpha, and finds that these bodies only occur in the last division, and that while in form and position they resemble true centrosomes, their real function is that of blepharoplasts. They are, in fact, organs sui generis, and the relation between them and the spindle can be simply explained by the special mode of division of the mother-cell of the sperrnatozoids. Nucleus and Karyokinesis in Zygnema.f — The same author has in- vestigated karyokinesis in Zygn&ma, and draws the following conclusions from his observations. All the chromosomes are produced from a chromatic network ; the nucleolus only provides chromatic material for the chromosomes, but contributes no morphological elements. The chromosomes are elongated rods which split longitudinally in the usual way ; this is seen most clearly in the metaphase. In the telophase, the chromosomes, which are at first crowded together, spread out into the nuclear vacuole, and are united by their drawn-out ends. The nucleolus is formed at this stage, not from the united chromosomes, but quite independently from the chromatic network. The chromosomes appear to retain their individuality from one mitosis to another. The pyrenoids and chromatophores multiply by simple fission, independently of the nucleus. Nuclear Structures in Synchytrium.J — F. L. Stevens has described some unusual nuclear figures from the large nucleus of Synchytrium decipiens. One of these is a nucleus without a membrane, consisting wholly of chromatin and a large nucleolus ; this form appeared always in cells with one nucleus, and therefore before any division had taken place. Other phenomena noted were the asters variously connected with nuclei, and evidently of extranuclear origin ; but the absence of a complete series of figures made it impossible to identify the different stages, and so to explain the nature of the various bodies seen. The development of the resting spore is followed, and of the sporangia. Peroxydiastase in Dry Seeds.§ — Brocq-Rousseu and E. Gain have experimented with seeds of different ages obtained from plants of * La Cellule, xxiv. (1907) pp. 247-54 (1 pi.). t Tom. cit., pp. 354-64 (1 pi.). % Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 480-4 (1 pi.). § Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp.' 1297-8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 333 numerous families and of widely different habitat, with the object of proving whether, as suggested by Bertrand and others, they contain a diastase. The authors conclude that dry seeds usually contain per- oxy diastase (i.e. diastase and peroxide of hydrogen). It appears to be located in the embryo, but does not maintain its existence indefinitely. The duration of its existence will be made the subject of a future research ; at present it appears to have some relation to the age of the seed. It may also be supposed that there is some connection between the peroxydiastase of the resting seeds and the true oxydases of active, living plants. Structure and Development. Reproductive. Origin and Fruit-development of Acorus Calamus.* — M. Mucke has investigated the fruit-formation of Acorus Calamus, and is of the opinion that the cause of the arrest of fruit-development must be sought in the unfavourable climatic conditions of its new habitat, since it was originally a native of the warm regions of eastern Asia, and was not brought to Europe until about the middle of the sixteenth century, when it was imported into Germany. Indian and European plants show a certain difference in their habit and behaviour under different con- ditions of culture. Acorus has a stratified perisperm which incloses characteristic albuminous cell-contents, and is absorbed by the growing embryo-sac. The pollen and ovules in A. Calamus undergo an arrest of development which prevents seed-formation, while, on the contrary, there is normal development in A . gramineus, which therefore produces seeds capable of germinating. Pollen-development of Sarracenia.f ■ — M. L. Nichols has made cytological studies of the pollen of Sarracenia flava, S. purpurea, S. variolaris, S. rubra, and 3. psittacina, and also of hybrids of S. flava x S. variolaris, and S. flava x S. purpurea. The writer agrees with those authors who believe that there is a connection between the nucleolus and the formation of chromatin, and quotes the relations of the nucleolus and the chromatin in the prophases of the first matura- tion division in support of her opinion. The variation in the staining properties of the nucleolus at this period indicates some sort of chemical change, and the material thus elaborated escapes into the nuclear sac, is absorbed by the linin, and distributed along its threads. The nucleolus does not appear to have the same definiteness of function as the chromo- somes and centrosomes, and it is probable that it represents a different physiological activity at different times and in different cells. The present investigation has not made it possible to determine whether there is a conjugation of chromosomes during the synapsis stage, neither does the behaviour of the nucleolus entirely favour the individuality of the chromosomes. • Bot. Zeitschr., lxvi. (1908) pp. 1-23 (1 pi.). + Bot. Gazette, xlv. (1908) pp. 31-7 (1 pi.). 334 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Physiology. Nutrition and Growth. Grafting of Plants containing Hydrocyanic Acid.* — L. G-uignard has made experiments with the object of discovering whether there is any migration of chemical substances from the graft to the stock, or vice versa. The researches hitherto made in this connection dealt with the migration of alkaloids, e.g. atropine, but the author regards them as unsatisfactory, since it is not certain what part is played by alkaloids in plant physiology. On the other hand, the various compounds of hydrocyanic acid are known to have an important function in food- elaboration, and are very easy to detect, and therefore the present experiments deal with plants rich in these substances. The plants used as grafts and stocks were Phaseolus lunatics and the ordinary Haricot bean ; and Photinia and Cotoneaster, with the hawthorn and the wild quince. The results show that when a plant containing a hydrocyanic glucoside is grafted on a plant destitute of this substance, or inversely, there is no migration of the substance. Among the Rosacea? such migration did occur, but only in different species of the same genus, both of which had the power of elaborating the same glucoside. The author concludes that, in spite of the interchange of substances between stock and graft connected with common nutrition and development, certain organic principles remain localised in the one or the other. Grafting represents an artificial symbiosis, in which each species retains its own individuality. Seed and Soil Inoculation for Leguminous Crops.f — W. B. Bottomley publishes the results of his experiments with crops inoculated with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The author distributed more than a thousand specimens of his culture, and about 80 p.c. of the reports received showed an increase in crop. Fifty-two reports are quoted, but only nineteen cases give figures, and there is so great a disparity in the results that no discussion is possible. So far as they go, it appears that a culture has been obtained which, in suitable cases, may increase the yield of leguminous crops 30 to 50 p.c. It is not claimed, however, that the culture cures " sickness " or increases the frequency with which leguminous crops can be grown, and inoculation is found to fail when the soil is too acid, or when it is deficient in lime, potash and phosphates, or when drainage is needed. Formation of Aleurone Grains.f — J- Beauverie contributes a note upon the globoids of aleurone grains. The metachromatic properties of the globoids render it easy to follow the different stages in the formation of the aleurone grain. The appearance of the globoids precedes that of the crystalloids and the amorphous substances. The granulations possessing the properties of the globoids appear early in the nucellus and endosperm, and even in the integuments where no globoids are formed. It appears that, contrary to the usual opinion, the globoid-substance has an independent existence within the grain, and can exist apart from the * Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1376-80. t London, ' Country Life ' Office. See also Nature, lxxvii. (1908) pp. 330-31. j Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1345-47. r ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 335 grain. Some seeds, which are without aleurone-grains, are now known to possess a substance having properties similar to those of globoids. Chlorophyll-formation.* — W. Lubimenko contributes a note upon chlorophyll-formation in the higher plants, under different intensities of light. The results of his experiments show that there is a maximum intensity for chlorophyll-formation. This intensity is less than the natural intensity, and varies with different species, and also with the same species at different temperatures. These facts are of importance in showing that a green plant can adapt itself to a weakened illumination by increasing its production of chlorophyll. Carbon Assimilation of Penicillium.f — H. Hasselbring has con- ducted a series of culture experiments with various substances in order to advance our knowledge of the nutrition of fungi. Naegeli had stated that food-value depended on the specific linkage of certain atomic groups, but this has been disproved, and it is now held that no general relation has been established between the atomic structure of a substance and its food-value. Assimilation depends on the nature of the plant as well as on the chemical reactions of the medium used, and though such medium has nutritive value for one plant it will not serve for all plants. Hasselbring found that alcohol and acetic acid, and the substances from which the acetic acid radicle is easily derived, are assimilated by Peiikillium glaucum. The effect of different media is discussed, and the results given in detail. Irritability. Influence of Light on Respiration of Fungi.! — A. Lowschin has studied the lower fungi with the object of testing the statements made by certain authors as to the effect of light on their respiration. The author has performed a series of experiments upon Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Outturn, but in no case did the light pro- duce any regular acceleration of respiration, which was independent of the warmth produced in the culture by actinic rays. General. Abechavaleta, J. — Flora Uruguaya. [The author concludes his account of the Compositae of this flora.] Anales del Museo National de Montevideo. VI. Flora Uruguaya, iii. pp. 229-502 (figs, in text). CRYPTOGAMS. Pteridophyta. (By A. Gepp, M.A., F.L.S.) Development of Stolons in Nephrolepis.§ — A. Sperlich continues his studies on Ne2)hrolepis, by describing the developmental history of the stolons. He has ascertained the exact time when the first stolon is produced, its function, its position, its relation to leaf -rudiment, and to * Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1347-9. t Bot. Gazette, xlv. (1908) pp. 176-93. t Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. pt. 1 (1908) pp. 5-1-64 (3 pis.). § Flora, xcviii. (1907) pp. 341-61 (figs.). 336 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO the segmentation of the apical cell. The first stolon's rudiment appears alter the third or fourth leaf of the embryo. The firsi lateral axes of the embryo Nephrulfpis are in function root-bearers. The stolon, like the leaf, is the product of a special segment of the apical cell. The tir-i stolons of epiphytic species serve to anchor the plant, and are very hydrotropic. Physiological Sheaths in Ferns.* — P. Basecke publishes detailed results of his studies upon the physiological sheaths of the axes and fronds of the Filicineae, and upon the substitution of cork. He dis- cusses the endodermis at great length from the points of view of development, structure, biology, and physiology. He then treats of the formation of cork, the dividing layers between rhizome and frond, the lenticels and the intercellular cuticularisation, the mechanical tissues of rhizome and frond, and their lignification. He appends a long bibliography. Revision of the American Species of Dryopteris.f — C. Christensen having, when preparing his " Index Filicum," realised the extremely con- fused condition in which the numerous forms allied to the two species, Dryopteris opposita and D. Sprengelii, had been left by the authors of the "Synopsis Filicum," has studied some 1200 specimens of the group and published a complete revision, in which are described 82 species, based upon the following characters — nervature, outline of frond, pubescence, texture, position of sori, etc. He supplies an analytical key to render determination more easy. He gives full synonymy and distri- bution of the species, critical notes, and often a figure. There are nine new species, and some new varieties. In the appendix, two more new species belonging to other groups are described. North American Ferns. — W. N. Clute % describes and figures AspUnium Ferrissi, a new species collected in the canyon region of Arizona by J. H. Ferriss. Other unique species have been recorded from the canyon country which borders on Mexico. The same author § gives a simple account of the life-history of the ferns, and describes a new extreme form, Nephrodiwn cristatum Clinto- nianum f . silvaticum. He also || brings to an end his check-list of the North American Fern worts. W. A. Terrylf describes a new pubescent variety of the ostrich fern, transplanted from Plain ville into his own garden at Bristol (Conn.). A. Hans ** describes the result of hybridising the American species, Polystichum acrostic ho ides with four forms of P. annulare. The latter species is European, and not able to withstand the full rigour of the North * Bot. Zeit., lxvi. (1908) Abt. 1, pp. 25-87 (3 pis.). t Kgl. Danske Vid. Selsk. Skrift., ser. 7, Sci. iv., No. 4 (1907) pp. 247-336 (52 figs.). t Fern Bulletin, xvi. (1908) pp. 1-2. § Tom. cit., pp. 5-13. || Tom. cit., pp. 16-23. U Tom. cit., pp. 3-5. ** Tom. cit., pp. 14-15. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 337 American winter. But in the hybrid plants the strain of the American parent confers immunity from the frost. Descriptions of New Tropical Ferns.*— E. Rosenstock gives descrip- tions of ten new species of ferns from German East Africa, Brazil, Uruguay, Ecuador, Sumatra, and indicates their affinities. New Species of Lindssea.j — L. M. Underwood and W. R. Maxon describe two new species of Lindsma, one collected in Colombia by Pittier, and the other in Cuba by Wright and other botanists. Ferns of Paraguay 4 — H- Christ publishes descriptions of some nine new species of ferns collected in Paraguay by E. Hassler, and adds notes upon two other rare species. Bryophyta. (By A. Gepp.) Sexuality in the Mosses.§ — J. Cardot treats of the question of sexuality in the mosses, and gives a summary of the results obtained by El. aud Em. Marchal. The Marchals investigated the life-history of three dioicous mosses — Barbula unguiculata, Bryum argenteum, Ceratodon parpareus — with a view to determining whether or not the numerous plants arising from the spores of a given sporogonium, itself the product of one and the same fertilised egg, are all of one sex. They found them to be of different sexes. And, further, they ascertained that the sex of the ultimate plant is already predetermined in the spore ; that the protonema unfailingly transmits the sex of the spore to the young plants — that is to say, that the protonema buds off plauts which are solely male or solely female ; that a secondary or regenerative pro- tonema is equally faithful in the transmission of sex. Hence dioicism originates at the time of sporogenesis, at the time of the division of the spore-mother-cells, when reduction of chromosomes takes place. Previous to the time of this nuclear reduction all the cells of the sporogonium (both stalk and capsule) possess a bisexual potentiality. And when at this stage portions of the sporogonial wall or stalk are made to regenerate as a consequence of traumatic injury, an aposporic protonema is obtained. And the Marchals state that in case of the three dioicous species — Bryum ccespiticium, B. argenteum, Mnium hornum — the aposporic protonema produces gonophytes, which in the great majority of cases have a male character, while some bear synoicous flowers, and a few exhibit a female character only. But are the sexual characters of these axes maintained by the products of their vegetative reproduction ? Experiments instituted to settle this question have brought out this important fact: that the products of the second diploid generation are bisexual, whatever be the sex manifested by the axes of first generation whence they arose ; these latter are then in every case * Fedde, Repertorium, iv. (1907) pp. 2-6, 292-6. t Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 1. (1907) pp. 335-6. % Bull. Herb. Boissier, ser. 2, vii. (1907) pp. 922-8. § Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 8-11. June 17th, 1908 2 A 338 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO potentially bisexual. And this fact is in perfect harmony with the theory. In the haploid or sexiferous phase the cells of a muss present only one series of chromosomes (one sexual determinant) ; and the unisexual polarity is absolute, and is transmitted without alteration by vegetative propagation. On the other hand, the sporophyte (diploid phase) has, as the result of fertilisation, reunited in its cells two series of chromosomes, including the two sexual determinants. And if we avoid sporogenesis by obtaining direct vegetative reproduction from the wall or stalk of the sporogonium, the resulting gonophytes exhibit by their bisexuality the presence of male and female determinants. Even on the unisexual axes of first aposporic generation the unisexuality is only apparent ; it conceals, as has been shown, a potential hermaphro- ditism ; and the sexual bipolarity, whether it manifests itself or not, impregnates all the cells of the aposporic moss-plant. The Marchals have therefore succeeded in producing out of a strictly dioicous species a new hermaphrodite, or, more precisely, an androgynosynoicous form which is capable of reproducing itself indefinitely as such by vegetative methods. It remains to be determined whether the gametes of this new form could produce an oospore developing into a sporogonium with 4 n chromosomes, and what would be the spores of such a capsule. And the Marchals are investigating this problem— a problem of great interest to the systematic bryologist, as explaining, in case of many genera, the existence and meaning of allied species which are almost completely alike in their vegetative characters, and differ in scarcely anything but sexuality. Phenomena of Torsion in Mosses.* — W. Lorch has investigated the phenomena of torsion in the stems of Polytrichaceae and of Dicrainiin undulatvm. He describes and figures the apparatus he employed, and gives details of his experiments and results. He finds that the stems of one and the same species may twist to right or left, the direction of the spiral upon which the leaves are set being, in his opinion, due to the direction followed by the successive segments cut off from the apical cell. Asexual Multiplication in Blasia and Riella. — H. Buchf gives the results of his experiments on the vegetative reproduction of Blasia piisilla, which confirm and complete the researches of Leitgeb. His very detailed and incompressible resume is reproduced in Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) Beibl., pp. 74-6. K. Goebel % describes in detail the formation of gemmae in Riella, giving figures of R. Cossoniana, R. Clausonis, and R. Battandieri, and compares the results with those previously recorded for R. Americana by Howe and Underwood. He finds marked analogies with the formation of gemmaa in Marchantia and Lunularia. And he finds other reasons for concluding that the Riellaceae are allied to the Marchantiaceae rather than to the Jungerrnanniaceae, despite certain difficulties. The Marchantiaceae stand at the head of the following four groups : Riccieae, Corsiniaceae, Riellaceae, Marchantiaceae. * Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxvi. a. (1908) pp. 78-87 (fig.). t Ofv. Finsk. Vet. Soc. Forh., xlix. (1906-7) No. 16, 42 pp. (2 pis.). \ Flora, xcviii. (1908) pp. 308-23 (figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 339 Leucolejeunea, a New Genus of Hepaticae.*— A. W. Evans sepa- rates off from Archil ejeuma Schiffn. a new genus, Leucolejeunea, proposed for the reception of three North American species, A. clypeata, A. Sdlowiana, and A. conchifolia, described (or redescribed) and figured by the author six years ago. And with them he associates A. xanthocarpa, of wide distribution within the tropics and outside, and also A. rotundi- stipula, a Cape species. He gives a detailed description of the genus, and, having had the opportunity of studying the type-material of Lejeunea unciloba Lindenb., he is able to show that it agrees with A. Sellowiana and takes precedence of it. Bryological Notes.t — V. Schiffner publishes a continuation of his notes upon Bryophytes. 88. Cephalozia connivens has been found among some North American material of Telaranea nematodes, and is thus shown to be a circumpolar species. 39. C. gracillimavar. viridis Douin, hitherto recorded only for France, has been found in Dalmatia. 40. Scapania calcicola Ingh. is distinguished from 8. aspera by having larger leaf-cells, and a new form of it is described. S. calcicola was first found in Sweden and France ; it is absent from England, but has recently been found in Bosnia and Lower Austria. 41. Riccia pseudo-Frostii Schiffn. receives a more complete description, founded upon material gathered near Regensburg by Familler. The openings of the air-cells do not arise by resorption or dying off of epidermal cells. The species has been found by Nicholson in Sussex. 42. The vegetative repro- duction of Leptoscyphus cuneifolius, a rare and sterile European species, is brought about by the breaking off of the small obcuneate leaves at their bases. These are carried away by wind or water, and sprout at their margins. A similar process occurs in some tropical species of Plagiochila. European Hepaticae.J — K. Miiller publishes the sixth part of his monograph of the " Lebermoose " in Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Flora, treating of the following genera : — Riella (continuation with descriptions of five more species) ; Aneura (6 species) ; Metzgeria (4) ; Blyttia (1) ; Mbrckia (3) ; Pellia (3) ; Blasia (1) ; Petalophyllum (1) ; Fossombronia (generic description). Figures of each species are supplied. Mosses of Sussex.§ — W. E. Nicholson publishes an enumeration of . the mosses of Sussex, comprising 344 species and numerous varieties. In an introductory note he gives a sketch of the geology and physical geography of the county, a brief account of the principal bryologists who have collected in Sussex, and a list of papers in which previous records have been published. Nearly all the species in the present enumeration have been actually observed in the field by Nicholson him- self during the last fifteen years. He adds a list of 15 more species which have been found just outside the borders of the county, and may reasonably be expected to occur in Sussex itself. * Torreya, vii. (1907) pp. 225-9. t Oesterr. Bot. Zeit., lvii. (1907) pp. 454-8. % Leipzig : E. Rummer, 1908, pp. 321-84. § Hastings and East Sussex Nat., i. (1908) pp. 79-110. 2 A 2 340 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Mosses of Hampshire and Isle of Wight.* — A. B. Jackson pub- lishes a moss-flora of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, containing 220 species and several varieties. It is based partly on the earlier published records of Venables, C. B. Clarke, H. Reeks, F. T. Warner, H. N. Dixon, and sundry manuscript lists. Notes on the Harpidia.f — W. Ingham gives the results of his observations of the Harpidia in their natural habitats in the Plain of Yorkshire, and of the changes which they undergo as their environment alters from wetness to dryness, etc., during successive seasons and years. He states his conclusions as to the passing of one form into another as the deep water of a pool drains or evaporates away or completely dries up. His observations are directed to Hypnum aduncum, H.fluitans, and H. lycopodioides. European Forms of Catharinea.J — W. Krieger gives the results of his further studies of the European species of Catharinea. He main- tains that C. unduJata is not a series of separable forms, but a group of variations which pass directly into one another. Almost every visible part of the plant is variable. While C. Hausknechtii is a good species, G. pallida Peterfi must be reduced, being synonymous with G. undulata var. chlorocarpa. The author provides a key to the forms of C. undulata and the few other European species, and concludes with notes on special forms, adding a reference to two new forms of Polytrichaceas of which he has become possessed. Systematic Position of Mnium riparium.§ — R. Sebille recalls the dispute between H. Muller and W. P. Schimper forty-five years ago about the moss now known as Mnium riparium Mitt. (1864), which is distinguished from 31. serratum by the inflorescence only. 31. riparium is strictly dioicous, whilst 31. serratum is synoicous, but sometimes bears flowers which are solely female. Muller at first designated 31. riparium as 31. serratum var. dioicum, but after a controversy with Schimper he was constrained, against his own conviction, to regard the plant as a separate species. Sebille now, after a study of numerous specimens of 31. serratum confirming its marked tendency to separate its sexes, is inclined to regard 31. riparium as a dioicous form of the synoicous but variable 31. serratum, especially in view of the broader modern views as to the liability of the nature of the inflorescence to vary under the influence of climate or of the chemical constitution of the soil. He comes to the conclusion that 31. serratum is an Alpine species growing in rich humus, and that its dioicous variety, 31. riparium, is a lowland race proper to poor alluvial soil. It had previously been recorded from Germany, North Italy, Britain, and Scandinavia. And now France is added to its distribution. Swiss Mosses. || — P. Culmann describes and figures Bryum sagittal- folium, found associated with Philonotis tomentella at an altitude of * Papers and Proc. Hampshire Field Club (1907) 12 pp. (reprint). t Rev. Brvolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 35-8. \ Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) pp. 200-3. § Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 12-13. || Tom. cit., pp. 17-28 (fig.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 341 6000 ft. on the Susten. It is nearly allied to B. Duvalii. The author adds to this description an enumeration of Swiss mosses and hepatics principally gathered in the Bernese Oberland. He includes 41 hepatics and 70 mosses, appending critical notes to some of them. Hepaticse of Baden.* — K. Miiller records the additions made to the hepatic flora of Baden in 1905-6, mostly by three collectors. In all 104 species are enumerated, 10 of which are new to Baden, raising the flora to 159 species. Muscineae of the Arlberg Region.t — L. Loeske gives the bryological results of an expedition of about three weeks into the Arlberg region of Tyrol. He was accompanied by Osterwald, and they wandered well over the district, reaching heights of 2600 m., 2400 m., etc. The author does not in any way pretend that this list is exhaustive, but he merely gives the species found, and adds in some cases critical notes on other species found elsewhere. He records 88 species of hepaticse, 9 sphagna, and 264 mosses. He exhibits in parallel columns the specific differences between Philonotis marchica and P. rivularis, and discusses the effect of running water upon the leaf -cells of AmMystegium filicinum, A.fallax, and other mosses. Bryophyta of Austria and Hungary. — K. WarnstorfJ gives a sketch of the vegetation of Schreiberhau in the Riesengebirge, and includes a list of the mosses, among which are four new forms. He notifies an occurrence of Nematode galls on Jungermannia incisa, and figures the Anguillula which forms the galls. This is the second time that such galls have been recorded for the hepatics. He criticises the work of Roll in regard to certain Sphagnacese, and refers some of Roll's new species to already existing species. F. Quelle § gives a list of four Jungermanniacege and about forty Bryineas gathered in the neighbour- hood of Innsbruck and in the region of the Ortler. F. Straub || gives a list of 87 mosses gathered by him and his pupils at several Hungarian localities. I. Gyorffy % publishes notes upon Bruchia palustris var. Degenii and Dicranum scoparium var. nigrescens, both new to science and both found on the Hohe Tatra of Hungary. The genus Bruchia had never previously been recorded for Hungary. The author gives a detailed description of the first plant, with a figure and a table of measurements of the sporogonium. Genus Cephalozia in Italy.** — C. Massalongo has monographed the Italian species of Cephalozia. These are twenty-seven in number, and fall into five subgenera : — Eucephalozia (7 species), Noivellia (1), Pleuroclada (1), Cephalozietta (16), Hggrobiella (2). The species are described in full. A detailed synoptical key to them is supplied. * Beih. Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1907) Abt. 2, pp. 241-54. t Hedwigia, xlvii. (1901) pp. 156-99. j Abh. Bot. Verein. Prov. Brandenburg, xlix. (1907) pp. 159-88 (figs.). § Mitt. d. Thiir. Bot. Ver., n.f. xxi. (1906) pp. 98-100. || Noven. Kozlernen. vi. (1907) pp. 176-9, and Beibl., p. 63. % Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 38-40. ** Malpigbia, xxi. (1907) pp. 289-339. 342 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Xerophytic Mosses of the Limestone around Odessa.* — A. A. Sapehin regards the cushion-shaped tufts of mosses as an adaptation to the conditions of life in dry places, the cushions being permeated with capillary passages which enable the colony to absorb every drop of water that falls upon the tuft. Tortuous capillary passages are produced by the appression of the leaves against the stem when either dry or moist ; and the leaves often imbricate over one another. In great drought the apical leaves die, turn brown, and so protect the leaves beneath them. The hairs and papilla? of the leaf -surface serve to disperse the sun's rays that strike the plant. Spanish Species of Marchantia.f — A. Casares Gil writes of the differences between the two native Spanish species of Marchantia, M. polymorpha, and M. paleacea ; and shows how they may be distin- guished even in the barren state, especially by the shape of the inner opening of the barrel-shaped stomata. In the former species this inner opening is quadrate (porus internus quadratus), whereas in M. paleacea the inner opening is cruciate (porus internus cruciatus). These differ- ences are shown by figures. New Madeiran Moss-genus, Tetrastichium. :£ — J. Cardot gives the history of Lepidopilum fontanum Mitt., a moss which occurs in Madeira, the Azores, and the Canaries, but has hitherto been known in the sterile state only. Mitten, in describing it in 1863, established for it the sub- genus Tetrastichium, but subsequently employed that name in different sense for a group of South American mosses (Crossomitrium of C. Midler). Cardot having now had the opportunity of examining a Teneriffe specimen of L. fontanum with a single old deoperculate capsule, which is horizontal, short, asymmetrical, inflated below, shows that the plant belongs to neither Lepidopilum nor Crossomitrium, but has more affinity with Hookeria lucens. He therefore designates it as Tetrastichium fontanum, the representative of a new genus. It is not closely allied to Lepidopilum virens Card., an Azores species with 8-ranked leaves, which probably is a true Lepidopilum. Tetrastichium is the second endemic moss-genus recorded for the Atlantic Islands, the other being Alophosia Card., a Polytrichaceous genus. North American Muscineae. — E. G. Britton § publishes notes on nomenclature, and calls attention to Hypopterygium canadense Kindb., a member of a tropical or subtropical genus which does not occur north of Mexico and Cuba, except in case of the above species, which grows in Queen Charlotte Island, British Columbia. This is an anomalous instance of distribution of a tropical genus, which finds its parallel in the occurrence of Hookeria laetevirens at Killarney. A. J. Grout || enumerates 133 mosses collected in the mountains of western North Carolina in the summer of 1907. H. X. Dixon's paperlf on Nematode * Bull. Jard. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourg, vii. (1907) pp. 81-4 (figs.). t Boletin R. Soc. Espanola Hist. Nat., viii. (1908) pp. 107-112 (figs.). % Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 6-7. § Bryologist, xi. (1908) pp. 24-5. || Tom. cit., pp. 25-30. T Tom. cit., p. 31. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 343 Galls on Mosses (Journ. of Bot., Sept. 1905) is reprinted. C. C. Haynes * has compiled a list of helpful literature for students of North American hepaticae, being principally the papers of A. W. Evans, M. A. Howe, and L. M. Underwood. Hepaticae of Puerto Rico.f — A. W. Evans, continuing his studies of the hepaticae of Puerto Rico, publishes his eighth article upon the Lejeunese, in which he treats of the genera Symbiezidium, Marchesinia, Mastigolejeunea, Caudalejeunea, and Bryopteris. Symbiezidium is a revived name, first published by Trevisan in 1877, and now utilised by Evans to replace Platylejeunea Spruce. Four species of Symbiezidium are treated of in the present paper. The genus Marchesinius was first employed in 1821 to contain the species Jungermannia Mackaii ; and the synonyms which have usually replaced it are Phragmicoma Dumort. (1822) and Homalolejeunea Spruce. Evans follows Trevisan and Schiffner in reviving Gray's genus with a feminine termination, and treats of one species. Mastigolejeunea is represented by one species in Puerto Rico, and Caudalejeunea by one species only, the author being of opinion that the five so-called American species are simply forms of a single one. Finally, one species of Bryopteris occurs in Puerto Rico. The author carefully redescribes in detail and figures or annotates the species of which he treats. Tropical American Mosses.} — R. S. Williams publishes some lists of determinations, namely, twenty Colombian and two Guatemalan mosses collected by H. Pittier, and eleven Cuban mosses collected by W. R. Maxon. Among them are descriptions of four new species. West African Mosses.§ — E. G. Paris gives a list of thirty-eight mosses collected by Pobeguin in Fouta-Djallon in French West Africa. Among them are thirteen species new to science. Appended are deter- minations by F. Stephani of six hepatics from the same collection. Hepaticae of New Caledonia and Tonkin. || — F. Stephani gives descriptions of tweuty new species of hepatics, seventeen of which were collected in New Caledonia and three in Tonkin by Le Rat and his wife. Japanese Hepatics.^ — A. W. Evans gives an account of twelve hepatics from the province of Tosa in Japan, most of them being new records for Japan. Seven of them are described in detail and figured, and five of them are new to science. The Japanese hepatics are of unusual interest, and already more than 250 species have been recorded. These are partly of northern, partly of southern type, as might be expected in view of the many degrees of latitude over which Japan extends. At least two endemic genera are found there, Gaviculuriu Steph. and Makinoa Miyake, both monotypic. And a number of species * Bryologist, xi. (1908) pp. 32-3. t Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxiv. (1907) pp. 533-68 (4 pis.). I Tom. cit., pp. 569-74. § Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 1-6. || Tom. cit., pp. 28-35. \ Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., viii. (1906) pp. 141 -66 (3 pis.). 344 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO occur in Japan which, though referable to well-known genera, present peculiarities so anomalous as to necessitate a revision or amplification of the original generic characters. Muscinese of China and Indo-China.* — E. 6. Paris publishes his seventh article on the Muscineae of Eastern Asia, comprising fifteen mosses gathered by the missionaries Courtois and Henry in China, in the provinces of Ngan-Hoei and Kiang-Sou ; twenty-four collected by Eberhardt in a very humid climate in the south-east of Tonkin ; and twenty-five collected by the scientific exploring mission of Indo-China in Laos upon the Than-Hoa-Luang-Prabang road, which follows the parallel 19° 40' lat. N. In all thirty-one species new to science are de- scribed, and appended are descriptions of two new species of Calymperes obtained from Panama and New Caledonia. Finally, F. Stephani sup- plies a list of five species of Hepatic* from Laos. Indian Bryophyta. — E. Levierf publishes some corrections of mosses issued in his " Bryotheca Exotica," Series I. (l'J07). J. F. Duthie $ has revised and supplemented Sir Richard Strachey's "Catalogue of the Plants of Kumaon." On pp. 234-242 is an enumeration of 102 mosses and 18 hepatics collected by Strachey and Winterbottom in 1846-9 in Kumaon and neighbouring districts, and determined by Mitten. E. Levier,§ commenting upon Strachey's Catalogue, adds a personal note upon the great services rendered to bryology by J. F. Duthie when superintendent of the Saharnnpur Gardens, and by his successor, W. Gollan, now deceased. These two, by their own efforts and by the employment of English and Indian collectors, amassed considerable quantities of Bryophyta from the North-West Provinces, Tibet, the Eastern Himalayas, the Central Provinces, and even from Upper Burma. Kabir Khan, in particular, has shown himself to be a specially successful and energetic collector, having found several new species, and having ascended to an altitude of 19,000 ft. to obtain some rarities. Sapehin, A. A. — TJeber das Leuchten der Prothallien von Pteris serrulata. (Con- cerning the luminosity of the prothallium of Pteris ser- rulata.) [The cause of this phenomenon is the same as in the moss Schistostega osmundacea, viz. refraction of light by the cells.] Bull. Jard. Imp. Bot. St. Pt>tersbourg, vii. (1907) pp. 85-8. „ „ Die Ursachen der Wasserfiillung der Sacke von Lebermoosen. (The causes which bring about the filling of the sacs of hepaticse with water.) [The author raises objections to the experiments of Goebel, and demonstrates that hepaticse when moistened suck water into their sacs in con- sequence of the increase in their volume.] Tom. cii.,pp. 113-1G (1 fig.). * Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 40-55. f Tom. cit., p. 13. I London : Lovell Reeve and Co, 1906, p. 269. § Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 14-15. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 345 Thallophyta. Algae. (By Mrs. E. S. Gepp.) Marine Algae of the Channel Islands.* — H. van Heurck has pub- lished a marine flora of these islands, founded on his own collections and those of Piquet, White, Cattlow, Bovier-Lapierre, Marquand, and others. After each species is given the list of localities in the islands where it occurs, as well as a rough indication of the part of the French coast from the Belgian frontier to Brest, whence it has been recorded. References to literature, exsiccatee and illustrations are also given. One new species is described and figured, Epilithon van HeurcTcii Heydrich, which grows on Aglaosphenia. Following the enumeration of species is a systematic table of genera, and finally a complete index with a certain number of synonyms. The present work is only an abbreviated form of a more important work on the subject which the author hopes to publish later, containing descriptions and figures, in the style of the Traite cles Diatomees. An article dealing with the geology and history of the Channel Islands, by E. T. Xicolle, adds to the interest of the books. Algae of Danzig Bay.j — Lakowitz publishes the results of his study of this district during the last twenty years, based mainly on his own collections. Neither Diatoms nor Flagellates are included, and the work deals only with Rhodophyceee, Phreophycese, Chlorophyceae (including CharaceEe), and Cyanophyceae. Certain new forms are described and one new species, Goniotrichum simplex. Keys are given for the genera, and the species are described in German, followed by critical remarks, notes as to habitat, and geographical distribution. Many of the species are figured in the text. The second part of the work deals with the conditions of vegetation in the Bay of Danzig, and describes the dis- trict, discussing the limits, conditions at various depths, the geological composition of the substratum, the history of its origin, salinity, and temperature, and the prevailing winds and ocean currents. In a description of the vegetation the author treats of the component parts of the vegetation, its horizontal distribution inside the Bay, distribution in depth, the position of the flora of the Bay as regards geographical distribution, the probable origin of the flora, and the importance of algal vegetation as a factor in marine life. Fucaceae of Japan. % — K. Yendo publishes the complete account of his studies on this subject, a preliminary notice of which appeared in 1905. The author has had considerable difficulty in identifying some of the species from the wholly inadequate descriptions of earlier authors, and out of the thirty-nine species of Sargassum hitherto regarded as belonging to the Japanese flora only eighteen seem to him to be valid. In a section of the book devoted to " Distribution of Fucaceous Algae * Society Jersiaise, Labey et Blarnpied, St. Helier (1908) xii. and 120 pp. t Algenflora der Danziger Bucht. Leipzig : Engelmann (1907), 141 pp., 70 figs. X Journ. Coll. Sci. Imper. Univ. Tokyo, xxi. (1907) 174 pp. (18 pis.). 346 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO on the Coast of Japan," the author discusses the two prevailing currents along the Japanese coasts, which may lie briefly described as a warm and a cold current. The courses of these are described, and it is shown that they amply account for the remarkable climatic differences at places having the same latitude. The author draws up a table of distribution of all the species of Fucacese, showing how fifty-nine species are dis- tributed among forty-six different localities on the Japan Sea, the Ochotsk Sea, and the Pacific. Then follow critical notes to all the species and varieties. The novelties are Coccophora ? Imperata, Sargassum setaceum, several other species of Sargassum, and a new genus, Ishige, with species /. OJcamurai, founded on Pelvetia Babingtonii Okam. Eighteen large plates complete this valuable work on the Japanese Fncaceae. Nereocystis and Pelagophycus.* — W. A. Setchell has made a study of the two alga?, N. Luetkeana and Pelagophycus giganteus, and sets forth his results. He discusses the views of Frye as to the length to which the former species may attain, 21 m., and is more inclined to believe Mertens, who gives 90 m. as the extreme length of the thallus. The longest specimen ever seen by the author was 41 m. long. It is often found growing anchored by its holdfasts to other members of Laminariaceae, particularly to Pterggophora califomica. Setchell differs from Frye as to the duration of life of the individual plant, and states his opinion that N. Luetkeana is an annual plant. The early stages appear in February or March, and the plant passes through its growth and fruiting by November, disappearing in December or January. The author then turns to Pelagophycus, and quotes some extracts from old authors of the -eighteenth century alluding to a marine plant called Porra. One of these, Le Gentil, in " Voy. dans les Mers de l'lnde," Paris, 1781, gives an excellent drawing of Porra, which shows it to be the Pelagophycus giganteus Aresch. The name is therefore altered in the present paper to P. Porra, and the reasons of the author for maintaining Pelagophycus as a separate genus are given. Colpomenia sinuosa in Britain.f — A. D. Cotton records the first appearance of this alga on the shores of Britain. It has been found by himself at Swanage and by Holmes at Torquay during last year. Up to within the last few years it was not known further north than Cadiz, but since then it has migrated up the French coast, where it causes great anxiety to the oyster cultivators, as it interferes seriously with the oysters in a manner described by various French authors, and noticed in past numbers of this Journal. The present author points out the external likeness between Colpomenia sinuosa and Leathesia difformis. In structure, however, C. sinuosa may be distinguished by the thinner, non-gelatinous walls and by the structure, which is cellular, and not filamentous.. Leathesia also is usually irregularly lobed, even when quite young, and has a resiliency which is lacking in Colpomenia. Figures are given of the structure of both species. * Bot. Gazette., xiv. (1908) pp. 125-34. t Kew Bulletin, 1908, No. 2, pp. 73-7 (3 figs.). See also Journ. Bot., xlvi. (1908) pp. 82-3. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 347 Dasycladaceae of the Danish West Indies.* — F. Borgesen gives an account of the species of Dasycladaceae collected by him in the Danish West Indies. The first species is Neomeris anaulata Dickie, of which he describes and figures variations in the form and size of the sporangia. The plant occurs both on sheltered and exposed coasts, and seems to be rather common. Batophora Oerstedi is next discussed, and the author agrees with M. A. Howe in considering the name Batophora must hold good instead of Botryophora. Acetubalaria caliculus is fully described and treated of, and its identity with A. Suhrii is regarded as fairly established. A. crenulata and Acicularia Schenhii are also recorded. Tetmemorus in New England.f — J. A. Cushman records for New England the four species of this genus known from the British Isles. In New England the plants occur mostly in sphagnum pools, and seem to be more common at an elevation, being found very abundantly in certain mountain ponds with sphagnous borders. A description and the corrected synonymy for each species is given and measurements taken from New England specimens. A key to the New England Tetmemorus describes shortly the differences between the species.. Lower Chlorophyceaa.} — B. Gerneck has made cultivations of a considerable number of the lower Chlorophyceas, which he gathered in ditches, etc., in the neighbourhood of Gottingen. In the introduction to his paper on the subject, he describes in detail the methods he employed in obtaining his cultures, while in the special part which follows he gives the results of his work in connection with each special organism, and describes new genera and species. In the second or general part the author discusses such questions as the influence of light and temperature, that of the substratum of the culture, and of higher concentration of nutritive solutions in connection with his results ; also the influence of the culture medium on the manner of growth and on the formation of gelatin, as well as the production of reserve material. He then describes the transition to resting stages in the older cultures, the formation of involution cells under conditions of exhausted soil, the formation of swarm-spores and the methods of bringing this about, and the occur- rence of gametes. Copulation was only observed in two species of Cystococcus, and did not take place in ChJorosarrina minor nor Gbrocystis vesiculosa, which possesses zoospores generally regarded as sexual. The author regards the appearance of akinetes and aplanospores as being probably the result of a lack of nutritive salt in the culture substratum. Finally a list is given of the literature consulted. Diatoms in an Aquarium. §— H. Peragallo has examined the diatoms growing in an aquarium at Banyuls which had been left untouched for five years, and he states that he has rarely met so interesting a collection. Among the 63 species and 9 varieties, only two are surface epiphytes, which were probably introduced at the time of washing, previous to examination. The predominating species in the aquarium vary very * Bot. Tidssk., xxviii. (190S) pp. 271-83 (9 figs, in text), t Bull. Torrev Bot. Club, xxxiv. (1907) pp. 599-601. X Beih. Bot. Centralbl., xxi. (1907) pp. 221-90 (2 tables). § C.R Soc. Biol. Paris, Ixiv. (1908) pp. 99-100. 348 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO much in their mode of life ; many of them showing the character of species unattached and influenced by currents. Others are bottom forms, which are sometimes met with in plankton, such as Coscinodisca.* Ocnlus- Iridis, C. gigas, Biddulphia membranacea, and Auricula insecta. Other bottom species, such as Actinoptychvs Moelleri, are rare in this collection, while others, such as Auricula insecta, Navicula dalmatica, and Rhoicosigma compactum, are abundant. One of the most interesting species is Gephyria media Arnott, a tropical Californian form, of which three examples were present. The author is of opinion that the diatoms of the original dredging have lived and multiplied during the six years in the aquarium, where the conditions of light and temperature were favourable. Fossil Diatoms.* — A. Forti gives a list of the species found by him in samples taken from the Miocene deposits of Bergonzano (Reggio d'Emilia). He intends to publish later a full account of the collection, with diagnoses of new species. The present communication mentions only the commoner and more easily recognised species. The most part of the material consists of characteristic fragments of Coscinodiscus gazellce Janisch, few of the specimens being entire. Rose-colour in Species of Myxophyceae.t — C. Sauvageau has made some experiments on rose-coloured species of Myxophyceas, with a view to studying their phycocyanin. Specimens of Lyngbya sordida Gom. were obtained at a depth of about 6 to S metres, which were as red as Erythrotrichia or Chantransia ; and these were treated with fresh-water, or fresh -water mixed with ether, which caused the cells to increase markedly in length and diminish in width. As a result of his experi- ments, the author finds that marine species of Lyngbya, and probably also of other Myxophycese which have a slender rigid sheath, treated with fresh-water and ether, form excellent material for a spectroscopic study of the dissolution of phycocyanin ; and the swollen cells, with a non-permeable cell-wall, would be an interesting study from a cytological point of view. The pigment of the rose-coloured Myxophyceae studied replaces that which gives them their usual colour, and arises from its transformation. In another note, the author remarks on the red Oscillarieae observed in an aquarium of the laboratory at Banyuls-sur-mer, and he comes to the conclusion that one of the influences, probably the principal one, which causes their red colour is attenuation of light — in fact, they turn red to save their lives, and the " complementary chromatic adaptation " of Engelmann and Gaidukov has no part in it. They form dwarf individuals, and in an aquarium they keep their red colour as if they were a well characterised race, and prosper. The aquarium in question had been untouched for five years, and the list of algse found flourish- ing in it includes species of Chlorophycese, Phajophyceas, and Floridese. Pigment of Oscillatoria Cortiana.J — L. Bocat has made a study of the spectrum of red plants of 0. Cortiana, comparing it with that of * Nuov. Notar.. xix. (1908) (Reprint). t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 95-9. \ Tom. cit., pp. 101-2. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 349 phycocyanin and phycoerythrin, and he finds that the spectra of these two substances and that of the pigment of 0. Cortiana are related but not identical. The normal pigment of that species has not been studied ; but the author is of opinion that when the red colour is assumed by the plant, it is no longer able to assimilate in orange radiations, but uses, like Flor ideas, green radiations. He comes to this conclusion, while granting that the action of the ether has helped to disperse the absorp- tion band of the orange. Bands i., ii., and hi. of 0. Cortiana correspond approximately to the third, fourth, and fifth bands of chlorophyll, where assimilation is very feeble. Plankton of Mofjord.* — E. Jorgensen gives some interesting results of his investigations of the natural conditions of Mofjord, which is the innermost part of a long narrow fjord in the neighbourhood of Bergen. The water reaches a depth of 217 in., and is rather fresh on the surface, varying however from 1-20 mille in salinity, according to the quantity received from streams. The greatest thickness of this sheet of fresh- water is about 10-12 m. Statistics of the salinity and distribution of gases below this sheet are given. The plankton in the upper layers (0-35 m.) is very rich, while below that only empty frustules occur as a rule. The dominant species are : GJmtoceras curvisetum, Sceletonema costatum, and Ceratium spp. A few fresh-water forms, Melosira varians, Surirella ovata, and Tabellaria flocculosa, have been noted, more or less scattered. Indian Ocean Phytoplankton.! — CI. Karsten publishes the last part of his account of the phytoplankton collected on the ' Valdivia ' Expe- dition in 1898-9, and the whole work is a valuable and important con- tribution to the study of those organisms. In the present contribution he gives (1) lists of the species which were found in the different hauls in the Indian Oeean ; (2) a systematic part, and (3) a general part. In the systematic part all the species found in the Indian Ocean are de- scribed ' and figured, except such as had been treated in previous con- tributions. Among the diatoms one genus, 35 species, and 6 varieties are new, and of Peridineae 15 species and 6 varieties. In the general part all questions relating to the investigation of plankton are dis- cussed in the light of the new results obtained by the ' Valdivia ' Ex- pedition. The author regards the Indian Ocean as a more or less compact floral unity, and the differences which he observed he considers as the result of a greater or less intermixing of neritic forms. The vertical distribution of the phytoplankton is not markedly different from that of the Antarctic region. The greater number of the algai occur above a depth of 200 in., generally between 60-100 in., while below 400 m. only isolated living cells are found. On the surface live the Schizophyceas and the long-horned light Geratia ; then follow C/mtoceras peruvianum and chains of the lighter species of Rhizosolenia, then the more compact Geratia amphisolenia, the large-celled RhizosoUnia, and the remaining species of G/mtoceras. This is the vertical order down to * Trondjem kgl. norske Vidensk. Selskskrift, 1906, No. 9 (1907) 40 pp. t Wiss. Ergeb. Deutsch. Tiefsee Exped. ' Valdivia.' 1898-99, ii. 2 (Jena. 1907) pp. 223-548 (20 pis.). See also Bot. Zeit., lxvi. (1908) pp. 87-101. ? 350 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 60, 80, and 100 m. Then the actual mass of organisms is less until the " shade-flora " begins, composed of Planktoniella, Valdiviella, Goscino- discus, Antelmindlia, and Halosphmra, which forms a fairly dense vegeta- tion to about 150 m., occasionally even to 200 m. From thence down- wards to 400 m. there is a gradual decrease of cells, and below that depth there are only colourless cells of Peridiiiiinn, Phalacroma, and Diplopsalis. In the lowest depths is found only the rain of dead cells falling to the bottom from the upper strata. The author compares the Indian Ocean phytoplankton with that of the Atlantic, and finds that the warmer regions are characterised by numerous species of diatoms and Peridinere, which are, however, represented by few individuals. As regards vertical distribution of species and quantity, it is the same as that of the Indian Ocean. Special chapters are devoted to neritic and oceanic phytoplankton ; ocean currents and phytoplankton ; quantitative distribution, and its dependence on external factors ; occurrence of vertical currents and their influence ; the different nutritive matters, etc. Other important questions, such as the microspores, the systematic inter- relation of centric and pennate diatoms, the phylogeny of Rhizosolenia, etc., are discussed. Beguinot, A., & L. Fobmiggini — Ricerche ed osservazioni sopra aloune entita vicarianti nelle Characee della Flora Italiana. (Researches and observations on certain vicarious entities in the Characese of the Italian flora.] Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1907, pp. 100-16. Hernandez-Pachecho, E. — Consideraciones respecto a la organizacion, genero de vida y manera de fosilizarse algunos organismos dudosos de la epoca silurica y estudio de las especies de algas y huellas de gusanos arenicolas del sihirico inferior de Alcuescar (Caceres). (Considerations respecting the organisation, mode of life, and manner of fossilisation of some doubtful organisms of the Silurian period, and a study of the species of algse and casts of arenicolous worms of the Lower Silurian of Alcuescar in the province of Caceres.] Bol. R. Soc. Espafiola Hist. Nat., viii. (1908) pp. 75-91 (4 pis.). Mazza, A.— Saggio di Algologia oceanica. (A study of oceanic algology.) [A continuation.] Nuov. Notar., xix. (1908) pp. 1-24. Fungi. (By A. Lorbain Smith, F.L.S.) New Species of Achlya.* — J. D. Pemberton describes this new fungus, which was found in a culture of Saprolegnia, etc., taken from a small brook. It is characterised by the presence of antheridia, which arise immediately below the oogonium ; the fertilising tube rises from the septa that divides the oogonium from the antheridium. Cultures of the new species were made on small gnats in hanging drops, and the whole development was followed with ease. Hydnocystis Thwaitesii.f — T. Petch has collected a number of specimens of this rare fungus, and gives a revised and full account of it. The species looks somewhat like a Peziza, and grows on decaying wood. It is a Peziza without a disk : there is a thick wall only, of a cup-like * Bot. Gazette, slv. (1908) pp. 194-6 (6 figs.), f Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) p. 473-5 (1 fig.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 351 shape ; the wall is of three parts ; outer and inner of varying thickness, and, inclosed in a cavity between them, the fertile layer of asci and hyaline, elliptic, smooth spores. The author considers this species to belong to Genea, one of the Tuberinere. Pyronema confluens.* — P. Claussen has had occasion to examine this Ascomycete, and he has come to the conclusion that there is no fusion of nuclei in the ascogoniuni such as Harper described. The male nuclei pass from the antheridium to the ascogonium, but do not fuse ; they lie side by side until the ascus stage is reached, and the fusion of nuclei there, considered to be a second fusion, is really the first fusion of the conjugate nuclei. Claussen thinks that this will prove to be the case in all of the ascomycetous forms, and that fusion in the ascus is a belated sexual fusion between male and female nuclei. He cites cases of de- layed fusion to illustrate his discovery. Fruit-development in Aspergillus Fischeri.j — M. Domaradsky has undertaken an examination of this species, and publishes some pre- liminary notes. He was able from the ascospore to grow the mycelium and conidiophores in a hanging-drop culture. Mycelium and conidio- phores are white ; the fruit is slightly yellowish. Following the de- velopment of the ascus fruit, he found on one of the hyphge a twisted branch, occasionally forming a perfect screw, multinucleate, and at first non-septate, becoming septate at a later stage . No organ corresponding to an antheridium was detected, and he concludes that some kind of sexual act has taken place in the twisted hypha, resulting in the associa- tion of two nuclei. The enveloping hyphas in this species do not arise from the hyphas nearest to the "screw": from those at some distance fine branches arise that grow towards the " screw," and finally form the peridium. Notes on some Species of Erysiphacese from India. J — E. S. Salmon describes some infection experiments made with Erysiphe gra- in inis from India. The host-plant was Tritict/m vulgare, and plants of the same species and of Hordeum vulgare were inoculated with the oidiospores and with the ascospores. The infection was successful only with the Triticum plants. Salmon was successful in slightly infecting some plants of Hordeum silvaticum with the same oidiospores ; but the experiments proved that Erysiphe graminis occurring in India on wheat is a biologic form, as it is in Europe. He describes a new species of Uncimda, growing on teak. Seuratia and Capnodium.§ — Paul Yuillemin draws a comparison between these two genera of fungi, species of which were found grow- ing together. They are both Ascomycetes ; the former is rather of the nature of a Discomycete ; the species 8. coffekola was found in Java along with Capnodiwm, on leaves of the coffee-plant ; the two fungi * Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxv. (1907) pp. 586-90 (1 fig.). t Op. cit., xxvi. (1908) pp. 14-16. % Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 476-9. § Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 307-8. 3">2 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO were so closely associated that it was difficult to assign to each its own developmental stages. The author compares the association to that found in lichens between alga and fungus. Origin of Yeasts.*— Following Viala and Pacottet, G. Bonnier has cultivated Glceosporium nerviaeijuum to try and reproduce, as they did, a yeast-form. He succeeded, after various failures, in securing a pure culture, and the characteristic conidia and pycnidia already observed by Klebahn ; but after eight months' continual growth on various sub- stances, he has never found any yeast torulation nor any endospore formation. He is thus forced to conclude that Viala and Pacottet must have had some impurity in their culture, and that yeast, as before, must be regarded as an autonomous plant. Biological Study of Glceosporium.f — E. Lasnier selected for ex- periment two saprophytic species of this genus, G. Cattleym, which grows on decaying lea\es of the orchid Cattleya, and 67. Musarum, which attacks bananas. He grew the mycelium and spores in different media, and records the effect produced in each case. He found that forms of fructification were developed that are unknown in natural conditions : conidia of a hyphomycetous type were produced at the tips of mycelial branches at the extremities of closely-packed tufts of hyphse, or peri- thecia were formed. These variations were entirely due to the medium in which they were grown. Sugars were found to favour spore forma- tion ; yeasts were not observed ; alkalies in small quantities did not affect the growth of the fungus, but acids retarded, or in stronger quantities completely checked, development. Hyphomycetes4 — The part just issued by G-. Lindau is largely occupied by the description of species of the parasitic genus Gercospora. Other genera with brown septate spores are dealt with, and the curious genus Sporochisma, which forms its spores inside the hyphai. The Pha3odictya3 have been commenced, and one genus, Coniothecium, has been described. As before, there are many illustrations, especially of Gercosporce,. Uredinese. — TV. Tranzschel § gives results of twelve series of experi- ments. He has been able in several cases to associate different forrns of the life-cycle. He contrasts Puccinia obtusata and P. Isiacce ; with the spores of the latter he infected a large number of plants in different natural orders, producing the JEcidium form. J. C. Arthur || publishes diagnoses of fifteen new species of UredineaB, all of them from the American continent or neighbouring islands. B. Pole Evans % has undertaken a study of the histology of the " cereal rusts," P. graminis, P. rubigo-vera, and P. coronata, and the first paper deals with the mycelium of the uredo form, which in an early * Comptes Rendus, clxvi. (1908) pp. 704-7. t Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiw (1908) pp. ?7- 43 (3 pis.). X Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Flora, i. Abt. 9, lief 107 (Leipzig, 1908) pp. 113-76. § Trav. Mus. Bot. Acad. Sci. St. Petersbourg, iii. (1907) pp. 37-55. See also Hedwigia, Beibl., xlvii. (1908) pp. 126-8. || Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxiv. (1907) pp. 5S3-92. i Ann. Bot., xxi. (1907) pp. 441-66 (3 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 353 stage shows distinctive rnorphologica characters, the substomatal vesicle and the haustoria differing according to the hosts. The work is being carried ont at the Transvaal Department of Agriculture. Rudolf Bock * has made an exhaustive study of several species of Uredineae to test the existence of biological forms. In Puccinia Gentiance he failed to prove specialisation, though several species of Gentiana were immune to the fungus ; also some species that were free from rust in the open were easily induced to grow the fungus. With Uromyces Geranii he found that there were several of the hosts recorded that could not be infected by the spores he was cultivating, indicating probable specialisation ; the rusts found on all of the hosts were morphologic- ally identical. Puccinia viola, was also studied, and it was found that another species, P. depauperans, also grew on Viola lutea, V. tricolor, and V. cornuta, which are thus collective hosts. Experiments were made with P. obtusata, which is very similar to P. Isiacee, as already noted by Tranzschel, but probably forms its JEcidia on a much more restricted range of hosts. Infection by Smut Fungi. t, — There are two methods of infection described for Ustilago : in one the seedling plants are infected, in another it is the flower that is attacked. Ludwig Hecke finds that there is a third method by which the fungus enters the host, which he calls " shoot " infection. In perennial plants the old stump can be infected, and the new shoots in time produce smutted heads : this was proved in Urocystis occulata on Secede cereale. Poisoning due to Amanita Phalloides4 — M. Menier describes two cases of poisoning caused by eating this fungus, one of them fatal. He publishes a complete account of the remedies used to counteract the poison, which were successful in one case, though the patient was more or less indisposed for a month thereafter. A note is added from C. B. Plowright on the poisoning of a family at Ipswich in the autumn of 1907. Polymorphism of Hymenomycetes.§ — G. F. Lyman has made a large series of artificial cultures of some of the larger fungi, many of which possess some secondary method of reproduction. He proved that JEgerita Candida is the conidial form of an undescribed Peniophora, to which he gives the name P. Candida, and Miclienera artocreas a secondary growth of Corticium subgiganteum. Incidentally he proved the autonomy of Lentodium squamulosum, considered by some to be an abnormal form of Lentinus tigriuiis. He grew the fungus from the spore, the mature fruiting body reproducing all the characters of Lentodium. In many of the cultures he found that the first mycelium grown from the spores was composed of slender hyphre without clamp connections and bearing conidiophores ; at a later stage stouter hyplue with clamp connections and no condiophores were formed. * Centralbl. Bakt., xx. (1908) pp. 564-92. t Zeitschr. landw. Versuch. Oesterr., 1907. pp. 572-4. See also Centralbl. Bakt., xx. (1908) p. 625. J Bull. Soc. Mvcol. France, xxiv. (1908) pp. 68-72. § Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xxxiii. (1907) pp. 125-209. See also Bot. Gazette, xlv. (1908) p. 207. June 17th, 1908 2 b 354 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Phalloids. — C. (J. Lloyd* has giveD an account so far as yet known of the genera and species of this group of fungi in Australia. They include species of eight genera, and photographs are reproduced of plates already published. He classifies them under sections, with (1) simple stem, (2) lobed, (3) columnar, and (4) clathrate, each section containing two or more genera. An account is given of the species in the different herbaria, where and by whom they were collected. In Mycological Notes t Lloyd publishes various critical remarks on Mutinus, Phallus, Lysurus, Clathrus, etc., with figures either from nature or from authentic drawings. Lloyd has gathered together much information that is interesting and useful about these plants. Witches' Brooms of the South Midlands.;}; — J. Saunders finds that in most cases the exciting cause of brooms on trees is a parasitic fungus. The phenomena associated therewith are, usually, crumpling of the foliage and barrenness and brevity of life of the twigs : the leaves fall early, the twigs live for only one or two seasons, so that a full-grown broom contains numerous dead twigs entangled with the new growth. A list of trees is given on which brooms have been observed ; the exciting fungus in spruce fir was a species of Puccinia, in all the other cases a species of Exoascus. On hornbeam and birch, brooms are caused by Exoascus and also by a mite, but on the latter tree he states that the brooms due to the mite are diminutive in size and are outgrowths from diseased buds ; the large well-known birch broom is caused by Exoascus. Action of Fungi on Cellulose. § — H. C. Schellenberg has made a prolonged study of this subject by growing selected fungi, parasites or semi-parasites, on various plant substances. Two kinds of cellulose had been distinguished : true cellulose which is only soluble in boiling acid, and hemicellulose, which yields to more or less weak acid solutions. The author explains how he grew the fungi, and describes the substances with which he experimented. Among grasses he selected Molinia co&ruka, as rich in hemicellulose ; seeds of Lupinus hirsutus, with less soluble hemicellulose ; date-kernels still more resistant to acids, and seeds of Tmpatiens and Cyclamen, which contain amyloids. The selected fungi were several species of Mucor, Rhizopus nigricans, Thamnidium eUgans, Penicillium, Botrytis, Nectria, Cladosporium, etc. These fungi, though very different in their action, were capable of dissolving the hemi- cellulose in one or another of the plants presented to them, though they showed a quite remarkable specialisation in this respect. Vuillemin distinguishes four different ferments : Molinia-, Lupinus-, Phmnix-, and Tmpatiens-cjtase, by means of which the fungi attack and destroy the different kinds of hemicellulose. True cellulose remained intact, and this he considers due to its chemical constitution. He also discusses the action of bacteria on cellulose and their ferments. Incidentally he draws a distinction between the behaviour of Botrytis cinerea and B. vulgaris, the latter being more active : he thinks this decides that they * Cincinnati, U.S.A., July 1907, 24 pp., 25 figs. f Mycological Notes, No. 28 (Cincinnati, U.S.A., Oct. 1907) pp. 349-64 (19 figs.). X Journ. Bot., xlvi. (1908) pp. 116-19. § Flora, xcviii. (1908) pp. 257-308. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 355 represent two distinct species. The conclusion is drawn that fungi are more active in the breaking-up of plant remains than we had realised, and that the different fungi are not able to attack plants indiscriminately, but are strongly specialised in this respect. Sexuality in Fungi. — I. Gallaud * brings to an end his review of work done on this subject. In the present contribution he describes Blackmail's and Christman's work on Uredinere, and contrasts their results with Maire's work on the Basidiomycetes. Dangeard and Sapin- Trouffy consider the fusion of nuclei in the basidium and the teleutospore to be fertilisation, analogous with that of the higher plants. Maire, on the contrary, considers that this fusion is comparable to chromatic reduction, and is in no sense sexual fusion. A. Guilliermond f begins a review of recent work on the same subject in the Ascomycetes. Among the hemiasci he quotes from work done by Mile. Popta on Protomyces and Ascoidea ; the latter she retains among the hemiasci, the former belongs rather to the Phycomycetes. The results and theories of Dangeard, Juel, Barker, Ikeno, and Kuyper are also considered. They studied different members of this troublesome group, the point in dispute being the nature of the spore capsule, whether it is to be regarded as a sporangium or an ascus. Dangeard connects the hemiasci with the Chytridiaceae, which he regards as the ancestors of the Ascomycetes, the latter being derived from the sexual sporangium, while the hemiasci have arisen from the asexual sporangium. Juel removes Taphridium from the Exoascea3, and places it also among the hemiasci ; the so-called ascus of this genus develops similarly to the sporangium of Protomyces. Monascus, an allied genus, has been placed by Kuyper in a new group of Endoasceas on account of the formation of asci in the interior of the oogonium. Notes on American Fungi. f — W. G. Farlow found growing in Vermont, and now describes as Tremella reticulata, a fungus previously published as a Gorticium. From a solid gelatinous base there rose to the height of 3 inches or more masses of white jelly ; branches arose from a common base, anastomosing below, reticulated, and becoming free upwards ; he found in it the typical Tremella basidia and spores. Further notes are given on Synchytrium pluriannulatum and Puccini- astrum arcticum. Mycological Notes. § — C. G. Lloyd has recently issued a number of papers bearing on the larger fungi. In Nos. 29 and 30 he discusses some Phalloids and some of the Polyporea3, notably Fomes niyricans, as he finds that two plants are included under that name. The second paper deals with further examples of Phalloids and Lycoperdons. A third paper is devoted to a consideration of the Nidulariaceae, with plates 102-11 ; descriptions of the genera and species are given. A beginning has been made with the study of the Polyporese, and Lloyd gives us " Polyporoid issue, No. 1," containing a number of forms of * Rev. Gen. Bot., xix. (1907) pp. 556-9 (6 figs). t Op. cit., xx. (1908) pp. 32-9 (12 figs.). \ Coutrib. Crypt. Lab. Harvard Univ., lxv. (1907) 17 pp. § Mycological Notes, Cincinnati, Jan. and Feb. 1908. •1 B 2 356 SUMMARY OE CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Polystictus of the perennis group and an account of Polyporus Schweinitzii, and again a note on Fomes nigricans, with photographic reproductions of the two forms in question. There are many figures throughout these works, of which the numbers are continuous with previous issues, though a new pagination of the test begins with the Polyporoid issue. Mycological Fragments : iii.* — Franz von Hohnel continues his work on systematic mycology, passing under review many published forms, and examining new material. In these notes he publishes four new genera : Protodontia (Treruellacese) ; Wettsteinina (Dothiseacege), with a single 8-spored ascus, which he places in a new family, Pseudo- sphaeriaceaB ; Pseudospharia, also with one ascus, but with muriform spores ; and SphmrodermeUa. He describes a large number of new species from the neighbourhood of Vienna, and a second series from Samoa. He gives also critical notes of various known forms : Bombardia fasci- culata is placed by him among the Sordarieas, and these he divides into two groups, according to the thickness of the perithecial wall. Dcpdalia quercina he has decided must be included in Lenzites quercina, the former name having been given to a less developed form. Diseases of Plants. — Attention is called f to Gooseberry Black- Knot, a fungus that attacks the stems and larger branches of the gooseberry and red and black currant. The first indication of the disease is the wilting and yellowing of the leaves, which fall early in the season. The fungus Plowrightia ribesia is a wound parasite, and cannot pierce an uninjured surface. D. V. Hegyi $ describes cases of crumpling and distortion in wheat, caused sometimes by an insect, and sometimes by the fungus Helmintho- sporium gramineum, or by unfavourable weather conditions. Claude W. Egertou § has investigated an anthracnose of the black- berry Rubus nigrobaceus, and found that it was due to a pyrenomycete, Gnomonia Rubi. He cultivated the ascospores on bean agar, and reproduced the perithecia in about ten to fourteen days. He also carried out inoculation experiments with success, the fungus spread rapidly in branches infected, and though blackberry fruit set, most of it dried up before it matured. P. Yoglino || has given an account of a troublesome fungus on Solatium Melongena. Brown spots of varying size are formed on the leaves, later on the fruits, very rarely on the stems. Small perithecia of Ascochgta hortorum appear scattered over the spots, and spores are produced in great numbers. Favoured by the excessive humidity of a wet season, these germinated on other leaves and penetrated to the interior tissues through the pores of the stomata, and the brown spots were again formed. Vogliano found that several other plants were * SB. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-Nat. Kl., cxvi. 1 (1907) pp. 83-162 (1 pi.) See also Hedwigia, Beibl., xlvii. (1908) pp. 117-22. t Journ. Board Agric, 1908, pp. 680-1 (4 figs.). J Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xvii. (1907) pp. 334-6. § Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxiv. (1907) pp. 593-7 (3 figs.). || Malpighia, xxi. (1907) pp. 353-63 (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 357 liable to infection from the same fungus : 8. Lycopersicam, S. nigrum, S. dulcamara, Physalis Alkekpngi, Datura Mitel, and Atropa Belladonna. R. E. Smith * publishes his examination of the California peach blight, which is found wherever peaches are cultivated in California, and which is increasingly hurtful. It is caused by the fungus Coryneum Beijerinkii, which attacks the leaves and young shoots, causing spots and finally killing the parts attacked. The spores alight on the young twigs, and with sufficient moisture they germinate and penetrate the bark. Gum is exuded copiously from the injured twigs. Beockman-Jeeosch & E. Maiee — Contributions a l'etude de la fiore myco- logique de l'Autriche. (Contributions to the study of the mycological flora of Austria.) [A list of fungi collected during a botanical excursion to the Eastern Alps by the Vienna Congress. Several new species are recorded of micro- fungi.] Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., lvii. (1907) pp. 271-80, 328-38, 421-4 (4 figs.). See also Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) p. 556. Boudier, E. — Icones Mycologies, ser. iv. livr. 18. [The issue comprises 20 plates of Basidiomycetes and Ascomvcetes.] Paris : Klinksieck, 190S. Feedinandsen, C, <£ O. Winge — Mycological Notes. [Includes notes on the spores of Psetidovalsa aucta and Fenestella fenestrate, and on the conidial form of Helotium herbarum. Some new species for Denmark are recorded.] Bot. Tidsskr., xxviii. pp. 249-56 (8 figs.). See also Ann. Mycol, v. (1907) p. 357. Giissow, H. T. — Ascochyta Quercus-Ilicis sp. n. [Found on the under side of the leaves of Quercus Ilicis.~] Joum. Bot,, xlvi. (1908) p. 123. Hohnel, Fr. v. — Mycologisches, xviii.-xxi. [Notes on four different species of microfungi.] Oesterr. Bot, Zeitschr., lvii. (1907) pp. 321-4. See also Hedivigia, Beibl., xlvii. (1908) pp. 122-3. Mu brill, W. A. — Polyporaceae. (Concluded.) [The species are arranged under MurriU's new classification. There are keys to all the genera.] North American Flora, ix., pt. 2., pp. 73-131. See also Neiv York Bot, Gard,, 1908. Patouillard, N., & P. Hariot — Fungorum novorum Decas tertia. [Third decade of new fungi.] Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiv. (1908) pp. 13-16. Patouillard, N. — Champignons nouveaux ou peuconnus. (New or little known fungi.) [Many new species are described, mostly from the Southern States or from South America.] Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiv. (1908) pp. 1-12 (3 figs.) Rostrup, E. — Lieutenant Olufen's Second Pamir Expedition. V. Fungi. [Plants collected in Central Asia and Persia by Ove Paulsen. Several species are new.] Joum. Bot. Copenhagen, xxviii. 2 (1907). See also Hedivigia, Beibl., xlvii. (1908) p. 124. Rehm, H. — Ascomyceten exes., Fasc. 40. [Descriptions or notes on 25 species, several of them new.] Ann. Mycol., v. (1907) pp. 465-73. * Agri. Exper. Stat. California, Bull. No. 191 (1907). See also Bot. Gazette, xiv. (1908) pp. 208-9. 358 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Rehm, H. — Ascomycetes novi. [A large number of new species from different parts of the world.] Tom. cit., pp. 516-46. Sabtory & Jourde — Pathologie Experimentale. Caracteres biologiques et pou- voir pathogene de Sterigmatocystis lutea. (Biological characters and pathogenic power of S. lutea.) [Describes the growth of the fungus, and the fatal effect of infection.] Comptcs Bendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 548-9. Sydow, H. & P., & E. J. Butler — Fungi Indiae Orientalis. [A large number of microscopic fungi from India are listed. Many new species are described in the Ustilaginese and Uredinese. Ann. Mycol, v. (1907) pp. 485-515 (5 figs.). Tranzschel, W. vo n — Diagnosen einiger Uredineen. [Diagnoses of some Uredineae from Asia and Russian territories.] Tom. cit., pp. 547-51. Lichens. (By A. Lorrain Smith, F.L.S.) American Lichens.*— Bruce Fink publishes his last paper on Cladonia, giving an account of several species with red fruits, G. digitata, C. deformis, and G. bellidiflora. The first of these grows usually on trunks or on decaying wood in forests, the two latter on soil : G. deformis in woods, G. bellidiflora on high open places ; detailed descriptions are given of each. A. S. Foster f describes the lichens that are to be found growing on Alnus Oregana, a tree that occupies any area that has been burned over ; it is a favourite habitat and a large number are recorded. R. Heber Howe, jun.,1 has been examining the lichens of the Monadnock region that had been collected by G-. A. Wheelock. He publishes a first list of 27 species of Ramali/ia, Getraria, Usnea, and A lector ia. with some few notes appended. Oswald, L., & F. Quelle — Beitrage zu einer Flechtenflora des Harzes und Nordthuringens. (Contributions to a lichen flora of the Harz and North Thuringia.) Mitt. Thilr. Bot. Ver., n.f. xxii. (1907) pp. 8-25. See also Hedwigia, Beibl., xlvii. (1908) p. 128. Steiner, J. — Lichenes Austro-Africani. [A list of lichens from South Africa ; a number of them are new.] Bull. Herb. Boiss., vii. (1907) pp. 637-46. Vereitinow, J. A. — Excursions lichenologiques dans le gouvernment Grodno. (Lichenological excursions in Grodno.] [The lichen formation of the woods described.] Bull. Jard. Imp. Bot. St. Petcrsbourg, vii. (1907) pp. 89-98. See also Hedwigia, Beibl. , xlvii. (1908) p. 129. Wasmuth, P. — Verzichniss der Strauch und Blattflechten der Umgebung Revals. (List of shrub and leaf lichens from the neighbourhood of Reval.) Naturf. Ver. Bigi, 1. (1907) pp. 211-21. See also Hedwigia, Beibl., xlvii. (1908) p. 130. * Brvologist, xi. (1908) pp. 21-4 (1 pi.). t Tom. cit., pp. 34-5. X Tom. cit., pp. 35-8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 359 Schizophyta. Schizomycetes. Bactridium lipolyticum : Fat-splitting Bacterium.* — H. Huss examined some unpleasant-tasting milk obtained from " Montavoner " cows. The samples were treated in two portions, that were allowed to stand on ice and at room temperature respectively for two days. In the first case the sample was not curdled, and had a sweet, rancid taste ; but the other portion was curdled, and had a sour, rancid taste, and smelt of butyric acid. In both cocci were found microscopically, either singly or in pairs, but in the second portion there was an abundance of B. giintheri. On agar and gelatin plates prepared from both portions there were obtained colonies of Pseudomonas coli, B. cerogenes, yeasts, Pemcillium, B. giintheri, and gelatin-liquefying rods of Bactridium lipolyticum,. Pasteurised cream was inoculated with these various organisms, but the B. lipolyticum alone produced the peculiar rancid taste of the affected milk sample. B. lipolyticum, which produces the fat-splitting enzyme, is a small coccal-shaped rod with peritrichal flagella. The coccal shape is espe- cially marked with gelatin cultures, and streptococcal-like chains are formed, the gelatin being rapidly liquefied. The rods show active motility ; they stain well with carbol-f uchsin, and also by Gram's method ; growth is not good in an atmosphere of nitrogen ; optimum temperature is from 30° to 35° C. Broth is clouded, and shows a sandy deposit ; milk is curdled after three days, the upper layers being peptonised and of a brown-grey colour, the medium having a strong alkaline reaction ; at the end of three weeks the casein is completely dissolved, and the liquid becomes viscid, of a dirty yellow colour, and smelling of nuts ; there is gas production in all cultures, also a slight formation of indol, and reduction of nitrates to nitrites. Glycerin, mannite, dextrose, saccharose, raffinose, and xylose are fermented with the production of acid, but lactose is unaffected. The fat-splitting property was demonstrated by employing the diffusion method of Eijkman. Intestinal Flora of Infants.-]" — H. Tissier finds that the intestinal flora of infants from one to five years of age changes as the diet becomes more varied. There is a " fundamental flora " (B. bifidus, enterococcus, B. coli, B. acidophilus, B. exilis, and B. Hi of Rodella) which has survived from the suckling period, and which is fixed and constant and of physiological importance, and an "additional flora" of variable com- position which is responsible for pathological effects. The author advocates a diet that will maintain a preponderance of the " fundamental flora " ; a vegetable diet favours the growth of B. bifidus in the lower portion of the large bowel, where by virtue of its acid-producing pro- perty it will excite peristaltic action and evacuation of the bowel content, * Centralbl. Bakt., 2te Abt. xx. (1908) p. 474. t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxii. (1908) p. 189. 360 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO and will also exercise an opposing action on the injurious bacteria and other members of the "additional flora." The author gives descriptions of the morphology and biology of the new species Coccobacillu* prceacutus, Coccobacillus oviformis, Diplococcus orbiculus, B. ventriosus, and B. capillosus that were isolated among the " additional flora." Comparative Study of Spirochetes.* — v. Prowazek has described various forms of spirochetes. («) Spirochete of tropical abscess ; in the contents of the swelling, besides pyogenic micro-organisms were found large spirochetes, resembling in form and movement those of balanitis, though generally more slender, the terminal periplast was more delicate and flagella-like ; longitudinal division was frequently observed ; resting stages occur as with other spirochetes, the parasite being twisted up into a tangle of deeply stained fragments ; taurocho- late of soda (1 : 10) dissolves the spirochete. (b) Spirochete of stomatitis (S. buccalis). In a case of stomatitis the author found a number of mouth spirochetes of large dimensions ; the undulating membrane was well shown in macerated preparation, the elementary fibrille being sometimes split up and resembling peritrichal flagella ; resting phases were also seen. Besides S. buccalis and S. dentium, the author found a third spirochete, which he regarded as intermediate. (c) Framboesia spirochetes (S. pallidida), is stouter than S. pallida, the undulations are not so stiff and regular ; the body is not so elastic, and the ends are often bent into hooks, and a terminal flagellum is seldom shown ; there is frequent longitudinal division. (d) Spirochetes of syphilis (S. pallida). In monkey syphilis the spirochetes are generally fewer than in human syphilis. The resting stage probably accounts for the long latent period of the disease. Taurocholate of sodium dissolves the spirochetes ; syphilitic material mixed with taurocholate of sodium for half an hour is no longer infectious ; but if syphilitic material is injected simultaneously with taurocholate of soda, infection is not prevented. (e) Spirochete Intra, occurred in the blood of the otter as broad, band-like organisms with blunted ends, and showing in the blue stained protoplasm four various sized chromatin fragments. The author concludes that spirochetes are distinguished from bacteria by their behaviour with taurocholate of soda and saponin, by their morphology, by their multiplication by longitudinal division, and by their characteristic resting stage. Bacillus Endothrix.t — F. Gueguen isolated on two occasions an organism from the hair of a patient suffering from alopecia. The interior of the hairs exhibited a number of fine discontinuous longi- tudinal strie ; staining with violet-dahlia and differentiating with alcohol or Gram's method showed that these strie were formed of short bacilli. "When planted on gelatin these bacilli developed chrome- yellow colonies, composed of non-motile, short, round-ended rods in thin capsules ; no spore-production was noted, though the body content was * Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Ref., xl. (1908) p. 822. t Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) p. 199. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 361 often collected into ovoid masses resembling spores ; pepton-broth is clouded after three days, and has a viscid yellow deposit ; gelatin is not liquefied ; growth on potato is visible after 24 hours, and develops into a citron-yellow band, smooth at the centre, but granular and irregular at the edges ; in pepton-water nitrates are reduced to nitrites, and in broth there is a slight production of gas ; indol is not formed ; urea is unaltered, and there is no fermentation of glucose, maltose, or lactose ; milk is peptonised to a clear yellow liquid with sediment. The organism is distinct from the " bacille seborrheique " and from the Coccus butyricus of Sabouraud, though it resembles Ascobacterium of Babes. Etiology of Mycetoma.* — W. E. Musgrave and M. T. Clegg have isolated from a case of Mycetoma a Streptothrix organism (S. freeri). It is an essential aerobe and grows on ordinary media, but especially well on those containing sugar, and on potato at 37° C. ; on alkaline litmus milk growth occurs on the surface as dry, flat particles, which become confluent and form a heaped-up yellow mass, a tenacious sediment being deposited ; the milk is not coagulated, and there is no formation of acid, but the medium is slowly decolorised ; the growth on potato has a pink to yellow colour ; when grown on gelatin the medium is not liquefied. The organism stains by the ordinary dyes, and also by the methods of Grain- Weigert and Ziehl-Nielsen-Gabbet ; some specimens show fragmentation, and when stained by the last named method they present a close resemblance to the tubercle bacillus. A number of animals developed the lesions of Mycetorna after intra-peritoneal inoculation ; three typical examples of Madura foot developed in monkeys after injection of the organism into the foot. The authors consider this organism to be distinct both from the S. machine of Vincent and from the organism described by Wright, and conclude that Madura foot is probably produced by any one of several species of Streptothrix. " La Graisse " in Wines.f — E. Kayser and E. Manceau recognise two ferments as the cause of " La graisse." The microbes that produce the one have been previously described : they multiply readily on peptonised sugar media, they are resistant to acids, and attack hevulose more rapidly than other sugars ; those of the second group are also short bacilli, arranged in long and twisted chains ; peptonised liquids are not suitable for their growth, they are less resistant to acids, and they act more vigorously on glucose than on the other sugars. The authors find that certain aerobes play an important role in the diseases of wine, not only by facilitating the development of the anaerobic organisms of " la graisse," but also because they form true associations with these germs, and can thereby modify the preference of the ferments for certain sugars. Among these aerobes were found yeasts, mycoderma. a bacillus, two varieties of cocci, and a sarcina, which have already been described as causing the " bleu " of champagnes. * Philippine Journ. Sci., ii. (1907) p. 477. t Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) p. 92. o62 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Action of Absolute Alcohol on Bacteria and on Yeasts.* — E. C. Hansen experimented on the action of ethyl alcohol on yeasts and on certain bacteria, viz., J>. cofo'and B. pasteurianus. The organisms were collected on a platinum wire and thoroughly spread in a line layer over the inside of a sterile flask, and after standing 24 to 4H hours in the dark at room temperature, the cells were regarded as dried ; these were then treated witli absolute alcohol, and it was found on every occasion that after one minute the cells still lived and could be cultured in broth, and in two cases the cells survived the action for eight minutes. By using 60 p.c. to 50 p.c. alcohol all the cells were killed within one minute, and the same result was obtained when undried cells were treated with absolute alcohol. From these results it is shown that bacteria in a moist state have a less resistance to absolute alcohol than when they are dried ; the dried wall of the cell must take up water before the alcohol can penetrate the cell substance. Referring to the different results obtained by other observers, the author accounts for these by the methods employed, and lays stress on the proper drying of the cells by thoroughly spreading in thin layers. In some cases a sur- rounding mucus capsule will protect the organism from the action of the alcohol. Blue Pigment produced both by a Diphtheroid Bacillus and by a Streptothrix.f — E. Miiller isolated from a serum plate culture, made from a swab from a tonsil, a diphtheroid bacillus which produced a light blue colour on potato and in milk, but not on agar or on gelatin. The organism presented most of the characters of the diphtheria bacillus, but was not pathogenic for guinea-pigs. The author has named it B. mlkolor. A year later the author found on an unused potato-tube a Streptothrix colony, surrounded by an intense blue-coloured area. Grown on thin layers of medium beautiful concentric rings were formed, and are represented in a number of illustrations accompanying the description of the organism. These ring colonies are formed by zones of growth with aerial hyphge alternating with zones where the hyphae are absent. The author has named this organism Streptothrix ccelicolor. It grows well at room temperature and at 86° C. ; it is an obligate aerobe ; it has a characteristic earthy smell ; gelatin is liquefied without production of the pigment ; milk is peptonised without the formation of acid or pigment. The author considers the blue pigment is identical in these two organisms ; it is only formed at temperatures below 30° C, and in the presence of oxygen ; its formation is apparently caused by the action of the organism on the starch of the potato, and on some molecular complex nearly allied to the starch molecule that may be present in the media in which this pigment appears. The author has named this pigment amylocyanin ; it is soluble only in water ; spectrum examination shows a strong absorption of light between the D line and the green, and a fainter absorption at either side extending to the C and E lines respectively. * Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlv. (1907) p. 466. t Op. cit., xlvi. (1908) p. 195. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, .MICROSCOPY, ETC. 363 Velocity of Progression and the Movement Curves of certain Bacteria.* — E. Stigell has studied the various forms and measured the velocities of movement of different bacteria. By using a magnification of 1500 and an ocular micrometer, ten estimations of the distances travelled in definite intervals of time were made, and an average of these velocities was taken for each organism examined. It was shown that whereas B. subtil is travelled 3'41/x.per second, the average velocity of B. typhosus was only 1*15ju, per second, and of Vibrio aquatilis only 0 •?!»//. per second. By means of an Abbe drawing apparatus the forms of movement were traced on paper ; those of B. subtilis and B. megatherium were almost straight lines, but B. pyocyaneus moved in irregular excentric curves. The author supplies a number of interesting reproductions of these tracings. Bacterial Disease of Green Malt.j — H. Schnegg remarks that in wet years green malt is liable to a disease which causes the death of the rootlet and, at the same time, increases the number of sinkers. The bacteria which cause this disease are located in the embryo of the barley- corn, and spread thence to the growing rootlet. The organisms first attack the epidermis cells of the rootlet, and subsequently the interior cells lying between the epidermis and the endodermis ; they appear, however, to be incapable of attacking the endodermis, and the vascular bundles are thus protected from their action. The author has isolated the bacterium by placing small portions of barley embryos (suspected to be affected with the disease) and small pieces of diseased rootlets in sterile wort and preparing gelatin-plate cultures from the wort cultures. The appearance of the organism indicates that it belongs to the group known as Termo bacteria, and it appears to be very similar to, if not identical with, Bacterium coli. In sugar-containing nutrient liquids it causes fermentation and a considerable degree of acidity. By addition of disinfectants to the steep-water the bacteria may be destroyed, but such treatment injures the germinating power of the barley. The danger of bacterial attack may be lessened, however, by adding to the steep- water agents which cause an increase of the germinating power of the grain. The bacterium (either as a result of enzyme-secretion or of a stimulation to enzyme-secretion in the corn) accelerates the modification of the corns, and hence it may be that its action is beneficial rather than injurious. Kilned malt, prepared from green malt affected with the disease, is of good quality in every respect. New Bacillus of Dysentery. J — F. B. Bowman describes a new bacillus which was isolated from the dejecta of cases of infantile dysentery prevailing in Manila in July and August of 1007. The organism, named Bacillus "6'," was characterised by small, deep-blue colonies, which were first detected after 48 hours' incubation on agar. B. "S" * Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlv. (1907) p. 289. t Zeitschr. Gesell. Brauw.. xxx. (1907) pp. 537 et seq. See also Journ. Inst. Brewing, xiv. (1908) pp. 191-5. X Pbilippine Journ. Sci., iii. .'1908) pp. 31-8. 364 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO is distinguished from B. coli by being smaller and more delicate. Its motility is very marked. Coagulation of milk is delayed, and the litmus present is completely reduced. It forms no gas in lactose-litmus, and grows freely therein. Indol reaction is negative. Thus culturally and morphologically B. "S" resembled in some ways B. dysenterm, in others B. coli and B. typhosus. The specific agglutinins developed in animals from this bacillus did not react with B. dysenterm, B. coli, and B. typhosus. Serum from one patient agglutinated the bacillus isolated from this patient, but did not react with other organisms from the same source. The author claims that this bacillus, B. "#," has not hitherto been described, and was the cause of the epidemic alluded to. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 365 MICROSCOPY. A. Instruments, Accessories, etc.* (1) Stands. Old Microscope by Shuttle-worth. — This Microscope (fig. 86), presented to the Society by Mr. Wynne E. Baxter, is signed Shuttle- worth, London. It is known that after Benjamin Martin's death in 1782, his models were copied by other makers such as Gregory and Fig. 86. Wright, Shuttleworth, and others. It will be seen that the present instru- ment closely follows those of Benjamin Martin in shape and design. The triangular limb is pivoted by a compass-joint to the top of the folding tripod-foot. The rack is cut into the back of the prismatic limb, and the pinion, which protrudes at right angles from the base, * This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illuminating and other Apparatus ; (4) Photomicrography ; (5) Microscopical Optics arid Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. 366 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Fig. 87. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 367 moves up and down with the stage. Numbers 1-6 are engraved on one side of the limb to indicate the position of the stage with the six objectives. The body of the Microscope is fixed to an arm which can be moved backwards and forwards and also in arc over the object, and carries Martin's multiple disk of object-cases. Below the stage a con- densing lens is fixed on a separate arm, and made movable out of the way by means of a joint when not wanted. The mirror is plane and concave, and both the arms carrying the mirror and the condensing lens are made to slide on the limb. The date of the present instrument may be given as about 1786. It represents an important link between Benjamin Martin of 1782 and Jones' " Most Improved " model of 1797, and as such it is a valuable addition to our collection of old Microscopes. Leitz' New Penological Microscope, Type A.* — CI. Lincio, of Varzo, fully describes this Microscope, of which Figs 87 and 88 give side views. It is made with a heavy foot F (fig. 87) surmounted by a forked piece S t, within which the upper body 0 T may be inclined about a hinge CI. The latter is situated on a level with the stage, at such a height that when tilted back the Microscope may, without sacrifice of stability, be made to receive the light direct from an artificial source. The upper body is so designed as to provide an unusually large working space in the plane of the stage, and, incidentally, forms a convenient handle by which the Microscope may be grasped. This part carries the mechanism for the coarse-adjustment g E and the fine-adjustment /E. The former is effected by a rack-and-pinion provided with obliquely cut teeth so as to minimise play. The range of motion is such that a working distance of 9 • 5 cm. is obtainable with the shortest (low-power) objective (No. 1), and 7 ' 5 cm. with the largest (high-power) objectives. The fine-adjustment is of the new form which has been already described in this Journal. f The stage-plate is provided with holes for the insertion of object-clips and angular-stops. The graduations and angular-stops serve as finders. The thickness of the stage-plate suffices, moreover, for the adaptation of fixing-clamps and clips for the usual forms of stage- fittings, rotation devices, etc. The position of large objects may, after centring the stage and setting the index back to the respective numbers of the h mm. scales, be recorded with the aid of the graduations along two radial lines engraved at right angles to each other upon the stage- top. As a matter of fact an object marker, which screws to the tube like an ordinary objective, is obtainable for an insignificant sum, and is much to be preferred to any of these finders when quick work has to be done and when it is intended to subsequently photograph selected portions of specimens. The stage is fitted with a clamp and fine-adjust- ment, which will be found a useful adjunct in the measurement of angles of crystals, in determining the direction of extinction, etc. It consists of a tangential screw with milled head T S (fig. 88), which engages into a sector under the edge of the stage. Ij,^ Wi UUV, •JWl^V * Neues Jahrb. f. Mineralogie, Geologie, und Palaontologie, xxiii. (1906) pp. 163-86 (6 stereoscopic plates and 10 text figs. ; also as an extract frorn above (E. Nagele, Stuttgart) ; and in an English trans. (E. Leitz, London), stereoscopic plates not included. t 1907, p. 479. 368 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Fig. 88. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ;y, by the handle fitted at the back until the quadrant fixes its position. The mirror G, being silvered on its outer worked surface, should not be touched, and should not be cleaned otherwise than with a soft camel-hair brush ; after use the mirror should always be covered with its protecting cap. The illuminated area is of the form of an ellipse, measuring 28 by 20 cm. in the extreme case. By withdrawing the lamp from the lens the light may be concentrated ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. :;si upon a smaller area. Fig. 102 shows diagramniatically the path of epi- scopically projected rays, and fig. 106 shows the optical bench as seen from the front when thrown out of action. <04J Fig. 106. 4. Lateral Episcopic Projection. — This mode of projection is princi- pally resorted to in the case of those objects which must be maintained in a vertical position in a fluid medium, or which, owing to their size, cannot be accommodated upon the stage. If, for instance, it is required \ e \ ,' .." HC J Fig. 107. to project on the screen part of a living being, the subject is so placed at the side of the apparatus that the part in question may be illuminated by the lamp and completely reflected by the mirror. In this case the lamp is returned to its horizontal position and turned through 45° about 382 SUMMARY OE CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO its vertical axis. The mirror G should be turned about the axis of the objective Q of 400 mm. focus. Fig. 107 represents this mode of pro- jection, and shows the path of the rays. Fig. 108. 5. Diascopic Projection (for horizontally-placed objects). — Apart from its immediate purpose, that of projecting horizontal objects floating in licmid, the arrangement has the advantage that lantern slides or sections ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 383 up to 210 mm. in diameter may be projected by simply placing them on the condenser lens. The latter is let into the stage, and, when not required, is covered by a sliding shield. From fig. 109 it will be seen Fig. 109. that the lamp is lowered for -this mode of projection. To do so it is only necessary to loosen a clamping screw and to depress the handle provided at the side of the vertical steel tubes. The motion of the lamp 384 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO is facilitated by a counterpoise. After lowering the lamp lens Kj should be thrown out of action, and the lamp placed at such a distance from lens K, that the pencil of rays emerging from the latter, after reflection at the inclined mirror placed below the stage, may entirely fill the lens let into the stage. The reversing mirror G sends the light through objective Q, whereby an image is formed on the screen. Lettner, G. — Skioptikon Einftihrung in die projektionskunst. Leipzig (1907) 105 pp. (22 figs.). (4) Photomicrography. Reversible Photographic Proofs ; Integral Photographs.* — Under the above titles G. Lippmann discusses the principles which must underlie the production on a single film of such an effect as would be equivalent to the actual view obtained of a landscape by an observer through a window, the film yielding the same varieties of effect as would be afforded by slight changes of position on the part of the observer. The author thinks that the practical difficulties to be overcome may not prove to be insurmountable. It is necessary to imagine a film as ordi- narily used, formed of a transparent pellicule of celluloid or of collodion, Fig. 110. treated on one of its faces with an emulsion sensitive to light. Before spreading the emulsion on the pellicule, suppose that the latter has been pressed while hot in a kind of goffering machine, in such a manner as to produce on each of its faces a large number of small excrescences in the shape of spherical segments. Each of the excrescences with which the anterior face (this face will remain bare of emulsion) is intended to act as a convergent lens. Each of the excrescences of the posterior face is covered with a sensitive emulsion, and is intended to receive the image formed by one of the anterior lenses. Fig. 110 shows an enlarged section of a film thus constituted. In order that each image may be in focus, corresponding segments must have the same centre of curvature, and the ratio of a front ray to a back ray must be n — 1, where n is the index of refraction of the celluloid for rays photographically the most active. The system formed by any one whatever of the small front lenses, and by the portion of sensitive layer corresponding to it, forms a small camera like an eye, the lens being the cornea and the sensitive layer the retina. There is no crystalline, and none is required, for, in virtue of its small diameter, the tiny camera can remain sensibly in focus on every object, however slight its distance. If the term " cellule " be applied to each such elementary camera, it follows that the complete pellicule is a tissue of these cellules juxtaposed. If each cellule be a, * Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 446-51 (2 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, .MICROSCOPY, ETC. 385 simple eye, their combination recalls the compound eye of an insect. The first property of such a system is to give photographic images without its introduction into a camera. It suffices to present the system in full light before the objects to be represented. The use of a camera is unnecessary, because each cellule is itself a camera. The pellicule must, of course, be preserved in a light-tight box, and only exposed as required. The result is to give a series of small microscopic images fixed each on the retina of one of the cellules. Observed from the side of the sensitive layer, these images could not be distinguished with the naked eye, and they would give the impression of a uniform grey. On the other hand, suppose the eye placed on the anterior side, and the proof illuminated by transparency in diffused light, such as would be furnished by white paper applied to the pellicule ; the eye would then see, instead of the system of small images, a single resultant image projected in space in actual size. Moreover, this image will vary according to the position of the observer's eye. Such an image would be a negative, but the author suggests means for obtaining a positive. With regard to the technical difficulties, the author points out that the necessary texture of surface must await the invention of a suitable moulding machine of high precision. But possibly collodion and celluloid could be abandoned in favour of other refrangible materials. Glass, for instance, would furnish the lens-spherules in unlimited quantities ; but there would still be the difficulty of sifting them out with precision and affixing them on a membrane of collodion, so as to obtain an exactly suitable thickness. If glass of index-refraction exactly equal to 2 • 0 could be obtained the difficulties would largely vanish, for a sphere of such a glass converges parallel rays on to its posterior surface. Such a sphere half-covered with a sensitive layer furnishes the simplest •of cameras. Glass can be obtained with refractive index greater than 2*0, and also exceeding 1*9, but at present 2*0 is unattainable. The mixtures of silicates with molybdates and tungstates of lead, which might be expected to give the required result, seem always to crystallise out without formation of glass. Perception of Relief and Depth in the Simple Image of Ordinary Photographic Proofs : Conditions and Theory of this Perception.* Lippmann's observations on integral photographs, noticed above, have suggested various considerations to A. Chauveau, which he has treated in a paper with the above title, and he adds that tho scope of his article would be indicated by the addition of the following sub-title : — The stereogenic property of retinal images, dissociated by cessation of the convergence of the two optical axes on the surface of a simple photographic proof. Exterior isation of these two retinal images, with projection of their details on the respective planes which they occupy in the depth of the space photographed. In the course of his treatment the author emphasizes the principle that binocular vision is not necessary to the appreciation of relief and of distances : it is capable only of im- proving this appreciation. Now photographic representation of a landscape is only an intermediate reception, a kind of relay between the eye and the landscape. The latter, in reality, is impressed in reduced * Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 725-30. June 17 th, 1908 2d 386 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING To form on the sensitive plate as it would Lave been on the retina of the eye had the eye been substituted for the photographic objective. The result is that vision instead of bearing directly on the landscape, is arrested on the proof representing it : it is an image, similarly reduced, of this first reduction which is impressed on the retinae. Each of the latter acts separately and possesses the property of revealing in miniature the landscape photographed, as the real landscape when viewed directly is seen in its natural size. If a retinal image be reversed in direction it will reproduce the landscape in real size with its attributes of length, width, and depth ; but if such an image exteriorise itself by means of a photographic proof, it will reproduce the landscape more or less reduced, as the three attributes will be in reality there, although the stereogenic property is for the time being suppressed. The author points out, as one of his illustrations, that single-eye observation of a perfectly illuminated ordinary photograph is seldom slow in detecting the details in the proof in their relief and depth. The dissociation of the two retinal images is then spontaneously accomplished : the two images, in fact, separately appear if one fugitively opens the second eye. Two-eye vision, really, brings the sensation of a plane image, and so long as single-eye observation is continued, the proof exhibits stereoscopic characteristics which persist if the primitive proof is replaced by a numerous series of others. If, instead of focusing one's optic axes directly on to a photographic proof, one makes them converge beyond it, the dissociation is again obtained and the landscape is seen double with all its reliefs and depths. If the focus is brought back on to the proof, the images fuse and the sense of relief disappears. The process which lends itself to the continuous and rapid repetition of these alternations must be the one to furnish the most complete information on the mechanism for the acquisition of the stereogenic property of retinal images furnished by moving photographs. Hence it may with confidence be declared that this acquisition is the necessary consequence of the rever- sion and of the exteriorisation of these images, projected in a state of dissociation outside the eye. Additional Demonstration of the Mechanism of Monocular Stereoscopy.* — In this article A. Chauveau goes more fully into the theory of his subject, and describes several experiments. He concludes that the systematic use of dissociation prisms is to be recommended for the demonstration of the unity of the mechanism both of monocular stereoscopy and of binocular stereoscopy, both methods depending in the same manner on the phenomenon of reversion and of exteriorisation of retinal images. Even as regards the purely picturesque observation of stereoscopic photographs, this method is just as much to be recom- mended. With the two bare, prisms in general use one obtains, in reality, besides the relief of the classic image of the ordinary stereoscope, that of the two components of this classic image. The simultaneous vision of these three images in a more or less marked relief, forms a picture so much the more interesting because the observer sees it in instantaneous self -constitution under his eyes, and because it explains * Comptes Rendus,|cxlvi. (1908) pp. 846-53 (1 fig.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 387 very clearly how the same apparatus, which creates the relief of retinal images by dissociating them, improves them by bringing these images into another combination. Fran(,-ois-Franck, Gii.-A. — Note generate sur les prises de vues instantanees microphotographiques (plaque fixe a pellicule) avec l'arc volta'ique. C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxii. (1907) p. G57. Nbuhauss, R. — Lehrbuch der Microphotographie. Leipzig (S. Hirzel) 1907, xvi. and 273 pp. (3 pis., 63 figs.). Pinoy, E. — Nouvel appareil de miorophotographie : possibility d'obtenir meme a de forts grossissements, une image donnant l'idee de la structure d'objet presentant une certaiue epaisseur. C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxi. (190G) pp. 552-4 (1 fig.). Siede, W. — liber einen einfachen Mikrophotographischen Apparat. Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikrosk., xiii. (1907) p. 62. Swingle, W. T., & L. T. Briggs — Improvements in the Ultraviolet Microscope. Science, n.s. xxvi. (1907) p. 180. (5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. Application of the Ultramicroscope (after Siedentopf) and of the Microspectral Photometer (after Engelmann) to the Textile and Dyeing Industries. — N. Gaidukov has investigated the above subject in regard to a great variety of materials, and states his conclusions as follows : — 1. By means of Siedentopf s ultramicroscope it is possible to test the qualities of woven threads, and to detect the sources of these qualities. 2. By means of Engelmann's spectral-photometer it is possible to examine the smallest particle of dye-stuff ; to arrive at a chromatic analysis (qualitative and quantitative) of individual threads ; to com- pare the colour peculiarities of the dye and of the threads dyed with it ; to observe the spectra of several adjacent threads ; and to compare with one another the intensities of the tint of several threads of the same material. The author does not regard his results as exhaustive, but rather as suggestive of a very promising field for exploration. Heimstadt, O. — Spiegelkondensor fur ultramikroskopische Beobachtungen. Zeitschr. f. Chemie u. Industrie d. Kollo'ide, i (1907) heft 9. Cleric i, E. — Sulla determinazione dell'indice di refrazione al microscopio. Atti delta R. Accad. dei Lincei, xvi. (1907) p. 336. Faure-Fremiet, E. — Sur l'etude ultramicroscopique de quelques protozoaires. C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, briv. (1908) pp. 582-4. Gatin-Gruzewska, Z., A. Mater, & G. Schaepfer— Sur la structure ultramicroscopique des empois d'Amidon et de leurs constinants. Tom. cit., pp. 599-601. Siede, W. — Ein neuer Apparat zur Sichtbarmachung ultramikroskopischen Teilchen. Zeitsclir. f. angew. Mikrosk., xiii. (1907) p. 79. Schuster, A. — Einfuhrung in die Theoretische Optik Autorisierte, deutsche Ausgabe, iibersetzt von H. Konan. Leipzig und Berlin (B. G. Teubner) 1907, xiv. and 413 pp. (2 pis. and 185' figs.) * Zeit. f. Ang. Chemie und Zentralbl. f. Technische Chemie, xxi. (1908) p. 393 et seq. (1 pi. and 1 fig.). 2 D 2 388 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO (6) Miscellaneous. Flagellum of the Tubercle Bacillus.* — A. A. 0. E. Merlin confirms the observation of E. M. Nelson f that tubercle bacilli are possessed of flagella. He states that many flagellated specimens will be found in any ordinary well-stained sputum slide, and even a good \ or \ in. dry-objective, used critically with a large axial illuminating cone, should prove quite sufficient if an oil-immersion lens is not available. Quekett Microscopical Club. — The 447th Ordinary Meeting was held on March 20, TJ08, the President, Prof. E. A. Minchin, M.A., F.Z.S., in the chair. Mr. A. E. Hilton read a paper on " The Cause of reversing currents in Plasmodia of Mycetozoa." After describing the observed phenomena at some length, the author concluded that streaming of the interior plasm is controlled by the drier aggregations of plasm in contact with the atmosphere, and that these controlling centres affect the fluid plasm by an alternating force of pressure and suction. He suggests that the visible pulsations are indications of a respiratory function inherent in the whole mass of the plasmodium. Mr. C. D. Soar, F.R.M.S., read a paper on the genus Hydrachna. The term Hydrachna was first used by Midler in 1776. Of the 21 species now described, 4 were new, and 3 others first time of recording in Britain. At the 448th Ordinary Meeting held on May 15, the President in the chair, Mr. C. Lees Curties, F.R.M.S., exhibited and described the simple form of apertometer devised by Mr. F. J. Cheshire, F.R.M.S., and an improved mercury-vapour lamp for use in microscopy. Mr. R. T. Lewis, F.R.M.S., exhibited some preparations of especially brdliantly coloured insects, and the President exhibited a preparation demonstrating the existence of an organic axial filament in the spicules of calcareous sponges. The spicule had been decalcified and the filament (and outer sheath) stained with picric (or nitric) acid and nigrosine. Mr. F. Martin-Duncan, F.R.P.S., delivered a lecture, illustrated with lantern photographs, dealing with points of interest in insect life and development. Koch, L., & E. Gilg — Pharmakognostisches Praktikum. Eine Anleitung znr mikroskop. Untersuchung von Drogen u. Drogenpulvern zum Gebraucne in prakt. Kursen der Hochschnlen. Berlin : Gebr. Borntrager, 1907, viii. and 272 pp. (140 figs.). B. Technique.* (3) Cutting-, including Imbedding- and Microtomes. Henneberg's Microtome Auxiliaries.* — The Leitz firm have made for the designer, Prof. Henneberg, an addition to their chain microtome. This addition the author finds of great service in cutting longer bands * English Mechanic, lxxxvii. (1908) p. 112. t See this Journal, 1905, pp. 412-13. X This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- cesses ; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ; (4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, etc. ; (6) Miscellaneous. § Zeitschr. wiss. Mikr., xxiv. (1907) pp. 274-7 (2 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. MICROSCOPY. KTC. 389 of serial sections as they are automatically carried along, unfolded, and delivered without hanging down from the back of the knife. A band- gear (fig. Ill) is secured to the knife and consists of an endless band running on two rollers, which are set crosswise through the two ends of a tube. In order that the band may always be kept taut, the tube is Fig. 111. formed of two pieces fitting into one another and pressed outwards by [a, spiral spring lying in the interior of the tube, the tube being carried by a clamp fastened by two pressure screws on the knife-back. These Fig. 112. screws are set behind one another, not sidewise, so that it is possible to arrange the band horizontally or oblique. The roller is thus close behind the knife-back. In the axis of the other roller there is a toothed- wheel. An angle-piece carrying a clutch is fastened on to the arm which bears the chain-wheel. This clutch projects from the end of a staff which is adjustable in its length, and at its place of attachment is 300 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO rotatory about the angle-piece. The clutch when setengages downwards in the toothed-wheel of the rear roller. When the apparatus is in action the band in the case of every section travels just as mnch forwards as the movement in length of a section of the object under treatment. As soon as the serial sections have commenced formation their free ends are placed by a paint-brush 'on the band and then left : while the cutting is continued the sections unfold and arrange themselves ribbon-like on the band till they have reached the free end, where they are removed in their entirety. The movement of the knife-block insures the automatic action of the band-gear. The teeth of the wheel are so cut that the clutch slides downwards over them in the back stroke, and engages in them in the forward stroke. Some preliminary trials will be necessary to get the exact position of the clutch staff suitable for the section-length, so that the sections may form a perfect ribbon. In order to facilitate this operation the author has designed a special knife adjustment (fig. 112), consisting of a modified knife-clamp and a small block with position screw. A perforated circular disk around which the required movement is to take place is applied to and fixed upon the screw-holder. The shanks of the knife bear corresponding notches in which the disk engages. The small block with the position-screw is set in the groove of the knife-block, and a slight rotation of the position-screw gives the required inclination to the knife. Method of Orientating Small Objects for Examination.* — W. F. Cooper and L. E. Robinson contribute a short note on a CORK PLASTY iNL CORH- ,HN Fig. 113. method they have found useful in their work on Ixodidea. The method is an improvement on those generally used for the examination of ticks. The authors give the following account of their procedure. " In the examination of the appendages and small portions of Arthropods, considerable difficulty is often experienced in fixing them temporarily in a suitable position for observation. This can be over- come by the use of a preparation universally known as ' Plasticine.' " A small bead of it is placed on a slide and slightly flattened : the object is then placed upon it, moved into a suitable position, and slightly pressed into the plasticine. "We have devised a simple piece of apparatus by means of which the object may be rotated in one plane (fig. 113). A cork is cemented * Original communication. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 391 to one end of an ordinary micro-slide by sealing-wax ; a glass-headed pin, about 2 in. long, is inserted through the upper end of the cork, in the direction of the long axis of the slide; on the point of this pin is placed a small rectangular piece of cork which carries the plasticine. By revolving the pin, the object can be rotated and observed through an angle of 18<> ." (4) Staining- and Injecting-. Arnold, J. — Supra vitale Farbung Mitochondrion ahnlioher Granula in den knor- pelzellen nebst Bemerkungen uber die Morphologie des Xnorpelglykogens. Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 361-6. Be the, A. — 1st die primare Farbbarkeit der Nervenfasera durcn die Amvesenheit einer besenderen substanz bedingt. Tom. cit., pp. 337-45 (1 pi.). (5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, etc. Preserving the Colour of Anatomical Specimens.* — G. Fornario finds that the following method is superior to that of Kaiserling for retaining the colour of museum specimens. The fresh specimens, which may or not be washed in physiological salt solution, are immersed in a 4 p.c. solution of commercial formalin for 4S hours, after which they are transferred to 90 p.c. alcohol for not more than 24 hours. The specimen is then placed in fresh DO p.c. alcohol, and to this is added, drop by drop, a variable quantity of the following solution : saturated solution of picric acid 100 c.cm., glacial acetic acid 4 c.cm. The initial colour should reappear in the course of a few minutes. The quantity of the picric acid solution varies according to the size of the piece ; it does not exceed 10 c.cm. per litre. In this solution the pieces may remain indefinitely, but a few days suffice. They are then transferred to 90 p.c. alcohol, in which they are permanently preserved. For large pieces it is useful to add a very small quantity of haemoglobin to the picric acid solution. (6) Miscellaneous. Improved Form of Celloidin Capsule. f — W. H. Harvey employs the following method for making celloidin capsules. The cover and body of a gelatin capsule are separated, and through the bottom of the latter a hole is made to admit a piece of glass tubing of 4-6 mm. external diameter. The capsule being closed again, the glass tube is warmed and passed through the hole until it touches the cover, to the inside of which it will adhere. The capsule and about 3 cm. of the glass tube are now dipped into a specimen tube of melted paraffin ; on withdrawing, the tube is rotated to enable the paraffin to cool in an even layer. The capsule and tube are now dipped twice into a specimen tube containing a 3 p.c. solution of celloidin, and then three or four times into a 9 p.c. solution of celloidin. When the last layer has set, the structure is placed in a test-tube containing chloroform which burdens the celloidin and dissolves the paraffin, leaving the gelatin capsule free in a shell of celloidin. The whole is then placed in a bath of spirit for a few minutes, and then into a beaker of water. The glass tube may now be * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (.1908) pp. 543-4. t Centralbl. Bakt., It" Abt. Orig., xlvi. (1908) p. 285. 392 SUMMARY OF CURRENT I.I'.SEARCHES RELATING TO readily withdrawn, and the gelatin capsule is removed by means of a wire hook, a transparent celloidin capsule being left. This is then sterilised and filled or inoculated, and then closed by passing a small ping of aseptic wool down the neck of the capsule, and capped with a drop of paraffin. The author claims that these capsules have strength, maximum of dialysing surface, no limit to capacity, and other obvious advantages. Method for Photographing Superficial Bacterial Colonies.* — L. de Jager employs the following method for photographing certain transparent superficial bacterial colonies. On to the surface of the gelatin or agar-plate culture is pasted a piece of smooth, thin gummed paper ; when this is removed again, after the manner of preparing a hektograpkic copy, the whole of the surface colony adheres to it ; the paper is then dried and flamed like a coverslip, until it assumes a yellow colour : it is then covered with a concentrated solution of toluidin-blue, a piece of blotting-paper being placed under it to prevent the under surface from being stained ; the colonies stain dark blue, and paper faint blue ; after a few minutes the stain is removed by repeated wash- ings in water ; the paper is then soaked in oil, which renders it quite transparent, and it can then be used as a photographic negative. When printing, in order to protect the celloidin paper from the oil, it is well to interpose a layer of collodiuni between the two papers. Red Blood Cells in Malaria.f — S. Sereni has subjected the blood of malarial patients to the centrifuge, and also to spontaneous sedimenta- tion, and found that the red cells containing parasites preponderated only in the outermost zone of the centrifuged blood or in the lowest layers of the sedimented blood, and this was irrespective of the period or stage of the parasite, with the exception of the half -moon forms which were found in the zone between the globular sediment and the blood serum. The author concludes that the presence of a malarial parasite increases the specific gravity of the blood corpuscles, and that the crescent forms diminish their specific gravity. The author considers that to this increase of specific gravity, and consequent diminution of elasticity, and also to the increase of superficial viscosity, may be referred the fact that the parasite-holding red cells are fewer in the circulation, and in fresh blood are less readily distinguished than normal cells, and may also account for the accumulation of red cells containing developing or spore-forming parasites in the capillary network of various organs, and especially in the brain. Moysey, L. — Method of Splitting Ironstone Nodules by means of an Artificial Freezing Mixture. [Method of freeing fossils without damage ; though not strictly micro- scopical, the method is indirectly useful if slices or sections of a fossil be required.] Geological Mag., v. (1908) pp. 220-2. * Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., slvi. (190S) p. 92. t Op. cit.lte! Abt. Ref., xl. (1908) p. 850. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 393 Metallography, etc. Importance of Centring in Microscopic Metallography.* — L. Guillet describes a stage fitting designed by Le Grrix for the purpose of bringing the same field into view in successive examinations of a section. The edge of the section is grooved at one point. Two small angle- blocks are fixed at right angles to each other on a brass plate fitting on the stage. The section is placed so that one angle-block fits into the groove, while another point of the edge of the section is in contact with the other block. The author describes a number of examples of photo- graphs of the same field after successive etchings, in sections of steel, cast iron, brass, etc. Constituents of Quenched Steels.f — P. Breuil reports upon the research undertaken by him as the outcome of the formation of the International Committee for Investigating the Constituents of Steel.* This committee has apparently ceased to exist ; no authoritative report seems to have been issued. The publication of Breuil's work has been long delayed through the opposition of H. le Chatelier and L. Gnillet, who do not appear to have been satisfied with the methods adopted and the experimental programme followed. The author examined, microscopically and mechanically, six steels (carbon 0'38, 0-70, 0-85, 1"20, 1*40, 1'80 p.c), and some cast-irons and cemented steels. Samples (three different sizes) of each were quenched from 650°, 750°, 850°, 1050°, and 1200°-C, and were examined as quenched, and also after re-heating to 225°, 355°, and 455° C. The temperatures were taken by a thermocouple, in conjunction with a Callendar recorder arranged as a potentiometer. Considerable decar- burisation occurred in heating, so that the true structures were only obtained in the central portions of the larger pieces. The author gives numerous details of methods of polishing, etching, and preparation of polishing powders. Powdered talc was employed for polishing, and KourbatofFs reagents were used. The most remarkable conclusions reached by the author relate to the constitution of troostite, which is held to be finely divided graphitic carbon resulting from the decompo- sition of cementite before passing into solution in the iron. Cementite A is the cementite of pearlite, while cementite B is massive. Sorbite is a pearlite of fine emulsified granules of cementite. Martensite is a com- plete but unsaturated solution of cementite A in ferrite. Hardenite is a saturated martensite. Austenite is hardenite, in which is dissolved cementite B. Osmondite is an incipient solution of the granules of sorbite, which are surrounded bv troostite. The changes which occur when an annealed steel is heated are as follows : — Towards 700° C. the sorbite or pearlite granulates and the granules enlarge, then begin to dissolve in the ferrite, apparently with some difficulty, for the larger grains, more slow to dissolve, give off carbon by dissociation. It is * Rev. de Metallurgie, iv. (1907) pp. 1027-36 (33 figs.). t Bull. Soc. Industrie Minerals, ser. 4, vi. (1907) pp. 553 683 (18 figs, and 333 photomicrographs). See also Metallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 59-60,96-9, 105-14(335 figs.). % See this Journal, 1905, p. 534. 394 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO this carbon which the author terms troostite. The constituent con- taining this separated carbon is osmondite. All the carbide of pearlite or sorbite is dissolved at 850° C. ; carbide B begins to dissolve at higher temperatures. The effect of reheating on quenched steels is destruction of unstable equilibrium, resulting in the formation of sorbite. Thermomagnetic Analysis of Meteoric and Artificial Nickel-iron Alloys.* — S. W. J. Smith has determined the magnetic permeability of a sample cut from the Sacramento meteorite (7-8 p.c. nickel) and of an artificial nickel-iron alloy (5 "8 p.c. nickel) at temperatures between 0° and 850° C, under varying conditions of heating and cooling. The meteorite consisted of kamacite, through which passed thin layers of taenite. Taenite is assumed to be a eutectic, with about 27 p.c. nickel, of (1) mixed crystals containing about 7 p.c. nickel (kamacite), and (2) mixed crystals of much higher nickel content, probably not less than 87 p.c. The temperature-concentration diagram, representing the magnetic changes in the nickel-iron system, is held to be the equilibrium diagram showing the crystallisation of these two series of mixed crystals from a homogeneous solid solution. From his results the author deduces a theory explanatory of the irreversibility of nickel-iron alloys. Irreversibility is held to be due to supersaturation. As the homogeneous solid solution is cooled, a point is reached at which it is saturated, and if nuclei of the mixed crystals which should separate were present, separation would commence. But the solution remains supersaturated (metastable) through a temperature interval. A lower point is then reached, at which the labile succeeds the metastable state. Crystallisa- tion then necessarily begins. Alloys of Gold and Tellurium.! — T. K. Rose has determined the equilibrium diagram. One compound, AuTe2 or Au2Te4 (melting point 452° C), and two eutectics, with 20 and GO p.c. gold respectively, occur. Platinum-thallium Alloy. t — Thermal, microscopic, and chemical investigations of the alloys produced by dissolving platinum in molten thallium, lead L. Hackspill to assert the existence of the compound PtTl, the properties of which are described. It melts at 685° C, and is analogous to PtPb. ^ Austenite.§ — Owing to the failure of numerous attempts to produce austenite in pure iron-carbon alloys, E. Maurer tried to obtain this constituent in three steels of the following composition : — 12 3 Nickel 3-73 p.c. Manganese Carbon Silicon Martensite was obtained in Xos. 1 and 2 by heating at 1050° C. for 15 minutes, and quenching in ice water, while No. 3 yielded pure * Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, Series A. ccviii. (1908) pp. 21-109 (31 figs.). t Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., xxvii. (1908) p. 229. See also Bull. Inst. Min. and Metallurgy, 1908. X Comptes Kendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 820-2. § Tom. cit., pp. 822-6. 1-83 p.c. 2-20 p.c. 1-21 „ 1-18 „ 1-94 „ 0-28 „ 0-88 „ 0-94 „ ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 395 austenite. This austenite showed distinct twinning. The steel in this state was not magnetic, was not very hard, but could be considerably hardened by mechanical distortion, by re-heating to 400° C, or by immersion in liquid air, all these treatments converting austenite into martensite. H. le Chatelier points out the importance of Maurer's production of homogeneous austenite. While two well-known alloys of iron, con- taining respectively 13 p.c. manganese and 25 p.c. nickel are undoubtedly austenitic. it did not seem possible to produce austenite with certainty in steels containing small amounts of these metals. Application of Colour Photography in Metallography.* — For developing the structure of metal sections, methods by which the •constituents are differently coloured are in many respects superior to etching methods, which merely bring out the constituents in relief. P. Goerens regrets that heat-tinting is so little used, and describes the production on Lumiere plates of photomicrographs in colour. The coloured photomicrographs of a heat-tinted iron-phosphorus alloy (1*5 p.c. phosphorus), given by the author as reproductions of Lumiere photographs in colour, clearly show the variation in concen- tration of the solid solution. It is advantageous to have the section as richly coloured as possible ; a yellow screen is placed at the diaphragm of the photomicrographic apparatus. The theory of the process, and full directions for working it, are given. Baykoff — Crystallisation and Structure of Steel. Rev. de Metallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 177-81 (7 figs.) Borne mann, K. — Constitution of Nickel Ore. [A determination of the equilibrium diagrams of the systems FeS — Ni3S2 and FeS— Ni2S.] Metallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 61-8 (22 figs.). Crowther, J. A. — Fatigue of Metals subjected to Radium Rays. Proc. Comb. Phil. Soc., xiv. (1908) pp. 340-50 (3 figs.). Gahl, W. — Graphite Separation in Iron-carbon Alloys. [A theoretical discussion of the results obtained by Heyn, Goerens, Bene- dicks, Osann, etc.] Stahl nun Eisen, xxviii. (1908) pp. 225-9 (5 figs.). Portevin, A.— Alloys of Gold. [The second article of the series. See above, Portevin, " Alloys of Silver."] Rev. de Mitallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 182-204 (31 figs.). Bevillon, L. — Special Steels at the Automobile Salon. Tom. tit., pp. 53-68. Rowland, W. S. — Electrolytic Corrosion of Copper- aluminium Alloys. Journ. Phys. Chem., xii. (1908) pp. 180-206 (8 figs.). Stoughton, B. — Micro-constituents of Cast Iron. Foundry, xxxii. (1908) p. 41. Watts, 0. P. — Metals in the Order of their Boiling-points. Traits. Aiurr. Electrochem. Soc, xii. (1907) pp. 141-54. * Metallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 19-23 (5 figs.). :\W PK0CEED1NGS OF THE SOCIETY. MEETING Held on the 15th of April, 1908, at 20 Hanover Square, W. Conrad Beck, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the Meeting of the 18th of March, 1908, were read and confirmed. A Donation of an Old Microscope (made by Shuttleworth about 1786) from Mr. W. E. Baxter was announced, the instrument being exhibited in the room, and described by Mr. C. F. Rousselet. The Chairman said he was quite sure that the Fellows present would pass a very hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Baxter for this addition to their collection of instruments, which was now becoming an important and interesting one. The thanks of the Meeting were unanimously voted for this donation. Messrs. Watson and Sons exhibited a new form of Museum Micro- scope which had been designed by Mr. C. 0. Waterhouse, of the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. The instrument was entirely inclosed in a glass case, excepting the eye-piece, by turning which an alteration of focus could be made. All the working parts of the instru- ment were secured against interference or removal by the public, who could make use of the instrument when once it had been adjusted, and an object placed upon the stage by an attendant. A drum-shaped stage for twelve objects, mounted on the ordinary 3 in. by 1 in. slides, could be rotated from the exterior of the case. The thanks of the Society were voted to Messrs. "Watson for sending this Microscope to the Meeting for exhibition. Mr. Pigg, in reply to an inquiry from the Chairman as to a specimen of Microscopic Writing which he was exhibiting, said that the slide was a specimen of Webb's diamond writing. The Lord's Prayer, containing 227 letters, had been written in the space of 2W000 scl- m-> which was in the ratio of 15 bibles to the square inch. A *fe in. objective was necessary to decipher the writing. The size of the space occupied by the writing is 4^ in. by 5}iT in. The ratio of letters to the square inch is 53,880,000. The Chairman asked where Mr. Webb's writing machine was at the present time. Mr. Pigg said he did not know. Mr. C. L. Curties said that Mr. Webb destroyed it before his death. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 397 Mr. F. Shilling-ton Scales read a number of extracts from a paper contributed by Mr. James Strachan, " On Dendritic Growths of Copper Oxide on Paper," the subject being illustrated by a large number of examples exhibited under Microscopes in the room. Lantern slides of some of these were subsequently shown upon the screen. Mr. Strachan verified previous investigations showing that these dendrites originated in minute particles of copper, their branching being due to the direction of the fibres in the paper, and showed further that they were not peculiar to any particular kind of fibre, that they formed a coating outside and not inside the fibre, that they were found in quite recent papers, and that they might be formed in as short a time as twelve months. He advanced various suggestions with regard to the chemical process which took place. Mr. Scales beiug called upon by the Chairman for an expression of his own opinion on the subject, said that he should not wish to indorse all the theories which Mr. Strachan had put forward in this very interesting paper, but there was no doubt he was right as to the fact that these forms arose from the oxidation of particles of copper derived from portions of the machinery during the process of manufacture of the paper that they branched along the fibres of the paper, and that this process took a much shorter time than had hitherto been thought possible, but when he came to the reasons why they branched out in this remarkable manner, and the chemical changes which caused them to do this, he was getting upon rather more controversial ground. The copper must necessarily have an intermediate stage of solution of some kind, but what was the exact nature of the process by which it was dissolved and re-crystallised was not yet set beyond question. The Chairman said they were much indebted to Mr. Scales for bring- ing the subject before them in the absence of the author of the paper. The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Mr. Strachan for his paper, and to Mr. Scales for reading it. Mr. F. Enock then gave a very interesting exhibition of lantern slides in illustration of his remarks on " Nature's Protection of Insect Life " — all the slides having been taken by the Sanger-Shepherd three- colour process. Mr. Enock prefaced his description of the pictures by a brief accouut of the process which he had employed in their pro- duction, by transferring the red and yellow prints to the blue plate, so as to avoid the necessity of transmitting the light of the lantern through the thickness of three films — with the result that a much brighter picture was produced without in any way impairing the fidelity of the coloration. The difficulties experienced in taking photographs of living subjects, which were likely to move during the time needed for three exposures, were also mentioned. The series exhibited comprised a number of illustrations of so-called mimicry on the part of moths and caterpillars, some of which had settled themselves on bark and other objects so nearly of the same colour as themselves that it was extremely difficult to determine their whereabouts. The exhibition concluded with 398 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. a few slides of flowers, etc., to demonstrate the fidelity of the process in the reproduction of the natural colours. On the motion of the Chairman, a very hearty vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Enock for his very beautiful and interesting exhibition. Notice was given that the rooms of the Society would be closed from Thursday evening, April 17, to Tuesday morning, April 21. Also that at the next meeting of the Society, on May 20, there would be a special exhibition of Pond-life. The following Instruments, Objects, etc., were exhibited : — The Society : — An Old Microscope by Shuttleworth, presented by Mr. Wynne E. Baxter. Messrs. Watson and Sons : — New form of Museum Microscope. Mr. J. Inderwick Pigg : — Microscopic writing by Webb, the Lord's Prayer being written within an area of ^ynnm S(l' m> Mr. F. Shillington Scales: — 16 micro-slides of dendrites from paper. Lantern slides shown on the screen and various specimens in illustration of Mr. Strachan's paper. Mr. W. J. Marshall : — Dendritic crystals on old ledger paper. MEETING Held on the 20th of May, 1908, at 20 Hanover Square, W. A. N. Disney, Esq., M.A., B.Sc, in the Chair. The Chairman said they had received a letter from the President expressing his regret at not being able to be present, as he was detained by important business at the House of Lords ; he hoped, however, to be able to join them later in the evening. The Minutes of the Meeting of April 15, 1908, were read and con- firmed, and were signed by the Chairman. The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) re- ceived since the last Meeting, was read, and the thanks of the Society were voted to the donors. From C. F. O. Nordstedt, Index Desmidiacearum, Supplements. I Sufd'ofse'des Sciences (4to, Berolini, 1908) \ Stockholm H. & M. Peragallo, Les Diatomees Marines de France. \ -, T m , (8vo, Grez-sur-Loing, 1908) / M- J- lemPere- Cornelius Varley, A Treatise on Optical Drawing Instru-\ ,f T w T ments. (8vo, London, 1845) j Mr. J. Jb. xngpen. Direct-reading Micrometer Gauge Mr. J. Ciceri Smith. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 399' Mr. C. F. Rousselet said that the Society were going to exhibit in the Biological Section of the Franco-British Exhibition a collection of instruments illustrative of the history of the Microscope. The collec- tion would consist of twenty-eight old Microscopes, most of which were taken from the Society's own collection, several others being lent for the purpose by Sir Frank Crisp and Mr. Nelson. As the Fellows present would no doubt be interested in what would be shown, lantern slides of the various instruments had been prepared, which were then exhibited on the screen — a brief description being given of each, and the parts referred to being indicated where necessary by Mr. J. W. Gordon with a pointer. The series included models by Leeuwenhoek, Wilson (screw barrel form), Lieberkuhn, Marshall, Culpeper, Jones, Benjamin Martin, Shuttleworth, Cuthbert, Chevalier, Hugh Powell (early form 1839), James Smith, Andrew Ross ; and finished with Powell and Lealand's of 1848. The Chairman felt sure that the Fellows of the Society had been greatly interested by this exhibition, and would return a very hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Rousselet and Mr. Gordon for bringing the matter before them. The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to these gentlemen accordingly. Mr. J. E. Barnard exhibited an old Photomicrographic Apparatus, which was designed by Dr. Maddox for Dr. Lionel S. Beale. There were two points about it which were worth notice ; the first of which was, that the objective was connected up to the stage by a light-excluding appliance ; the other being that the sub-stage condenser, and other illuminating apparatus, were carried on a triangular bar, which was inverted. He should be very pleased to place the apparatus at the disposal of the Society if it was considered of sufficient value to be worth adding to their collection. The Chairman expressed the thanks of the Society to Mr. Barnard for his exhibit, and for the present to them of the apparatus described, which they would be very pleased to accept and to place amongst the other objects of interest in their collection. The Chairman called attention to the large number of examples of pond-life exhibited in the room, and asked for a very hearty vote of" thanks to those Members of the Quekett Club and Fellows of their own Society who had brought their Microscopes and objects for exhibition. The following Instruments, Objects, etc., were exhibited : — The Society : — Lantern Slides of Microscopes to be exhibited at the Franco-British Exhibition. Mr. J. E. Barnard : — An Old Photomicrographic Apparatus. Specimens of Ponddife, as follows : — Mr. F. W. Watson Baker: — Plumatella emerging from statoblasts. Mr. James Burton : — Draparnahlia sp., Stentor sp. Illuminated with Rheinberg's colour disks. Mr. Thomas N. Cox : — Anacharis. Mr. D. Davies : — CEcistes crystallinus. 400 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. Mr. Th. A. Delcomyn : — Desmids, Diatoms, etc. Mr. A. Downs: — Hydra fusca, Volvox globator. Mr. F. W. Eyre : — Melicerta ringens. Mr. A. E. Hilton : — Spongilla, lacustris (?) x 20. Mr. E. Hinton : — Bladderwort, showing captured Entomostraca. Mr. J. T. Holder : — Water-mite. Mr. H. S. Martin : — Actinosphcerium eichhomi. J. I. Pigg :— Circulation of blood in tail of Tadpole. F. J. W. Plaskett : — Fresh-water Diatoms, Navicula, Surirella, etc. Mr. Thomas H. Powell : — Cyclosis in Vallisneria. Mr. G. H. J. Rogers : — Lophopus crystallinus. Mr. C. F. Rousselet : — Fredericella sultana, Lophopus crystallinus, Rotifera, various, Melicerta ringens, Stephanoceros eichhomi, Volvox globator. Mr. J. Pledge : — Actinosphcerium eichhomi (^ in. objective). Mr. D. J. Scourfield : — Ditto (y1^ in. objective). Mr. C. J. J. Sid well : — Ditto (1 in. objective dark ground). Mr. T. J. Smith : — Diptera, Mochlonyx (male). Mr. Charles D. Soar : — Water-mites. Mr. H. Taverner : — Water-mites. Mr. George Tilling : — Melicerta ringens, shown with Rheinberg's colour disks. Mr. W. R. Traviss : — Circulation in Nitella. Mr. Charles Turner : — Head of Water-beetle, Gyrinus natata, showing the two pairs of eyes. Mr. J. C. Webb : — Daphnia. JOURN. R. MICR. SOC. 1908. PI. V. W. Wesehe, del. JOUENAL OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. AUGUST, 1908. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. XII. — On the Microscope as an Aid to the Study of Biology in Entomology, with particular reference to the Food of Insects. By W. Wesche, F.E.M.S. (Read January 15, 1908.) Plates V. to X. Entomologists are generally satisfied with the identification and classification of their specimens ; connected with this work are many points of the greatest interest, such as variation and mimicry, and in the phylogeny new points are constantly arising and give little leisure for other work. So the large majority of the life-histories still remain unstudied, and the habits of many well known species EXPLANATION OF PLATE V. Fig. 1. — Fore leg of Chrysops arcutiens L. $ . To illustrate the simple type of limb. This insect belongs to the family of the Tabanidse, and is a well known and keen blood-sucker. It is met with in our English woods and meadows. Fig. 2. — Middle leg of Chrysopilns aureus Mg. 9 . Simple type. Belongs to the Leptidse, and is not uncommon in long grass and meadows. Fig. 3. — Hind leg of Beris vallata Forst. 9 . Simple type. Belongs to the Stratiomyidse ; is very common, and found on the hedges. Fig. 4. — Fore leg of Hydroplwrus ; species undetermined (c$). To illustrate the raptorial or predaceous type. Belongs to the Dolichopodidse, and resembles Aphrosylus in the structure of the legs, but has dissimilar mouth-parts. It is a small Australian insect, which I captured at Geelong, Vic. Fig. 5. — Fore leg of Notiphila cinerea Fin. 9 . Raptorial type. It has the remarkable saw-like process on the femur, found also in many of the Hydrellinse. It is placed in the Ephydridse, is an inhabitant of damp places, and is rare in my experience. Fig. 6. — Middle leg of Caricea tigrina F. $ . Raptorial type. Placed in the Anthomyidae, but is fiercely predaceous. Common in damp meadows. Aug. 19th, 1908 2 e 402 Transactions of the Society. are yet a matter of conjecture ; indeed, the amount of care and patience required for the working out of these are sufficient to deter all but the most enthusiastic. I do not think that the work of the field naturalist, the accurate and minute noting of habit and life-history, can be overvalued, but I would point out another method, which, while it cannot supersede, can absolutely confirm as well as suggest further observation, and by its unaided use show a great number of structures, that on account of their minute- ness are visible by no other means. This method I have applied mainly to the insect in the imaginal stage, which, owing to the quickness of movement in life, is the most difficult of observation, but it can be used with advantage in the study of the more simple larva. It has often been my experience to hear speakers depre- ciate the method of those who mount whole insects with pressure, the softer parts being dissolved and the object cleared in caustic potash. Their objections are good from many points of view, but the fact remains, that this method is the only one that will enable the student to use the higher powers of the Microscope ; and it is just this use of the high powers that is absolutely necessary for a complete study of a preparation, which when well mounted, ex- hibits all points of structure, and of difference other than colour, that the examination of a pinned specimen can show, and multi- tudes of detail that are beyond the powers of resolution of the simple lens. It is true that allowances have to be made for altered shapes and relations, but experience and study will give an idea of the changes undergone, and enable the student to reconstruct the original form of his subject in a mental image. I shall endeavour to show that it is possible to take a prepara- tion of an insect that may be quite unfamiliar, and sitting by a comfortable fireside, with a Microscope conveniently arranged, study it: (1) place it in its particular order, family and genus; (2) ascertain its sex ; (3) describe its habits, whether blood-sucking, predaceous, or otherwise ; (4) show how it obtains its food or attacks its prey ; (5) tell what that food is, sometimes naming the animal, plant, or insect, that serves as such ; (6) know if it crawls on the earth, flies in the air, swims in or skates on the water, or is para- sitic ; (7) see how the insect smells, tastes, hears and feels ; (8) trace the differences that shade from species to species ; (9) see the remains of the organs of the past, examining their minute remnants : (10) see that there is nothing in Nature that is not logical and has not a "why and a wherefore"; (11) and be convinced that all these observations strengthen and fit in with that great fact of Evolution, which has so altered, for the man who thinks, the aspect of the earth as well as that of the heavens. But the field of inquiry is so large and the mass of detail so bewildering, that the student of " life-history " must use method in his investigations, and it appears to me that he will best obtain data bearing on his The Microscope and Biology. By W. Wesche". 403 inquiry by a separate study of the parts. They may be divided thus : — I. — General Structure. This includes, in addition to the insect as a whole, (a) the limbs ; (b) the finer bristles ; (c) the sense- organs. II. — The Armature of the Mouth. III. — The Contents of the Abdomen : (a) food ; (b) structure. IV. — The Genitalia. I. — General Structure. This may be regarded from several points of view, as it is (a) Utilitarian ; (b) Sensorial ; (c) Eaptorial ; (d) Secondary sexual. A. Utilitarian. — A study of the wings and their nervation affords information as to the character of the flight, but also is in a measure a guide that will tell something of the evolution of the species. The openings of the tracheae on the thorax and the abdomen show us how sounds are made, and how the insect oxy- genates the blood. The immense importance of keeping the antennae clean is shown by the contrivances on the fore limbs, such as the brush on the metatarsi of the Muscidae, or the comb on the tibiae of the Hymenoptera. The Microscope will show how it is possible for an insect to skate on the surface of smooth water, and para- sitism can be recognised by the flattened form of the body and the character of the legs, particularly the claws. b. Sensorial. — This section requires almost exclusively high- power work, and will in some cases necessitate the cutting of sections. All or most of the many modifications, such as " taste hairs," or " olfactory pits," and other structures so clearly brought before us in " Senses of Animals," * can be seen on preparations mounted with pressure : they must be looked for on the antennae and mouth-parts.f On the legs will be found some sense-organs, particularly in Diptera, which are comparatively rare, and which I have described in a former paper : those on the coxae are more frequently met with than the organs on the tibiae.f C Raptorial. — Under this heading I include all modifications that are used in holding prey. The most usual characteristic is an enlargement of the femur to contain the much-developed muscles, and the legs and often the fore coxae have rows of strong sharp spines. But strong spines are equally characteristic, and the arrangement is apt to alter in different families. This type is usually easily recognisable, as it is found in both of the sexes, but there are a number of genera in the Syrphidae which, from the * Senses of Animals, 1889, Sir John Lubbock. t Sopra certi organi di senso nelle antenne dei Ditteri. Dr. Paul Mayer, Reale Accademia dei Lincei, 1878-79. t Some New Sense Organs in Diptera. Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, 190-i. 2 E 2 404 Transactions of the Society. general appearance and detail of some of their limbs, as well as the armature of the mouth, might be thought to be raptorial, were it not that the convincing evidence afforded by the contents of their stomachs exonerates them — (Ascia, Erystalis, Heliophilus, Mallota, Xylota, and Syritta). In some of the genera of the Ephydridae, there is a serrated fore femur, the chitin itself being drawn out into a number of sharp teeth, exactly like those of a saw ; this is unusual, most of these contrivances consisting of strong hairs in sockets. d. Secondary sexual. — These structures are more strikingly developed, and more commonly found in the male sex ; they mostly consist of an extraordinary variety of modification of the legs, usually of one particular pair, and often of the abdomen. Setse are altered in shape and grouped in rows ; they are, as a rule, blunter than those found on the raptorial limb, and occa- sionally take the form of bunches or pads of quite soft hair. Sometimes a seta is provided with a round head, not unlike that of the ordinary pin. In many cases the shapes of the tibiae are modified, and more often the tarsi are greatly enlarged, spatulated EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI. Fig. 7. — Hind leg of Leptogaster cylindrica Deg. ? . Raptorial type. Belongs to the Asilidae, the most predaceous family in Diptera. Fig. 8. — Fore leg of Hilara clypcata Mg. <$ . To illustrate the secondary sexual type. The extraordinarily enlarged metatarsus is used in holding the female, whose fore leg is quite simple. The Hilaridcc mate while flying, belong to the predaceous Empidae, and are found over streams or brooks. Fig. 9. — Fore leg of Hydrotea parva Mde. 6 ■ Secondary sexual type. The males of this genus of the Anthomyidse, are easily recognised by the remarkable modifications of the fore femora and tibia. In the Hydrellinse the fore femora of both sexes is elaborated for predatory purposes. In Hydrotea only that of the male, and for sexual advantage. These insects are found in gardens and on hedges, and appear to be general feeders like the Blow-fly. Fig. 10. — Middle leg of Dolichopus plumipes Scop. 6 . Secondary sexual type. Belongs to the family of the same name, and is predaceous. The fine tomentum on the tarsi of many genera enables the insect to glide on the surface film of shallow undisturbed water. This particular species is however met with on damp herbage. Fig. 11. — Hind leg of Ophyra leucostoma W. <$ . Secondary sexual type. Belongs to the Anthomyidse, and from the venation of wing, the shortness of the labium, and the marked remains of the maxillary palpi, may be thought to be of a far more primitive form than any of the Muscidae proper, except the Cyrtoneura group. Every joint of this leg is modified for sexual purposes. The femur has numerous hairs and stiff bristles ; the tibia is curved and ciliated with a soft pad or brush of hair, and the inner sides of the tarsi are clothed with delicate pubescence. The food consists of pollen and minute vegetable organisms. Fig. 12. — Fore leg of Melophagus ovinus L. 9 . Parasitic type. This insect is found on sheep, and is sometimes wrongly called the " sheep tick." The claw is characteristic of the family, the Hippoboscidae, and is well adapted for fastening on to the fleece of the host ; so much so that I have had, on occasion, some trouble in detaching hair from it. Fig. 13. — Fore claw of Culcx pipiens L. 6 ■ This is a secondary sexual charac- ter. A comparison of the claws figured will give an idea of the habits of the insects. JOURN. R. MICR. SOC. 1908. PI. VI. W. Wesehe", del The Microscope and Biology. By W. Wesche'. 405 or feathered, to enable the male to maintain a firm hold of the female. In the Culicidre even the claws of one pair of legs are altered, and have an extra barb. On the under side of the abdo- men are bunches of hair, tubercles, and spined areas in regions of contact. As in the raptorial Ephydridse, so in a few insects in this section, the femur itself is modified into teeth and hooks. The genera Hydrotea and Borborus nitidus Mg. among the flies, are of this rarer type. Even the sucker has been used, and most microscopists are familiar with the beautiful apparatus on the fore legs of the Dytiscus Beetle. The stridulating organs used in calling the sexes together, would come under this head also. In the female, secondary sexual characters are comparatively rare, and mostly consist of arrangements of spines on contact areas. I only know of one modification of the limbs, and that con- sists of enlargement of the last joint of the hind tarsi, and I would feel inclined to place this in another section, were it not for the fact that the males are without this character.* As this division of the subject has had but little attention, I will give an account of my observations, which, however, are con- fined, as will be most of my remarks, to insects of the order Diptera. Secondary Sexual Characters in the Female Insect. Bibionid^e. Dilophus febrilis L. has two hairy tubercles on the posterior ends of the eighth segment, laterally placed. The male also has two on the ventral side of the abdomen. Both sexes have two rows of teeth, or strong hairs modified into teeth, across the thorax. Their presence in the female is easy to understand ; in the male, especially as they seem nearly as well developed as in the female, difficult. Chtronomyid^. — Chironomus plumosus L. is provided with two patches of soft hair on the dorsal sides of the last segment. Empid^e. — In Hilara cilipes Mg. there is a notched guide for the fiagellum of the male on the ovipositor of the female. DoLiCHOPODiDyE. — A large number of species in the Dolicho- podida? have a strong blunt fringe of spines on the end of the ovipositor. This is a character that so far I have only found in this family, which is so remarkable for the development of primary characters in the male. The antennae are also often smaller than those of the male : the reason is obvious. * The late Dr. Meade iu his British Anthomyidae, p. 47, gives Chortophila billbcrgi Ztt. as another example, the female having the second and third joints of the front tarsi dilated. Drs. Schiner and Zetterstedt are mentioned as having wrongly ascribed this character to the male. I am not acquainted with the insect, and cannot say which doctor is right. 406 Transactions of the Society. Syrpiiid2E. — Sphazrophoria scripta L. has the outer edges of the abdomen decidedly more thickly haired than the same part in the male. Conopod^e. — C. quadrifasciata Deg. has a remarkable organ which protrudes from the ventral side of the abdomen, and hangs down anteriorly to the opening of the vagina. A microscopic preparation shows an even more remarkable complexity ; pos- teriorly to the opening of the vagina are two very powerful teeth with levers attached to their bases. Opposite are two lobes studded with blunt spines, and with sensory hairs on the extremities. More anterior to this, and on the ventral part, is an area also studded with blunt spines, but more densely, and arranged in rows of 2, 3, 5, and 6. From this point begins the descent of the organ alluded to, which is seen to be a hairy unpaired lobe, fur- nished on the posterior side with short blunt spines more sparsely distributed, and on the anterior surface with sharp hairs (plate VII. figs. 14, 15). In C. fiavipes L. an even more striking appearance is seen, as the " unpaired lobe " appears to have quite a point. In a prepared specimen the vagina is found to be even more armed than in C. quadrifasciata, as is also the posterior surface of the lobe and the ventral space between. Posterior to the male genitalia of the last-named species is a little shiny black knob ; this is a paired organ homologous with the " forcipes superiores " of the ordinary genitalia. This knob, when the whole hypopygium is turned in under the abdomen of the female, comes in contact with the serrated posterior surface of the " lobe " and is kept in position by it. That being so, effective fertilisation would be greatly helped by the " unpaired lobe," and it is easy to see that females possessing it, or tending to vary in the direction of greater development, would have an advantage over the simpler females, and, passing on the character to their female offspring, produce these extraordinary complications (plate VII. figs. 16, 17). Anthomyid/E. Pegomyia latitarsis Ztt. has the last joint of the posterior tarsi enlarged, while the males are normal ; the advantage of this to the possessor is not obvious. Pegomyia bicolor W. has two very thickly haired patches, placed one behind the other on the ventral side of the abdomen, close to the aper- ture of the ovipositor. There are also two groups of eight spines disposed laterally on each side of the posterior patches. Cordylurid^e. Norellia spinimana Fin. has a number of blunt spines on the ventral side of the abdomen and below the ovipositor. Sapromyzid^e. S. fasciata Fin. has on each side of the fourth segment a patch of very fine bristles, highly chitinised and seated on a curious corrugation of membrane ; S. apicalis Lw. has the fine hair of the membrane, laterally on the lower part of the Tlie Microscope and Biology. By W. Weschi. 407 abdomen, modified into sharp hooks. Lauxanea aenea Fin. has the same. These structures are peculiar, as usually the chitinous plates are altered. They are undoubtedly " secondary sexual," and present degrees of development in those species observed ; They are very marked in S. fasciata, might easily escape notice in S. apicalis and L. cenea, while they are absent in S. lupulina F. and Lauxanea bilineata Hutton (N. Zealand) and L. decora Schiner (S.E. Australia). Borborhle. The membrane of the abdomen in B. equinus L. is studded with short sharp spines, but not close to each other in the contact areas, as in the Sapromyzida? ; the corresponding part in the male is nearly bare, though the plates on the ventral side of the abdomen are thickly covered with seta?. Sphasrocera sub- sultans F. has similar modifications. HiPPOBOSCiDiE. H. equina L. has large lateral spined tubercles on each side of the vagina, as well as two spiny patches on the dorsal side, near the posterior end of the abdomen ; the whole of this part is much more sharply spined than in the male. Olfersia tasmanica Wesche, a Tasmanian insect, parasitic on the Wallaby, has tubercles in the same places, but they are armed with long delicate spines. II. — The Mouth-parts. The majority of insects are provided with a strong pair of biting or crushing jaws (mandibles), which break up their food and enable the smaller jaws (maxilla?) to seize it, and with the aid of the labium transmit it down the gullet till it reaches the gizzard. The three principal orders whose trophi most markedly differ from this scheme are the Hemiptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera, and the microscopist who is familiar with these four types can already do much in classifying his preparations. The Hemiptera can be easily recognised by their " beak " : a sharp case (labium) which contains fine delicate lancets (mandibles and maxilla?) and is usually turned in under the thorax. The Lepidoptera have their maxilla? modified into a long double tube, which is carried curled up like a watch-spring. The Diptera are distinguished by the presence of trachea? on the labium. In the Culicida? (gnats) and certain parasitic forms this character may fail, but high powers will show traces of their presence, or of their presence in the past. Mandibles that bite or crush will never be found, though their representatives are present in certain families ; but in the trophi there is such a wide range of variation, and such alteration of detail, that from a study of this part alone a judgment can be formed of the habits and food, and in the majority of cases of the place in the scheme of classification. I have treated this subject at 408 Transactions of the Society. some length in a paper published in the Journal of this Society,* but will supplement those observations by a few general rules, that will, I hope, enable the student to glean facts from his preparations. 1. When the mandibles and maxillae are present the insect is a blood-sucker, as Culcx, Tabanus, or Simnlmm. 2. When the labium is without teeth and has only a simple arrangement of tracheos, and the mouth is armed with maxillae and with maxillary palpi, the insect is predaceous, as in Empis. 3. When the labium is without teeth, but has well developed tracheal, and the mouth is armed with maxillae and with maxillary palpi, the insect feeds on the pollen of flowers, as in Syrphus. 4. When the labium is without teeth, or maxilhe, and the palpi present (well developed) are labial, the insect feeds on the juices or the smaller pollen of flowers, as in Trypeta, or Pipunculus. N.B. — The palpus is labial when unattached to the stipes or cardo of the maxilla — in Calliphora labial, in Syrphus or Culex maxillary. 5. When the mouth-parts are as in Rule 4, except that the labella or paraglossae of the labium have strongly chitinised teeth * " The Mouth-parts of the Nemocera and their Relation to the other Families in Diptera," January 1904. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII. Fig. 14. — Part of the abdomen of Conops quadrifasciata Deg. 6 . This and the next two figures are drawn from pinned specimens to show the ordinary appearance as seen when examined with a simple lens. Fig. 15. — Part of the abdomen of C. quadrifasciata 9 to show the curious unpaired organ that is appended to this part in the female. Fig. 16. — Part of the abdomen of C. flavipes L. 9 , to show an even more remarkable development of the appended lobe. Fig. 17. — Part of the abdomen of C. flavipes L. 9 , drawn from a prepared specimen, to show the complicated spinose armature of the part. Fig. 18. — Trophi of Norrellia spinimana Fin. 9 . (The mouth does not differ in the sexes.) Raptorial type, to illustrate Rule 5. This insect is placed in the Cordyluridse, and a lateral view is given of the trophi. Fig. 19. — The teeth of N. spinimana drawn from a higher magnification. They are very strong and highly chitinised, and may be compared with those on the paraglossae (labella) of the blow-fly (Calliphora erythrocephala Mg.). Fig. 20. — Trophi of Lyperosa (?) 9 . This is a Sinhalese insect, and is, though much smaller, closely allied to our blood-sucking Stomoxys, the chief point of difference being the larger relative size of the palpi in Lyperosa ; the male arma- ture does not differ from that of the female. Blood-sucking Muscid type, to illustrate Rule 8. Lateral view. Fig. 21. — Part of the paraglossae of Hydrotea occulta Mg. 6 , highly magnified, to show the situation and character of the teeth characteristic of the general feeder. Armature identical in both sexes. To illustrate Rule 6. This insect belongs to the Anthomyia family, and the preparation shows the dorsal side upper- most. Fig. 22. — Trophi of Tabanus sudeticus Zlr. 9 . The males are without the mandibles. A blood-sucker of the most pronounced type. To illustrate Rule 1. Dorsal view. JOURN. R. MICR. SOC. 1908. PI. VII. »?& *i m r p /"■ 5. K , 22,,,, = j ^RE Fig. 33. *. Fig. 34. W. Imboden, phcto. The Microscope and Biology. By W. Wesche". 419 laid eight eggs in the thorax, where they [can still be seen in situ. SciomyziD/E. — Tetanocera Icevifrons Lw. is quite filled with digested food, and the lower part of the intestine shows much black stain. Ortalid^e. — Ptcropcectria nigrina Mg., Seoptera vibrans L., and Ulidia nigripennis Lw., show the black granular remains, but no undigested food. TRYPETiDiE. — Acidia lychnidis F. shows pollen, and the intes- tine is much stained with black. Tephritis formosa Lw. £ has a particularly long intestine, much coiled, and full of nearly digested food. Lonch^eid^e. — Lonchcea nigrimana Mg. is full of pollen, and all the members of this small family are flower haunters. Sapromyzid.e. — The flies of this family are mostly full of debris of various kinds, with large fragments of black or chitinous-looking material. It is interesting that a Lauxania from New Zealand has an identical appearance. In addition to this, Sapromyza fasciata Fin. shows the spores so often met with. Another undetermined Sapromyza also shows a number of spores. The debris in Lauxanca mnea Fin. is large, and there are some crystals. \ L. bilineata Hutton (N.Z.) also shows a similar type of digested food. Some of the crystals in L. decora Schiner (S. Australia) are green. Sepsid^e. — Sepsis cynipsea L. shows the usual black granular stain and some digested food. Ephydrid^e. — Parhydra coarctata Fin. has varying appearances ; one shows a very fine mass of conglomerate, with larger pieces of chitin (?), and others black in colour and angular in form. Another quite different, rather like dried blood. A third with the intestine full of conglomerate. Scatophila despecta Hal. shows many diatoms, Pinnuliaria and Navicula. Borborid^e. — Borboras equimts L., male and female, both show a large granule and reddish nodules in the intestine. B. genicidatus (?) Mg. $ shows some very minute reniform granules, besides the usual mass. Limnosina fuscipennis Hal. has all the abdomen full of larger, milky white, kidney-shaped pollen. Phorid^e. — Phora riifipes Mg. $ shows the cracked dried-up appearance that I associate with albumen. There is little doubt that some of these flies are predaceous. An undetermined Phora from New Zealand also shows this appearance in both sexes. HippoBOSCiDiE. — A Nycteribid shows blood in quite an un- digested state (N. Hermanni Leach). 2 f 2 420 Transactions of the Society. The Contents of the Abdomen. b. Structure. — I shall now make some remarks on the structure found in the abdomen, regarded more especially from the point of view of the microscopist. The containing membranes of the intes- tines, and of the various complicated glands that surround the stomach, are so soluble that they seldom or never show in pre- parations fitted for high powers. However, the following parts are often visible : — (1) the gizzard, or crop ; (2) the rectal papilla? ; (3) the breathing tracheae and the stigmata ; (4) the eggs or larvae or pupa ; and (5) receptacula seminis or spermathecoe. 1. The gizzard is an elaborate and interesting structure in many insects. In our large grasshoppers it is scarcely a micro- scopic organ ; in the earwig (Forficula) it consists of two arms studded with rows of sharp hooks ; in the cockroach (Periplaneta) it is, though chitinous, more muscular and is adapted for crushing, not tearing. All can be easily found in preparations. Nothing similar exists in the flies, but an organ composed of a number of a. Papilla. b. Receptaculurrit Fig. 114. — Rectal papillae of Hydrellia griseola Fin. 9 . Theldelicate membrane is the anal extremity of the intestine. In the process of dissection it has been forced out of the anus, and consequently reversed ; normally, the apices of the cones of the papillae are on the inner side, but I have drawn it just as I saw it. This figure also shows the single receptaculum seminis that is found in this fly, which, moreover, is remarkable, as the mouth contains a complete maxilla. filaments, springing from a central tube, is often met with in the calyptrate Muscidoe. This is the chyle stomach. The crop or gizzard can be differentiated in the blow-fly (Calliphora), though to see it special dissection is necessary ; it is not likely to appear in preparations, such as the other observations can be made from. A somewhat similar organ is found in the abdomen of the fleas (Pulicidoe). 2. The rectal papillae will often be met with pressed out of the anus. In some Diptera they have minute scales ; this is most marked in the Dolichopodida:, the " fan-tailed flies," where micros- copists will find them mostly in the abdomen or in the ovipositor. I give a figure of them as they are found in a minute Ephydrid, Hydrellia griseola Fin. This was drawn from a dissection : it is seldom these organs appear so clearly. 3. The tracheae are often dissolved away by the potash, but The Microscope and Biology. By W. Wesche'. 421 good preparations can be secured by careful watching, taking the insect out of the solution immediately the chitin is thoroughly softened and will not crack with pressure. They are beautiful symmetrical objects, and can be easily traced to their openings, the stigmata, particularly in the longer ovipositors, where the membrane is transparent. The stigma has a minute apodeme or lever to control its aperture ; this lever in the flies undergoes great changes in appearance, so that it is occasionally possible to find the place of an insect in the classification by a sight of this part alone. 4. Eggs will often be met with in various stages of development. In Pcriplaneta the capsule that contains them can be seen, but certainly not recognised, as it appears as a mass of folded chitin. When eggs are present in the flies, the abdomen is full of them ; the receptacula seminis in some species are egg-shaped, but are usually only three in number and can thus be distinguished, but the beginner is very likely to take them for eggs. 5. Larvae when present will always show, as their jaws will Fig. 115. — Jaws of the larva of Lucilia sericata Mg. These larvse infest the fleeces of sheep. Most of the larvae in the Muscidge have the trophi of this type. not dissolve. There are many species of the large Muscid family that are viviparous, and a slide with the jaws of the larvae showing in the abdomen will absolutely settle this point in the life-history. I have preparations of Oliviera lateralis F., Plagia trepida Mg. and Phorocera serriventris End., showing these jaws. In the latter case a problem at once presents itself. The female has a remarkable ovipositor, of which the principal part is a curved hook turned in under the abdomen. (Not at all resembling in arrangement this part as found in the Pipunculidae.) The question arises, to what use does an insect put an ovipositor when that insect does not lay eggs ? One day a field naturalist will notice this fly boring holes in something that will contain food, or abraiding with the under surface of the abdomen some leaf or plant and depositing larvae. The edges of the plates on the under side of the abdomen are spined (hence Eondani's name). This elaboration exists for some very specific purpose, but here the limitations of what I may call the " arm-chair method " come in, and we must wait for the field naturalist to solve the problem. Even here the Microscope affords a clue that may suggest a solution. The " scent pits " on the 422 Transactions of the Society. antennae of the female are unusually numerous and well developed — far more so than in those of the male. The " scent pits " on the antenna? of many of the Ichneumonidae are very large and regularly disposed on each of the numerous joints. Mr. C. 0. Waterhouse, Pres.E.S., told me that he has watched the females of certain species using the antennas to detect the presence of larvae living under the bark of the smaller branches of shrubs ; this was obviously done by scent, and when the insect was satisfied of the presence of its prey the ovipositor was brought into play and eggs laid in or near the unfortunate host. It is well known that the larvae of the Tachinidae in which family Pkorocera is placed, live on the larvae of other orders, and even on the larvae of a species of fly (Sciara mali Fitch). It therefore appears pro- bable that the host of P. serriventris is some insect that burrows into wood or other substance, and the ovipositor and the highly specialised scent-organs (dependent on each other for successful Fig. 116. Fig. 117. Fig. 118. Fig. 116. — Receptaculurn semiuis of Conops flavipes L. Four are found in this insect ; actual size, circa 200 /j.. Fig. 117. — Receptaculurn of Chrysopillus aureus Mg. Three are present in this insect ; actual size, 130 p. Fig. 118. — Receptaculurn of Beris vallata Forst. Three are found in this insect, and each have the long tubular attachment figured ; these organs in the Tabanidae and Asilidse have similar appendages. Actual size of bulb, 100 /*. application) have developed, giving Phorocera particular advantages, possibly the monopoly of a species, for the food of its larvae. These flies were quite common in a garden in South Hamp- stead in the month of June. 6. The pupa will be found in the abdomen of the Hippoboscidae, those remarkable flies which have been so modified that they pass through the larval stage in the abdomen ; it is but seldom that a specimen shows this. 7. The receptacula seminis may be regarded as part of the female genitalia, but for convenience I will make what few remarks I have to make here. I am only acquainted with these organs in Diptera. They vary remarkably and inexplicably, not only in number (from one to four) but in sculpturing and shape, species differing from species. In groups like the Anthomyidae, where The Microscope and Biology. By W. Wesche'. 423 sexual dimorphism is commonly found, the females are very diffi- cult to distinguish, and I have been able to separate female insects by a comparison of this part. When I say " inexplicably " I do so advisedly, as in what manner the various setae, points, tubercles, folds and differences in shape can influence any particular species is at present an enigma ; varia- tions in genitalia are a check on hybridism, but how do these modifications further that end ? IV. — The Genitalia. I have treated this subject at some length in a former paper,* to' which I refer those who wish to pursue this difficult subject. The study of these organs is of great use in the separation of species. The microscopist who has seen that the genitalia are identical, is not confused by the variability in colours, however remarkable, or deceived by the similarity of appearance so per- plexing in the Sarcophagidse or the Lucilidce, and in so many Lepidoptera. Summary. I have several times mentioned facts that may be very ancient history to the entomologist, but are useful to the microscopist of average experience. But besides this, I have collected a number of observations that I submit are, at all events, out of the beaten track, and I shall enumerate these in the order in which they occur in the paper. 1. Modifications in the general structure that are guides as to the habits of insects are discussed. Figures of various types of limbs are given in the plates. 2. A number of the comparatively rare secondary sexual characters in the female are given, confined however, to the Order of Diptera. 3. General rules are formulated for finding the nature of the food from the characters of the mouth-parts, also confined to the same Order. Figures of the various types to illustrate the rules are given in the plates. 4. A number of observations of the food of various mandibu- late insects belonging to other Orders are given, and illustrated by photography in the plates. 5. The appearance of digested food in various insects is dis- cussed, and suggests that an identical process of digestion occurs in all Orders, and in all habits (predaceous or otherwise). * " The Genitalia of Both Sexes of Diptera." Trans. Linn. Soc. Ser. 2 (Zool.) ix., Part 10, July 1906. 424 Transactions of the Society. 6. Recognisable remains of prey are found in a number of inandibulate insects. 7. Also in a few Diptera. 8. Remains identified as scales and hairs of Culcx. 9. The food of non-predaceous flies is discussed, and in one or two cases the pollen is recognised. 10. Food which must have been eaten in the larval stage is found in the abdomen of the female imago of Oncodes gibhosus L., and not in that of the male. 11. Spores of rust or mould, or mildew, are found in the intes- tines of many Diptera, from New Zealand as well as England. 12. Larvae are found in the abdomens of several viviparous flies — Phoroccra, Oliviera, and Plagia. 13. Differences are noted in the armature of the mouth of the males and females of some Phoridse. Methods of Work. — I use a § in. for general, and a | in. capable of working at a long distance, for particular examination. With them I use a powerful substage condenser (the ordinary Abbe is not sufficiently powerful). A ^ oil-immersion, with a tube-length of 25 mm., is occasionally employed. Examination through the slip is sometimes necessary, when the part desired to be seen is on the under side of the preparation ; an eye-piece of high magnification is used with the § in., and answers very fairly well. The satisfactory working of these objectives entirely depends on the substage illumination ; the con- denser must be powerful, and the iris diaphragm carefully used, as the objects focused are often on the surface, or even between plates of only semi-transparent chitin. In conclusion, I have to express my great obligations to Mr. Walter Imboden, F.R.M.S., for his most valuable assistance in so kindly photographing the abdomens of various insects. 425 XIII. — Illuminating Apparatus for the Microscope. By J. W. Gordon. (Read June 17, 1908.) The illuminating apparatus which is this evening exhibited has been designed as the result of experience gained in working with very high powers. But it is believed that it will be found to comprise several material improvements upon present forms of apparatus even for use with ordinary magnifying powers. For successful illumination of the stage of a Microscope it is necessary that the operator should have control over (1) the brilliancy of the light; (2) the form of the luminous disk which constitutes the source of light ; and (3) the angle under which the light is incident upon the object. It is further important that the light source, when in focus, should be a featureless disk, and that all the adjustments relating to the points above enumerated should be susceptible of being independently made. These points may best be illustrated by taking notice of the defects exhibited by the various sources of illumination in common use. To take, first of all, the ordinary paraffin lamp. The great defect of this light source is that it is too feeble for use with very high magnifying powers. With ordinary magnifications, however, its brilliancy is abundantly sufficient. But here its shape is faulty. The side of the flame is unsuitable for use, because its luminosity and colour vary in different parts of its area. This defect may, indeed, be made good by placing a perforated diaphragm in front of the flame, and using only a selected part as the effective source of light. In that case, however, if a uniform source of light is to be obtained, it is necessary to limit the exposed surface to such a small area that an equal breadth of light-source can be obtained by placing the flame end-on to the Microscope — and this, in fact, is the plan adopted in practice by all experienced microscopists. It has the additional advantage of presenting the flame with its long axis in line with the optical axis of the instrument, with the result that the light is concentrated, since to some extent the remoter parts of the flame shine through the nearer parts, which are not entirely opaque to the flame-light. For use with high powers a source of light having an elongated form is, however, very unsuitable, for a reason which will be easily 426 Transactions of the Society. understood by reference to the annexed diagram (fig. 119). Here the optical system of the Microscope is represented by its Gauss planes. Now let us suppose that for the due delineation of a particular feature in the object it is necessary to throw the light-source slightly out of focus with the object. Then, the image of the light-source, being focused, say at Px -2]0 in. short of the object, another image, conjugate to this, will be formed at the point marked P2 in the diagram, which lies at about -^fa in.* behind the eye-point E of the instrument, it being assumed that the Microscope as a whole has a magnifying power of 1000. It will, of course, follow that this image of the source of light will be interposed between the eye-lens of the Microscope and the retina •of the observer ; and therefore, upon the principle first explained by Helmholtz, the effect upon the image, so far as diffraction is concerned, will be the same as if a diaphragm were interposed at that point in front of the observer's eye, having an aperture of the same form and dimensions as the image of the flame. Those Fig. 119. dimensions are easily calculable. But as it is only the breadth which now concerns us, it will suffice to obtain a notion of the breadth of this post-ocular image of the lamp-flame. Assuming the original lamp-flame to have a breadth of j1^ in., its image at Px would, with a £-in. condenser, have a breadth of about one- thirtieth of that quantity, amounting, say, to ^^ in. The second image, formed at P2, may be supposed to have a breadth of about one-quarter of this amount, so that the image of the lamp-flame formed over the eye-lens of the instrument would have a dia- meter of about 50V0 ^n- It ^s we^ known that the diffraction produced by an aperture of such dimensions is very serious, and in fact it is found quite impossible to obtain a well-resolved image of fine detail under these conditions. Experience has shown that what is known as " critical illumination " is necessary , that is to say, the edge of the flame must be accurately focused in the plane of the object, so that its image may everywhere coincide with the image of the object and there may be no diffracting aperture interposed between the eye-lens and the observer's retina. Hence it is in practice found impossible to use a lamp-flame for critical * This, perhaps, is stated too rigorously, the position and dimensions of the image being variable within comparatively wide limits in different optical systems. But as the case actually put is one that might very well occur in practice, it may serve the purpose of illustration. Illuminating Apparatus. By J. W. Gordon. 427 work under other conditions than those of precise focusing on the stage of the instrument ; and the very considerable advantage of being able independently to control the brightness of the illumina- tion and the angle at which the light shall be incident upon the object, is lost. This is, in fact, a more serious difficulty than is commonly supposed in the way of high-power microscopic work ; and what has here been stated in reference to the lamp-flame applies, of course, with added force to such sources of light as electric lamp filaments or Welsbach mantles. The diffraction which they produce when thrown slightly out of focus makes them wholly useless under those conditions of working, and the con- traction of the illuminated field when they are in focus makes them entirely unsuitable for the purposes of critical illumination. This difficulty has in practice been met by placing ground-glass between the source of light and the condenser. So long as the ground-glass remains out of focus it forms a most excellent light source. But if it is brought into the position in which it yields Ground Glass Fig. 120. the brightest field its grain becomes conspicuous, and of course destroys the image. For this reason a flame or filament covered with ground-glass, in the usual way of employing that medium, has only a very limited application in microscopy. The two great difficulties, then, against which provision has to be made in devising a source of light for the Microscope are (1) diffraction due to the post-ocular image of the filament when a glowing filament is used ; and (2) the loss of light and intrusion of the grain when a diaphanous screen is employed to diffuse the light from the primary light source. Both these difficulties are met by the use of the speculum ex- hibited this evening. The apparatus consists, as shown in fig. 120, of a glass rod, one end of which is cut to a plane surface and finely ground. Such a surface can be very strongly illuminated, for it will bear exposure to very intense radiant heat. The small size and symmetrical form of the exposed surface render it singularly tolerant of this particular kind of hard usage, and the very con- siderable conducting power of the glass rod prevents it from being easily heated to fusing-point. It may thus be placed with perfect safety within \ in. of a Xernst filament, and in that way it can be made to receive a very intense illumination. In the illuminating apparatus now under description this ground-glass surface becomes 428 Transactions of the Society. the effective source of light. It is a very convenient light source, because its brilliancy can be varied within wide limits, and very simply. By varying the distance between the filament and the ground-glass surface, the luminosity of the latter can be rapidly and greatly altered, since it varies inversely with the square of the distance between the filament and the ground-glass film. The light which in this way enters the glass speculum is transmitted almost intact by total internal reflection along the length of the glass rod. If a glass be chosen which has low absorbent power and is free from optical defects, the illumination is almost constant at all points of the speculum. The optical system of such a speculum presents some very interesting features, but its discussion would demand more space than can be allotted to it in this paper. It may suffice here to say that these internal reflections give rise to a figure in which a central disk of light is seen surrounded by a succession of luminous rings concentric with it, the illumination falling off gradually towards the edges of the pattern. The diameter of the central disk and of its concentric rings is, of course, determined primarily by the diameter of the rod. Its appearance, however, is dependent equally upon the magnifying power under which it is viewed. A rod of about \ in. diameter yields a disk of very serviceable size. The glass speculum, which is conveniently made about 6 in. in length, but may be of any required dimensions, is mounted in a carrier which holds it in a horizontal position, and is provided at the end opposite to the ground-glass already described with a polished surface, flat or lenticular in form, according to the user's requirements. The use of a lens, when the end of the rod is shaped to a lenticular form, is to focus the condenser short of the ground- glass at some point in the rod where the speculum pattern is of a convenient size. By speculum pattern I mean the appearance of the light source when some plane in the interior of the speculum is chosen as the source of light. The speculum pattern has the same general character of a luminous central disk surrounded by bright rings, as the ground-glass seen with the aid of the speculum. But in the speculum pattern itself there is no visible grain of the ground-glass. This results from the circumstance that the light at any point within the speculum is supplied by rays coming from various points upon the ground-glass. The features of various points of origin therefore are combined, with the result that the luminous patch is as structureless as is the flame of an oil lamp. We have, in fact, a diffusion similar to that which results from throwing the ground-glass out of focus ; but the use of a cylindrical reflector secures at the same time that there shall be no corre- sponding loss of light or loss of angle, since the light which would, if unreflected, have become diffused over a broad wave-front, is here condensed by reflection into the original and unvarying area. Illuminating Apparatus. By J. W. Gordon. 429 We thus obtain a light source which is structureless, and which, as we have already seen, can be made to vary indefinitely in intensity. The rest of the apparatus can be very briefly described. To the polished end of the speculum are fitted stops of various forms and sizes for the purpose of giving any required shape and dimensions to the light source. The fittings in which the burner and speculum are carried are made adjustable in height for the purpose of collimation, and the whole is placed upon a convenient stand adapted to hold the various parts in due relation to one another, while permitting the requisite freedom of motion. It will, of course, be understood that this speculum can be used not only with a Nernst lamp, but with any form of illuminant. Filamentous lamps, like the Osram and Tantalum lamps, which burn with very high brilliancy, are equally available, although, as these lamps are ordinarily made, their filaments, being inclosed in a glass envelope, cannot be brought into such close proximity to the ground-glass end of the speculum as the Nernst lamp, which burns in the open. Whatever the form of the primary source of light, the speculum pattern retains its even illumination and symmetrical figure, with the result that, whether focused in the plane of the object — that is to say, under the conditions of what is commonly called " critical illumination " — or not, the diffracting aperture is of circular form, and therefore yields a symmetrical antipoint, producing the best image which any Microscope with which it may be used is capable of yielding. 430 Transactions of the Society. XIV. — Corethron criophilum Castr. By Edward M. Nelson. (Read June 11th, 1908.) During the examination of a strewn slide this diatom was found. Critical examination showed that the " awns," or bristles of the " broom," had minute secondary spines arranged spirally round them. These secondary spines, though quite conspicuous in other varieties of this and kindred species, have not been previously observed on this variety. These secondary spines are not like the short thorns upon a Bacteriastrum* but they more resemble the spines upon the hair of a Polyxenus Lagurus. They are minute, being much about the size of a fiagellum of a bacterium. It is not on account of the insignificant biological importance of the discovery of these small secondary spines that this note is brought before you this evening — nevertheless, it is as well that an organism should be figured as correctly as possible— but from a microscopist's point of view this diatomic structure does possess some importance, for not only is it an excellent test object, but it will, better than almost any other object, enable a microscopist to discriminate between the various competing methods of illumina- tion. There can in this case be no doubt about the structure : no question can possibly arise as to whether it is a hole or a boss, a puncta or a pearl. In this object the focus for the white dot image is longer than that for the black dot. The thickness of the " awns "is 0 • 000006 inch plus 0-000003 for antipoint correction = 0-000009 inch, or 0*23 fM. It is then an interesting question if this structure can be better seen with a small or large axial cone of transmitted light, or upon a dark ground obtained, by the lately revived oil immer- sion paraboloid, by Mr. Gordon's top-stop arrangement,or by some other method. Apart from these considerations, questions upon the theory of microscopic vision are opened up, fOr at the present time it is held that a self-luminous bright line of great tenuity can be seen upon a dark ground where a dark line of the same thickness upon a bright ground could not ; but Mr. Gordon will tell you whether an object, such as this particular structure, illuminated upon a dark ground, would behave as a self-luminous object or not. * Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, iii. ser. 2, pi. 4, fig. 2, p. 42. 431 OBITUAKY. Henry Clifton Sorby. 1826-1908. Plate XI. Microscopical Science, as well as this Society, has suffered a serious loss by the death, on March 9, of Dr. Sorby. As President of the Society, in 1875-7, he contributed to our Journal two addresses of a very striking and suggestive character, while our own publications, as well as those of other scientific societies, con- tain many important communications from his pen, illustrating the enormous value of the Microscope as an instrument of scientific research. Sorby's life was a singularly, and happily, uneventful one. Succeeding to a moderate fortune, and receiving a sound education in the grammar school of his native town, supplemented by private tuition, he, at a very early age, determined to devote his life to the study of science ; and this devotion to scientific research was never interrupted by the duties owing to a family, by the cares of a business, or by the distractions of a profession. During his earlier years, Sorby's interest and activities were almost entirely confined to his native town of Sheffield and its scientific societies. In his later years, after the death of his widowed mother, he was in the habit of spending all the summer months on board his yacht, which, provided as it was with Microscopes and other apparatus for re- search, became a laboratory in which he carried on the multi- farious investigations described in his numerous memoirs. At the time that he was President of this Society, Sorby wrote as follows : — " My entire life has been spent either in scientific research or in preparation for it " — and this statement might have been justly repeated by him on his death-bed. For even during the last five years of his life, while confined to his bed by a series of accidents, he was actively engaged in completing and publishing the results of important investigations. Nor did the manifestations of his enthusiasm for research cease with the extinction of life itself — for a posthumous memoir of the highest value has just appeared in the Journal of the Geological Society ; while, by the terms of his will, a large part of Sorby's fortune will go to the Sheffield University — in the foundation of which he took such an important part — and the Koyal and Geological Societies receive bequests, to be devoted to the promotion of investigations of the same character as those which occupied the donor during his whole life, j 432 Obituary. A glance at the titles of more than two hundred and fifty- papers published by Sorby will show how wide were his sympathies and how varied his scientific tastes. Scarcely any branch of physical or natural science escaped his attention, and he not un- frequently strayed into the domains of archaeology, history, and art. Yet amid all this bewildering range of pursuits, one fact stands out conspicuously — his faith in and reliance upon the Microscope as a most potent aid in scientific research. Sorby's contributions to microscopy may be classed under three heads : — 1. Improvements in and additions to the Micro- scope, designed to increase its usefulness in scientific investiga- tions. 2. Discoveries, often of the most curious and unexpected character, in relation to physics, natural history, and even to medicine, sanitation, and jurisprudence, achieved by the use of the Microscope. 3. The establishment of new methods of research by microscopic means, which have had the most profound influence on the progress of science and the improvement of technological methods. 1. Sorby's first work with the Microscope, commenced while he was very young, was devoted to the study of the minute shells from the Bridlington Crag. He tells us that he was pretty well versed in the use of polarised light, and that he had practised the art of drawing under the Microscope, and of representing objects in their true colours. He soon found, however, that to do useful work it was necessary, wherever possible, to obtain thin trans- parent sections of the objects studied ; and having learned from Professor William Crawford Williamson how anatomists and botanists prepare thin sections of hard substances, it occurred to him that it would be possible by the same methods to make trans- parent sections of rocks. He at once set to work in this manner and in time introduced many improvements in the method. In employing such sections he was able to show that the polariscope, attached to the Microscope, is no mere toy, but a most powerful aid to scientific research. On the announcement in 1860 by Bunsen and Kirchoff of their methods of spectrum analysis, Sorby at once directed his energies to the employment of the Microscope in this interesting field of research. Having devised a form of Microscope, with a spectro- scopic attachment, he showed how in the most varied branches of scientific work important results were to be obtained by the use of the instrument. The study of stony meteorites and of their chondritic con- stituents led Sorby in 1869 to employ the Microscope as an aid to blowpipe-analysis, and thus to furnish valuable aid to the chemist and mineralogist. By flattening blowpipe-beads while they were still hot, and then examining them under the Microscope, he showed that the characteristic crystals of various substances Obituary. 433 formed in a bead could be recognised. In this way he to some extent foreshadowed the methods so beautifully developed by Boricky, Behrens and others., known as " Microchemical Analysis." In the same way the examination of the polished and etched surfaces of the metallic meteorites — and subsequently of artificial irons and steels — led Sorby to devise that useful method of illumination, the parabolic reflector. A method of determining the refractive index of substances had been devised more than a century ago by the Due de Chaulnes. But it remained nothing more than an interesting suggestion till Sorby showed how, by adding a graduated circle to the tine-adjust- ment and the employment of suitable gratings, the Microscope could be converted into a refractometer of great value in identify- ing minerals in the thinnest rock-sections. Subsequent devices, as shown in the pages of this Journal, enabled him to solve the problem of determining double refraction under similar conditions. In successive editions of Dr. Lionel Beale's useful manual, " How to Work with the Microscope," Sorby supplied a series of brief instructions concerning the new methods he had introduced for making thin sections of rocks and minerals, for determining refraction and double refraction, and for studying absorption and other spectra with the Microscope. 2. It is an almost impossible task even to enumerate the highly curious, and often important, discoveries to which Sorby's ingenious instrumental appliances and original methods conducted their author. By the microscopical study of coals and limestones he was led to highly important conclusions concerning the polymorphism of carbon and calcium carbonate ; while his investigations of iron- stones and dolomites showed how great a part is played by pseudo- morphism in the determination of the characters of those rocks. When he came to study slates and schists in thin slices under the Microscope, the theories of cleavage and foliation, by which he will always be remembered by geologists, suggested themselves to Ins mind. And, in the end, his study of the minute cavities in the crystals of rocks with their liquid contents — including super- saturated alkaline solutions and carbon dioxide — resulted in his far-reaching generalisations concerning the conditions under which deep-seated and erupted igneous rocks must have consolidated. An examination of the curious phenomenon of impressed pebbles was to Sorby the starting point in a series of ingenious speculations, which culminated in the doctrine enunciated in his Bakerian lecture, " On the Direct Correlation of the Mechanical and Chemical Forces." In the same way the study of meteorites, by the aid of the Microscope, led him to many ingenious deductions concerning the Aug. 19th, 1908 2 G 434 Obituary. conditions under which these visitants to our globe must have been formed. The invention of the " Microspectroscope " was signalised by a number of curious discoveries on the spectrum of the blood and the changes that blood undergoes in time, of the colours of hah' in man and the lower animals, the colours of eggs, of insects, and of the leaves and flowers of plants, and their changes, of algas, fungi, and many- other organic bodies. The absorption spectra of gems, and the relations between absorption and fluorescence, were also studied by Mm, and ingenious methods based on these observations were devised for the analysis of organic substances and the detection of poisons. In his later years, when he utilised his yacht for studies of marine organisms and their distribution, and when much of his time and attention was devoted to devising methods for preserving these organisms and preparing them for exhibition as lantern slides, we find him at all times utilising his Microscope in con- nection with his interesting work. 3. Sorby himself made the avowal that, throughout his career, he was always more concerned to seek out new and fruitful lines of research, than to pursue those already discovered to their ultimate development. It might perhaps be expected that, con- sidering his wide range of interests, and the facility with which he abandoned old lines of investigation when attracted by new problems, the outcome of his labours would be varied, curious, and fascinating, rather than conducive to great advances in science or productive of valuable commercial results. Nothing, however, could be further from the truth, for Sorby will always be honoured as the pioneer in one of the most impor- tant branches of geological science, and as the discoverer of a method which is having a most potent influence on the develop- ment of the industries of his native town. At the recent centenary of the Geological Society, the geologists from every part of the globe united in hailing Sorby as the " Father of Microscopical Petrography " — for his early work resulted in the development of a method that has revolutionised the study of rocks. A large and ever-increasing yearly output of literature testifies to the importance which this branch of science has now assumed. In the same way, the discoveries to which Sorby was led by his study of the metallic meteorites, concerning the nature of the compounds building up artificial irons and steels, have led to the recognition of the " sorbitic " method as one of the most im- portant aids in investigating the causes of the strength or weakness of various products used in the industrial arts. And the use of the method has now extended to other branches of metallurgy. Sorby's complete absorption in scientific labour and speculation JOURN. R. M1CR. SOC. 1908. PI. XI. /*Y * C*- ^/&~/^^ Obituary. 435 often rendered him completely oblivious to the ordinary interests of other men. This sometimes led to little peculiarities occasionally bordering on eccentricity, but always of the most amiable kind. His servants and sailors were devoted to him, and the few scientific friends who had the pleasure of knowing him intimately could not sufficiently admire the transparent simplicity and extreme love- ableness of his character. Honours justly flowed to him from every quarter, but left him modest and undistracted from the research to which, in his youth, he determined to devote his life, and to which, in his old a°:e, he remained so constant.* John W. Judd. [For the loan of the portrait we are indebted to the courtesy of the editor of the " Geological Magazine," Dr. Henry Woodward, LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S. F.Z.S. F.R.M.S.— Ed.] Charles Stewart, 1840-1907. Charles Stewart was bom in 1840 at Plymouth, where his father and grandfather had been in practice. He received his medical education at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, taking the M.E.C.S. in 1862. In 1866 he obtained the post of Curator of the Museum at St. Thomas's Hospital, and was subsequently Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy and joint Lecturer on Physiology at that institution. In 1884 his connection with St. Thomas's Hospital ceased, owing to his appointment as Conservator of the Museum of the Eoyal College of Surgeons, a post he held till his death on September 27, 1907. From 1866 Stewart was a Fellow of the Linnean Society, and from 1890 to 1894 held the office of President. He became a Fellow of the Eoyal Microscopical Society in 1867, and was joint Secretary with H. J. Slack from 1873 to 1878, and from 1878 to 1883 with Sir Frank Crisp. In 1896 he was elected to the Fellowship of the Eoyal Society, and three years later the University of Aberdeen conferred on him the degree of LL.D. (honoris causa). Stewart was a great lecturer ; his words came easily and eagerly, and he was able to communicate his ideas and facts not * Interesting autobiographical reminiscences of Sorby will be found |in his " Unencumbered Research : A Personal Experience," published in the " Essays on the Endowment of Research," 1876, and in a lecture before the Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society in 1879, entitled " Fifty Years of Scientific Research." A list of his numerous papers is given in " The Naturalist " for 1906. 2 G 2 436 Obituary. only in graphic and striking language, but to illustrate them on the blackboard with wonderful freehand drawings. Though of recent years he rarely frequented the meetings of the Society, in former times he was an assiduous and constant attendant, and contributed during the active period the following papers to the Society : — Note on the Scalp of a Negro. Bead Jan. 1, 1873. Monthly Micr. Journ., 1873, p. 54. Notes on Bucephalus polymorphus. Eead June 2, 1875. Monthly Micr. Journ., 1875, pp. 1, 2. On the Lachrymal Gland of the Common Turtle. Read Nov. 7, 18/ 7. Monthly Micr. Journ., 1877, p. 241. On a New Coral, Stylaster stellulatus, and Note on Tubipora musica. Eead March 6, 1878. Journ. E.M.S., 1878, pp. 41-4. On some Structural Features of Echinostrephus molare, Parasalenia gratiosa, and Stowopneustes variolaris. Eead Nov. 10, 1880. Journ. B.M.S., 1880, pp. 909-12. On a Supposed New Boring Annelid. Eead May 11, 1881. Journ. E M.S., 1881, pp. 717-19. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY (principally invertebrata and cryptogamia), MICROSCOPY, Etc.* ZOOLOGY. VERTEBRATA. a. Embryology, t Shapes of Eggs.} — D'Arcy W. Thompson discusses the factors which determine the shapes of the eggs of birds. Eggs may be spherical, elliptical, ovoid, or blunt at one end and pointed at the other. Selec- tionist interpretations suggest that the pointed egg is less apt than a spherical one to roll off a narrow ledge of rock, and that the conical form permits many large eggs to be packed closely under the mother- bird. But in dealing with organic forms, we should first try to in- terpret them in terms of " the intrinsic forces of growth acting from within and the forces of tension and pressure that may have acted from without." The problem is : given a practically incompressible fluid, contained in a deformable capsule, which is either (a) entirely inex- tensible, or (b) slightly extensible, and placed in a long elastic tube, the walls of which are radially contractile, to determine the shape under pressure. An incompressible fluid contained in an inextensible envelope cannot be deformed without puckering of the envelope taking place, and, as this does not occur, it may be assumed (a) that the envelope is to some extent extensible, or (b) that the whole structure grows under relatively fixed conditions — two suppositions which are practically identical with one another in effect. At all points the shape is de- termined by the law of the distribution of radial pressure within the given region of the oviduct, surface friction helping to maintain the egg in position. If the egg be under pressure from the oviduct, but without any marked component either in a forward or backward direc- * The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and they do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually pub- lished, and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have not been previously described in this country. t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called, but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and allied subjects. % Nature, June 4, 1908, pp. 111-13. 438 NUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO tion, the egg will be compressed in the middle, and will tend more or less to the form of a cylinder with spherical ends. The eggs of the grebe and cormorant (or crocodile) may be supposed to receive their shape in such circumstances. When the egg is subject to the peristaltic contraction of the ovi- duct during its formation, then from the nature and direction of motion of the peristaltic wave the pressure will be greatest somewhere behind the middle of the egg ; in other words, the tube is converted for the time being into a more conical form, and the simple result follows that the anterior end of the egg becomes the broader and the posterior the narrower. In an egg, consisting of an extensible membrane filled with an incompressible fluid and under external pressure, the equation of the envelope is p„ + T (— +—\ = P, where pn is the normal component of external pressure at a point where r and r1 are the radii of curvature, T is the tension of the envelope, and P the internal fluid pressure. This is simply the equation of an elastic surface where T represents the coefficient of elasticity ; in other words, a flexible elastic shell has the same mathematical properties as the fluid membrane-covered egg. The author goes on to discuss particular applications of this equation of equilibrium. Development of Polypterus senegalus.* — J. Graham Kerr has worked over the collection of eggs and embryos of Polypterus made by the late J. S. Budgett. The eggs seem to be deposited in shallow lagoons early in the rainy season, and apparently adhere to submerged twigs or water-plants. There is some indication that fertilisation is internal. The young fry apparently accompany a parent (probably the male) in a dense swarm. The segmentation is complete, and in its earliest stages nearly equal ; the invagination groove is at first nearly equatorial ; as the curve described by the groove becomes closed, an enormous "yolk- plug " is formed ; rudiments of external gills and cement organs appear at an early stage ; the buccal cavity is for a while a widely-open space bounded by the cement organs, the lower side of the head, and the cardiac region. The mesoderm of the trunk region arises as it does in Lepidosiren, Protopterus, and Petromyzon, by "delamination." A well-developed solid post-anal gut is present, which eventually breaks up and disappears. It is interesting to find that the secretory epithelium of the cement organ is endodermic, arising as a pair of hollow enteric diverticula, which become cut off from the rest of the endoderm and establish a connection with the outer surface. The lung rudiment is median and ventral, and very soon shows asymmetry. The pancreas develops from three rudiments, and the liver is really a hepatopancreas, having pancreatic tissue spread out over part of its ventral surface. * The Work of John Samuel Budgett (Cambridge, 1907) pp. 195-284 (3 pis. and 67 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 439 The dorsal aorta arises from cells or protoplasmic masses derived from the sclerotome ; its lumen is derived from the fusion of originally separate vacuoles in these masses ; the endocardium appears to be mesoblastic in origin ; the blood-corpuscles appear suddenly, and it is suggested that they are mesenchyme cells set free by an epidemic of mitosis. The chondrocranium is amphibian-like in early stages. The neural tube arises by overarching of the medullary folds. Both infundibulum and optic rudiments are clearly recognisable while the medullary groove is still widely open throughout. As in Lepidosiren and other forms, the brain is, during the earlier part of its development, divided into two, not three regions— the primitive forebraiu and the rhombencephalon. The pineal outgrowth is single, and without any eye-like structure. In the adult the cerebellum becomes highly developed, and forms anteriorly a valvula cerebelli, while posteriorly it projects back in a quite similar manner into the fourth ventricle. The material forming the side walls of the thalamencephalon does not become pushed out to form cerebral hemispheres, but is accommodated partly by the great increase in the length of the thalamencephalon, partly by its becoming invaginated into the interior of the third ventricle. The two olfactory rudiments are apparently connected by an ectodermal thickening across the middle line in early stages ; the cavity of the olfactory organ is a secondary excavation in the originally solid rudiment. On the whole, the general phenomena of development in Polypterus show frequent striking resemblances with what occur in Dipnoans and in the lower Amphibia. In the investigator's opinion these resemblances are sufficient by themselves to indicate the probability that the Teleo- stomes, the Dipnoans, and the Amphibians, have arisen in phylogeny from a common stem, which would in turn probably have diverged from the ancestral Selachian stock. The ancestors of the Amniota ;probably diverged either about one or about several points from the region of the stem common to Dipnoi and Amphibia. The external gills develop in Polypterus exactly as they do in Lepidosiren and Protopterus, and in the more primitive Amphibia (Urodela and Gymnophiona), i.e. each one arises as an outgrowth from the outer side of the visceral arch (in this case hyoidean), composed of mesenchymatous core and an ectodermal covering. They appear before the perforation of the gill-clefts, and are probably organs of great antiquity. The respiratory epithelium of the gill-clefts has arisen by a spreading inwards from the ectodermal respiratory epithelium of the external gills. The author returns to his theory that paired limbs are honio- dynamous with external gills in which the potential motor function has been accentuated. Budgett showed that the condition of the fin-skeleton in the larva of Polypterus indicates its close relationship to the type of uniserial fin- skeleton in sharks ; Graham Kerr re-states the hypothesis that both can be referred back to a primitive biserial archipterygium like that of Ceratodus. In the evolution of the head there has been a varying amount of displacement in an antero-posterior direction of the relative positions 440 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO of mesoderm segments and visceral pouches ; and it is suggested that the enterocoelic pouches were once wholly posterior to the visceral pouches, and that the two structures are really homodynamous. The nervous material which corresponds with the whole of the cerebral heinisphei"e in the higher forms — including the pallium or mantle — lies in Polypterus in the thickened wall of the thalamen- cephalon. What is ordinarily called the pallium in a Crossopterygian is simply the roof of the thalamencephalon, and the conditions in Actinopterygian Ganoids and Teleosts are similar. These are some of the general results of an exceedingly important investigation. Development of Gymnarchus niloticus.* — Richard Assheton describes the development of this Teleost, which belongs to the Mormyridas, a primitive Malacopterygian family. His material was collected in the Gambia by the late J. S. Budgett, and the memoir is the first account of the development of any Mormyrid. The development is on the whole typically Teleostean, but there are many interesting features. The egg is large (10 mm. in diameter) and the development is very rapid, the larva emerging upon the seventh day, whereas that of a trout takes 35-100 days, according to the temperature. The elongated embryo suggests that of an Amniote with almost typical " primitive streak " ; the " archenteron " in so far as it occurs is more like that in an early stage of Hypogeophis (Brauer) than a " Kupffer vesicle." In the region of the primitive streak the hypoblast is continuous with the yolk and the primitive streak as it is in Amphibia, and not separated as it is in birds and mammals. There is a large mass of yolk, and the larvae have very long gill-filaments hanging down in two blood-red branches. The alimentary canal arises as a cleft among the hypoblast cells. At an early stage — or perhaps from the outset— the pharyngeal region is without a lumen. It does not acquire one until the larva is hatched. There is one pair of true gill-clefts between the 6th and 7th visceral arches ; the other " gill-clefts " of embryonic life are invaginations of the ectoderm which undermine the visceral arches. There are long external uniramous gill-filaments on the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th branchial arches, which shrivel after the operculum has grown over them, excepting the proximal ends which give rise to the permanent gills. The whole apparatus is lined by epiblast from first to last. The air bladder, which arises as a single diverticulum of the oesophagus a little to the left of the mid-dorsal line, has right and left lobes ; its structure and vascular supply and the habits of the fish all point to its use as a lung. The yolk-sac is to be regarded as an appendage of the liver — due to the accumulation of yolk in that part of the egg which normally becomes the liver. The gall-bladder and liver arise by the constriction off of a large ventral recess of the alimentary canal just posterior to the oesophagus ; the pancreas is developed as diverticula from the bile ducts (the constricted region just mentioned), and these grow backwards to mingle with the " islands of Langerhans " * The Work of John Samuel Budgett (Cambridge, 1907) pp. 293-421 (6 pis., 80 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 441 tissue and even with the spleen. The islands of Langerhans arise very early as a solid mass of epithelial tissue which becomes broken up by the splitting of the mesenteric artery. There are certain features which suggest an earlier condition of Teleostean evolution than is the case with other Teleosts whose develop- ment is known. Assheton inquires speculatively whether the Teleosteans may be descended from a proto-amphibian stock, which by a mutation returned to strictly aquatic habits. He refers to the amphibian-like character of the lips of the blastopore, to the vestige of neural tube formation, to various features in the development of the excretory system, to the lung-like and vestigially double air-bladder, to the trace of an auricular septum and the suggestion of a double circulation, to the large size of the aortic arch of the fourth visceral arch, and to the peculiar character of the gill-clefts, filaments and arches. Regeneration in the Pancreas.* — J. Kyrle has experimented with dogs and guinea-pigs, and finds that the pancreas has some regenerative capacity both as regards the parenchyma and the islands of Langerhans. From their own epithelial components both these kinds of tissue may effect regeneration, but this may be supplemented by re-growth from the efferent ducts. Early Human Embryo.f — Alexander Low describes a human embryo of 13-14 mesodermic somites, 2' 6 mm. in length. He has reconstructed a model of the whole and of various parts. The noto- chord lies in close relation with the endoderm forming the roof of the gut, and is not separated off at its cranial commencement, appearing more as a heaping up of cells than as an evagination. The aortic stem divides into a pair of aortic arch vessels, and there are traces of a second pair. The dorsal aorta is paired throughout. The mouth, which is separated from the pharynx by a complete bucco-pharyngeal membrane, shows on its roof a slight funnel-like beginning of the oral part of the hypophysis ; the pharynx shows four pairs of pouches. The medullary plate is still open at both ends ; the hind brain shows seven neuromeres. Corpus luteum and Rut in Rabbits.J — CI. Regaud and G. Dubreuil have made experiments which they regard as proving that the corpora lutea do not condition rut. But F. Vuillemin,§ whose results are criti- cised by Regaud and Dubreuil, maintains his previous conclusion that, in the rabbit, as in other mammals, rut (like menstruation) is determined by the internal secretion of the cells of the corpus luteum. Open Cleft in Embryonic Eye of a Chick of Eight Days. || — Otto Landman found a case in which the fissure, which normally closes on the 6th day, was widely open on the 8th day. A complete cleft extended from the edge of the pupil to the region of the optic nerve ; there was an inversion of the lips of the foetal cleft throughout its * Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxxii. (1908) pp. 141-60 (1 pi.). t Journ. Anat. Physiol., xlii. pp. 237-51 (3 pis. and 15 figs.). X C R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 142-4. § Tom. oit., pp. 444-5. || Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (1907) pp. 456-9 (5 figs.). 442 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO entire extent except in the iris ; pigment extended into the inner layer of the secondary optic cup ; there were no ciliary processes. Had the embryo grown to maturity, it would have had a large coloboma of the iris, choroid, and retina. American Alligator.* — A. M. Reese gives a general outline of the whole process of development in the American Alligator (A missis- sipiensis), which has hitherto been little studied owing to the difficulty of procuring suitable embryological material. Owing to the fact that the embryo may undergo considerable development before the egg is laid, and also to the uuusual difficulty of removing the young embryos, the earlier stages of development are very difficult to obtain. The mesoderm seems to be derived chiefly by proliferation from the endo- derm, and in this way all that is anterior to the blastopore arises. Posterior to the blastopore, the mesoderm is proliferated from the lower side of the ectoderm in the usual way. No distinction can be made between the mesoderm, derived from the ectoderm and that derived from the endoderm. The ectoderm shows, during the earlier stages, a very great increase in thickness along the median longitudinal axis of the embryo. The notochord is apparently of endodermal origin, though in the posterior regions where the germ-layers are continuous with each other it is difficult to decide with certainty. The medullary folds have a curious origin, difficult to explain without the use of figures. They are continuous posteriorly with the primitive streak, so that it is impos- sible to tell where the medullary groove ends and the primitive groove begins, unless the dorsal opening of the blastopore be taken as the dividing point. The amnion develops rapidly, and entirely from the anterior end. The blastopore, or neurenteric canal, is a very distinct feature of all the earlier stages up to about the time of the closure of the medullary canal. Preceding the ordinary cranial flexure, there is a sort of temporary bending of the head region, due apparently to the formation of the head fold. During the earlier stages of development the anterior end of the embryo is pushed under the surface of the blastoderm, and hence is not seen from above. Body torsion is not so definite in direction as in the chick, some embryos lying on the right side, some on the left. Of the gill-clefts, three open clearly to the exterior, and probably a fourth also. A probable fifth cleft was seen in sections, and in one surface view. The first trace of the excretory system is seen as a dor- sally projecting solid ridge of mesoblast in the middle of the embryo, which ridge soon becomes hollowed out to form the AVolffian duct. The origin of the pituitary and pineal bodies is clearly seen ; the latter projects backwards. No connection can be seen between the first rudi- ments of the sympathetic nerves and the central nervous system. The lumen of the oesophagus is for a time obliterated as in other forms. The choroid fissure is a very transitory but well-marked feature of the eye. Embryos in Ichthyosaurs.f — W. Branca maintains that some of the embryos found in Ichthyosaurs were swallowed. Inside the * Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, li. (1908) 66 pp., 23 pis. t SB. k. Preuss. Akad. Berlin, 1908, pp. 392-6. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 443 stomach of a Xiphias there were found 13 small porpoises and 13 dog- fishes, all unbitten. If in a case like this the animal died soon after its meal and was fossilised, it might present an appearance like that of some of the Ichthyosaurs with so-called embryos. Not that Branca denies the occurrence of embryos in Ichthyosaurs : his point is that there are sometimes so many young ones inside the body that some must have come in from outside. Epibranchial Placodes of Ameiurus.* — F. L. Landacre has en- deavoured to ascertain to what extent these ectodermic thickenings and proliferations enter into the composition of the cranial nerves. The communis ganglia of the 9th nerve and the visceral portions of the ganglia of the first two divisions of the 10th nerve are practically pure placodal ganglia ; there is more doubt about the geniculate ganglion, although even here the incorporated neural crest portion must be very small ; in the third division of the 10th there is a large neural crest portion which combines with the placodal portion so intimately that it is not possible to distinguish them. Every cranial nerve containing gustatory fibres comes from a ganglion which can be traced wholly or in part to an epibranchial placode. Poison-glands of Salamander.f — E. Nirenstein has studied the de- velopment of these glands in Salamandra maculosa, and finds that they arise by the transformation of mucous glands when these are still in an undifferentiated state, and partly after they have become differentiated. Mucous glands are continually changing into poison-glands. The for- mation of the secretion from minute secretory corpuscles is described in detail. The secretory corpuscle is regarded as a definite differentiation of the cytoplasm, just as a myofibril or a trichocyst is. Notes on Anuran Development.! — E. J. Bles contributes some exquisitely illustrated notes on stages of Paludicola fuscomacidata, Hemisus marmoratum, and Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis collected by the late J. S. Budg-ett. *er Teleostean Eggs and Larvae from the G-ambia.§ — R. Assheton reports on a collection made by the late J. S. Budgett, including some stages supposed to belong to Hyperopisus bebe, and the larvae of Heterotis niloticus and Sarcodaces. Regeneration of Lens in Fishes. || — Jan Grochmalicki has experi- mented with young trout {Trutta fario and T. widens), and finds definite evidence that a lens may be regenerated. The process begins in a primordium on the upper iris margin or laterally, and it seems to be much slower than in Amphibians. Development of Carp's Swim-bladder. IT — 0. Thilo finds that the swim-bladder arises on the right side of the oesophageal wall, as a small * Ohio Naturalist, xiii. (1908) pp. 251-5. t Arch. Mikr. An it., lxxii. (llJ08) pp. 47-140 (3 pis.). \ The Work of J. S. Budgett (Cambridge, 1907) pp. 443-58 (6 pis., 2 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 435-42 (6 figs.). || Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxix. (1908) pp. 164-72 (6 figs.). \ Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 589-97 (5 figs.). 444 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO roundish diverticulum two days after the fish is hatched. It grows quickly and tills with air which is swallowed at the surface. It becomes spherical and is inclosed in a firm envelope. As the pressure increases a part of the bladder is protruded like a hernia. This grows quickly and becomes the anterior part of the hour-glass-shaped air-bladder. The shape gives the bladder relatively more strength to resist pressure, and it may be an advantage to have two bladders in a line instead of one large one. Gestation in Acanthias vulgaris.* — L. Blaizot finds that in this dogfish there is no nutriment provided by a secretion or degeneration of the uterine wall, and that the embryos are not bound to the uterine wall by their vitelline vesicle. It may be said that Acanthias is intermediate between the oviparous dogfishes, and those with pronounced viviparous adaptations. b. Histology. Nervous Elements in Fishes.f — A. Nemiloff has studied the nerve-cells of the cerebral, spinal, and sympathetic ganglia, and dis- cusses the minute cytoplasmic and nuclear structure, the structure of the surrounding envelopes, the " trophocytes " between the cell and its envelope, the interstitial tissue (including a small bundle of striped muscle in the ganglion of the vagus in Lota vulgaris), the inclosures and parasites, and the changes in the nucleus. Ventricular Fibre of Brain of Myxinoids.J — Howard Ayers describes a fibre within the ventricular cavity of the brain of Bdello- stoma and Myxine, which serves to connect the ependyma cells of the cavity and of the spinal canal. The fibre for the most part follows the outlines of the ventral portion of each chamber, but it is much coiled in the fourth ventricle. It consists of innumerable fibrils derived from the ependyma cells, lying in the cavity of the brain and spinal cord. It is certainly an organ of relation, bringing all parts of the ventricular cavity into intimate communication. It may be connected with the vaso-motor control of the ventricular lymph supply. Epidermal Sensory Cells in AmphioxusJ — H. Joseph corroborates the occurrence of true sense-cells among the epidermic cells of the lance- let, and gives some details in regard to their (variable) distribution and minute structure. Histogenesis of Nervous System. || — Oskar Schulze describes a number of observations on a large variety of animals, which contradict the widespread view that nerve-fibres grow out freely from central cells. He finds that the longitudinal growth of nerves comes about by mitosis in a chain of elements (the " nerve-fibre-cells "), whose nuclei have been previously regarded as the nuclei of Schwann's sheath. A nerve-fibre is a multinucleate neurofibrillar syncytium inclosed in a medullary mantle. * Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxiii. (1908) pp. 57-9. t Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxxii. (1908) pp. 1-46 (2 pis., 7 figs.). \ Anat. Auzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 445-8 (5 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 448-55 (7 figs.). || SB. k. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1908, pp. 166-77. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 445 Histogenesis of Muscle.* — J. Mlodowska has studied the develop- ment of skeletal muscle in embryos of fowl, mouse, rabbit and pig. A muscle-fibre is equivalent to several cells fused in a syncytium ; it may be derived from cells which have belonged to several myomeres ; the myo- blasts of adjacent myomeres coalesce by means of ever-broadening bridges of plasma, on which fibrils grow ; the disappearance of the metamerism is helped by mesenchyme cells, which arrange themselves in rows and unite with the bridge by numerous processes. The contractile fibrils are either the product of a single myoblast (in this case they grow independently into the other myoblasts which compose the syncy- tium), or they may owe their origin to several myoblasts (in this case they subsequently unite by their ends to form a single long fibril). A fibril may be the product of cells belonging to several myomeres. The fibril formed in one myomere may grow independently into the cell- territory of adjacent myomeres, the plasmic bridges previously formed serving as transitions. Fibrils have a certain individuality — of growing beyond their origin, of increasing in length and thickness, and of mul- tiplying by splitting. Organogenetic processes lead to over-production of embryonic muscular tissue : part undergoes degeneration, and part becomes connective. Increase in the number of muscle fibres is due not only to longitudinal splitting of fibres, but also to the co-operation of mesenchyme cells which form chains. c. General. Scales of Fishes.f — E. S. Goodrich has studied the different types of scale in fishes, with special reference to their use in classification. 1. The placoid scale of Selachii and Holocephali begins as a cone of dentine deposited by mesoblastic scleroblastic cells below the epi- dermis, in continuity with the basement membrane. A basal plate may be present in the form of a direct extension inwards of the cone, never as a separate element which becomes fused on to it secondarily. Both the cone and the plate are composed of dentine or some allied substance, never of true bone ; the cone may pierce the epidermis when fully grown. The scales and plates of Heterostraci have been evolved by the combination of a covering of separate isolated denticles and an underlying plate. 2. The cosmoid scale, e.g. of Megalichthys, consists of a basal layer of parallel bony laminas of " isopedine," over which is a bony zone with large vascular spaces. These canals combine near the surface in a more regular horizontal system, with vertical canals reaching the outer surface. Below the surface the canals expand into conical chambers, between which pass upwards another set of vertical canals, ending above in pulp-cavities. From these radiate a multitude of canaliculi. Williamson gave the name of "cosmine" to a peculiar dentine-like sub- stance in " ganoid " scales, and Goodrich uses the term cosmoid for scales with a tissue with canaliculi like those of dentine. The cosmoid scale has an outer layer of dentine-like substance, a middle bony layer * Bull. Internat. Acad. Sci. Cracovie, 1908, pp. 145-71 (2 pis.). t Proc. Zool. Soc, 1907, pp. 751-74 (4 pis., 9 figs.). 446 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO with vascular spaces, and an inner layer of bony laminae, probably ossified fibrous tissue of the cutis. The cosmoid scale grows in thickness only by the addition of new lamellae below ; its outer surface is covered with a thin shiny layer, the nature and origin of which are uncertain. 3. The ganoid scale is found in all Actinopterygii except the modern Teleostei. In its full development it is seen in the rhombic scales of Palceoniscus and Lepidosteus. It grows in thickness by the addition of new layers, not only below but also on the upper surface. The oldest part of the scale is the centre. The lower layers are bony or fibrous, the upper of much denser homogeneous enamel-like ganoine. The palaeoniscoid and lepidosteoid scales are two distinct varieties of the ganoid scale. Besides cosmoid, palaeoniscoid, and lepidosteoid scales, certain other varieties are found, such as the Rhizodont and Dipnoan, which are probably to be derived from the cosmoid. The position of the Coelacanth scale is at present difficult to determine ; it may be a primitive form in which the denticles have uot yet fused to a cosmine layer, as Williamson supposed ; or it may be simply a degenerate cosmoid scale to the surface of which denticles have become attached. The cosmoid scale occurs in the extinct Osteolepidoti (Crossopterygii) and Dipnoi, but in no other group of fish. Similarly, the ganoid scale occurs in the Teleostomi and never elsewhere. The palaeoniscoid type is restricted to the Palaeoniscidae and their immediate allies ; while the lepidosteoid type is universal among the Protospondyli, the iEtheo- spondyli and the Pholidophoridae, and not found in any other group as far as is known. The scale of Polypterus is of the ganoid type and belongs to the palaeoniscoid variety. The scales of Acanthodii are not placoid, but approach most nearly to the lepidosteoid type. Seasonal Change in Birds.* — C. W. Beebe publishes a pre- liminary report of some experiments on birds, undertaken with a view to finding out what factors determine the seasonal changes in the plumage of male birds. The tanager (Piranga erythromelas) and the bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), in which the summer and winter plumage are markedly different, were the subjects of these experiments, which dealt mainly with one factor — the condition of the bird as to fatness or thinness. Males in full nuptial plumage, which had not been allowed to breed, were kept in small cages in a dim light, and fed rather more abundantly than usual. They soon became less active, ceased to sing, and increased in weight. In autumn no trace of the usual moult could be discovered, and the birds remained in perfect health. A few were taken into the light, and their diet changed, and they soon began to sing. A sudden alteration of temperature either upwards or down- wards wrought a radical change. They stopped feeding, lost weight, and rapidly moulted into the normal winter plumage. Those that were kept the whole time in dim light with high feeding were gradually brought into normal conditions in spring, and very quickly they began to moult into new nuptial plumage, having skipped the winter stage * Amer. Naturalist, xlii. (1908) pp. 34-8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 447 altogether. The investigator, while admitting that these experiments do not yet afford a sufficiently wide basis for generalisation, claims that they prove in regard to the two species concerned, that the sequence of plumage is not in any way predestined by inheritance, but that it may be interrupted by certain changes in the environmental complex. Muscles of the Tail in Peacock and Turkey.* — A. Porta describes this musculature, to which no particular attention has hitherto been paid. He distinguishes five pairs — elevators of the coccyx, depressors of the coccyx, external pubo-coccygeals, internal pubo-coccygeals, and inter- transversala. He also describes four anal muscles. Mammal-like Reptiles.! — R. Broom regards the mammal-like reptiles as forming a well-defined group, whose earlier members show so much affinity with the primitive Diaptosaurians and with the higher Cotylosaurians as to render it highly probable that from some Cotylo- saurian ancestor all the later reptiles are descended. On the other hand, the higher mammal-like reptiles approach so closely to the mammals, that it is not always possible to distinguish between them. Thus Tritylodon is held by many to be a reptile, by others it is believed to be a mammal ; Dromatherium, Microconodon, and Karoomys are generally believed to be mammals, but it is just possible they may be reptiles ; while Sesamodon and Melinodon, which are believed to be Cynodont reptiles, may possibly prove to be mammals. The difference between a Cynodont reptile and a Monotreme is less than the difference between a Monotreme and a Marsupial, and this, again, is not much greater than that between a Marsupial and an Insectivore. Feeding Snakes in Captivity.^ — P. Chalmers Mitchell and R. J. Pocock note that at the Gardens of the Zoological Society no species of snake, poisonous or non-poisonous, refused to take dead food. It was found unnecessary to give live food to any individual snake. They note that a human hand slowly and carefully advanced on a small bird or mammal has just as much power of fascination as a snake has — that is to say, none. Except in the case of monkeys (not including Lemurs) there is no evidence that animals have any specific fear of snakes. It is probable that human beings have inherited a specific fear of snakes from their anthropoid ancestors. Dogs affected with Kala-azar.§ — Ch. Nicolle and Ch. Comte find that the parasite associated with kala-azar occurs in dogs in Tunis, and suggest that man is infected through fleas. Tunicata. Winter-buds of Clavelina lepadiformis.|| — H. Kerb describes the formation of " winter-buds " in unfavourable conditions. They are * Zool. Anzeig., xxxiii. (1908) pp. 116-20 (4 figs.). t Proc. Zool. Soc, 1907, pp. 1047-61 (4 figs.). X Tom. cit., pp. 785-94. § Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 789-91. || SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1907, No. 6, pp. 167-70 (1 pi.). 448 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO small chambers on the side of a stolon, containing nutritive material and blood-cells, covered with epithelium and tunicin. Inside these buds a complete Ascidian is built up. INVERTEBRATA. Mollusca. y. Gastropoda. Environmental Studies on the Limpet.* — E. S. Russell seeks to correlate certain modifications of the shell of Patella vulgata with definite environmental conditions. As to the homing habit, he con- cludes that every limpet of 15 mm. and upwards, occupies for long periods at a time a definitely fixed position to which it returns after any wanderings that it may make for food ; that limpets under 15 mm., if not yet settled in a definite position, never wander far away, and generally keep to the same stone. The movements are chiefly when covered by the tide. High-water and low-water limpets differ in definite ways, which are carefully tabulated. Adult exposed shells are lower spired, narrower, thicker, and more irregular than sheltered shells. An interesting conclusion is that the " rough " types occur on rough stones ; the " smooth " types (var. cmrulea) on polished stones. A small change in an environment may produce through its continuous action a large cumulative result by a summation of successive little effects. Experimental Dwarfing of Water-snails.f — R. Legendre has experimented with Lymnmns stagnalis and Planorbis corneus, rearing parts of the same brood in varied conditions. He finds, as previous experimenters have done, that it is not difficult to produce dwarf forms by crowding. Unlike Semper and De Varigny, however, he finds reason to believe that the excreta in the water act in an inhibitory manner on growth. Philomycus.J — Y. Sterki makes some notes on this genus of nearctic slugs, which is distinguished from Limax by having the mantle extended over almost the whole body. He defines a few species, and proposes to give the genus the attention which it merits. 8. Iiamellibranchiata. Parthenogenetic Development in Mactra.§ — K. Kostanecki found, in 1905, that a potassium chloride sea-water solution served as a stimulus to the parthenogenetic development of the eggs of Mactra. In studying the matter further, he finds that there is mitotic nuclear division without corresponding cell-division. Structure of Phaseolicama magellanica.|| — J. Igel gives an ana- tomical description of this bivalve, which occurs under stones on the * Proc. Zool. Soc, 1907, pp. 856-70 (12 figs.). f Arch. Zool. Exper., viii. (1908) Notes et Bevue, No. 3, pp. lxxvii.-lxxxiv . % Ohio Naturalist, viii. (1908) pp. 265-6. § Bull. Internat. Acad. Sci. Cracovie, 1908, pp. 97-101 (1 fig.). || Zool. Jahrb., xxvi. (1908) pp. 1-44 (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 449 shores of the Falkland Islands. As in the related form, Modiolarca trapezina, there is a brood-chamber. The eggs pass into the inner gills, are fertilised, and develop there till they have attained their definitive form. The various systems — nervous, muscular, alimentary, and so on — are described at length. Relation between Body and Shell in Bivalves.* — R. Schwarz has studied this problem in a large number of cases. He finds two styles of architecture, the one represented by Gardium, Venus, Cytherea, Tapes, Artemis, etc., and the other by Mytilus, Avicula, Pecten, Ostrea, etc. He also deals with aberrant forms, such as Lima (which belongs to the Gardium style, not to that of Pectinids), Hippopus, and Tridacna, and seeks in general to show that the study of the shell apart from the body is sure to mislead. More definitely, as he says, the assumption that the shell-margin or the hinge in one bivalve is homologous with the shell margin or the hinge in another, must be entirely given up. Concentration of Nervous System in Lamellibranchs. ft — Paul Pelseneer describes the close approximation of the ganglia in Lima squamosa, where cerebral, pedal, and visceral ganglia are close together below the oesophagus. In L. inflata the arrangement is intermediate between that of L. squamosa and the typical wide separation. Arthropoda. «• Insecta. Accessory Chromosome in Aplopus Mayeri.f — H. E. Jordan has traced the history of the accessory chromosome in this Phasmid. Some spermatozoa have 18 chromosomes, like the ova ; others have one less. The accessory chromosome appears in the resting stage of the secondary spermatogonia as a chromatin nucleolus characteristically close to the nuclear wall. At the last spermatogonial division it passes over into the resting stage of the primary spermatocyte without entering a reticular stage as do the ordinary chromosomes. Both the primary and secondary spermatogonia have a metaphase group of 35 chromosomes. Metaphase groups of follicle cells of the ovary contain 36 chromosomes. Synapsis occurs in the early stages of the growth period by an end- to-end union of pairs of univalent elements. Equatorial plates of primary spermatocytes contain 18 chromosomes. The accessory chromo- some passes undivided to one pole of the first maturation spindle, and thus produces a dimorphism of the daughter-cells and the resulting spermatozoa. The first maturation division is reductional ; the second isequational. Equatorial plates of secondary spermatocytes show a disparity in the number of chromosomes. One group contains a large U-shaped element peripherally, and numbers 18 ; those groups lacking a body of such form contain only 17 chromosomes. The accessory chromosome can be traced • Morphol. Jahrb., xxxviii. (1908) pp. 91-134 (3 pis.). t Bull. Classe des Sciences Acad. Roy. Belgique, Nos. 9-10 (1907) pp. 871-8 (3 figs.). { Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 281-95 (48 figs.). Aug. 19th, 1908 2 h 450 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO as a specific structure throughout until it disintegrates in the head of the ripening spermatozoon. Diaposematism.* — Guy A. K. Marshall discusses reciprocal mimicry and some limitations of the Miillerian hypothesis of mimicry. He points out the difficulty of accepting the idea of a mutual simultaneous mimicry between two unpalatable species, such as is postulated by the hypothesis of " diaposematism." It is suggested that an initial inequality in the individual numbers of the two distasteful species is an essential condition for the production of Miillerian mimicry, and that in such circumstances the mimetic approach would always be in one direction only, namely, from the rarer species towards the more abundant. Any initial varia- tion from the latter towards the former must be disadvantageous. The various cases which have been cited in evidence of diaposematism or reciprocal mimicry are critically examined, and it is argued that the facts can be more satisfactorily interpreted on lines which do not involve the assumption of a mutual interchange of characters between mimic and model. Miiller's principle is important, but it has definite limitations, and the attempt to explain all cases of mimicry among butterflies on the Miillerian theory is contested. The wide significance of Bates's principle has not been adequately appreciated. Indeed the theory of Bates will explain many cases of mimicry between unpalatable species which have been previously considered as purely Miillerian in character. Accessory Chromosome in Anasa tristis.f — ■ E. B. Wilson, in opposition to the criticisms of Foot and Strobell, who could find no accessory chromosome in Anasa tristis, confirms his previous conclusion that the number of chromosomes in the spermatogonia is 21, in the eggs 22 ; and that the accessory chromosome in the second maturation division passes undivided to one pole, so that half of the spermatozoa have 10 chromosomes, and half have 11 chromosomes. Cutaneous Glands of Wasps 4 — L. Bordas finds in various species of Vespa, groups of unicellular glands on the anterior margin of the two last abdominal sternites. Each gland is a large spherical cell, with a delicate canal passing to the exterior, and often uniting with several others. Cave Beetles. § — Pi. Jeannel describes a large collection (31 species) of beetles from Pyrenean and other caves. He deals with several new forms — e.g. Speodketus g.n. and Speonomus g.n., including species pre- viously referred to Bathyscia. Development of the Alimentary Canal during Metamorphosis. || P. Deegener follows up his previous account (190-1) of the develop- ment of the alimentary canal in Cybister roeselii, with a careful description of all the changes undergone in Malacosoma castrensis during metamor- phosis. * Trans. Entomol. Soc, Loudon, 1908, pp. 93-142. f Science, xxv. (1907) pp. 191-3. j Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxiii. (1908) pp. 59-64 (3 figs.). § Arch. Zool. Exper., viii. (1908) pp. 267-326 (3 pis.). || Zool. Jahrb., xxvi. (190S) pp. 45-182 (5 pis. and 1 fig.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPV, ETC. 451 New European and Mediterranean Cicadinse.* — S. Matsumura notes that new species of beetles and butterflies are hardly to be found in Europe, but there are still plenty of Cicadinse undiscovered. He himself, during his stay in Europe and the Mediterranean region, has found 90 new species, and he gives a description of about half of these in the present communication. He found in Port Said and Egypt the well-known Delp/iax furcifera, first described by Horvath from Japan, and two other forms injurious to the rice crops in Japan and Formosa — namely, Nephotettix apkalis Motsch. and Nisia nervosa Leth., were found in Tangiers. Freezing Insect Larvse.t — James S. Hine subjected the larvse of a moth, BeJJura obJiqua, which live in the stems of the cat-tail reed (Typha latifolia), to six consecutive nights and days of freezing in water (the temperatures varying from - 6° F. to - 16° F.). None of the specimens shows signs of injury from the treatment. Three larvee treated similarly, but without water, received no notable injury. He refers to other cases, and points out that the susceptibility to cold is as marked in some types as indifference to it in others. Odoriferous Gland of Cockroach. J — L. Bordas describes the large arborescent gland found in the posterior part of the abdomen in male cockroaches (Periplaneta orientalis and P. americana). It has been erroneously regarded by some as an annex to the male genital system. The whole of each of the component tubes is glandular. The secretory cells are described, and it is noted that the defensive volatile secretion is distinctly alkaline. Genitalia of Male Cockroach § — W. Wesche distinguishes the fol- lowing parts : — (1) a tube for the passage of spermatozoa into the con- taining apparatus, and a gland (Miall's conglobate) for the production of some semi-viscid fluid, used in the formation of the spermatophore ; (2) the combination of the theca and the hypophallus, penis, and paraphalli, by movements of which the viscid secretion and the sper- matozoa are brought together ; (3) the containing apparatus, with a covering-plate held down over it by the apodeme. On excitement, the lever would relax the muscles holding down the cover, and a fourth part — the spinus — bending over would transfix a spermatophore and transfer it to the cloaca of the female. The author compares the parts of the complex mechanism with the similar structures in Diptera. Insects Injurious to Olives and Figs.|| — G-. Martelli discusses the habits and life-history of the olive-fly (Dacus olece) ; F. Silvestri deals with the number of generations in a year ; F. Silvestri, G-. Martelli, and L. Masi have studied the Hymenoptera parasitic on the larva? of the fly. F. Silvestri discusses Prays oleellus ; L. Masi deals with the various parasites of Dacus olece; F. Silvestri describes Occophylhmbius neylectus * Joum. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, xxiii. (1908) Art. 6, pp. 1-46 (1 pi.). t Ohio Naturalist, viii. (1908) pp. 258-60. X Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxiii. (1908) pp. 31-2. See also Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.) vii. (1908) pp. 1-24 (1 pi., 7 figs.). § Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, x. (1908) pp. 235-42 (2 pis.). || Boll. Lab. Zool. Scuola Agric. Portici, ii. (1908) pp. 1-358. 2 H 2 452 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO g. et sp. n., a new moth whose larvae eat the olive leaves. G. Martelli records his observations on the scale-insects of the olive and their parasites. P. Silvestri and G. Martelli describe Ceroplastes rusci, the scale-insect of the fig. Study of Thysanura.* — F. Silvestri describes new species of Lepisma from South Africa, new genera and species of myrmecophilous and ter- mitophilous Lepismids, new Thysanura from Corfu, and a new Italian species of Japyx. Cephalic Glands of Machilis maritima.f — L. Bruntz finds two sets of head-glands— an anterior pair opening at the base of the masticatory cavity near the mandibles, and a posterior pair opening into the excretory canal of the " labial kidneys." The secretion of the first pair may help in mastication, that of the second pair may help to wash out the excre- tory products. The salivary glands described by various workers are the labyrinths and excretory canals of the " labial kidneys." Kidney of Machilis maritima.| — L. Bruntz finds in the epithelium of the excretory canals of the so-called kidney of this Thysanuran a highly developed network of tracheae, the .branches of which penetrate between the epithelial cells. He also gives some information as to the cyto- plasmic structure of the cells composing the excretory canals. Labial Excretory Organ in Thysanura. §— L. Bruntz distinguishes on this organ, a saccule which eliminates ammoniacal carmin injected during life into the body cavity, and a labyrinth which does the same for carminate of indigo. He describes the details of this labyrinth in Machilis maritima, and his histological results confirm the physiological conclusion (based on injections of carmin) that the organ in question is a true kidney. Structure of Collembola.|| — R. W. Hoffmann has made an elaborate study of Tomocerus plimibeus L., with especial reference to the mouth- parts, the cerebral ganglia, the musculature and innervation of the head. He has discovered near the cerebral ganglia two peculiar dendriform bodies — very peculiar cell-complexes — which he proposes to call " head- kidneys." f), Myriopoda. Studies on Julidae.^f — Karl W. Verhoeff continues his researches on Diplopoda in a discussion of the Julidaa and some Polydesmids. He deals with Leptoiulus and Ophiiulns, LeptopliyUum, Micropachyiulus, Allot yphloiul us, Cylindroiulus, Typhloiulus, Heteroiulus, and Brachyiidus, and with various morphological questions concerning the appendages. * Boll. Lab. Zool. Scuola Agric. Portici, ii. (1908) pp. 359-96 (24 figs.), t Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 491-3. X Tom. cit., 871-3. § Tom. cit., pp. 1045-7. || Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxix. (1908) pp. 598-689 (5 pis. and 18 figs.). f YArch. Natur., lxxiii. (1907) pp. 423-74 (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 453 Cavernicolous Myriopods.* — F. Silvestri describes from the eastern region of the Pyrenees (a) two new Diplopoda— Spelmor/lomeris docleroi g. et sp. n. and Sp. racovitzw sp. n., and (b) a new centipede, Lithobius allot 'yphlus. 8. Arachnida. Cave Pseudoscorpionidae.f — Edr. Ellingsen reports on a dozen false scorpions from Pyrenean and other caves, including Obisium lonijidigi- tatum sp. n., and a new blind variety of Chthonius tetrachelatus. It should be noted that some of the dozen species discussed are only acci- dentally cavernicolous. f, Crustacea. Stridulating Organ in Crabs. % — W. T. Caiman describes a well- developed stridulating organ in males of an African river-crab, Potamon (Potamonautes) africanum. It is formed by groups of modified spines on the upper surface of the coxa? of the first and second pairs of walking legs, and on parts of the free branchiostegal edge of the carapace imme- diately opposed to them. The organ occurs in some other species of this genus, but it is not known in other genera of Potoinonidse. Stridulation, or the possession of apparently stridulating organs, has been reported in Matuta, Ozius, Platyonychus, Ocypode, Macroph- thalmus, Sesarma, and some other Clrapsidaj, but in these cases the main portion of the apparatus consists of ridges or granules on the surface of the exoskeleton, never of modified spines, although the latter are commonly found in the stridulating organs of the Arachnida. Hydrotropism in Crabs. § — Anna Drzewina has studied the be- haviour of shore crabs {Carcinus mamas) when taken away from the sea. Even at a distance of over 100 m. they make for the water. This is independent of illumination, time of day, wind, etc. The crabs may ascend inclined planes in making for the sea. They are hydrotropic. When the sand is very wet with rain they do not go straight for the sea. They walk along a bar with water on each side of them, as if equally attracted in the two directions. Crabs that live near high-tide mark are very much more sensitive hydrotropically than those from low-tide mark. Experience counts. In investigating reactions the past of the animal must be borne in mind. Crabs taken from the wrack-covered rocks of the seaweed zone make for rocks and sea-weed patches rather than for the sea. Visceral Nervous System of Decapods. || — G. Police has studied this in Palinurus, Homarus, Astacus, Scyllarus, Penceus, Galathea, Maja, Dromia, Carcinus, and other Decapod Crustacea. The anterior portion of the visceral nervous system includes two lateral centres (the paired visceral ganglia) and an unpaired median ganglion. The relations of * Arch. Zool. Exper., via. (190S) Notes et Revue, No. 3, pp. lxv.-lxxiii. (14 figs.). t Tom. cit., pp. 415-20. % Ann. Nat. Hist., series 8, i. (1908) pp. 469-73 (5 figs.). § C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 1009-11. || MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel.xix. (1908) pp. 69-116 (2 pis. and 1 fig.). 45-4 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO these three ganglia are very fully discussed. The posterior portion (if the visceral nervous system is formed in Macrura by nerves which arise from the last ganglion of the ventral chain, and from the 1 tranches which innervate the telson. In Brachyura the posterior portion of the visceral nervous system comes from the single ventral concentration of ganglia and from the two median nerves passing back from this. Development of Crayfish.* — Benedykt Fulinski describes the origin of the mesoderm, distinguishing two kinds — the nauplial and meta- nauplial (primary and secondary of Reichenbach). He also deals with the vascular system. The heart-wall consists of two layers of cells, the outer adventitia and the inner muscularis ; both arise from the visceral mesoderm ; no internal endothelium is discernible. The cavities of pericardium, heart, and blood-vessels must be regarded as remains of the blastocoele. The vessels arise in the visceral mesoderm as gutter- like primordia, in part independently of the heart, in part as outgrowths of its wall. These distal and central primordia of vessels meet to form blood-vessels. The sternal artery is at first paired, but the right or the left component degenerates. The blood-cells are partly mesodermic and partly endodermic in origin. Cambarus montezumse.f — E.A.Andrews makes some notes on this Mexican crayfish, which are of interest in themselves and in con- nection with Ortmann's theory that all the species of Cambarus may be derived from ancestors once living in the Mexican region. The sexes seem to be about equal in number : in the lot of 179 purchased in the market of the city of Mexico, 91 were males, and S8 females. Forty-four females had the seminal vesicle on the right side of the body, and 44 were sinistral. The first pleopods are absent in the females. The attached larva? differ from those of other species in the perfection of their sensory clubs, in the size of spinules, dentation of mandibles, and per- fection of the last pleopods. They support the view that the early larvae of Cambarus have degenerated from more active forms in connection with a life of dependence upon the mother. Regeneration in Asellus.J — Margarete Zuelzer has studied in Aselhis aquatkus the influence of regeneration on the rate of growth. The animal can re-grow its antenna?, walking legs, and furca. The new parts appear after the first moult after the amputation, and have the normal size after the third moult. During the regenerating period there is a hastening of the moultings. New Marine Isopod.§ — E. G.Racovitza describes Anoplocopea hansmi g. et sp. n., an interesting new Sphaeromid from the Gulf of Ajaccio. It is related to Campecopea and to the cavernicolous Sphaeromids, which Hansen has ranked in the section Monolistrini. * Zool. Anzeig., xxxiii. (1908) pp. 20-8 (6 figs.). t Op. cit., xxxii. (1908) pp. 665-9. X SB. Ges. Natur. Freunde Berlin, No. 9 (1907) pp. 283-4. § Arch. Zool. Exper., viii. (1908) Notes et Revue, No. 3, pp. lxxxiv.-xc. (1 fig.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 455 New Terrestrial IsopocL* — R. S. Bagnall describes Philosciapatiencei sp. n., found in a hot-house of the Botanical Gardens, Kew. It strongly resembles the common British Trichoniscus pusillus iu colour, shape, size, and movements, but it seems to belong to the genus Philoscia, in the vicinity of P. couchii. New Phyllopods.f — Joh. Thiele describes some interesting new species — e.g. Apus frenzeli, from Argentina, A. madagassicus, Strepto- cephalus distinctus, Leptestltcria vilUgera, Lynceus madagascarensis, Gh irpcephalus sinensis. Species of Corophium.J — J. 0. Bradley describes Corophium spinkoriie Stimpson and C. salmonis, in regard to which we have hitherto had very vague information. He also gives a diagnostic key for the genus, based on the work of Stebbing. Annulata. (Esophageal Pouches of Spionidae.§ — W. Salensky describes the structure and development of these interesting pockets in larvae of Polydora comuta, and in adults of Spin fuliginosus. They are very similar to those previously described by the author in Polggordius and Saccocirrus. In the Polydora larva there are five symmetrical pouches, but only the first two persist as open clefts. They are comparable to the pouches in Enteropneusts and Chordata, and they increase the plausibility of the view that the Chordata evolved from an Annelid stock. Neuroglia in Leeches. || — A. W. Jakubski has made a comparative histological study of the supporting tissue of the nervous system in various Hirudinea — Hirudo medicinalis, Aulostomum gulo, Nephelis vulgaris, Clepsine sexoculata, and Pontobdella muricata. Nematoh.elminth.es. Peculiar Nematode. 1[ — A. Porta describes Gnathostoma paronai sp.n. from the intestine of Mm rajah, from the island of Mentawei. The mouth has two lips, there are numerous rows of hooks on the head and strange tridendate scales or lamellae covering the anterior two-thirds of the body. The genus Gnathostoma was founded by Owen in 1836, and is synonymous with Cheiracanthus Diesing (1839). Platyhelminthes. New Tapeworm in Moorhen.** — Pasquale Mola describes Tamia marchali sp.n. from Galliaula chloropus, and suggests that the other host is the Mollusc Cyrlostoma elegans. * Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, i. (1908) pp. 428-31 (1 pi.). + SB. Ges. Natur. Freunde Berlin, No. 9 (1907) pp. 288-97 (2 pis.). J Univ. California Publications, Zoology, iv. (1908) pp. 227-82 (5 pis.). § Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourg, ser. 6 (1908) pp. 687-708 (23 figs.). || Bull. Internat. Acad. Sci. Cracovie, 1908, pp. 86-91. i Zool. Anzeig., xxxiii. (1908) pp. 8-9 (2 figs.). ** Bull. Classe Sci. Acad. Roy. Belgique, Nos. 9-10 (1907) pp. 886-98 (1 pi.). 456 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Hymenolepis fragilis.* — T. B. Rosseter describes this tapeworm, which he found in a wild duck {Anas boschas, /era L.). This is the only recorded instance of its having been found since Krabbe discovered the species in a teal (Anas crecca L.), and called it Taenia fragilis. Studies on Cestodes. — 0. von Linstow f describes Hymenolepis furcifera Krabbe, and Tatria biremis Kow., from Podiceps nigricollis. P. E. Garrison J discusses the cestode parasites of man in the Philippine Islands, and describes Tcenia philippina sp. n., the Cysticercus of which remains unknown. Ludwig Colin § describes Lytocestus adherens g. et sp. n., from the intestine of Clarias fuscus. It is apparently a Tetraphyllid, but the genital system is quite different from that of previously described genera. C. v. Janicki || gives a valuable account of the structure of Amphilina liguloidea Diesing, showing in particular how it occupies an inter- mediate position between Trematodes and Cestodes, and that there is much to be said in support of Piutner's view that it is a ptedogenetic larval form. Cytological Study of Triclad Pharynx. % — A. Korotneff describes a remarkable process of nucleus-expulsion in the cell-plate which limits the wall of the pharynx in Planarians. He thinks that the process is not so unique as it may seem ; thus various authorities have described a nucleus- expulsion in the development of red blood-corpuscles. In the case of the Planarian pharynx the nucleus seems to disappear when the cytoplasm ceases to be plastic or even active. Parasite of Cockle.** — P. Hallez describes Proderostoma cardii g. et sp. n., a parasitic Rhabdoccel which lives in the stomach of Gardium edule (in 44 p.c. of those examined). It is one of the Vorticidse, and is allied to GraffiUa and to the parasite of Tellina which Graff has called Provortex tellince. It may be called a protandrous hermaphrodite, but spermatozoa are produced after as well as before the period when the ovary functions. Numerous cocoons (over 70) are produced by each animal and are lodged in the connective tissue of the parent. A cocoon contains 1 to 3 ova, usually 2, and the young bore their way out of the parent into the cockle's stomach. Syncytial Nature of the Gut in Rhabdoccelids.tf — P- Hallez has studied the embryos of Proderostoma cardii, and finds that the gut has no lumen, that it is a syncytium, and that it does not differ from the connective syncytium except in imprisoning the remains of the yolk. The gut never shows any epithelium, and there is no distinc- * Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, x. (1908) pp. 229-34 (1 pi.). f Centralbl. Bakt. Parasitenk., xlvi. (1908) pp. 38-40 (5 figs.). I Philippine Journ. SoL, ii. (1907) pp. 537-50 (5 pis.). § Centralbl. Bakt. Parasitenk., xlvi. (1908) p. 134-9 (4 figs.). j| Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxix. (1908) pp. 568-97. 1 Tom. cit., pp. 555-67 (2 pis. and 2 figs.). ** Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 1047-9. tt Tom. cit., pp. 1106-8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 457 tion in structure or origin between gut and mesenchyme. There is no trace of endodermic primordium, not even of the four transitory endodermic cells which are seen in Triclads. New Species of Rhynchodemus.* — W. E. Bendl gives a descrip- tion of two new Planarians in this genus — R. henrici (European) and R. purpureas (East African). He calls attention to the very varied states of the male genital apparatus in different species — from great simplicity in R. ochroleucus, to relative complexity in R. henrici — and he finds that the forms with simple copulatory apparatus are oriental and Australian, while those with complex parts are paltearctic and Ethiopian. He takes a survey of the known forms, and arranges them in order of differentiation. Stichostemma Eilhardi.f — Charles Perez found in a garden tank at Bordeaux specimens of this fresh-water Nemertean, which was discovered by F. E. Schulze in an aquarium in the Zoological Institute at Berlin, in 1893, and studied by T. H. Montgomery. Perez notes that the number of eyes is variable, and that protandrous hermaphroditism is very marked. Incertse Sedis. Structure of Echinoderidae.J — A. Schepotieff re-affirms, in answer to Zelinka, his previous statements as to the structure of these peculiar forms. He regards the Echiuoderidre as related to Gastrotricha on the one hand, to Gordiacea and Nematodes on the other. Lower Silurian Brachiopods.§— F. Schmidt discusses a number of forms from the Eastern Baltic, chiefly from Lower Silurian strata, be- longing to the genera Plectambonites Pand., Leptcena Dalm., and Stro- phonema Blainv. Brachiopod Homoeomorphy.||— S. S. Buckman points out that it is easy but dangerous to group under one name a series of shells of similar appearance, especially when they are in the smooth catagenetic stage, because this smooth stage may have been attained by the loss of different distinctive features, pointing to polygenetic origins. An instructive case in this respect is found in the series of forms called Spirifer glaber, a heterogeneous series, including representatives of at least three genetic series, as the author shows. North American Incrusting Chilostomatous Bryozoa.1T — Alice Robertson deals with 45 species (in 18 genera) of incrusting Chilo- stomata from the west coast of North America. Of these species six are new. Some of the descriptions given by Hincks (from scanty * Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxix. (1908) pp. 525-54 (2 pis.). + C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 476-7. % Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 585-9. § Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourg, 1908, pp. 717-26. 11 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, lxiv. (1908) pp. 27-33. «[f Univ. California Publications (Zoology) iv. pp. 253-344 (11 pis.). 458 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO material) are amplified. Nineteen of the species discussed are restricted to the west coast of North America, the remainder being cosmopolitan or circumpolar. Attention is directed to the relationship existing between a Cyphonautes-larva frequently met with, and Membranipora villosa Hincks, a species rather abundant on the Pacific coast. Rotatoria. Rotifers from Gough Island.* — James Murray reports that a small tuft of moss brought from Gough Island by the 'Scotia' expedition harboured Philodina flaviceps Bryce, Callidina angusticoUis Murray, and a Bdelloid egg. Echinoderma. Luminosity of Ophiuroids.f — E. Trojan has studied the luminosity of Ophiopsila aranea, 0. annulosa, and Ophiocaniha spinulosa. It in- creases with stimulation, is not separable from the animal, has not to do with exuded mucus, and is entirely intracellular. The seat of the luminosity is in some of the epidermic cells. Observations on Ophiopsila4 — A. Reichensperger finds that the brittle-stars of this name have an epithelium which is able to form strong " cilia " at various parts of the surface, e.g. on the " ciliated spines " beside the internal " tentacular scale." The rows of " cilia " keep currents going over the disk, and thus help in nutrition and respiration. The " cilia " are really comparable to the " combs " of Ctenophores ; they arise from a cell-complex by the fusion of many individual cilia. The " ciliated spines " are movable by a muscle, and are transitional between lateral spines and tentacular scales. In 0. annulosa there are usually twelve pores on the Madrepore plate ; in 0. aranea there are very few (1 to tf) ; both species have five Polian vesicles, instead of four, as in the other five-rayed Ophiuroids that have been studied ; the water-vascular system forms a close whole. The tentacles have a strongly differentiated sensory epithelium ; in the distal parts of the arms they bear sensory buds. Japanese and East Indian Echinoderms.§ — H. L. Clark gives an annotated list of 70 species, including new species of Pteraster (2), Asterias (1), Ophiozona (1), Ophioglypha (1), Ophiocreas (1), Spa- tangus (1), and Molpadia (1). Except in the case of Asterias, a list of the known species is given, and a diagnostic key of great service. Coelentera. Species of Hydra. || — W. Weltner discusses the distinctions between the German species of Hydra. It seems that H. viridis, H. grisea, and H.fusca may be distinguished by their colour, form, length of tentacles, * Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, xvii. (1908) pp. 127-9. + Biol. Centralbl. xxviii. (1908) pp. 343-52. \ Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxix. (1908) pp. 173-92 (1 pi., 3 figs.). § Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, li. (1908) pp. 279-311. || Arch. Natur., lxxiii. (1907) pp. 474-8 (1 fig.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 459 and the details of the cnidoblasts. There is, however, another form (Brauer's Hydra sp., Hefferan's H. monmcia) which is near H. fusca, but different in the shape of the ova and the manner of depositing the ova. It is dioecious, though it is called H. monmia. Weltner describes well-fed specimens of H. grisea, which formed numerous small ova, but showed no hints of testes. The eggs were set adrift and soon broke up. The species is normally hermaphrodite. Unisexual conditions of H. viridis have also been noticed. One of the specimens of H. grisea, which is figured , had nine eggs, a body 1 ■ 1 cm. long, and six tentacles 2 • 75 cm. long. Cordylophora in Egypt.* — Charles L. Boulenger reports the abun- dant occurrence of Cordylophora lacustris in the brackish water of Lake Qurun. This is the first record of the genus from Africa. The colonies were very vigorous, the hydrocaulus in some attaining the height of 8 or 9 cm. The lake is 150 miles inland, and at present without communication with the sea, except by the Nile. Geological evidence shows, however, that in late Pliocene tiuies the depression in which the lake lies must have been a large brackish fjord in communica- tion with the Mediterranean. New Varieties of Hydroids.f — A. Billard describes Thecocarpus myriophyllum L. var. orientals v. n. and perarmatus v. n., from the eastern part of the Indian Archipelago. The interesting features are the presence of a closed corbula and a supplementary asymmetrical dactylotheca. In specimens showing regeneration there are modified hydroclads similar to the phylactocarps of Lytocarpus. The occurrence of this western species in the far east is interesting geographically. Limnocnida tanganicae in the Niger.! — E. T. Browne discusses this fresh-water medusa, which the late J. S. Budgett discovered in the Niger delta. He shares the view of Boulenger that Limnocnida is a relic of the fauna of a Middle Eocene sea which stretched across the Soudan to India. This would account for the occurrence of the medusa in localities so far apart as Lake Tanganyika and the Niger delta. It seems probable that a hydroid stage exists, and has still to be discovered. This interesting animal has affinities with the Olin- diadag, but still remains unclassifiable. New Gorgonids.§ — W. Kiikenthal gives diagnoses of some new species. Among Priinnoidae he reports three new species of ThouareUa, and two of PrimnoeJla. He regards AmpMlaphis as inseparable from ThouareUa, and he improves the definition of PrimnoelJa. To the genus Acanthoyorgia three new species are added ; Iciligorgia ballini, Spongioderma chuni, and Titan idium hartmeyeri, are interesting new forms. In Erythro podium stechei sp. n., Kiikenthal finds a transition from the Alcyonid to the Scleraxonial type, and to Solenocaulon in particular. * Ann. Nat. Hist., i. ser. 8., pp. 492-3. t Arch. Zool. Exper., viii. (1908) Notes et Revue, No. 3, pp. lxxiii.-lxxvii. (3 figs.). J The Work of John Samuel Budgett. Edited by J. Graham Kerr, Cambridge, 1907, pp. 471-80 (1 pi.). § Zool. Anzeig., xxxiii. (1908) pp. 9-20. 460 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO British Actinians.* — Charles L. Walton discusses the occurrence of Sagartia In eke. Verrill at Plymouth. It was found on the American coast about 1892, and in Plymouth Docks in 1896, and it may be that it was introduced into both areas about the same time. The author makes some interesting notes on Sagartiidae and Zoanthidae from Plymouth, and in another paper t he reports on fourteen species collected by the ' Huxley ' in the North Sea in the summer of 1907. Porifera. Inclusion of Foreign Bodies by Sponges.:}: — Igerna B. J. Sollas describes Migas porphyrion g. et sp. n. from Mozambique, an interest- ing Monaxonid whose skeleton consists of foreign bodies as well as " proper " spicules. Reasons are given for believing that the inclusion of sand-grains is due to the activity of small granular amcebocytes on the cortex. Other cases — Euspongia officinalis var. rotunda and Tedania commixta — are discussed. In the former the cells of the free surface, in the latter those of the basal surface appear to engulf foreign matter. Protozoa. Rhizopods and Heliozoa of the Netherlands. § — H. R. Hoogenraad gives a faunistic account, including over fifty species of Amoeba, Vam- pyrella, Arcella, Diffiugia, Quadrula, Raphidiophrgs, etc. Rhizopods from G-ough Island. || — James Murray reports that a small tuft of moss brought from Gough Island by the ' Scotia ' Expe- dition harboured Heliopera petricola Leidy, var. amethystea Penard, Euglypha ciliata Ehr., another species of Euglypha, and a species of Diffiugia. Protozoa of Sandusky Bay. If — F. L. Landacre gives a faunistic list of the Protozoa collected in or near this bay (Lake Erie). The locality is very rich in Infusoria and Mastigophora, and the list is a long one. The bibliography of papers dealing with North American Protozoa will be found useful. Studies on Colpoda.** — P. Enriques discusses various species of this genus, distinguishing Colpoda cucullus 0. F. Midler, G. maupasi sp. n., and G. steini Maupas emend. He also deals with some structural features, e.g. the buccal appendage, which turns out to consist of distinct cilia, not of a continuous membranella. Regeneration in Ceratium.ff — C. A. Kofoid finds that in Dino- flagellate genera, such as Ceratium, in which the theca is shared between * Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, viii. (1908) pp. 217-14. t Tom. cit., pp. 215-26. % Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, i. (1908) pp. 395-401 (5 figs.). § Tydschr. Nederland. Dierk. Ver., x. (1908) pp. 384-424. || Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, xvii. (1908) pp. 127-9. i Proc. Ohio Acad. Sci., iv. (1908) pp. 421-72. ** Arch. Zool. Exper., viii. (1908) Notes et Revue, No. 1. pp. i.-xv. (10 figs.). ft Univ. California Publications (Zoology) iv. (1908) pp. 345-86 (33 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 461 the daughter-schizonts at schizogony, compensatory regeneration of the newly forming part of the exoskeleton occurs. Skeletons of senile appearance may be removed by exuviation, plate by plate, often at the time of schizogony. This exuviation makes it possible for the animal to effect readjustments of specific gravity and specific surface to changing conditions of flotation. Autotomy of the two antapicals, or of all three horns, is of widespread occurrence among many species of Ceratium, especially in those from deeper levels in the sea. It is caused by local resolution of the cellulose wall, and is regulatory in character, preserving in the horns after autotomy the proportions characteristic of the species. Autotomy assists in the adjustment of specific surface, and possibly also of specific gravity to changing conditions of flotation, especially as affected by tempera- ture. Regeneration with or without preceding autotomy may occur in all three horns. It is also regulatory, and tends to preserve the norm of the species. Turbilina instabilis, a variety of Strombilidium gyrans.* — E. Faure-Fremiet points out that the oligotrichous Infusorian described by P. Enriques as Turbilina instabilis g. et sp. n., is simply a new variety of Strombilidium g grans, described by Stokes in 1888, and more recently by J. Roux. He makes some notes on the posterior attaching filament and on the peculiar nuclear conditions. Hsemogregarine of Leptodactylus ocellatus.f — J. Lesage reports a new species, Hcemogregarina leptodactyli, in the blood of the common Argentine frog, Leptodactylus ocellatus, the counterpart of H. theileri in the edible frog. Parasites of Drosophila confusa.J — E. Chatton and E. Alilaire find in this Muscid, which frequents breweries and the like, and does not bite, two Flagellate parasites, namely, Leptomonas drosophike sp. n., and Trypanosoma drosophike sp. n. This is the first record of the occurrence of a " true " trypanosome in a non-biting Arthropod. Haemogregarine in Blood of a Himalayan Lizard. § — E. A. Minchin describes Hcemogregarini thomsoni sp. n., discovered by F. Wyville Thomson in Agama tuberculoid, and makes some notes on its intra- corpuscular and free vermicule stages. Solitary Encystation in Gregarines.|| — C. Schellack finds that among the Eugregarines solitary encystation does not occur in the Polycystidege (except in abnormal cases), but that it does frequently occur in the Monocystideas, although its significance is not known. But among the Schizogregarines solitary encystation is the rule in the Aggregatidas during the period of schizogony. Influence of Salinity on Contractile Vacuole. % — Margarethe Zuelzer has found that adding sea-water to the fresh-water in which Amoeba * C.R Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 428-30. t Tom. cit., pp. 995-6. X Tom. cit., pp. 1004-6 (8 figs.). § Proc. Zool. Soc, 1907, pp. 1098-1104 (2 pis.). || Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 597-609. f SB. Ges. Natur. Freunde Berlin, 1907, No. 4, pp. 90-4 (2 figs.). 462 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO verrucosa was living, till there were equal parts of fresh and salt, led to the disappearance of the contractile vacuole. She was led to this and similar experiments, which require further extension, from a study of marine Heliozoa, in which there is no contractile vacuole. Trypanosoma congolense.* — A. Laveran inoculated a goat with T. congolmse, and re- inoculated it after its recovery. The second attack was mild and the cure rapid. Two subsequent inoculations had no result, the goat had become immune. But a subsequent inoculation with T. dimorphon was followed by a well-marked infection. Therefore he concludes that T. congolense and T. dimorphop are distinct species. * Comptes Kendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 853-6. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 463 BOTANY. GENERAL, Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants. Cytology, including: Cell-Contents. Karyokinesis in (Edogonium.*— C. van Wisselingh finds that the karyokinesis in (Edogonium agrees closely with that of higher plants ; the origin of the chromosomes, formation of the nuclear plate, etc., resemble those of the embryo-sac of Fritillaria and Leucojum. The nucleolus is like that of higher plants, but unlike that of Spirogyra. There are nineteen chromosomes of very different lengths, some of which are heterogeneous. The author considers that the production of four swarm-spores upon germination of the oospore, is very significant, and he regards CEdogonium as a generation with a simple number of chromosomes, reduction taking place in the oospore. From this it would follow that it exhibits no alternation of generations. Function of the Centrosome.f — R. F. Griggs has made a cytological study of Synchytrium, with the ultimate hope of correlating it with other plants and animals, in such a way as to throw some light on the general problems of cell-organisation, and finally to arrive at some con- clusions regarding the relationships of the Chytridiales. While the exact history of the structures here described is provisional, the present work confirms Kusano's statements that the rays of the centrosome inclose the vacuole which surrounds the chromosomes, and form the deeply staining nuclear membrane around it. Structure and Development. "Vegetative. Historic Fossil Cycads.J — <>• R. Wieland gives a brief account of Cycadeoidea etrusca, C. Reichenbachiana, Williamsonia gigas, and Anomo- zamites minor. The vegetative features of G. etrusca agree closely with those of the Maryland Cycads ; the synangia are clearly of the Marattiaceous type, while the pollen is seemingly mature. G. Reichenbachiana has a columnar type of trunk with very large leaf-bases, and its flower-buds agree closely with those of G dacotensis ; the author considers that, in the light of the new facts disclosed by this specimen, English writers are mistaken in classing the Cycadeoidese in the Bennettitea?, and that the latter term should be used in a very restricted sense. Williamsonia gigas forms an * Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1908) pp. 137-56 (1 pi.). t Ohio Nat., viii. (1908) pp. 277-86 (2 pis.). X Arner. Journ. Sci., xxv. (1908) pp. 93-101 (1 fig.). 464 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO important connecting link between Cycas and cycadeoidean types with reduced, laterally borne fructifications. This specimen indicates an entire plant with mature fronds and large fruits, having a foliar crown of the same size as a Zamia of Florida, with fronds rather less than two feet in length, but with a more slender stem. The author considers that this type favours Newell Arber's idea or a true pre-Angiosperm or hemi-Angiosperm. Anomozamites minor is to be regarded as of great importance, in that it is suggestive of relationships to primitive Angio- sperms, i.e. the Magnoliaceae. Cone of Pinus.* — G. R. Wieland contributes a note upon the accele- rated cone growth in Pinus rigida. The cluster of cones is formed of fifty-three cones of normal development, and resembles a single huge cone like that of Pinus Coulteri ; as usual, the main vegetative axis was prolonged. The author regards the production of ferns as the greatest achievement in vegetal evolution, and believes that since Silurian times, Pteridosperms, Gyrnnosperms, and Angiosperms have been derived from Ferns by such methods as extreme reduction, development of generalised types or organs, rearrangement of fertile axes, etc. The present instance of a simple form of accelerated branching, seems to support this view, by showing that new " emplacements " may lead to an entirely new series of modifications in organs of reproduction. Reproductive. Polar Conjugation in the Angiosperms.f — J. H. Schaffner con- tributes a short note on the origin of polar conjugation in the Angio- sperms. The author favours the theory put forward by Porsch, who regards the two synergids of Angiosperms as homologous with the neck canal cells of the Gymnosperms, and the upper polar as equivalent to the ventral cell. In short, the typical embryo-sac of the Angiosperms represents two archegonia, the vegetative cells having disappeared. The present writer quotes two of his own papers in support of this theory, and is of the opinion that all polar conjugations had their origin in the former conjugation of one or both polars with the second sperm. Lack of such fusion may represent either a primitive condition or a more recent parthenogenetic condition. Conjugation without the presence of a second sperm must be looked upon as a special parthenogenetic development. Finally, no endosperm resulting from any of these fusions can properly be called an embryo. Albumen of Caprificus.J — L. du Sablon has studied the structure and development of the Caprificus, and finds that the albumen will develop in the absence of fertilisation ; it is parthenogenetic, and is digested by the larva in the same manner as normal albumen. The fully formed larva completely fills the pericarp, and no trace of albumen then remains. The parthenogenetic albumen differs somewhat from ordinary albumen in its structure, for its cell-walls are destitute of cellulose, and its thick protoplasmic contents contain globoids of varying * Anier. Journ. Sci., xxv. (1908) pp. 102-4 (1 fig.). t Ohio Nat., viii. (1908) pp. 255-8. X Rev. Gen. Bot., xx. (1908) pp. 14-24 (1 pi., 6 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 465 size. The nuclei are large, irregular, and have one or more nucleoli ; there may be several in a single cell. In the rare cases where fertilisa- tion has taken place, the albumen then formed is identical with that found in Smyrna figs. It would appear that the development of parthenogenetic albumen is dependent upon the deposition of the eggs of the Blastophagus in the female flowers, for Capri figs which had not been visited, withered before maturity. The impulse given by the visit of the insect replaces that given normally by fertilisation, and upon it depends the future growth of the ovule, pericarp, and albumen. Physiology. Chemical Changes. Colouring Matter of Chlorophyll.*— L. Marchlewski and J. Robel contribute a preliminary note upon their researches in connection with the colouring matter of chlorophyll. The authors have treated an 80 p.c. alcoholic solution of chlorophyll with gaseous hydrochloric acid, and have succeeded in obtaining a black-brown sediment which can be used in the preparation of various chlorophyll derivatives. This sedi- ment, to which the name phyllogen is given, appears to be identical with phgeophytin— a substance lately prepared by Willstatter, by the action of oxalic acid "on crude chlorophyll solutions — since the physical and chemical properties of both are alike. The authors consider, however, that further investigations are necessary, since the composition of various chlorophyll derivatives is so similar, that constancy of com- position does not prove homogeneity. Change of Colour and Emptying of Decaying Leaves. — M. Tswettf has made experiments upon decaying leaves, and considers that there are two stages in their autumn colouring : shades of red or yellow prevail while the leaf is dying, while grey, brown, and black indicate that the leaf is dead. During the breaking-down and disappearance of plastic materials, the leaves remain fresh and turgescent, even to the epidermal cells, and the experiments show that both epidermal and mesophyll cells retain the semi-permeable plasmatic membrane. Even after leaf-fall, cell-life may be retained for a considerable time. In the second stage the leaves lose their turgescence, owing to a soluble, oxidising enzyme, which is prevented from acting in living leaves through the osmotic limits of the cell-contents. The author confirms the old opinion that the more important constituents of the ash and the nitrogen compounds return from the leaves to the mother-shoot before leaf -fall. Most of the experiments made with regard to the emptying of leaves are unsatisfactory, and only the re-transmission of the nitrogen is at present fully established. In a second paper $ the author states that yellow leaves contain only traces of normal colouring matters, their colour being due to a new pigment, termed "autumn xanthophyll." The latter is probably a * Bull. Acad. Sci. Cracovie, x. (1907) pp. 1037-9. t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxvi. (1908) pp. 88-93. X Tom. cit., pp. 94-101. Aug. 19th, 1908 2 I 466 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO degradation product of xanthophyll and carotin. The soluble yellow pigment, obtained by boiling yellow leaves, is a mere artificial product, and has nothing to do with the colouring of leaves while they are still alive, although it acts in this way after they are dead. General. Phytecology of the Eastern Part of Kabylia.* — G. Lapie has studied the vegetation of this region, and finds five distinct zones. The ridges of Djurdjura form the cedar zone, and are characterised by such trees as Cedrus Libani, Acer obtusatum, Quercus Mirbeckii, etc., shrubs as Crataegus laciniata, Lonicera arborea, etc., and small plants such as Pmonia corallina, etc., together with a few mosses. The Arbalou and the older summits form the oak zone, the eastern portion being covered with Quercus Ilex, while the western sides abound in Q. Suber. The third zone is mainly characterised by deciduous oaks, e.g. Quercus Mirbeckii and Q. Afares, with an abundant undergrowth of Erica arborea, or in more shady districts various species of Genista, Cytisus, Pteris, etc. The fourth zone comprises the lower summits of Numidia, a part of Cretace and Medjanien, and here the sandstone ridges are covered with Quercus Suber, together with Thymus numidicus, Erica arborea, etc. The clay soil of the lower districts and of Numidia is covered with the olive tree, and forms the fifth zone. The undergrowth is composed of Pistacia Lentiscus, etc. In general, the sides and summits of the lofty peaks have a xerophytic vegetation ; the summits of lower peaks with a calcareous substratum have similar plants, but if the substratum is of sandstone, the plants are tropophyllous. On the low grounds the chemical and physical nature of the soil exerts great influence on the vegetation, being xerophytic in the region of the olive tree and semi- xerophytic with the evergreen oak. The summits of medium height present the highest degree of humidity, while the presence of a sand- stone substratum diminishes the xerophytic character of the vegetation. Philippine Woods.f — F. W. Foxworthy contributes a preliminary paper with the object of facilitating a ready identification and classifica- tion of the commoner Philippine woods. The present paper contains a general and technical discussion of the gross morphology and minute anatomy of wood. This is followed by a brief description of its physical and chemical properties, and information connected with its durability and decay. The author then gives short notes on the structure, appearance, common names, range and usefulness of individual species, and finally a very complete index. It is hoped that this will put an end to the confusion now existing concerning the woods of Manila, and will lead to a better understanding of their uses, and the discovery of further uses. It may also be expected that the present work, together with the parts to be published later on, will be a help to discovering the relation- ships existing between the woods of the Philippine Islands and those of the rest of the world. * Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 649-52. t Philippine Journ. Sci., ii. (1907) pp. 351-404 (4 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 467 Pendulation Theory.* — H. Siniroth publishes an account of a theory ~bj which he claims to explain the changes and distribution of living organisms, and to trace back the theory of descent to one uniform cosmic principle. The author supposes that the earth has two fixed poles, between which the north and south axis swings slowly backwards and forwards, and these vibrations indicate the geological periods. The portion of the earth's surface which is most strongly affected by the vibrations lies on a meridian passing through Behring Straits, and is constantly changing its latitude and position towards the sun. The water, under the influence of centrifugal force, acts upon the land, so that dry parts become submerged, and vice versa. The change between land and water gives rise to continued formation of living organisms ; and for this reason the human race and all living things, so far as they can be traced back, arose in the eastern hemisphere, and spread thence in ordered lines over the whole of the earth's surface. The author makes the remarkable claim that all creation, the geological periods, volcanoes, earthquakes, meteorological phenomena, etc., can be explained by his theory. CRYPTOGAMS. Pteridophyta. (By A. Gepp, M.A. F.L.S.) Tropical American Ferns.j— W. R. Maxon publishes the first of a series of studies of tropical American ferns, designed to include notes on some of the earlier species, corrections in nomenclature, revisions of certain genera and smaller groups of species. He first treats of Asplenium salicifolium Linn., and carefully isolates it, showing how it has been misunderstood, and how it has been confused with half a dozen other species. These latter he distinguishes, and adds to them a new species of near affinity. In Holodktyum he describes a new Asplenioid genus founded- on Asplenium Ghieslreghtii Fourn. and A. Finckii Baker. He discusses the identity of A. rhizopliyllum L. ; supplies a new generic name, Pessopteris, to replace Anaxetum Schott ; adds a new species of Adiantopsis to the three already recorded for Cuba ; and describes Ananthacorus, a new genus allied to Vittaria and founded on Pteris angustifolius Sw. He supplies a chapter of miscellaneous notes and corrections of nomenclature ; and concludes with a series of descriptions of twelve new species of various genera. Philippine Ferns. — E. B. Copeland % gives a list of new or interest- ing Philippine ferns, among which is a new genus Davallodes, founded on the Leucostegia hirsuta of J. Smith, which was transferred to Mkrolepia by Presl. Copeland adds to it two new species. In other genera he describes four new species and six varieties, and calls attention * Die Pendulationstheorie. H. Sirnroth. t Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb., x. (1908) pp. 473-503 (2 pis.). J Philippine Journ. Sci., iii. (1908) pp. 31-39 (6 pis.). 2 I 2 468 SCTMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO to Hemigramma latifolia, Tectaria crenata, and some presumed hybrids between the two, illustrating his remarks with photographs. The same author * publishes notes on the Steere Collection of Philippine Ferns named by Harrington,! and corrects the erroneous determinations. Copeland J also publishes a revision of Tectaria, with special regard to the Philippine species. He defines the groups into which the species fall, supplies a key to the 17 Philippine species, and adds descriptive remarks to each of those species. Symbiosis in Fern Prothallia.§ — D. H. Campbell cites numerous instances of symbiotic association of fungi with higher plants, and also of Schizophycege with hepatics and other plants. The presence of mycorhizal fungi in the roots of Cupuliferse, Orchidaceas, and Ericaceae, and in a large number of diverse families, having been considered, more particular attention is directed to the presence of similar endophytic fungi in the prothallia of Pteridophytes — Ophioglossaceae, Lycopodiaceae, Osmundaceaj, Marattiacese, and Gleicheniacese. The author describes his own researches in connection with the last three families, describing and figuring the structure of the endophyte. As to the significance of the endophyte, the author points out that though an important part of its functions is to supply nitrogen compounds to the host, another part may be to supply carbon compounds directly or indirectly, especially where the host is destitute of chlorophyll. The host having acquired the habit of associating itself with the fungus, the gradual development of such purely saprophytic subterranean gametophytes as those of Ophioglossacese is readily conceivable. North American Fern-Hybrids of the Genus Dryopteris.|| — P. Dowell gives an account of some new North American ferns which he describes as hybrids of the genus Dryopteris. They are not referable to any single recognised species, but have characteristics in common with two known species ; they tend to be sterile, the sporangia being largely abortive ; they occur only occasionally, and rarely in large numbers in any one locality ; they grow in places favourable for the mingling of the gametes and usually associated with the supposed parent species. Four new hybrids are described, based on the parent species D. Clintoniana, D. intermedia, D. Goldiana, D. marginalis . Anatomy of Sigillaria.il — E. A. N. Arber and H. H. Thomas give an account of the structure of Sigillaria scutellata Brongn., and other Eusigillarian stems, in comparison with those of other Palaeozoic Lycopods. The chief material described came from the lower Coal Measures of Shore-Littleborough in Lancashire, two well preserved stems. These, and other specimens alluded to, belong to species of the Rhytidolepis section of the Eusigillariae. The medulla, protoxylem, * Philippine Journ. Soi., ii. (1907) pp. 405-7. t Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., xvi. (1877) p. 25. X Philippine Journ. Soi., ii. (1907) pp. 409-18. § Amer. Nat., xlii. (1908) pp. 154-65 (figs). II Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxv. (1908) pp. 135-40. i Proc. Roy. Soc, ser. B, lxxx. (1908) pp. 148-50. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 469 primary and secondary wood, and medullary rays are preserved. Phloem, inner cortex and cambium are not preserved. Ligules and ligular pits are found to be present. The course of leaf traces has been followed. The trace consists of a double xylem strand. The bundle is collateral without secondary wood. The parichnos is present. The Eusigillarias are compared anatomically, first with the Subsigillariaj, and then with Lepidodeiidron and Lepidophloios. Bryophyta. (By A. Gepp.) British Mosses. — C. H. Waddell* states that Orthotrichum dia- phanum var. aquaticum, found by Nicholson on willows near Lewes, Susses, also occurs on trees below flood-mark by the river Lagan, at Magheralin, Co. Down. D. Lillie \ gives lists of mosses collected in Shetland, Orkney, Caithness, and West Sutherland, which are additional to the records of the Census Catalogue of the Moss Exchange Club. P. Culmann's J description of Barbula (or Didrjmodon) Nicholsoni, a new moss discovered on the wall of a culvert, Amberley Wild Brooks, Sussex, by W. E. Nicholson, is reproduced. W. G. Travis § records the discovery of the rare moss, Swartzia inclinata, on boggy ground at Rainford Junction, in Lancashire. It was fertile and was growing associated with Lophozia badensis. It was probably the same species, and not S. montana, which was collected by Skelhorne in the neighbourhood more than fifty years ago. Notes on European Bryophytes. || — A. Coppey discusses in some detail the relationship of his Barbula papillosissima, collected at an altitude of 7000 to 8000 feet on Mt. Khelmos (Aroania), in Greece ; showing that it is identical with a presumed Sardinian moss named B. nivalis var. hirsuta by Venturi, but it is specifically distinct from B. ruralis, being characterised by the presence of a remarkable solitary hollow papilla upon each leaf -cell. P. Culmann 1[ publishes a descriptive note upon the true Seligeria brevifolia of Lindberg, which he has suc- ceeded in finding at three stations in Switzerland ; and shows how it differs from S. pusilla var. Seligeri, regarded by Limpricht as a synonym of the former moss. He also records some new hepatics for Canton Berne. Potier de la Varde ** having discovered the rare Alpine hepatic Marsupella Sprucei near Guingamp in Brittany, describes its habitat, its conditions of growth, and the difficulty of finding it at all. E. Balle ff gives an enumeration of pleurocarpous mosses collected in the environs of Vire, Calvados. Italian Muscineae.Jt — Gr. Zodda publishes a first contribution to the moss-flora of the province of Belluno, based upon a collection of 106 * Journ. of Bofc., xlvi. (1908) p. 172. t Loc. cit. % Tom. cit., p. 173. § Tom. cit., pp. 123-4. || Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 74-9. % Tom. cit., pp. 79-80. ** Tom. cit., p. 81. ft Tom. cit., p. 82. XX Malpighia, xxi. (1907) pp. 479-511. 470 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO mosses and 18 hepatics made by R. Pampanini in the heart of the dolomitic Alps of Cadore. He gives a list of the localities visited by Pampanini, some notes upon the previous bryological literature concern- ing this region, and adds some notes upon distribution. Three species and 11 varieties are new to the Italian moss-flora ; 13 mosses and 6 hepatics are new for the province of Belluno ; and 39 species or varieties are new for the province of Veneto. Specially notable are the very rare species Grimmia Holleri and Bryum bimoideum. North American Mosses.* — A. J. Grout publishes the fourth part of his " Mosses with Hand-lens and Microscope," a non-technical hand- book of the more common mosses of the north-eastern United States. It is freely illustrated from standard works, provides keys to the genera and species, and emphasized descriptions with helpful annota- tions. The purpose of the book is to enable moss-students to identify all the less rare species with as little microscope work as possible. Hepaticae of Puerto Rico.f — A. W. Evans publishes his ninth con- tribution to the study of the hepatic^ of Puerto Rico, giving an account of the following genera : — Brachiolejeunea, Ptychocoleus, Archilejeunea, Leucolejeunea, and Anoplolejeunea. 1. Two species of Brachiolejeunea were already known from the West Indies ; to these is now added a new species, B. insular is. 2. Ptychocoleus Trev. is here used to replace Acrolejeunea as defined by Spruce and by Schiffner : P. polycarpus occurs in Puerto Rico and is re-described by Evans. 3. Archilejeunea is represented by A. viridisima in Puerto Rico ; a careful description of this species is supplied. 4. The widely distributed Leucolejeunea xantho- carpa occurs in Puerto Rico, and is re-described. 5. Anoplolejeunea of Schiffner was monotypic. Evans finds the type to be indistinguishable from Lejeunea conferta Meissn., and unites the two, giving a detailed description of the species. Many critical annotations are included in the paper. Mosses of the Canaries.! — H. N. Dixon gives an account of a small collection of mosses made by Miss Wells in the Canary Islands. They are twenty-two in number ; four of them are additions to the moss-flora of the Canaries, and five to the moss-flora of the Atlantic Islands as a whole. Brachythecium purum var. canariense is a curious novelty from Palma. Bryophytes of French Guinea.§ — E. G. Paris reports upon a further collection of mosses collected by Pobeguin in Fouta-Djallon, in tropical French West Africa, including 20 mosses, six of which are new, and 3 hepatics, one of which is new. In a brief summary the author points out that before 1902 not a Bryophyte was known from French Guinea, but that owing to the efforts of three French collectors — Normand, Maclaud, and especially Pobeguin — in six years 176 mosses * New York City : published by the author, pt. iv. (1908; pp. 247-318 (figs.), t Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxv. (1908) pp. 155-79 (3 pis.). % Journ. of Bot., xlvi. (1908) pp. 184-6. § Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 57-61. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 471 and 29 hepatics have been gathered in that region, and of these 128 mosses (73 p.c.) and four hepatics (14 p.c.) have proved to be new to science. Mosses of the Belgian Congo.* — J. Cardot publishes preliminary diagnoses of mosses collected in the Belgian Congo by Laurent and Paque, and near Oussouye on the Casainance by Mathieu. He hopes later to give fuller descriptions accompanied by figures. Eighteen novelties are described, and most of the specimens from the French Congo are previously unknown species of Fissidens or Galymperes. Mosses of the Philippine Islands.f — V. F. Brotherus publishes a list of 98 mosses collected in the Philippine Islands by Merrill and others. Twenty-two of the species are new to science. New also is the genus MerriUiobryum, agreeing with Fabronia in structure of stem and leaves, but differing much in its sporogonium. Hepatics of New Caledonia. J — E. G. Paris gives a list of 16 hepatics collected by Le Kat in New Caledonia, and determined by Stephani. None of them are new to science, but some are recorded for New Caledonia for the first time. Studies of Javanese AnthocerotaceaB.§ — D. H. Campbell has pub- lished studies on some Javanese Anthocerotaceae. He separates off from Anthoceros certain species, which had been grouped together on account of their spiral elaters and the absence of stomata on the sporo- gonium, into a new genus Megaceros, which has the additional characters of multiple chromatophores and green spores. Two new species from Java are added. They are both monoecious. The thallus-form and apical growth and archegonia are as in typical Anthoceros ; the large solitary antheridium is more like that of Dendroceros. The early divisions in the embryo recall Dendroceros ; the amount of sporogenous tissue is great as in Notothylas. As in Anthoceros, the primary chromato- phore of the spore-mother-cell divides into four before the nucleus divides ; the spores are small and thin- walled and contain a large chloro- plast. The elaters are multicellular as in Dendroceros. The sporophyte has much green tissue but no stomata ; the cells contain 2-6 chromatophores. The foot is large and has root-like extensions. Campbell also treats of Notothylas javensis and of two unnamed Javan species of Dendroceros. Finally he discusses the affinities of the Anthocerotaceae, and would keep them in a special class distinct from both Marchantiales and Jungermanniales, though perhaps approaching somewhat to Cyath odium in the former of these two. Antiquity of the Hepaticse.|| — D. H. Campbell discusses the distribution of the Hepaticaa and its significance. He is strongly of opinion that, though fossil remains of indubitable Bryophytes are very * Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 62-7. t Philippine Journ. Sci. Manila, iii. (1908) pp. 11-30. J Rev. Brvolog., xxxv. (1908) p. 62. § Ann. of Bot., xxi. (1907) pp. 467 -S6 ; xxii. (1908) pp. 91-102 (5 pis. and figs.). || New Phvtologist, vi. (1907) pp. 203-212. 472 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO scarce in Palaeozoic formations, we must not conclude that the hepatics are therefore of comparatively late origin. They are almost as scarce in the later formations. Their delicate leaves do not lend themselves to preservation, and their elaters and other more durable structures are too small to attract notice. The existing geographical distribution of the hepatics is a line of research that would throw light on the degree of antiquity of the group ; but it has not been much examined. The spores are not suited for wide distribution, but usually require speedy germination. After briefly surveying the distribution of other groups of plants, the author treats that of hepatics in more detail, indicating broadly the distribution of several genera of wide range. The obvious conclusion from such a study of the hepatics is the small number of genera and their wide distribution, especially in case of the genera of older type. No recently developed group could have acquired such a wide distribution of its simpler forms with so little modification. Calypogeia trichomanis and its Allied Forms.* — C. Meylan pub- lishes some researches upon Galypogeia trichomanis Corda. This old species has in recent years been divided into six species : C. trichomanis, G. suecica, G. sphagnicola, G. submersa, G.fissa, C. Mulleriana. Meylan has studied each of these species or subspecies carefully in the field and under the Microscope. He divides his subject into two parts, treating first of the forms which avoid growing in marshes, and secondly of the marsh forms. Having to deal with plants mostly sterile, he employs vegetative characters ; and, stating that the shape of the upper part of leaf is of very little value owing to its variability on the same plant, he prefers to employ as characters the shape of the amphigastria and the areolation of the leaves. Having discussed the various forms, he con- cludes that there are two types or well defined species : — C. trichomanis and C. suecica, the first growing always on humus and bogs, the second always on rotting wood ; that the former has the varieties Neesiana,fissa, Sprengelii (with a form submersa) ; that the latter has a variety or form erecta. He adds that there remains a group of forms which grow associated with species of Sphagnum, namely G. sphagnicola ; but he prefers to regard it, not so much a species, as a variety of the same value as Sprengelii. In fine, G. trichomanis (exclusive of G. suecica) varies enormously according to environment, producing a multitude of forms useless to classify, as they grade into one another. Monograph of Philonotis.f — Gr. Dismier publishes a monograph of the French species of Philonotis, and indeed of all the European species, for he treats of all the other European forms of this difficult genus which have been described as species. He bases the delimitations of the species upon the form and direction of the cauline leaves, their areola- tion, denticulation, flat or revolute margins, and the position of the papillae on the cells. The species recognised by him are eight : — P. rigida, P. marchica, P. capillaris, P. ccespitosa, P. fontanel, P. tomen- tella, P. seriata, P. calcarea. The result is that the numerous puzzling forms are gathered into clearly defined groups. * Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 67-74. t M6m. Soc. Sci. Nat. Math. Cherbourg, xxxvi. (1908) pp. 367-428. See also Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) p. 83. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 473 Note upon Hookeria papillata.* — E. 6. Paris shows that No. 93 of the Cuban Mosses gathered by C. Wright (1856-8) was wrongly referred by Sullivant to Hookeria papillata Mont. ; that it is really H. crenata Mitt., which species Mitten founded upon No. 92 of the same cxsiccati (wrongly referred to H. Merkelii Hornsch). Sullivant, says Paris, made the same blunder over Montagne's species in connection with a specimen collected by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition, — a specimen which he had previously distinguished as H. oblongifolia. Fruit of Campylopus polytrichoides described, f — A. Luisier has brought together the few facts hitherto known about the sporogonia of Campylopus polytrichoides, old material only, collected in Portugal. In the past few years further examples have been found on the coast of Portugal. And Luisier, having himself been fortunate enough to find some of these specimens, has drawn up a description of pedicel, capsule, calyptra, and peristome, and illustrates it with some figures. Abnormal Archegonium in a Hepatic.f— F. M. Andrews describes and figures an abnormal form of archegonium observed in Porella platylla. It contained two perfectly formed egg-cells, each with a row of canal cells. He also figures some branched elaters found in the same species. JThallophyta. Algae. (By Mrs. E. S. Gepp.) Nomenclature of Algae.§ — G. B. de Toni has been appointed secre- tary of the algological section of the special committee appointed by the Botanical Congress of Vienna in 1905, to consider the subject of Crypto- gamic Nomenclature, and report to the Congress of Brussels in 1910. He asks for the opinions of algologists upon general problems or particular cases of algological nomenclature, as an aid to the settlement of the priority of generic names, and the best way of settling the claims of various authors. He gives some instances of changes attempted by Trevisan, Ruprecht, 0. Kuntze ; of objections raised by Le Jobs ; of views advanced by Nordstedt — for instance, that for the Desrnidiea? the starting-point should be " The British Desniidieas " of Ralfs (1848). Fixation of Nitrogen by Algae. || — B. Heinze gives the results of his researches into the question of the fixation of free nitrogen by algae, and supplies a summary of the literature of the subject. Some bacteria have this property, but fungi have not. Some algae, such as Nostoc, possess the power to a certain degree ; association with such nitrifying organisms as Azotobacter, however, greatly promotes the function. * Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) p. Gl."" t Bull. Soc. Portugaise Sci. Nat., i. (1907) pp. 89-91. J Bot. Gazette, xlv. (1908) p. 340 (figs.). § Nuov. Notar., xix. (1908) pp. 67-71. || Centralbl. Bakt., xvi. 2 (1906) pp. 640-53; 703-11. 474 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Japanese Algae. — K. Okamura,* who has published six numbers of " Illustrations of the Marine Algae of Japan " during the last few years, is now continuing the series under the title of " Icones of Japanese Algae." Six parts have already appeared, each of which contains five quarto plates. The figures show the habit of each alga as well as the details of its structure, and they are all accurately and clearly drawn. Descriptions in English are given for those species which are either new or little known. Algae of Middle Europe.! — W. Migula continues the publication of his " Kryptogamen-Flora," which occupies vols, v.-vii. of Thome's " Flora von Deutschland, Osterreich und der Schweiz." The Chlorophyceaa are brought to an end in Part 48, a full index being provided. In Part 49, the treatment of the Rhodophyceas is begun ; the group of the Bangiales occupying but a few pages, the remaining group — Florideae — is soon reached, and the following four orders of Florideas are discussed — Nemalionales, Gigartinales, Rhodymeniales, and-Cryptonemiales. Keys to the 'families, genera, and species are supplied ; and brief and clear descriptions of them all are given, further assistance being afforded by means of figures. Oceanic Algae.f — A. Mazza continues his studies of marine algas, and treats of some of the Delesseriacege, giving critical notes upon three species of Martensia and ten species of Nitophyllum. Calcareous Algae. § — M. Foslie publishes the fourth part of his Algological Notes, in which he describes a number of species of Litho- thamnion, Goniolithon, Lithophyllum, Melobesia, and Mastophora, from all parts of the world, most of them new to science. On the species previously known he gives interesting notes. The paper is written in Norwegian. ■'b-1 Griffithsia acuta Zanard.|| — G. B. De Toni gives an account of Griffitlisia acuta, an unpublished species found in Zanardini's herbarium, and gathered at Alexandria in Egypt, perhaps by Portier. It is a sterile plant. De Toni compares its dimensions carefully with those of G.furcellata and G. Duriaei, and other species. . Critical Notes on Laminariaceae.^ — W. A. Setchell publishes some critical notes on Laminariaceas. He has succeeded in discovering what must be the type of Areschoug's Hafgygia Ruprechtii, misplaced and labelled with another name in Areschoug's herbarium at Stockholm. In habit, colour, lack of bullae, it closely resembles Laminaria bullata f . cuneata of Setchell and Gardner, but appear to differ in length of stipes and position of mucilage ducts in the stipes. There is great need for a study of the forms referred by Kjellman and others to L. ballata. * Icones of Japanese Algse. Tokyo : 1907-8, i. Nos. 1-6 (30 pis.). + Gera : P. von Zezschwitz, vi. 1 (1907) lief. 4=0-8, pp. 673-918 (47 pis.) ; also vi. 2 (1908) lief. 49-53, pp. 1-144 (25 pis.). X Nuov. Notar., xix. (1908) pp. 49-66. § Kgl. Norske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrift, No. 6 (1907) pp. 30. || Nuov. Notar., xix. (1908) pp. 85-9. f Tom. cit., pp. 90-101. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 475 Setchell also treats of the species grouped by Griggs under his recently established genus Renfreivia. R. parvula Griggs is identical with L. ephemera Setchell. Setchell states in detail his reasons for regarding Renfreivia as not separable from Laminaria, and as not being a primitive form of Laminaria, but as a later form modified by environment. Setchell next discusses the fructification of Pterygophora, and its relationships which he thinks to be with Alaria rather than with Laminaria. The unknown species Alaria marginata of Postels and Ruprecht seems to be identical with A. prcelonga and A. laticosta of Kjellman. Setchell also treats of some other species of Alaria, etc. Scytothamnus australis.* — C. M. Gibson writes on the morphology and systematic position of Scytothamnus australis. She gives a short history of the plant, and then describes the mature thallus, which is composed of three zones, the thallus being solid, and not hollow. Hairs were found on all parts of the thallus, having no connection whatever with the reproductive organs. They were traced by the author from the earliest stages, close to the apex of the thallus. An examination of the growing point showed that the apex is occupied by a group of meristematic cells and not by a definite apical cell. The apex is always blunt. Sporangia are only found on plants in which growth in length has ceased and the tissues are quite mature right up to 'the apex. They are unilocular only, occur all over the surface, and are formed from modified cells of the limiting layer. Stages in the development of the sporangia are described and figured. Scytothamnus lies between Dictyosiphonacese and Chordariacea? as regards the mature vegetative structure. It agrees with the former in the" position and structure of its sporangia, but differs from it in the lack of an apical cell. The author shows that Scytothamnus australis is quite distinct from Dictyosiphon fasciculatus, and that S. rugulosus is also a good species. Algal Blight on Tea.| — C. M. Hutchinson gives an account of Cephaleuros virescens, the " red rust " of tea, an alga belonging to the Chlorolepideas group. It does much damage to the tea crops of North-east India, and, it is said, to mango-trees in Bengal. It attacks the leaves and stems of the former and the stems of the latter. It settles in crevices of young plants and forms yellow patches, and pierces the tissues. It is propagated by means of water-borne zoospores and of air-borne sporangia. Structure of Diatoms.J—W. Bally discusses the gelatinous substance which is found surrounding the girdle of certain marine plankton diatoms, notably species of CJmtoceras. He describes the neutral results obtained by staining both fresh and preserved material, and makes suggestions as to the origin and nature of the substance observed ; and he thinks it consists most probably of gelatinous matter which has exuded between the girdle and the valve. Minute investigation has shown the author that only one, and that the older, of the "two valves * Joum. Bot., xlvi. (190S) pp. 137-41 (2 pis.). t Mem. Depart. Agric. India (Bot.) i. No. 6 (1907) 35 pp. (8 pis.). J Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxvia. (190S) pp. 147-51. •476 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO remains in connection with the girdle, and that the girdle consists of a simple hollow cylinder, while the valves show a strong incurving on the side turned towards the girdle. Thus the connection between valve and girdle is a very loose one. For a final explanation of the gelatinous external band investigation of other species is necessary. It seems to be absent in G. boreale and G. constrictum, while in G. decipiens, the species principally studied, it was not always present. As regards the object of the gelatinous band, the author is of opinion that it is con- nected with the floating apparatus, and indeed bears the same relation to the external rays of Ghcetoceras as the silk of an umbrella does to the ribs. Membrane of Diatoms.* — L. Mangin has studied the constitution •of the membrane of diatoms, and finds that it is not composed, as has been believed, of cellulose or of something akin to that substance ; but that it responds, on the other hand, to pectic reagents, and is therefore clearly composed either of pecten or of substances closely akin to it. Diatoms which are fresh or have been preserved in alcohol do not respond well to the action of stains, and it is necessary to prepare the material by the use of certain salts (iron-alum, ammonium vanadate, etc.), and stain with old hgematoxylin-alum. Other methods of preparation are described also, and the use of ruthenium and of old hamiatoxylin-alum is recommended previous to mounting in Canada balsam. Comparison is drawn between the con- stitution of the membrane of Diatoms and that of Peridinieas, in which the substance is almost pure cellulose. The author finds that calcination is a considerable aid to the study of the niinute structure of the valves, but the process can only be applied to bottom forms, as plankton diatoms are too delicate. The staining of plankton is an important factor in a study of their structure, and has enabled the author to correct certain erroneous views concerning Ghcetoceras and other genera. He divides Ghcetoceras into two groups, which he briefly defines, and into one of which he sinks Schiitt's genus Peragallia. A paper con- taining more details on the subject is promised shortly. New England Desmids.f — J. A. Cushman records 49 species of Closterium from New England, 19 of which have not been noted before from that district. One new species, G. Novce-Anglice, is described : it is one of the longest species of the genus, and is near G. Calamus Playfair. A short diagnosis and measurements are given for each record, as well as references to literature, and reliable plates. In a short introduction the author describes the principal characters of the genus and of the two groups into which it is divided. Origin of Californian Petroleum.^— A. M. Edwards discusses the origin of petroleum in California, and states his reasons for supposing that the connection observed between deposits of marine diatoms and asphalt and petroleum indicates that petroleum rock-oil and asphalt are products of the decomposition of beds of marine diatoms. * Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 770-3. t Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxv. (190S) pp. 109-34 (3 pis.). X Nuov. Notar., xix. U908) pp. 72-78. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 477 Origin of the Bacillariae.* — A. M. Edwards discusses the origin of the Bacillariae. He has searched shaded damp places for microscopic algae, and states that he has found in such places Lyngbya muralis, and seen it die down and grow into Spirogyra and Cladopliora. And he also declares among them are particles as of clay, which turn into Monas lens and then into Navicula quadrangula. He gives a list of diatoms found in the sediment from a New Jersey stream-bed, allowed to stand in the sun. Diatoms of the Jura Lakes.f — P. Prudent adds to his studies of the diatomaceous flora of the lakes of the Jura, some lists of the species collected by him in the Lac d'Aiguebelette and the Lacs de Saint Jean- de-Chevelu. The former, situated at an altitude of 1260 ft. in Savoy, furnished 117 species, two of which are new for the French flora, and some of which are rare forms, and one of which is a marine species. On the other hand the two lakes of Saint Jean-de-Chevelu produced 86 forms, one being new and another quite rare. Phytoplankton of Scotch and Swiss Lakes.:}:— H. Bachmann pub- lishes a comparative study of the Phytoplankton of the lakes of Scotland and of Switzerland. He visited Scotland in 1905 and published his results in 1907. In the present paper he reduces his results to a more compact form. He first treats in a general manner of the eight Scottish lakes he visited — depth, dimensions, altitude, climate, temperature, and their effects. He then shows in a table all the species of phytoplankton found in each Scottish lake, indicating the comparative frequency. In the following list he gives a systematic enumeration of the plankton found in fifteen Swiss lakes. He then states the results that follow from a comparison of the two floras. Some of the more interesting species he discusses at greater length, giving for instance numerous figures of CeraUum hirundinella from thirty Swiss lakes and from the Scotch lochs. Chlamydomonas stipitata is a new species. Notes on the vertical distribution and the annual periodicity of the phytoplankton are added. Bach, E. B. — The Characeae of Michigan. [Partial list of the Characese of Michigan — 13 species ; and ' appeal to botanists to collect more.] Michigan Acad. Sci., Ninth Report, 1907, p. 126. De Tioni, G. B. — Matteo Lanzi. [Born 1824, died 1908. Expert diatomist and mycologist ; residing at Rome. Account of his life and work, with an enumeration of his pub- lished papers.] Malpigliia, xxi. (1907) pp. 512-18. Lignieh, O. — Sur une Algue Oxfordienne (Glceocystis oxfordiensis sp. n.). [On Glceocystis oxfordiensis, a new species of fossil algre, found on a frag- ment of Araucarioxylon in the Oxford Clay in Calvados.] Bull. Soc. Bot. France, liii. (1906) p. 5 (fig.). * Nuov. Notar., xix. (1908) pp. 79-S4. t Ann. Soc. Bot. Lyon, xxxi. (1906) pp. 51-8. See also Nuov. Notar., xix. (1908) pp. 104-6. X Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. Geneve, xxv. (1908) pp. 219-68, 360-72 (figs.-). •478 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Fungi. (By A. Loerain Smith, F.L.S.) Obituary Notice of W. A. Kellerman.* — "While on a scientific expedition to Guatemala, the editor of the Journal of Mycology died very suddenly from malarial fever. He had gone there for the fourth time to collect material, and the trip was almost completed. Kellerman was born in 1850 ; the latter years of his life he was Professor of Botany in the Ohio State University. Every moment he could spare from class and laboratory work was devoted to the collecting of plants and building up herbaria. Since 1902 he had been the sole editor of the Journal. He has been a devoted worker in the cause of Mycology. Nearly eleven pages are occupied by a list of his publications in various branches of botany, though chiefly on parasitic fungi. A portrait of Kellerman forms the frontispiece. Development of Saprolegnia monoica.f — P.. Clausen found that the researches of Davis and Trow on the cytology of the Saprolegniacege led the authors to opposite results, and that these results were not in harmony with those of more recent studies on Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes. He gives a sketch of previous work, and describes his own methods of culture with ants' eggs as substratum, and of fixing, colouring, and em- bedding. In this species both oogonia and antheridia are formed, the latter arising from the stalk that bears the oogonia, though occasionally they are borne on more distant hyphse. The oogonia are multinucleate and full of plasma in the early stages. Later, degeneration sets in, and there is only a thin layer of plasma and a few nuclei left. The nuclei divide by mitosis simultaneously, and the oosphores are formed round certain of the nuclei, each one being uninucleate and each nucleus having at the beginning a centrosome. The antheridia pierce the mem- brane of the oogonium, and either branch or remain simple ; they apply themselves to the oosphere and a nucleus passes over which fuses with the oosphere nucleus ; the older oospores are always uninucleate. The small size of the nuclei made it impossible to count the chromosomes exactly : he reckoned about 10 to 14, but it is certain that no reduction took place, and Clausen was led to the conclusion that it did not occur until germination of the oospore. In this respect it agrees with the process observed in the zygote germination of Coleoclmte. Parasitic Laboulbenia.J — Edouard Chatton and Francois Picard describe one of these fungi, Trenomyces histophorus g. et sp. n., cha- racterised by its having advanced further on the way to parasitism than any other member of the same order. The basal cell of the organism is spherical ; it pierces by a tube the cuticle of the insect, and feeds on the adipose tissue — without, however, seriously injuring the host. Erysiphacese of Japan. § — E. S. Salmon publishes a supplementary paper based on a collection of examples on 120 different hosts sent to * Journ. Mycol., xiv. (1908) pp. 49-63. ' f Festschrift. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxvi. No. 5 (1908) pp. 144-61 (2 pis.). % Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 201-3. § Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) pp. 1-16. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 479 him from Morioka, Province Rikuchu. Salmon's determinations are made on morphological lines, and by this means he brings together very diverse hosts. He finds a new variety of the gooseberry mildew, Sphmrotheca mors-uvm, growing on leaves of Stephanandra ; several new varieties are described, and in many cases new hosts for species already known. He appends an alphabetical list of the hosts, with their parasites. Two little-known Myxosporiums.* — C. "W. Edgerton describes two fungi, one parasitic on Liriodendron tulipifera, the other on apple and pear trees. He considers them new species of the genus Myxosporium. A general account is given of bark-canker of apple and pear caused by the fungus, and contrasts are drawn with those that cause rot. The species on Liriodendron is also described ; the twigs on which it grew were dead, though it was not ascertained that the fungus had killed them. Edgerton calls his new fungi Myxosporium corticolum on apple, and M. longisporum on the tulip tree. Research on Fungi imperfecti.f — K. Klebahn has experimented with the fungus Septoria piricola, a parasite on the leaves of Pyrus com- munis. He describes the action of the mycelium on the host-plant, and the conidia of the fungus, comparing them with other species recorded on the same leaves, Depazea piricola and D. pyrina, Septoria nigerrima, S. Pyri, and also S. dealbata, all of which he finds to be synonymous with S. piricola. The ascus form, Mycosphcvrella sentina, is also de- scribed. Leaves of Pyrus were infected with the ascospores, and pycnidia were produced ; cultures were also made on plum-agar, and the pycuidia of Septoria piricola were again formed. Hyphomycetes.J — G. Lindau's latest fascicle deals with a series of genera characterised by brown muriform conidia of varying form, a difficult group to arrange. One subdivision is made to consist of but one genus, Sirodesmium, distinguished by its muriform spores borne in chains on a very short stalk. Lindau retains both Dictyo- sporium and Speira, very closely allied genera. Stemphylium, Mystro- sporium, and Macrosporium form another well-nigh inseparable trio of genera, badly differentiated. As usual the genera are well illustrated, though more figures would have been welcome. Systematic Position of Achorion and Oospora.§ — F. Gueguen has produced in his cultures of Oospora chlamydospores and spiral hyphaa, with two to five spirals, which break up into smaller portions, something like a letter S or small open rings. He has also demonstrated by his cultures that Oospora has a septate mycelium, which removes it from the Microsiphoneae. Gueguen finds that spirals are characteristic of the Gymnoasceas, and for that and other reasons he considers Oospora a conidial form of that group. He places Achorion, which is allied to Trichophyton, in the same systematic group as Oospora. * Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) pp. 48-53 (2 figs.). t Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xviii. (1908) pp. 5-17 (1 pi.), J Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Plora, i. abt. 9, lief. 108 (Leipzig, 1908) pp. 177-240. § C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxix. (1908) pp. 852-4. 480 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Uredineae.* — J. B. Dandeno supplies an account of experiments and observations on Puccinia malvacearum . He finds that in the case of this rust, which produces teleutospores alone, the reproduction of the fungus in the following year is provided for by mallow plants that have survived the winter and in which the mycelium is perennial. The theory that the seed carries over the fungus was found to be incorrect, as also the over-wintering of the teleutospores : none were induced to germinate after a winter's duration. The mycelium of the fungus is intercellular, though occasionally a haustorium is developed that penetrates a cell of the host. Basidiomycetes. — M. Peltereau f publishes his studies and observa- tions on Russula, a genus well defined and easily recognised, but the species of which are difficult to diagnose. This is owing to the various forms each species may assume and to the changing colours under different conditions. The author takes them in groups and gives characteristics of each. Incidentally he remarks that the mild forms are all edible, some of them very good — and even some of the acrid species may be eaten with impunity. F. Gueguen % gives his observations on some species of Lepiota. He tested the rate of growth in L. lutea in the dark and in light, and found they grew much larger in the dark. A small form allied to L. lutea was named L. Boudieri. It is entirely sulphur-yellow coloured and grew in hot-houses. A. Courtet§ reports some cases of poisoning by Tricholoma tigrinum. It had been collected and eaten under the impression that all grey kinds, such as Glitocybe nebularis, were harmless. Another case was due tc- eating Amanita muscaria, it being mistaken for A. caisarea. Neither of the cases proved fatal, though the symptoms of poisoning were severe. Ph. Guinier || and R. Maire give examples of the influence of geotropism on the orientation of Ungulina fomentaria. A specimen was found that had commenced growing on a standing tree in the usual normal manner. Then the tree had fallen to the ground and a new growth of the fungus had commenced, entirely covering the pores with a hard tissue and forming a second fungus at right angles to the first. Contribution to our knowledge of Corticese.^f — Fr. v. Hohnel and V. Litschauer contribute a study of this group based on the plants of several important herbaria in Vienna, Geneva, and Berlin. They have changed the genera of several species. Other species they have found to be synonymous with those of earlier date. A diagnosis of the genus Aleurodiscus is given, with a list of the species. The authors have traced the development of JEgerita Candida : it never forms spores ; the globose bodies are abnormal basidia of some Peniophora, and the fungus must be known as P. JEgerita. Two new genera have been diagnosed : * Michigan Acad. Sci., Ninth Report, 1907, pp. 68-73 (5 figs.), t Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiv. (1908) pp. 95-120. t Tom. cit. pp. 121-32 (3 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 133-7. || Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxiv. (1908) pp. 138-40 (2 figs.). i SB. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Math.-Nat. Kl., cxvi. Abt. 1 (1907) pp. 739-852 (4 pis., 20 figs.). See also Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) pp. 73-7. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC 481 Glceopeniopliont, which forms gloeocystidia as well as Feniophora-cjstidisi, and Dendrothele, which has thorn-like growths on the fruiting surface. A number of new species belonging to different genera are also described. Fomes pinicola Fr. and its Hosts.* — L. EL Pennington has studied the habitat of several of the larger Polypores, more especially Fomes pinicola. He found that it was the most common of the fungi that affect Conifers. The fruiting bodies were almost always found on dead trunks after the wood had become much decayed. On standing trunks they grew near the ground. Occasionally the fungus was formed on the wood of deciduous trees ; in one district it grew abundantly on balsam poplars. The fruiting bodies vary in shape, depending largely on the rate of growth ; the colours of the pileus vary according to the age of the fungus : in some instances on deciduous trees the pileus may be entirely destitute of red and yellow colours. Polyporus annosus.f — L. Wittmack publishes a photographic plate and a description of a young fir-tree, sis years old, that bore about middle height a large fruiting specimen of P. annosus. It surrounded the young tree and the branches, which looked as if they had grown through the fungus. In the near neighbourhood there had been an old stump attacked by this fungus, which had spread to the sapling. Mycotheca of the Ecole de Pharmacie.l — In a first paper G. Bainier presents a series of observations on the development of several Hypho- mycetes. The rather confused sporiferous head of Periconia is described as bearing a number of globose or oblong smooth basidia, each with a short chain of muriculate conidia. Several forms of Brachycladium and DendrypMum are also figured and described. In the latter genus the author establishes a new subgenus, Dendrypliiopsis, with conidia borne in verticils on the conidiophore. A second paper deals with a new species, Sterigmatocgstsis insueta, entirely dark brown, very minute, and with much-branched conidiophores. Chestnuts filled with a dark powder were examined and cultures made, which produced a Hyphomycete, Harziella Gastanm sp. n. Minute conidia are borne at the tips of obpyriform basidia clustered near the apes of the branches. StachyUdium bicolor is also described and figured. Bainier describes and figures Sordaria vestita and S. decipiens. The latter species has an 8-spored ascus, and varieties with 4, 16, and 32 spores in each ascus, differing from each other in the smaller size of the spores as these increase in number. These spores have an appendix at each end ; at one end, in the form of a mass of small filaments, at the other end, in addition, a long cylindrical cell growing out from the centre of the shorter filaments. Diseases and Pests of Coffee.§ — F. C. von Faber gives a review of the numerous enemies of the coffee-plant, both vegetable and animal. * Mich. Acad. Sci., Ninth Report, 1907, pp. 80-2. t SB. Ges. Nat.-Preunde Berlin, ix. (1907) pp. 298-9 (1 pi.). I Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xxix. (1908) pp. 73-9-1 (1 pis.). § Centralbl. Bakt., xxi. (1908) pp. 97-117 (12 figs.). Aug. 19th, 1908 -l k 482 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO He is impressed with the necessity of grouping in this manner the pests of tropical plants. First on the list of fungal parasites he places Hemihia vastatrix, the Uredine of which the life-history was worked ont by Marshall Ward. Faber goes over the ground again, and describes in detail the different spores, their germination and development, and their growth on the host-plant. He gives an account of the annual attack of the fungus, the spores of which are dispersed by the monsoon. The leaves are destroyed by the fungus and fall from the trees, then follows a loss in flower and fruit, owing to the weakened condition of the tree. Very great damage has been caused by this fungus ; an account is given of the varying degrees of susceptibility of the different varieties of coffee plants, and methods of combating the disease are also dis- cussed. Another disease, due to a Corticium, on the branches and leaves, is also fully dealt with. Pellicularia kohroga forms a black-rot or leaf- rot ; it appeared first in Jamaica, but has been detected in Java, India, and Venezuela. It is chiefly a leaf-disease. Other leaf-diseases are Glmosporium coffeanum, Cercospora coffeicola, and Oolletotrichum coffea- num, all of which cause spots on the leaves, and lower the vitality of the host-plant. Diseases of Plants.*— The pathologist to the Board of Agriculture reports on specimens of gooseberry plants from Dunstable, which were found to be covered by a harmless Phoma ; seed -potatoes from Chester were infested with Macrosporium Solani, causing brown patches in the interior of the tuber ; potatoes from Feltham were attacked by Phytoph- thora. H. T. Giissowj records a new tomato disease for this country, whither it has evidently been imported from the Continent. The plants are attacked by Septoria Lycopersici, which develops on the leaves and destroys them. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is recommended as soon as the disease appears ; badly attacked plants should be cut back or destroyed by burning. Some other cases of disease are recorded ; % Gymnosporhmi clavarice orme was found on pink thorn, distorting the branches, and violet root- rot, Rhizoctonia violacea, was causing the decay of stored potatoes. D. v. Hegyi § describes cases of crumpling and distortion in wheat, caused sometimes by an insect and sometimes by the fungus Hehnintho- sporium gramimum, or by unfavourable weather conditions. A. Stift || publishes a long review of all the cases of disease recorded as occurring on beet and potato during the year 1907, including insect as well as fungus attacks. On beet he notes chiefly Phoma Betce, Peronospora Schachtii, Uromyces Betce, etc., discussing the causes in soil or climate that favour their development. A series of fungi that attack potatoes is next dealt with. Phytophthora infestans was of less im- portance than some other diseases. Phellomyces sclerotiophorus has been found to be the stroma of Sptondylocladium atrovirens ; Stysanus * Jouru. Board of Agric, xv. (1908) p. 47. t Tom. cit., pp. 111-15 (figs.). J Tomcit., pp. 119-20. § Zeitschv. Pflanzenkr., xvii. (1907) pp. 334-6. || Centralbl. Bakt., xxi. (1908) pp. 117-43. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 483 stemonitis has been proved to be a parasite, but the damage does not go very deeply into the tissue of the tuber. Fusarium oxysporum has been the cause of very considerable loss, while Phytophtkora, Rhizoctonia, and Bacteria add largely to the score. An account is given of the feeding of pigs with more or less diseased tubers, and the results on the health of the animals is stated ; they were not affected unless the potatoes were very badly diseased. Potato Scab in America. — W. J. Morse * states that the disease is caused by a minute parasitic fungus Oospora scabies. It has increased greatly during the last few years, and the bulletin has been issued to warn growers of the serious nature of the disease and to advise them as to remedies. Morse recommends the use of sulphur on the land, which tends to acidify the soil, a condition inimical to the fungus, but above all he advises disinfection of seed potatoes to prevent the propagation of the fungus. Soaking them in formalin solution has been found of value, or exposing them to formaldehyde gas. Morse explains the best methods of applying the gas. A second paper f by the same author treats of potato diseases generally : early blight due to Alter naria Solani ; late blight to Phytoph- tkora infestans, and forms of scab. He discusses the various methods of spraying, disinfecting, etc., and gives results of experiments with fungicides, etc. Fungi Parasitic on the Vine Phylloxera.^ — P. Baccarini received from G. B. Grassi some Phylloxeras that had evidently been killed by fungi ; the bodies of the insects were almost munrmified, being pene- trated and filled by brown hyphge. He describes the different fungus fructifications that he noted in cultures on media in which he had placed the insects, some on one and some on another. They were species of Cladosporium, Macrosporium, Fusarium, Phoma, Altemaria, and Penicillium. Descriptions of these fungi are given. Fungi Parasitic on Hevea brasiliensis.§ — The culture of this plant has developed enormously in Ceylon of late years, with the increased demand for indiarubber, and has become subject to a number of parasitic and other fungi, some of which cause great damage. T. Petch has followed the growth of these fungi, and writes an account of them. He gives a historical sketch of the indiarubber culture in Ceylon, explaining the conditions that prevail and that are more or less favourable to the spread of the parasites. The young plants in the nurseries are well protected by coco-nut leaves from the sun and the rain, and any leaves that are exposed become covered with spots on which several leaf fungi settle ; such are Helminthosporium H&vece, Pestalozzia palmarum, Gla'osporium elasticce, G. Hevea, and several other members of the fungi imperfecti. Petch deals next with the root fungi, and much of the root trouble he attributes to the custom of leaving stumps in the ground when trees are felled : these are the * Maine Agric. Stat., Bull. No. 141, 1907, pp. 81-92. t Op. cit., No. 149, pp. 287-330 (figs.). t Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1908, pp. 10-16 (figs. a-g). § Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xviii. (1908) pp. 81-92. 2 K 2 484 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO breeding ground for Fames semitostus and other fungi. The ants follow destroying roots already attacked by the fungus, and in the case of standing trees a high wind blows them over. Some microfollin' that attack roots are also described. On stems and twigs he records a large number of parasitic forms, several of them new and peculiar to Hevea. Finally on the fruit there is found the same PhytopMhora that attacks cocoa-pods. No method has yet been devised of effectually dealing with this fungus, but as the fruit is only valuable on account of the seed, the economic damage Is so far negligible. New Subterranean Parasite.* — A. Trotter found at Avellino on the roots of Crepis bulbosa protuberances or galls 4-5 mm. in diameter, quite distinct from the tubers natural to the plant. He describes the microscopic structure of these galls and of the fungus ; the spores of which filled the numerous cavities. The gall itself is formed of the tissue of the host-plant excited to abnormal growth by the presence of the parasite. Notes on Portuguese Mycology.f — C. Torrend remarks on the very abundant phanerogamic flora of Portugal, and compares it with the cryptogamic, which promises to be equally rich. He gives coloured figures and descriptions of some rare forms that he has found there recently : Lycoperdon fragile, a species common in America ; Terfezia rosea, one of the Tuberaceee ; Colus hirudinosus, a Phalloid found in S. France, Algeria, and New Caledonia ; finally, Torrendia pulchella, one of the Hymenogastracere that grows in the open. It has a distinct stalk, and a pileus in which is a chambered receptacle. These fungi are illustrated by coloured plates. Peptonification of Milk by Moulds.]:— It has been found that certain moulds coagulate milk and then peptonise the casein by the secretion of trypsin. A. Sartory experimented with pure cultures of some 80 moulds, and chronicles the results, which were very different in species intimately connected morphologically. He suggests that this property of the moulds might be used as a specific test. In some cases the action was rapid, 3 days or so, in others slow, 11 to II days ; in others again there was no peptonification produced. Atkinson, Geo. F. — Notes on some New Species of Fungi from the United States. [Species belonging to the Hyinenomycetes.] Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) pp. 54-62. Bresadola, J. — Fungi aliquot gallici novi vel minus cogniti. (Some French fungi new or little known.) [The fungi were collected by H. Bourdot, in the neighbourhood of Moulins.] Tom. cit., pp. 37-47. Bubak, Fe. — Neue oder Kritische Pilze. (New or critical fungi.) [New species are diagnosed, and copious notes are given on others — all microfungi.] Tom. cit., pp. 22-9 (13 figs.). * Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) pp. 19-22 (3 figs.). f Bull. Soc. Portug. Sci. Nat., i. (1908) pp. 177-83 (1 pi.). j C.B. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 789-90. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 485 Gueguen, Fern and — Sur un Oospora nouveau. [Oospora lingualis, associated with Gryptococcus lingua? -piloses on " black tongue."] Comptes Rendiis, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 994-6. Heimeel, A. — Beitrag zur Flora des Eisacktales. III. (Contribution to the flora of the Eisack valley.) Verh. k.k. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien, 1907, pp. 415-57. See also Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) p. 72. Jaap, 0 — Mykologiscb.es aus dem Khtingebirge. (Fungi of the Rhone mountains.) [A list of 323 fungi.] Allg. Bot. Zeitschr., xiii. (1907) p. 169. See also Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) p. 77. Jackson, H. S. — Sorosporium Ellisii Wint. — a composite species. [The writer considers that two species are here included ; he separates S. confusnm sp. n. (on Aristida).] Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxviii. (1908) pp. 147-9. Kauppman, C. H. — Unreported Michigan Fungi for 1906. [A list of the larger fungi found in the State.] Mich. Acad. Sci., Ninth Report, 1907, pp. 83-7. Lindau, G., & P. Sydow — Thesaurus litteraturae mycologicae et licheno- logicae ratione habita praecipue omnium quae adhuc scripta sunt de mycologia applicata. (Thesaurus of mycological and lichenological literature, chiefly of applied mycology.) Leipzig : Brothers Borntriiger, i. pt. 1 (1907) 400 pp. Mas see, G. — New or Critical British Fungi. [An account of several species new to Britain, with critical notes.] Joum. Bot., xlvi. (1908) pp. 151-5. Malkofp, Konstantin — Erster Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Pilzflora Bulga- riens. (First contribution to a knowledge of the fungus flora of Bulgaria.) [A list of 208 species is published, all of them parasitic] Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) pp. 29-36. Morgan, A. P. — North American Species of Agaricaceae. [Species of Hypholoma and Stropharia are described.] Joum. Mycol., xiv. (1908) pp. 64-75. Peter, A. — Die Pyrenomyceten und Tuberaceen der Gottingen Flora. [A list of these fungi from Gottingen, with locality and distribution. Several of thern are new or rare in Germany.] Nachricht. k. Ges. Wiss. Gott. Math.-Phys. El., i. (1908) pp. 28-52. Rick, J. — Contributio ad monographiam Agaricacearum et Polyporacearum Brasiliensium. (Contribution to a monograph of Brazilian Agarics and Polypores.) [Several new species are included in this survey.] Brot,, vi. (1907) pp. 65-92 (9 pis.). See also Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) p. 81. Sydow, H. & P. — Einige neue von Herrn J. Bornmuller in Persien gesammelt. Pilze. [Diagnosis of five species of microfungi.] Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) pp. 7-18. Lichens. (By A. Lorrain Smith.) Chemical Monograph of the Cladoniae.* — W. Zopf has worked through the species of this genus that occur in Germany, with a view of determining their chemical constituents, and testing by this means their systematic position. He upholds the larger groups of those with red apothecia and those with brown, but he is impelled to make several changes within these groups ; he recommends a more careful morpho- * Festschr. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxvi. (1908) No. 3, 113 pp. (4 pis.). 486 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO logical examination to see if they cannot be classified in a way that will also express their chemical affinities. Zopf has isolated several new acids, and in some cases he finds that plants looked on as varieties must be treated as species ; thus C. fimbriate/, f . nemoxyna has been made a species by the author because it contains no fumar-protocetrar-acid, such as is found in C. fimbriate/ and others closely allied. Mycetozoa. •(By A. Loerain Smith.) Spongospora Solani.* — T. Johnson publishes a carefully worked out study of this organism, which he considers to be a slime-fungus closely allied to Plasmodiophora. It causes scabs on potato tubers, and in some districts in Ireland it is as injurious to potatoes as finger-and-toe is to turnips. The spores are grouped in balls, comparable to grains of sand, and just visible to the naked eye. When still immature the spore-contents appear as one fairly dense body ; at a more advanced stage they contain six or eight distinct bodies — swarm-spores which escape into the surrounding medium, and serve to propagate the Spongospora. Scabby potatoes when planted produce other scabby tubers ; sometimes the rhizome is affected. Clean seed-potatoes are essential to a healthy crop. Johnson gives advice as to checking or overcoming the disease. Existence of Myxomonas Betae.f — This organism was originally described by Brzezinski as a pseudo-myxomycete which lived parasitic- ally on beetroot. The results were questioned by Trzebinski in a later paper, and now by F. C. von Faber, who has gone over the whole ground carefully, and in his summing up says : — " No stage whatever of any myxomycete of any kind could be found in the roots, and it can be stated with absolute certainty that Myxomonas Betce does not exist." Faber gives proofs of his statement ; he finds that what were considered to be zoospores in motion were protoplasmic particles in Brownian motion, or perhaps bacteria that had got into the cultures. Dimorphism in a Myxomycete4 — E. Pinoy records further observa- tions on a culture of Bidymium nigripes. With white plasmodia placed in his culture tubes he was able to obtain fructifications in 10 to 20 days. Some of the tubes, however, showed a plasmodium that was yellow or orange, others blackish violet. From neither of these did he obtain fructifications, only sclerotia. He tried again by mixing the two plasmodia, and failed ; he then made separate cultures of the two sclerotia, and taking the myxanicebag obtained he mixed a few of them in a third culture tube. Under these conditions he obtained fructifications in 10 or 12 days. Pinoy considers that he is dealing with a form of sexuality, that he has -f and — spores, such as were found by Blakeslee in Mucor, that with one or the other alone there is no fructification, but only when the two kinds are mixed. * Econ. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc, i. (1908) pp. 453-64 (1 pi.). t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxvi. (1908) pp. 177-82. % C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 630-1. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 487 Unusual Growth of Spumaria alba.*— Th. Wulff describes a growth of Plysarum cinereum, which covered large patches of grass in a meadow, and considerably lowered its value. In the same field he now records an equally abundant invasion of Spumaria alba, which showed itself chiefly in great masses on the mowed grass. The field belonged to the Swedish experimental station at Flahult, and consisted of well- drained moss-land mixed with sand and manured with lime and minerals, but not with saltpetre or dung. A very wet season from the middle of June to the end of August preceded the unusual development of the myxomycete. Wulff is unable to say if the grass was injured, but in any case it looked unappetising. Schizophyta. Schizomycetes. Streptothrix in Chronic Suppuration. f—M. P. Neschczadimenko has isolated a streptothrix organism from the purulent discharge of an umbellical fistula. Microscopically, the pus, when stained by Gram's method, showed stained and unstained cocci and rods, and large quan- tities of long, sometimes branched threads 0 ■ 75-1 yu, in width ; in sterilised water the pus showed irregular white clumps, which, on shaking, broke up into small flocculi, consisting of a tangle of threads and cocci ; these flocculi were transferred to various fluid and solid media, and under strictly anaerobic conditions growth occurred at 36°-37° C. More vigorous growth was obtained in broth with yolk of egg after 8-10 days ; it consisted of white granules adhering to the wall of the tube, the medium remaining clear ; microscopical examination showed long threads often branched, and bent and twisted rods with thickened ends. On agar it forms irregular-shaped colonies, grey- white at first, but becoming darker and of a yellow tint, especially at the centre, and consists of rod-forms resembling the diphtheria bacillus. No growth was obtained on gelatin or on potato. The organism did not growr under aerobic conditions, and it does not appear to be pathogenic for animals ; it is not acid-fast. The etiological relation of this strepto- thrix to the suppuration in this case is not certain. Micrococcus catarrhalis (Pfeiffer) and Gonococcus. f — J. Bruckner refers to the difficulty of distinguishing the Micrococcus catarrhalis from the Gonococcus and Meningococcus, on ascitic agar or serum agar, on account of the variable forms assumed, but finds that it is easy to distinguish these organisms in ascitic broth by the formation by M. catarrhalis of opaque white flocculi which are deposited and leave the broth clear, whereas the Gonococcus and the Meningococcus cloud the broth, form a delicate pellicle, and a flocculent deposit, which dis- appears on shaking, but the broth always remains cloudy. Differential Diagnosis of Gonococcus and certain other Micrococci. § Rothe finds that the Gonococcus ferments dextrose, but not lasvulose or * Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xxiii. (1908; pp. 2-5 (1 pi), t Centralbl. Bakt. lte Abt. Orig. xlvi. (1908) p. 578. % C.K Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) p. 619. § Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlvi. (1908) p. G45. 488 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO maltose ; that Meningococcus ferments dextrose and maltose, but not kevulose ; that DipUeoccus flavus ferments dextrose, bevnlose. and maltose ; and that Micrococcus catarrhalis and M. cinereus ferment neither dextrose, lasvulose, nor maltose. Bacillus i'usiformis (Vincent) cultivated in Symbiosis.* — (J. Proca finds that B.fusiformis grows especially luxuriantly in a broth containing II. subtil is and streptococcus, and, instead of forming a thick deposit, is distributed through the liquid medium. Similar abundant growth occurs when B.fusiformis and streptococcus are grown in a sterilised broth culture of B. coli or B. typhosus : if the broth is diluted with distilled water so that the growth of the streptococcus can hardly take place, the B.fusiformis still grows abundantly. B.fusiformis inoculated together with B. subtilis on pepton agar, prepared without meat, forms after 3-4 days' incubation, small round, circumscribed, whitish-yellow opaque colonies, composed of typical bacillary forms. In broth, in the presence of B. subtilis and streptococcus, the B.fusiformis has a spirillar appearance ; this spirillum form when transferred to solid media repro- duces the typical fusiform bacillus. Bacterium cystinse.f — H. Muller - Thurgau describes four new species of cyst-forming organisms (bacterienblasen). (1) Bacterium man n itopmum is found occasionally in fruit wines as snow-white flocculi measuring 1-3 cm. in diameter, composed of short or long, jointed or un jointed rods up to 50/x long ; the rods are not motile, and have no flagella ; spore-formation does not occur ; they tend to form zoogloeic masses ; growth occurs on gelatin, which is not liquefied ; the rods stain by ordinary dyes, and also by Gram's method ; it is a potential anaerobe, with a minimum temperature of 8°-10°C, and an optimum of 25°-30°C. ; it ferments kevulose and saccharose, but not maltose, dextrose, or mannite. (2) B. gracile resembles the preceding : it is found in zoo- glceic masses and bladders in fruit wines, especially in certain perry ; it occurs as short non-motile rods 1-1 ■ 2 p. long, long threads not being observed. No spore-formation occurs ; the staining reaction and chemical characters were not examined. (3) Micrococcus cystiopceus forms zoogloeic masses and bladders in fruit wines, and occurs as cocci, diplococci, and tetrads. (4) A micrococcus resembling the preceding, and found in bladders in fruit wine, but was not studied in pure culture. Studies in Mediterranean Fever.i — E. Sergent and others find that the goats of Algiers are only affected to a small extent in comparison with the Maltese goats, viz. 4*2 p.c. as against 30-50 p. a, and suggest that this is due probably to the fact that Algerian goats are impure breeds, strongly mixed with Spanish goats. Mediterranean fever seems to be enzooic with goats of Maltese breed. The author finds that the infection may be conveyed to ail domestic animals and to man by ingestion or by contact of the micrococcus excreted in the milk or the urine. Intestinal Flora of certain Orthoptera.§ — A. Sartory and Clerc have made cultivations on agar, glucose-agar, and in broth from the * C.E. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) p. 771. f Centralbl. Bakt., 2te Abt., xx. (1908) p. 445. t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxii. (1908) p. 209. § C.E,. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) p. 544. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 489 intestinal contents of different Orthoptera, and have isolated various moulds and bacteria, including especially Penicillium glaucum, and Mucor mucedo, B. stibtilis, B. coli, and Staphylococcus aureus. Bacillus causing an Exanthematous Fever.* — T. Horiucbi has isolated from the stools and in some cases also from the urine of patients suffering from an exanthematous fever, during the Russo-Japanese war, a bacillus which is culturally similar to the B. paratyphosus, but gives a positive indol reaction ; it agglutinates with the serum of the patient from whom it was isolated, and with that of others suffering from an identical illness, and it appears to be the specific cause of the fever. The author has named the organism B. febris exanthematici Mandschurice. Plague Bacillus in the Bed Bug.t — Y. Jordansky and N. Kladnitsky conclude from their experiments that the coccobacillus of plague retains its virulence in the bug for at least 10 days, and from this fact the inference may be drawn that in certain cases the bug may become an infective agent. "&v Toxin of Bacillus virgula.J — L. Verderau finds that the toxin of B. virgula is a definite alkaloid, and analogous to the active principle of other vegetables. Symbiosis of Bacillus vulgaris and Bacillus butyricus.§— C.Crithari finds that if sufficient care be taken to maintain a permanent acidity of the medium the phenomena of butyric fermentation are reduced to a minimum. The details are tabulated in three sections which show the results of the action of the bacteria singly and in combination. Micrococcus neoformans and Cancer. || — M. Doyen finds that cancer may be diagnosed by the specific reaction with M. neoformans on the following grounds : (1) The serum of cancerous patients contains specific bodies. (2) These specific bodies exert an elective action on the extract of powder from the tumour, and of 31. neoformans and on young cultures of this microbe, so as to produce either fixation of the complement or agglutination. (3) The diagnosis of deep-seated cancer may be definitely made in the majority of cases by a combination of three tests : (1) fixation of complement ; (2) agglutination ; (3) determination of the opsonic index. Bacteria as Agents in the Oxidation of Amorphous Carbon.l" — M. C. Potter finds that under conditions of exposure to the air, a slow oxidation of amorphous carbon takes place through the agency of bacteria : during this action C09 is given off and heat is evolved. - Marshall, C. E., & B. Farrand. — Bacterial Associations in the Souring of Milk. Centralbl. Bakt., 2te Abt. xxi. (1908) pp. 7-59. * Centralbl. Bakt. lte Abt. Orig., xlvi. (1908) p. 586. t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxii. (1908) pp. 455-62. X C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 803-5. § Tom. cit., pp. 818-20. || Tom. cit., pp. 816-18. i Proc. Roy. Soc, Series B, lxxx. (1908) pp. 239-59. 490 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO MICROSCOPY. A. Instruments, 'Accessories, etc.* (1) Stands. _ " Waterhouse " Museum Microscope. — This Microscope (fig. 121) is [designed for the display of one dozen microscopic objects, in a museum or exhibition, where it is required to leave the instrument unattended and at the same time to prevent breakage or injury to Microscope or objects. The instrument here illustrated is an improved Fig. 121. form of previous patterns. It consists of a dust-proof ebonised mahogany-framed glass case, in which the Microscope is fitted. The objects, twelve in number, mounted on the standard size of slips, 3 by 1 in., are placed upon a revolving brass drum of very solid con- struction. The surfaces on which the objects rest are machine-planed, thereby insuring proper focus being maintained when objects are changed. The drum is rotated by means of a milled head from outside the case, and fine focusing is effected by moving the projecting eye-piece * This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illuminating and other Apparatus ; (4) Photomicrography ; (5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 491 end in a spiral manner. A spring catch indicates when the object is exactly in line of vision. The body of the instrument is fixed at an angle of 45° approximately, this being found the most convenient position for ordinary observation. Illumination is obtained from an adjustable plano-concave mirror mounted in the interior of drum. All parts projecting outside the case are securely protected from injury, and the door is fitted with lever lock. The most suitable powers to use with the instrument are from 2-| in. The instrument is made by Messrs. Watson and Sons. Konkoly's Large Measuring Microscope.* — This apparatus (fig. 122) is made by Messrs. Otto Toepfer und Sohn, of Potsdam, and is listed Fig. 122. No. Sb in their catalogue. The instrument is specially intended for the measurement of sunspots, but is equally well adapted for other purposes. It is built up on a heavy cast-iron base plate, moving on three foot- screws. The upper surface of this base plate is planed, the lower strongly ribbed ; the centre part is perforated for the admission of light on to the plate to be measured. In the front of the base plate there is a prism * Otto Toepfer und Sohn's Catalogue (Neue Astrophysikalische Apparate, 1908), Potsdam. 492 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO bar supported on two feet, and graduated into millimetres; at the back of the base plate there is a sill plate planed on top and parallel to the prism bar. The plate-stage (or object-stage) is carried on two bearers moving on the prism bars and supported by rollers, the bearers being actuated by rack-and-pinion. The base-plate also carries an arched support at right angles to the stage movement ; the summit of this arch is another prism bar, and carries the Microscope on bearers actuated by rack-and-pinion. The Microscope movement is naturally at right angles to the stage movement. The upper prism-bar is graduated into millimetres, but both prisms can be more finely graduated if desired. A position circle on the stage is intended to receive photographic plates up to 16 by 16 cm., and is connected with a circular rackwork under this stage controlled from the right-hand end of the stage. A frame, clearly shown in the illustration, covers the object placed on the posi- tion-circle, and contains a grating divided into intervals of 2 by 2 mm. This frame moves on a hinge (seen to the left), and is kept tight, when shut up, by a screw. The Microscope magnifies ten times, and can be rotated in a long groove 90° about its optic axis ; it can be clamped firmly on an adjustable peg, so that the micrometer screw of the Micro- scope is parallel to one or another of the lines of the grating-system. The Microscope measurement is, therefore, merely applied from line to line of the glass plate (at most 2-2 lines). The divisions on both prisms correspond to the glass net, and should he parallel with them; therefore, the divisions on the prisms should coincide with the net- lines, and this is easily regulated by the index. The index on the prism graduations, as well as on the position circle, is easily read by means of large loups of convenient size. This apparatus has been in use for four years at the Prussian Royal Astrophysical Observatory, and has given satisfactory results. Vogel-Hale Measuring Microscope (Model C).* — This instrument is listed No. &c in the maker's catalogue, and is shown in fig. 123. It is mainly intended for the measurement of solar spectra. The strong iron stand on which it is mounted can lie inclined at any angle between 0° and 60° at the observer's pleasure. The iron frame forming the measuring stage slides between two steel runners, and is covered with a glass plate for the reception of the object, which is secured by pressure springs of adjustable length. The measuring screw is very carefully constructed, and has an available length of 150 mm. ; one rotation of the thread gives an axial movement of 0*5 mm., and imparts a corre- sponding movement to the measuring stage by means of a steel nut beneath it. A counterweight is applied to the screw so as to avoid deadway. Two drums, with common index, are fitted near the screw- head, and give the readings : one of these drums records the rotations of the screw, and the other the rotations of the first drum. The first drum is divided into hundredths, and tenths of these can safely be estimated, so that a reading of 0*0005 mm. can be obtained ; a scale divided into millimetres shows the movement of the stage in that unit. The illu- * Otto Toepfer und Sohn's Catalogue (Neue Astrophisikalische Apparate, 1908), Potsdam. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 493 urination of the object is attained by a rotatory long mirror placed underneath the stage. The Microscope is on a rail parallel to the measuring screw, and is adjustable by hand-movement, by which the arangement of long objects — e.g. spectra — is much facilitated Microscope is equipped with one ocular and three objectives, about 4-100 diameters ; focusing is by rack-and-pinion. The ocular has strong threads, and can be rotated through 90°. means . The giving Fig. 123. Vogel's Measuring Microscope (Model I.).* — This apparatus of Otto Toepfer und Sohn (Xo. 9 in their catalogue) serves for almost the same purpose as model C, but the Microscope is intended to be used in a constant position. For this purpose the Microscope is movable by hand on a slide, and is provided with a prism in order to be convenient for the observer. The illumination of the measuring screw, its gradation, and the optical equipment, are the same as in the similar parts of the measuring stage of model C. As will be plainly seen from the illus- tration (fig. 124), the apparatus may be accompanied with an etching installation which can be adjusted and clamped on the slide of the Microscope. This auxiliary gives a means of engraving fine divisions on * Otto Toepfer und Sohn's Catalogue (Neue Astrophvsikalische Apparate 1908), Potsdam. 4H4 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO metal, glass, etc., and they can be arranged either obliquely or perpen- dicularly to the direction of the stage motion. Fig. 124. Vogel-Wanach Large Measuring Microscope (Model II.).* — This apparatus (fig. 125), 9a in the maker's catalogue, is specially constructed for the measurement of star spectra. It is mounted on a strong tripod with a hinged pillar, so that any desired inclination between 0° and 90° can be arranged. Microscope and measuring stage are arranged on a specially stiffened carrier, and an inclosed glass plate forms the object- bearer. A circular mirror with universal movement is set below the stage and illuminates the object. The measuring screw has an available * Otto Toepfer und Sohu's Catalogue (Neue Astrophysikalische Apparate, 1908), Potsdam. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 495 length of 50 mm. and a pitch of 0-5 mm. Certainty of screw action is attained by a counterweight, and the reading (0 • 0005 mm.) is given by a loup or two drums with common index, as in model C ; there is also a scale for reading the millimetres. The Microscope is in a slide, and is Fig. 125. adjustable perpendicularly to the direction of measurement ; it is operated by a screw of 50 mm. available length and 1 mm. pitch, which can therefore be used as a measuring screw. The corresponding drum is divided into hundredths, and by estimation of tenths readings can be taken to 0*001 mm. A laterally applied millimetre scale counts the whole rotations of the screw. The Microscope is equipped with a 4«.)i; SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING To Huyghen's ocular with variable thread distances ; the field can be variously stopped off (as in model A). There are three objectives, giving about 10-100 diameters. Focusing is by rack-and-pinion, and the ocular is rotatory through 00°. Fig. 126. Vogel-Campbell's Large Measuring Microscope (Model III.). — This instrument (fig. 120), $b in the maker's catalogue, resembles model II. in its horseshoe mount and hinged pillar, inclinable through 90°. But it differs essentially from the other types in its retention of * Otto Toepfer und Sohn's Catalogue (Neue Astrophysikalische Apparate, 1908), Potsdam. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 497 the ordinary Microscope form, so that in addition to the rack-and-pinion adjustment there is also a fine-adjustment by prism action and micrometer- screw ; in consequence, stronger magnifications can be used. The great distance of the measuring stage from the pillar is notable, as well as the provision of stage spring-carriers, so that plates of 16 cm. by 16 cm. can be applied and their central parts measured. The details of the measuring stage, the illumination, the measuring screw, and the reading scales, are practically the same as for model II. The Microscope has one ocular and three objectives, giving about 10-100 diameters ; stronger objectives can be used if desired. The ocular has strong threads, and is rotatory through 90°. Vogel's Measuring Microscope (Model IV.).* — This instrument (fig. 127) is the oldest form of measuring instrument constructed by Fig. 127. Messrs. Toepfer und Sohn (catalogue number, 9c). The principle is essentially that of a Microscope, with fine-adjustment and horse-shoe shape, hinged pillar for inclination, and a glass plate as object-carrier. The available part of the measuring screw extends to 30 mm, and the pitch is 0*5 mm. The scales read to 0*0005 mm. by means of two * Otto Tospfer und Soma's Catalogue (Neue Astrophisikalische Appaiate, (1808), Potsdam. Aug. 19th, 1908 2 L 498 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO drums with common index, and there is a separate scale for the milli- metres. The Microscope has a simple ocular, with strong threads, and three objectives giving 10-100 diameters. The ocular is rotatory through 90°, and stronger objectives can be used if desired. Toepfer's Universal Measuring Apparatus.* — The description given of this instrument (fig. 128) by A. Wolfer states that it is intended for the measuring of photographic star-plates of all kinds, as well as for other purposes requiring exact measurement, such as the examination of micrometer screws. A desk-shaped protuberance a standing on an iron base-plate has its upper surface inclined to the observer at an angle of 45°, and carries the object-stage and the horizontally placed and horizontally working main measuring-screw. In front of the protuberance a, and partly extending over it, there is a very strong bearer b b, stiffened with ribs and bowed at its centre ; the lower part of the bearer is vertical, and its upper part is parallel to the object-stage, the Microscope being applied to it in a slide, and receiving, by means of a screw, a movement perpendicular to the movement of the object-stage. Thus the whole arrangement pro- vides a very convenient attitude for the observer. There are means for levelling the instrument as a whole. The object-stage c is a glass plate fastened on to a square bronze frame, and works by means of four pins on a circular metal plate, whose circumference forms a position circle, and is graduated to half-degrees, and reads to minutes by means of two verniers diametrically placed. This position circle is rotatory in a strong cast-iron ring concentrically set beneath it, the verniers, as well as a tangent-screw, being attached to the ring. The measuring stage and all its parts are operated by the horizontal main screw, and may be moved in the direction of its axis. This screw is very strong, and is carefully designed for its double purpose of movement and measurement, the diameter of its thread being 10 mm., its thread-distance 0*5 mm., and the whole action range 100 mm. • There are two drums (the right- hand one is shown in figure) near the screw-handle, and these give the whole rotations and hundredths, so that the accuracy of the direct reading extends to ttoVo mm. A scale g, divided into millimetres, and an index moving with the measuring stage, give the actual position at any moment in millimetres. In addition to the ordinary handles for the rotation of the screw, there is a disk h of 7 cm. diameter with finger openings ; this disk is outside the drum, and serves for quick rotation when rapid transport of the measuring stage over large dis- tances is required. Means are provided whereby the weight of the stage is taken off the screw and thrown on to ball bearings working in grooves in the desk-shaped frame. The glass plate is 16 by 16 cm. ; smaller plates may be fixed, so that they lie centrically with the position- circle. When it is desired to examine a micrometer screw, the glass plate is removed and replaced by a hollowed-out bronze plate with a circular aperture of 50 mm. diameter. This bronze plate is provided with a screw-thread, and receives the micrometer, whose ocular has been * Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., xxvii. (1907) pp. 297-301 (1 fig.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, -MICROSCOPY, ETC. 499 removed so as to expose the threads. The Microscope of the measuring apparatus is sharply directed on the threads, whose orientation is judged by the position angle of the stage. Illumination is by a mirror. The screw which operates the Microscope is an accurately worked micrometer screw, and thus also serves for measurement. Its thread-distance is 1 mm., its available range 80 mm., the whole rotations being read off on a straight-edged scale, and the hundredths on a drum at the lower Fig. 12S. end of the screw ; the accuracy is to TT5Vo mm. A disk 0, with finger openings, is provided for quick motions. The dead weight of the Microscope is taken off the bearings as far as possible by a suspended weight p, so that the sliding movement is extremely smooth. The Microscope has three objectives, and is focused by rack-and-pinion ; the magnifying powers are known by reference to a graduated scale on the draw-tube. The upper end of the Microscope is defined by a circular flange, and has two independent rotations, one of which may extend to 2 L 2 500 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 360°, and the other is limited to 90°. Two pieces of measuring apparatus are applied to the flange, one being a simple eye-piece with two parallel threads. One of these threads is fixed, and the other can be adjusted to or from it ; a third thread is perpendicular to both. The movable thread can be set at any distance from the fixed thread, suitable for the examination of the object under consideration, and is used in connexion with the stage screws. It will be seen that this arrangement would facilitate, for example, the testing of a micrometer screw. The com- binations of oculars and objectives allow of magnifications between 2 and 100-fold. In place of the above described ocular, an ordinary micrometer is also provided, having two double threads perpendicular to one another, and operated by two micrometer screws r and s, of 0*25 mm. range. Thus simultaneous measurements of right-angled co-ordinates can be made. There is an arrangement for bringing the origin of co-ordinates into the centre of the field. Gebhardt, W. — Aus Optischen und mechanischen Werkstatten. [The author reviews the chief German modern microscopes and their auxiliaries — most of which have been already noticed in our Journal.] Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1908) pp. 396-421 (15 figs.). Rohr, M. v. — Die binokularen Instrumente nach Guellen bearbeitet. Berlin : Springer, viii. and 223 pp. 70 figs. 1 tab. Schwarzmann, M. — Sammlungsmikroscope und Mineraliensammlungen. Centralbl. Mineral. Geol. it. Palaontol., 1907, pp. 615-24 (3 figs.). (.3) Illuminating and other Apparatus. History of Mirror-Condensers.* — H. Siedentopf collects and de- scribes all the various forms of mirror-condensers which have appeared since J. B. Reade invented the first in 1837. He enumerates in all some sixteen varieties, some of which have been more than once " dis- covered." Thus, J. W. Stephenson's "Catoptric Illuminator" (1879), came out as "Reichert's Speigelkondensor " in 1906. The author points out that, with the invention of Abbe's illumination apparatus, the catoptric condenser passed into oblivion, although it possessed the conspicuous advantage of not decomposing the light. The advent of ultramicroscopy has again drawn attention to the subject in the hope that the scope of the new method may thereby be widened. Zeiss' rock-crystal paraboloid for obtaining dark-ground illumination with ultra-violet light is described, but the author concludes his paper by remarking that mirror-condensers can only avail to a very limited extent, as compensation for the more complete installations for the examination of ultramicroscopic particles. Reichert's New Large Projection Apparatus.! — In describing this instrument, O. Heirnstadt says that great care has been taken to meet the three essentials of projection apparatus, viz. (1) that bright images should be obtained ; (2) that all kinds of projection in ordinary use should be obtainable ; (3) that the change-over from one kind of pro- jection to another should be expeditious. The first requirement is met by the use of an arc lamp with the carbons mutually perpendicular, * Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1908) pp. 382-93 (16 figs.), with a bibliography of some 30 references. t Tom. cit.. pp. 370-81 (7 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 501 combined with the best optical appliances. As regards the second requirement, four kinds of projection have been provided — viz. dia- scopic, epidiascopic, megascopic, and microscopic. In the diascopic installation, diapositives up to 13 by 18 cm. can be used, and at a distance of 5 metres from the objective a magnification of 14 diameters is obtained. The epidiascopic and megascopic projections produce a flat surface of uniform expansion. The body of the apparatus is set on a strong cast-iron frame running upon rollers, and stiffened by a wooden inclosed utensil box. The projection apparatus is supplied with an automatic self-regulating arc lamp of special construction. The lamps are designed for a uniform current strength of 30 amperes. The upper 1 Fig. 129 and positive carbon, whose crater acts as the light source, is fixed in the optic axis, thus giving the great advantage of constant centricity as the carbon burns away. Moreover, as this crater is applied directly to the illuminating apparatus, a uniform current furnishes a higher intensity than is obtained with lamps of older make. As the negative carbon is vertical, the light source can be brought very close to the condenser, thus yielding another advantage, because the condenser can thus be made of higher aperture — a distinct gain to the brightness of the image. The special features of this lamp, therefore, make it very easy and con- venient to manage ; it moves on runners, and can be fixed by clamp- screws ; there is a lever for operating it in the direction of the optic axis. Fig. 129 gives a good general view of the apparatus as a whole. 502 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Leitz' Dark-ground Illuminator for the Examination of Living Bacteria.* — This dark-ground illuminator (fig. 180) is mainly intended for examining living and unstained bacteria under the Microscope. The method involved depends upon the contrast produced between the intensely illuminated bacteria and their dark surroundings. Two reflect- ing surfaces, one internal, the other external (see figure) are so shaped as to almost completely unite the rays in a point P, so that by the dimi- nution of the astigmatism to its lowest limits an intense illumination of the bacteria is obtained. Since the apertures of the extreme rays «P and b P lie within the limits 1 ' 1 and 1 -45, it follows that a considerable amount of light is collected at P. When dry lenses are used all the rays which enter from below and converge towards P go to illuminate the bacteria (shown by lines and dots), and are totally reflected at the surface of the cover-glass. The light diffused by the bacteria (represented by dotted lines) enters the objective, and thus produces an image of the bacteria, which under these act as self-luminous bodies. As the rays are Fig. 130. united at P by reflection instead of by refraction, there is no chromatic dispersion, and the annular illumination of the bacteria obviates diffrac- tion. The optical portion of the dark-ground illuminator is contained in a mount provided with a centring arrangement, and slips from below into the sleeve which usually carries the Abbe condenser. Since the point P should lie within the preparation, it is necessary to use slides of uniform thickness, the proper thickness being 1*0 mm. The requisite correction is effected by raising or lowering the dark -ground illuminator by means of the movement forming part of the illuminating apparatus. It should in this connection be noted that the space below the object- slide Q should always be filled with oil. A Nernst lamp or incandescent gas lamp may be used, but the best source of light is a small arc-lamp. The Wetzlar firm have devised a special model, similar to that used for the Edinger apparatus, requiring a current of four amperes, and capable of attachment to any existing house supply. Immersion lenses may be * Special Circular, English version, E. Leitz, London. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 503 used, and they offer the advantages of comparative independence of cover-glass thickness and a brighter image. The circular describes many of the details of manipulation necessary for success. (4) Photomicrography, Colour-screens for Colour-photography.* — An extremely ingenious method of producing colour-screens for colour-photography has re- cently been invented by S. D. M. Hauron and R. de Bercegol, of Joinville-le-Point (Seine), France. A sheet of glass, celluloid, or other suitable material is covered with a material that is permeable to water, such as gelatin. Over this is spread a coloured varnish impermeable to water. Small parallel bands or tracks, separated by intervals equal to their width, are drawn by a ruling-machine. The sheet is dipped into a water-colour, which im- pregnates the gelatin exposed by the tracks. This produces a two- colour screen. To produce a third colour, a second protecting varnish is spread ; by the same ruling-machine tracks are hollowed out trans- versely and at intervals of double their width, deep enough to expose the lower layer of gelatin, which the water-colour above used has not penetrated. The sheet is dipped into a water-colour bath of a third colour, producing a three-colour screen. The process is variously modified. A thick coating, superficially coloured, may be employed, and the lines obtained by successive varnish coatings, rulings, and water-colour baths. A coloured celluloid base may be used, coated with gelatin, rulings made deep enough to expose uncoloured celluloid, and the exposed celluloid then coloured by a pigment dissolved in acetone, amyl acetate, or like liquid that bites into and penetrates the celluloid. The third colour is obtained by another gelatin coating and similar steps. The gelatin is then removed from the celluloid base, leaving the three-colour screen. Another method of manufacture is to make celluloid sheets with coloured gelatin, rulings made to ex- pose the celluloid, colouring effected with pigment dissolved in acetone as above, a second colourless gelatin protecting layer coated on, and the third colour obtained in the same way. With this modification, two colours may be superposed at the intersections of the lines, if the rulings are made crossing each other. In a fourth modification, the coloured lines are printed from a plate engraved by a ruling-machine. Two sets of lines may be printed by a greasy colouring material, and crossing each other, the third colour being filled in by floating the sheet in a colour-bath to which the greasy colours are impermeable. The screens may be sensitised directly, or they may be detachably connected to the sensitive plate. The transparent support for the screens may be coloured slightly yellow, so as to moderate the activity of the blue-violet light. (6) Miscellaneous. Microscopical Matters.t — W. J. Wood describes some microscopical matters in a letter to the editor of the " English Mechanic," but the * English Mechanic, lxxxvii. (1908) p. 295 (3 figs.). ] f Tom. cit., pp. 110-11 (1 fig.). 504 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO chief feature of his communication consists in the fact that most of his subsidiary apparatus was made by himself. The illustration showing the writer's Microscope table and the disposition of the apparatus is interesting (fig. 131). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 505 Quekett Microscopical Club. — The 449th Ordinary Meeting was held on June 19, the President, Prof. E. A. Minchin, M.A., F.Z.S., in the Chair. Mr. A. Earland exhibited and described a number of pre- parations of Foraminifera, in regard to which special reference may be made to a slide showing " triple isomorphism." The species were Cornuspira of the Porcellanous type, Ammodiscm of the Arenaceous group, and Spirillina, a Hyaline form. Mr. W. Wesche, F.R.M.S., con- tributed a paper on " The Proboscis of the Blow-fly, Calliphora erythro- cephala Mg. : a Study in Evolution." Ciceri Smith's Direct-reading Micrometer-gauge for Cover-glass. At the March Meeting J. Ciceri Smith exhibited and gave the follow- ing description of a direct-reading micrometer-gauge (figs. 132 and 133). " The difficulty of reading a micrometer of the indirect type in a dull light is a well known fact, and as a short mental calculation is usually required to arrive at the proper result, an error is very liable to slip in, especially when the instrument is only used occasionally, or when the small graduations are indistinct. " The improved instrument is of the caliper type, with the addition of a set of self -calculating or indicating dials, the chief feature being that the readings are seen at a glance. They are made in various sizes, from the smallest up to those of 1-in. capacity. I shall, however, confine my description to the smallest size, as this is the pattern which is best suited for the measuring of microscopical glass. " The readings for this small work are indicated on two dials ; the first figure (reading from the left) indicates hundredths, and the second figure thousandths of an inch, which latter is our British unit measure- ment, so that one-thousandth of an inch is technically known as ' one mil ' — therefore these units for conciseness are frequently described as 'mils.' The divisions on the bevelled edge of the thimble indicate | mils. I may mention that the divisions on the shank are for larger measurements, and indicate tenths of an inch — capacity ■£$. " The gauge consists of a horseshoe-frame, having a screwed shank or fixed nut to carry the micrometer spindle, and a recessed portion to receive or contain the mechanism, which is in turn covered by metal plates. The front plate is pierced with apertures, through which the figures appear consecutively. " Two principles are involved in the construction : — (1) A screwed spindle travelling in a fixed nut and fitted into the body of the frame ; (2) working in conjunction with, and operated by the micrometer spindle is the registering mechanism. When the instrument is manipulated so as to increase the gauge the counter moves forward, and if manipulated so as to decrease the gauge the counter moves backward. "The recording mechanism is self-contained in an independent, cage-like frame, and is operated in the following manner : — The decimal figures appearing in bold relief on the index are automatically indicated in a step-by-step motion, actuated by the rotation of the micrometer spindle, which in turn drives a train of pinion-wheels and a cam-wheel, and upon the arbors are mounted white collars or dials, having black figures on their periphery. On the micrometer spindle is fitted a 506 SUMMAKY OF ODKKKNT UKNKAHCHKK KKLATINU TO slotted sleeve, on which is mounted the units-dial, and also the first pinion-wheel. "The connection of the spindle to the registering gear is effected by means of a projecting stop or key fixed on the unthreaded portion of the spindle, which engages with the slotted sleeve, imparting a rotary motion, and at the same time the key is absolutely free to travel transversely in the slot when the screw spindle is rotated, so as to either increase or decrease the gauge. Therefore the pinion-wheel, which is mounted on the sleeve, drives the hundredths dial, operated through the intermediate pinion and cam-wheel, which imparts the step-by-step motion. "The pitch of the micrometer screw is -j^ in. The rotating thimble, which is rigidly attached to the spindle and turns with it, is so disposed as to protect the micrometer screw against injury and also to exclude dust or dirt. A knurled head is fitted freely on the outer end of the JEI1 v\\ I 111 III Fig. 132. thimble, and when manipulated drives the spindle through the friction of a small spring, which is interposed ; hence it is impossible, with ordinary care, to strain the screw, since as soon as the pressure becomes too great, the spring yields to the resistance and allows the thimble to slip. " Fig. 132 shows the gauge when almost closed, with a reading of 0*023 inch. " In fig. 133 is seen the internal construction of the instrument : — A, micrometer screw-spindle ; B, projecting stop on spindle ; C, first pinion-wheel and slotted sleeve combined ; D, intermediate-wheel con- necting E with C ; E, cam-wheel ; F, projecting lug on cam-wheel E, which gives the step-by-step motion to G ; G-, pinion-wheel, constructed with long and short teeth alternately ; H are the short-teeth on wheel G; J are the long-teeth on wheel G ; K is the thousandths or units dial ; L is the hundredths dial. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 507 " Note that when (1) the wheel G is locked against rotation by the cam-wheel E resting on the points of the long teeth, and is released and moves forwards or backwards when the lug F engages with the short teeth H. (2) The wheels E and D are rigidly fixed on the same arbor and revolve together. The wheels C D E G are mounted in a straight line on the frame, but for illustration purposes only ; E and G have been separated from C and D to avoid any overlapping of E and D in the diagram." Composition of Brass.* — The question asked by " Theodolite," What is brass ? opens up an interesting and important subject to Microscopists. It is said that many modern Microscopes wear out iu a very short time, in spite of their having adjusting screws to take up the wear, that the slides and V-grooves wear and the threads of screws strip, so that in a very little time the instrument becomes useless. From " Brassf ounder's " communication it would appear that the modern Microscope is, like other scientific instruments, made of inferior or too soft metal. This writer says : — " When I was an apprentice brass was copper and zinc in different proportions, according to quality, with the addition of a little tin for the best metal ; but cutting prices in com- petition have altered this, so that modern brass is any mixture of metals which will produce a yellow surface when polished. The introduction of automatic machines in the instrument trade is, however, very largely responsible for bad metal in instruments. Really good, age-lasting brass is very tough in working up ; it is also rather hard. Owing to the way in which it pulls on to the tools in working, it becomes very hot, and has to be worked at a low speed. The brassfounder gets over the difficulty by mixing a metal which will work well in the machine, and it happens that a crisp, cool-cutting metal is very poor in quality. Good metal will stand nearly a white heat before melting, but the metal usually used will not stand the ordinary heat required for brazing.1' Several other contributors write on this subject, and give the com- position of various kinds of brass ; for these the original may be con- sulted with advantage. B. Technique.! (1) Collecting Objects, including: Culture Processes. Cultivation of Algae.J — -C. Sauvageau takes small fragments of plant, and having cleaned and washed them, places them in a drop of filtered water in a Van Tieghem's moist cell. For the observation of the reproductive bodies the thinnest slips are, of course, the best. If it be proposed to follow the course of the germination, thicker slips are preferable. Ordinary slides are too smooth for the later stages of development, as the young plantules adhere badly and undergo abnormal * English Mechanic, April 3, 10, 17, 24, May 1, 1908. t This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- cesses ; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ; (4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, etc. ; (6) Miscellaneous. % OB. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 700-1. 508 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO development. The author roughens one surface of the slips by means of hydrofluoric acid. In a lead capsule, the lid of which is perforated by several holes, the diameter of which is equal to two-thirds of that of the slips, is placed a mixture of calcium fluoride and sulphuric acid. The hydrofluoric acid vapour corrodes the glass surface, and as soon as one slip becomes whitish it is replaced by another. The fine and regular roughness thus produced interferes with observation much less than may be supposed, provided the illumination be suitable, and certainly allows the progress of growth to be watched satisfactorily. Collecting and Preserving Planocera inquilina.* — F. M. Surface obtained the material from the branchial chambers of the large whelk, Sycotypus canaliculatm, during July and August at Woods Hole. About three or four worms were obtained for every whelk opened. The adult polyclads were transferred to dishes of sea-water, in which the water was changed by means of a system of balanced siphons. These siphons served to keep the water free from sand and dirt, and also prevented the overflow of the water and the escape of the worms. The animals soon laid eggs in spiral, gelatinous capsules, containing from 100 to 2000 eggs apiece. The tough capsules are very difficult to penetrate with fixing and staining reagents. Stages from the maturation of the ova to the free-swimming larvae were obtained without difficulty under laboratory conditions. The adult animals, however, only lived for a few days. Eggs were fixed in various solutions : sublimate-acetic, 95 p.c. alcohol, Gilson's mercuro-nitric, picro-sulphuric, picro-acetic, Perenyi's and Flemming's solutions. Of these Gilson's fluid and the sublimate- acetic were found to be the best. For staining whole mounts Conklin's picro-hgematoxylin was used ; but stronger solutions were found better for these eggs. The eggs were then clarified in xylol and mounted in balsam. Owing to their small size it was impossible to remove the eggs from their capsule, but they cleared better if the capsule was torn. It was found necessary to bleach the Flemming material with peroxide of hydrogen before sectioning. A number of stains were used for the sections, but Delafield's hematoxylin, either in toto or on the slide, proved most useful. A combination of thionin and acid-fuchsin also gave good results. There is too much yolk in these eggs to use Heidenhain's iron-alum hematoxylin to advantage. Cultivating the Parasites of Kala-azar and lAleppo Boil.f — C. Nicolle has cultivated successfully the parasites of Aleppo boil and of Kala-azar on the following medium : — agar 14 grm., sea-salt G grm., water 1)00 grm. This is distributed in test-tubes and sterilised ; next the tubes are liquefied at 55°, and one third of rabbit's blood obtained aseptically from the heart is added. The tubes are sloped for 12 hours and afterwards incubated at :-57° for 5 days. They are preserved for future use at room temperature. The inoculations were made in the * Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, lix., 1907, pp. 514-59 (6 pis.), t Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 498-9, 842-3. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 509 condensation fluid after the manner of MacNeal and Novy.* Cultures were also made on the medium used by these investigators, but the results were not so favourable as on those of the author's modification. The tubes were kept at about 22° (19°-23°), and examined on the ninth day. It is stated that in the case of Kala-azar sub-cultures were successful down to the sixth generation. Separation of Bacillus typhosus and Bacillus coli.f — A. Guillemard has been able to separate B. typhosus and B. coli by adding certain alkaline salts to the culture medium. The author found that sulphates and phosphates of sodium caused broth cultures of B. coli to produce flocculi which were soon deposited, and the liquid medium became clear, but that cultures of B. typhosus were unaffected, and the uniform cloudiness of the broth remained. Chlorides and nitrates had no appreciable effect on cultures of B. coli. The author found that B. paratyphosus A Bryon-Kayser and B. enteriditis Gaertner behaved like B. coli in forming flocculent cultures, but B. paratyphosus B Schott- miiller and B. d'Achard (psittacosis) behaved like B. typhosus. Fermentation of Sugars by the Meningococcus and the Micro- coccus catarrhalis.! — J- Bruckner, employing litmus-broth mixed with ascitic fluid and various sugars, finds that one strain M 1 of the Meningo- coccus ferments cane-sugar, lactose, and mannite, but not glucose, or maltose ; that two other strains, M 2 and M 3, ferment all five of these sugars. Of two strains of Micrococcus catarrhal is, one ferments cane- sugar, glucose, lactose and maltose, though more slowly than the Meningococcus, whereas the other only reddens the lactose broth very slightly and for a short time. The author considers that litmus media are not suitable for the differentiation of these micrococci. By using slightly alkaline media containing neutral red, the two strains M 2 and M 3 behave identically in broth containing 1 p.c. maltose, there appears a slightly fluorescent cerise coloration which soon becomes ruby red ; glucose broth becomes canary -yellow with green fluorescence, and broths containing other sugars are unchanged ; M 1 gives the same reaction with maltose, but only after 5 days, whereas with glucose there appears a slightly fluorescent cerise coloration. It was noted that with litmus media this strain attacked neither glucose nor maltose. The two strains of M. catarrhalis attacked none of the sugars in ascitic neutral red broth. The author considers that this method offers an easy differ- entiation between the Meningococcus and the Micrococcus catarrhalis. Aerobic Cultivation of Anaerobes.§ — S. Hata finds that the culti- vation of anaerobes in the presence of air occurs in broth which con- tains reducing agents and solid particles. In Smith-Torazzi's organ- broth, and Wrzosek's potato-broth, the reducing properties of the cells, and the cells themselves as solid particles act together. In broth con- taining 0*3-0'7 p.c. anhydric Na2S03, anaerobes will grow in the * See this Journal, 1904, p. 116. f Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) p. 1177. I C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) p. 765. § Ceutralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlvi. (1908) p. 539. 510 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO presence of air, if pieces of agar are also present, and may produce as muck or more toxin as in broth in an atmosphere of hydrogen. In broth containing a small quantity of iron filings or ferro-sulphate, bacilli grow well but lose their virulence. By the addition of a little fresh blood-serum to the Na^S03, the toxin production is three to five times increased. Investigating Apogamy in Nephrodium.* — Shigeo Yamanouchi raised the apogamous prothallia from ordinary spores, which were sown on sterilised soil consisting of vegetable mould and sand ; these were placed in the greenhouse and kept growing with special care. The cultures, in pots placed on saucers filled with water, were exposed to direct sunlight after the prothallia had developed two or three cells. Excessive evaporation was regulated carefully, and the prothallia kept growing for a long period, exposed to direct sunlight, and at a tempera- ture of from 28-32° C. The rate of growth of these prothallia, as compared with those under normal conditions, was quite slow. Fixation i if the prothallia was made during all stages of development. The killing and fixing of the material, with washing, imbedding, cutting, and staining, was done by the method used in the study of spermato- genesis, oogenesis, and fertilisation. Collecting and Examining the Eggs of Rhopalura ophiocomse.f M. Caullery and A. Lavallee remark that Ophiurids infected with Orthonectid parasites are easily recognisable, as they are usually flabby and sterile. The ventral surface is greyish-white, instead of being pale orange ; all parts of the host's body may be invaded. For their study it was necessary that the males and females should be mature, and this point was settled by observing that when ripe, the animals swam about freely when set free in the water by tearing open the host. The hosts, placed in flat glass vessels containing sea-water, and these vessels on the stage of a binocular Microscope, are torn open, and when a sufficient number of both sexes are obtained, the remains of the Ophiurid are removed. The contents of the pans are then poured into a glass vessel containing a thin layer of fresh sea-water. Herein fecundation takes place, and during the next 24 hours, while the eggs are developing, samples are removed from time to time for the purpose of examination in vivo. For the study of the fixed material, the procedure was as follows : The animals were picked up with a capillary pipette and transferred to the fixative, usually Bourn's fluid, sometimes acetic-sublimate ; after this, they were frequently washed by decantation, aided by the pipette. This done, each lot was placed in a small tube filled with 80° alcohol, and plugged with cotton-wool. The tube was then immersed in a bottle of 80° alcohol. The fecundated females were imbedded in the following manner : A tube 7-8 cm. long, with an internal diameter of about 5 mm., the lower end for a length of 2 cm. being oblong (fig. 134). In this rectangular portion are 2 holes (/fig. 134 A). The end is covered with • Bot. Gazette, xlv. (1908) pp. 289-318 (2 pis.). t Arch. Zool. Exper. et Gen., viii. (1908) pp. 421-69 (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 511 B. R :fl tine cambric, or bolting silk, fastened on with thread ; this cap must come above the holes/; the inferior surface is then dipped into collodion, in order to render the bottom of the tube impermeable to fluids, any inter- change of menstrua taking place through the holes/. The Orthonectids, or other small organisms, are placed in the expanded portion of the tube by means of a capillary pipette, and then the tube inserted in the stopper of a small glass cylinder (fig. 134 B), which is destined for the various reagents. In this way the animals are fixed, cleared up, and pa- raffined, without loss or damage. When impregnated with paraffin, the tube is solidified with cold water, the cap is re- moved, and slight heat allows the block to be removed from the tube. The block is then sectioned. The sections, about 10 /a thick, were stained with iron-hasrnatoxylin. Collecting and Examining Larval } \\ f Nephridia of Polygordius.* — C. Shearer obtained the material from the Naples Zoological Station in 1002 ; the adult worms containing the sexual products being c--" *3}gs f' broken up in small jars of fresh sea-water, when the ripe eggs and spermatozoa readily separate out. The sexual products remain Fig. 134. suspended in the water while the broken fragments of worms and debris fall to the bottom of the jar, when they can be readily drawn off. The jars are set aside until fertilisation has taken place. The first signs of cleavage appear some three or four hours later. The eggs are then stirred up and washed in several changes of sea-water to remove unnecessary spermatozoa. Development proceeds rapidly and steadily till the third day, when they must be fed, otherwise they atrophy and eventually break up. For sectioning, the combined celloidin-paraffin method was adopted, the material having been fixed in Flemming's strong solution or in Hermann's. The sections were stained with hajmacalcium or some hamiatoxylin solution ; while for larva? to be studied whole, dilute picro-carmin, followed by slight acid-alcohol, gave satisfactory results. The larva of Polyyordias is found in the " tow " abundantly during the months of February, March, and April ; it is possible also to rear the larva from the egg throughout all the summer and winter months. Collecting and Examining Dolichoglossus pusillus.f — B. M. Davis obtained the material from mud flats which at low tides are uncovered. When a favourable site is located a spadeful of mud is dug up and the burrow of each animal carefully examined for eggs. By breaking down one side of the burrow and gently lifting the animal out, or pushing it * Phil. Trans., cxcix. (1908) pp. 199-230 (4 pis.). t Univ. California Publications (Zoology), iv. (1908) pp. 197-226 (5 pis.). 512 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO aside, the eggs, if present, may be seen clinging to the unbroken side. They are usually closely packed and sometimes extend over an area of several square millimetres. The eggs are removed from the burrow by means of a fine pipette to a shallow dish filled with clear water ; the eggs are then separated from sand and transferred to small bottles of sea-water ; eggs from the same burrow are kept in separate bottles. On reaching the laboratory the eggs are placed in small dishes filled with fresh sea-water, occasionally changed to keep the animals alive. The animals were killed and fixed by means of Zenker's fluid, corrosive- acetic mixture, Lo Bianco's chrom-osmic mixture, and osmic acid. The specimens were preserved in 80 p.c. alcohol. The animals were killed from time to time at different stages of development, fifteen series being made. Numerous stains were used, the most satisfactory being haemaluni counterstained with Congo red for the early stages, and Mallory's con- nective-tissue stain for advanced stages that were fixed in Zenker's fluid. Living material was examined with a stereoscope Microscope. Convenient Mode of Preparing Silicate Jelly.* — F. L. Stevens and J. C. Temple describe their method as follows : First ascertain the percentage of silicic anhydride on the sample of sodium silicate to be used ; this consists in decomposing the silicate with hydrochloric acid, precipitating the silicic acid, evaporating to dryness, washing until wash- water contains no chloride, then heating to redness and weighing the silicic anhydride. Enough should be made at once to last for several years. After making the determination, dilute the silicate to be used until the solution contains 4-5 p.c. of silicic anhydride. Next prepare hydrochloric acid of such strength that 1 c.cm. neutralises 1 c.cm. of the sodium silicate solution, using methyl-orange as an indicator (litmus, phenolphthalein, and cochineal are not suitable). To 104 c.cm. of acid add slowly, constantly stirring the while, lOOc.cm. of the sodium silicate solution, the excess of acid being used to prevent coagulation during sterilisation. This solution is then tubed and sterilised in an autoclave at 120° for 15 minutes. The silicic acid should come out clear. If there be any turbidity it is due to a deficiency of hydrochloric acid. The solution of silicic acid thus prepared constitutes the base of the medium. To cause it to solidify to a jelly, add to a tube of this base 1 c.cm. of a sterile concentrated solution of such salts as may be desired, but in every case containing enough sodium carbonate to a little more than neutralise the excess of acid present. In a few minutes after the addition of the salt solution, the whole will be solidified, giving a clear transparent jelly. If plate cultures be desired, it is well to inoculate the base before the addition of the salts, since after the medium starts to set, there is no time for proper mixing. If slants be desired, the tubes must be placed in the proper position before the medium sets. Prepared in this way, silicate medium is convenient and efficient for the isolation of nitrite and nitrate organisms. Instead of using sodium carbonate for neutralising, magnesium carbonate may be employed, as when the jelly is prepared by dialysis. * Centralbl.Bakt., xxi. 2te Abt. (1908) pp. 84-7. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 513 Nutritive Value of certain Peptones for different Species of Bacteria.* — H. Dunschmann compared three peptones : (1) Peptone Defresne, obtained from the action of the pancreas on beef ; (2) peptone Martin, obtained by digesting the minced stomachs of pigs by means of the peptone they contain ; (3) vegetable peptone, obtained from albuminoid substances extracted from leguminous vegetables, and peptonised by means of papaiotine. The solutions used consisted of 3 p.c. peptone, 3 p.c. lactose, and 1 p.c. lemco. These were inoculated with B. typhosus, B. coli, anthrax, and B. diphtheria,. For typhoid, diphtheria, and anthrax, vegetable peptone gave by far the best results, while with B. coli there was but little difference. When the medium without lactose was tested by means of the same microbes, it was found that B. coli throve much better on the Martin and Defresne's peptones than on the vegetable, and that the vegetable peptone presents obvious advantages for differentiating B. typhosus and B. coli. Kitt, Th. — Bakterienkunde und pathologische Mikroskopie fur Tierarzte und Studierende der Tiermedizin. Wien : M. Perles, 1908, fifth and much enlarged edition, v. and 578 pp., with more than 200 illustrations and 4 col pis. (2) Preparing- Objects. Demonstrating- Nervous Tissue of Hirudinea3.| — E. Mencl fixed Hirudinefe in the following solution : — (1) Saturated solution of subli- mate and distilled water, of each 500 grin. ; (2) chromic acid, 0*5-1 grm. ; (3) a trace of glacial acetic acid. The preparations were stained with Heidenhain's hematoxylin, picro-magnesia-carmin, Delafield and Bordeaux red, or orange G-, Apathy's gold chloride method, and with Ramon y Cajal's silver method. Examining Catenata.J — V. Dogiel made intra vitam examinations by teasing out the intestine which contained the parasites in sea-water. The material was then transferred to a slide. Fixed preparations were obtained by means of Flenmiiug's fluid, acetic sublimate and Carnoy's mixture (absolute alcohol 75, acetic acid 25). Sections made from material fixed in sublimate and acetic acid were stained with iron- hsematoxylin. Those fixed in Flemming's fluid were treated mostly with safranin, but some with picro-carmin, while for those fixed in Carnoy's fluid hamialuin gave the best results. Studying the Development of Teeth in Castor Fiber. § — P. Heinick decalcified the material in a mixture of 5 parts 96 p.c. alcohol, 1 part strong nitric acid. The fluid was re-made and renewed every 3-4 days. The material was not properly decalcified for from 8-11 weeks. After this time the preparations were freed from the acid by immersion in 96 p.c. alcohol, to which precipitated chalk had been added. This took from 6-8 weeks, the spirit being renewed every 3 or 4 days, until blue litmus paper showed no acid reaction. The next step was to obtain the * Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 999-1001. t Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxxix. (1908) pp. 371-416 (2 pis.). j Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxxix. (1908) pp. 417-71 (3 pis.). § Zool. Jarhb., xxvi. (1908) pp. 355-402 (2 pis.). Aug. 19th, 1908 2 M 514 SUMMARY OF CDRKKNT RESEARCHES RELATING TO jaws in Mo by means of an alcoholic borax-carmin solution (4-G days). The material was then dehydrated in upgraded alcohols and imbedded in paraffin, the intermediary being cedar oil. The sections varied from 20-25 fi in thickness. If the borax-carmin had not been successful the sections were also stained with bleu de Lyon. Fixation with Trichloracetic Acid and Uranyl Acetate.* — H. Friedenthal praises the action of a mixture of uranium acetate and trichloracetic acid for fixation purposes. Excellent results are ob- tainable from a fluid composed of equal parts of saturated uranium acetate solution and 50 p.c. trichloracetic acid. As a universal fixative which is said to satisfy the requirements of botanists and zoologists alike, a solution with the following composition is given : — Trichlor- acetic acid 20, uranium acetate 10, chromic acid 1, osmic acid 0'5, platinum chloride 0 ■ 5. Studying the Histogenesis of Cysticercus pisiformis.t — R. T. Young obtained his material by feeding young Lepus cuniculus (Belgian hare) and Lepus pinetis with proglottids of Tcenia serrata. The liver, omentum, lungs, and mesenteric glands were found infected. The best fixative was Flemming's strong chrom-aceto-osmic mixture, in which the larvae were immersed for two to three hours. After washing in running water, they were passed through up-graded alcohols. The next best fixative was saturated sublimate in 70 p.c. alcohol, to which 1 p.c. glacial acetic acid was added. Heidenhain's iron-haamatoxylin, sometimes used with no counter- stain, but more often in conjunction with eosin, Bordeaux-red, or satu- rated aqueous solution of water-blue and picric acid, gave the best results in staining. Vom Rath's, Apathy's, and Golgi's methods were also tried, but none gave very satisfactory results. Examining the Neuro-epithelium of the Auditory Apparatus. — N. van der Stricht: used bat-embryos chiefly, also those of guinea-pigs, cats, and one human embryo. This material was fixed in Flemniing (2-4 weeks), Hermann (8 days), acetic-sublimate alcohol (1 day), Perenyi (1 hour), Bouin (1-2 days) ; Benda's method of fixation was also tried, and found to give excellent results. On the whole, the fluids which con- tained osmic acid gave the best results. Material when fixed, if left in iodine-alcohol (70 p.c.) for 5 months to 2 years, was found to stain intensely by the iron-alum method. The cochleas were decalcified in 3 p.c. nitric acid and afterwards imbedded in paraffin by means of the disulphide method. Pieces fixed in fluids not containing any osmic acid were stained en bloc in borax-carmin. The sections were mostly stained with iron-haernatoxylin and Bordeaux red. Examining the Tentacular Apparatus of Cephalopods.§ — J. Guerin fixed the material in Flemming's, Bouin's, or Carnoy's fluids. In the * S.B. Gesell. Natur., Freunde, Berlin (1907) pp. 207-11. t Zoolog. Jarhb., xxvi. (1908) pp. 183-254 (4 pis.). X Arch, de Biol., xxiii. (1908) pp. 541-693 (5 pis.). § Arch. Zool. Exper. et Gen., viii. (1908) pp. 1-178 (4 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 515 two former the pieces should not be immersed longer than 12 hours, in the latter not more than one. Paraffin impregnation was effected by means of chloroform or in vacuo ; for the preliminary stages the melting- point of the paraffin was 42°, for the final 55°-60°. The sections, 3-10 /x thick, were best stained with magenta-red and indigo-picrocarmin, safranin and indigo-picrocarmin, or safranin and light-green. After fixation in Bouin's fluid hematoxylin, followed by some contrast stain, such as picro-fuchsin or eosin, gave good results, as also did picro-indigo- carmin and Mayer's carmin. Demonstrating the Autolysis of Mitoses.*— Ad. Oes treated the material (root-ends, young anthers, etc.) in the following manner : They were incubated at 32°-40° C. in toluol or chloroform "water (|-| vol. p.c.) with or without the addition of neutral salts (usually \ p.c. ordinary salt). Instead of toluol or chloroform-water, carbolic acid was sometimes used, and in place of NaCl, the nitrates of potassium and sodium were employed. In some cases small quantities of acids or alkalies were added. The best results were obtained at 38° C. with toluol water, to which h p.c. NaCl was added. After £-24 hours the objects were fixed in various media, of which Kleinenberg's picro7 sulphuric acid and the strong Flemrning's mixture were mostly used. The material was stained with safranin and gentian-violet, Delafield's hematoxylin, Heidenhain's iron-alum-hasmatoxylin, fuchsin, acid- fuchsin, and others. Bleaching Technique.!— P. Mayer mentions a commercial solution of peroxide of hydrogen which is a very powerful bleaching reagent. Mixed with water or alcohol it gives off oxygen copiously, and still more energetically on the addition of a little potassium iodide. The bleaching power was tested on natural pigment and on tissues blackened with osmic acid, and its action compared with that of other reagents, such as hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate, chlorine water, and Alfieri's method. Hydrogen peroxide has a great tendency to cause the section to be separated from the slide, especially when the action is energetic, as it is when mixed with water. If the diluent be alcohol, then the action is not sufficiently strong. Alfieri's method consists in treating the sections with permanganate of potassium (1 : 2000) until they become brown, and then dissolving out the oxide of manganese which has been precipitated in the tissues with oxalic acid (1 : 300). The process is repeated if the bleaching is not sufficient. As the oxalic acid is not altogether harmless, it should not be allowed to act longer than is absolutely necessary. Chlorine water is often simpler and more convenient in its applica- tion than the author's cherished mixture of hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate. All these solutions appear to act quite as well before the paraffin is removed from the section as after. * Bot. Zeit., lte Abt. (1908) pp. 89-117 (1 pi.). \ t Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1908) pp. 353-6. 2 M 2 516 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO (3) Cutting, including: Imbedding- and Microtomes. Broek's Simple Microtome for Serial Sections.* — A. J. P. v. d. Broek, as the result of several years' experience, highly recommends the following instrument as being simple in construction and easy in manipulation. Fig. 135 shows the microtome as seen from the left and slightly from the front, fig. 186 is a longitudinal section, and fig. 137 is a horizontal section through a b in fig. 186. The instrument stands on a heavy cast-iron base which can be clamped down by a position-screw, 3. The trapezium-shaped slide, 4, is supported by two side pieces, 5, and a bar, 7, connects the slide with a crank, 6, whose movement imparts to Fig. 135. the slide the necessary backward and forward motion, and presses the object-holder against the knife. If the object is imbedded in paraffin, the paraffin is melted on to a brass plate, 26, which can be screwed on and off ; a celloidin preparation is fixed with a clamp (fig. 185). The hemisphere, 22, is hollow, and can by a special arrangement be fixed in any desired position, so as to give any suitable inclination to the pre- paration ; this effect being attained by a circular plate, 24, to whose lower side is attached a perforated rod. Through the perforation passes a kind of crank connected with the screw, 25, whose movement (see fig. 136) gives any desired inclination to the hemisphere. The sleeve, 9, containing the mechanism of the object-holder, rests on a micrometer- screw, 10, and is gripped on both sides by the rims, 8, of the frame. The micrometer-screw rests with its lower point on screw 13 and its upper end is fixed by the rod 14 ; the whole micrometer-screw is there- * Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1907) pp. 268-74 (3 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 517 "*•' CM f£ CM CM N — SO 518 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO fore firmly connected with the frame 8. A cog-wheel, 11, is attached to the micrometer-screw, and under it is the rod 15, one end of which carries a small clutch which engages in the cogs. The apparatus 18, consisting of a bent bar rotatory about a plug screw, 11), is attached to the front part of the iron foot-plate. One end of this bar is set to the divided scale, 17, and regulates the thickness of the sections : the other end supports a vertical peg, 20. A similar vertical peg, 21, is set in the base-plate, and is shown in fig. 135. When the crank G is rotated towards the right, i.e. against the knife, the rod 15 at a certain moment strikes against the peg 20, whereupon the clutch 15a is urged back on the cog-wheel, the movement corresponding to the pre-arranged section-thickness. In the leftward movement of the crank G the object- carrier and object first pass the knife and then the bar 15 reaches the peg 21 and must halt. The end, 15«, of the same bar is then, by the further movement of the crank, pushed forward, and transfers its motion by the clutch to the cog-wbeel 11, and so to the micrometer-screw. As this latter is fixed at both its ends, the sleeve fastened on it is movable, and is therefore slightly pushed upwards by an amount corresponding to the adjustment on the scale. An endless band can be attached to the instrument and made to receive the section-ribbon by rotating the handle 27. Screws 2!) and 30 serve to slant the knife, a flat-ground razor, as required. The nut in which the micrometer-screw engages consists of two halves. If the knob 32 is rotated 90° then both these halves are separated and the whole sleeve 9 can be raised or depressed ; this arrangement is required at the commencement of operations so as to bring the object into proper position for the knife. The scale is so divided that the sections can be cut from 2 //. to 70 p. (even numbers). I (4) Staining and Injecting-. £< Staining Streptococcus mucosus.*— R. Hoffmann advocates the use of Jenner's stain for detecting and studying this organism when present in pure culture, or when associated with other organisms in purulent or other discharges, and especially for use for clinical pur- poses. Films are fixed and stained for two minutes in a methyl- alcoholic solution of acid eosin and methylen-blue, washed in neutral distilled water and dried. The bacterial body substance steins deep blue, the capsule light blue, and the mucus, adhering to the outer surface of the capsule, stains pale pink. Demonstrating the Nervous System of Ascaris.f — D. Deineka finds that the methylen-blue-ammonium-molybdate method is the best for staining the nervous tissue of Invertebrates, the procedures of Golgi and Ramon y Cajal being quite useless. Demonstrating Nerve-terminations in Teeth of Mammalia. } — W. J. Law highly recommends Bethe's method for odontt (logical work, and gives the following description of it as varied for use with teeth : — " Small pieces of perfectly fresh tissue are fixed by placing upon * Centralbl. Bakt., lte A.bt. Orig., xlvi. (1908) p. 219. t Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxxix. (1908) pp. 242-307 (11 pis. and 7 text figs.). X Proc. Roy. Soc. Medicine (Odontological Section) i. (1908) pp. 45-60 (7 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 519 blotting-paper and covering with a 10 p.c. solution of commercial nitric acid. This serves to decalcify as well as to fix them, and also lessens the susceptibility of Nissl's granules to take the stain. They are left in the acid until decalcified (4K hours), and the acid is frequently changed so as to keep it of as uniform a strength as possible. They are then placed in 8 c.cni. of alcohol 90 p.c, 3 c.cm. of water, and 1 c.cm. of ammonia for 24 hours. If they turn brown, discard : this is due to impure nitric acid or too long immersion. Again place in alcohol for 6 to 12 hours, then in 1 c.cm. of HOI, 3 c.cm. of water and 8 to 12 c.cm. of alcohol for 24 hours. Then alcohol again for 10 to 24 hours, distilled water for 2 to 6 hours (not longer), ammonium inolybdate, 4 p.c, for 24 hours. Dehydrate as rapidly as possible and imbed in paraffin ; cut sections as thin as possible ; attach the sections to the slides with Meyer's albumin ; wash out the paraffin with naphtha and alcohol ; rinse the slide with distilled water ; then cover the sections with distilled water and heat for 10 minutes at 50° to 60° C. The top of the imbedding bath is a very good place for this. Pour off the water and cover with toludin-blue 1 in 4000 ; replace in the paraffin bath for 10 minutes ; dehydrate ; clear and mount. Keep all the sections, and, if you are lucky, some of them will be found to have the nerve fibres duly stained." Studying the Morphology of Spirochseta pallida.* — F. Krzystalowicz and M. Siedlecki wash open sores or ulcers with sterilised water or salt solution, but if the skin be unbroken the site of the lesion is cleaned with soap and water and then with the alcohol-ether mixture. A clear, slightly sanguinolent, fluid is obtained from open sores by squeezing the borders of the lesion. When the surface of the lesion is dry and intact, a blister may be raised by means of cantharides, ammonia, or chloroform, or even by heat. When the lesion is deep-seated, e.g. glands or gummata, juice may be withdrawn by means of a hypo- dermic syringe. However obtained, the juice is spread on a slide, dried in the air, and fixed with osmic acid vapour. Such films are stained with Giemsa (1 drop to 1 c.cm. of water) for several hours, and after washing with water are decolorised by immersion for several minutes in 25 p.c. tannin solution. After this they are again washed with water, while after this a rapid wash with absolute alcohol will not damage the staining and helps to clean up the preparation. Instead of osmic acid, formol may be used for fixation ; the results therefrom are not so good, but it has the advantage of allowing any staining method to be applied to the films. Demonstrating Leucocytes in Tissues.! — H. Schridde fixes the material in formol-Mliller, though other methods are also suitable. Thin paraffin sections (5 /a) fixed to the slide in the usual way are placed for 20 minutes in a solution consisting of Giemsa to 1 c.cm. of water. After washing in water they are mopped up with blotting-paper and then transferred to water-free aceton. After about a minute they are placed * Bull. Internat. Acad. Sci. Cracovie, 1908, pp. 173-231 (2 pis.). t Zentralbl. f. Allgem. Pathol, u. Pathol. Anat., xvi. (1905) pp. 770-1. See also Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiii. (1906) pp. 212-14. 520 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO in acid-free toluol or xylol and mounted in neutral balsam. The preparations should be kept in the dark. It is claimed that by this method the leucocytes are demonstrable in post mortem material. Staining Granular Red Corpuscles.* — F. Widal, P. Abrami, and M. Brule fix blood-stains intra vitam in the following manner. A few drops of blood are received into a mixture consisting of 10 p.c. sodium chloride, 1 c.cm. 2 p.c. oxalate of potassium, 1 c.cm. Unna's blue or azur- blue 20 drops. After allowing the solution to act for some 10 minutes, the mixture is centrifuged and the deposit spread on slides and fixed by the aid of heat in the usual way. Simple Method of Microbe Staining.f — A. Rosam recommends the following staining solution, composed of a mixture of f safranin and J methylen-blue. The pigments are first dissolved in alcohol, and this concentrated spirituous solution is further diluted with equal quantities of spirit and water. After this, 10 p.c. ammonia is added. The ammonia facilitates the penetration of the dye. In practice, a drop of the staining solution is placed on the slide which already carries the material to be examined. This latter has been moistened with water, and after a coverslip has been imposed, the preparation may be examined. The staining solution easily deteriorates, and requires to be made afresh at least once a fortnight. x&' Simple Method of Spore Staining.! — R. Wirtz fixes the films in osmic acid vapour and then floods the cover-slip with 5 p.c. malachite- green solution ; heats to vaporisation and repeats the heating twice at short intervals. The film is then washed with carbol-fuchsin diluted five times and at once washed in running water. Treated in this way the rodlets are stained red and the spores pale green. The method is specially applicable to Tetanus. Modification of the Romanowsky Stain. § — J. Bruckner dissolves by aid of heat 1 grin, methylen-blue in 100 c.cm. of distilled water ; after cooling down, 15 c.cm. of decinormal soda solution are added, or 6 cgs. of sodium hydrate in powder previously dissolved in 10 c.cm. of distilled water. The mixture is incubated at 37° for five days to ripen the blue, and then 50 cgs. of eosin dissolved in 50 c.cm. H20 are added. After being well shaken the mixture is allowed to rest for a couple of hours. The precipitate is gathered on a filter and then washed with 500 c.cm. distilled water. The filter with the precipitate is kept at 37° until dry (about 24 hours) and then the precipitate is dissolved in 100 c.cm. of methyl alcohol. After 24 hours the solution is filtered. In order to stain blood 1 c.cm. of the stock solution is mixed with 5 c.cm. of methylic alcohol and poured over the dried but unfixed film, and after ten minutes 10-12 drops of distilled water are added. After a lapse of five minutes the film is washed with water, dried and mounted * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 496-9 (1 fig.). t Centralbl. Bakt.,2te Abt., xx. (1908) pp. 724-5. X Centralbl. Bakt., lteAbt. Orig., xlvi. (1908) pp. 727-8. § C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 968-9. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 521 in thick cedar oil. Blood films may also be stained by the following method : — 1 c.cm. of the stock solution is diluted with 20 c.cm. of distilled water, and the film which has been previously fixed in absolute alcohol immersed therein for 20-30 minutes, after which it is washed in water, dried and mounted in cedar oil. Rapid staining of Treponema pallidum may be effected by means of this stain in the following manner : 10 c.cm. of 5 p.c. glycerin are mixed with 10-12 drops of the stock solution. This mixture is boiled for a few seconds and poured hot over the preparation previously fixed in absolute alcohol. After 3 minutes the film is washed in water, dried and mounted in thick cedar oil. Staining the Mycelium of the Dry-rot Fungus.* — W. Ruhland fixes the material for a few minutes in 0 • 8 p.c. chromic acid, to which 1 p.c. acetic acid is added, and then washes for 2-3 hours. The ob- jects are then mordanted 6-24 hours in 1*5 p.c. iron-alurn solution, and then heated with a formal hematoxylin solution of the following composition : 1 grm. hematoxylin crystals, 200 c.cm. distilled water, 4 c.cm. formalin. The solution is shaken and filtered. The mycelium flakes may remain herein for 12-24 hours, though less may suffice. After washing again, they are differentiated in 0*5 p.c. iron-alum solution. This takes a few minutes to half an hour. Then washing in water, alcohol, xylol, balsam. The plasma is bluish; the nuclei, bluish-black to black. Theory of the Gram Staining Method.f — Y. Brudny made an elaborate investigation as to the why and wherefore of the Gram staining reaction. He finds that it is clue to the specific permeability of Gram- positive bacteria to iodine. This expresses in other terms that for certain bacteria the lugol solution acts as a mordant, and that the alcohol decolorises or not, though it must be admitted that there are intermediate stages in the reaction. (5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, etc. Technique of the Water Method of Sticking Paraffin Sections on the Slide. J — J. F. Gudernatsch washes the slide with some good potash soap under the tap, and then picks up the section, which has been floated on the surface of water in a bowl. After arranging the section, the superfluous water is poured off ; the slide, covered with something to protect from dust, is placed in an incubator until all the water has evaporated. In this way the sections are not only flattened out, but are stuck on, and it only remains to dissolve out the paraffin in the usual way, and then pass the sections through the ordinary staining and other fluids. If there be any need for hurry, the sections, when arranged on the slide, may, instead of being placed in the incubator, be mopped up, and at the same time flattened out by means of blotting-paper. Then, after a stay of about 3 minutes in the incubator, the sections will be found to have adhered. This procedure, however, is frequently not so successful as the one previously described. * Arb. biol. Anstalt. f. Land. u. Forstw., v. (1907) p. 492. t Centralbl. Bakt., 2te Abt , xxi. (1908) pp. 62-79. j Zeitscbr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1908) pp. 357-60. 522 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Metallography, etc. The Metallic Sulphides PbS, Cu.,S, Ag,S, FeS.— K. Friedrich * has attempted an investigation of the equilibrium diagrams of the alloys of these sulphides with sulphur. He gives the melting points ( + 10° C.) as PbS 1120° C, Cu,S 1135° C, Ag2S 812° C, FeS 1171° C. The solidification of all the alloys, including the pure sulphides, takes place through a considerable temperature interval. PbS, Ag2S, and FeS do not appear to correspond to maxima in the solidification point curves. It might be inferred from these results that none of these four sulphides do in fact correspond to definite chemical compounds. The technical difficulties of investigation, however, are great, and the abnormal results may perhaps be explained otherwise. Solubility of Graphite in Iron.f— C. Benedicks discusses the form of the equilibrium diagram of the stable iron-graphite system, from 0-2 p.c. carbon. Heyn's view is that graphite is completely insoluble in iron in the solid state, while Ruer's diagram indicates complete in- solubility below a line running from 1000°C. at 0 p.c. carbon to 1140° C. (the eutectic temperature) at 2 p.c. Earlier workers put the limiting temperature much lower. The author gives some experimental results, and indicates the desirability of accurate determinations of the direction of the curve. Crystals of Diamond and Carborundum in Steel.} — D. C. Tschernoff in 1868 found small transparent crystals in an ingot of tool steel. A recent examination of some of the same crystals and the steel by F. Osmond has led him to believe they are carborundum. Nickel-bismuth Alloys. § — A. Portevin gives a more complete account, with diagrams and photomicrographs, of his determination of the equilibrium diagram. || After pointing out how incomplete reactions occurring during the cooling of an alloy interfere with the applica- tion of thermal analysis, the author describes the experimental work, the results of which point to the existence of two successive and incomplete reactions in the nickel-bismuth system. These may be expressed by the equations — (1) At 054° C. : liquid with 6-5 p.c. Ni + Ni ^± NiBi(?) (2) At 462° C. : liquid with 3 p.c. Ni + Xi Bi ? ^± Ni Bi3 At 269° C. the eutectic Bi - Ni Bi3 forms. Bromine water was used as an etching reagent. Alloys of Silver. IT — This is the first of a series of papers by A. Portevin, in which is to be given an account of the researches on alloys carried out since 1904 in the laboratories of G. Tammann, at Gottingen, and of Kurnakow at St. Petersburg. The industrial metals will be taken in alphabetical order, and the various investigations of the * Metallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 23-27, 50-8 (9 figs.). t Tom. cit., pp. 41-5 (10 figs.). X Rev. de Metallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 79-80 (1 fig.). § Tom. cit., pp. 110-20 (8 figs.). fl See this Journal, 1908, p. 124. f Rev. de Metallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 144-66 (32 figs.). zoology and botany, microscopy, etc. 523 alloys of any one metal grouped together. Though the work has all been published elsewhere * the collection in a more compact form of the accurate data obtained should prove useful. Constituents of Steel.f — H. le Chatelier attempts a much needed definition of the constituents of the iron-carbon alloys. They are classified as elements (ferrite or pure iron, and graphite or pure carbon), compounds (cementite Fe3C is the only example), solid solutions, aggregates, and possibly emulsions or colloidal solutions. The allotropic varieties of iron may also be classed as constituents. Two solid solutions are known, austenite (carbon, or carbide of iron, in y-iron), and mar- tensite (the same in a-iron). As constituent x, the nature of which is doubtful, the author deals with troostite, osmondite, troosto-sorbite, and the sorbite of Stead. Its general characteristic is that of assuming a deep black coloration upon etching with dilute acids. Constituent x may be a solid solution or an aggregate of very finely divided elements. The work of Charpy and Grenet would indicate that it is a very intimate mixture of ferrite and cementite. Pearlite and the sorbite of Osmond (incompletely formed pearlite) are aggregates, composed of ferrite and cementite. The part played by /?-iron, and the constitution of x, are still open questions. F. Osmond J points out that the hard austenite obtained by some workers is in reality martensite. As to the constitution of martensite, its magnetic behaviour indicates that the whole of the iron is not in the a state, probably the remainder is /3, while the carbon exists as a pseudo- solution. Stead appears to use the term sorbite in the same sense as Osmond. Constituent x may be identified with troostite. Metallography at the National Physical Laboratory. § — The annual report contains a section describing the year's work in the metallurgical department. As a preliminary to the investigation of the ternary system alaminium-copper-manganese, the binary system aluminium-manganese has been studied. The alloys containing 30- 65 p.c. manganese disintegrate spontaneously from the solid cast state into a fine crystalline powder. The results of the inquiry into the various methods of obtaining cooling curves have been published else- where. Crystalline silica has a well marked recalescence at 580° C. For the research on eutectic alloys the lead-tin system was chosen. Equi- librium was reached only by exposure of the alloys to a temperature of 175° C. for several weeks. The limit of solid solubility of tin in lead appears to lie near 17 p.c. tin — a much higher percentage than has hitherto been supposed. Oxide of chromium was found to give good results in the polishing of very soft metals. Some progress has been made in the photomicrography of metal sections by ultra-violet light ; the Zeiss apparatus is described. Monochromatic blue light may be used for approximate focusing and for the other preliminary adjust- ments. The difficulties of the method are, however, serious, and sharp photographs at high magnifications have not yet been obtained. * Zeitschr. Anorg. Chem., 1904, to present date. t Rev. de Metallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 167-72. J Tom. cit., pp. 205-6. § National Physical Laboratory Report for 1907. 524 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Influence of Phosphorus on the Iron-carbon System.* — F. Wiist prepared and examined 30 alloys containing phosphorus, increasing from 0*02-21 '56 p.c. and saturated with carbon in the molten state. The temperature of commencement of solidification is progressively lowered by increase of phosphorus up to C> ■ 7 p.c, about 27° C. for each 1 p.c. phosphorus. Further additions raise the freezing-point. A pause in the cooling curves at 950° C. is due to the presence of phosphorus ; it increases in intensity up to 6 • 7 p.c, then diminishes, and finally dis- appears at 15 p.c. (Fe3P). At this percentage Ar 1 also vanishes ; it is diminished in intensity though unchanged in position by smaller phos- phorus additions. The solubility of carbon in iron is diminished by phosphorus. A ternary eutectic occurs in the iron-carbon-phosphorus system, phosphorus 6 • 7 p.c, carbon 2*0 p.c, iron 91 "3 p.c, melting point 950° C. Its existence and that of the compound Fe3P are amply confirmed by microscopic examination. A combined heat-tinting and etching method was used. Some reproductions of Lumiere colour photo- micrographs of sections treated in this way are given, in which the constituents of the ternary eutectic are clearly differentiated. Solidification and Melting of Cast-iron. — To determine at what stage in the cooling of molten cast-iron the formation of graphite occurs P. Goerens and N. Gutowskyf have quenched two pure cast irons (carbon 3*91 and 4*72 p.c. respectively) at different temperatures, both rising and falling, and studied the micro-structure. Cooling and heating curves were also taken. The authors conclude that graphite formation in pure cast-iron takes place during the eutectic solidification interval. The longer the duration of solidification of the eutectic, the more abundantly is graphite formed. The graphite crystals are larger the more slowly they are formed. The eutectic forming on solidification is cementite-mixed crystals ; graphite results from the decomposition of this cementite. These conclusions (agreeing with Wrist's) are supported by an interesting series of photo-micrographs. Binary Systems, Platinum-arsenic and Bismuth-arsenic.J — K. Friedrich and A. Leroux have determined the equilibrium diagrams for the ranges 72-100 p.c. platinum and 85-100 p.c. bismuth. Arsenic- rich alloys were not investigated. The first diagram points to the existence of a eutectic melting at 597° C, containing about 13 p.c. arsenic. Possibly the compound Pt2As3 occurs. There appear to be no mixed crystals. The diagram of the bismuth-arsenic system consists of two horizontal lines, one at 267° C. (melting-point of bismuth), and one between 480-490° C. Cobalt-arsenic Alloys.§ — K. Friedrich has determined the equi- librium diagram for the range 0-53*5 p.c. arsenic. The compounds are Co5As2 (a and fi modifications) Co2As, Oo3As2, and possibly CoAs. The pure cobalt used melted at 1494° C. The diagram is too complex for brief description. * Metallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 73-87 (38 figs.). t Tom. cit., pp. 137-47 (32 figs.). j Tom. cit., pp. 150-7 (27 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 148-9 (7 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 525 Specific Heat of Iron-carbon Alloys.* — P. Oberhoffer and A. Meuthen have introduced some important improvements into tbe apparatus previously described.! A repeat determination gave a somewbat lower value for tbe specific beat from 0°-650° C. of tbe nearly pure iron used ; tins causes the bend in tbe curve at 650° C. to be sharper. The mean specific beat of iron between 0 and 650° C. is raised by about 0*0011 by the addition of 0 • 5 p.c. carbon. The increase in specific heat is pro- portional to the percentage of carbon. Tbe mean specific beat of pure iron is 0-1432 ; that of carbide of iron 0*1581, between 0 and 650° C. Use of the Differential Galvanometer.! — A. Portevin contributes some notes on the double galvanometer, and its use in taking heating and cooling curves. By theoretical reasoning be arrives at the conclu- sion that, if certain conditions be fulfilled, the amount of heat liberated is proportional to the horizontal distance of the point of the curve (showing difference of temperature) corresponding to the end of the liberation of heat, from the continuation of tbe part of the curve cor- responding to the absence of critical points. A method of increasing gradually the current supplied to an electric furnace by increasing automatically the cross-section of a Hquid resistance, is described. Great uniformity of beating may thus be obtained. A convenient method of standardising the pyrometer is given. Influence of Nitrogen on Steel.§— A. Grabe states that Braune's method of estimating nitrogen gives too high results, due to the presence of nitrite in the potash. Estimations made by the author gave the following figures : — 1 2 Swedish bar irons 0 • 0020-0 ■ 0045 38 steels (miscellaneous) ... 0*0025-0*0125 20 cast irons (miscellaneous) ... 0' 0010-0 '0065 The author is of opinion that the minute percentages found in wrought and cast iron cannot have the least influence on quality. It is doubtful if percentages less than 0*015 in steel can have a harmful effect. Phosphoric Steels. ||— J. de Kryloff has studied more than 250 samples of steel which have failed in use. The steels which contained much phosphorus showed a marked inequality in tbe distribution of carbon. Low carbon areas, constituted chiefly of ferrite grains high in phosphorus, were seen in the micro-sections. The author concludes that when tbe percentage of phosphorus does not exceed 0*07, a uniform structure may be obtained by suitable beat treatment ; but when more phosphorus is present, the initial heterogeneity persists after heat treat- ment. * Metallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 173-7 (3 figs.). + See this Journal, 1907, p. 757. X Rev. de Metallurgie, v. (1908) pp. 295-305 (9 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 353-4. || Tom. cit., pp. 355-60 (19 figs.). 526 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. MEETING Held on the 17th of June, 1908, at 20 Hanover Square, W. A. N. Disney, Esq., M.A., B.Sc, in the Chair. The Chairman said they had received a letter from the President, regretting that in consequence of his absence in the country he would be unable to be with them that evening. The Minutes of the Meeting of May 20, 11)08, were read. Mr. J. W. Gordon said, before the Minutes were confirmed, he should like to suggest an addition to them, as he ought to have mentioned at the last Meeting that the lantern slides of the instruments sent to the Franco-British Exhibition, which were shown on that occasion, were lent for the purpose by Mr. C. Baker. He regretted the oversight, and tendered his apologies to Mr. Curties. The addition proposed by Mr. Gordon was then made, and the Minutes, as so amended, were confirmed, and were signed by the Chair- man. Mr. J. W. Gordon exhibited a new lens for high-power Microscopy, which had been devised by himself and Mr. H. F. Moulton, the con- struction of which was described with the aid of a sectional diagram shown upon the screen. This lens had been designed to obviate the use of the oscillating screen introduced some time since, the substitute for the oscillating screen being an opaque white screen placed within the objective itself. The optical result of introducing the screen is to pro- duce a large emergent pencil of light the full size of the pupil of the eye. The lens under proper conditions of illumination was capable of producing perfect images in the highest obtainable scale of amplifica- tion. As exhibited at the Meeting, it produced a picture of a Podura scale under a magnifying power of 8000 diameters. The thanks of the Meeting were unanimously voted to Mr. Gordon for his communication. Mr. Arthur Skinner exhibited a small simple Microscope by Caw. This was only 4f in. high, with a square pillar mounted on a very heavy cylindrical brass stand. It was provided with a plane mirror, 1 in. diameter, and a mechanical stage which worked up the pillar by a focus- ing rackwork, the teeth of which were set obliquely, as in many modern Microscopes. The stage had movements of 0 ' 4 in. horizontally and 0*5 in. vertically, and provision was made for the use of condensers PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 527 The lens was fixed in position. There were two similar instruments in the Society's collection, one by Dollond and the other by Tully. The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Skinner for his exhibit. The Chairman called attention to a number of slides of sections illustrating the development of the chick, which were exhibited under Microscopes in the room — for which the thanks of the Society were unanimously voted. Some stereo-photomicrographs sent by Mr. Dollman were also ex- hibited, and were passed round for the inspection of the Fellows present,, the thanks of the Meeting for these very beautiful objects being voted to Mr. Dollman. Mr. E. Her on- Allen read a paper — the joint production of himself and Mr. A. Earland— on " Cycloloculina, a New Generic Type of Foraminifera," which they had found on the shore of Selsey Bill ; a map of the district was exhibited, on which the points where the specimens were collected were pointed out, and a number of lantern slides in further illustration of the paper were shown upon the screen. Mr. Earland said that it had been a great pleasure to him to have been associated with his friend in the description of a very interest- ing type, and he thought Mr. Heron-Allen was entitled to much credit for the perseverance with which he had pursued his investigations into the source of its origin. He believed they would eventually trace the specimens to some Eocene deposit which was not exposed above low- water mark. The specimens which had been discovered in the Pleis- tocene deposits were probably derived from the denudation of this undiscovered bed during Pleistocene times, for the Pleistocene deposits were of cold water or even arctic origin, whereas Cycloloculina was by its affinities a sub-tropical type. Of one thing he was convinced, the source of origin could not be very far away from the place of discovery, for the specimens were too fragile to travel any considerable distance after they were washed out of their native bed. The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Mr. Heron- Allen and Mr. Earland for their communication. Mr. J. W. Gordon gave a resume of his paper on "An Illuminating Apparatus for the Microscope," in which the light from a Nernst lamp was conveyed to the stage through a glass rod — the intensity of the light being regulated by the distance of the lamp from the end of the rod. This apparatus was exhibited in the room, and a demonstration of its utility was given at the close of the Meeting. He added, that Mr. Oonrady had been good enough, having read a proof of his paper, to write him a letter on the subject, in which he mentioned that a glass rod, bent to a curved form, had been used as a speculum for trans- mitting the light from a Microscope lamp to a point close beneath the sub-stage condenser by Dr. Kochs twenty years ago, and was at one time produced commercially by the firm of Zeiss, of Jena. The Chairman said that the principle of illuminating through a glass rod was not new, as it was shown before that very Society some twenty years ago ; but in that case the rod was bent from an iron screen 528 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. in front of the lamp to the under side of the object, the light being transmitted through the rod by internal reflexion. The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Gordon for his paper. Mr. E. M. Nelson's paper on " Gorethroti criophilum" was read by Dr. Hebb ; and the thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Nelson for his communication and to Dr. Hebb for reading it. Mr. J. W. Gordon said he wished to announce to the Meeting that the Council had made arrangements by which it would be possible for the Fellows of the Society to combine in sectional groups for the pursuit of the particular branch of microscopical study in which they were most interested. As a beginning, it was proposed to form three groups : one for the " brass and glass " section, one for Bacteriology, and another for Pond- life. Mr. Scourfield was practically in charge of the matter, and if Fellows who desired to work in either of these sections would put them- selves into communication with him, or with either of the Secretaries of the Society, they would be able to start work at the beginning of the next Session. The meetings would take place on Wednesday evenings, other than those of the Ordinary Meetings of the Society, and it was earnestly hoped that the sections mentioned would be joined by a sufficient number of the Fellows of the Society, to enable a good start to be made when their meetings commenced in the autumn. It was announced that the next Meeting of the Society would take place on October 21, and that the rooms of the Society would be closed on and from Friday, August 14, and re-open on Monday, September 14. New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows Messrs. Daniel Davies, Theodore W. Smith, Joseph Wilson. The following Instruments, Objects, etc., were exhibited : — Mr. J. AY. Gordon and Mr. Fletcher Moulton : — A New Lens for high- power Microscopy, with diagrams of the same shown upon the screen. Mr. J. W. Gordon : — Illuminating Apparatus for the Microscope, in illustration of his paper. Mr. E. Heron-Allen and Mr. A. Earland : — Twelve slides under Micro- scopes ; Lantern slides shown upon the screen ; Foraminiferous material, and a Map of Selsey Bill in illustration of their paper Dr. Hebb : — Micro-slides lent by Mr. A. Flatters — 10 slides illustrating the structural parts of the chick at various stages of its development from about 2 to 4| days, and 9 slides of transverse sections of the same ; Stereo-photomicrographs, by Mr. W. P. Dollman, of Alveolina oblonga, x 6 ; Fungus in Horse's Eye, x 300 ; Statoblast of Fresh- water Polyzoon from Bombay, x 350 ; Biddulphia anlediluviana from Baltic mud, x 350. Mr. Arthur Skinner : — An Old Simple Microscope by Gary. JOURRR.MICR.SOC.1908.pl. XII. ?i&*$L -***#, J.A.Lovegrove del. West. Newman lith. Cycloloculina,. JOUENAL OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OCTOBER, 1908. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. XV. — On Cycloloculina, a Nevj Generic Type of the Foraminifera. With a Preliminary Study of the Foraininiferous Deposits and Shore-sands of Selsey Bill. By Edward Heron-Allen, F.L.S. F.K.M.S., and Arthur Earland. (Read June 17, 1908.) Plate XII. Introductory Note by Edward Heron-Allen. I opine that if there might be a special heaven for Ehizopodists, it would be one whose leading feature would be a calm sea, in the surface waters of which a record number of living, pelagic Fora- minifera might be gathered in the terminal bottle of a common tow-net. If this may be postulated as the Walhalla of the student EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII. Fig. 1. — Cycloloculina annulata sp. u*. 1st or discorbine stage, x 9G. Balsam mount. „ 2. — Ditto. 2nd or pavonine stage, x 60. Balsam mount. ,, 3. — Ditto. 3rd or annular stage, x 48. Balsam mount. ,, 4. — Ditto. 3rd or annular stage, x 48. Coarse specimen. Opaque mount. ,, 5. — Ditto. 3rd or annular stage (fragment). X 48. Hyaline specimen. Opaque mount. To show the crenulated surface of chambers. „ 6. — Ditto. Detail showing spines on septal face of chamber, x 290. ,, 7. — Ditto. Detail showing areolated structure round the tubuli. x 290. ,, 8. — Cycloloculina polygyra sp. n. 3rd or annular stage. x 48. Balsam mount. Oct. 21st, 1908 2 n 530 Transactions of the Society. of the Foraminifera, his Niffelheim may certainly lie found in the material which, for the past year, has occupied my leisure moments, and the appellate jurisdiction of my friend and col- laborator, Arthur Earland. I refer to the material which may lie scraped at any time, between tide-marks, from the surface of t In- shore sand of Selsey Bill, which extends from the point of the Bill north-westwards, through Bracklesham Bay, to the brackish waters of Chichester Harbour, opposite Hayling Island and the Isle of Wight. When first I suggested devoting my attention to this material to Mr. F. W. Millett, he returned me a highly characteristic answer, and one which would have seriously damped the ardour of a beginner. He said : " The specimens of Fora- minifera are interesting, but I cannot quite see how you are to make a useful monograph out of this jumble of fossils washed out of uncertain beds from unknown localities." In the beLrinnins: I found Mr. Earland at one with him, but as I continued doggedly upon the quest, Mr. Earland came round to my view that this is, perhaps, the most remarkable and suggestive foraminiferous deposit to be found in the British Islands. The completed study of the Foraminifera of the locality, we hope to lay before the Society at a future date, but it has seemed good to us to introduce the subject, with a paper upon a most interesting form continually recurrent in the material, which, at first, we were disposed to regard as a new species of Planorbulina, but which we have gradually been forced to recognise as a new genus, for which we propose the generic name of Cycloloculina, and which we have the honour to lay before you in two species, named respectively Cycloloculina annvlata and C. jpolygyra. It will not be impertinent to the consideration of the genus to devote a few moments to the history of its discovery. Selsey Bill is the peninsula resembling, as it were, an " uvula " dependent from the extreme south-west of Sussex, a few miles only from the borders of Hampshire ; and there is probably no locality upon the coast lines of Great Britain which has attracted in a greater degree the earnest attention of geologists. It may be said at once that the whole of the district under consideration, forms part of the most noteworthy of the raised beaches which occupied the attention of Professor Prestwich, and were so learnedly and lucidly described and discussed by him in the ' Quarterly Journal ' of the Geological Society in 1892.* For the purpose of this paper, the geological interest of this shore commences at Bracklesham Farm, which is situate just beyond the western boundary of the Geological Survey's Map, Sheet 332, and opposite which lies the great bank of Eocene fossils which is exposed at low tide, and is composed of agglome- * This raised beach extends from Brighton on the east, to Portsmouth on the west, and includes the whole district south of a line drawn from Portslade through Arundel to Havant (Postscript, No. 11). On Cycloloculina. 531 rated masses of Gardita (Venericardia) planicosta and acuticosta, digging through which, one finds an equally rich bed of the large Gyprcea tuberculosa. This bed reappears on the eastern side of the Bill, opposite the now reclaimed Pagham Harbour, where cockles have been gathered from time immemorial, and have achieved a reputation to which testimony was borne by Izaak Walton, who records that there are four good things in Sussex, " a Selsey cockle, a Chichester lobster, an Arundel mullet, and an Amberley trout." * Proceeding south-eastwards, we arrive at the Turrit ell a beds of Earnley, beds which dip under the peninsula, and (like the Gardita beds) reappear on the eastern side of the Bill, opposite Park Farm. Further on, just before we reach Thorney Farm, we find the shore, at low tide, literally strewn with the little disks of Nummulites Iccvvjatus, whilst, opposite Thorney Farm, we find Eocene deposits at the extreme limit of low tides in which the gigantic shells, often two feet in length, of Gerithium giganteum are not uncommon. The next, and, to us, a most interesting deposit, is found immediately in front of Medmerry Farm, now ruined by the encroachment of the sea, where a spit of Post-Pliocene mud (a Pleistocene, or Post-Tertiary deposit), runs out to sea, which can easily be examined at spring tides, and is extraordinarily rich in fossil Foraminifera. The question as to whether these are in situ, or derived, or partly derived and partly in situ, we must leave for discussion when we present to the Society the completed results of our work upon the Selsey shore sands. Between Med merry Farm and the Thorney Coastguard Station, a high bank of recent shingle, heaped up against the Eaised Beach and the Coombe Eock, Mr. Clement Reid's section of which (Postscript Xo. 9, p. 355) has been so often reproduced in works and papers dealing with Tertiary and Post-Tertiary deposits, keeps the sea (not always successfully) from inundating the low-lying marshes that lie between the disused oyster beds of Medmerry Farm and the "Windmill, which, at this point, forms a feature of the landscape. " Passing Thorney Coastguard Station " (we quote, for the sake of convenience, from Mr. Clement Beid's ' Memoir ' upon the Sheet No. 332, Postscript Xo. 13), " we reach the highest Eocene deposits represented in the Selsey peninsula. These con- sist of clays and sandy rock-beds full of Foraminifera, such as Nummulina variolaria, and Alvcolina sabulosa, etc.f The Mixon * The Complete Angler. Bv I. Walton and C. Cotton. London, 1653, Chap. IV. Third Day. t It must be borne in mind that the locality identified in the early geological memoirs as " Thorney Coastguard Station " is very misleading. The erosion of the coast having practically washed away the old Thorney Coastguard Station, the name has been transferred to the newer Coastguard Station two miles south-east, so that in any memoir prior to 1863 Thorney Coastguard Station means Bracklesham Bay, whilst in later memoirs (as, for instance, Mr. Reid's Geological Memoir, Postscript, No 13) " Thorney" means the Coastguard Station heretofore known as " Danners," which is at the end of West Street, Selsey. 2 n 2 532 Transactions of the Society. Eocks opposite Selsey yield the Alveolina limestone, of which so much of the village is built. It is no longer quarried, as its removal led to a more rapid wasting of the coast." The whole of these Tertiary and Post-Tertiary deposits (which will receive our careful consideration when the time arrives for presenting our completed work to the Society) are overlaid by the Coombe Kock and brick-earths which Mr. Clement Eeid has made the subject of significant study and observation (Postscript, Nos. 6 and 9) ; and, as we pursue our way round the Bill, we meet again, cropping out upon the eastern coast, the Nummulite bed, and the Cardita and Turritella beds, before we reach the broad expanse of marsh clay, overlaid with recent shingle, that shelves from Pagham harbour into the sea, just beyond the long spit of heaped- up shingle that stretches seaward opposite Park Farm. It must be borne in mind that the coast of Selsey Bill has been, and is, subject to a degree of annual erosion, unsurpassed on the British coasts. It was our intention to show, by means of a map, the old coast-lines as shown upon survey maps, dating from 1570 until the present time ; but we have been unable to complete this work for the present occasion (for which, perhaps, it would have been premature), but the map will be completed in this particular for the illustration of our later paper. By that time, also, we shall have completed a series of carefully measured sections which we are preparing, showing the strata of the brick earth, torrent gravels, marine gravels, and drift all over the Selsey peninsula. And, with a view to giving more complete data for the micro- geologist, we shall present an analysis of some thirty-six samples of strata, reaching from the 16-foot level to the 100-foot level, taken from two artesian borings that I have made through this Coombe rock and the underlying strata in the centre of Selsey village in a fruitless search for an underground water supply. I little knew when, as a new settler in Selsey at the commence- ment of 1907, I determined to make a systematic study of the Foraminifera of the Selsey shore-sand — fired by Arthur Earland's exhaustive study of the Foraminifera of Bognor (Postscript, No. 17) and my own earlier and desultory studies of the same sand, and of that at Littlehampton — what I was undertaking. It seemed to me that, to arrive at a complete catalogue of the species to be found between tide-marks, all that was necessary was to make an ex- tended gathering and wash, float, and elutriate the contained forms. Accordingly, in the course of some half-dozen walks at low tide from the foreshore of the extreme point, slightly to the east of the Marine Hotel, up to Bracklesham Bay (Thorney Farm), a distance of about 2£ miles, I collected exactly 1000 cubic centimetres of foraminiferal scrapings, which, after treatment, gave the following results : — On Cycloloculina. 533 c.cm. Coarse sittings left on the 3Vm- sieve . . . . 22-5 Pure Foraminifera (skimmed froni the surface) .. 5-0 Floatings left on the gL-in. sieve .. .. .. 24 -5 .. ,, ^-in. silk 9-5 Elutriated material left on the 3Vm- sieve .. 6-0 ffVin. sieve •• 63-° T^-in. silk .. 15-5 Residue .. .. .. .. .. .. 854-0 1000-0 Within a year of the incipience of the task of examining the material, I had compiled a catalogue of over 200 species, both recent and fossil, but very soon upon the query slide I found I had three or four discoidal shells of a highly friable nature, in very imperfect condition, that I had never seen before. I sub- mitted them to my collaborator in this paper, who recognised as a fact, what I had by that time tentatively advanced, viz. that the shell was, at any rate, a new species, perhaps related to the Planorbulina costellata or flabellum of Terquem.* Once, however, mounted in balsam, we recognised that we were dealing with a Foraminifer, not only new as regards species, but having an entirely new plan of growth and development, and con- sequently a new genus. The determination and description of the shell is as follows : Precis of Origin. The specimens on which the genus is founded are fossils, and were found in company with many other fossil Foraminifera derived from Secondary and Tertiary strata. A large proportion of the fossils are such as would occur in Tertiary beds of the period of the " Calcaire Grossier " (Eocene), and it is therefore probable that the specimens have their origin in the submarine denudation of strata which are not exposed above low-water mark. It is hoped to settle this point by dredging in the neighbourhood, but in the meantime it is thought desirable to publish this description of the most interesting form yet met with in the gatherings. Family IX. Rotaliidae. Sub-family 2, Eotalin^e. Genus, Cycloloculina Heron-Allen and Earland. Definition of the Genus. — Test free (or perhaps sometimes adherent in the later- stage of growth), complanate, discoidal, con- * Les Foraminiferes de l'Eocene des Environs de Paris. By M. O. Terquem, Mem. Soc. Geol. de France, ser. 3, ii. (1882). 534 Transactions of the Society. sistiug of three distinct series of chambers arranged in one plane representing three distinct life-periods, of each of which we have been fortunate enough to secure perfect and typical examples. These three life-periods are as follows : — 1. An initial series of seven or eight chambers arranged in one plane in a compressed and evolute spiral, all the chambers being visible on both faces of the test. The chambers grow rapidly in thickness, so that a young shell at the period of the completion of this first or " Discorbine " stage of growth is somewhat wedge- shaped in vertical section. 2. An intermediate or " Pavonine" stage, consisting of two or three chambers, which, rapidly increasing in width (as opposed to depth, which from the completion of the first or Discorbine stage remains pretty constant during the remaining growth), overlap and infold the initial or Discorbine series. 3. A final series of narrow annular chambers arranged concen- trically round the earlier stages. The completed test is usually symmetrical and roughly circular in outline, but is sometimes more or less irregular both in outline and in superficial appearance, as though it had grown in contact with an irregular surface. No attached specimens have, however, been found as yet. The test is distinctly and somewhat coarsely perforated. As the test increases in growth and age, the walls become thickened by a deposit of shell substance between the tubuli, and the surface then assumes a rough, or areolated appearance, distinctly visible in balsam mounts, due to the cup -shaped depressions left round the perforations (plate XII. fig. 7). The edges of these cups appear to have been produced into minute spines, which are especially notice- able round the perforations on the oral faces of the chambers, where they have been included and protected from injury by the growth of the succeeding chambers (plate XII. fig. 6). The continual deposition of this shell-substance causes the older shells to assume a crenulate, or even warty, superficial appearance, which masks the sutural lines. The plan of growth then becomes very obscure, but is still readily observable in balsam mounts. Aperture. — There is no special oral aperture in any of the stages of growth. The only communication between the successive chambers consists of the ordinary tubuli, which are equally dis- tributed over the septal face of the chambers, as well as over the outer sides. The septal tubuli do not differ in any way from the other perforations. This absence of special aperture is one of the most marked features of the genus, and has no parallel in the perforate Forami- nifera outside the Tinoporina?, of which sub-family the absence of a special aperture is a characteristic feature. The genus Cycloloculina will be placed in the second sub-family On Gycloloculina. 535 Rotalinse of Brady's ninth family, the Eotaliidre, and between the genera Discorbina and Planorbulina, which are its nearest allies, although the absence of special aperture might lead one to suppose that its affinities were with the Tinoporinae. The earliest chambers however, which are on the Discorbine plan of growth, mark its affinity to that genus. It differs from Planorbulina, to which it bears a superficial resemblance externally, in the construction and arrange- ment of its later chambers, and in the absence of definite oral apertures. In Planorbulina the chambers succeeding the early spiral portion are arranged in more or less concentric order, but the method of arrangement rapidly becomes obscure, and one portion of the periphery often grows more rapidly than another, owing to the accretion of chamberlets. Planorbulina, moreover, is more or less an adherent form, and the later chambers grow to some extent over their predecessors, so that the initial spiral portion is only visible on the under, or attached, surface of the test. This over- lapping reaches its fullest development in P. accrvalis (Brady), in which the chamberlets are irregularly heaped together. In Planorbulina, moreover, the oral apertures are very well defined, consisting of minute arched slits, with everted lip, placed A /""V- 4^y\ stfpzz&r. Fig. 138. — Diagrammatic Section of a Portion of Planorbulina. A, oral apertures. on each side of the chamberlet at the* points of attachment co the previous whorl. Our type bears a somewhat superficial resemblance to a species which was described by d'Orbigny under the name of Planorbulina >•< rmiculata, but which was transferred by Brady to the genus Pulvinulina on grounds which do not appear very convincing to us. It may be noted that Brady assigns Terquern's Planorbulina Eocccna to this species, but we think incorrectly, as specimens which are undoubtedly referable to Terquern's species are of frequent occurrence at Bognor and Selsey, and they bear but little resemblance to Pulvinulina {Planorbulina) vermiculata, of which we have excellent specimens from the Mediterranean. The undivided tubular chambers which are the characteristic feature of the genus Cycloloculina, have no parallel in the Foraminifera. D'Orbigny 's second order, the Cyclostega, was 536 Transactions of the Society. created to include those forms in which the test was discoidal and composed of concentric segments, but in Orbitolites, and its isomorph Cytloclypeus, these annular chambers are subdivided by partitions into chamberlets, as is also the case in Orbiculiiw, which in its variety compressa (0. comjjrrssa d'Orbigny), bears a remark- able resemblance to our form. Terquem in his celebrated monograph * figures and describes several abnormal Piano ■rbulince, most of which occur among the Selsey fossils. One of his species, viz. Planorbulina Jiabellum (Terquem),t bears a strong resemblance to the Pavonine stage of Cycloloculina, and is indeed probably referable to this genus, though apparently not to either of the Selsey types. Terquem's figure differs from our form in the shape of the later chambers, which are arcuate instead of being tubular and of horseshoe form. Terquem's figure does not, however, tally very accurately with his description of the species, which is stated to be very variable in shape and in the number of chambers. In this respect it differs again from our form, in which the chambers are remarkably con- stant in shape and nearly always ten in number, up to the comple- tion of the Pavonine stage. Cycloloculina annulata sp. n. Plate XII. figs. 1-7. Definition of Species. — Test free, complanate, discoidal, consist- ing of the three series of chambers arranged more or less irregularly in one plane. Peripheral edges of the chambers rounded. The entire surface of the shell, including the peripheral edge, some- what coarsely perforate. No aperture to the test other than these perforations, which represent the sole means of communication between the successive chambers of the test. The surface of the test varies greatly in individual specimens. It is occasionally almost smooth, clear, and distinctly hyaline, and in these specimens, which are always regularly complanate, the peculiar arrangement of the chambers is tolerably apparent even when the shell is viewed as an opaque object, the concentric sutural furrows being clearly marked. In the majority of specimens, however, the test is irregularly complanate, and the surface is so distorted by the irregular crenulated growth of the chambers, and so roughened by the depositions of secondary shell deposit round the edges of the perforations, that the sutural furrows are only visible at intervals. The real structure of the test is thus masked, and such specimens might easily be overlooked or regarded as abnormal Planorbulincv of the " larvata " group. The transference of these thick and coarsely built specimens to balsam is, however, * Les Foraminiferes do l'Eocene des Environs de Paris. By M. 0. Terquem, Mem. Soc. Geol. de France, ser. 3, ii. (1882). t Tom. cit., p. 92, pi. xi. fig. 19. On Cycloloculina. 537 sufficient to disclose their identity with the smooth and regular specimens which possibly represent individuals which had lived in deeper and more undisturbed water, or under conditions less favourable for exuberance of shell growth. A series of radial crinkles or undulations, which are more noticeable in the thin- walled specimens than in the coarser shells, might at first sight give the impression that the annular chambers are divided by radial partitions into small chamberlets ; but these markings are purely superficial, and the examination of numerous balsam specimens has proved that the tubular chambers are undivided throughout (plate XII. fig. 5). Mode of Growth. — The initial or " Discorbine " stage commences with a primordial chamber, which is followed by about six other chambers, crescentiform in shape, and arranged as in Discorbina biconcava (Parker and Jones), to which species the shell, at the completion of its first stage, bears some resemblance (plate XII. fig. 1). With the seventh chamber, the second, or "Pavonine," stage may be said to commence. Owing to its great breadth, as compared with its diameter, it commences that overlapping of the preceding chambers, which, continually increasing in the eighth and ninth chambers, usually reaches its culminating point in the tenth chamber, which completely infolds all its predecessors, its opposite extremities meeting at the base of the shell. The test, which had been more or less fan-shaped, or, rather, Pavonine (peacock-tail shape) at the eighth and ninth chambers, is now practically circular, only a slight flattening at the base showing where the encircling edges of the tenth chamber have met (plate XII. fig. 2). The third, or " Annular " stage of growth, now begins, and the animal adds several tube-like undivided chambers, each of which completely surrounds, all its predecessors (plate XII. figs. 3, 4). The number of these chambers varies considerably. The largest specimen which we have found shows six of these concentric annular chambers. The specimen is imperfect, but it probably marks the approximate limit of growth, as the average number of annular chambers in the third stage does not exceed four. From the ninth or tenth chamber to the completion of the shell, there is but little variation in the diameter of the tube-like chambers, the average diameter of the chambers being about 0 * 05 mm. This means that the tubes, though very nearly circular in section, are rather broader than they are deep. In the next species, however — Cycloloculina polygyra — the variation is in the other direction, the depth being, if anything, greater than the breadth. One abnormal specimen was found in which /the shell showed signs of fracture and repair during the third stage of the animal's life. A considerable piece of the test has been broken away, 538 Transactions of the Society. and the gap filled up, not by the restoration of the broken annular chambers, but by the insertion of irregular chaniberlets, which fill the space and complete the circular outline of the shell. The species varies considerably in size, but the following measurements may be taken as approximating to an average of the various stages : — " Discorbine " stage : length, 0 • 26 mm. ; breadth, 0 ■ 20 mm. " Pavonine " stage : length, 0 ■ 5 mm. ; breadth, 0*6 mm. Adult, or "'Annular" stage: diameter, 1-1*1 mm. The concentric annuli average 0 ■ 05 mm. in diameter. The thickness of the specimens is approximately the same in all stages of growth after the first few chambers, and an average for a moderately flat specimen would be 0 ■ 046 mm. Cycloloeuliaa polygyra sp. n. Plate XII. fig. 8. Definition of Species. — Test free, complanate, discoidal, con- sisting of the three series of chambers arranged symmetrically in one plane. Peripheral edge nearly square. Perforations finer than in the type, and without any secondary deposit of shell substance between the pores. Sutural lines either very slightly depressed, or flush, or even slightly limbate. Number of chambers in the first two stages, usually eight. Average number of chambers in the third, or " Annular " stage, about five. The annular chambers increase regularly in diameter, instead of remaining of practically constant diameter, as in C. annulata, and this gradual increase gives a false impression of a closely coiled spiral, whence our specific name ''polygyra." As the thickness of the test is prac- tically the same in all stages, it follows that the internal section of the chambers varies at different stages of growth, the early chambers being almost ribbon-like, while the later ones are nearly square in section. The species is founded on certain specimens which are found associated with* C. annulata in several of the gatherings. It is of very infrequent occurrence as compared with the type, and all the specimens hitherto found are adults. There is, however, no doubt from their structure, that the test passes through the same three stages as does C. annulata, from which it differs in several essential features. The chief differences are : — A. In size, the species is considerably smaller than C. annulata. Our largest specimen of C. polygyra measures 0 ■ 5-0 ■ 6 mm. in diameter, which is less than the average size of C. annulata. The shell is altogether smaller, neater, and more finished in appearance than the type. B. The peripheral edge is square, not rounded, as in C. annulata, and the sutural lines are only slightly depressed, and sometimes flush or limbate. On Cycloloculina. 539 C. The secondary shell deposit between the perforations is entirely wanting, and the test, consequently, never acquires the coarse and weathered appearance which marks many specimens of C. annul ata. D. The annular chambers vary in diameter and in sectional shape. The genus being thus established, and its two distinctive species having been determined by the examination of recurrent specimens, we had reached a point at which it became imperative that some organised effort should be made to determine the exact locality, if not the precise geological stratum, from which this interesting fossil is derived. We therefore made the following series of gatherings of a strictly localised character, taking whenever possible, not only a sample of the shore- sand, but of the rocks and other deposits exposed at low spring tides, and of the sea-floor by means of dredging. 1. Shore-sand. From a small sand-bay, or pocket, in the shelter of the spit of shingle that runs out to sea opposite Park Farm, on the eastern side of the Bill. (It may be observed that this is the only spot on the eastern shore which is not covered at all states of the tide with a greater or lesser depth of shingle, derived apparently from the raised beach or Coombe Eock.) 2. Mud. A green plastic clay (? Tertiary) dredged in five fathoms outside the Mixon Bocks. 3. Rock detritus. The indurated and Pholas-hored Tertiary clay. Pebbles, and small boulders, dredged in five fathoms outside the Mixon Eocks, locally known as "The Clibs." 4. Eock detritus. The Alvcolina limestone forming the Mixon Eocks proper, of which most of the old houses in Selsey are built. Dredged with Nos. 2 and 3. 5. Eock detritus. The muddy sand found in the pools under the boulders upon the highest point of the Mixon Eocks, piled round the Mixon Beacon and uncovered at low tide. This consists of the detritus of Nos. 2 and 3 mingled with recent Foraminifera. 6. Shore-sand. From the commencement of the " sands " opposite the Marine Hotel, extending slightly eastward towards the extreme point, off which are the Mixon Eocks. 7. Shore-sand. From the same point, extending about a quarter of a mile westward, opposite " The Bungalows." 8. Mud-deposit. Opposite Thorney (New) Coastguard Station, called by Mr. C. Eeid the " Selsey Beds." A brown loamy (Pleistocene) mud, with much detritus of derived fossil Mollusca. 9. Mud-deposit. A Post-Tertiary estuarine clay, of deep indigo blue colour, about three feet thick, separating No. 8 at this point from No. 10. 10. Bracklesham Beds. The Pholas-bored Eocene belt that 540 Tin a mixtions of the Society . surrounds the peninsula. Sample taken below Nos. 8 and 9, opposite Thorney Coastguard Station. 11. Shore-sand. From the sands midway between No. 7 and No. 12 above the " Selsey Beds " (No. 8). 12. Shore-sand. From the shore opposite the oyster-beds and Windmill, slightly north-west of the present Thorney Coast- guard Station. 13. Shore-sand. From the shore opposite Medmerry Farm, between the Coombe Rock and the spit of Pleistocene mud described by Mr. C. Eeid (Postscript, No. 9 ; also Nos. 8 and 10). 14. Mud-deposit. Dug from the Pleistocene mud (" Clibs ") exposed at spring-tide (Laminarian zone) opposite Medmerry Farm. 15. Shore-sand. From the shore of Bracklesham Bay opposite Thorney Farm, and the now abandoned (old) Thorney Coastguard Station. 16. Focene-sand. From the interior of large and perfect shells of Cardita planicosta, from a depth of two feet in the Bracklesham Beds, uncovered at low water of spring tides in Bracklesham Bay. Besides the foregoing samples of material, we possess, and shall examine systematically in due course, the thirty-six Artesian-well samples of the strata of the Selsey peninsula to which reference has been made. The presence of a large number of purely chalk Foraminifera in the Selsey shore-sand is accounted for by the continual throwing up and shattering upon the shingle, of hollow flints (Spongidse) from the upper chalk (probably from the Isle of Wight), and a description of the contents of some of these will form a necessary termination to our completed study of the Fora- minifera of the locality. It will readily be gathered from a glance at the foregoing catalogue of material, that an exhaustive study of the Foraminifera of Selsey Bill must occupy all the leisure that we can devote to it for some years to come. Meanwhile we have made a preliminary and necessarily somewhat cursory examination of the twelve samples composing the above catalogue, with a view to ascertain- ing, as far as is at present possible, the precise origin of the genus Gycloloculina. The result of such examination is as follows : — 1. Park Farm. Almost entirely the detritus of recent shells. A few Nummulites, but practically no Foraminifera, recent or fossil. 2. Mixon Mud. The coarse siftings gave Nummulites and Alveolina Boscii in quantity, with small Eocene Mollusca, often full of pyrites. The Nummulites frequently encrusted with Polyzoa {H yd r actinia, etc.), showing that they have been washed out of the matrix for some time. Large casts, in glauconite and quartzose, of Miliolina cdveoliniformis, Biloeulina, Diseorhina (? parisiensis). One On Cycloloculina. 541 Cycloloculina was found among the finer sittings looking very much out of place, and probably washed by the current Irom the point of the Bill. A feature of the finer sittings were robust sponge-spicules and fragments of a gem-mineral not yet identified. 3. " Clibs." Principally Nummulites, with a disconcerting mix- ture of recent forms, evidently washed out of the Pholas borings. 4. Alvcolina limestone. Large casts in yellowish silica of various Miliolinm, and perhaps some large Polymorphince. 5. Under the Mixon Rocks. The same casts as in No. 4, with a large proportion of recent arenaceous forms {Verneuilina poly- stropha and Ifaplophragmium canariense, with large recent Miliolince (Massilina secans). 6. Opposite Marine Hotel. Suspending judgment as to the single test dredged in 5 fathoms (No. 2), Cycloloculina makes its first appearance here, where it is fairly plentiful. 7. Opposite " The Bungalows." Here Cycloloculina is an in- creasingly recurrent shell. 8. Selsey Beds. A brown clay, full of derived Eocene fossil Foraminifera, but no Cycloloculina found in situ. 9. Blue Band. No sign of Cycloloculina, but many Estuarine forms, such as Nonionina, Trochammina, etc., all filled with iron pyrites. This band is full of vegetable detritus and fragments of pyrites. 10. Bracklesham Beds. An Eocene clay, very rich in fossil Foraminifera, but no sign of Cycloloculina at present. 11. Above the Selsey Beds. Here Cycloloculina is more plentiful than anywhere else, the specimens being, for the most part, delicate and perfect. 12. Opposite the Oyster Beds. Here Cycloloculina is a re- current form, though generally somewhat battered. 13. Opposite Medmerry Farm. Here Cycloloculina is about as common as in No. 12, but more battered as a rule. 14. Pleistocene mud deposit. In the first small lump of this mud which we washed we found a perfect Cycloloculina annulata and a perfect C. polygyra, but many hours' patient search since then have failed to produce a further specimen of either. The utmost care is taken to use clean sieves and new muslins, but until more specimens are washed out we must suspend judgment as to this sample. 15. From the shore of Bracklesham Bay. In this we have failed to find any trace of Cycloloculina. The gathering consists almost entirely of Eocene fossils, shell-detritus, with Xummulites, and a striking collection of large glauconite casts of Foraminifera, but few tests, either recent or fossil. We have, however, found in this sample several specimens of the rare Polyraorphina complanata figured by d'Orbigny in his " Foraminiferes fossiles du Bassin Tertiaire de Vienne " (Paris, 1846). 542 Transactions of the Society. 16. Interior of Cardita, Bracklesham. A green sandy clay in which we have found no trace of any Foraniinifera whatever. It will therefore be seen that within the time limits of our researches up to the present, the genus Cycloloculina is found as a derived fossil only, in the shore-sands of the western side of Selsey Bill, from the extreme point opposite the Marine Hotel, up to Medmerry Farm, growing more scarce as one proceeds north- westward. The shell is extremely delicate and friable, and we are of opinion that it is incapable of travelling far in a perfect condition, or of withstanding the wash of the tide for more than a short while. It is found by us in its best state in elutriated rough material, the process of washing appearing to damage it almost beyond recognition, whilst its weight renders it almost entirely absent from " floatings." It would appear therefore to be washed from some Post-Tertiary mud stratum near that which Mr. C. Reid has named the " Selsey Beds," where it occurs no doubt to-day as a derived fossil, having been washed there from some hitherto undiscovered soft band in the Eocene clays of the Pholas- bed which fringes the shore at this point. It appears furthermore to be one of Nature's failures, existing probably in great quantity in situ wherever it came into existence, but the exact geological stratum or deposit in which it had its origin is for the present purely conjectural, and must remain so until we can make a mure extended and localised series of dredgings. Note. — In the completing paper which we propose to lay before the Society shortly, we shall endeavour to trace the relationships between the sub-marine and the sub-aerial geology of the peninsula of Selsey, and, in giving a list of the Foraniinifera both recent and fossil which we have identified in our gatherings, we shall make the attempt to ascribe to each species its correct, or at any rate probable, origin. Postscript. In the preparation of this paper it has been found necessary to consult many authorities, and we think it desirable to give the following list of works, in chronological order, to which we have had recourse for the purpose of verifying our researches into the origin of the Foraniinifera of the Selsey peninsula. 1. Trimmer, J. — On the Agricultural Geology of England and Wales. Jonrn. Eoy. Agric. Soc. England, xii. (1851) p. 445. 2. God win-Austen, K. — On the Newer Tertiary Deposits of the Sussex Coast. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xiii. (1855) p. 40. (1857 Postponed Papers.) 3. Fisher, 0. — On the Bracklesham Beds of the Isle of Wight Basin. ' Op. cit., xviii. (1S61) p. 65. On Gycloloculina. 543 4. Bell, A. — Contributions to the Fauna of the Upper Tertiaries. I. The " Mud-deposit " at Selsey, Sussex. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., series 4, No. 43 (1871) p. 45. 5. Wood, S. V. — The Newer Pliocene Period in England. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, xxxvi. (1880) p. 457 (part 1) ; and xxxviii. (1882) p. 667, (part 2). 6. Eeid, C— On the Origin of Dry-chalk Valleys and of Cooinbe Rock. Op. cit,, xliii. (1887) p 364. 7. Gakdnee, J. S., H. Keeping, and H. W. Monckton. — The Upper Eocene, comprising the Berton and Upper Basrshot Formations. Op. cit., xliv. (1888) p. 578. 8. Bell, A. — Notes qn some Post-Tertiary Marine Deposits on the South Coast of England. Op. cit., xlvii. (1891) p. 172. 9. Reid, C. — The Pleistocene Dejjosits of the Sussex Coast, and their Equivalents in other Districts. Op. cit., xlviii. (1892) p. 344. 10. Bell, A. — Notes on a Post-Tertiary Deposit in Sussex. Yorkshire Phil. Soc. Beport for 1892, p. 58. (Reprinted York, 1893.) Supplementary Note (leaflet) by F. W. Millett, The Foraminifera of a Post-Tertiary Deposit in Sussex. 11. Prestwich, J. — The Raised Beaches and " Head" or Rubble-drift of the South of England : their relation to the Valley Drifts, and to the Glacial Period ; and on a late Post-Glacial Submergence. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, xlviii. (1892) p. 263. 12. Reid. C.— A Fossiliferous Pleistocene Deposit at Stone, on the Hampshire Coast, Op. cit., xlix. (1893) p. 325. 13. Reid, C. — The Geology of the Country around Bognor (Explanation of Sheet 332, London, 1897). Memoirs Geological Survey, 1898. 14. Mill, Hugh Robert — A Fragment of the Geography of England: South- west Sussex. Reprinted from Geographical Journal, March and April, 1900 15. Reid, C. — The Geology ol the Country near Chichester (Explanation of Sheet 317, London, 1903.) Memoirs Geological Survey, 1903. 16. Elsden, J. V., and W. Whitaker — Excursion to Selsey and Chichester. Proc. Geol. Assoc, xviii. (1904) p. 475. 17. Earland, A. — The Foraminifera of the Shore-sand at Bognor, Sussex. Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, series 2, ix. (1905) No. 57, p. 187. 544 Transactions of the Soci< ty. XVI. — On Dendritic Growths of Copper Oxide in Paper. By James Strachan. (Read April 15, 1908.) Plate XIII. I. Introduction. The occurrence of dendritic growths in paper has been observed for a long time, but it is only within recent years that their pre- cise nature has been determined. They were mistaken at first for vegetable or fungoid growths, and were designated by such names as Conferva dendritica (Agardh and Lyngbye) and Dematium olivaceum (Schumacher).* In the year 1872, however, Liversidge f established the fact that the dendritic growths in paper contain copper, and are purely inorganic in their composition. There appears to have been some doubt at this time as to the nature of the copper compound composing the dendrites, whether sulphide or oxide, and Tait \ was among the first to point out that these growths are probably derived from the oxidation of metallic particles imbedded in the paper during manufacture. Tait esti- mated, from an examination of various books containing dendrites, that it required a period of at least twenty years for the develop- ment of these growths. Doubts concerning the true nature of dendrites persisted for a number of years, until in 1901 the whole subject was reviewed and gone into by Scales,§ who came to the following conclusions, from a careful microscopical and micro- chemical examination of dendrites in various kinds of paper : — 1. That the dendrites in paper are composed of copper oxide with a central metallic nucleus. 2. That the metallic particles from which the dendrites grow * Vide Carrington's remarks on this subject in Science Gossip, i. (1895) p. 268. t Journ. Chem. Soc, x. (1872) p. 646. ' J Crystals Bred in Books. Science Gossip, i. (1895) p. 85. § Dendritic Spots in Paper, by F. S. Scales, F.R.M.S. Science Gossip, vii. n.s. (1901) p. 258, et seq. (2 photomicrographs). EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII. Fig. 1. — Dendritic growth of copper oxide in paper, containing 70-75 p.c. wood cellulose fibres ; fourteen months' growth, x 20. ,, 2. — Dendritic growth of copper oxide in paper, composed purely of wood cellulose ; about five years' growth, x 12, JOURN. R. M1CR. SOC. 1908. PI. XIII ^yr^ Fig. 1. -*-**v Fig. 2. Dendritic Growths of Copper Oxide in Paper. 545 are derived most probably from the paper-making machinery, in the process of paper-making. 3. That the growth of the dendritic crystals of copper oxide follows the lie of the fibres in the paper, and along the fibres : the ramifications of the dendrites depending entirely upon the fibres of the paper. 4. That dendrites seem to grow more readily upon fibres having a large central canal, such as cotton ; practically all the papers examined contained cotton fibres. 5. That the oxidation of the metallic nuclei is a slow process. The only subsequent paper on this subject was written by Simon * in 1903, and in it the author gives merely a recapitulation of the " Science Gossip " articles, with further chemical evidence confirming facts already clearly established. Having satisfied himself as to the reality of three points settled definitely by Scales (viz. 1. Composition — copper oxide; 2. Growth by oxidation from a central metallic nucleus ; 3. Growth alon^ the fibres of the paper), the present writer set about the solution of the following questions, answers to which were as yet doubtful : — 1. Are the dendritic growths of copper oxide confined to any particular kind of fibre, such as cotton ? 2. What is the rate of the oxidation of the metallic nucleus, and consequent growth of the dendrite ? 3. Why do dendrites occur in some classes of paper and not at all, or very rarely, in others ? 4. Why are dendrites of less frequent occurrence in modern papers than in papers made towards the middle of the nineteenth centurv ? II. Results of New Investigations. Evidence was carefully collected for about six years from various sources, including writing and printing papers of all ages, especially modern papers the ages of which were definitely known. After examining many hundreds of dendrites, and the nature of the papers in which they were found, I arrived at definite answers to the above questions, thus clearing away several doubtful ideas. 1. With regard to the nature of the fibres upon which the dendritic growth takes place, it is quite evident that dendrites grow indiscriminately upon all of the fibres commonly in use for the manufacture of various kinds of paper, viz. cotton, linen, esparto, straw, and various kinds of wood cellulose. The growth of the dendritic copper oxide upon the fibres is purely a superficial phenomenon, and does not proceed at all along the central canal * Dendritic Forms in Paper. Trans. Manchester Micr, Soc, 1903, pp. 92-5 (1 pi.). Oct. 2 lit, 1908 2o 546 Transactions of the Society. Ml' .my fibre. Indeed, in most eas^s by removing the sizing (either rosin or gelatin) and washing the fibres gently with the aid of a rather stiff brush, the greater part of a dendrite can be removed from the surface of the paper in which it occurs, leaving in many instances nothing but the metallic nucleus surrounded by fibres stained slightly by a yellowish tinge of colour. The growth of a dendrite is affected to some extent by the nature of the fibres, being most vigorous upon softer cellulose such as that of cotton and certain woods, and least active upon harder cellulose, such as that of linen, esparto, and straw. 2. The rate of growth of a dendrite in paper is very variable, according to its guidance by variety of circumstances, both internal and external. We have seen that early writers on the subject re- garded the growth as an extremely slow process — as long as twenty years being allowed as an estimate by Tait. From observations of papers, of which the exact date of manufacture was known in each instance, I have ascertained that the oxidation of the metallic nucleus, and consequent growth of the dendritic oxides, is in many cases a comparatively rapid phenomenon ; under favourable cir- cumstances a dendrite may develop appreciably in a period as short as six months. The chief external factor favouring the growth of dendrites in paper is the presence of atmospheric moisture, without which oxidation could not proceed. Cellulose absorbs from 9-12 p.c of natural atmospheric moisture, and its moisture-content varies according to the amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and the temperature of the latter. The internal circumstances govern- ing the rate of growth are, the nature of the fibres themselves, and the presence of materials other than cellulose in the fabric of the paper. From numerous observations it appears that dendrites grow most rapidly upon wood and cotton celluloses, less rapidly upon linen, and least rapidly upon esparto and straw fibres. Den- drites grow more readily and rapidly in rosin-sized papers than in papers sized with gelatin (tub-sized), which is due probably to the fact that the gelatin layer on the surface of the latter forms a more complete protection to the fibres, from atmospheric influences, than the rosin-sizing, which latter is chiefly in the interstices of the paper as particles, and to a much less extent as an actual coating upon the fibres themselves. The presence of filling and loading materials such as kaolin and satin -spar is not favourable to the growth of dendrites, and they are consequently rare in heavily- loaded or coated papers. As an example of rapid growth under favourable circumstances, I quote the example of a paper com- posed of wood cellulose 70 p.c, straw cellulose 30 p.c, rosin-sized, 10 p.c. loading, which was made in December 1906. Dendrites were first observed in this paper in May 1907, and continued to develop to the present date. The nuclei consisted of small particles of bronze, 0 " 2-1 ■ 5 mm. in diameter, derived from the bars or Dendritic Growths of Copper Oxide in Paper. 547 knives of the refining engines. In this paper a nucleus of bronze 0*8 mm. in length became a dendrite 3 "2 mm. in length, during a period of twelve months, and even then the nucleus was not much reduced, but merely coated over with oxide of copper. 3. The occurrence of dendrites in certain classes of paper, and their absence in others, admits of a very simple explanation. For example, dendritic growths are more common in certain fine writing-papers, such as ledger-papers, because the stuff from which the latter are prepared undergoes a prolonged treatment in the beating and refining engines, thus presenting greater opportunity for the contamination of the paper-stuff with particles of bronze ground from the bars and blades of the reducing machinery. Many of these particles are caught in the sand-traps of the paper- machine, but the lighter fragments are carried into the paper-web, thus forming the nuclei of future dendrites. Dendrites are also more common in light, porous cartridge-papers, and light printing- papers, in which the pores of the fabric are not filled to excess with loading materials. In short, dendrites occur most frequently in papers which have undergone either prolonged or severe milling, and in papers which present favourable internal circumstances for their growth. 4. Several reasons are apparent for the less frequent occurrence of dendrites in recently-made papers than in papers made about the middle of last century. It was formerly supposed that their non-appearance in recent papers was due to their slowness of growth, but that is not the case. An evident reason is the substitu- tion of steel for bronze in modern beating-engines. Particles of iron are extremely common in the cheaper papers made to-day, but these never develop into true dendrites; they give rise, on oxida- tion, to mere red stains, having no apparent crystalline structure. Another reason for their less frequent occurrence is that most modern printing-papers are more heavily loaded and filled than formerly, in answer to the demand for a printing-paper having a smooth surface suitable for half-tone illustrations. As already pointed out, dendritic growths do not flourish in a heavily-loaded or coated paper. III. The Size and Mode of Growth of Dendrites. Dendritic growths in paper vary much in size according to their age and size of nucleus, the ultimate size of a dendrite depending entirely upon the size of the central nucleus from which it grows. From less than 1 mm., I have found them up to 12 mm. in greatest diameter, which in machine-made papers is usually parallel to the "machine-direction" of the paper. Simon records them "up to say 15 mm. in diameter," but dendrites of copper oxide of that size in paper must In- rather rare. 2 o 2 548 Transactions of the Society. A dendrite appears to continue its growth as long as the nucleus remains in part unoxidised. A dendrite in a cotton paper, from a book dated 1850, showed neither increase in size nor change in contour during a period of five recent years, for the simple reason that the nucleus had become completely oxidised, probably many years ago. It would appear from this, that after the central nucleus of a dendrite is completely oxidised, the oxides produced do not of themselves spread to any appreciable extent ob the fibres. The growth of a dendrite is more active and rapid in its initial stages, before the nucleus becomes thickly coated with oxide. The dendritic growth creeps along the various fibres in characteristic fashion. The more or less cylindrical fibres of straw, esparto, and linen, become sheathed in copper oxide, the deposit upon linen being usually thick and rather patchy. The wider, tubular fibres of cotton cellulose, become coated in a similar manner to those of linen, but when the cotton fibres are more flat and riband-like, the dendrite often spreads out laterally from fibre to fibre in beautiful fern-like traceries. The latter habit is typical also of almost all dendrites found in papers composed of wood cellulose, the flattened fibres of which seem to present an ideal surface for the dendritic growth, the oxide of copper spreading and branching from fibre to fibre in a beautiful and delicate crystalline pattern. As pointed out by Scales, the ramifications of dendrites generally depend upon the lie of the fibres in the paper. This is true for straw, esparto, linen, and some cotton papers ; but in the case of wood cellulose papers, and some papers composed of flat- tened cotton fibres, the crystalline energy of the growth asserts itself, allowing of frequent lateral growth in a direction often at right angles to the lie of the fibres. This fact appears to be due partly to the flat shape of the fibres, and partly to their compara- tive softness, which allows of a more vigorous growth. Most dendrites, especially old ones, are composed almost wholly of black cupric oxide, but in many cases, especially in recent dendrites, I have observed the formation of dark-red, trans- lucent cuprous oxide, and of a yellowish substance similar in appearance to a partially hydrated cuprous oxide. From a careful consideration of many dendrites during various stages in their growth, I have come to the conclusion that the copper is conveyed along the pores of the cellulose in a hydrated cuprous condition, possibly in chemical union with the cellulose, and that it crys- tallises in the form of capillary-aggregates of cuprous oxide upon the surface of the fibres, the red cuprous oxide being subsequently oxidised to the black cupric form. I have not at any time observed the characteristic green colour of cupric carbonate in dendrites, but, nevertheless, it is most probable that the minute quantities of carbonic acid, and perhaps, of ammonia, present in the atmosphere, play an important part in the oxidation of the Dendritic Growths of Copper Oxide in Paper. 549 metallic nucleus, as catalytic agents in the presence of water and oxygen. The whole process is a chemical one, in which the cellu- lose plays an important part as a physical conveyer of the means of oxidation, and as a physical and chemical carrier of the pro- ducts of oxidation, to and from the metallic nucleus. The superior crystalline energy of cuprous oxide, the porous nature of the cellulose surface, and the presence of minute traces of oxidised copper in the fibres themselves (derived from the milling engines), are most probably all factors in the activity of dendritic growth. IV. Microscopical Examination of Dendrites. Dendrites in paper may be mounted dry for examination under the Microscope. This is convenient for examination with low powers by reflected light, especially when it is desired to observe their growth, in which case, of course, they must not be sealed up air-tight. For examination with medium and high powers by transmitted light, I have found mounting in a waxy medium an admirable and convenient plan. The refractive index of Canada balsam renders it unsuitable, and glycerin has a solvent action on the dendrite. Pure spermaceti wax, or white paraffin melting at 130° to 135° F., may be utilised for the purpose, preferably the former. The fragment of paper containing the dendrite is first treated with hot distilled water and hot alcoholic ether to remove sizing, then dried thoroughly and soaked in the melting wax for a few minutes. It is then mounted on a glass slip with a drop of melted wax, the cover-glass being applied with moderate pressure until perfectly cold. If sufficient pressure be applied to the cover- glass during mounting the waxy medium shows good detail even with fairly high powers, and brings out very well the translucent nature of the red crystalline cuprous oxide. Particles of kaolin stand out very clearly in the paper thus mounted, and it may be observed how the dendritic growth avoids such obstacles. The fibres may be stained before mounting, and aniline green will be found a suitable colour. If a finer mounting medium be desired, refined paraffin oil (sp. gr. 0 * 900) may be used for this purpose. In the micro-chemical examination of metallic particles in paper, a delicate method of distinguishing between extremely minute particles of iron, and of copper, is sometimes required. This may be done as follows : — A small fragment of the paper in- cluding the suspected particle, is placed upon a glass slip, covered with a drop of dilute (20 p.c.) hydrochloric acid, and warmed gently over a small flame. After a few minutes a drop of a pure solution of potassium sulpho-cyanide is added. If iron be present the characteristic blood-red colour of ferric thio-cyanate shows at once. If iron be absent, the examination is continued for copper, 550 Transactions of th Society. the fragment of paper being dried and ignited carefully iu a platinum dish, or upon foil of that metal. When the paper is reduced to white ash, if the particle be metallic it will appear as a black speck iu the ash. The latter is then placed upoo ;i glass slip, a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid added, and warmed. To this is added, when cold, a drop of starch solution containing potassium iodide. If cupper be present, an intense blue or black coloration results ; iron gives the same reaction, but, in the absenn- of iron, copper is indicated, these two metals being the only ones found, as a rule, in paper. JOURN. R. MICR. SOC. 1908. PI. XIV. 551 NOTES. Brachiomonas submarina, Bohlin. By the Rev. Eustace Tozer. Plate XIV. Since reading rny paper at the meeting of the Royal Microscopical Society, February 1908, I have seen the note on this form pub- lished by Mr. G. S. West, of Birmingham, in the Linnean Journal for January. Mr. West kindly refers to my find, and after some correspondence with him I have come to the conclusion that it would be inadvisable to dissociate this alga T described from Bohlin's Brachiomonas submarina in spite of certain differences. My observations will be seen to agree with Mr. West's up to a certain point. Bohlin's description I have not seen. The alga then was found by me four years ago in brackish water at Sheerness. My son also found it in rain-water in an old boat. It is probable that the boat brought in the alga from the sea, and the rain-water, becoming saturated with salt, provided a suitable medium for development. The alga consists of a sphere arising from the surface of which are five firm processes somewhat curved. These processes are hollow, opening at the base into the sphere (plate XIY. fig. 1). The outlines of the sphere are clearly seen when the contents divide. A rich green chlorophyll fills the sphere. It is somewhat granulated and contains a fairly conspicuous nucleus. A remarkable fact with regard to the chlorophyll is that when the alga is kept a few hours in the dark it contracts \v the sphere, leaving the processes cp:iite clear. When the alga is exposed again to strong light, the chlorophyll is seen extending into the processes until only the tips are clear. It may be of interest to say that I have observed similar expansion and contraction of the protoplasmic contents in the cells of Melosira and Pleurosigma under similar conditions. In Mclosira the protoplasm curls up and auxospore formation may thus be induced. Brachiomonas is bi-flagellate, the flagella being thick, long, and very active. The alga swims with a " trembling " motion, and a crowd of the forms resemble the flight of a flock of swallows. The five processes (four of which are of equal size, the fifth at the 552 Notes. tail of the sphere being slightly longer) assist in swimming like the leaves of a paddle-wheel, the alga turning a somersault by their aid. It is found in the ditches all the year through, but has two "swarming" periods — February, just after the keen frosts, and again in early October. At such periods it may be collected " pure " as it migrates in the water, as it were, in the form of clouds. At other times it mixes freely with Eaglena. In size, apart from the processes, it approaches Sphcerella nivalis. Multiplication proceeds by the chlorophyll contracting to the sphere and dividing into two large oval portions. In these two portions the chlorophyll contracts to the base of each, leaving the fore end almost clear (plate XIV, fig. 2). Division goes on to four portions which evolve into the parent form (zoogonidia). (Plate XIV. figs. 3, 4). In other spheres the chlorophyll divides up into smaller por- tions which likewise assume the parent form (gametes). (Plate XIV. fig. 5.) After prolonged active movements in the cell these forms break through and swim in pairs, and I noticed a constant exchange of partners. This is doubtless a form of true conjugation, though I was not fortunate enough to trace results. There are further phenomena which I have frequently observed and which appear to me to be referable to multiplication. The chlorophyll splits up in many cells into minute green spherules, as far as I could count about sixty-four in number. These spherules escape and are provided with four fiagella apiece. These likewise swim in pairs (plate XIV. fig. 6). In correspondence with me, Mr. West would refer this phenomenon to a pathological condition, and he states that such a condition may often set in before the organism as a whole is really dead. This did not appear to me to be such a- condition. The collection was pure. As the alga swims about in " clouds " or " colafties " it is easy to obtain it quite pure, and the peculiar 4-flagellated zoospores arising from this division preclude this supposition of pathological condition. Another phenomenon which I referred to at the meeting as formation of "bud cysts'" is very common with this alga. A pellucid sphere forms in the chlorophyll, then another, sometimes three or four. By-and-by zoospores, uniflagellate, can be clearly made out within these pellucid spheres (plate XIV. fig. 7). These spheres become somewhat pear-shaped and penetrate the envelope of the alga and are detached. They burst, and the zoospores escape, having a remarkable resemblance to the sper- matozoon of Homo. I at first took this to be a stage in the evolutiou of the alga, Notes. 553 but since these zoospores or spermatozoa attach themselves to the alga, it may possibly be a case of parasitism. Very frequently the four bodies of chlorophyll formed by division do not immediately evolve into the parent type, but escape and rest in masses of jelly. Occasionally three zoogonidia are found in a cell instead of four (plate XIV. fig. 4). On the Optical Properties of Contractile Organs. By Doris L. Mackinnon, B.Sc, and Fred Vles. Within the last half century quite a number of writers have treated of the optical properties of contractile organs (muscles, cilia, flagella, etc.), ami have shown that these elements are illuminated between the crossed nicols of a polarising Microscope. This optical reaction has been considered as due to birefringence, and a certain number of physiologists, among whom special mention must be made of Engelmann, have believed that they could base certain very important theories concerning contractility on the general fact of the birefringence of contractile organs. But it is far from having been strictly demonstrated that the illumination of all contractile organs between crossed nicols is identical with a phenomenon of birefringence ; as early as 1862 Eouget expressed his belief — in a completely hypothetical fashion, and without demonstration in support — that, in the case of muscle fibres, phenomena of " depolarisation " by diffraction might easily simulate apparent birefringence. This opinion, however, appears : scarcely to have been submitted afterwards to thorough examination. One of us recently undertook (1908) the experimental investi- gation of depolarisation phenomena in contractile organs, and attempted to demonstrate that, while the illumination of muscle fibres between crossed nicols is certainly due to birefringence, that of vibratile cilia is of quite a different nature, and arises from a phenomenon of partial depolarisation of the light by reflection or refraction. The method for distinguishing between the two optical phenomena consisted mainly in observing whether the illumination of the object disappeared (depolarisation) or not (birefringence), when this object was immersed in a liquid having the same index of refraction as itself. The physical theory of depolarisation states, in fact, that the illumination of a depolarising body varies with the refractive index of the surrounding medium ; this illu- mination disappears completely when the exterior index is the same as that of the object (at that moment there are no longer any 554 Notes. phenomena of reflection or of refraction on its surface) ; and it reappears whenever the ratio of the two indices is greater or less than unity. To demonstrate depolarisation, then, one must mount the object in a series of liquids of gradually increasing refractive index, and ascertain whether its illumination diminishes, reaches a minimum, nil (when its index is equal to that of the liquid), and then gradually increases again. We have continued, on various contractile organs, and by the same immersion method, the comparison of the phenomena of birefringence and depolarisation, as begun by Vies. Our observa- tions were carried out on (1) various motor elements of Protozoa (cilia and myonemes of ciliate Infusoria) ; (2) flagella of sperma- tozoa; (3) swimming-plates of Ctenophora ; (4) the body, and that much-discussed structure, the undulating membrane of Trypano- soma balbianii Certes. The several experiments were made on preparations either mounted separately in each of the liquids of the series and then compared together, or else passed through all the series in succes- sion, first in one direction and then in the reverse. The two methods gave comparable results. Concerning the latter method, however, it is necessary to point out here that if one follows one of these " reversible " prepara- tions first in one direction and then in the other through the ascending series of indices, the intensity of the illumination of the same object in the same liquid is not always exactly of the same degree on the outward as on the return journey ; there is a sort of retardation, a "hysteresis" of the illumination, which, after all, is exactly what one might expect, seeing that the process has to be carried out under a cover-slip ; the diffusion of the new reagent introduced, and the corresponding elimination of the old, is never quite perfectly effected, and there may well be traces of the pre- ceding liquid left (of higher or lower index as the case may be). As a result, the numerical equivalent of the preparation-liquid is in reality a little higher or a little lower than its true value, according to the direction of the progression through the series. Moreover, these differences become less and less with the length of time that one allows for the diffusion of the liquids. A. Cilia of Pkotozoa. Our experiments were carried out on the adoral cilia of large Stentors (Stentor polymorphus Ehrbg.) and Vorticella. The results are entirely in agreement with those obtained for the cilia of the gills of the mussel. The reaction is very near zero (so near, indeed, that very delicate methods of compensation alone are able to make it appreciable) in a zone of indices included Not IX. .-;,:> between n = l-49 and n = 1'54, with an absolute minimum — which is zero — about 1*51; the illumination reappears the further that one departs from this zone in either direction. The following tables bring together the chief points in these experiments : — 1. Adoral cilia of Stentor polymorphus :— Inilex Nt of the Liquid. Liquid employed. Degree of Illumination of the Object. Comparison of the Indices of the Liquid Xl and of the Object N,|. 1-33 Water. Very distinct. 1-36 Ethvl-alcohol. Very distinct. 1-37 Water and glycerine. Fainter, but still distinct. 1-47 Glycerin. Very faint. 1-49 Castor-oil. Extremely faint. 1-51 Cedar-oil. Nil NL =N0 1-53 Oil of cloyes. Extremely faint. 1-54 Creasote. Extremely faint. 1-60 Creasote + niono- Faint, but more bromide of naph- distinct. thaline. 1-66 Monobrornide of naphthaline. Distinct. 2. Reversible preparation : the same Stentor was followed through a series of liquids : — 36 53 66 53 1-36 Liquid. Ethyl-alcohol. Oil of cloves. Monobrornide of naphthaline. Oil of cloves. Ethvl-alcohol. Illumination. Distinct. Practically nil. Distinct. Extremely faint. Faint, but distinct. 3. Reversible preparation : Vorticella: — Xl Liquid. Illumination. 1-36 1-53 1-66 1-53 1-36 Ethyl-alcohol. Oil of cloves. Monobrornide of naphthaline. Oil of cloves. Ethyl-alcohol. Verv distinct. Nil." Distinct. Practically nil Very distinct. 4. Desiccation has the same effect on the cilia of Protozoa as on epithelial cilia — the illumination is quite destroyed ; this again confirms the depolarisation hypothesis. :,:,«; Notes. B. Myonemes. After having looked in vain for illumination of the mvonemes in Stentor, Spirostomwm, Dilcptus, and Vorticclla (probably too small), we were able to detect a faint, but distinct, illumination in the stalk of a large Carchesium. The immersion experiment failed to show any noteworthy variation in the illumination, either for the sheath of the stalk or for the contractile filament that it incloses. These elements must, therefore, be considered birefringent, in contradiction to Rouget's hypothesis, but in agreement with the opinion of Engelmann. C. Flagella of Spermatozoa. The faint, but yet distinct, illumination of the large sperma- tozoa of Triton cristatus Laur. must be regarded as a phenomenon of depolarisation. It is to be noted that the refractive index of the liquid in which these organs become " extinguished " is a little higher than that for the cilia : NL = 1-56 instead of 1 ■ 51. This difference, which is quite evident, seems to be rather an im- portant argument in favour of certain recent theories, which would tend to separate these two elements from one another : — Xl 33 36 47 49 51 54 1-56 1-58 1-60 1-66 Liquid. Illumination. Water. Ethyl-alcohol. Glycerine. Castor-oil. Cedar-oil. Creasote. I Various mixtures of J creasote and bro- mide of naphthaline J Bromide of naphthaline Distinct. Distinct, but fainter. Very faint. Very faint. Practically nil. Practically nil. Nil Nil ..... . Very faint, but distinct. Distinct. Xl and X0 NL = N„ D. Swimming-plates of Ctenophora (Cydippe plumosa Chun.). The illumination here is also due to depolarisation. The ex- tinction occurs in an index slightly higher; than that for ordinary epithelial cilia : between 1STL = 1*53 and 1 ■ 54 : — Xl Liquid. Illumination. Xl and K0. 1-34 1-36 1-49 1-51 1-53 1-54 1-66 Sea-water. Ethyl-alcohol. Castor-oil. Cedar-oil. Oil of cloves. Creasote. Bromide of naphthaline. Very distinct Fainter. Faint, but still distinct. Practically nil. Nil Nil Distinct. } NL = N0 Notes. 557 F. Trypanosoma balbianii Certes. The body of Trypanosoma (Spirochasta) balbianii and its un- dulating membrane (especially the " bordering filament ") give a feeble reaction between crossed nicols. This illumination is due to depolarisation, and disappears in a liquid with an index NL = 1 • 56 :— Nl Liquid. Illumination. Nl and N0. 1-34 Sea-water. Distinct. 1-36 Ethyl-alcohol. Less distinct. 1-47 Glycerine. Fairly distinct. 1-51 Cedar-oil. Very faint. 1-53 Oil of cloves. 1-56 Creasote + bromide of naphthaline. Nil NL=N0 1-66 Bromide of naphthaline. Very faint. That the illumination of T. balbianii should be of this kind is not without interest, in view of a recent discussion on the nature of the " strengthening striations " of its membrane. These stria- tions were regarded by Vies (1906) as of a ciliary nature — an opinion which was rejected by Borrel and Cernovodeanu (1907), and finally by Fantham (1908), who would have them to be myonemes. The optical properties that we have just described seem rather in favour of the first theory ; their illumination being- due to depolarisation, removes these elements from among the myonomes ; further, their "index of extinction," close to 1*56, possibly places them nearer fiagella than cilia. Conclusions. The results of all these experiments, as well as of the former experiments by Vies, may be summed up thus : the reactions of contractile organs between crossed nicols permit of their being divided into two groups, of which one is characterised by true birefringence, and the other by phenomena of depolarisation. These two groups are indicated by the following table : — Illumination due to Birefringence Depolarisation Muscle-fibres. Myonemes of Protozoa. Epithelial cilia. Cilia of Protozoa. „ Ctenophora. Fiagella of spermatozoa. Body and undulating membrane of Trypanosoma balbianii. 558 Notes. \\\ the Latter group, the "index of extinction" gradually increases from the first element to the last; thus : — index of extinction. Epithelial cilia .. .. .. .. .. 1*51 Cilia of Protozoa .. .. .. .. .. 1*51 Swimming-plates of Ctenophora . . . . 1 • 53 Flagella 1-56 Bibliography. Borrel & Cernovodeanu — Membrane ondulante de Spirochasta balbianii. C.E. Soc. Biol. Paris, xlii. (1907) p. 1102 (1 fig.). Engelmann — Kontraktilitat u. Doppelbrechung. Arch. f. Ges. Physiol, xi. (1875) p. 432. Fantham — Spirochasta (Trypanosoma) balbianii and Spirochmta anodontm. Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., lii. (11)08) pp. 1-73 (3 pis ). Rouget — Sur les phehomenes de polarisation qui s'ohservent dans quelques tissus. Journ de Physiol. (Brown-Sequard) v. (1862) p. 2-17 (1 pi.). Vles — Structure et affinity's de Trypanosoma balbianii. C.E. Soc. Biol. Paris, hi. (1906) p. 408 (1 fig.). „ Sur la birefringence apparente des cils vibratiles. Comptes Bendus, cxlvi. (1908), pp. 88-9. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY (PRINCIPALLY* INVERTEBRAT A AND CRYPTOGAM^), MICKOSCOPY, Etc.* ZOOLOGY. VESTEBRATA. «. Embryology, t Text-book of Heredity. J — J. Arthur Thomson has supplied au introduction to the study of heredity, which gives prominence to the modern results which have been reached by the microscopic study of the germ-cells, by the application of statistical methods, and by experiment. The chapters are as follow : — Heredity and inheritance, defined and illustrated ; the physical basis of inheritance ; heredity and variation ; common modes of inheritance : reversion and allied phenomena ; telegony and other disputed questions ; the transmission of acquired characters ; heredity and disease ; the statistical study of inheritance ; the experimental study of inheritance ; the history of theories of heredity and inheritance : heredity and development : heredity and sex ; social aspects of biological results. There is a copious bibliography of fifty pages and a useful subject-index to the bibliography. Transmission of Coercively Acquired Reproductive Adaptations. § P. Kammerer has made very interesting and important experiments with Salamanders. In Salamandra maculosa high up the mountains the viviparous condition obtains. The animal produces numerous (up to 72) larvae, 25-30 mm. in length, with four legs and short gills. In warmer conditions the ovo-viviparous condition obtains. The animal lays large eggs which hatch in a few minutes into larvae similar to those produced viviparously, but a little smaller (23-25 mm.). The larvae and * The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and they do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually pub- lished, and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have not been previously described in this country. t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called, but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and allied subjects. X Heredity. London : Murray ; New York : Putmans, 1908, xvi. and G05 pp., 49 figs, (some coloured). § Arch. f. Entwickel., xxv. (1907) pp. 7-51 (1 pi.). 560 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO eggs in these two cases — which are quite normal — are deposited in the water, and metamorphosis takes place after some months into land salamanders 45-5G mm. in length. In the case of S. atra, the two larvae have very long gills in utero and no fin to the tail ; when they are born they are 38—40 mm. in length. AVhat Kammerer sought to do, was to simulate alpine conditions in the case of S. maculosa, l>y keeping the animals at a low temperature and without water. The latter condition was sufficient by itself. He found that the action of the changed surroundings was cumulative. After a few pregnancies, 2-7 young are produced, 39— 43 mm. in length, with short gills or without gills, and, to begin with, black in colour. Finally, a stage is reached where only two young ones are produced, as in S. atra. Secondly, Kammerer sought to simulate for S. atra the conditions normal to S. maculosa. He kept the salamanders at a higher tempera- ture (25°-30° C), and in shallow water or with abundance of water beside them. When the full result was reached, 3-9 larvae, 35-45 mm. long, were produced, with gills at most 8 mm. in length (in contrast to the very long normal gills of S. atra), with a fin 2-3 mm. in breadth, and of a coffee-brown colour instead of the usual black. These larvae were more adapted to the water than larvae at the corresponding stage cut out from the uterus of an ordinary pregnant S. atra. The offspring of the salamanders experimented with were kept for 2h years in vivaria indoors, but did not become sexually mature until they were put in large vivaria in the open air where conditions were more normal. They became mature when 3 J years old. 1. The offspring of those specimens of S. maculosa that had been subjected to cold and want of water gave birth to (a) very advanced large-headed larvse, 45 mm. long, with much reduced gills, which under- went metamorphosis several days after, or moderately advanced larvae, 40 mm. long, with large gills (both sets laid in water), or (b) to small larvae, 26 mm. long, with rudimentary gills. The latter were laid on land ; they were unable to live in water ; they underwent metamorphosis after 4 weeks, and were then 29 mm. long. 2. The specimens of S. atra which were born as larvse, bore in the water 3-5 larvse of two sizes, 33-40 mm. or 21-23 mm., light in colour, with gills 8 mm. long, and with a fin 3 mm. broad. In the case of (1) it should be observed that the conditions were normal for S. maculosa ; in the case of (2) the conditions were to a certain extent a continuation of the experimental conditions under which the parents were born, for, as is well-known, S. atra lives at high altitudes, where the temperature is low and where water is scarce. 3. Specimens of S. maculosa born as salamanders, showed under repetition of the experimental conditions an augmentation of the effects. Their offspring were very like normal offspring of S. atra. As to the general interpretation of these very interesting results, Kammerer admits that there is possibly a direct action of the environ- mental conditions on the germ-plasm, but he considers that there is, nevertheless, a true transmission of an acquired mode of reproduction. He does not accept Weismann's limitation of the concept " acquired ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 561 characters" to purely somatogenic characters. That is, he alters the basis of discussion. It is of minor importance, he says, whether the change produced in the germ-plasm is brought about " physically " (i.e. by direct action of the stimulus), or " physiologically " (i.e. by action of the modified soma on the germ-plasm). It is sufficient to note the fact that there are characters which can be experimentally established in one generation and appear in the. next generation in the absence of the modifying conditions. Since the controversy as to the transmission of somatic modifications began, there have been few experiments, and we have therefore peculiar pleasure in recording Kammerer's very important work. Parthenogenetic Segmentation in Fowl.* — A. Lecaillon maintains against Barfurth and others, that the unfertilised eggs of the fowl may exhibit " a special segmentation which one can hardly designate other- wise than as a parthenogenetic segmentation. The cells which result from this segmentation may possess a nucleus of normal appearance and capable of exhibiting the phenomena of mitosis." Very soon, however, the cells degenerate and development stops. Early Stages in Development of the White Mouse, f — Ar. Anikiew describes and figures the early stages of segmentation in the ova of the white mouse. He found some with two polar bodies and some with one. In the maturation and fertilisation stages there is a marked polar differentiation, but this seems to disappear later on. It may be indicated by the position of the large pronuclei and of the nuclear figures. In the stage of the segmentation-spindle the proto- plasm is marked by a special grouping of the nutritive particles in a sort of annular layer around the mitotic figure, as is sometimes seen at an earlier stage. A fine account J of the phenomena of maturation and f ertilisation in the ovum of the white mouse has been given by H. Lams and the late J. Doorrne. Very Young Human Ovum.§ — L. Frassi gives an account of a young ovum in situ, discussing the decidua and its vessels, the lencocytic infiltration, the limitation of foetal and maternal elements, and the epithelial remains of the wall of the egg-chamber. He regards the following as belonging to the embryo : (1) the cellular enveloping layer ; (2) the" cell-pillars ; (3) the syncytium ; (4) the layer of Langhans (four epithelial layers formed from the primary epiblastic trophoblast) ; and (5) the mesoblast of the chorion. The cellular enveloping layer retains the original trophoblast character and presses persistently upon the maternal tissue. The author's bibliography takes the form of a table showing what the various observers have said as to Langhans' layer, the syncytium, the intervillous spaces and the villi, the mode of fixation, the decidua, the giant-cells, the glands, vessels, fibrin, size of ovum, etc. * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (190S) pp. 647-9. t Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (190S) pp. 320-30 (7 figs.). X Arch. Biol, xxiii. (1907) pp. 259-365 (3 pis.). § Arch. Mlkr. Anat,, lxxi. (190S) pp. 667-94 (1 pi. and ]7 figs.). Oct. 21si, 1908 2 P 562 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Origin of Sex-cells in Rana pipiens.* — B. M. Allen finds that in this frog- the sex-cells arise, in a Large proportion at least, from the endoderm, from which they pass into the root of the mesentery at the time when the latter is formed by the approximation of the lateral plates of mesoderm. The same is true in the turtle (Chrysemys). Studies on Spermatogenesis.! — Jacques van Molle describes the spermatogenesis of the squirrel. The fine filaments which appear at the beginning of the development of the spermatocyte associate together in pairs during the synapsis. The nucleoli seen in the first " leptotene " stages are resolved into chromosomial filaments. The synapsis stage includes three phases, and the conjugation of chromosomes occurs in the middle or " amphisynaptene " phase. Development of Vertebrate Nerve-cord.}— Oh. van Bambeke has studied this in Pelobates fuscus, where the process is peculiar. He notes that, apart from Amphioxus, there are two modes of formation in Vertebrates : the sides of the medullary groove may close to form a medullary canal, or the axis may be a solid keel, which secondarily becomes tubular. In Pelobates the medullary plate does not form the walls of the medullary groove ; the closure of the groove is due to the enveloping membrane (Deckschicht of Goette) ; after this is closed the medullary plate gives rise to the true medullary canal. The details of this peculiar mode of origin are described and figured. The author points out that in Hylodes martinicensis the neural plate was found by Sampson to be solid, recalling the condition in Teleosts and bony Ganoids. More cases should be examined before it is affirmed that the primarily solid or the primarily tubular foundation of the neural axis is the more primitive condition. Development of the Head. — D. Filatoff§ has studied the meta- merism of the head of Emys Ivtaria. W. Sippel discusses the structure and development of the roof of the mouth in Birds and Mammals. A. BrachetIF concludes his study of the development of the head of Amphibians, as regards sensory structures, nervous system, musculature, and skeleton. Gill-cleft Region of Gymnophiona.** — Harry Marcus has studied embryos of Hypogeophis rostratus and H. alternans. One of his general conclusions is that the Gymnophiona are the most primitive living- Amphibians. Some of the reasons are the following. There are seven visceral clefts ; the " ultimobranchial body," developed from the last, is directly homologous with that of Selachians and Geratodus ; the lung- primordium may be compared writh the diverticulum from the eighth gill-pouch of the lamprey ; a second aortic arch is formed ; the spiracle * Anat. Anzeig., xxxi. (1907) pp. 339-47 (5 figs.), t La Cellule, xxiv. (1907) pp. 259-76 (1 pi.). % Arch. Biol., xxiii. (1908) pp. 523-39 (1 pi.). § Morphol. Jahrb., xxxvii. (1907) pp. 289-96 (3 pis. and 4 figs.). || Torn, cit., pp.- 490-524 (1 pi. and 12 figs.). 1| Arch. Biol., xxiii. (1907) pp. 193-257 (3 pis.). ** Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxxi. (1908) pp. 695-774 (4 pis. and 12 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 563 breaks through and remains open for a considerable time ; the first rudiment of the gills consists of paired protrusions, as in Polypterus ; there are rudiments of spiracular and opercular gills; as in Selachians, each visceral cleft has a thymus rudiment, though only from the second to the fifth (as Bryce has shown in Lepidosireri) are the primordia separated off as independent bodies. Another general conclusion is that the gills in all Amphibians are purely ectodermic structures. Influence of Lecithin on Determination of Sex.* — C. Basile has experimented with rabbits, into which he injected lecithin. There seems to be an increase in reproductivity, the general nutritive conditions being improved by the lecithin injections. But the lecithin treatment seems also to increase the mortality of the young germs and the frequency of abortive development. The treatment does not seem to increase the number of female offspring. Interstitial Cells in the Ovary of Mammals. f — P. Aime pub- lishes an account of his investigations on the interstitial cells of the ovary of some Mammals. He finds that the interstitial tissue is a very inconstant structure, aud that it is, therefore, not an essential organ comparable in importance to the corpus luteum. The interstitial cells arise from the cells of the embryonic connective-tissue. They develop either at the expense of the embryonic mesenchyme cells, or at that of the Graafian follicles. In the majority of Mammals they are absent altogether. Where they occur, their evolution usually begins after birth, but in the horse they are characteristic of the embryonic period. Their glandular function is evident. They do not divide, they are closely connected with the capillaries, and they present all the cytological characters which indicate glandular activity. Their resemblance to the interstitial cells of the testis is purely morphological. In the horse young interstitial cells and xanthochromous interstitial cells are found in the foetal ovary as well as in the testes, but there are no interstitial cells in the ovary of the adult. The only internal secreting -land in the ovary of the adult horse is the corpus luteum. The hypothesis that the interstitial cells have a trophic role in relation to the sexual cells has some probability if it be based on the time of their appearance, which precedes that of the Graafian follicles. But this role is difficult to explain in view of the fact that a great many animals in which the ovary is absolutely crowded with ovocytes have no interstitial cells at any period of their lives. The author admits that the function of the interstitial cells is still unknown, but he suggests, with regard to the horse, the theory that there is an equilibrium between their internal secretion in the foetus, and the internal secretion of the maternal corpora lutea during the first half of gestation. Compensatory Hypertrophy in the Ovary 4 — E. S. Carmichael and F. H. A. Marshall have experimented with rabbits, testing Bond's con- * Atti R. Accad. Lincei Roma, xvii. (1908) pp. 643- 52. t Arch. Zool. Exper. et Gen., vii. (1907) pp. 95-143 (3 pis.), X Journ. of Physiol., xxxvi. (1908) pp. 431-4. 2 P 2 564 SUMMARY OF CUEEENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO elusion that after one ovary has been removed compensatory hypertrophy occurs in the other, but only if the animal is allowed to becomi pregnant, or at least to have sexual intercourse. The authors rind that not only is sexual intercourse unnecessary for the purpose of inducing compensatory hypertrophy in the ovary, but that ovulation is not essential. Moreover, if one ovary be removed at a very early stage of pregnancy, abortion does not necessarily follow, the remaining ovary being apparently sufficient for the continuance of pregnancy until full time. Passage of Ether from Mother to Fcetus.* — Maurice Nicloux has proved in guinea-pigs that ether, like chloroform and alcohol, can pass from mother to fcetus. As with chloroform, the quantity found in the foetal liver is greater than that in the maternal liver, which probably means that the former is proportionately richer in lecithin. Infundibular Gland and Choroid Plexus.j — L. Gentes shows that the mode of development (in the Torpedo) is in favour of the interpreta- tion which regards the infundibular gland as a ventral choroid plexus. Abnormalities in Hind Limbs of Rana esculenta.J — E. Reichenow reports on a number of abnormalities observed in a collection of several thousand young frogs. One had one hind leg, another had three, and a third had four. He refers to some similar cases recently reported by Woodland, and suggests that a collection should be made of what are certainly not great rarities. Vitalistic Theory of Evolution. §— K. C. Schneider, a thorough- going vitalist, who believes in a specific vital energy of a psychical nature, gives an outline of a vitalistic theory of evolution. He combines what seems to him sound in various existing theories. Thus he is in many ways in agreement with Weismann, but replaces his idea of deter- minants by an idea of potencies, and he maintains that of all biological factors the psychical is the most important. He does not find any warrant for believing in the transmission of somatic modifications, but he accepts another piece of the Lamarckiau theory, namely, that great importance must be attached to the independent responses of the organism which is above all things a creative agent. He lays stress on mutations, but still more on what he calls " descensions," that is to say, great changes in organisation, such as the acquisition of a notochord or gill-clefts. To account for these " big lifts " in evolution, he invokes the aid of a self-assertive entelechy or soul or formative principle. Inheritance of Manner of Clasping the Hands. || — Frank E. Lutz discusses data concerning the manner in which the different members of families put the right-hand or left-hand thumb uppermost in clasping the * C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 329-31. f Tom. cit., pp. 6S7-9. % Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 677-82 (4 figs.) § Versuch einer Begriindung der Descendenztheorie. Jena : Fischer, 1908, viii. and 132 pp. || Amer. Nat., xlii. (1908) pp. 195-6. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 565 hands, with the fingers alternating. His conclusions arc based on data for about 600 supplied by J. Arthur Thomson. The mode of clasping the hands is inherited ; it does not follow Mendelian law ; neither position breeds true. There is no significant sexual dimorphism, nor hint of assortative mating. It has apparently no relation to right- or left-handedness. There are a number of somewhat similar problems. Thus, the males of the commou black cricket (Gryllus) usually keep the right tegmen over the left. b. Histolog-y. Essentials of Cytology. *— C. E. Walker has written a very useful introduction to cytology. It is terse and up-to-date, and very lucid. The chapters deal with the structure and parts of the cell, cell-division, the meiotic phase (the whole period during which reduction is taking place), the post-meiotic divisions, the male sexual elements, the matura- tion of the ovum, fertilisation, the probable individuality of the chromo- somes, the morphological aspect of the transmission of hereditary characters, and cytological methods. Histological Studies. — N. Van der Stricht f gives a detailed account of the histogenesis of the constituent parts of the auditory neuro-epithelium, the macula? acusticae, and the organ of Corti. N. Loewenthal $ has made a study of the very heterogeneous sub- maxillary salivary gland of hedgehog and white rat. August Schuberg § gives an account of the connections between epithelial cells and connective-tissue cells in the skin of Amphibian larva? (Axolotl, Salamander, etc.). They do not represent the persistence of primary conditions ; they may be present or absent on the same area in different specimens ; they may appear de novo without requiring pre-existing intercellular connections. E. Holmgren |j describes the trophospongia or intracellular network of cross-striped muscle in Arthropods and Mammals, and discusses its physiological i uiportance. J. Duesberg 1" discusses the mitochondrial apparatus in the cells of Vertebrates and Invertebrates, dealing with its varied form, its state in the resting cell, its behaviour during division, its role in the structure of spermatozoa, and its reaction to stains. Neurological Studies.— K. Schilling ** gives a detailed account of the brain of the lamprey (Petromyzon fluviatUis). 0. V. A. Kappers ff describes the brain of Am in calva and of Lepidosteus osseus. * The Essentials of Cytology : an Introduction to the Study of Living Matter, with a chapter on Cytological Methods. London : Constable and Co., Ltd., 1907, 139 pp., 49 figs. t Arch. Biol, xxiii. (1908) pp. 5-11-693 (5 pis.). X Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxxi. (1908) p. 588-666 (2 pis.). § Zeitsohr. Wiss. Zool., lxxxvii. (1907) pp. 551-602 (4 pis., 1 fig.). Arch. Mikr. Anat,, lxxi. (1907) pp. 165-247 (8 pis., 6 figs.). « Torn, cit., pp. 284-96 (1 pi.). ** Abh. Seuckenberg. Nat. Gesell., xxx. (1907) pp. 425-46 (1 pi., 2 figs.). + + Tom. cit., pp. 149-500 (1 pi., 6 figs.). 566 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Ciro Barbieri * has studied the development of the cranial nerves in the trout, and rinds that it conforms generally to what has been described in other Vertebrates. A. J. P. van den Broek f begins a series of investigations on the structure of the sympathetic nervous system in Mammals, dealing first with that of the neck. R. Burckhardt f has made a profound study of the brain of Scymnus lichia in particular and of Selachians in general, and proposes to work on to an elucidation of the phylogeny of the Vertebrate brain. Double Refraction Phenomena in Muscle. §— Fred Vies has made some interesting studies on the " birefringence " of muscle in frog and bird, crayfish and beetle, muscle and snail. The degrees of birefringence were measured, and the action of physical and chemical agents was studied. Desiccation, alcohol, glycerin, chloroform, ether, formol, xylol, have no effect on the muscular birefringence; heating to +50°, and water at + 100°, produce partial attenuation of the birefringence ; heating to + 170°, acids, bases, chloride of mercury, and pepsin destroy it altogether. There is no use in studying the phenomena on tissues fixed with Flemming's fluid and the like. The birefringence has not to do with hydration, nor with the presence of birefringent fats, and several other possibilities are excluded. It is probably due to some albuminoid or albuminoids, which can stand a high temperature. c. General. Introduction to Study of Natural History. || — F. W. Gamble has supplied an admirable short introduction to the study of animal life. It is distinguished by its freshness, its suggestiveness, and its fine style. The author deals with " the fulness of the earth," the organisation of animal life, the movements of animals, the quest for food, " the breath of life," the senses of animals, the colours of animals, the welfare of the race, and the life-histories of insects. The work is written in the first instance for those who wish to learn or teach such a survey of the animal pageant as can ally itself with observation and experiment ; and, in the second place, for those who wish to organise their knowledge of animal life. It is not exactly the kind of scientific contribution which is usually recorded in this Journal, but it is a book of so much dis- tinction that we do a service in helping to make it well known. Habits of the Short-tailed Shrew.1T — A. F. Shull has made a study of the habits of the short-tailed shrew, Blarina brevicauda. He finds that it feeds, at least in winter, on snails of the genus Polygyra, which it hoards and moves to the surface as the temperature falls, and into its burrow as it rises. Empty shells are not carried back into the burrow. * Morphol. Jahrb., xxxvii. (1907) pp. 162-201 (2 pis.). t Tom. cit., pp. 202-88 (26 figs.). % Abh. k. Leop. Carol. Akad. Halle, lxxiii. (1907) pp. 241-450(5 pis. and 64 figs.). § Arch. Zool. Exper., viii. (1908) Notes et Revue, No. 2, pp. xl.-li. (2 figs.). || Animal Life. London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1908, xviii. and 305 pp. (63 figs.), f Amer. Nat., xli. (1907) pp. 495-522 (5 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 567 Other principal foods are voles, mice, insects, and earthworms. Vege- table foods, except nuts, are not eaten. The burrows of Blarina are similar to those of Mkrotus pmnsylvanica, but are of greater depth, and the openings are farther apart. The smell, hearing, and tactile sense of Blarina are acute ; its sight serves merely to distinguish light from shadow. Experiments in feeding a captive Blarina showr that its economic importance may be considerable, since, unlike the other common shrew, Sorex personatus, it is almost exclusively carnivorous. Imitative Tendency of Rats and of Cats.* — C. S. Berry finds that when " two rats were put into the box together, one rat being trained to get out of the box, and the other untrained, at first they were indifferent to each other's presence, but as the untrained rat observed that the other was able to get out, while he was not, a gradual change took place. The untrained rat began to watch the other's movements closely ; he followed him all about the cage, standing up on his hind legs beside him at the string, and pulling it after he had pulled it. He also saw that when he was put back the immediate vicinity of the loop was the point of greatest interest for him, and that he tried to get out by working at the spot where he had seen the trained rat try." In cats Berry found similar and more marked cases of " imitation." It seems like imitation in the making, but the animal that does not know learns by paying attention to its comrade, and in an indefinite way doing the same sort of thing itself. Intelligence of Raccoons. f — L. W. Cole has followed Thorndike's methods, and improved on them, in studying the behaviour of raccoons. The experiments consisted largely in allowing the animals to learn to open boxes closed by fastenings of various degrees of complexity. The learning was largely by trial and error, but it did not seem to be confined to this. Sometimes a raccoon seemed to " catch the idea," sometimes it learned by being " put through " an act, sometimes it seemed to learn by watching the experimenter. Some ingenious experiments suggest that some animals hold mental images. They fought against being put into boxes witli complex fastenings, from which they had some time before had difficulty in escaping, though they willingly went into similar boxes whose fastenings they had found simple. To raise a green signal meant food, a red one meant nothing. They learned to raise these signals by clawing at the standards, but they could not see beforehand which sign would come up by clawing at a certain standard. When the red one came up they clawed it down again, then clawed up the green one, and prepared to receive food. Unusual Type of Reaction in Dog.J — Gr. van T. Hamilton has studied the behaviour of a dog which learned that in order to escape from a pen and get food he must press, out of a number of levers, the one that bore the same sign as was found on a general signboard else- where in the pen. He inspected the signboard, passed in review the * Journ. Comp. Neurol. Psychol., xvi., pp. 333-61 ; xviii. (1908) pp. 1-25. See also Amer. Nat., xlii. (190S) pp. 212-13. t Op. cit. xvii. (1907) pp. 211-61. See also Amer. Nat., xlii. (190Si pp. 213-14. % Tom. cit., pp. 329-41. See also Amer. Nat., xlii. (190S) pp. 215-16. 568 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO four levers till he found the one with the same sign, and pressed it. Afterwards, being a clever dog, he discovered that a simpler way was to begin at one end and press the levers till he came to the one thai worked. When electric shocks were attached to the " wrong " levers, he decided not to play any more. Ear of Hungarian Blind Mouse.* — Julius Szakall gives a full ac- count of the auditory organ in Spalax hungaricus, and shows that it has a very high development in compensation for the degeneracy of the eye. Although there is some hint of retrogression even in the ear, e.g. in the absence of the musculus tensor tympani and the musculus stapedius, the greater part of the structure is very highly developed. Indeed, the author shows that in some respects the internal ear of Spalax is more perfect than that of auy other Mammals hitherto studied. Quagga of Turin Museum.f — L. Camerano discusses this specimen, which seems to be intermediate between Equus quagga greyi and Equus quagga lorenzi, which may therefore equally deserve a sub-specific name, trouessarti being proposed. Tobacco-poisoning in Rabbits.} — L. Richon and M. Perrin gave eight rabbits subcutaneous injections of infusion of tobacco ; there was a very marked retardation of growth ; and in two cases, after the cessation of the poisoning, there was a renewal of growth. Prozeuglodon atrox.§— C. W. Andrews regards it as settled that the Zeuglodonts are descended from Creodonts, and that Odontoceti are derived from Zeuolodonts. There is a series of forms linking: the Zeuglodonts to the terrestrial Creodonts ; the earliest of these is Pro- tocetus atavus from the Middle Eocene of Cairo, and somewhat later is Prozeuglodon atrox, which has many Creodont features. It seems to have been with great rapidity that both Cetaceans and Sirenia became completely adapted to an aquatic life. They diverged from a terrestrial stock during the Lower Eocene, and were completely adapted long before the close of the Middle Eocene. The great marine reptiles had vanished from the seas, and that gave the newcomers free scope. The limbs ceased to support the weight of the body, and many changes followed from this. The body is subjected to pressure on its anterior end, and some of the peculiarities of the skull are associated with this. Abundant food and the floating of the body may have made the large size possible. "No doubt the various changes above noticed may be regarded as entirely the result of selection acting on variations in the necessary direction, but the rapidity with which these changes took place, and the apparent uselessness of some of them, at least, suggest that in spite of the generally accepted doctrine that acquired characters are not inherited, in some cases complete change of the conditions acting throughout the life of each individual for generations does actually give rise to and direct the modifications undergone." * Math. Nat. Ber. Ungarn, xxi. (1907) pp. 135-58 (8 Sgs.). + Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xliii. (1908) pp. 562-5. + C.1I. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 563-5. § Geol. Mag., v. (1908) pp. 209-12 (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 569 Chalicotheres.* — 0. A. Peterson gives a preliminary account of the splendidly preserved remains of Moropus in the Carnegie Museum. The skeleton presents a unique combination of characters. The phalanges are highly modified, terminating in cleft ungues which were, no doubt, covered by heavy claws ; otherwise the skeleton is distinct- ively of an Ungulate type, most closely resembling the Perissodactyla. The fore limbs are longer than the hind limbs ; they, together with the clawed feet, must have given the animal a very peculiar appearance. Some species are as large as an African rhinoceros, or even larger. Cope put them in a separate order, Ancylopoda ; they are now referred to the Chalicotherioidea, an aberrant super-family of the Perissodactyla. In Miocene times they extended over Europe, Asia, and America. There are about twenty individuals of Moropus repre- sented in the Carnegie Museum. Reptiles of Eastern Island.! — Samuel Garman discusses two species of small lizards — a gecko, Lepidodactylus lugubris, and a skink, Crypto- blep'harus pmcilopleurus. It appears that these lizards were not originally derived from the nearer islands to the westward, in the direction of Samoa and the Fijis, but from the Hawaiian Islands, to the far north- westward. The possibilities of transport to the isolated volcanic island are discussed. Some marine Chelonians and a marine snake are also recorded, but they are obviously of less interest as regards distribution. Independent Bony Epiphyses in Sauropsida4 — Hugo Fuchs has found true epiphyses in the humerus, radius, ulna, and some other bones of Varan lis r/riseus, in the femur of Uromastix acanthmurus, in the humerus of Phrynosoma harJanii, and in some other cases. He notes that Clegenbaur and Dollo both refer to epiphyses in lizards, and that Huxley pointed out the epiphysial nature of the tip of the cnemial process in the Rhea. Variation in Length of Frog's IntestineJ — Emile Yung finds that Ranafusca has a shorter intestine than R. esculenta, that in both species the males have a shorter intestine than the females, and that in the same species and sex the larger individuals have a relatively longer intestine. In spring the intestine is relatively shorter than in autumn, this differ- ence having to do with the rest or activity of the digestive tract in the period before measurement. Autostyiic and Protostylic.|| — J. Graham Kerr points out that two very different modes of suspension of the jaw are confused under the term autostyiic. In Heterodontus the palato-pterygo-quadrate cartilage is firmly adherent to the cartilaginous cranium; in Chimcera complete fusion has occurred. But in Dipnoi the suspension of the lower jaw from the skull is more primitive. It is through the upper part of the mandibular arch itself. This may be called protostylic. * Amer. Nat., xli. (1907) pp. 733-52 (26 figs.). + Bull. Mus. Conip. Zool. Harvard, lii. (1908) pp. 1-14 (1 pi.). t Anat. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp 352-60 (4 figs.). § Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1306-8. || Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, xvii. (1908) p. 1 . 570 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Swim-bladder and Lungs.* — J. Graham Kerr supports the hypo- thesis of SagemehJ that the condition in which there exists a pair of lungs with a mid-venl ral glottis is the primitive one. Sagemehl supposed that with increasing predominance of the hydrostatic function of the lungs in fish-like forms, one was lost, and the other passed up dorsally. The author shows that this is supported by various facts in the develop- ment of Crossopterygians and Dipnoans. Function of Spleen in Fishes.f — R. Blumenthal has studied the role of the spleen in skate, dogfish, conger, sole, sand-eel and other fishes. He finds evidence that it is the normal place for the destruction of red blood-corpuscles. New Sub-order of Fishes.}— E. C. Starke defines a new sub-order, Atalaxia, for the reception of the Stylephoridse, a family represented by Stylephorus chordatus. The first specimen of this remarkable fish was obtained about 1790, in the Western Atlantic between Cuba and Martinique ; the second specimen — on which Starks1 paper is based — was obtained by the Agassiz Expedition (1904-5), just south of the Galapagos Islands. The vertebra? consist of centra only ; the opposite halves of the hyoid are remote from each other ; the palato-quadrate bar has atrophied ; the ethmoid is far anterior to the vomer, and supported by a pro- jection from the parasphenoid ; there is no orbitosphenoid ; the caudal fin is divided and part of the rays turned upward : the lower three are enlarged and produced backward into a long process. This remarkable aberrant form has some, probably distant, affinities with the Taeniosomi (including Trachypteridre) and Regalecidse. Its affinity is shown, for instance, by the poorly ossified skeleton, the horizontal pectoral base, the upturned caudal fin, the absence of cross articulations in the dorsal rays, the reduction of the lower pharyngeals, the presence of four pairs of superior pharyngeals, and the ascending processes on maxillae as well as on premaxillas. Copulatory Appendages of Lasviraia oxyrhynchus.§ — 0. Huber describes the skeleton and musculature of this " clasper," which comes nearest to that of Bain bulk. On the knife-like edge of one of the cartilages there is a saw-like row of eight sharp teeth, covered with chondrodentin. They are not separate pieces like denticles, but re- present a marginal modification of the cartilage. No similar speciali- sation is known. Huber comments on the specific distinctiveness of the structure of these copulatory appendages, and on their individual variability. Species of Trout.|| — A. Cligny points out that a young sea-trout cannot be distinguished from a young common trout, though the adult forms are readily distinguished. He gives evidence in support of the * Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, xvii. (190S) pp. 170-4 (2 figs.). t ComptesRendus, cxlvi. (190S)/pp. 190-1. J Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, lii. (1908) pp. 17-22 (5 pis.). § Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 717-20 (4 figs.). || Comptes Rendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1302-4. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 571 conclusion of Knut-Dahl, that some of the progeny of the common trout descend to the sea and become sea-trout. In fact, sea-trout form a detached tribe of common trout, recently and imperfectly separated off. Occurrence of Gobius orca in Clyde Sea Area.* ■ — Alexander Patience has obtained this species, which is one of the smallest and rarest of European fishes, on three occasions in the Forth of Clyde. The closely allied G. jeffreyssii, which Giinther recorded from three localities in the Clyde, is not uncommon. Notes on Polyodon spathula.f — Charles E. Stockard makes some notes on the habits of this fish, which is abundant in some lakes border- ing the lower Mississippi river. He was not successful in getting any embryos. The fish may attain a length of about six feet, and often weighs over a hundred pounds. It frequents the deeper parts, and feeds chiefly on small Crustacea, chiefly Copepods. The snout is not essential, and its use is probably rather as a tactile organ than as foraging instru- ment. Sensory Reactions of Amphioxus4 — G. H. Parker has studied the West Indian Amphioxus, BrancMostoma caribimum Sundevall, a close relative of the common European form, B. lanceolatum Pallas. It is only very slightly sensitive to light ; it responds to a rapid increase, but not to a rapid decrease. The only known photoreceptors are the eye- cups in the wall of the nerve-tube. It is photokinetic and negatively phototropic. Amphioxus is stimulated by water warmer than that in which it lives (31 C°.), and is killed in water at 40° C. or higher. It is also stimulated by water colder than 31° C, and is killed by lengthy exposure to water of 4° C. or lower. It is thermokinetic and negatively thermo- tropic. The outer surface, especially the oral hood and the tentacular cirri, is sensitive to mechanical stimuli. Amphioxus is also sensitive to sound vibrations. It is thigmotropic, and slightly rheotropic and geotropic. The outer surface of Amphioxus is sensitive to solutions of nitric acid, potassic hydrate, picric acid, alcohol, and to strong ether, chloro- form, turpentine, oil of bergamot, and oil of rosemary, but not to solutions of sugar. It is also stimulated by diluted sea water and by fresh water. Amphioxus is negatively chemotropic. The photoreceptors in Amphioxus are anatomically distinct from the receptors for thermal, mechanical, and chemical stimuli, and these three are at least physiologically distinct from one another. To all stimuli that induce locomotion, Amphioxus responds by forward movements when the stimuli are applied to the tail, and by backward movements when they are applied to the middle or to the anterior end. The animal generally buries itself tail foremost, and in all probability usually swims tail foremost, though it may reverse both processes. * Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow, viii. (1908) pp. 74-6. t Amer. Nat., xli. (1907) pp. 752-66 (3 figs.). t Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., xliii. (1908) pp. 415-55. 572 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO When Amphioxus is cut in two, both halves lose much in sensitive- ness, the posterior proportionally much more than the anterior. The anterior part of the nerve-tube is brain-like, the posterior part cord-like. The skin contains tactile organs, but there are no derived organs such as lateral line organs or cars. The photoreceptors are the eye-cups of the nerve-tube, and these probably represent the elements from which the rod- and cone-cells of the lateral eyes of Vertebrates have been derived. The rod- and cone-cells of the Vertebrate retina are inverted, not because they have retained a morphological position dependent upon an external origin, but because of their orientation, acquired as effective eye-cups in the nerve-tube of a primitive Vertebrate. The chemical sense-organs of Anrphioxus are located in the skin, and are chiefly important as organs for testing the character of the chemical environment, rather than for the selection of food. From these un- differentiated chemical sense-organs have probably been derived the organs of taste and smell, of which the former are apparently not present in Amphioxus, while the latter may be represented by the so-called olfactory pit. Perforations of Marine Animals.* — W. C. M'Intosh discusses in a highly interesting manner the boring of shells by Cliona, of rocks by sea-urchins, of wood by Ghdura terebrans, Limnoria lignorum, Pholas, Teredo, and the like. He has brought together manv scattered obser- vations, and he discusses impartially the various theories of the mode of perforation. Differentiation of Faunas.f — K. Holdhaus discusses the various ways in which an area with homogeneous fauna may be divided into two or more areas with distinctive faunas. (1) An area may be divided, and the originally similar contingents may evolve on different lines, e.g. in the Galapagos islands with their species of Tropidurus, etc. (2) An area may be divided, and some of the constituents in one of the parts may be eliminated, e.g. in the contrast of Elba and Corsica in re- spect of Pselapkm and other small beetles. (8) Different migrants may be added to the two areas. Separation may lie due to geographical isolation by some insuperable physical barrier, or to a diversity of vital conditions. Two faunas may become uniform by migration (resulting in fusion of the indigenous forms and the migrants or in extirpation of the indigenous forms) or by an elimination of the forms which distinguish the two. The author gives examples of the different possibilities. Tunicata. Japanese Appendicularians.J — T. Aida describes Kowalevshia tenuis Fol., Fritillaria haplostoma Fob, F. pellucida Busch, F. rittcri sp. n., Oilcopleura longicauda Vogt., 0. fusiformis Fob, 0. megastoma sp. n., 0. mikrostoma sp. n., 0. comntogastra sp. n., 0. rufescens Fob, 0. dioica * Zoologist, Feb. 1908, pp. 1-20. t Zool. Anzeig., xxxiii. (1908) pp. 38-45. % Journ. Coll. Sci. Univ. Tokyo, xxiii. art. 5 (1907) pp. 1-25 (4 pis.). ZOOLOGV AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 573 Fol., Stegosoma magnum Langhs. The commonest species are 0. longicauda, 0. dioica, 0. fusiformis, which haYe been recorded from tin- coast of Chili — showing a wide range of distribution. Some, snch as KowalevsMa ten nix and Fritillaria haplostoma, occur along with swarms of Noctiluca, and only then. Regeneration of Test in Tunicates.* — Alice Fol has found that Ascidiella aspersa can sometimes re-grow its test. Experiments with Phallusia etc. did not succeed. The reasons for failure are discussed. Thus the test is needed as a basis for the muscular movements, and the animal dies if the test be removed. There may be fatal loss of blood, or the removal of a part of the tunic may induce a fatal hernia. The in- vestigator does not explain why the removal of the test may be survived in some specimens of Ascidiella. Musculature of Compound Tunicates.f — G. Daumezon finds in species of Distoma transverse bundles in the mantle and longitudinal bundles in the branchial region, in addition to the more primitive arrangements which run longitudinally in the mantle and transversely in the branchial region. Development of Distoma tridentatum4 — GL Daumezon compares the development of this compound Ascidian with that of Distaplia magnilarva as described by Davidoff. There are some notable differ- ences which are probably due to the large quantity of yolk in Distoma. The mesoderm and notochord of D. tridentatam cannot be formed in the usual way — by folding of the wall of the enterou — for the enteric cavity is not formed until after their appearance. Development of Notochord in Larval Ascidians.§ — Louis Roule has studied the development of A.scidia mentula. He finds that after gastrulation the enteric primordium gives rise posteriorly to three enteroccelic diverticula, one median and two lateral. The latter form the musculature. The former gives rise to the notochord on its dorsal surface and sides, and ventrally to the endodermic cord (cordon endo- dermique) — a row of cells which extends under the notochord the whole length of the tail. At its end the notochord seems simply part of the wall of a median caecum from the archenteron. IN VERTEBBATA. Mollusca. a. Cephalopoda. Female Gonads of Cuttle-fishes. || — Walter Doring describes these in a number of species : Sepia elegans, S. officinalis, Loligo vulgaris, L. marmora, Rossia macrosoma, and Sepiola rondeletii. He gives a detailed account of the structure of the oviduct, the oviducal gland, the nidimental glands, and the accessory nidimental glands, and he * Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxiii. (1908) pp. 79-81. t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. 1908) pp. 774-5. t Tom. cit., pp. 776-7. § Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 357-9. [j Zeitsehr. wiss. Zool., xci. (1908) pp. 112-S9 (59 figs.:. 574 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO discusses the development of these organs in Sepia, Loligo, Sepiola, . Ilex, and Octopus. The chief results are the following. The oviduct of Myopsidse, and probably of all dibranchiate Cephalopoda, is a constricted-off part of the ccelom, and is therefore in close ontogenetic connection with the gonadial cavity. The genital ducts of Myopsidse are in many respects between those of Oigopsidai and Octopodas. In the series of genera Loligo, Sepia, Rossm, Sepiola, there is a " differentiation-tendency " from Oigopsid to Octopod characters. There is phylogenetic interest in the fact that the oviducal gland of Myopsida? {Sepia, Loligo, Sepiola) has a paired origin ; the unpaired nature of its duct must be secondary. Cephalopods from Sudanese Red Sea.* — W. E. Hoyle reports on a collection made by Cyril Crossland. Of the nine species, four (possibly five) also occur in the waters around Ceylon, and three at Zanzibar. The most interesting point is the occurrence in the collection of a complete specimen of Sepia lefebrei, which has hitherto been known only from a single shell, described and figured seventy years ago by d'Orbigny. /3. Gastropoda. Defensive Glands in Tectibranchs.f — Rerny Perrier and Henri Fischer describe the minute structure of defensive pallial glands which occur in various Tectibranchs. To these they have previously applied the designation " Glands of Blochmaun," after the zoologist who first noted analogous structures in Aplysiadas. The glands in question occur in Bulla striata, Accra bullata, Aplysia depilans, Scaphander, and other forms. They lie at the level of the pallial opening, and each consists of a multicellular canal opening into the mantle cavity, and a muscular calyx surrounding a large glandular cell. Physiological Action of Extract of Hypobranchial Gland of Dog Whelk.} —Herbert E. Roaf and M. Nierenstein find that there is a substance in the hypobranchial gland of Purpura lapillus which is allied chemically and physiologically to adrenalin. Chitons from Red Sea and East Africa. § — E. R. Sykes reports on a collection made by Cyril Crossland. It includes ten species, of which two are new, Callistochiton crosslandi sp. n. and Acanthochites nierstraszi sp. n. One feature of special interest in this collection is the representation of the genus Cryptoplax from the shores of Eastern Africa, the two species which occur, C. burrowi Smith and C. striatus Lamarck, being previously known from Australia and Eastern Seas. 8. Lamellibranchiata. Sense-organs of Cockles.|| — F. L. Weber discusses the two kinds of sense-organs found in cockles. Thus Cardium edule has on the * Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) xxxi. (1907) pp. 35-43 (7 figs.). + Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 1335-7. 1 Journ. Physiol., xxxvi. (1907) pp. 1-4. § Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) xxxi. (1907) pp. 31-4. i Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien. xvii. (1908) pp. 187-220 (2 pis.), ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 575 siphons (1) an " eye," consisting of pigment, lens, nerve, retina, and argentea ; and (2) another organ, consisting of sensory hairs. He describes the state of affairs in C. mi stir inn, C. muticum, and five other species. In all cases the "sensory hair organ" consists of an unsunk group of epitheloid sensory cells, with sensory hairs communicating with the exterior. The author's experiments show that cockles do not " see." Those without " eyes " react like those with " eyes." There is great sensitiveness to shadows — even of clouds overhead — but it is not de- pendent on the presence of " eyes." The sensory hair-organ is probably an organ of chemical sense. Post-embryonic Development of Unio.* — W. Harms has studied Unio pictorum and U. tumidus. As Lillie observed, the glochidium of Unio is not so highly differentiated as that of Anodonta. The infection of fishes is oftener on the gills than on the fins. The parasitism lasted for 26-28 days at a temperature of 16-17° 0. Nutritive protoplasmic processes from the larval mantle-cells enter into intimate union with the portion of branchial tissue to which the glochidium is fixed. The author compares the changes that occur during the parasitism with those that have been established in regard to Anodonta, and notes various differences. He shows that heart, pericardium, and kidney are all due to the ectoderm. The najad-stages are also described, and the changes they undergo. An interesting figure of a najad three weeks old shows the larval and the definitive shell. Studies on Mussels. f — H. Chas Williamson discusses the develop- ment of the reproductive organs in Mytilus edidis, and the appearance in different months of the year. He records facts bearing on the growth of the mussel, and describes its movements. An account of the struc- ture of the foot is given, with special reference to the byssus pit. The author has also some notes on the horse-mussel and the spout-fish (Solen siliqua). Arthropoda. a. Insecta. Artificial Parthenogenesis in Silk-moth. ! — Vernon L. Kellogg notes that in a clutch of unfertilised eggs laid by a virgin silk-moth (Bombyx mori) there are almost always some (7-8 p.c. on an average) which begin to develop. In the Bagdad race 25-75 or even more begin to develop. The development extends to the formation of the embry- onic envelopes or further. Some collapse within a few days, some in a few weeks, while a few persist for several months. The normal duration of the egg-stage — from laying to hatching — is about nine mouths. Tichomiroff (1885 and 1902) found that by bathing the unfertilised eggs with concentrated sulphuric acid, or by rubbing them gently, he could increase the number that developed. He found that the develop- ment was somewhat abnormal. Verson (1899) used electricity as a stimulus, and Quajat used various chemical and physical stimuli also with success, but his report is not clear. * Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 693-703 (5 figs.). t Fishery Board for Scotland, 25th Ann. Rep., part iii. (1908) pp. 221-55 (5 pis.). I Biol. Bulletin, xiv (1907) pp. 15-22. 57G SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Kellogg tried about a hundred experiments. Dry air, friction, heat, sulphuric acid, phosphoric pentoxide and glacial phosphoric acid were used as dehydrating agents, and these increased the proportion of partheno- genctically developing ova. At the same time' he tried other treatment, not dehydrating, and got hardly less favourable results. He thought that hydrogen ions might be the development-inciting factor, but other experiments did not bear this out. All that he can say at present is that a great variety of stimuli increase the usual proportion of parthenogenetic ova. Mouth-parts of Solitary Bees.* — R. Demoll has made a compara- tive study of the mouth-parts in solitary Apidse, and shows the gradual series of transformations from relatively simple conditions, as in Hal id us and Heriades, to great specialisation. He discusses the adaptations of the mouth-parts to flowers, and the theoretical interpretation of the pro- cess by which these adaptations were wrought out. He is disinclined to allow that the parts were in any degree moulded by use. The memoir includes an interesting discussion of the rudimentary parts in parasitic bees, but here again the Lamarckian interpretation is considered and rejected. Copulatory Organs of Solitary Bees.f — J. Strohl has studied the male copulatory organs in numerous genera. In the females there are, in solitary bees, no corresponding parts. Each genus has its distinctive peculiarities, except, perhaps, in some of the parasitic bees, and genera which resemble one another as regards copulatory organs, e.g. Andrena and Biareolina, have other evidences of relationship. The conditions as regards species are varied ; the species of Andrena, or of Halktus, or of Nomada, are not very different (as regards copulatory organs), but those of Osmia are. The same is true, with the same examples, of individual variability. Closely related species are not usually very different in copulatory organs, and the constant varieties of Nomada ruficornis do not show marked differences as regards copulatory parts. Similarly Hal ictus albipes resembles H. calceatus, of which it is, perhaps, a variety. Parasitic bees seem to be relatives of their hosts ; the copu- latory organs of Nomada are like those of Andrena, those of Sphecodes like those of Halictus. The facts are against attaching importance to physiological isolation, as far as variations in the reproductive parts are concerned. The author believes in the origin of varieties by a continua- tion of the variations which germinal selection secures. tov Development of Ovary of Polistes pallipes.J — W. S. Marshall has studied this wasp in reference to the history of the cellular elements of the ovary. It begins as a syncytium with similar nuclei ; cell-boundaries appear ; ovarian tubules develop ; these differentiate into three parts ; oocytes and primitive nurse-cells become distinguishable ; mitosis occurs in the epithelial and primitive nurse-cells ; the latter are finally absorbed * Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., xci. (1908) pp. 1-51 (2 pis. and 11 figs.). t Zool. Jabrb.. xxvi. (1908) pp. 333-84 (3 pis. and 2 figs.). \ Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxviii. (1907) pp. 173-213 (3 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 577 by the oocytes. The oocytes pass through synapsis, out of which come long beaded threads ; these break up, the contained chromatin-granules remaining together in small achromatiu masses. Development of Ovary of Phryganid.* — W. S. Marshall has studied Platyphylax designatus Walk, as regards the development of the ovary, tracing the history from homogeneity to the differentiated oocytes. Development of Gonads of Tenebrio molitor. f — Th. Saling has followed the development in both sexes, starting from the extremely similar ovarian and testicular primordia, and working onwards to the differentiated organs. ■"to"- Spermatogenesis of Hornet.! — F. Meves and J. Duesberg have studied in particular the spermatocyte divisions of Vespa crabro, and find that the first division is practically the same as in the bee, including the formation of non-nucleated directive corpuscles. In regard to the bee, Meves has suggested that the nuclear division in the first spermato- cyte division is suppressed because the drone develops from an unfertilised ovum which forms two polar bodies. All the cells derived from such an ovum should have reduced nuclei. The suppression of the nuclear division in the first spermatocyte division prevents further reduction of chromatin-mass and number of chromosomes. It is suggested that the males of wasps and ants are developed from unfertilised ova. Spermatogenesis in Insects. — H. Otte§ gives a detailed account of the spermatogenesis in Locusta viridissima ; the spermatogonium has 16 pairs of chromosomes ; the spermatozoon has 16 ordinary chromo- somes (each probably half maternal and half paternal) ; in half of the spermatozoa there is an accessory chromosome. G. Wilke || gives an account of the spermatogonia, tetrad-formation, and two maturation - divisions in Hydrometra lacustris, one of the Hemiptera. W. D. Henderson 1[ has studied the spermatogenesis of Dytiscus marginalis, and has followed the changes of the chromosomes from the spermatogonia to the end of the second maturation division, his results agreeing in the main with those of A. and K. E. Schreiner. Friedrich Schafer ** has made a detailed study of the spermato- genesis of Dytiscus, with special reference to the chromatiii-reduction. In the spermatogonia there are 36 normal and 2 accessory chromosomes ; the reduction in number occurs in the synapsis stage of the spermato- cytes by apposition and conjugation of two homologous chromosomes. In the metaphase of the first and second maturation-division, there are 18 normal bivalent chromosomes, plus one accessory chromosome. There as no reduction-division in Weismann's sense ; both maturation-divisions * Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. lxviii. (1907) pp. 214-37 (2 pis.). T Tom. cit., pp. 238-303 (2 pis. and 14 figs.). J Arch. Mikr. Anat., lxxi. (1908) pp. 571-87 (2 pis.). § Zool. Jahrb., xxiv. (1907) pp. 431-520 (3 pis. and 2 figs.). j| Jen. Zeitschr. f. Naturw., xlii. (1907) pp. 669-720 (3 pis. and 19 figs.). ^ Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxxvii. (1907) pp. 644-84 (2 pis. and 5 figs.). ** Zool. Jahrb., xxiii. (1907) pp. 535-86 (1 pi. and 7 figs.). 'Oct. 21st, 1008 2 Q 578 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO are " differential equation-divisions." But there is reduction in number and quantity, for the spermatid has 18 bivalent, quantitatively reduced chromosomes, plus an accessory chromosome. Observations on Glossina palpalis.* — E. Boubaudhas studied speci- mens of this fly kept individually in separate glass tubes (closed in with muslin), and fed with blood every 48 hours. Like its relatives, the fly is "larviparous." The first laying maybe looked for in about three weeks : the others follow every nine or ten days. A young larva is hatched out of the egg immediately after the larva which preceded it in the uterus has attained its full-grown form. The larval life lasts nine or ten days ; the females, probably, live on an average about three months, and reproduce 8-10 times. The pupation (in dry places) is described. Abortion and intra- uterine pupation are not infrequent. The average duration of the pupal life is 33 clays, but it may be modified by external conditions. Heat is very fatal. Indeed the pupae cannot accommodate themselves to a tem- perature about 25° G. In this there is suggested a practicable way of waging war against the bearer of the germs of sleeping sickness. Life-history of Thrypticus smaragdinus.t — H. Liibben has been successful in working out the life-history of this rare Dolichopid fly. The larvae were found in the root-stocks of the reed, Arundo phragmites. and they pupate there. The pupae have a very remarkable head arma- ture or boring apparatus, and the abdominal tracheal " horns " are much longer than the prothoracic pair. Attention is called to the conver- gence between the Thrypticus pupae and that of some Cecidomyids, e.g. Lasioptera indusa, which have a similar head-armature. Luminosity of Tropical Lampyridae.ij: — 0. Steche notes that the intermittent character of the light is not due to periodic covering of the luminous organ, for he observed the phenomenon in absolutely motion- less forms. After paralysis with spider-poison the normal luminosity continues, which is against, the idea that the respiratory movement of air in the tracheae is a decisive factor in the illumination. Some intra- cellular oxidation-process is suggested. If the connection with head and breast be broken, the luminosity stops, and as the importance of respiratory movements and blood-circulation does not seem to be great. judging from the spider-bite experiment, the author infers that the influence of the central nervous system is of moment. Even after the nerve connection is cut, chemical or mechanical stimulation of the cells results in luminosity, but the light is weak, somewhat different from the normal, and not discontinuous. Pink Katydids as Mutants.§ — W. M. Wheeler calls attention to the sporadic occurrence of pink individuals among the usually leaf -green katydids (Locustidae belonging to the sub-families Phaneropterinae and Pseudophyllinae). They are well known in Amblycorypha, which have * Comptes Eendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 362-5. t Zool. Jahrb., xxvi. (1908) pp. 319-32 (1 pi. and 6 figs.). X Zool. Auzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 710-12. § Amer. Nat., xli. (1907) pp. 773-80. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 579 also a brown phase, and similar aberrations occur in certain Homoptera. The author suggests that the pink individuals are mutants, but breeding experiments are necessary. On the sport or mutation hypothesis we should expect pink individuals mated inter se to produce only pink individuals, and the same should result mutatis mutandis in the case of the brown forms. Pink or brown individuals crossed with the common green form may be expected to give offspring in the Mendelian propor- tion, with the pink and brown characters acting as recessives. Chromosomes of Anasa tristis and Anax Junius.* — George Lefevre and Caroline McGill confirm E. B. Wilson's results as regards the chromosomes in the spermatogenesis of Anasa tristis. They find the number to be 21, and they observed the presence of an accessory or heterotropic chromosome, which behaved as Wilson described. Their results are quite at variance with those of Foot and Strobell. The behaviour of the chromosomes in the spermatogenesis of the dragon-fly, Anax junivs, closely parallels the conditions in Anasa. In the differentiation of its chromosomes as w-chromosomes, macro- chromosomes, and chromosomes of intermediate sizes ; in the occurrence of an odd number of chromosomes (27) in the male groups, and of this number plus one (28) in the female groups ; in the presence of an accessory or heterotropic chromosome which persists as a condensed body throughout the growth-period and passes undivided at the second maturation-division into one of the spermatids, a strict parallelism may be recognised between Anax and those insects — of which Anasa tristis may be taken as a type — which possess a heterotropic chromosome. In at least one of the Odonata, therefore, a dimorphism of the spermatozoa occurs, and the theory of the determination of sex by differentiated sex- chromosomes receives additional support. Wax-glands of Flata (Phromnia) marginella.f — E. Bugnion and N. Popoff give an account of the wax-glands of this Homopterous insect of Ceylon and India. The larvas secrete remarkable silk-like ribbons, which are inserted in the end of the abdomen. In the adult there are no abdominal tufts, but the end of the body, the margins of the wings, etc., are usually covered with white flakes. The minute structure of the glands is described in detail. Mouth-parts of BlattidaB.J — Joseph Mangan finds that there is need for more careful investigation of the much-studied mouth-parts of cock- roaches. He contributes some fine figures of the hard parts of Peri- planeta australasice and their musculature, and discusses the theoretical interpretations suggested by Verhoeff and Hansen. He notes, for instance, that elongated plates at the free tip of the hypopharynx may represent a pair of maxillulas fused with the tongue. Just below the tip of the lacinia there is a singular process, which is mentioned by Rolleston, but not recorded on any drawing known to the author. The maxillary palp is most plausibly homologous with an endopodite. * Amer. Journ. Anat., vii. (1908) pp. 469-87 (5 figs.). t Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., xliii. (1907) pp. 549-63 (7 pis. and 4 figs.). % Proc. R. Irish Acad., xxvii., B, i. (1908) p. 1-10 (3 pis.). 2 q 2 580 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Development of Caddis-worms.* — A. J. Siltala gives a very welcome study of the post-embryonic development of Tricnoptera. In family after family he describes the two stages in larval development ; he dis- cusses in particular the chitinous integumentary processes, the mouth- parts and antennas, and the respiratory organs ; and he deals also with the physiological and ecological aspects : the locomotion, nutrition, respiration, moulting, and the making of the protective cases. Regeneration of Segments in Ephemerid Larvae. f — S. Oppenheim has experimented with larvae of ( 'loeon dipterum, removing the last seg- ment. Most die in 3-5 days, but 12 out of 532 regenerated the lost segment. Between the second and third moult the regenerated piece approximated to the normal shape. In a few cases he succeeded in getting some regeneration after removing two and three segments. Mallophaga of the Kea. J — Vernon L. Kellogg finds that the Kea {Nestor notabilis) has some troubles of its own. It bears three species of Mallophagan parasites, Lipeurits circumfasciatus Piaget, var. Jcea Kellogg, Colpocephalum setosum Piaget (also found on the vulture), and Mmopon fulvofasciatum Piaget var. kea Kellogg (the same species occurs on Buteo vulgaris). It is curious that two of the three parasites should have been previously recorded not from parrots but from birds of prey. Germ-cells and Embryology of Aphids.§ — Gr. W. Tannreuther describes the development of certain Aphids, with special reference to the behaviour of the two kinds of eggs during maturation, and the relation of the sexual to the parthenogenetic individuals. The life- history of two of the species chiefly studied, Melanoxanthus sal iris and M. salickola, is described in detail. In regard to the germ-cells, the author finds that the somatic number of chromosomes, six, is a generic characteristic. The chromosomes vary in size, four large and two small. This number and size of chromosomes is constant in both the sexual and parthenogenetic forms. In the male, the six univalent chro- mosomes ithite end to end in pairs in the early prophase of the first spermatocyte division, and form two large and one small bivalent chro- mosome. There is a short resting period between the first and second spermatocyte division. Each spermatid receives three chromosomes, two large and one small. No accessory chromosome is present. The first division separates bivalent, and the second divides univalent chromosomes. The six chromosomes at the beginning of the growth- period in the sexual ova pass into the resting stage, and the reduced number, three — two large and one small— are found in the prophase of the maturation division. Both polar bodies are formed before the germinal vesicle breaks down. Fertilisation occurs at the time of de- position, and the male and female pronuclei unite shortly after the eggs are deposited. Both polar bodies remain within the egg-cytoplasm near the periphery, and disappear before the beginning of cleavage. * Zool. Jahrb., ii. supp. 9 (1907) pp. 309-626 (5 pis. and 20 figs.). t Zool. Anzeig., xxxiii. (1908) pp. 72-7 (6 figs.). J Psyche, 1907, pp. 122-3. § Zool. Jahrb., xxiv. (1907) pp. 609-42 (5 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 581 In the ova of the parthenogenetic females the sis chromosomes are found in the prophase of the single maturation-division. No reduction occurs, and the chromosomes divide equally, as in the somatic mitoses. The polar body does not disappear immediately, as in the sexual ova, but remains within the egg near the periphery as a dark compact mass of chromatin, and does not disappear until after the fourth cleavage. There are no perceptible differences in the sexual and parthenogenetic ova at the beginning of the growth period. They originate from the follicular epithelium at the base of the end chamber. Cleavage always begins in the centre of the egg. The plane of di- vision for the subsequent divisions varies. Descendants from both daughter-cells of the first cleavage contribute to the formation of the blastoderm. The cleavage nuclei resulting from one of the daughter- nuclei form the germ-band. All the cleavage nuclei do not pass to the periphery in the formation of the blastoderm. Those that remain within the yolk area aid in the digestion of the yolk and prepare it for assimila- tion. The blastoderm begins uniformly over the entire surface of the egg. When the blastoderm is completely formed there is a short inactive period in the sexual embryo. The uninvaginated blastoderm becomes the serosa. The germ-band is completely separated from the un- invaginated blastoderm. The germ-band is of the completely im- mersed type. The parthenogenetic embryo is provided with yolk as needed in the process of development. In the sexual embryo the yolk is completely formed before fertilisation. The sexual males and females develop from parthenogenetically produced ova, while the first partheno- genetic generation develops from sexually-produced ova. The primary yolk originates within the cytoplasm of the egg. The secondary yolk originates from the follicular nuclei without the egg. A definite number of parthenogenetic generations are produced before the sexual male and female appear. External conditions do not increase or decrease the number of parthenogenetic generations. The greatest number of winged forms appear in the second generation, especially when food is abundant. The parthenogenetic developing embryo within the winter or sexual egg passes through the winter in a half -grown condition. A distinct male and female line begins in the fifth parthenogenetic generation. The individuals of the presexual or last parthenogenetic generation produce either all males or all females. Only two generations contribute directly to the formation of the male and female, i.e. the fifth and presexual generations. Head-glands of Thysanura.* — Jur. Philiptschenko discusses the various kinds of glands which occur in the head of Thysanura. Of special interest are the tubular glands of the last head-segment (the labial segment), which consist of a terminal vesicle and a coiled canal, and excrete through the walls of the vesicle injected ammoniaail car- mine. They are nephridia, which occur also in CoDembola and Diplopoda, though absent in Chilopoda and Insects. Besides these nephridial glands, there are anterior and posterior salivary glands : the posterior glands correspond to those of many insects ; the anterior glands are represented in a few insects. * Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., xci. (1908) pp. 93-111 (2 pis. and 2 figs.). 582 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Collembola and Thysanura of Forth Area.* — William Evans con- tinues the list published by G. II. Carpenter and himself in is1.)'.). In- cluding Tsotoma minuta Tullberg, /. bidmticulata Tullberg, Achorvtes manubrialis Tullberg, and a species of Tetracanthella - a genus not hitherto recorded from the British Isles — there are now sixty-six species of Collembola known from the Forth area. Excretion in Thysanura. f — L. Bruntz finds that excretion is effected by nephrocytes and phagocytes. In Machilis the nephrocytes are like the adipose cells, and lie along the sides of the lobes of connective-tissue in the region of the pericardial sinus. In Lepisma the nephrocytes are very different from the adipose cells, but they occur again in the region of the pericardial sinus, or suspended on the fibres which connect the heart to the dorsal wall. Phagocytosis is effected by the blood-cells, and, in some cases, by a phagocytic organ. This special organ occurs in Lepisma saccharma and (Jtmolepisma Jineata in the pericardial septum. Structure and Habits of Acentropus niveus.J — M. Nigmann gives a full anatomical and ecological account of this interesting aquatic •butterfly, which he found in great abundance in Greifswald, on the right and left of the estuary of the Ryck. The caterpillar was found on various species of Potamogeton and other aquatic plants. The eggs are 0*5 mm. in length, furrowed on the surface, yellowish-green and opaque when freshly deposited, but becoming more transparent as development proceeds, till they are crystal-like when the larvae emerge. They are deposited in clumps or packets on the food-plant, to which they are attached by a jelly-like substance. In regard to the two kinds of eggs reported by some observers, the author believes that these are fertilised and unfertilised, the latter kind being transparent from the first, and often deposited in an abnormal manner. The number of eggs in a clump varied from 56 to 117. The period of incubation varied according to temperature, usually from 14 to 21 days, but in two cases it reached 29 and 31 days respectively. The newly emerged caterpillar eats its way into the heart of the stalk, and there passes the first few days. On leaving the stalk the caterpillar makes a shelter by spinning longitudinal pieces of leaf loosely together with the ends open so that it is entirely surrounded by water. From this tube it stretches forth its head and feeds on the leaves within reach. Four moults were observed, but it is suggested that an earlier one may have taken place within the stalk. In regard to the much-discussed question of larval respiration, Nigmann demonstrates that the tracheal system develops very gradually, and that it is only in the later larval stages that the branches reach the skin and begin to be filled with air. He regards the blood as the means by which oxygen is conveyed to the tissues in the earlier stages. For pupation a new leaf -shelter is made, this time closed at the end, and the true cocoon is spun within it. The author was able to confirm Muller's observation (in regard to another aquatic form) that the bubbles * Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, xvii. (1903) pp. 195-200 (2 figs.), t Arch Zool. Exper., viii. (1908) pp 471-88 (1 pi.). X Zool. Jahrb., xxvi. (1908) pp. 489-560 (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 583 of air spun into the cocoon are produced from the anterior end of the larva itself, probably from the thoracic stigmata. The imprisoned air- bubbles, which are so numerous that they give the whole cocoon a silvery appearance, make tracheal respiration possible throughout the period of pupation — about 25 days. There are two kinds of females, a long-winged and a short- or rudimentary-winged type. Transition forms were not found. The long-winged females and the males live in the air, but never go far from water, and quickly die if they are removed from damp air. The short-winged females live entirely in the water, and move awkwardly if taken out of it. The author believes that there is a summer and a winter generation, and that the long-winged females belong exclusively to the latter. The caterpillar passes the winter in a more or less torpid state within its leaf -shelter at the bottom of the pond. The short-winged females swim under water with the posterior end at the surface. The stigmata are here very minute, and the author regards this attitude as connected with reproduction rather than with respiration. Copulation takes place at the surface, the female turning round on the dorsal surface when approached by the male. Males may be occasionally dragged under water accidentally, and so have been supposed to enter the water in quest of the females. After copulation the female seeks a suitable twig, lays her eggs, and dies almost at once. The last part of the paper contains a discussion of the anatomy of the imagines, with special reference to the difference between the sexes. Many of the secondary sexual characters of the female are shown to be connected with aquatic life : thus the different arrangement of hairs makes the leg of the female an effective swimming organ. The wing stumps are also used in swimming, and the sparseness of the scales on the ventral surface admits of respiration by endosmosis. In regard to its systematic position, Acentropus agrees closely with Hydrocampa and other aquatic Pyralidae so far as wing-venation, re- productive organs, and the aquatic life of the larva and pupa are con- cerned, and must therefore be ranked with them. But it stands alone as regards the remarkable modification of the female insect to aquatic life, and it also exhibits a greater degeneration of the mouth-parts than the other Pyralidae. 7- Prototracheata. Distribution and Classification of Onyckophora.* — Adam Sedgwick points out that the known species of Peripatus are referable to seven geographical groups : — (1) those of the neotropical region except Chili, Neo-Peripatus ; (2) those of tropical Africa, Congo-Peripatw ; (?>) Malaya, Eo-Peripatus ; (4) South Africa, Capo-Peripatus ; (5) New Britain. Melano-Peripatus ; (G) Australasia, Austro-Peripatus ; (7) Chili, Chilio-Peripatus. " He gives the characters of each of these groups of species, and con- cludes from the survey — (1) that the geographical groups of species are natural zoological groups, the members of which are more closely related to each other than to those of other groups ; and (2) that the * Quart. Journ. Micr. Bci.. lii. (1908) pp. 379-40(3 (13 figs.). 584 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO distinguishing specific characters are distributed in an entirely haphazard manner in the different specific groups, so that it is quite impossible to show the phylogenetic affinities of the specific groups by any tree dike arrangements. He infers that the present species of Peripatus are derived from a single widely-ranging species roughly extending within the limits of the present distribution, and that this species was highly variable, including within the range of its variation all the different characters at present exhibited by the whole genus. 5. Arachnida. Regeneration and Autotomy in Spiders.* — S. Oppenheim confirms some of the results recently reached by P. Friedrich. Terrestrial spiders can throw off their limbs at the trochanter ; all the joints have a strong regenerative capacity, but it is strongest at the preformed tro- chanter plane. The regenerated limb, which differs from the normal only in being smaller and lighter in colour, has not at first the power of autotomy or of regeneration. Stimuli which would have provoked autotomy on a normal limb had no effect during the first four days after the moult which disclosed the regenerated limb. If during that time a joint was cut through, there was no regeneration at the line of amputation. At the next moult the (degenerated) remainder of the limb was thrown off down to the line of normal autotomy. Some time is necessary to allow the new limb to attain the full differentiation needed for normal autotomy and regeneration. Friedrich | could not find evidence of autotomy or regeneration in Aryyroneta aquatim, and he inferred that this was because there was no need for it. But Oppenheim, like 0. Weiss,f finds experimental evidence of both autotomy and regeneration as regards the foremost and hindmost appendage. British Spiders.J— F. P. Smith records, from the Isle of Wight, Toxem formicarius, one of our rarest, handsomest, and most interesting spiders, whose presence in Britain has hitherto been attested only by several isolated records extending over three-quarters of a century. The mature male might be mistaken for a red ant. A male and female of Tarentvla nemoralis — now for the first time recorded from Britain — were taken in the Bexhill High Woods, and the very rare Lycosa agrestis was found in the Isle of Wight. Notes on Pseudoscorpions.§ — Edv. Ellingsen reports on a collection of pseudoscorpions, mostly British, made and partly determined by H. Wallis Kew. He notes that Obisium {Roncus) cambridgii has a galea, and should be referred to the genus Ideobisium. He describes Chelifer Tcewii sp. n. from Cape Colony, Obisium maritimum Leach from British coasts, and some other interesting forms. * Zool. Anzeig., xxxiii. (1908) pp 56-60 (3 figs.). t Arch. Entwickmech., xx. (1906). t Op. cit.,xxiii. (1907). X Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, 1907, pp. 177-90, 1 pi. § Tom. cit., pp 155-72. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, .MICROSCOPY, ETC. 585 New British Records of Water-mites.*— G. P. Deeley adds to the list of water-mites that occur in Britain — Thyopsis caneellata Protz, Sperchon glandulosits Koen., and Lyania bipapillata Sig. Thor. Swiss Hydrachnids.f— Charles Walter has given a useful account of the Swiss water-mites, of which 156 species are now known. He has added 15 new species, and made 47 new records. He distinguishes cosmopolitan forms (with wide distribution' both horizontally and vertically) and northern alpine forms, stenothermal inhabitants of cold mountain waters. Metamorphosis of Species of Echiniscus.J— F. Heinis finds that many species of Echiniscus, with four claws and numerous filaments and spines as adults, have a juvenile stage with two claws and only a few filaments. Marine Tardigrada.§— F. Richters has some notes on Echmiscoides sigismundi M. Schultze, and describes Halerhiniscus guiteli g. et sp. n., and two new species of Macrobiotics. 6- Crustacea. Abnormality in a Crayfish. ||— A. Briot describes a male crayfish with a peculiar second-last thoracic limb. The coxopodite and basi- podite were normal, the ischiopodite showed two articular surfaces, the outer one bore four normal joints, the inner one bore four smaller joints curved in the opposite direction — as if it were a piece of a right- hand appendage. Variation of Squilla investigatoris.H— R. E. Lloyd finds that in 17 individuals the number of spinous teeth on the'dactyle of the raptatorial claw varies from 10 to 18. Furthermore they show 11 different types of arrangement when the teeth on both claws are considered. This feature, so variable in this species, seems to be relatively stable in other species. The theoretical possibilities of interpretation are dis- cussed. The facts of the case do not seem to be in favour of the " theory of gradual change." Alimentary Canal of Schizopods.**— Charles Gelderd gives an anatomical and physiological account of the gastric mill, the mid-gut, the mid-gut glands, and the intestine in My sis, Siriella, Nyctvphanes, and other forms. New Species of Cirolana from a Spring in the Sahara, ff Robert Gurney describes Cirolana fontis sp. n., from a freshwater spring in the Algerian Sahara. The species is evidently of subterranean origin, * Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, 1907, pp. 173-6 (1 pi.). + Revue Suisse Zool., xv. (1907) pp. 401-573 4 pis.). J Zool. Anzeig., xxxiii. (1908) pp. 69-71. § Tom. cit., pp. 77-85 (4 figs.). || C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 777-8 (1 fig.). t Records Indian Museum, ii. (190S) pp. 29-35 (2 pis.). ** La Cellule, xxv. (1907) pp. 7-70 (4 pis.), ft Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 682-5 (5 figs.). 586 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO and it is of great interest as belonging to a group which is most characteristically marine. Like some other investigators, the author favours the idea that the subterranean Crustacean fauna has been derived not so much from the surface as directly from the sea itself. The Algerian species may perhaps have arisen from some deep water Mediterranean species such as Cirolana cceca Dollfus. Locomotor Organs of Gyge branchialis.* — P. Lo Giudiee has studied the changes in the locomotor organs of this marine Isopod when it becomes attached to Gebia litoralis, and he has also set the semi- parasite or commensal at liberty to see what individual adaptations are acquired by its reduced locomotor organs. The young animals can move very quickly in the water, but the adults are fixed to their host and cannot move after they have been attached for a certain time. But under certain conditions the commensal may be removed from its bearer and kept in life for as many as 23 days. The thoracic limbs undergo a slight increase in length and the animals are able to move about a little. Maxillary Gland in Isopods.j — Alvis Rogenhofer has studied this in various types. The Bopyridad have no antennary gland, but the maxillary gland is well-developed, and shows the characteristic parts — terminal vesicle, urinary canal, and efferent duct. In Oniscina3 the maxillary gland is not degenerate (as JSTemec reported) but typical. The results reached by Bruntz as to the maxillary gland of Isopods are con- firmed, as also is Vejdovsky's description of funnel-cells (Trichterzellen). In freshwater types the urinary canal of the maxillary and antennary gland is longer than in marine types. Notes on Clyde Crustacea. J — Alexander Patience notes the occurrence of Idothea neglecta G. 0. Sars and /. viridis Slabber within the Clyde sea area. He has also collected /. pelagica Leach, /. emar- ginata Fabr., /. linearis Pennant. In another paper § the author discusses Philocheras trispinosus Hailstone, P. bispinosus Westwood, P. echinulatus M. Sars, P. neglecta* G. 0. Sars, P. sculptus Bell., Pontophilus spinosus Leach, Grangon vulgaris Linn., and C. alhnanni Kinahan. In another communication || the author deals with some terrestrial Isopods new to the Clyde fauna] area, e.g. Trichoniscus pygmevus G. 0. Sars, Porcellio dilatatus Brandt, and Metopotiorthus pruinosus Brandt. British Species of Trichoniscoides.^f — Alexander Patience dis- tinguishes T. sarsi sp. n. from T. albidus Budde Lund, with which he had previously identified it. Both are British. The structure of the first and second pairs of pleopods of the male seems to afford practic- ally constant specific distinctions. The author has some notes on * Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., xci. (1903) pp. 52-80 (1 pi.). t Arbeit. ZodI. Inst. Univ. Wien., xvii. (1903) pp. 139-56 (l;pl.). J Trans. Nat Hist. Soc. Glasgow, viii. (1908) pp. 4:2-6. § Tom. cit., pp. 64-71. || Tom. cit., pp. 80-6. ^ Ann. Nat. Hist., ii. (.1908) pp. 84-8 (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 587 Trichoniscus pusillus Brandt, T. pygmceus, T. roseus Koch, and other British forms. New Terrestrial Isopod.* — Richard S. Bagnall describes Philoseia patimcei sp. n., a new Isopod which he secured along with a new spider, f Ischnothyreus velox Jackson, and a new Tartarid, Trithyrem hai/ null ii Jackson, from a hothouse at Kew. It bears a strong re- semblance to Trichoniscus pusillus, and is nearly related to Philoseia couchii. It is of further interest on account of the small size (3 mm. by 1*2 mm.). Its colour is Yiolet brown, marbled with white, with a broken median band along the back of the mesosome. New Entoniscid. J — H. Coutiere describes Synalpheion giardi g. et sp. n., from Synalpheus longicarpus Herrick, the first Entoniscid to be found infesting a Macruran. The others occur in crabs. The new form is closely allied to Eaton isc us from Por cell ana. Dendrogaster.§ — Otto le Roi describes D. arboresceas - le Roi f rom the body-cavity of Dipsacaster sladeni, and D. ludwigi le Roi from Echinaster fallax. He was fortunate enough to find the male of the former in the " mantle-cavity " of the female. The full account given is an important addition to our knowledge of these extraordinary Cirripedes, known as Ascothoracidse. There are only four others as yet known — Laura gerardice Lacaze-Dutbiers, Petrarca bathyactidis Fowler, Synagoga mira Norman, and Dendrog aster aster kola Knipow. New Cave Copepod.|| — E. Grater describes Cyclops crinitus sp. n., a colourless hyaline Copepod, from the Holl-loch, the largest Swiss cave (Canton Schwyz), which extends for several kilometres into the moun- tain. He contrasts it with G. viridis and C. capillatus, and with another form, G. teras -Grater, which occurs in the same cave, and is blind. He also reports G. unisetiger sp. n. with a single f ureal seta, from a Jura cave. North American Caligidae.f — Charles Branch Wilson continues his account of North American parasitic Copepods belonging to the family Caligidae. He establishes two new sub-families, Trebinae and Eury- pborinae, and describes a new species, Dysgamus ariommus, besides figuring some important forms like Alebion gracilis. The larval stages of the latter and of others are given. The artificial keys include all the known genera and species. Median Eye of Ostracods.** — M. Nowikoff has studied the eye of Cypris virens, Eurycypris pubera, and other species. He describes in detail the four component parts — the pigment-cup, the tapetum, the optic cells, and the lens. * Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, i. (1908) pp. 428-31 (1 pi.). t Trans. Nat Hist. Soc. Northumberland, Durham, andNewcastle-upon-Tvne iii. (1907) pp. 49-78 (1 pi.). X Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 1333-5. § Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Ixxxvi (1907) pp. 100-33 (2 pis.). || Zool. Anzeig., xxxiii. (1908) pp. 45-9 (3 rigs.). f Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, xxxi. (1907) pp. 669-720 (6 pis. aud 19 rigs.). ** Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., xci. (190S) pp. 81-92 (1 pi. and 1 fi.j ). i")88 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Cambrian Trilobites.* — C. D. Walcott establishes Burlingida\ a new family for Burlingus g. n., and describes Albertdla g. n. in the family Paradoxals, Oryctocara g. n. in the family Olenidae, and new species of Zacanthoides, Neolenus, and Bathyuriscus. Annulata. Thoracic Nephridia of Hermellidae.f — Armand Dehorne describes in Sdbellaria two thoracic nephridia, independent of one another, each provided with an internal vibratile funnel and a lateral external pore, and resembling the Cirratulid not the Serpulid type. Epidermis of Travisia forbesii.J — L. dn Reau finds that the epi- dermis of this Polychfet consists of cubical cells covered by a thick cuticle, that this cuticle gives passage to papilla? which coalesce ex- ternally, simulating a second epithelium. This is an exaggeration of the free filiform papillae of Stylarioides plumosa, the more swollen papilla? of Flabdligera affirm, and the short, swollen, appressed but not fused, papillae of Brada gran ulata. Polychaets of AmboinaJ — A. Malaquin and A. Dehorne report on a collection made by Bedot and Pictet, including Nereis picteM sp. n., Eupolyodontes aniboinensis sp. n., the new genus Euearunculata (an Amphinomid with arborescent branchiae, a strongly developed cordif orm trilobed caruncle, a single dorsal cirrus to the parapodium, simple, never bifid setae), with the species E. yrubei. Brain and Nuchal Organ of Notopygos labiatus. || — A. Malaquin and A. Bedot give a description of these parts in this Amphinomid. Their study of the caruncle or nuchal organ in Notopygos (as also in Euearunculata) shows a highly developed vascularisation, and within the cavity bathed by the vessels they find a large quantity of mesenchyme cells (amcebocytes, "Mastzellen," pigmented cells, etc.). They give strong reasons for believing j that this sensory organ has been derived from a srill. i~j Artificial Parthenogenesis in Thalassema mellita.f — G. Lefevre has given an account of an experimental study of artificial partheno- genesis in the Echiuroid Thalassema mellita, which is specially favour- able for experiment, because of the ease with which the sexes can be distinguished. The investigator's main purpose was to study the mor- phobgical phenomena concerned in artificial parthenogenesis, and especially, by a careful cytological examination of the material, to com- pare, as far as possible, the development artificially produced with the normal events leading up to the formation of the larva. He finds that the unfertilised eggs may be induced to develop parthenogenetically into actively swimming trochophores by immersion for a few minutes in * Smithsonian Misc. Coll., liii. No. 2 (1908) pp. 13-52 (6 pis.), t Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 838-40. X Tom. cit., pp. 840-2. § Revue Suisse Zool., xv. (1907) pp. 335-400 (9 pis. and 20 figs.). || Tom. cit., pp. 372-400. i Journ. Exper. Zool., iv. (1907) pp. 91-149 (6 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 589 dilute solutions of acids, both inorganic and organic. After transfer from the acid solutions into normal sea-water, the egg throws off a typical fertilisation membrane, the germinal vesicle breaks down, and maturation and cleavage follow. In successful experiments, which were the rule, from 50-60 p.c. of the eggs developed into swimming larvae that could scarcely be distinguished from normal trochophores of a corresponding stage. The parthenogenetic development, in the majority of cases, involves a strictly normal maturation, a normal cleavage, at least in the early stages, and the usual processes of differentiation that occur after fertilisation by sperm. Gastrulation takes place in the normal manner, and the parthenogenetic larva possesses a digestive tract, differentiated into mouth, oesophagus, stomach and intestine, and the prototroch and apical plate, bearing the normal arrangement of cilia. After maturation the egg-centre disappears, and the cleavage centro- somes arise de novo, probably without division of a single primary centre. When first seen, they lie on opposite sides of the egg-nucleus, which becomes the first cleavage nucleus. Cell-division occurs mitotically throughout development, and division of the nucleus is usually accompanied by cytoplasmic cleavage. The number of chromosomes characteristic of the fertilised egg is not restored, but the reduced number (12) is retained, and has been counted repeatedly even in late stages. The rate of division is not so rapid, nor so regular as in normal segmentation, and the parthenogenetic larva?, although swimming vigorously at the bottom of the dish, do not rise to the surface of the water. After exposure of the eggs to acid solutions, the polar bodies may continue to divide mitotically and form a morula-like cluster of minute cells, thus exhibiting an attempt at parthenogenetic development. In some experiments the eggs extruded only one polar body, and in others neither polar body was formed. In such cases, either one or both matura- tion mitoses may take place within the egg, with the resulting formation of resting nuclei, which probably fuse to form a cleavage nucleus. In still other cases there is evidence for believing that the first matura- tion spindle may directly become the first cleavage spindle, across which the egg divides into equal or subequal cells. The numerical re- lations of the chromosomes in these cases have not been definitely determined. Eggs exhibiting these abnormalities of maturation give rise to larvae indistinguishable from those of eggs which maturate normally. An endless variety of abnormal cleavages, similar to those described by others, have been observed. Such cleavages lead to the formation of ciliated cellular structures which depart more or less widely from normal embryos. Abnormalities of mitosis, as polyasters and monasters, are not infrequent, and when nuclear division is not followed by cleavage of the cytoplasm, chromosomes in excess of the usual number (12) may be found in a single cell. Cytasters are either absent or exceedingly rare, and cytoplasmic cleavage without preceding nuclear division has not been observed. Amoeboid movements of the egg are rare, and, when they occur, are not extensive ; " fusion phe- nomena " are lackin<_r. Cell-division would seem to be a fundamental and essential factor in 590 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO differentiation, since in do instance was a differentiated, ciliated structure observed which was unsegmented ; the parthenogenetie pseudo-trocho phores which have been described for GhcBtopterus and other Annelids, are entirely absent. Remarkable Echiuroids* — Iwajilkeda describes Bonellia miyajimai sp. n., the female of which has numerous ventral hooks, a slender proboscis six times as long as the body, and branched anal glands with numerous stalked funnels. The male, found in the body-cavity of the female, is unusually large, nearly 30 mm. in length : there is no ventral hook or nerve ring ; the alimentary canal is broken up into numerous vesicles. He also describes two new species of Thalassema : T. timioides, the long proboscis of which has been known and misin- terpreted for some years, and T. elegans, another very interesting form. New Indian Oligochset.f — J. Stephenson proposes to make a new genus, Mafia, for one of the Naididge, which was found on colonies of Victorella and other Polyzoa. The arrangement of the setal bundles is peculiar : there are two dorsal and two ventral bundles in all segments from the second onwards. The seta? are hook-seta3 and needle-seta^ ; the most anterior bundles, both dorsal and ventral, consist of needle-setse ; the posterior consist of hook-setae. Studies on Leeches.! — N. Livanow has studied the nervous system and the metamerism of the head-end of Herpobdella atomaria Carena. The head-region consists, as in Hirudo medicinaUs and Protoclej/s/s tessellata, of the head-lobe and the five anterior somites. The head-lobe and the first two head-somites consist of one ring each, the third has two rings, the fourth has four, and the fifth has five. In each somite there is a well-developed neuro-somite, and the head-lobe is in no way con- fusible with a somite. New Zealand Leeches.§ — W. B. Benham describes Placobddla maorica sp. n., Hirudo mauiana sp. n., and H. antipodum Benham, giving in each case an anatomical account. Growth and Asexual Reproduction in Stylaria lacustris.|| — Giuseppe Dalla Fior has studied the process of growth in this Annelid, which is also known as Nais proboscidea. The mesoderm grows at the free posterior end by the activity of primitive mesoblasts, of which there are two or three on each side of the hind end of the mesoderm streak. Before the division of the mesoderm into primary segments, the chorda - cells of Semper (neoblasts) arise between the two mesoderm plates. These elements always retain an embryonic character, and form a continuous strand to the most anterior segment. In asexual multiplication the mesoderm in the trunk-zone (the tail of the anterior animal) is mainly regenerated by the neoblasts, and only to a slight extent by the mesodermic elements of the lateral lines. In * Journ. Coll. Sci. Univ. Tokyo, xxi. (1907) pp. 1-64 (4 pis.). t Records Indian Museum, ii. (1908) pp. 39-42 (4 figs.). t Zool. Jahrb.,xxiii. (1907) pp. 683-702 (1 pi ). § Trans. New Zealand Inst., xxxix. (1907) pp. 181-93 (2 pis.). || Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien, xvii. (1908) pp. 109-38 (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. • 591 the head-zone, in which four trunk-segments are formed anew behind the head, the mesoderm arises in all probability in the same way as in the trunk-zone. The mesoderm forms the longitudinal, pharyngeal, and setal musculature, the peritoneum, and the nephridia. The ectoderm forms the circular musculature and the nervous system. At the posterior end the primordium of the nervous system coalesces with the ectoderm ; the same is seen in the trunk-zone, where a new foundation for the nervous system is formed, uniting anteriorly with the old ventral nerve-cord ; in the head -zone there is an elongation of the ventral cord, and the oesophageal commissure and brain arise by paired ectodermic proliferations on the lateral lines and on the ventral setal follicles. The pharynx is a product of the endoderm. The new mouth rises by invagination of the ectoderm to meet the gut, and the new proctodamrn is a simple coalescence of gut and epidermis. Nematohelminth.es. Structure of Nematodes.* — Max Rauther has investigated the structure of the oesophagus in numerous free-living Nematodes, and has also studied the localisation of the excretorv function. The indiero- carmin absorbed by the skin or taken with the food is not collected for elimination in any glands, but between the radial fibres of the oesophageal musculature and in the most anterior and most posterior region of the mid-gut. The excretion is thus indirect ; the function of the oesophagus may be compared to that of a Mammalian glomerulus, and that of the mid-gut to that of the absorbing renal canaliculus. The author con- trasts the excretion of free-living Nematodes with that of parasitic forms. Development of Nematodes.! — E. Martini has studied Pseudalius minor, Cucullanus elegans, Nematoxys ornatus, and Rhabdonema nigro- venosum. Organ-forming areas or cells can be recognised very early in development, even at the 8-cell stage. Segmentation results in 450-500 elements. A primordium of the gut appears during or imme- diately after segmentation, and is separated from the outermost cell- layer by a groove open dorsally. The definitive epithelium of the surface of the body is produced by six longitudinal rows of cells in the middle and posterior part of the dorsum. The bodies and nuclei of these cells pass into the longitudinal lines, especially in the lateral areas. From the two lateral portions of the groove the four muscle- bands are differentiated. ChaBtosomatidse.j — A. Schepotieff discusses these peculiar Nematode- like marine worms, and defines five species of ( 'hcetosoma. Among the peculiarities may be noted : the distinct head-region, the ventral rows of bristles, and the division of the body into an anterior narrower and a posterior broader region. The composite mobile seta) resemble those of Desmoscolecidse, but the genus Rhabdogaster which Schepotieff has * Zool. Jahrb., xxiii. (1907) pp. 703-40 (1 pi. and 7 figs.). *■ Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxxxvi. (1907) pp. 1-54 (3 pis. and 2 figs.). j Zool. Jahrb., xxvi. (1908) pp. 401-14 (2 pis.). 592 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO described is the nearest relative. Along with Rhabdogaster the Chaeto- somatidae may perhaps lie ranked as a group or sub-order of Nematodes, and the designation Nematochsetae is suggested. Peculiar Free-living Nematodes.* — A. Schepotieff describes Tri- choderma oxycaudatum Greef, a remarkable marine Nematode, which has been previously observed by Greef, Metschnikoff, and Panceri. The head has wing-like outgrowths, the posterior end is pointed and has two spicules. In these respects Trichoderma is like a Desmoscolecid. but it is excluded from the family by the thick covering of hair and the absence of setaa. It seems to require a special family, and the term Chaetiferae is suggested. Schepotieff also describes Khabdogaster cygnoides Metschn., previously observed by Metschnikoff, Greef, and Panceri. The body is divided by a narrow region into two expanded portions. The longitudinal muscu- lature is weakly developed. It uses its buccal teeth in its peculiar locomotion. Probably its position is among the Chaetosomatidae. Platyhelminthes. Trematode in Hibernating Gland of Hedgehog.f — M. Athias des- cribes a Distomid — which he has not yet been able to identify — from the interior of the hedgehog's hibernating gland. It seems to be quite different from D. rami at inn, which has been recorded from this host. Trematodes in Fishes.J — Marie Y. Lebour has examined many different kinds of British fishes, and has added considerably to the British records of Trematode fish parasites. In her list she gives useful notes on the food of the fishes in question. The following are new : — Prosorhynchus grandis in cod and whiting ; St&ringophorus ovacutus in long rough dab : Lepodora elongata in cod ; Pharyngora retractilis in whiting ; Stephanochasmus rhombispinosus in whiting ; S. triglce in grey gurnard ; Plectanocotyle cavdata on the gills of 50 p.c. of grey gurnards. These are new species, but Pharyngora is also a new genus. Uncertain Species of Marine Triclads.§ — J. Wilhelmi points out that Planaria savignyi Ruppell and Leuckart is a typical Polyclad, probably a species of Prosthiostomum ; P. longiceps Duges is equi- valent to Monotus bipunctatus ; Bdelloura rustica Leidy is a Monotid ; Planoides fusca Daly ell was probably not a Triclad ; and Planaria hsbes Dalyell was probably P. torva Mull. Planaria Wytegrensis.|| — H. Sabussow describes this new species from Lake Onega and compares it with the closely allied Planaria gonocephala, from which it differs in having peculiar sensory cells in the epithelium, in having more numerous sensory pits (on the ventral surface of the anterior end), and " in various details of the genital svsteni. * Zool. Jahrb., xxvi. (1908) pp. 385-400 (2 pis.), t Bull. Soc. Portugaise Sci. Nat., i. (1908) pp. 192-201 (3 pis.). X Rep. Sci. Investigations for 1907, Northumberland Sea Fisheries Committee, 1908, pp. 23-67 (5 pis.). § Zool. Anzeig., xxxiii. (1908) pp. 33-7. || Zool. Jahrb., xxiii. (1907) pp. 741-7 (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 593 Peculiar Abnormality in Proboscis of a Nemertean.* — M. Caullery describes the occurrence in Tetrastemma candidum of a double proboscis. Within the same sheath they lie end to end in opposite directions, with the armatures turned toward the two ends of the animal. Histogenesis of Cysticercus pisiformis.t — R. T. Young finds that this bladder-worm shows an extremely simple type of histogenesis, tbe various tissues being developed exclusively by modification in situ of a pre-existent undifferentiated parenchyma. In correspondence with its simplicity of development, Timia serrata shows a very simple type of adult structure, the various tissues being comparatively little differen- tiated from one another. , It is very doubtful where there is any ectoderm or any process of gastrulation. The lack of a true epithelium and the simple character of its tissues and mode of nuclear increase are probably expressions of the degenerate character of this tapeworm. " The role of the chromosomes in heredity is entirely lost ; the nucleus is probably not a morphological, but a physiological unit ; the fate of any cell is determined not by its morphological structure, but rather by its physiological environment." These are generalisations, but the paper gives a detailed account of the process of development. Incertse Sedis. Larva of Pedicellina Echinata.| — R. Czwiklitzer describes this interesting larva and shows how it may be interpreted as a modified Trochophore. He compares the Ectoproct and the Endoproct larva in detail, and shows the affinities between them in structure and in mode of fixation. It may be that the Phylactoltemata are derived from the Phoronidte (them ganglion being, in that case, supra-cesophageal), and the Gymnolaemata from the Entoprocta (their ganglion being, in that case, sub-cesophageal). Spermatozoa of Fresh- water Bryozoa.§ — F. Braem describes the spermatozoa of Plumatella, Pectinatella, and Fredericella (three related Phylactolamiata), and shows that they differ markedly from those of Paludicella (a typical representative of the Gymnolaemata). It is interesting to find that the structural differences of the adult organisms have their counterpart in the spermatozoa. Polyspermy in Membranipora.|| — Kristine Bonnevie finds that polyspermy occurs regularly in this Polyzoon. There is a coalescence of spermatozoa in groups in the spermatogenesis, so that a "sperm- zeugma" results. One spermatozoon only seems to form the male pronucleus, but the others may be useful in furnishing the necessary chromatin (and chromidial apparatus) to re-establish the disturbed nucleo-cytoplasmic relation in the ovum. * C.B, Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 738-40 (3 figs.). t Zool. Jahrb., xxvi. (1908) pp. 183-254 (4 pis.). j Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien, xvii. (190S) pp. 157-86 (1 pi. and 2 figs.). § Zool. Anzeig., xxxii. (1908) pp. 671-3 (2 figs.). || Jen. Zeitschr. Naturw., xlii. (1907) pp. 567-98 (4 pis.). Oct. 21st, 1908 -2 B 594 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Bengal Polyzoa.* — Nelson Annandale describes a new Ectoproctous Polyzoon, Victorelhi bengalensis sp. n., from brackish ponds at Port Canning, Lower Bengal, and a new Entoproctous form, Loxosomatoides colonialis g. et sp. n. The diagnosis of the new genus is : — " Colonial, deciduous Entoprocta arising from a creeping stolon ; the calyx, separated from the stalk by a diaphragm, with a slanting or vertical lophophore and bearing on its aboral surface a chitinous shield, which is absent from the stalk." The closest affinities of Loxosomatoides are probably with Myosoma. Echinoderma. Habits of Starfish. f — Georges Bohn finds that starfishes (Asteria* rubms) from the rocky regions of the Channel behave differently as regards light from those which live in sandy parts of the Arcachon basin. The former move away from the light into the shade ; the latter remain stationary in phototropic positions, the tip of each arm being turned towards the shade. When the former can find no shade they end by assuming phototropic positions, but they do this more slowly and less perfectly. Parthenogenesis of Sea-urchins. J — Yves Delage suggests that one reason why Loeb's experiments do not agree with his may be found in some constitutional difference between the Strow/ylocentrotus jnopuratus of California and the Paracentrotus lividus of Europe. In Loeb's ex- periments with the eggs of the California^ form, pure saccharine solu- tions, in strong concentration, but without any reagent added, resulted in abundant parthenogenetic ova ; in Delage's experiments with the eggs of the Brittany form, it was always necessary to add some reagent, acid or alkaline, or tannate of ammonia, but without exceeding the concentra- tion corresponding to an isotonic solution. The sea-water does not permit development except when the osmotic pressure of its salts has been much diminished by the addition of distilled water, and when it has been rendered isotonic by means of sugar. If Loeb had worked in Brittany he would have found that hypertonic solutions (whether alka- linised or not) and soluble fatty substances are ineffective, and he would have found the tannate of ammonia method, or something equivalent. Littoral Holothurians of Indian Ocean.§— R. Koehler and C. Vaney report on a collection of 51 species, of which 15 are new, 3 of Holothuria, 2 of Phyllophorus, 8 of Cucumaria, and 2 of Thyone. It may be noted that Cucumaria inflexa has simple tentacles ; C. bacilliformis has a rod- like body and a rigid carapace of calcareous plates ; the limits between Thyone (with tube-feet not in regular rows) and Cucumaria, between Pseudocucumis and Phyllophorus, are vague ; Holothuria glaberrima, found in the Mergui Archipelago, has also been found on the east * Records Indian Museum, ii. pp. 11-19 (7 figs.). t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 633-5 (3 figs.). % Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 262-5. § An Account of the Littoral Holothurioidea collected by R.I.M.S.S. ' In- vestigator.' Calcutta: printed by order of the Trustees of the Indian Museum, (1908) 54 pp., 3 pis. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 595 coast of Africa and at Porto Eico ; and that Cum nutria, echinata Maren- zeller in this collection was previously known only from Japan. Coelentera. Hydroid parasitic on Fish.* — R. E. Lloyd describes NudirJava monacanthi g. et sp. n., growing on the side of an Indian Ocean surface fish, Monacanthus tomentosus. He compares it with the peculiar Hydrichthys mi/rus which Fewkes found growing on the Carangoid fish Seriola zonata, at Newport, U.S.A. The resemblance is only in habit. Alcock has also described a gymnoblastic hydroid, Stylactis rninoi, attached to a rock-haunting Scorpaenid, Minous inermis. In Nvdkiam the hydrophyton is a compact plate-like structure, composed of an irregular labyrinthine coenosarc with very poorly developed perisarc. The hydranths are clavif orm when retracted, totally devoid of tentacles ; their cavities are lined by a special layer of pavement epithelium, and they contain well developed muscle-fibres among the endoderm. The gonophores are closed sporosacs, without radial canals, tentacles, or ectodermal invaginations. Atlantic Tima at Trieste.f — Gr. Stiasny reports the occurrence of Tima flavilabris Eschscholtz — an Atlantic species — in the Gulf of Trieste. In recent years this form has occurred frequently at Naples, and it is probably identical with T. bairdii, which is not uncommon on Scottish coasts. Large Antipatharian from Faero Islands.} — ,). Arthur Thomson describes a large specimen, over a yard in height, apparently of Paranti- pathes larix Esper. A slight modification of the diagnosis of the species is suggested, but the chief point of interest is the great extension of the previously recorded range of distribution. ■; Revision of Nephthyidse.§ — W. Kiikenthal discusses the genera Eunephthya Yerrill and Gersemia Marenzeller. The former includes Nephthyidae of branched tree-like habit ; with polyps singly or in bundles ; polyps retractile or non-retractile, without verruca or Stutzbundel ; canal walls not thickly filled with spicules. The latter includes " Nephthyidre without Stutzbundel, with polyps neither in lobules nor bundles, but singly ; with tree-like habit, but the branches may remain rudimentary ; the polyps have a sharply defined, non- retractile calyx, into which the upper portion can be withdrawn." He suggests that Eunephthya is at the root of the family and links it back to Alcyonium ; Gersemia is close beside Eunephthya; Neospongodes and IMhophytum may be traced back to Eunephthya, and Lemnalia is near IMhophytum. From the Nephthyiform-stock the genus Nephthya has arisen, and parallel to it Gapnella ; from Xfjihtln/n the genus Dendronephthya (Spongodes of most authors) has evolved, and it leads on to Scleronephthya ; Nephthya again has given origin to Stereonephthya, which leads to the Siphonogorgids. * Records Indian Museum, i. (11)07) pp. 281-9 (2 pis). t Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien, xvii. (190S) pp. 221-4 (1 pi.). I Proc. Rov. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, xvii. (1908) pp. 188-94 (1 pi.). § Zool. Jakrb., xxiv. (1907) pp. 317-90. 2 R 2 596 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO New Zealand Ctenophores.*-- W. B. Benham describes Berot shaJcespeari sp. a.., which difl'ers from the three species of the Northern hemisphere — B. ovata, B. forsJcalii, and B. cucumis, as also from B. australis (Fiji) and B. macrostoma (New Guinea). A second new form is Ev/ploTcamis australis sp. n. New Dictyonine Sponge.f— R. Kirkpatrick describes Eurete annan- dalei sp. n., an elegant and remarkable form from the Indian Ocean. It has not the "beautiful network" of anastomosing tubes, charac- teristic of Eurete, but consists of a vertical hollow stem with hollow separate lamella?. Siesta of Spongilla in Tropics.:}: — Nelson Annandale finds that for some hours in the middle of the day the currents cease and the oscular collars are somewhat contracted. It is by no means uncommon for Ccelenterates to remain in a state of quiescence during the heat of the day in the tropics and even in temperate climates, and it is not surprising that Sponges should follow the same course. New Indian Fresh-water Sponges. — Nelson Annandale § describes Spongilla reticulata sp. n., and S. crassior sp. n., and distinguishes the characters of the gemmules in S. decipiens Weber, S. fragilis Leidy, S. crassissima Annandale, and S. crassior. He finds that there is considerable seasonal variation. In a subsequent paper Annandale || describes Spoilt) ill a indica sp. n. closely allied to S. sumatrana Weber, and S. lapidosa sp. n. allied to S. loricata Weltner. Of the last named species R. Kirkpatrick^" describes a new variety, bvrmauica. Hydromedusan from Lake Qurun.^f — Charles L. Boulenger descrihe> Mozrisia Iponsi g. et sp. n., from Lake Quran, which communicates with the Nile by means of a network of canals which irrigate the Fayuni. The lake is the remains of the historic Lake Mceris, which was used as an artificial regulator of the Nile floods by the monarchs of the twelfth dynasty. It is about the size and shape of the Lake of Geneva, and except during high Nile receives very little water. There is no outlet, and the water is decidedly brackish. With the exception of Mcerisia, Cordylophora, and a Ctenostomatous polyzoan, resembling Virtorella, the fauna seems essentially a fresh-water one, composed probably of such Nile animals as can accommodate themselves to the salinity of the lake. The new form is referable to the Anthomedusae, as is shown by the globular shape, four-rayed symmetry of the umbrella, manubrial gonad > and the absence of otocysts. The gymnoblastic hydroid stage confirms this position. Furthermore, the simple mouth, the four unbranched tentacles, and the narrow radial canals, exclude Mozrisia from the Tiaridae, Margelidae, and Cladonemidse, and refer it to the Codonidse, near Sarsia, in fact. The hydroid is unique in its hollow tentacles and trans- * Trans. New Zealand Inst., xxxix. (1907) pp. 139-44 (1 pi.). t Records Indian Museum, ii. (1908) pp. 21-4 (1 pi.). J Op. cit., i. (1907) pp. 387-92 (1 pi.). § Loc. cit. § Op. cit., ii. (1908) pp. 25-8 (5 figs.). || Tom. cit., pp. 97-9 (1 pi.). f Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., lii. (1908) pp. 357-78 (2 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 507 verse fission ; it approaches Bougainvilliidae in having a single circlet of filiform tentacles and a cylindrical hypostome not constricted off from the body of the hydranth. The new genus may be defined as follows : — Hydvocaulus consisting of long unbranched stems rising at short intervals from a small hori- zontal hydrorhiza, the latter invested by a delicate annulated perisarc continued on to the bases of the stems. Hydranths claviform, with a small number (commonly four or five) of hollow filiform tentacles arranged in a circlet around the thickest part of the body. Hypostome cylindrical, not constricted at its base. Asexual repro- duction by budding and transverse fission. Medusa developed from the body of the hydranth ; when liberated, globular with four unbranched radial canals and tentacles. Mouth simple. Manubrium very short ; the stomach region provided with per-radial pouches which in the adult are produced into finger-shaped diverticula extending down the sub-umbrella. Gonads developed on the whole sur- face of the stomach and its diverticula. It is likely that Mwrisia is a relic of the fauna of the Pliocene sea which once covered the Fayuin depression. Porifera. Spicules of Leucosolenia.* — E. A. Minchin discusses the monaxon spicules and describes their origin — each arising from a dermal epithelial cell that divides into two, the " founder " and the "thickener." The triradiate systems are then dealt with ; they arise from sextets of cells, two of which give rise to each ray of the spicule. The gastral rays and the derelict spicules in Leucosolenia complicata are then discussed. Conspicuous rounded cells, full of coarse granules, arranged in a superficial layer and in many cases appearing to be in process of being cast off, are described as excretory. The author believes that the forms of monaxon spicules are not explicable in terms of the physical properties of the material or as the direct mechanical outcome of the conditions in which they develop. The monaxon spicules owe the peculiarities of their form chiefly (perhaps entirely) to their relations to the sponge-body, and are adapted to the needs of the organism. But while the forms of primary spicules are determined solely by their relation to the organism, and in no way by their crystalline structure, when primary spicules are joined to form secondary systems, crystallisation may be a condition determining the angles at which they join. Encystation of Actinosphaerium at Different Temperatures.! — Doris L. Mackinuon finds that at a low temperature, specimens of Actinosphc&rium eichhorni form small and numerous cysts, with nuclei scarcely below normal size, but markedly rich in chromatin. At a high temperature, the cysts formed are large and few in * Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., Hi. (1908) pp. 301-55 (5 pis. and 5 figs.), t Tom. cit., pp. 407-22 (1 pi. and 1 fig.). 598 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO [lumber, with nuclei scarcely larger than those of the cold cultures, hut poor in chromatin. Lowered temperature paralyses the cell-functious to some extent. Nuclear elimination is slow and incomplete, as indicated by (1) the large number of nuclei retained from the mother-cyst reduction to act as centres for primary cysts : (2) the superabundance of chromatin in these nuclei ; (3) the occurrence of two nuclei in one primary cyst, and (4) the occurrence of occasional " dead " nuclei within the groups of primary cysts. In many of the cultures, encystation set • in during the oncome of a " depression " wave, and it was found that in an encystation culture of depressed individuals the nuclear elimination tends to be incomplete. Haplosporidian of Flounder.* — Muriel Robertson describes a species oildithijospnrkliiim from the liver, the wall of the stomach and intestine, and the mesentery of the flounder. It causes much disturbance of the tissues of the host and proliferation of the connective-tissue. It is com- pared with /. gasterophilum, described by Caullery and Mesnil, from which it differs in various respects. Thus a well-developed cyst-wall is generally present ; the nuclei show fine rays between the karyosome and the nuclear membrane, plasmotomy occurs, the annual comes out of its cyst and breaks up into reproductive bodies which appear to be binucleate. Protozoa. Botellina.f — P. G. Pearcey discusses the remarkable Foraminifera referred to the genus BotelUna, and describes B. pinnata, a new species from the Cape. It is conspicuous among Astrorhizidse by its size (1 to 2\ inches in height, with a diameter of T\ to -f of an inch), and by its walls subdivided into chambers which communicate freely with a main tubular chamber running through the whole test. The arenaceous test is free, erect, pinnate, rising from a primordial chamber with pseudopodial openings situated at the extremity of the pinnate out- growths. The author has had abundant specimens at his disposal and gives a full account of this remarkable type. Archerina, Golenkinia, and Botryococcus.J — E. Ray Lankester points out that Chodat's Oolmkinia radiata (1894), and Lemmermann's Richteriella botryoides (18138), are the same as his Archerina (1885). He thinks, however, that Archerina is one of the simpler Protophyta, not a Protozoon. It occurs frequently in close association with amoeboid protoplasm, probably belonging to a Vampyrella-like organism. The author also arives an account of observations made nearlv twenty- five years ago on what he called "cayenne-pepper growth," found floating on the surface of English lakes. His drawings are also published. The organism turns out to be Botryococcus bra-unit of Ktitzing, of which Chodat has published a full description and figure. * Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, xvii. (1908) pp. 175-87 (2 pis.). t Trans. S. African Phil. Soc, xvii. (1908) pp. 185-94 (1 pi. and 1 fig.). t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., iii. (1908) pp. 423-30 (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 599 Remarkable Adaptation in Onychodactylus Acrobates. * — A. Brodsky notes that this holotrichous Infusorian, which he has studied on the shores of the Black Sea, attaches itself to seaweed by a long resistant anchoring filament, which it secretes from its conical " foot." Whenever this foot or appendix touches a solid body it fixes a filament, and the Infusorian may ride like a ship at anchor. This is an interest- ing adaptation to littoral life. Patagonian Protozoa.!— G. Entz, senior, reports on a collection of fresh- water Protozoa (23 species) from Patagonia. Most of them are represented in the European plankton, but the collection included numerous specimens of Acineta tripharetrata sp. n. Of this and of Toco- phrya cyelopum a detailed account is given. Tokophrya Cyclopum. +—B. Collin has studied the short-stalked form of this Infusorian, which is common on the antenna? and appen- dages of Cyclops. He notes that the canal of the contractile vacuole opens into the base of an " embryonal cavity," much larger than the "embryo." The latter fixes itself by the pole which is anterior in swimming : this is the more pointed pole, furthest from the nucleus, inclosing the basal secretion of the future stalk ; the other pole has a rudimentary ad oral zone of cilia. The same phenomena were seen in another Infusorian found on Cyclops, namely, Choanophrya infundi- bulifera Hartog, which seems to be a Tokophrya. In unfavourable con- ditions Tokophrya, becomes mobile, returning to an embryonic condition or undergoing a sort of moult. Hgemogregaxine of the Eel.§ — C. France describes Emmoyreyarina bettencourti sp. n. from the eel. It seems to be quite distinct from E. liynieresi, which Laveran described in eels from near Buenos Ayres. Trypanosomes of the Frog.|| — C. Franca finds that the Inverte- brate host of Trypanosoma costatum and T. rotator ium is a leech, Helobdella dlgira, which also transmits T. mopinatum. Notes on Myxosporidia.^]" — L. Mercier has studied Boferellus cyprini in various stages which occur in the tubules of the carp's kiduey. He finds a valve-nucleus in each of the two valves of the spore, and he finds that the peculiar " yellow bodies " found in the kidney along with Myxobolus cyprini, or in healthy fishes, are the residues of normal phagocytosis. Parasite of Male Starfish. — Casimir Cepede** describes Orchitophrya stellarum g. et sp. n., an astomatous Infusorian which causes degenera- tion of some of the cells of the testes of the common starfish (Asterias rubens), causing partial parasitic castration. * Arch. Zool. Exper., viii. (1908) Notes et Kevue, No. 2, pp. li.-liii. (1 fig.), t Math. Nat. Ber. Ungarn., xxi. (1907) pp. 84-112 (2 pis. and 7 figs.). X Arch. Zool. Exper., viii. (1908) Notes et Revue, No. 2, pp. xxxiii.-xxxix. (2 figs.). § Bull. Soc. Portugaise Sci. Nat., i. (1908) pp. 165-8. || Tom. cit., pp. 169-70. ^f Arch. Zool. Exper., viii. (1908) Notes et Revue, No. 2, pp. liii.-lxii. (5 figs.). ** Comptes Reudus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1305-6. 600 SUMMABY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO The author* has been able to keep this new parasite alive for half an hmir in the testicular juice, and for sixteen days in a mixture of a small quantity of testicular juice and sea-salt solution. In the latter it exhibits an adaptation to what approaches a marine medium. It changes its mode of locomotion, twisting in a gyratory fashion on its longitudinal axis, its cilia beat much more rapidly, and the endoplasm becomes much clearer owing to the disappearance of accumulated reserve products. Culture of Treponema pallidum in vitro.t — C. Lebailly has suc- ceeded in keeping Treponema, pallidum Schaudinn alive for some days in vitro, apart from the living organism. It continued to multiply in these conditions. This may lead to fruitful experiments in the way of acclimatising the micro-organism to controlled conditions. * Comptes Eendus, cxlv. (1907) pp. 1435-7. f Op. cit., cxlvi. (1908) pp. 312-14. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 601 BOTANY. GENERAL, Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants. Cytology, including Cell-Contents. Autolysis of Mitosis.*— A. Oes has studied mitosis in Vicia Fdba, Pisum sativum, Hdianthus annum, etc., with the following results. Those cells where mitosis has just started, but where further develop- ment has been prevented by the addition of chloroform, toluol, or any similar substance, contain an enzyme which can dissolve chromatin. This enzyme is most rapid in action during ineta-, ana-, and telophase, slower during prophase, and very slow indeed in the resting nucleus. In autolysis the spindle-threads can no longer be made out, while the nuclear membrane and nucleolus of the resting nucleus remain un- changed. Temperatures from 80-40° C. favour autolysis ; at 80-90° C. it is completely destroyed. A dilute solution of substances like nitre favour it, while the reverse effect is produced by copper-sulphate, etc. The enzyme is readily destroyed by free acids, but is uninjured by strong alkalis. Nuclein is probably destroyed by it, and the diminu- tion of chromatic material during telophase is probably due to its action. The experiments seem to oppose the view that hereditary characters are transmitted through the chromatin. Cytology of Pollen-mother-cells of Agave attenuata.t — Er. de Lary, who has studied the pollen-mother-cells of several of the Amaryl- lidacesB, contributes a note upon Agave. Prior to synapsis the nucleus is completely filled by a fine linin network, the filaments of which bear small chromatin corpuscles ; but the author has been unable to find any association in pairs of either the corpuscles or the filaments. In the early synapsis stage there is no fusion in pairs of the chromatic corpuscles, and a little later the chromatin granules appear in a single row ; at no time is there any sign of longitudinal splitting or of fusion of two filaments. It is probable that the chromosomes are formed by concentration of the chromatin, similar to the chromosome-formation of NympJma alba and Nuphar luteum. The author favours the view held by Mottier in regard to other Monocotyledons, viz. the formation of simple chromosomes by the transverse splitting of a double chromo- some. Sometimes detached chromosomes form accessory nuclei during the early stages, but they disappear later, either through fusion with the main nucleus, or by absorption into the cytoplasm ; and the author considers that this refutes the theory that supernumerary nuclei are specially characteristic of hybrids. * Bot. Zeit., lxvi. (1908) pp. 89-120 (1 pi.), t Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 833-fi. 602 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Structure and Development, Vegretative. Red Wood in Conifers.* — J. White has carried out a number of experiments upon Conifers in order to test the truth of the suggestion that the formation of red wood is " a morphogenic response to a gravi- bational stimulus." The plants used were grown in pots and rotated on a klinostat, and the results show that, while the formation of red wood is due to the stimulus of gravity, the thickness of its tracheids appears to be the result of a light-stimulus ; the tracheid walls of strougly illuminated branches were always thicker than those under a less intense illumination. Under similar conditions, the walls of the tracheids of both red and white wood were of equal thickness. It is improbable that pressure and tension produced by forcibly curving the branches has any effect upon the thickness of the tracheids of either white or red wood, or upon the formation of red wood. The minimum time for response to the stimulus of gravity in the production of red wood is 2 hours. Embryology in the Palmaceas, Musaceae, and Cannaceae.t — C. L. Gatin contributes a note upon his recent studies of the anatomy and development of the embryo in the Palniaceas, Musaceae, and Cannaceae. The embryos have several points in common, of which the following are the most important. They are all surrounded by an epidermis which is discontinuous opposite the radicle, where it gives place to irregular cells representing the remains of the suspensor. The central cylinder of the radicle is well-defined from the first, but its cortex and cap differ greatly in their degree of differentiation. In all cases the radicle is endogenous, being most markedly so in Pinanga and Calamus, which, in this respect, resemble the Grasses. There are two phases of develop- ment in germination : (1) the phase of preparation, (2) the phase of germination proper ; in the former the seedling issues from the seed, while in the latter the various organs complete their development. In Palms the growth of the cotyledon is very great, but the shape is determined by the interior of the seed ; in Cannaceas and Musacea? the growth is less, but the form more, primitive. As stated previously, when the plumule and radicle are in the same straight line, no ligule is formed, while if the angle between the radicle and plumule is less than 180°, a ligule is present. Hibernation and Vegetative Reproduction of Stellaria.i — T. Holm has studied American species of Stellar/)/, and distinguishes three types of vegetative reproduction. The first type, represented by S. p ahcra, has no rhizome, but persisting aerial stolons. There are two kinds of shoots : floral, which die down when the fruit is mature, and vegetative, which arise as horizontal branches, and form new individuals. As soon as these vegetative shoots have formed roots, the internodes break down and produce separate plants, which hibernate * Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria (n.s.) xx. 2 (1908) pp. 107-24. t Comptes'Reudus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 93S-10. \ Amer. Journ. Sci., xxv. (1908) pp. 315-22 (G figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 603 by perennial stem-bases. The second type, represented by S. lonf/i/ie* and S. umbellata, persists by " hibernating buds above ground and by subterranean stolons." This type is very characteristic of plants subject to extreme climatic conditions. The third type, represented by 8. Jamesii, has a well-developed rhizome, but the aerial stems are annual. The rhizome is much swollen, and bears membranous, scale-like leaves ; only those buds which are near the apex develop into aerial, floral shoots, other buds remain dormant. The third type appears to be rare in the Caryophyllaceae. Physiology. Nutrition and Growth. Transpiration.* — G. L. Clapp has studied transpiration with the view of discovering what plants are most suitable for purposes of class- demonstration. The results obtained are recorded in a series of graphs, which bring out the following facts. Transpiration is at its maximum when sunlight is most intense, moisture is least, and there is a good supply of water in the soil. The minimum is reached when temperature is low, atmospheric moisture is near the point of saturation, and dark- ness is complete. Transpiration is extremely sensitive to slight changes in external conditions, and points to the possibility that the relation between such conditions and the amount of vapour given off is not purely physical, but " involves the action of the conditions as stimuli." Of the plants examined, Helianthus annum transpires most, but is un- suitable for class-demonstration. Among those most suitable for such purposes are TropcRoluni majus, Pelargonium domesticum, and Fuchsia speciosa. The average amount of transpiration for ordinary green-house plants is 50 grin, per hour per square metre of surface in daylight, and 10 grm. in night-time. Irritability. Geotropic Sensibility of the Root.f — Gr. Haberlandt has investi- gated the statements of A. Piccards as to the geotropic sensibility of the root. Having repeated the experiments made by this investigator, the present writer is led to agree with bis conclusions, which are briefly as follows : Ttie geotropic sensibility of the root extends from the root- tip to the zone of growth, but is greater in the tip, especially at a distance of 1*5 to 2 mm. from the end. This greater sensibility of the root-tip corresponds to the larger number of statoliths in the root-cap. The sensibility in the zone of growth is clue to the statoliths of the periblem. Usually the statoliths are deposited irregularly, but in the zone of most rapid growth in Vicia Fdba they are in layers. By the appli- cation of a sufficiently great centrifugal force, the position of the stato- liths in relation to the cell-walls may be changed, and the response to the force of gravity overcome. All the experiments performed favour the Statolith Theory. * Bot. Gaz., xlv. (1908) pp. 254-67 (-2 figs., 30 graphs). f Jahrb. wiss. Bot., xlv. (1908) pp. 575-600 (2 figs.). ti(J4 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Influence of Light and Colours on Yeast.*-- J. E. Purvis and Gr. R. Warwick have experimented with different species of Saccharomyces in order to show the inllnence uf ravs of light of different refrangi- bility upon the appearance and production of spores. Red, green, and blue screens were used, and the yeast was kept in an Incubator at 24-25c C. In four series of experiments the results show that while blue and violet retard sporulation in a most marked manner, and green to a less extent, red rays produce the same effect as darkness. Ultra- violet rays produce the greatest retardation. The influence of radium was also tested, and found to destroy the vitality of the cell. In general, it is found that rays of low refrangibility accelerate spore formation, and vice versa. Experiments made on the influence of light and colours upon fermentation of hopped wort show that fermenting solutions are not seriously influenced by these factors. Chemical Changes. Effects of Poisonous Gases on Plants.f — W. J. V. Osterhout has made experiments on various plants, both wild and cultivated, in order to ascertain whether it is possible to distinguish the effects of poison- ous gases from those due to drought, root-injury, and other natural causes. All the experiments confirm the opinion that, while drought and natural causes result in the fading of the leaves, beginning from the oldest, various poisonous gases, e.g. sulphur dioxide, cause the young leaves to fade long before the old ones. Also the young rind of stems is quickly injured by drought, but endures the action of sulphur dioxide for a considerable time. Value of Sodium to Plants. % — The same author has experi- mented with plants grown in water-cultures and in soil, with the view of discovering whether sodium can be used as a protective agent to plants. Experiments were made with various flowering plants, liverworts, algae, and fungi, and tend to show that sodium can protect plants against the toxic action of potassium, ammonium, magnesium, and calcium. The sodium has no nutritive function, but is only protective ; moreover, both chlorides and nitrates give similar results. These results show a striking similarity between the behaviour of plants and animals, and may prove of great value in agriculture. General. Origin of Parasitic Plants.§— C. A. White has studied parasitic Seed Plants with the view of discovering something as to their aggre- gate origin. He divides them into seven groups. Group I. includes partial parasites which prey upon the roots of host-plants for part of their nourishment. Group II. includes complete parasites, which, how- ever, are nearly normal in structure, e.g. Mistletoe. Group III. contains * Joura. Inst. Brew., xiv. (1908) pp. 214-33. f Tom. cit., pp. 339-40. t Univ. Californ. Bot. Publications, iii. (1908) pp. 331-7. § Amer. Nat., xlii. (1908) pp. 98-108. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 605 only Lathrcea squamaria. Group IV. includes Cuscuta and Gassytha, Group V. the Orobanchacese, Group VI. Raffiesia and allied genera, while Group VII.. represented by the Balanophoracese, shows the highest degree of modification. The method of parasitism of each group is shared equally by every member, and this method is distinct from that of each of the other groups. All parasitic habits and structures appear to be inherited. None of the types show any tendency to revert to normal conditions, and although the fruit and flowers show that these parasites were originally normal Phanerogams, no transitional types can be discovered. The author assumes that phanerogamic parasites have originated " by sudden and aggregate mutation from normal Phanerogams." Ultramicroscopic Organisms.* — H. Molisch publishes the results of his observations made in the attempt to discover ultramicroscopic organisms. So far no such bodies have been made out with certainty, and the author is of the opinion that if they do exist, they are of little importance and relatively few. All bodies previously thought to belong to this class have proved, on further investigation, to be colonies of minute bacteria, and the present results confirm the opinion put forward by Errera, that any existing ultramicrobes cannot be much smaller than the smallest known organisms. Investigations made upon the mosaic disease of tobacco and the chlorosis of the Malvaceae, make it probable that diseases hitherto ascribed to microbes are due to the toxic action of some assimilation-product. CRYPTOGAMS. Pteridophyta. (By A. Gepp, M.A., F.L.S.) Effect of Light upon Spore-germination.f — A. C. Life describes the effect of light upon the germination of spores and the gametophyte of ferns. The spores of Alsophila australis germinated a year after collection, those of other ferns germinated as soon as they were dry. Ordinarily the spores do not germinate in darkness. At temperatures above that of ordinary rooms the spores of Alsophila and Aneimia would not germinate. Germination was best in light of medium intensity, weaker light inducing filamentous or ribbon-like prothallia, while strong light induced heart-shaped prothallia. Strong light led to the production of only archegonia in Alsophila, but of both sex-organs in the other species. Weak light favours the production of antheridia and inhibits that of archegonia. Ophioglossum simplex.^ — P. 0. Bower publishes a further note on Ophioglossum simplex Ridley, a unique species from Sumatra described by * Bot. Zeit., lxvi. (190S) pp. 131-9. t Ann. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard., xix. (1907) pp. 109-22. See also Bot. Gazette, xlv. (1908) p. 421. X Ann. of Bot., xxii. (1908) pp. 327-8. 606 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO him in the same periodical four years previously. It is remarkable for the apparent absence of the sterile lamina, while the fertile spike is well developed. This may be attributed to the presence of mycorhiza, which facilitates the nutrition of the large spike in the dense wet forest, though the sterile assimilatory lamina is absent. He has received further Sumatran specimens from E. Rosenstock, and these possess a more or Less pronounced outgrowth, which clearly represents a sterile lamina, thus linking the species closer with 0. intermedium, and 0. pendulum, and justifying the view that 0. simplex is a reduced and not a primitive form. He adduces other anatomical reasons for rebutting D. H. Campbell's views that the plant is a primitive form. Production of Dwarf Male Prothalli in Sporangia of Todea.* — L. A. Boodle, when examining sporangia of filmy species of Todea (T. FraseridbDA T. hymmophylloides), found antheridia in some of the closed sporangia, and gives an account of his observations. When plants of T. Fraseri are kept in a sufficiently damp atmosphere, sporangia do not dehisce, and a number of spores germinate in situ ; among the simple few-celled prothalli produced being some that bear a single terminal antheridium. Similar iutrasporangial germination takes place in de- tached sporangia if kept moist, antheridia being produced after three weeks. The prothalli do not burst the sporangial wall, but die. Free spores, placed under the same conditions as the sporangia, never pro- duced dwarf male prothalli, but formed normal prothalli, which within the limits of the author's experiments never produced sexual organs. In T. hymmophylloides the spores germinate less readily, antheridiferous prothalli being found in closed sporangia in only one or two experiments. The formation of dwarf male prothalli in the sporangium is possibly due to the concentration of certain organic food substances, caused by pressure of the growing spores in the confined space. The concentration may lead to special nutrition of the protoplasm, resulting in precocious formation of sexual organs. Water-storing Tubers of Nephrolepis.f — J. W. Harshberger gives a resume of what has been written by Yelenovsky, Heinricher, and others, about the tubers of various species of Nephrolepis and their function. He has himself investigated the tubers of two species, N. cordifolia and N. davallioides, and finds himself somewhat at variance with previous writers. The principal function of the tubers can definitely be stated to be water storage, and the amount of water stored is consider- able. The tubers aid the plant in tiding over the periods of drought. North American Pteridophyta. — A. H.TrundyJ describes the method of growth of Lycopodium sabincefolium in Maine, where it occurs in large circles (up to 150 ft. in circumference), ever growing outwards, the younger plants being situated on the outside margin of the belt, and the fruiting plants on the inside margin. The space within the circle is covered with Cladonia rangiferina. A similar circular manner of growth is noticeable in L. inundatum. o * Ann. of Bot., xxii. (1908) pp. 231-43 (1 pi.), t Bull. Torrey Bot. Club xxxv. (1908) pp. 271-6. t Fern Bulletin, xv. (1907) pp 70-1. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. 007 W. N. Clute * figures and names a new bipinnatifid form of the Christmas fern (Polystkham aero sticho ides), and also gives a brief account of the sports of the so-called " Boston fern " of cultivation (Nephrolepis exaltata). He also writes f about the wholesale destruction caused by the col- lection and sale of ferns and evergreens for decorative purposes. He publishes $ a series of notes under the title " Pteridographia," chiefly embodying items of information supplied by correspondents. C* E. Waters § publishes some details concerning the habit of Aspi- dium cristatum, on the vertically growing fertile fronds of which the pinnae are turned into a horizontal situation, or so as to catch the maximum amount of illumination. He also points out that Equisetum hy&mafo, which is recorded as "fruiting in summer," discharges its spores in early spring. J. A. Graves || states the simpler characters by which Aspidium spinulosum, its varieties intermedium, dilatum, and A. Boottii — may be recognised and distinguished from one another. W. N. Clutef figures and describes Doryopteris pedata, a fern of tropical America which is included in Pteris by some authors. He reports ** a new station in Florida for the rare Hypolepis repens, only once found previously in the United States. He calls attention ft to a hybrid between Asplenium ruta-muraria and A. trichomanes, found in Vermont in 1905. He discusses the application of the laws of nomenclature to the new Struthiopteris yermanica f. pubescens. Much confusion existing between Nephrodium patens and N. molle, he shows how these two species can be distinguished from one another and from N. stipulate. Finally, he publishes a further portion of his checklist of the North American Fern worts, comprising the genera Selayinella and Isoetes. C. F. Saunders IX records the re-discovery of Gheilanthes Parishii, in the Colorado desert, after a lapse of twenty-seven years ; and Parish's description of the locality in which it was originally found is reproduced. J. Shepard§§ shows how a nature-print negative may be easily obtained from a fern or other plant, and used for making positive prints of the original. South American Ferns. |||| — G. Hieronymus publishes a third in- stalment of vascular cryptogams gathered by Alfons Stiibel during his travels in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. It is an enumeration of 133 species, including 14 new species and several new varieties. Descriptions of* New Species of Ferns.H — E. Roscnstock publishes descriptions of four new species and a variety of ferns from Sumatra. New Zealand, and South America. The same author *** also publishes descriptions of twenty-one new * Fern Bulletin, xv. (1907) pp. 71-4. t Tom. cit., pp. 77-9. % Tom. cit., pp. 82-9. § Tom. cit., pp. 79, 80, 82. || Tom. cit., pp. 80-1. % Op. cit., xvi. (1908) pp. 33 -5 (pi.). ** Tom cit., p. 38. ft Tom. cit., pp. 46-57 (2 figs.). \\ Tom. cit., pp. 35-7. §§ Tom. cit., pp. 39-42 (2 figs.). |||| Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) pp. 204-49. ^f Fedde, Repertorium, v. (1908) pp. 13-17. *** Tom. cit., pp. 33-44. 608 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ferns collected in New Guinea by E. Werner. Among them is the new genus llrniijilrris. which differs from Pteris in having the upper margin of the laciniaj free from sori. Deciduous British Ferns.* — C. T. Druery writes of the deciduous British ferns. Only one of these (Polypodium vulgare) has the property of throwing off the fronds at a basal joint, and this occurs in the spring. The fronds of other species die down on the approach of winter. There are, in fact, three groups : — (1) those that die down entirely in autumn, viz. lady fern, bladder fern, oak and beech ferns, mountain Lastrea, marsh fern, and royal fern ; (2) those that retain their greenness if sheltered during winter, viz. soft male fern and broad buckler fern ; (3) the evergreen group, viz. hard male fern, spleenwort, hart's-tongue, shield ferns, and Blechnum. Fossil Pteridophyta.f — T. 6. Halle gives an account of some herbaceous Lycopodiacea? of the palaaozoic and mesozoic periods, a sub- ject which was studied by Goldenberg fifty years ago. It is clear that the species of Lycopodium and Selaginella of the present day must be descended from herbaceous ancestors, and not from the highly organised dendroid Lepidodendroti and Sit/Maria. And such herbaceous forms certainly existed in the Devonian. The author gives a resume of the work of Goldenberg, Schimper, Renault, Kidston, Zeiller, and others. He also adds descriptions of the following specimens : Lycopodites Zeiller i sp. n., L. macrophyllus, L. scanicus, Selagiaellites primcevus, S. elongatus. The same author % makes some remarks on the mesozoic Equisetacere of Skane. Stigmaria with Centripetal Wood.§ — F. E. Weiss describes the structure of a Stigmaria with centripetal wood, the first specimen obtained from the English Coal Measures. It came from the Hard Beds of Halifax. The author regards it rather as a Stigmarian axis than as a stem of Lepidodendron niundum (as Williamson concluded from a more fragmentary specimen) for the following reasons. The periderm is very wide and has a peculiar structure, and exhibits the remains of what must be rootlet-cushions, and there is no hard primary outer cortex. The curious centrical lateral bundles, and the system of delicate reticulate tracheids, show a likeness with S. Brardii Renault. The course of the lateral bundles through the secondary wood is as in another Stigmaria. The obvious centripetal development of the protoxylem, though more characteristic of Lepidodendroid stems than of Stigmarian axes, does yet undoubtedly occur in some examples of Stigmaria. The primary wood agrees closely with that of L&pidodendron mundum (now identified with Bothrodendron), and possibly both may belong to the same plant. Deceased North American Pteridologists.|) — J. H. Barnhart gives a chronological list of the published papers of the late Professor Lucien * Pern Bulletin, xv. (1907) pp. 75-6. t Arkiv Botanik, vii. No. 5 (1908) 17 pp. (3 pis.). X Tom. cit., No. 7 (7 pp.). § Ann. of Bot., xxii. (190S) pp. 221-30 (1 pi.). || Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxv. (190S) pp. 17-38. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICBOSCOPY, ETC. 609 Marcus Underwood. These are 212 in number ; the first was printed in 1878, and the last in 1907, and 78 of them are concerned with the Pteridophyta. It was during the last ten years of his life that Under- wood gave his attention more particularly to ferns, collecting material in the United States and West Indies, and paying several visits to Europe in order to study type-specimens of American species. W. N. Olute* publishes obituary notices of Benjamin Davis Gilbert, Lucien Marcus Underwood, and George Edward Davenport, leading students of ferns, deceased during 1907. Anatomy and Morphology of Tmesipteris.f — M. G. Sykes describes the external features and the anatomy of Tinesijrteris, based upon material obtained from New Zealand, and shows that there is an endodermis surrounding the single stele in the rhizome, and that it has characteristic markings on its radial walls. The endodermis loses these markings and becomes less obvious at the transition region ; and in the aerial stem it can no longer be distinguished. The pith arises in the centre of the stele in the transition region, and quickly expands to form a large tissue in the stem ; the protostele passes into a medullated monostele without the intermediate stage of solenostele. Growth from a single apical cell occurs in both rhizome and stem. In the fertile branch, as in the sterile, the single bundle entering the axis branches into three, the two lateral traces supplying the leaves. The central bundle supplies the synangium, which occurs at the point of divergence of the two leaves. The single trace entering the synangium pedicel branches into three ; the two lateral diverge and run round the periphery of the septum. The central trace, described for the first time, is an important argument in favour of the axial theory of the sporophyll in the Psilotales, and is re- garded by the author as representing the vascular supply of the apex of the branch. The author searches for evidence of phylogenetic relation- ship with Sphenophyllum. Origin of Roots in Lycopodium.l— E. M. Saxelby gives an account <>f the origin of the roots in Lycop odium Selago. They arise near the apex of the stem, but below the first leaves, before the vascular elements have become differentiated ; and they arise from a group of cells : the dermatogen of the root from the innermost layer of the stem periblem, and the periblem and plerome of the root from the plerome of the stem. The root-apex is divided into three meristematic regions, the dermatogen giving rise to the root-cap and epidermis, and the periblem producing four layers of cells over the central plerome. The roots run down through the middle cortex of the stem and emerge from the under side of it beneath the soil ; they do not dichotomise before emerging. Each root is connected with two protoxylem groups of the stem and the inclosed phloem. Leaf-traces, on the other hand, are never connected with more than one set of protoxylem elements. The roots may be diarch or tetrarch, the metaxylem of the former being in two parallel bauds, and that of the latter being in the shape of a horse-shoe. The * Fern Bulletin, xv. (1907) pp. 65-70. t Ann. of Bot., xxii. (1908) pp. 63-89 (2 pis. and figs.). % Tom. cit., pp. 21-33 (1 pi.). Oct. 21st, 1908 2 s 610 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO protoxylem is formed of spiral and annular vessels ; the metaxylem is of wide tracheids, either scalariform or with several rows of pits. The endodermis is of two or three layers, the innermost cells having thickened radial and transverse walls. The lacunae of the middle cortex do nor communicate with those of the middle cortex of the stem. The roots have a firm outer cortex of thick-walled cells. Types of Embryo-development in Selaginella.* — H. Bruclimann demonstrates that Selagindla Martensii, on the one hand, and S. Poulteri and S. Kraussiana on the other, possess two different types of embryo- development — a difference which is characterised by the original position of the primary rhizophore. In S. Martensii the first rhizo- phore arises between the foot and suspensor. In the other type it arises above the suspensor and foot. Although systematists have arranged the species in different groups according to their external characters, it does not follow that these groups correspond with the differences of structure shown in the embryo. The development of the embryo in each of the two types referred to is described in detail, and at the end of the paper a summarised comparison is appended. Bryophyta. (By A. Gepp.) Harpidium Section of Hypnum.j — J. A. Wheldon discusses the classification of the difficult group of mosses, the Harpidia adunca of Sanio. He gives several reasons for not accepting Renauld's view, that Hypnum aduncum, H. Sendtneri, H. Wilson/, and H. lycopodioides should all be regarded as sub-species of H. aduncum. Nor does he accept Ingham's view that H. pseudoftuitans is a state of H. aduncum {typicum). In the light of his own observations, he holds that the varieties typicum, intermedium, and pseudoftuitans are not convertible into one another by wetter or drier conditions. The problem is much more complex. Hardly anything is known of the ecology and phy- logeny of the mosses. Why do some mosses have straight leaves, and others falcate ? The branching of the moss-stem is not determined merely by such factors as light and shade, vertical or lateral illumination. In attempting to trace the conversion of one species into another in this critical group, the student must avoid being misled by badly developed specimens. The author then gives an account of his own field observa- tions on the following species or groups in the neighbourhood of Liverpool during a period of fourteen years : — Hypnum aduncum Ren.. H. Sendtneri Schimp., H. Wilsoni Schimp. The numerous forms of H. aduncum are plentifully represented ; those of the group Kneiffii are- found chiefly inland and less in pools near the coast, whereas the groups pseudoftuitans and typicum occur near the coast only. As to H. Sendtneri, regarded as an Alpine plant on the Continent, in this country it is con- fined to the plains, and especially to the vicinity of the sea-coast. * Flora, xcix. (1908) pp. 12-51 ((figs.). t Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 85-94. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 611 H. Wilsoni he regards as a natural hybrid between H. Sendtneri and H. lycopodioides, and gives reasons for this view ; for instance, he has never gathered H. Wilsoni except in pools where H. Sendtneri and H. lycopodioides grow together. In conclusion, he appends a list of Harpidia ad tinea, based upon the work of Sanio, Renauld, and Warnstorf, the main features of which (apart from numerous varieties and forms) are as follows : — 1. Hypnum polycarpon Bland. (H. Kneiffii Schimp.) ; (2) H. simplicissimum Warnst. ; (3) H. subaduncam Warnst. ; (4) H. pseudofluitans Klinggr. ; (5) H. Barbeyi Ren. ; (6) H. capillifolium Warnst. ; (7) H. Sendtneri Schimp. ; (7a) H. Wilsoni Schimp. ; (8) H. lycopodioides Schwaegr. ; (9) H. latinerve Arnell. Introductory Study of the Muscinese.* — T. H. Russell has pub- lished a book on Mosses and Liverworts : an introduction to their study, with hints as to their collection and preservation. He first treats of the mosses, giving some of the more generally interesting facts concerning them, with a sketch of their life-history and various modes of reproduc- duction. He then treats of the hepatics on the same lines ; and in chapter iv. he goes carefully into the questions of the collection, ex- amination, and preservation of specimens, describing the most appropriate apparatus to use, and how to make it ; and giving' explicit instructions for the preparation of Microscope slides, with hints as to how the many pitfalls that beset the beginner may be avoided. Luminosity of Schistostega.f — W. West expresses the opinion that the luminosity of Schistostega osmundacea, which always grows in sparsely lighted caverns, is due to the peculiar shape of the cells of the protonema, which are convex above and conical below. An incident ray of light is first refracted upon entering the cell, then reflected across the cone, again reflected, and finally refracted upon emergence, so that some of the light passes back along the path by which it approached the cell ; and the modification which the light has undergone in the protonemal cells accounts for the strange character of the luminosity. British Hepaticse.J — B. Cockburn publishes a short note on the distribution of Pallavicinia hibernica and the rare and inconspicuous Petalophyllum Ralfsii in Britain, and the conditions under which they occur, namely, in salt marshes near the sea. The two plants sometimes grow together. W. Evans § gives an account of the distribution of the species of the genus Riccia in the reservoirs around Edinburgh in 1905, in the autumn, when the level of the water was remarkably low. He visited fifteen reservoirs, and found R.sorocarpa to be present in all. R.glauca occurred in eight, R. crystalUna in five, R. Lescuriana in three, and R. fluitans f . canaliculMa in two. R. crystal I i mi was previously unknown * London : Sampson Low, Marston, and Co. (1908) xiv. and 200 pp. (10 pis.). t Naturalist, No. 606 (1907) p. 256. % Trans. Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh, xxiii. (1907) pp. 279-80. § Tom. cit., pp. 2S5-7 (1 pi.). 2 8 2 f)12 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO in the Scottish flora. Fossombronia cristata was also growing plentifully in most of the reservoirs. Photographs of the living plants are given. F. Rhodes* records the occurrence of Riccisllafluitans in abundance in some dykes at Mablethorpe last summer. This hepatic has apparently been recorded for Lincolnshire only once previously. Sphagnum bavaricum in Yorkshire.! — W. Bellerby records the occurrence of Sphaijuu.m bavaricum in England. It was detected by C. Warnstorf among some interesting species of Sphagnum collected in bogs near Ellerbeck by W. Bellerby. Warnstorf had recently published a description of S. bavaricum in Hedwigia, xlvii (1907) p. 84. An English translation from the German of this description is supplied by Bellerby. The plant is allied to S. sub secundum. Yorkshire Mosses. — C. A. Cheetham % gives a list of twelve mosses from Cautley, in West Yorkshire, which have not been recorded pre- viously for the district. Among them is Dicranella secunda Lindb. The same author § publishes some field notes upon the more interest- ing mosses observed during an excursion of the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union. He describes the luxuriance of the species observed on the limestone in Ling Gill ; the very restricted flora on the gritstone scars of Pennyghent ; the rarities in Douk Grill. A list of eight species new to the district is added. C. A. Cheetham || gives a list of seven mosses not previously recorded for Inglebro', in West Yorks, and confirms the records of eight which were previously doubtful. Muscinese of Flintshire. IF — A. A. Dalman gives an enumeration of ten hepaticse and seventy mosses of Flintshire, with their respective stations, and a few notes upon peculiarities of structure, etc. New and Rare Scottish Mosses.** — J. Stirton gives an account of some mosses collected mostly at or near Arisaig, in the west of Scotland. Some of these are interesting because of their rarity. Eleven species and one variety are described as new to science. The descriptions and notes have also been published in the Annals of Scotch Nat. Hist., 1907, pp. 171-80. MuscineaB of Greece-ft — A. Coppey has determined the mosses and hepatics collected in Greece by Maire and Petitmengin, and combined them with a list of all previous records, which are but scanty. The more interesting species are Barbula papillosissima (recently described), Grimmia Hartmanni, Funaria Mairena sp. n., Bry am provincial e, Hyii- num commutatum, H.falcatum, H. irrigatum. Annotations and figures of these are given. .-> * Naturalist, No. 607 (1907) p. 327. t Op. cit., No. 612 (1908) pp. 15-16. X Op. cit., No. 616 (1908) p. 193. § Op. cit., No. 617 (1908) pp. 201-2. || Op. cit., No. 606 (1907) pp. 256-7. f Journ. of Bot., xlvi. (1908) pp. 227-30. ** Proc. Eoy. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, xxxviii. (1907) pp. 150-8. tt Bull. Soc. Sci. Nancy (1908) 70 pp. (4 pis.). See also Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) p. 98. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 613 North American Muscineae. — C. C. Haynes* gives an obituary notice of Professor L. M. Underwood (b. 1853, d. 1907), with special reference to his work in connection with the North American Hepaticse, and appends a bibliography of his works. A. W. Evans, f having re- cognised Lopholejeunea Muelleriana among some hepatics collected by S. Rapp, of Sanford, in Florida, points out certain details in which it differs from specimens gathered in Porto Rico and Brazil. Twenty-nine Lejeuneas are now recorded for the United States, and twenty-four of them for Florida. A. Lorenz % publishes some notes upon Jubula pennsylvanica, illustrated for the first time with figures. P. M. Towle § gives data about the fruiting season of a few species of mosses, chiefly Mnium, Rhodobryum, and Bartramia ; and shows how the dates differ according to latitude, climate, and the earliness of arrival of spring. E. G. Britton |] gives a history of the various opinions that have been published about the presence or absence of the genus Zygodon in North America, and the number of species found. She sums up the matter by providing descriptions of three species — Z. viridissimus, Z. rupestris, Z. gracilis — and of Leptodontium excelsum, which is usually known as Zygodon Sulivantii. A. W. Evans, IT having had an opportunity of examining the type specimens in the Lindenberg collection of Hepaticae at Vienna, and having arrived at some conclusions which are at variance with those of recent writers and with his own previous ideas, writes upon the synonymy of three North American species. 1. Lejeunea Icetevirens Nees and Mont, is the same as L. lucens Tayl. and L. glaucophylla Gottsche, and belongs to the genus Microlejeunea. 2. L. claiisa Nees and Mont, is the same as L. opaca Gottsche, L. commutala Gottsche, and D. lutea Mont., and should be referred to Euosmohjeunea. 3. Frullania obcordata Lehm. and Lindenb. is the same as F. caroliniana Sulliv. and F. Martiana Gottsche. A. Lorenz ** gives figures of Marsupella Sidli- vantii and M. sphacellata, with explanatory notes. New South Indian Moss.ft — H. N. Dixon describes Brachy- me nium turgidum, a new species from the Western Ghats. It is a very distinct species, characterised by a turgid subpendulous capsule, and by the leaves being narrowly margined and entire, and not spirally twisted when dry. Tundra-forms of Hypnum.JJ — W.Monkemeyer discusses the tundra- forms of Hypnum exannulatum, and distinguishes a var. pinnatum f. tundra, and a var. brachydictyoa f. tundra, giving a description of each and adding critical notes on various specimens. Type Species of Stereohypnum.§§ — M. Fleischer publishes the basis of a monograph of the genus Stereohypnum, which is also known as Micro- thamnium. This genus is rendered extremely difficult owing to the * Bryologist, xi. (1908) pp. 41-4 (portrait). t Tom. cit., p. 45-6. % Tom. cit., p. 46-7. § Tom. cit., p. 53-4. il Tom. cit., pp. 61-6 (1 pi. and figs.). f Tom. cit., pp. 67-70. ** Tom. cit., pp. 71-3 (2 pis.). ft Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 94-6. XX Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) pp. 300-4 (2 pis.) §§ Tom. cit., pp. 271-99 (figs.). 614 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO uncertainty attaching to several of the older species, the incorrectly determined specimens in the herbaria of the older authors, and the multitude of new, but often doubtful, species described since 1*70. The author's purpose here is to give critical descriptions and figures of the oldest species in the order of their original publication, up to about the year 1861, at the same time reducing many of the newer species to the rank of synonyms. He treats some thirteen species in this way, after studying the type-material in each case. Propagula of the Genus Barbula.* — J. Maheu writes about the propagula and bulbils obtained by experimental culture of some species of Barbula. Some species, which do not normally produce them, may be made to do so by submitting them to special biologic conditions, such as confinement in a moist chamber. After a lapse of one to three months, propaguliferous protonemal filaments sprout from stems, leaves, and fragments of sporogonium. The propagula are pluricellular spheres about TV mm. in diameter, which fall off and develop into moss-plants. The plant cannot maintain its existence indefinitely by means of propagula ; but these latter serve to prolong its life until suitable conditions arise for the development of sexual organs and pro- duction of a sporogonium. The production of propagula is chiefly due to humidity ; light and darkness favour respectively the formation of protonemal and rhizoidal filaments. Rhizoids, protonema, propagula, bulbils, and leafy stems, are fundamentally homologous, being adaptations of one and the same organ to different conditions of life. Lfc>i Gasterogrimmia in Hungary.! — I. Gyorffy shows that three species of this section of Grimm ia which occur in Europe have been found also in Hungary, and claims that a fourth species, 67. poikilostoma, originally collected in Auvergne by Gasilien, and later in Dauphine by Sebille, has also been gathered in Transylvania. He gives a table of measure- ments of the Transylvanian plants. Bryum zonatum a Philonotis.J — W. Monkemeyer discusses the question of what Bryum zonatum Schimp. really is. Schimper thought it to be allied to B. Marratii. Limpricht at first took it to be a Bryum, near B. Limprichtii, but later inclined to Hagen's view, that it should be excluded from the genus. Monkemeyer having obtained a small amount of the original material collected by C. G. Lorentz, finds that it resembles a Philonotis, and comes to the conclusion that it is a non-papillate form of Philonotis seriata, analogous to the non-papillate var. mollis of P. calcarea. European Hepatics.§ — V. Schiffner publishes critical remarks upon the specimens issued in the fifth fasciculus of his " Hepaticse Europaaa? Exsiccatse," Nos. 201-50. The genera treated of are SpTienolobus (12 specimens), Acrobolbus, with figure (1), Anastr&pta (8), Plagiochila (16), Pedinophyllum (4), L&ptoscyphus (9). The species, their varieties and * Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 1161-3. t Rev. Brvolog., xxxv. (1908) pp. 97-8. j Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) p. 305. § Ber. Naturw. Med. Verein. Innsbruck, xxxi. (1908) Beilage, 70 pp. (1 pi.). ZOOLOGY *AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 615 forms, arc discussed critically. Three rarities — Acrobolbus Wilsoni, Plagiochila tridenticulata, Leptoscyphus cuneifolius — were supplied to the author from the west of Scotland by S. M. Macvicar. Calypogeia in Italy.* — C. Massalongo publishes a monograph of the Italian species of Calypogeia. He gives new descriptions of the genus and various species and varieties. He maintains four species— 6'. Tri- chomanis, C.Neesiaaa, C. suecica, C. arguta — under 0. Trichomanis are four varieties : communis, flssa, Sprengelii, gracilis, and a subspecies, G. Miilleriana. Critical notes are added, and attention is called to other species which are likely to be found within the limits of Italy. Cephalozia in Scandinavia.! — H. W. Arnell and ;C. Jensen describe and figure some rare Scandinavian species of Cephalozia, from the original specimens preserved in the herbarium of Helsingfors University, viz. C. boreal is Lindb. (1887), C. subsimplex Lindb. MS., C. spinigera Lindb. (1879), C. lacinulata Spruce, and C. (Prionolobus) Perssonii Jensen sp.n. Notes on Californian Hepatics4 — H. B. Humphrey publishes some studies on the physiology and morphology of some Californian hepatics. Certain species are infested with fungi, parasitic in the case of Fossombronia longiseta, symbiotic in the case of Fimbriaria californica, epiphytic in the case of Aneura multifida, Anthoceros Pearsoni, and Porella Bolanderi. Fertilisation takes place in Fegatella conica during early spring ; but the spores do not mature until the following January, having passed through the intervening dry season in the tetrad stage. The dry season leads to other adaptations, which are noted. It is fatal to hydrophilous species, but not to xerophilous species, these latter being able to resume growth from thallus or spores even after complete desic- cation. The spores of some xerophilous species are capable of germina- tion after two years. Antarctic Hepatics.§ — F. Stephani gives an enumeration of the hepatica? collected by Skottsberg in Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, and the neighbouring Antarctic regions. There are seventy-eight species, five of which are new to science. Illustrated Key to the Genus Lejeunea.|| — Lacouture publishes an analytical and synoptic key of the forty-three subgenera or genera into which the old genus Lejeunea is now divided. He gives a typical figure of each in illustration of the text printed opposite to it. The drawings have been made from nature, from sketches made by Spruce, Schiffner, and Stephani respectively. Morphology and Anatomy of Bucegia romanica.1[ — Y. Schiffner gives a detailed and illustrated account of the structure and develop- ment of the rare hepatic Bucegia romanica, based upon an examination * Mabiighia, xxii. (1908) pp. 79-94. t Bot.^Notiser, 1908, pp. 1-1G (figs.). % Pl-oc. Washington Acad. Sci., x. (1903) pp. 1-50 (2 pis.). See also Bot. Gazette, xlv. (1908) p. 420. - hwedisch Siidpolar-Exped., iv. 1 (1905) 11 pp. (rL Rev. Brvolog., xxxv. (190S) pp. 101-14 (6 pis.). % Beih. Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. 2«* Abt. ( 1908) p. 273-90 (figs.). 616 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO of a good supply of living material in all stages of growth. The genus was first described by Radian in 1903, having been discovered in the Bucegi range of the Roumanian Carpathians. It occurs also at a fVw stations on the Polish and on the 1 [ungarian sides of the Tatra Mountains, and some specimens have recently been found in the Vienna Hof -museum which were collected thirty years ago. Notes on Riccardia and other Hepatics.* — V. Schiffner continues his series of bryological notes, and treats of the following subjects : — 43. Riccardia sinuata v&r.stmoclada, a new variety recalling R.mvltifiila var. major, but larger, thicker, more branched, etc. 44. The occurrence of R. incurvata in Bohemia. 45. Peltolepis in the Balkan Peninsula. 46. Chomiocarpou quadratus, discovered in China. 47. Some new French hepatics collected by Douin. 48. Bucegia romanica. Riella bialata.j — R. Trabut describes a new Riella from Algeria, which is very remarkable for its two parallel wings, dorsally situated and covering right and left the fructifications. It grows either out of water and creeping, or immersed and erect. Thallophyta. Algae. (By Mes. E. S. Gepp.) Marine Diatomacese of France.^ — H. and M. Peragallo have just completed their work on this subject, started eleven years ago. It was issued to subscribers, according to their choice, in fascicles of four plates each with explanations and text, or in sets of ten fascicles, or as a com- plete work. It was also put on the market in three systematic sections ; and finally it was published in the " Micrographe Preparateur," two plates with text in each number of that periodical. In the preface it is stated that the authors had the intention of producing a complete and entirely original flora of the Diatornaceai of France, divided into three parts : — 1. A general treatment, comprising the natural history of diatoms, methods of collection, cultivation, preparation, and their classification — this part being destined to be published last of all. ' 2. A description of the marine species, which is accomplished in the present work. 3. A description of the fresh-water species, which presumably the authors will now7 proceed to take in hand. The species and forms are grouped in the text into sections, tribes, families, genera, subgenera, etc., reference to all of which is facilitated by means of synoptical tables. No such tables are employed for the species and forms, since the plates themselves function as the best possible synopsis, exhibiting the forms side by side and en- larged to the same scale. This scale of magnitude is GOO diani., save in the case of Plenrosigma and a few other genera. The drawings were all made by camera-lucida, and photographed down to the standard size. Each species or form is described, and references to all important litera- * Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., 1. (1908) pp. 8-12. t Rev. Bryolog., xxxv. (1908) p. 96. X Diatoniees Marines de France. Grez-sur-Loing : Tempere, 1897-190S, 492 xii., and 48 pp. (137 pis.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 617 ture concerning it are cited, but the synonymy is purposely reduced to a minimum. Doubtful species are maintained as species, rather than renamed as varieties ; but their position in the text according to their affinity shows how they can be referred as varieties to typical species. Of the three systematic sections into which the present work is divided, the first — Raphidees (Raphidese) — occupies 233 pages and 50 plates ; the second — Pseudo-raphidees (PseudoraphideEe) — occupies 128 pages and 39 plates ; the third — Anaraphidees (Cryptorhaphidese) — occupies 130 pages and 50 plates. The pelagic or plankton genera of Diatomaceae— e.g. Chcetoceros — are separated under the name Pleouemees, a special section of Anaraphidees. At the close of their work the authors, in sub- mitting a synoptical table of the genera and subgenera, systematically arranged, discuss briefly the evolution of the diatoms, and adopt the names Centriques and Pennees for the two main divisions of the group. The former name represents the more ancient type, evidently pelagic in origin ; while the Pennees, comprising the Raphidees and Pseudo-raphidees, took their rise from organisms already engaged in vegetal evolution (Chromomonades), whence also sprang the Phaso- phycea?. Yorkshire Diatoms.* — R. H. Philip publishes a note on the distri- bution of Diatoma hiemale in East Yorkshire. He discovered quantities of it in AYeedley Springs last summer. He states that it was certainly not present in the springs in 1897 ; and, indeed, it was not found any- where in the East Riding before September 1899. Since then he has gathered it in five localities. But during the last year or two it seems to have increased enormously, and to have ousted almost every other species from Weedley Springs. Figures of three forms of the species are given. The same author f found in a sheep-tank above Conistone, in Wharfedale, some rare and interesting diatoms, among them being Amphora Normanii, which was discovered by G. Norman in an orchid- house in 1853, but has not been recorded for Yorkshire since then ; but it has been gathered in Brussels Botanic Garden, and at Cambuslang Bridge, near Glasgow. Gymbeila microcephala and C. leptoceras are new records for the East Riding and for Yorkshire respectively. Figures of these are given. Structure of the Diatom-cell.J — 0. Heinzerling treats of the structure of the diatom-cell, with special reference to the assimilatory organs, and the relation of the structure to systematic classification. First he gives an account of the protoplast — cytoplasm, nucleus, centrosome, chromatophores ; then of the assimilatory organs inclosed in the protoplast — double-plates, cell-sap, "volution " (reserve material ), oil-drops, pyrenoids ; also of the cell-membrane and the gelatinous layers, Next he discusses the movements of diatoms, and the characteristics of the structure of the protoblast, and especially of the chromatophores of such genera as have been investigated. He then gives an account of the * Naturalist, No. 608 (1907) pp. 312-13 (figs.). t Op. cit., No. 612 (1908) pp. 21-2. \ Bibliotheca Botanica, heft 69. Stuttgart : Schweizerbartsche Verlags- buchhandlung (190S) 88 pp. (3 pis.). 618 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO protoplastic structure of a scries of species selected from thirty fresh- water genera, and appends a bibliography. North American Fresh-water Algae.* — C. A. Kofoid gives an ac- count of the plankton of the Illinois River (1894-99), including a discussion of the species of Kchizophyceae, Chlorophycese, Diatomacese, and Conjugate found therein, with notes upon their respective seasonal distributions, and the factors that control their production. Spanish Fresh-water Algae. f — F. B. Casares gives an enumeration of twenty-one Conjugate, mostly Desmids, collected in the provinces of Orense and Pontevedra, in Galicia. Instructions are given as to the best time of year for collecting these algas, and the best methods of gathering, preparing, and preserving the specimens. The average dimensions of the species are stated. Fresh-water Algae of the West Riding.J — W. and G-. S. West give an enumeration of more than 180 species and varieties of fresh -water algae collected by them from time to time on Austwick Moss, in the West Riding. Some of them are new to Yorkshire, and some to West York- shire. The nature of the ground is indicated, and a list of the more important vascular plants associated with the algas is added. Genus Haematococcus.§— W. Wollenweber publishes some inves- tigations concerning Hc&matococcus. He sums up the most important results as follows : — 1. H(cmatococcus can by appropriate cultivation be made to pass through its complete life-history, yielding zoospores, aga- metes, gametes, zygotes, aplanospores, and palmelloid states. 2. The cell- membrane does not consist of cellulose. 3. The chromatophore consists of a delicate green tubular scaffold, but in surface-view looks like a net. 4. Hmnatococcus possesses numerous (up to sixty) contractile vacuoles, imbedded in the uppermost sheath of the chromatophore, and pulsat- ing independently of one another. 5. These contractile vacuoles afford the most trustworthy distinguishing character between Hcemotococcus and Chlamydomonas. 6. Size, thickness, and shape of the zoospore- membrane, development of the chromatophore, number and development of the pyrenoid and of the protoplasmic pseudopodia. 7. Hmmatococcus is suited to a myxo- and auto-trophic mode of life. In the latter mode of life agamogony preponderates. In H. phwialis only agamogony occurs. S. Stephanosphcera and Hcematococcus are referred by Schmidle to Chlamydomonadeas as a subfamily (Sphaerellaceas), on account of the similar morphological and physiological conditions. 9. The Red Snow alga finds no place in Hcematococcus as now understood, and is to be re- garded as a Chlamydomonas (C. nivalis), as Wille has shown. Development of Hydrodictyon.|| — R. A. Harper discusses the organisa- tion of certain ccenobic plants, describing in detail the formation of the * Bull. Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist., viii. (1908) pp. 19-61. t Boletin R. Soc. Espanola Nat. Hist., viii. (190S) pp. 231-8. % Naturalist, No. Gil (1908) pp. 101-3. § Ber. Deutsch. Bot Gesell., xxvi. (1908) pp. 238-9S (5 pis., figs.). || Bot. Soc. of America, publication 36 (1908) 56 pp., 1 pis. See also Bull. Univ. Wisconsin Sci., iii. pp. 279-334. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 619 cell-colonies of Hydrodictyon, and summarising the matter as follows: — 1. The cylindrical form of the cells and their union at their ends is de- veloped by growth and pressure between the adjacent cells on the principle of functional hypertrophy. 2. The large intercellular spaces of the adult net have their origin in the shrinkage of the mass of the mother- protoplasm during cleavage. 3. The central cavity of the net is clue to the scattering of the swarm-spores under the influence of chemical and food stimuli, and their coming to rest upon the mother- cell- wall. 4. The form of the meshes is determined by the chance grouping of the spores in coming to rest, their viscidity tending to maintain chance contacts once established ; and the slight readjustments due to gliding of their surfaces upon each other in the crowding in- cident to their growth as spheres and when first beginning to elongate, the number of sides of the polygonal meshes tending to become larger the greater the amount of intercellular space which is present when the spores come to rest. Urospora in Norway.* — 0. Hagem, when studying the algal Mora of Drobak Sound in the spring of last year, found on some stones in the littoral region several dark green patches containing three species of Urospora — U. mirabilis, U. elongata, U. Wormskioldii ; the latter two of which had previously been recorded only from the Arctic regions. He describes and figures each of the three species, and discusses their struc- ture, distribution, affinities, etc. Development of the Genus Ulva.f — J. Schiller has studied the de- velopment of Ulva in the laboratory. He gives a detailed account of the minute structure of the gametospores and their biology. He finds that the process of conjugation is just as in Monostroma, Entermorpha, and many Phreophyceas. He describes the germination and develop- ment of the zygotes and of the gametes ; he describes the primary and secondary rhizoids, the latter of which have a surprising power of producing a new cell-filament, or rhizoid-shoot. Ulva and Ent&romorpha are indistinguishable in their young stages, and there is a true branching in both of them, arising from a similar division of the apical cell. In both these genera three forms of gametes are found, macrogametes, parthenogametes, and microgametes, and they occur four, eight, or sixteen together respectively. Cell-wall Structure in Cladophora.J — P. Brand publishes some notes upon the cell-membrane, transverse walls, and joints of Cladophora, to supplement the information given by him seven years ago, in a paper on the structure and growth of the plant. After a general con- sideration of the structure of the membrane, he treats of the outer lamella, the sheaths of the membrane, its constituent parts, its growth, creases of the membrane, formation of transverse walls, formation of joints. * Nyt. Mag. f. Naturvid. Christiana, xlv. (1908) pp. 261-9 (1 pi.). t SB. k. Akad. Wiss. Math. -Nat. Kl. Wien, cxvi. 1 (1907) pp. 1691-1716 (1 pl.\ I Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxvi. (1908) pp. 114-43 (lpl.). 620 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Development of the Sexual Organs of Vaucheria.* — W. Heidinger gives an account of the development of the sexual organs in \'inirlicrin, as studied in species representing the four groups — CorniculataB Bessiles, Corniculatse racemosse, Anomalae, Woroninia. He contrasts the respec- tive statements (1) of Oltmanns, that before the oogonium becomes walled off, all the nuclei hut one are withdrawn into the pedicel, and (2) of Davis, that after the oogonium is walled off, all the nuclei but one undergo degeneration and disappear. After describing his own methods of investigation, lie gives a detailed account of the develop- ment of the sexual organs of V. pachyderma, V. arrhyncha sp. n., V.terrestris, V. geminata, and Woroninia dichotoma. He then criticises B. M. Davis's work ; adds some systematic notes ; and sums up his results by stating that they confirm Oltmanns' view, and that in all the groups of Vaucheria examined the multinucleate rudiment becomes a uninucleate oogonium by the withdrawal of all the other nuclei into the pedicel just before the oogonium is cut off by the transverse wall. The proper nucleus remains in the apex of the oogonium and puts out processes into the surrounding plasma, but moves back into the centre just before fertilisation, and remains there until germination of the oospore. Spore-formation in Derbesia.f — B. M. Davis gives an account of the formation of the zoospores of Derbesia Lamourouxu. These are large and not biciliate, as in other Siphonales, but provided with a circle of numerous long cilia at the forward end. The lateral globular out- growth, which develops into a sporangium, becomes separated from the parent filament by the closure of the ingrowing annular thickening in the neck. The sporangium contains at first thousands of nuclei, all alike, slightly larger than the plastids, and each containing a small nucleolus and a large chromatin body. Some of the nuclei enlarge to a diameter 4-6 times that of the plastids, and are rendered conspicuous by the development of numerous protoplasmic strands radiating out from the cytoplasm enveloping the nucleus. These large nuclei are the centres of the future spores. The other nuclei do not fuse (as has been stated), but undergo degeneration. The spore-masses separate and become rounded up. The nuclei of each moves from the centre towards the periphery, and a circlet of granules is deposited, by means of the protoplasm strands, under the plasma-membrane near by. It does not arise from the plasma- membrane. This circlet is the blepharoplast, which splits into two rings ; from the lower ring the circle of cilia is produced. The homogeneous chromatin becomes changed into an irregular network of coiled threads. The two rings of the blepharoplast remain for a time at the base of the germinating spore, then gradually grow fainter. The nucleus divides mitotically, the spindle being intranuclear. West Indian Species of Avrainvillea.J — F. Borgesen publishes an account of the species of Avrainvillea hitherto found on the shores of the Danish West Indies, based upon material collected there by himself * Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxvi. (1908) pp. 313-63 (1 pi. and figs.). + Ann. of Bot., xxii. (1908) pp. 1-20 (2 pis.). X Vidensk. Meddel. Natur. Poren. Kjobenhavn, 1908, pp. 27-44 (1 pi., figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 621 in 1905-6. He describes and figures A. nigricans, A. Mazei, A. asarifolia (a new species distinct from A. lev is Howe), also a unique plant allied to A. levis but not named specifically, and some plants referred to A. comosa. He also discusses Howe's genus Gladocephalus, and describes a large zonate plant which he considers to be synonymous with Flabdlaria luteqfusca Crouan, and names it G. luteofusca. Anatomy and Histology of Macrocystis and Laminaria.* — M. (i. Sykes gives an account of the anatomy and histology of Macrocystis pyrifera and Laminaria saccharina, based upon material specially pre- served, and undertaken in order to determine certain points about which contradictory statements had been published. The conclusions reached by the author are that the " trumpet hyplwe " in both plants are true sieve- tubes, and represent the modified original central cells of the thallus, and may be termed " primary pith filaments." They are homologous with the secondary sieve-tubes of Macrocystis and Laminaria, which are similarly derived from the modified primary cortex of the young thallus. The histology of the sieve-plates in the primary pith filaments and secondary sieve-tubes is essentially the same. Threads are found traversing the young sieve-plate, and each gives rise in the older plates, apparently by means of ferment action, to a slime string inclosed in a rod of callus. The older sieve-plates are obliterated by the deposition of callus in large masses over their surface. Callus is a hvdrated form of cellulose ; it is produced in the young sieve-plates by the action of a ferment on the already formed cell-wall, but afterwards is deposited by the protoplasm on the sieve-plate and on the lateral walls throughout the length of the tube. The histology of these sieve-tubes is shown to agree much with that of the sieve-tubes of Phanerogams. At the advent of the callus the threads acquire an increased capacity for staining ; the development of the sieve-plate is possibly, as in Pinus, a function of ferment action. The slime strings are buried under the thick over- lying callus, and cannot, as in Pinus, be traced through the callus-pad. In young stages of Laminaria saccharina the cells of the hyphas become secondarily attached to those of the primary cortex, probably also in Macrocystis. Protoplasmic threads have been demonstrated throughout the tissues of M. pyrifera and Laminaria saccharina, but in case of secondary attachments their formation is uncertain. New Zealand Species of Rhodophyllis.t — A. D. Cotton gives an account of the Xew Zealand species of Rhodophyllis, having made a study of the specimens preserved at Kew, in the British Museum, and in the private possession of R. M. Laing at Christchurch, N.Z. As a result he is able to revise the descriptions of the older species and to describe one novelty. Thus the valid species are Rhodophyllis acanthocarpa, R. Lainyii sp. n., R. membranacea, R. Gunnii, R. lacerata. He lays emphasis on the arrangement of the cortical cells, and shows that the size of the tetrasporangium varies considerably. He has cleared away the difficulty that existed of recognising the plants from their descrip- tions, and of reconciling the statements of different writers. Particularly * Ann. of Bot., xxii. (1908) pp. 291-325 (3 pis.). t Kew Bulletin, 1908, pp. 97-102. 622 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO is this the case with II. membranami, which, after being united (erroneously) with Rhodymenia Jimbriata, fell into neglect. Rhodophyllis membranacea is abundant on the coast of New Zealand ; but Rhodymenia jimbriata does not occur there at all. Criticisms on Calcareous Algae.* — M. Foslie criticises severely and in detail F. Heydrich's paper on Sphcwanthera iiehmoides.\ For instance he strongly disputes Heydrich's assumption that Millepora calcarea Ellis and Soland. is a form of Lithophyllum incrustans, and questions whether the type figured is a coral at all. Again he repeats his already published opinion that Splicer •anther -a is not a valid genus, but a compound of Lithothamnion Philippii and Goniolithon mamillosum. And he adds that Lithothamnion lichenoides placed by Heydrich in Sphceranfhera is actually the type of Lithothamnion as now understood by algologists. Further he cites two series of synonyms referred by Heydrich respectively to Lithothamnion Patena and Lithophylhim incrustans, and shows that such a grouping of species is not warranted by facts. H Algae of Swedish West Coast. J — H. Kylin gives a list of 47 marine algae collected on the west coast of Sweden, partly by himself, partly by the late F. R. Kjellman. They are mostly epiphytic on other alga3 or on zoophytes, or are endophytic species. Notes on their fruiting season are added. Algae of G;ermany.§ — E. Lemmermann, in continuing the mono- graph of the algae in the Kryptogamenflora der Mark Brandenburg, treats of Class II., the Flagellatae. These are divided into seven orders — Pantostomatineae, Protomastigineae, Distomatineae, Chrysomonadineae. Cryptoinonadineaj, Chloromonadineae, Euglenineae. Each of these is treated in turn, descriptions of the respective orders, families, genera, and species being supplied ; and reference is facilitated by the use of keys and by the figures grouped in the plates. The blood-parasite Trypanosoma, one tropical species of which causes sleeping-sickness, is classed under Protomastigineae. Algal Periodicity.|| — H. B. Brown gives an account of the periodicity of alga} in certain ponds and streams at Bloomington, Indiana, which he kept under close observation in 1906-7. The flora of each was analysed twice monthly. The Conjugates, especially Spiroyyra, were the most abundant algae. Zygnema ranked next. Moayeotia was less abundant. Six genera of Desmids were found, Closterium being the most plentiful. The (Edogoniales wTere plentiful, and the Chaetophorales fairly abundant. Cladophorales and others were also found. Notes on the behaviour of the different algae are given ; and the following conclusions were reached. (1) Under steady normal conditions an alga continues to grow in a healthy vegetative state throughout the year. (2) A sudden change in external conditions checks the vegetative growth and tends to * Beih. Bot. Centralbl., 2te Abt., xxiii. (1908) pp. 266-72. t Op. cit., 2te Abt., xxii. (1907) p. 222. t Arkiv f. Botanik, vii., No. 10 (190S) 10 pp. (fig.). § Leipzig : Bomtraeger, 1908, iii. beft 3, pp. 305-196 (pis.). || Bull. Torrey Bot Club, xxxv. (190S) pp. 223-48. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 623 cause the alga to enter a resting stage form or to fruit sexually. Tables are given in which the relative abundance and frequency of the commoner algge are shown ; and a complete list of the alga? found is appended. KiMMEEER, P. — Symbiose zwischen (Edogonium undulatum und Wasserjung- ferlarven. (Symbiosis between (Edogonium undulatum and the larvae of a dragon-fly.) Wicsner- Festschrift. Wien : K. Konegen, 1908, pp. 239-52. Karsten, G.— Die Entwicklung der Zygoten von Spirogyra jugalis Ktzg. (The development of the zygotes of Spirogyra jugalis.) [A detailed and illustrated account of the changes in the spore-cell and nucleus.] Flora, xcix. (1908) pp. 1-11 (1 pi. ) Fungi. (By A. Lorrain Smith, F.L.S.) Zygospores of Sporodinia grandis.* — A. Lendner has submitted these to careful examination throughout their development. He finds that oue of the protogametes penetrates the other, suggesting a sexual difference. The protogametes possess at first numerous nuclei ; later there appear two large nuclei with always two chromosomes ; these fuse to form the zygospore ; the remaining smaller nuclei divide and Hue the outer wall ; finally they disappear. Microsiphoneae.f — Paul Yuillemin explains the meaning of this term, as distinct from Siphoniycetes. The name has been given to an uncer- tain group with fine filaments branched and non-septate, such as Actinomyces, etc., but the classification is only provisory. The Sipho- mycetes represent another somewhat temporary resting place for uncertain forms such as Gunning hamislla. Study of Saprolegniacege.J — 0. H. Kauffman collected his material from rivers, ponds, etc., containing aquatic plants, alga?, or merely decaying vegetable matter. He explains his method of cultivating the fungi in the laboratory and of securing pure cultures on beef -gelatin, and then transferring them to capsules of pea-broth and to solutions contain- ing salts and other substances. He noted the effect of the different media on growth and reproduction, the development of the sexual organs, etc. His results corresponded with those of Klebs, that hasmoglobin and leucin were most favourable in inducing the production of sexual organs. He describes in detail all the variations in growth observed by him ; these were very extensive and somewhat affect the standards of classifica- tion within the genus. His results also seem to provide evidence towards the doctrine that sex in plants is determinable by external conditions. Norwegian Mucorineae.§ — 0. Hagem has isolated from the air a number of Mucor species. He exposed Petri dishes with a variety of sterilised substances in and around Christiania, and found that species * Bull. Herb. Boiss., ser. 2, viii. (1908) pp. 77-8. See alsoBot. Centralbl., cvii. (1903) pp. 618. f C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 1042-3. % Ann. of Bot., xxii. (1908) pp. 361-87 (1 pi.). § Vid. Selsk. Skr., i. Math.-Nat. Kl., No. 7, 1907 (1908) 50 pp. (22 figs.). 624 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO of Miimr were of Tan' occurrence in comparison with other filamentous fungi : Penicilliwn, Aspergillus, and Cladosporium being the commonest. The author also tested different soils for species that might be growing there, and he found that M . hiemalis was the most abundant: other species grew in special localities, as, for instance, M. Ramannianus, which occurred in pine woods. A number of new species were dis- covered and described in the course of the work. Sexuality in the Ascomycetes.* — A. Guilliermond continues his review of the work recently done on this subject. He takes up first the yeasts, touching on the question of the nucleus, the existence of which he considers well established. He describes conjugation as it is found in Zygosaccharomyces and others, and these conjugations he considers settle the question of the origin of the yeasts, which are autonomous, and not derived from other forms. Exoascus is next considered : nuclear fusion has been demonstrated in the ascogenous cells while still under the cuticle of the host. The most important work has been done on the higher Ascomycetes on Laboulbmia by Thaxter, and on' Pyronema by Harper. Sexual conjugation has been observed by them and subsequent workers. (Inilliermond follows each research, and records the points in which the results vary or agree. The original figures in many cases are repro- duced, and add to the interest and value of the papers. Taphrina Alni-incanse.f — This fungus infests the catkins of Alnus incana, and C. von Tubeuf finds that it also attacks the young shoots. He found the deformations on the young branches ; the asci were entirely similar to those of the fungus on the catkins, and were without a stalk-cell ; the leaves also showed the red coloration which they never do when attacked by T. epiphylla. The author further notes that the swellings on the leaves of poplars due to T. aurea are occasionally developed on the under surface of the leaves. Haustoria of Meliola and Asterina.J — Rene Maire has attacked the vexed question as to the parasitism of these fungus-genera. The allied Capnodkim grows on the excreta of aphides, but no trace of animal substratum was to be found in their case. Careful preparation of microscopic sections showed distinct haustoria penetrating the host- plant, and so providing nourishment for the parasite. These sucking- organs are very constant and very simple in Meliola, but in Asterina they vary from one species to another in their form and in the degree of penetration into the host-plant, in some species only the epidermal cells being reached, in others the hypodermal layer. Notes on Ascomycetous Fungi. — F. Theissen§ discusses Spegazzini's monotypic genus Diatrypeopsis, which he has found frequently in Brazil. From his observations he concludes that the fungus is identical with * Rev. Gen. Bot., xx. (1908) pp. 85-9, 111-20, 178-82, 298-305. t Nat. Zeit. Land.-Forstw., vi. (1908) pp. 6S-73. See also Bot. Centralbl., cvii. (1908) pp. 520-1. X Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) pp. 124-8 (4 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 91-4. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. H2." Nummularia punctulata, and that the genus Diatrypeopsis is redundant. The one feature — the colourless spores — that placed it near to Diatrype is not a constant character: they have a greenish tinge, becoming brownish-grey on their escape from the ascus. J. M. Reade,* working at Cornell University, has followed the de- velopment of a number of Sclerotiniae, and he gives full diagnoses. In all cases where followed out the conidial stage is a form of Monilia, which in some cases was the only form known before these researches. The sclerotia were formed in mummified fruits, and in some cases on the twigs and leaves of the host-plant. Spotting of Bamboos.f — S. Kawamura gives an account of the different kinds of bamboos that are to be found in Japan, some of which are distinguished by dark rings and spots on the stems. This he finds is due to a fungus, Myostria fusispora g. et sp. n. The central part of the dark spots is occupied by a cushion-like mycelium in which is imbedded a pyriform perithecium with fusiform colourless spores. Inoculation experiments were unsuccessful, and Kawamura concluded that the fungus could only attack injured areas of the steins. Yeast as a Fermentative Agent.f — F. G. Kohl has published an exhaustive treatise on these unicellular fungi that are used to produce fermentation. He discusses their physiological properties, and in the chapter on fermentation he cites the cases in which filamentous fungi, such as Mucor, PenicilUum, etc., have also been employed, these fungi forming yeast torulations in the absence of air. An account is given of alcoholic^fermentations and of the by-products formed. A new series of observations includes a description of the methods employed in yeast culture, spore formation, the morphological characters of the plants, and a systematic revision of the various organisms. The book is well illus- trated, and is supplied with a good index. Notes on GlceosporiumJ — J. Lincl has examined and described a species growing on the leaves of ferns that had been variously classified as G.filicinum Rostr. or as Exobasidium Brevieri Boud. From his own observations he has placed it in a new genus of Protobasidiomycetes that he has designated HerpoMsidium. The fungus develops in the interior of the leaf, the mycelium spreading in the intercellular spaces, and also forming coils in the cells of the host. At the stomata it passes into the open and forms a white superficial felt from which arise upright basidia clavate and uniseptate, each cell bearing a sterigma and basidiospore. The fertile hypha branches lower down, and the branches also act as basidia. Lind has also examined Glmosporium deformans on willow catkins, and finds that it is a composite form comprehending four distinct species. Research on Fungi Imperfecti.||— H. Klebahn continues his studies in this field, and records his new results. Asteroma Padi on leaves of * Ann. MycoL, vi. (1908) pp. 109-15. t Joum. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, xxiii. (1907) pp. 1-11 (5 pis.). X Leipzig : Quelle and Merer (1908) viii. and 343 pp. pp. (S pis. and 59 figs.). § Arkiv Botanik, vii. (1908) No. 8, 23 pp. (3 pis.). || Zeitschr. Pflanzenkr., xviii. (1908) pp. 129-54 (2 pis.). Ort. 21st, 1908 -' '1' 626 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Prunus Padus was examined and cultivated, and is fully described. An ascus form was found on the wintering leaves, which was used for experimental cultures and inoculation experiments, reproducing the Asteroma on the Prunus leaves. The ascus form was found to be a Gnomonia with elongate 1-septate spores, and identical with Sphc&ria padicola. The different synonyms of the two related forms are given. Similar cultures were successfully carried through with Gnomoniella tubiformis on alder leaves, of which the '"imperfect" form was proved to be Leptothyrium alneum. Detailed accounts of cultures are given, and the synonyms, which are many, are added. He has found in Gnomonia, so far, that for four different species the imperfect forms are to be sought in four different genera of Sphaeropsideaa. Hyphomycetes.* — Lindau concludes the study of the brown-spored forms with the Phfeostaurosporaa, a family containing a few genera with conidia of peculiar form. He begins the third family, that of the Stilbaceaa, which includes those with compound fructification, the conidiophores being massed together to form a definite fruiting body. Under the first section of the family, Hyalosporae, he describes the genera GUkvpodkim, Stilbdla, and Dendrostilbella. Uredineas.f — E. Fischer passes in review the development of the Uredine through its differeut life-stages. He notes the disappearance of different stages (uredo or aacidiuni) in certain forms, and attempts to explain the factors that have caused the shortening of the life-history. He finds that these fall into two classes : (1) indirect, through selection — in Alpine localities those that formed teleutospores early in the autumn had a better chance of survival, and in time there persisted those forms with teleutospores only ; (2) direct influence of climate, which caused the uredo stage to be omitted when sudden lowering of temperature took place. Merulius lacrymans.J — 0. Mez has issued a treatise on the dry-rot of houses. He has examined the different species of fungi that are wood-destroyers, and gives descriptions of them. Special attention is devoted to Merulius, which is really a forest fungus which has been transported into human dwellings, and he considers that M. Silvester is only a wild form of 31. domesticus. Instructions are given as to the best method of destroying or preventing the " rot." Moller§ has also published a communication on this important subject. He describes specimens that he found growing in the open, but concludes that they belonged to the species M. Silvester, which he considers autonomous. He made a series of experiments on the ger- mination of the spores, and found that spores of the " dry-rot " of houses germinated quite normally after seventeen months. * Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen Flora, i. 9te Abt., Lief. 109 (Leipzig, 1908) pp. 241-304. t Mitth. Nat. Ges. Bern (1907) 21 pp. See also Centralbl. Bakt., xx. (1908) pp. 532-4. % Dresden : R. Lincke (1908) 260 pp. (1 pi. and 90 figs.). See also Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) Beibl. pp. 176-7. § Hausschwammforschungen, 1907, beft 1. See also Centralbl. Bakt., xx (1908) p. 537. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 627 Notes on Lycoperdon sculptum.* — W. A. Setchell describes this large puff-ball from the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. He accounts for the different times it has been collected high up among the mountains, usually on alluvial soil beside streams, but also in drier localities among pines. It is characterised by well-marked sculpturings on the outer wall ; the spores are minute, the capillitium threads short and unbranched. From the mode of dehiscence — the breaking up of the peridium into plates — it has been referred by some authors to Calvatia. Revision of Ceylon Fungi. f — This task has been undertaken by T. Petch, who points out the inevitableness of mistakes when diagnoses or determinations are made on dried specimens alone. A study of fresh material on the spot results in the reduction of a number of species already described, though new forms must lie added as so many have been overlooked by passing collectors. Redescriptions of species add to the value of the work. Effect of Formic Acid on Fungi.J — This study was taken up by Henri Coupin to discover if possible why the fungi of ants' nests never produced the fruiting forms. He found that Rhizopus nigricans, grown in atmospheres impregnated with formic acid of varying densities, was influenced by the acid chiefly in the reproductive organs, which may disappear altogether while the mycelium continues to grow. Biology of Wood-destroying Fungi.§ — 0. Rumbold has cultivated on artificial media a large number of the higher fungi that grow normally on wood. Her aim was to find out how far Hartig's state- ment was correct that only in dry-rot do the clamp-cells (Schnallen- zellen) grow out, and also to test the comparative influence of acid on alkaline media, on the growth of mycelium, and on germination of spores. Rumbold proved that clamp-cells grow out whenever present ; that no wood-fungus grew on alkaline media, but if the alkali was so weak as to be neutralised by the action of the fungus itself, a slow development of the mycelium was possible. Dry-rot was the most susceptible to alkalis. Phosphorescent Fungi. || — Hans Mollisch, writing on this subject, insists upou two points : 1. It is impossible to decide whether a fungus is phosphorescent unless pure cultures of the mycelium have been made, culture methods being given. 2. No conclusion can be drawn from finding the fructification of a fungus on phosphorescent wood as to its identity with the cause of the phosphorescence. He finds that a number of forms have been erroneously considered as phosphorescent, such as Xylaria Hypoxylon, X. Cookei, Trametes Pini, Polyporus sulfureus, Collybia c/rrhata, etc. * Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxv. (1908) pp. 291-5 (1 pi.). + Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Peradenya, Ceylon, iv. (1907) pp. 21-68. X Comptes Rendus, cxlviii. (1908) pp. 80-1. § Nat. Zeit. Land.-Forstw., vi. (1908) pp. 81-141 (1 pi. and 1 4 figs.). See also Bot. Centralbl., cvii. (1908) pp. 518-19. Wiesner Festschrift. Wien : Carl Konegen, 1908, pp. 19 23. See also Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) Beibl. p. 170. 2 T 2 628 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Colour-variation in Fungi.* — F. J. Seaver is preparing a mono- graph of North American Hypocreales, and records some of his observa- tions on the colour of different members of the group. He finds that the well-known Nectria cmnabarina from cinnabar-red colour becomes, with age, dark-brown, and finally almost black. In each colour-stage specimens have been described as new species : N. Russell ii, N. ofl'axcata. N. nigresceas, N. Melke. The writer finds similar confusion existing in species of Hypocrea ; fuller details are promised with the issue of t In- complete monograph. Local Records of Fungi."]" — C. Grassland gives a list of forty-seven species that were collected on a natural history expedition to Robin Hood's Bay, in the autumn of last year. Among the interesting species noted was a little black mould CI aster osporium fungorum, that grows on species of Corticium. A similar account X is given of the fungi of Littondale, in York- shire. Most of the forms collected belonged to the microfungi, many of them coprophilous. T. Gribbs § reports on the fungi of Ribblesdale ; some eighty species were collected, but the weather conditions were found unfavourable, a period of dry weather having followed on a cold wet summer, and checked the growth of the mycelium. ■» The same author || describes a new Coprinus (G. cordisporus), which he found on dung of horse, sheep, rabbit, etc., in various parts of York- shire and Derbyshire. The spores are described as obtusely heart-shaped, and compressed, front view cordate. W. Fowler % records the appearance of Hydnum auriscalpium at Welbeck Abbey, where it was first collected in Britain by the Duchess of Portland, and not since recorded for Yorkshire. John Lightfoot identified it for the Duchess 140 years ago. C. Grassland ** describes a new species, Humaria globose-pal Ivinata, found near Hebden Bridge, on sediment in disused dye-tank ; and, along with this species, gives a list of plants new to Yorkshire, and discovered by him and others since the publication of the " Fungus-Flora " in 1905. Chemistry of the Higher Fungi. ft — J. Zellner has summed up all that is known of the chemical constituents of the higher fungi, as also some of the microscopic forms. He takes the different substances, and states where they occur, and their properties, so far as these have been ascertained. Carbonates, fats, minerals, acids, colouring agents, enzymes, toxins, etc., are all included in his survey. Parasitic Fungi. — Ducomet has studied the development of a number of subcuticular fungi. In some of these, Ggcloconiam, Cuti- cularia Stigmatea, and Fusicladium Pruni, the vegetative mycelium is * Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxv. (1908) pp. 307-14. t Naturalist, 1907, pp. 288-9. % Tom. oit., pp. 350-3. § Torn, cit., pp. 395-6. || Op. cit., 1903, p. 100. % Tom. cit., p. 157. ** Tom. cit., pp. 214-18. ft Chemie der hohereu Pilze. Leipzig: W. Eiigelmann (1907), 257 pp. XX These Sc. Paris : Remies(1907) 208 pp. (34 pis.). See also Bot. Centralbl. cvii. (1908) pp. 368-9. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 629 constantly found just beneath the cuticle ; in other forms it goes deeper into the tissue, as in Guignardia, Fusarium, Vmturia, and Marsonia. In Mycetoderma the tissues are only invaded when the leaves are dead ; Fusicladium pyrinum and F. dendriticum are subcuticular in the leaf, but penetrate more deeply in fruit or branch. Many other points of interest are entered on in the memoir : action of the fungus on the host, form of the thallus, etc. Some new species have been discovered, and are described. Blue Disease of Pine-wood.* — ■ The blue colour is stated by E. Munch to be due to a light-effect on finely divided mycelium, and not to any colour produced. The disease is caused by a species of a Pyrenomycete, Ceratostomella, a composite species which includes several, distinguished from each other more particularly by their conidial form — in some being a species of Cladosporium, in others a Graph i am or Ghalara I 'iigeri. The author also describes a species of Cladosporium on pine-wood which induced a blue coloration, but he did not find any higher fruiting form connected with it. In a further paper f the author discusses the biological conditions that affect the growth of the parasite. It does not grow except in the presence of a certain amount of air, and increases rapidly when the air is also increased by disappearance of the sap, etc. Diseases of Plants. — E. S. Salmon % describes the nature and extent of the disease of apple-leaves and fruit caused by a fungus, Fusicladium dendriticum, and known as "apple scab" or "black spot," which first becomes noticeable by the damage it causes to the young fruit. On the leaves, the fungus is usually to be found on the upper surface, where it forms black patches. It also occurs on the young wood of the tree, producing a blistered appearance. The disease can be checked and controlled by systematic spraying with Bordeaux mixture, the first application of which should be on the young unfolding leaves, just lief ore the blossoms open. If the wood has been attacked, it should be cut out as much as possible, and the tree sprayed during the winter. Several cases of fungus disease are reported in the same § journal : Anemones from Penryn were attacked by rust, peaches from Ilminster were injured by leaf-curl, Exoascus deformans, and the roots of youug peas from Cher'tsey were attacked by Thielavia basicola, a fungus which spreads very quickly under favourable weather conditions. Remedies are suggested for these diseases. ' Kirchner |] has conducted a series of experiments by artificial inocu- lation of wheat with Tilletia Tritici— drawing a parallel between the germinating force and the liability to infection. In summer wheat, the greater the f oree the less danger there is of the disease ; but this does not hold good for the common winter wheat, as the results there prove exactly the opposite. * Nat. Zeitschr. Land.-Forstw., v. (1907) pp. 531-73. See also Bot. Centialbl., cvii. (190S) pp. 275-6. + Op. cit., vi. (1908) pp. 32-47. See also Bot. Centralbl., cvii. (1908) p. 515. t Journ. Board Agric, xv. (1908) pp. 182-95 (9 rigs.). § Tom. cit. p. 203. I! Fiibling's Landw. Zeit., 1908, p. 161. See also Ann. Mycol., vi. (190S) pp. 168-9. 630 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Kock and Kornauth* give their experiences in combating th< mildew of Cucurbitaceae. Different genera within the order show considerable variation in their liability to disease, probably due to the type of leaves. Bordeaux mixture was found to be the best fungicide. Heavy rains and high variation of temperature favoured the appearance and dissemination of the disease. W. M. Scott and J. B. Rorerf describe the apple-leaf spot caused by Sphcvropsis malorwn. A number of other microfungi grow on the diseased leaves, notably Goniothyrium pirinum. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture has been found of service. L. C. Shear $ has given the results of a series of investigations on Cranberry diseases caused by different fungi, and resulting in scald on the berry, blast which attacks the flower, rot caused by Acanthorhyncus Vacciiui, and anthracnose due to Glomerella rufomaculcms-vaccinii. In addition, cases of hypertrophy caused by Exobasidium are discussed. J. L. Spaulding§ describes the effect of PltgUostirta solitaria on apple, causing fruit-blotch disease, and occurring on branches, leaves, and fruit. A blight disease of young conifers was found by the same author to be due to a species of Pestalozzia, and a heart-rot of Sassafras to Fomes Rib is. He describes the manner in which the fungus attacks the tree and develops in the tissues. F. L. Stevens |) describes two apple fungi : Hypochnus ochraleaca, which occurs extensively on apples and quinces in North Carolina, and a form of Phoma, or PhyMosticta, which causes a canker of the apple, and has proved very destructive to the trees. . G-. F. Atkinson and C. W. Edgerton^f publish a preliminary note on a new disease of the cultivated vetch, causing spots on the pods. They propose a new generic and specific name, Protocoronospora nigricans. E. H. Smith ** finds that a Fusarium, probably F. Solani, causes the blossom end-rot of tomatoes. A detailed description of the fungus is given ; the paper is well illustrated. A disease of chestnut trees was discovered in 1905 in Bronx Park, New York, and described by W. A. Murrill ft as due to Diaporthe parasitica. The parasite has attacked other species of Castanea, and the disease has spread largely in the neighbourhood. P. Cruchet J J describes new parasites on Polygonum alpinwm, * Zeitschr. Landw. Versuch. Oesterr., 1908, p. 128. See also Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) p. 169. t U.S.Dept. Agric. Bull., No 121, part 5 (1908 )pp. 47-54 (2 pis.). See also Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) pp. 169-70. : Bull. Bur. PI. Lad., No. 110 (1907). See also Bot. Centralbl., cvii. (1908) pp. 147-8. § Science, xxvi. (1908) pp. 183, 220, 479. See also Bot. Centralbl., cvii. (1908) pp. 148-9. |i Op. cit., xxvi. (1907) p. 724. See also Bot. Centralbl., cvii. (1908) p. 313. i Torn, cit., p. 386. See also Bot. Centralbl., cvii. (1908) p. 357. ** Mass. Agric. Exp. Stat. Techn., Bull. No. 3 (1907) 6 drawings and photos. See also Bot. Centralbl., cvii. (1908) p. 357. ft Journ. New York Bot. Gard., ix. (1908) pp. 23-30. See also Bot. Centralbl., cvii. (1908) p. 594. XX Bull. Herb. Boiss.. ser. 2, viii. (1908) pp. 245-7. See also Bot. Centralbl., eviii. (1908) p. 94. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 631 Pitcci/iia Polygoni-alpini, and Sphacelotheca alpina. The latter destroys the flower ; a second species was detected on the leaves of the same host. Study of Anthracnoses.* — 0. W. Edgerton limits this term to the fungi that at one stage form a GUeosporium. In many cases the perfect fruit form is knowu, but not in all. The author includes Coll etotric hum as a synonym of Glozosjjorium : the difference between the two he does not consider of generic importance. He describes the development of GlcBOsporium and then its different forms as it appears when associated with different ascogenous fungi. He takes first the Gnomonia type, and gives an account of G. veneta with the pycnidial stage Glaosporium nervisequum, which is parasitic on sycamore and oak. The Pseudopeziza type was first worked out by Klebahn, and his work is referred to. Most of the work was done by Edgerton on the Glomerella type : the perfect stage, one of the Pyrenomycetes, was found to be extremely variable both from the same and from different hosts. It is doubtful if they represent different species or only forms — thus two forms were found on the apple : one from the north, the other from the south, that from the south alone producing perithecia. In artificial cultures very considerable variety was also produced, but the author deprecates the use of these characters in the determination of species as being generally too variable. A full bibliography of the subject is given. Bambeke. Ch. Van — Le recueil de figures coloriees de champignons delaisse par Fr. Van Sterbeck. [An account of the 32 coloured plates of fungi left by Sterbeck.] Bull. Soc. Boy. Bot. Belgique, xliv. (1907) pp. 297-338 (3 pis.). Bubak, Fr., & J. E. Kabat— Mykologische Beitrage. V. (Mycological contri- butions.) [Descriptions of a number of new species of microfungi from Bohemia.] Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) pp. 354-64 (8 figs.). Cruchet, Denis — Contribution a la Flore mycologique Suisse. (Contribution to the Swiss mycological flora.) [A list of Fhvcomvcetes and Ustilaginese parasitic on various phanerogams.] Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., xliv. (1908) pp. 27-33. Dietel, P — Einige neue Uredineen aus Sudamerika. II. (Some new Uredines from South America.) TSpecies from various collectors in Brazil and Chili.] Ann. Mi/col, vi. (1908) pp. 94-8. Fbrdinandsen, C, & 0. Wing e— Mycological Notes. [Notes on various misunderstood forms, with diagnoses of several new species.] Bot. Tidssk., xxviii. (1907) pp. 249-56. See also Bot. Centralbl., cvii. (1908) pp. 245-6. tt „ ,, Svampe vegetationen paa Borris Hede. (The vegetation of fungi on the heath at Borris.) [An examination of the habitat of the different fungi.] Bot. Tidssk., xxviii. (1907) pp. 257-64. See also Bot. Centralbl., cviii. (1908) p. 95. * Bot. Gazette, xlv. (1908) pp. 367-408 (1 pi. and 17 figs.). 632 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Hennings, P.— Fungi philippinenses. I. [Many new species are described.] Jfedwigia, xlvii. (1908) pp. 250-G5. ,, ,, Fungi bahienses. [Most of the species are new. The collection was made by E. Ule. Tom. cit., pp. 266-70. Lendner, A. — Cinq especes nouvelles du genre Mucor. (Five new species of the genus Mucor.) [Several of these were developed in artificial cultures. One was growing on a rust from Brazil, the others from Switzerland.] Bull. Herb. Boiss., ser. 2, viii. (1908) pp. 78-9. See also Bot. Centralbl, cvii. (1908) p. 648. Lind, J. — Bemerkungen uber einige parasitische Pilze aus Ruzland. (Remarks on some parasitic fungi from Russia.) [List of an unpublished set of 50 microfungi by U. C. Sredinsky, and of some other parasites also found iu St. Petersburg herbarium.] Ann. Mycol, vi. (1908) pp. 99-10-4. Maire, Rene — Champignons de Sao Paulo. (Fungi of San Paulo, Brazil.) [Diagnoses of a number of new species and of rare forms.] Tom. cit, pp. 145-53 (1 pi., 7 figs.). Mattirolo, O. — Relazione intorno alia Memoria. . . Richerche intorno ad alcune specie del genere Elaphomyces. [Report on a paper on the systematic position of Elaphomyces, presented by Elfisia Fontana.] Atti Accad. Sci. Torino, xliii. (1908) pp. 97-8). Rehm — Ascomycetes Exs. Fasc. 41. [Notes and diagnoses of species, several of them new, Nos. 1751-75 ; with a series of notes on species already published.] Ann. Mycol, vi. (1908) pp. 116-24. Rick — Fungi Austro-Americani, Fasc. ix. and x. [Notes on a number of species, some of them new to science.] Tom. cit., pp. 105-8. Sartory, A., & A. Jourde — Le Sterigmatocystis fusca. [An account of some morphological and bio- logical characters of this fungus and of its pathogenic properties.] C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) pp. 926-8. ,, ,, ,, Note snr le pouvoir pathogene des Sterigmato- cystis nigra et S. carbonaria. (Note on the pathogenic power of Sterigmatocystis nigra and S. carbonaria.) Tom. cit., pp. 1135-6. Sydow, H. & P. — Ueber eine Anzahl aus der G-attung Uromyces Auszuschlies- zender, resp. unrichtig beschriebener Arten. (Some species of Uromyces that should be omitted, or that are imperfectlv described.) Awn. Mycol, vi. (1908) pp. 135-43. Trillat & Sauton — Etude sur le role des levures dans l'aldehydification de l'alcool. (On the part played by'yeasts in converting alcohol into aldehyde.) Comptes Renclus, cxlvii. (1908) pp. 77-80. Voglino, Pietro — De quibusdam fungis novis pedemontanis. (Some new fungi from Piedmont.) [Diagnoses of new species of microfungi.) Atti Accad. Sci. Torino, xliii. (1908) pp. 246-51. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 633 Lichens. (By A. Lorrain Smith, F.L.S.) French Lichens.* — J. Harmand has issued the third part of his systematic and descriptive catalogue of French lichens, which includes the Cladoniae and filamentous genera, such as Usnea, Alectoria, Ramalina, Roccella, Anaptychia, etc. Harmand does not follow the new classifica- tion, which places Cladonia near to Lecidea, and Roccella among the Graphidege ; he follows the older method of classification, according to the form of the thallus. Distribution of the species in French territory is given, and keys are supplied for each genus. Lichens from the Island of Samoa.f — The collection was made by K. Rechinger, and the species determined by A. Zahlbruckner. It has been found that the lichen flora resembles that of New Caledonia. There are many forms with Ghroolepus gonidia, especially on twigs and branches in mangrove swamps. Crustaceous forms were generally plentiful, but there were few representatives of Pertusaria, Parmelia, and Usnea. There were only two species of Cladonia, and none of Stereo- caulon. A few new species are described, and one new genus, Pseudo- lecanactis. Lichen Notes. V.J— These notes by G. K. Merrill deal with the genus Ramalina. He compares Tuckerman's with Nylander's arrange- ment, and proceeds to give a short review of the different species^ He finds a leading mark of differentiation in the spores, which in R. fastigiata and R. fraxinea are curved, while in R. calicaris and R. farinacea they are straight. The forms of R. calicaris are so many and so varied that a constant character such as the form of the spores is of great importance. Lichens Chemically Considered.§ — W. Zopf has devoted much attention to the chemical constituents of lichens, and he here sums up the results of his researches. He reckons some 143 different substances, most of them of an acid character, and all of them crystallisable. He describes his methods of obtaining the acids from the plants ; none of them have been found in any other plant or animal. He gives a list of the reagents that may be employed in determining the presence of the acids, which are also useful from a systematic point of view, though the surroundings, humidity, etc., may influence the quantity and quality of the acid. He does not consider them in the light of protective sub- stances for the lichens, as in many cases they are eaten by animals even when they contain very bitter substances. Zopf also discusses the economic properties and uses of the acids, and finally divides them into their chemical groups. * Lichens de France. Paris : Paul Klincksieck, part ii. (1907) pp. 211-478 (3 pis.). t Math.-Nat. Kl. k. Akal Wiss. YVien, lxxxi. (1907) 66 pp. (1 pi.). See also Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) Beibl., pp. 172-3. X Bryologist, xi. (1908) pp. 48-53. § Jena : G. Fischer (1907) xi. and 49 pp. (71 figs.). See also Bot. Centralbl., cvii. (1908) pp. 196-201. 634 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Chemical Constituents of Lichens. — P. Rave * re-examines the work on Evernia furfuracea by Zopf, who had decided that this lichen was the representative of a new genus, Pseudevernia, and who had split it into six species. Elenkin questioned the correctness of Zopf's theories. Rave has taken up the question, and uphold's Zopf's views ; he finds morphological as well as chemical differences between the different species. Emmanuel Senft f writes on the occurrence of physcion and parietin in lichens. They are insoluble in water, but can be easily extracted with alcohol, chloroform, etc., and they crystallise ' in characteristic forms. Coloured tables are given showing the forms of the crystals. Beitzelmayr, Max. — Die Cladonien des Harzgebietes und Nordthiiringens nach dem " Herbarium Oszwald." (The Cladonien of the Harz and North Thuringia according to Oszwald's Herbarium.) [A collection of about 300 specimens of Claclonite.~\ Beih. Bot. CentralbL, xxiii. (1908) pp 318-23 (V pis.). Elenkin, A. — Lichenes florae Russicae Mediae, Fasc. ii., Nos. 51-100. [A varied selection of lichens from Central Russia.] St. Petersbourg, 1907. See also Bot. CentralbL, cvii. (1908) p. 492. Hasse, H. E. — Lichens collected in the Tehachepi Mountains, California, June 1907. [A considerable list of plants is given, with instructive notes on some of the species.] Bryologist, xi. (1908) pp. 55-7. Howe, Heber Reginald — Lichens of the Mount Monadnock Region, N.H., No. 2. [Several forms of Thelochistcs are discussed and compared.] Tom. cit., p. 74. To bleb, F. — Kritische Bemerkungen uber Rhaphiospora, Arthroraphis Myco- bacidia. [Critical notes on various lichens.] Hedwigia, xlvii. (1908) pp. 140-4 (2 figs.) Zahlbruchner, A. — Neue Flechten. (New lichens.) [Diagnoses of species from Patagonia, California, Chili, Herzegovina, and Steierrnark.] Ann. Mycol., vi. (1908) pp. 129-34. ,, ,, New North American Lichens. [New species described from Arizona ; all of them collected from basaltic rocks.] Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxxv. (1908) pp. 297-300. Mycetozoa. (By A. Lorrain Smith, F.L.S.) Notes on Swiss Mycetozoa.J — A. and Gr. Lister report on a series of forms collected on high ground, most frequently in the neighbourhood of melting snow. They note certain variations, due apparently to their Alpine surroundings : great variation iu the size and shape of sporangia, etc., which other observers have also remarked. They publish a new variety of Physarum virescens with larger sporangia, more rigid * Inaug.-Diss. von Munster, i. W. Borna. Leipzig : R. Noske (1908) 51 pp. (2 pis.). See also Hedwigia, Beibl., xlvii. (1908) p. 171. t Wiesner Festschrift. Wien : Carl Konegen, 1908, pp, 176-92 (1 pi.). See also Hedwigia, Beibl., xlvii. (1908) p. 171. % Journ. Bot., xlvi. (1908) pp. 216-19. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 635 capillitiuin, and darker, rather larger, spores. Chondrioderma niveum was found in a position which indicated that the plasmodium stage must often be passed under the snow. Myxomycete Studies.*— E. Jahn devotes the seventh of these papers to Ceratiomyxa. He describes the work done by Famintzin and Woronin on this genus, which differs from other Myxomycetes in possessing a four-nucleate spore : the amoeba which issues from the spore separates into four smaller amcebas, these dividing once again, so that eight swarmers arise from each. In the development of the fruit of Ceratiomyxa he distinguishes (1) the cushion stage ; (2) elongation stage, when horn-like processes are formed ; (3) a mesh condition, the plasma covering the " horns " with threads ; (4) a " plaster " stage (round amoebae) ; (5) a spore stage. From careful preparations Jahn found that in the mesh stage there is one mitotic division before spore formation which, as in other Myxomycetes, is a reduction division — previous to that there had been a fusion of nuclei in the plasmodium, the resulting nucleus containing 16 chromosomes ; associated therewith were many unpaired degenerate nuclei. Jaap, 0. — Myxomycetes exsiccati. Ser. 1, Nos. 1-20. [A new issue of Myxomycetes. E. Jahn has assisted in determining the specimens.] Hamburg 25, Burggarten la 1907. See also Bot. Centralbl, cviii. (1908) p. 271. S chizophy t a. Schizomycetes. Bacillus intermediate to Bacillus typhosus (Eberth) and to Bacillus paratyphosus A (Brion and Kayser).f — (x. Faroy has isolated from the blood of a fatal case of continuous fever resembling typhoid, a flagellate micro-organism morphologically very like B. typhosus. Broth, agar, and potato cultures resembled those of B. typhosus or B. paraty- phosus A ; growth occurred on gelatin without causing liquefaction ; there was no production of indol ; growth was less vigorous under anaerobic than under aerobic conditions ; milk was not coagulated, but litmus-milk showed a persistent acidification : like B. typhosus, but less actively than B. paratyphosus A, this bacillus fermented glucose, maltose, laevulose, galactose, and mannite ; like B. typhosus, it had no action on lactose, saccharose, raffinose, arabinose, or dulcite : it fermented glycerin slightly, like B. paratyphosus A, which, however, acts on dulcite. On gelatin with nitroprussiate of soda a green coloration was slowly formed, an effect which appears more rapidly and to a more marked degree with B. paratyphosus A, and not at all with B. typhosus. In neutral-red broth a slight orange-red fluorescence appeared after 48 hours, an effect which appears more intense with B. paratyphosus A, and not at all with B. typhosus. In its agglutination reaction this organism appeared to be inter- mediate between B. typhosus and B. paratyphosus A. The serum of * Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xxvi. (1908) pp. 312-52 (2 figs.), t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxiv. (1908) p. 1093. 636 SUMMARY OF CUEEENT RESEAECHES RELATING TO rabbits immunised against B. paratyphosus A Brion and B. Gaertner did not agglutinate the bacillus under consideration. Jelly-forming Bacteria.* — M. Gronnermann describes several jelly- forming bacteria. (1) Myxobacterium Beta, met with in jelly-like masses during the manufacture of sugar. It forms slender non-motile rods 2-5/i long, 0" 3ft thick, two or more being often joined together; it stains by the ordinary anilin dyes, showing a granular appearance, but no distinct capsule ; growth is slow at room temperature, and best at 34-37° C. ; it ferments sugar only slightly, and without acid forma- tion ; at room temperature, or at 37° C. after 24 hours, it forms oval spores with cross sections wider than the bacilli, but this is preceded by the formation of threads which break up into short rods, each of which forms a spore. (2) Plennobacterium Gon. appears as a transparent expansion of a fine thready slimy consistence on agar-plates exposed to the air of the room of the sugar press. Morphologically the organism resembles the hay bacillus. Individual rods are 2'5-bfi long and 0'4-0'6/x, wide, and have either blunt or, more often, finely pointed ends ; the threads are often much tangled ; growth is slower at room temperature than the Myzobacterium ; spores are formed at 37° C. after 24 hours. Dicyandiamid-bacteria.+ — R. Perotti finds that in nutrient liquids containing a suitable amount of glucose, and for nitrogenous material only about 1-2 p.c. of dicyanamide, there occurs a vigorous and charac- teristic development of micro-organisms. These belong to different bacterial forms and classes, many not yet described, some being ordinary soil organisms, but only certain of these microbes find in this medium the best conditions for development. The dicyanamide is incapable of undergoing a fermentative action. Lactic Fermentation in Milk.J — M. W. Beijerinck finds that from a temperature point of view there are three classes of organisms in milk, viz. cryo- (5-20), meso- (20-35), and thermo-flora (35-45). The most characteristic of the aerobic cryoflora are the different varieties of Bacillus aromaticvs. It is possible to distinguish three forms of lactic fermentation determined by the temperature ; a muciliaginous fermenta- tion at very low temperatures ; the ordinary fermentation by the Lacto- coccus at medium temperatures ; and at a relatively high temperature the fermentation by the lacto bacilli's. Cultures of the mucilaginous lactic fermentation thrive in cultivations of baker's yeast, anaerobically. at 15-18° C. in malt-extract, and in boiled milk or skimmed milk (petit lait) at 25-30° C. The acidity of the fermentation is low. Cultures of Lactococcits lactis are obtained by allowing milk to become sour in a closed flask at 20-25° C, and sub-culturing in boiled milk at the same temperature. The acidity is about 8 c.mm. of normal acid to 100 c.mm. of milk. Cultures of lacto bacillus are best obtained in butter-milk kept anaerobically at 37-40° C, and sub-cultured into boiled milk at over 30° C. The degree of acidity may reach 18-23 c.mm. of normal acid to 100 c.mm. of milk. * Centralbl. Bakt., 2te Abt., xxi. (1908) p. 258. t Tom. cit., p. 200. X Arch. Neerland. Sci. Exact, et Naturel., xiii. (1908) p. 357. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 631 Differentiation of Streptococci by Media containing Carbo- hydrates.*— E. Salomon considers three groups of streptococci. (1) S. pyogenes produces acid from starch, but not from glycerin, mannite or raffinose, though strains grown from blood do produce acid from glycerin and mannite ; (2) S. mucosus produces acid from glycerin, arabinose, and mannite, but not from raffinose or starch ; (3) Pneumo- coccvs produces no acid on carbohydrate litmus ascitic agar. Coli-bacillosis.t — K. Neumann finds that strains of coli bacillus causing calf dysentery, when cultivated on artificial media, do not appreciably diminish in virulence during a period of two years, nor does continuous subculture from gelatin to gelatin, or from milk to milk, heighten the virulence. Passage of the organism through guinea-pigs increases its virulence for guinea-pigs, but not for mice ; passage through mice does not increase the virulence for mice, but does so for guinea- pigs. Researches in Bacillary Dysentery .% — -A. Di Donna finds that the virulence of the Shiga-Kruse and Flexner bacilli is diminished rather than increased by passage through guinea-pigs. A nucleo-proteid can be obtained from Shiga-Kruse dysentery bacillus, which has immunising properties for rabbits. By the autolysis of bacilli by means of physio- logical salt solution, a nuclear substance can be obtained which is pre- cipitated by absolute alcohol, and after drying may be kept unchanged for a long period ; its immunising action is closely allied to that of the nucleo proteid. The serum of rabbits treated with the filtrate of broth cultures has protective properties against the living bacilli. The Shiga- Kruse immune serum exerts no influence on the jFlexner bacillus or on B. coli. Protective and Curative Artificial Immunity. § — A. P. Ohlmacher reviews the work of Wright and others on the theory of opsonins and ou the treatment by vaccines, for which he proposes the name " opsouogens." The author mentions a number of diseases to which the treatment has been applied, and gives an account of his own clinical experiences in the treatment of acne, furunculosis, staphylococci, psoriasis, eczema, septic surgical affections, and gonorrhea, with very remarkable success. Developmental Cycle of Bacteria. || — F. Fuhrmann believes that the ordinary involution forms of bacteria are by no means always accom- panied by serious injury to the bacterial protoplasm, but that the altered cells have preserved their vital energy, and under suitable conditions can reproduce individuals of the original form. The author has found that Pseudomonas cerevisce, in a mineral medium containing 1-2 p.c. of ammonium chloride and h p.c. of saccharose, passes through a complete developmental series. The actively motile bacteria grow out into threads, become non-motile, and form at various points knot-like joints, in which are seen strongly retractile granules which are not of the nature of spores ; in fresh medium they again give rise to short motile rods. * Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlvii. (1908) p. 1. t Op. cit., xlvi. (1908) p. 671. J Op. cit., p. 603. § Michigan Acad. Sci., Rep. ix. (1907) p.- 118. || Centralbl. Bakt., 2te Abt., xxi. (1908) p. 257. G38 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Bacillus foedans and Miscured Ham.* — E. Klein isolated from softened and putrid hums an essential anaerobe, B.fanlmis. which is Gram-positive and non-motile. The bacterium presents itself as short or long rods (l'5-3'5 //.) and as filaments of considerable length (14 /*). It is 0'4/x thick, may be straight or curved, the ends being mostly rounded. The microbe was cultivated under anaerobic conditions in glucose-gelatin, glucose-broth, and glucose-pork-broth, best at 20 C. After about 8 weeks the gelatin was liquefied. There was gas production with evolution of an offensive putrid smell. Micrococcus of Osteomalacia and Rickets. f — B. Morpurgo claims to have isolated a diplococcus from the bones of white rats. It is 1 • 2 /x in diameter, tends to form chains, and is Gram-positive. Gelatin is slowly liquefied ; milk slowly coagulated ; it forms acid in broth, but does not produce indol or nitrite. On agar it grows as a grey delicate film or as small round colonies. When injected into adult animals it induces osteomalacia ; into young rats, rickets. Diphtheroid bacillus found in Cardiac Vegetations.^— V. Babes and D. Manolesco describe a new diphtheroid organism isolated from a case of acute rheumatism. While it resembles morphologically and cul- turally B. (liphtlierm Klebs-Loeffler, it is less sensitive to the composition of cultivation media and to temperature. It is pathogenic to animals. Bacillus subtilis in the Blood and Tissues.§ — G. Ferrarini describes a case of enlargement of the spleen and lymphatic glands associated with the presence of B. subtilis in the glands and blood. Microscopical examination of the glands revealed fibro-epithelioid hypertrophy ; in places the structure resembled a perithelioma, in others there were giant-cells, in some of which the Gram-positive bacillus could be found. * Lancet (1908) i. pp. 1832-4 (3 figs.). t Archiv Sci. Med. Turin, xxxi. (1907) p. 1. X C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxv. (1908) pp. 93-5. § Brit. Med. Journ. (1908) ii. epit 36. See also Siena : G, Bernardino, 1908, 146 pp., 32 figs. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 039 MICROSCOPY. A. Instruments, Accessories, &c* (1) Stands. Engel's Cross-stage with Automatic Adjustment. f — This appara- tus (fig. 18(J), made by E. Leitz, is intended to facilitate the examination of sections and other objects arranged on the stage in rows and to lessen the attention which the observer usually has to bestow in order to insure that he does not pass by mistake from one row to another. The designer substitutes mechanical movement for ocular control. *For this purpose he applies to an ordinary cross-stage a spindle screw connected with a toothed wheel of 50 teeth ; the wheel having a lever and ratchet Fig. 139. of two teeth by means of which a backward and forward movement can be imparted to the stage. The toothed wheel can be moved through as many teeth as desired. Thus when a horizontal row has been examined by rotation of the spindle screw, the lever movement will automatically bring another row under observation. Improvements in the Ultra-violet Microscope.} — W. T. Swingle and L. T. Briggs give a short historical sketch of ultra-microscopy with especial reference to Kohler's important introduction of quartz lenses and cadmium spark. As the ultra-violet light of the cadmium spark is absolutely invisible to the eye, Kohler devised a " seeker " consisting of a quartz lens and a fluorescent screen placed over the eye-piece. This * This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illuminating and other Apparatus ; (4) Photomicrography ; (5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. + Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxv. (1908) pp. 60-2 (1 fig.). t Science, xxvi. (1907) pp. 180-3 (2 figs.. 640 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO screen lights up under the action of the ultra-violet rays, and focus- ing is then possible. Focusing high-power monochromatic objectives is, however, tedious and difficult ; but the authors consider that they have devised a great improvement in this respect. Instead of employ- ing a single pair of electrode holders, they recommend a double pair (four in all) arranged so that the cadmium electrodes can be instantly swung out and replaced by a pair of magnesium electrodes by means of Fig. 140. the handles shown in fig. 140. The cadmium eleotrode holders are longer than those for the magnesium, for a purpose explained later. There is an automatic stop on the lower pair of holders to insure the spark gap falling in the axis of the collimator lens. The swing-out electrode changer was suggested by the discovery that the monochromatic lenses, though giving only badly blurred and coloured images with ordinary light, did give very good images that could be focused sharply even to the finest detail providing strictly monochromatic visible light ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 641 were used. The object is, therefore, first found and centred with a low- power visual lens, using the magnesium blue light. Then the high- power monochrornat is used and the spot found which it is desired to photograph. The camera is then moved into place, and the objective must be adjusted for the change from magnesium to cadmium light ; this adjustment must be determined by trial and noted for future use. By making the arms of the magnesium electrode holders 5*5 mm. shorter than those for the cadmium, it was found possible to bring the blue light and the ultra-violet rays to a focus at the same distance beyond the prisms and the collector lens though not in the same spot, as the ultra-violet rays are refracted much more than the blue rays in passing through the prisms. It is found very advantageous to be able to do all the exploratory and focusing work with blue light and then to apply the ultra-violet light merely for the few seconds necessary for photography. Moreover, owing to the greater precision in focusing, it will be no longer necessary for the biologist to equip himself with a whole series of expensive monochromats. Reichert's Movable Mechanical Object-stages.* — One type of these auxiliaries is shown in fig. 141. The two adjacent rack screw-heads Fig. 141. a a' act in such a way that the object can be easily and safely moved in two mutually perpendicular directions. Both co-ordinate edges are graduated and provided with verniers for convenience of orientation and for recovery of known positions. The circular periphery is radially divided. By lifting up the screw b the centre object-holder can be re- moved, so as to admit of the insertion of culture dishes. This stage is only applicable to stands A I and A Ic. * C. Reichert, Vienna, Catalogue, Mikroscope.No. 26(1908) pp. 42-3, figs, 30, 32, 33 Oct. 21st, 1908 2 u 642 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Another type is shown in fig. 142, and is only applicable to stands with rectangular stages. The movable stage is secured by two screws to the ordinary stage. Fig. 142. Pig. 143. A third type is shown in fig. 143, and is only intended for stands fitted with strong circular brass stages. It will be noted that the transverse movement is mechanical, and that the vertical is by action of the jointed arm. Reichert's New Large Stand B.* — This (fig. 144) is a little smaller than stand A ii by the same firm. It has a new horizontally-placed, * C. Reichert, Vienna, Catalogue, Mikroscope, No. 26 (1908) p. 20, fig. 8. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 643 and on its upper side protected, micrometer movement, with lateral action. The object-stage (110 mm. diameter) is circular and rotatory, and has centring screws. The instrument is fitted with Abbe's illuminating REICHERT,WIEN. Fig. 144. apparatus, with iris-diaphragm, and rack-and-pinion for raising and lowering the illuminating apparatus. The tilting is regulated and clamped by a lever. 2 u 2 644 SUMMARY OF CUKEENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Reichert's New Medium Mineralogical Stand A iii c* — This stand (fig. 145) corresponds in general design to stand C {vide supra), with rotatory object-stage, divided into 360 degrees, and vernier readings to Pig. 145. 0*1°. It has cross-graduations for orientation of known preparations. The polariser is easily rotatory, and can be adjusted up and down by a screw ; the four quadrants of rotation are marked by the engaging of a * C. Reichert, Vienna, Catalogue, Mikroscope, No. 26 (1908) p. 39, fig. 26. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 645 spring-tooth. There is an iris-diaphragm, and a removable illumination system. The analyser can be put in and taken out without interference with the adjustment of the instrument. There is a second analyser over the ocular, with a circumference divided into 360 degrees. The instru- ment has a quartz plate and an opening for inserting a quartz wedge. It is also equipped with Bertrand lens, Grlans prisms, and an object-centring arrangement. Fig. 146. Reichert's Large Stand, A 1.*— This stand, which was figured and described in this Journal for 1905 (p. 241) is now made with a gradua- tion on the limb, to assist in the focusing of high-power objectives and to prevent injury to slides. | Reichert's New Preparation Microscope.^ — This Microscope, listed as No. 131, has a prism tube (fig. 146), with erecting Porro-prisms * C. Beichert, Vienna, Catalogue, Mikroscope, No. 26 (1908) p. 16, fig. 6. t It is interesting to note that limb-graduation was first introduced by John Marshall in 1704. — Ed. X C. Reichert, Vienna, Catalogue, Mikroscope, No. 26 (1908) p. 47, fig. 40. 646 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO and Ramsden ocular. The tube can be applied to several patterns of preparation stands supplied by the firm. Photomicroscope for Ultra-violet Rays and its Significance for Histological Investigations, especially of Hard Structures.* — W. Dreck fully describes his methods, which seem to have been very suc- cessful. He gives several photographic plates of diatoms and of sections of teeth and bones. Marx, H. — Ein handliches Obduktionsmikroskop. Zeit.f. Medizinalbcamte Jahrg., xx. (1907) No. 21, pp. 744-5. (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. Reichert's Spectral-ocular.f — This ocular (fig. 147) is due to Abbe, and has the prisms arranged rectilinearly. By means of a spiral move- ment the ocular lens can be focused accurately upon the slit which can Fig. 147. be regulated both in breadth and height. There is a comparison prism, a lateral stage, and illuminating mirror, as well as a measuring apparatus for Fraunhofer's lines. Reichert's Index-ocular 4 — This auxiliary, constructed after Bourguet's design, is shown in fig. 148. Its peculiarity consists in the externally adjustable index by means of which any point in the field of * S.B. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde, 1906, No. 4 (April) pp. 108-25 (18 figs.), t C. Reichert, Vienna, Catalogue, Mikroscope, p. 58, fig. 56. X Tom. cit., p. 60, fig. 60. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 647 view can be designated. It is especially adaptable for class-work, where the teacher wishes to demonstrate to his pupils.* Fig. 148. Reichert's Goniometer-ocular.f — This (No. 94 in maker's catalogue) is represented in fig. 149, and is intended for the measurement of angles of crystals. Fig. 149. Reichert's Objective.! — The 8 mm. objective of the Hart apochroinat series has been increased in N. A. from 0*5 to 0'6. There is also a general reduction of prices. Among the achromats there is a new ^ in. water immersion of N.A. 1 ' 10-1 ' 15 : and anions; the semi-achromats a new TTT in. homogeneous immersion of N. A. 1 ' 3. (3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus. New Easily Legible Micrometer Divisions. § — Gebhardt has, with the help of the Zeiss firm, designed a micrometer with a novel style of graduation to lessen the difficulties felt in the application of the ordinary pattern to uncoloured objects, and to minimise the fatigue frequently experienced in continuous observations. The new ideas are * It is noteworthy that this device is due to Quekett. See Quekett on the Microscope, first edition (1848) p. 130, fig. 91.— Ed. + C. Reichert, Vienna, Catalogue, Mikroscope, p. 42. J Tom. cit., pp. 11-12. § Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxiv. (1908) pp. 366-9 (2 figs.). G48 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO shown in figs. 150 and 151, which represent respectively fine and coarse graduations. It will be observed that the ordinary strokes are replaced by small squares placed cornerwise. The squares may be black or red. Dr. Gebhardt speaks very favourably of his trials with these micrometers, and describes which of Zeiss' oculars he found most suitable for them. TO at «* *" Fig. 150. Fig. 151. Apparatus for Measuring Micrometer Levels.* — M. Gouy, in his investigations on the surface tensions of large drops, has found the cathetometer unsuitable for small measurements, and has contrived a micrometric method of measurement. His Microscope, provided with a thread micrometer, rests by its three feet on a polished, plain, and horizontal disk of glass. The Microscope is perfectly horizontal, and can be raised and lowered. A closely divided vertical glass scale is so arranged as to be also in the field of view. A point, A, on the micro- meter can be thus identified on the scale, and the relation between A and the scale zero be obtained. This operation repeated on other points gives the differences of level desired. The author gives full practical explanations, and states that the probable error of observation is only about 0 • 043/a. Greenman, M. T. — A New Laboratory Projection Apparatus. Anat. Record, No. 7, 1907. Seibekt, W. & H. — Dnnkelfeldkondensor und Dunkelfeldblende. Zeit. f. angew. Mikr., xiv. (1908) p. 4. (4) Photomicrography. Interference Fringes produced by Photographs in Colours.f — M. E. Rothe describes some observations on the above, sometimes called Talbot's False Fringes. It is well known that an interferential photo- graph illuminated by white light, and seen by reflection from the glass side, exhibits fringes extending over the whole spectrum, from the red to the violet. When the sensitive emulsion has been spread on a perfectly horizontal glass the fringes are arranged almost parallel to the spectral rays ; but if the gelatin layer varies in thickness, the fringes are more or less inclined to the rays. These fringes can be more easily studied in proofs obtained without mercurial mirror, for the colours are * Comptes Renclus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 1191-3. f Op. cit., cxlvii. (1908) pp. 43-5. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 649 then less dazzling than those of mercurial photochromes. The author has systematically studied fringes due to deposits of silver by stationary waves. He shows that if the gelatin surface were absolutely parallel to the glass, the appearance, seen from the glass side, would be only a uniform tint due to the aggregation of strata of wave-length A. But, practically, perfect parallelism is never obtained, and hence numerous gelatin surface planes must cut the glass plane. This fact, he shows, is sufficient to account for the effect produced. Photography of Very Translucent Diatoms at High Magnifica- tions.*— The President of the Quekett Club, after describing the difficulties encountered in the above research, recommends the following method. A first negative being taken on a rapid plate, say at some thousand or more diameters, is developed, preferably with hydrokiuone, to obtain as much contrast as possible. If it is a good one, showing the dots or secondary markings sharply focused, it is left to dry. When examined it will be seen to show the veil which causes so much difficulty ; perhaps such will be well seen around the dots, and will give them the appearance of being immersed in a bath of fog. Perhaps the print may show this defect more definitely than the negative itself. A fast plate is then placed in contact (such a one as the " Flashlight " of the Imperial Company), and the printing frame is waved once before a 16 c.p. electric lamp, or some other powerful illuminant, placed about 2 ft. away. This is developed as if it were a negative, i.e. by time. The result is a very well exposed and developed positive, and not a very thin and transparent one. The dots appear very plainly and sharply focused, but there is a decided fog over the whole picture. This is specially noticeable between the dots, and serves to muddle them up in a very disappointing way. When dry, a copy of this is made upon a slow plate, such as a process or a lantern-plate, and again developed by time. This becomes the second negative. Even a cursory glance shows at once how much brighter it is than the first taken direct from the object ; but when the print or lantern-slide is taken from this the im- provement becomes very apparent. (5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. Whittakeb, e. T.— The Theory of Optical Instruments. Cambridge : University Press, 1907, viii., 72 pp. (6) Miscellaneous. Influence of the Medium on Brownian Movements.! — V. Henri studied these movements by means of photomicrographs obtained kine- matographically with magnifications of 600 diameters. The medium used was diluted latex, to which were added increasing quantities of hydrochloric or acetic acid, of soda, urea, and alcohol. The results ob- tained were that the Brownian movements are slowed by the addition of a coagulating agent before the phenomena of coagulation are apparent, * Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, 1908, pp. 243-6. t Comptes Renclus, May 18 and July G, 1908. (550 SUMMARY OF CUBRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO Iii tlie jtresciKv of an alkali these movements are twice as slow, and in the presence of acid are nine times feebler than in distilled water. Felgentkager, W. — Eine einfaches Methode zur Bestimmung der periodischen Fehler von Mikrometerschrauten. Vcrhcindl. d. Deutsch. Physik. Gescll., ix. (1907) p. 251. Hager, H. — Das Mikroskop und seine Anwendung. (Zehnte, stark vermehrte Aufl. 463 figs.) Berlin : Jul. Springer (1908) 444 pp. Jagie, N. t. — Atlas und Grundriss der Klinischen Mikroskopie mit Beriicksichti- gung der Technik. Wien : M. Perles, 1908. KJaiser, W. —Die Technik des modernen Mikroskopes. (Zweite, ganzlich umgearb. Aufl., mit vielen Abbild.) Wien: M. Perles, 1908. Kitt, Th. — BakterieDkunde und pathologische Mikroskopie fur Tierarzte und Studierende der Tiermedizin. (Fiinfte, wiederholt verbess. u. umgearb. Aufl.) Wien : M. Perles, 1908. B. Technique.* (1) Collecting' Objects, including' Culture Processes. Colour Reaction for the Recognition of Bacillus typhosus.! — E. A. Kindborg employs the following medium : neutral fleischwasser- agar 3 p.c. and lactose 5 p.c, heated in a wTater bath till completely dissolved ; then add fuchsiu, 5 c.cm. to 100 c.cm. of agar, and mala- chite-green, 4 c.cm. of a normal solution of 1 : 120, and plate out ; the medium solidifies after 24 hours. A suspension of faecal matter in salt solution or in broth is spread over the medium by means of a stout platinum loop. After 12-24 hours incubation the colonies begin to appear, and after 48 hours the decolorising reaction is well marked. The suspicious colonies are then submitted to further diagnostic tests. Cultivating Bacillus typhosus and Bacillus coli.} — H. Dunsch- rnann has compared B. coli and B. typhosus with regard to the nutri- tive value of taurocholate and glycocholate of soda in combination with nutrose and malachite-green. The author finds that glycocholate does not increase the amount of growth of B. typhosus, but that taurocholate increases it considerably ; on B. coli the influence of these two salts is intermediate to that on B. typhosus. Nutrose is a favourable nutriment for B. typhosus, but not for B. coli. Malachite-green exerts an anti- septic action on these two organisms. Detection of Bacillus coli in Drinking-water.§ — G. E. Gage, from a comparative study of media for detecting B. coli, draws the following conclusions. 1. Lactose neutral-red broth offers a good means of making * This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- cesses ; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ; (4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, etc. ; (6) Miscellaneous. t Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlvi. (1908) p. 554. X Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) p. 1175. & Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlvii. (1908) pp. 280-7. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 651 presumptive tests for J>. eoli. 2. The bile-salt broth of RlacConkey and Hill also is a good medium for making rapid tests when the organism is present in appreciable numbers. 3. The Smith solution is not so suc- cessful as the foregoing for rapid diagnosis. 4. Endo's medium is of inestimable value in determining the active presence of B. coli. 5. Lactose litmus-agar does not react readilv to the small traces of acid produced by different strains of the colon bacillus. Pipette-holder for Opsonic Work.* — E. C. L. Miller has devised a special holder for opsonic or other small-calibred pipettes (fig. 152). Fig. 152. The long handle gives a firm grip on the pipette, while the screw enables one to control the column of liquid very accurately. The glass pipette can be introduced into the soft rubber stopper as readily and quickly as * Ceutralbl. Bakt., lte Abt. Orig., xlvi. (190S) pp. 730-1 (2 figs.). See also Parke Davis and Co., Research Lab. Reports. 652 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO into a rubber nipple. In fig. 153 is shown a section of tlic pipette. 1 is the rubber stopper by means of which air-tight connections are made between the glass pipette 4 and the body of the holder 5« ; 2 is the union by which the two parts of the pipette ha and 5b are held together with the rubber diaphragm 6 firmly clamped between them. The screw- control 3 acts as follows : by turning the screw to the right, the disk 7 is lowered and the rubber diaphragm 6 made taut. Then a slight turn of the screw 3 to the left will draw liquids into the pipette, and a corre- »o»t Rv-eac<\ o."> traces of acid. 5. The sections are then mopped up -with blotting- paper, and after a momentary immersion in absolute alcohol are cleared up in bergamot oil, then xylol and balsam. Micrographic Study of Leather.* — H. Boulanger gives the follow- ing methods for demonstrating the microscopic appearances of raw and tanned hide. In the former case pieces of skin are soaked for 12 hours in a solution composed of distilled water 5, glycerin 5, aceton 90. They are then allowed to dry, imbedded in hard paraffin, stained and mounted in the usual way. In the process for preparing sections of cowhide tanned with oak-bark and carried with degras, a small strip of leather about 10 mm. wide is taken, and the flesh side shaved away until the piece has a thickness of about 2 mm. The shaved strip is placed in melted tallow, not too hot, for about a quarter of an hour. After cooling the strip is imbedded in hard paraffin, and cut in a Ranvier microtome. The sections are degreased with xylol, then washed two or three times in alcohol and stained with Weigert's fuchsin. The staining takes about 3 hours. The Weigert solution is poured off, and a few drops of absolute alcohol remove excess of dye and differentiate the various parts. Usually the section is dehydrated with alcohol, cleared up with xylol, and mounted in balsam. C3) Cutting:, including- Imbedding- and Microtomes. Arrangements for Utilising the Entire Cutting-edge of Micro- tome Razor s.| — C. Funck refers to the troubles frequently met with in pathological sections, arising from the notching or bluntness of the microtome knife, and points out the great advantage which would arise if the whole of the cutting-edge could be used : the precious time now required for re-sharpening could then be saved. The author describes two methods of attaining his purpose, the first of which depends on xi*/)plementary jaws, and does not involve any alteration in the micro- tome itself. Suppose that in fixing the razor the handle is turned towards the operator, and that it is the further end which one wants to be able to bring into use. But if the operator draws the blade towards himself the remote end becomes free. To overcome this difficulty the author suggests that, between the extremity of the razor and the fixed jaw, an additional jaw (fig. 154, a) could be inserted. This additional jaw would be fixed firmly by the prolongation P, whose sectional form would be analogous to that of the razor. If the razor should be turned in the way opposite to that described, the form of jaw would 1 >e analogous and symmetrical to that shown in fig. 154, a. If the micro- tome should not be provided with this upper transversal stem T, it would be convenient and less costly to make in one piece the two jaws connected to each other by their bases, as shown in fig. 154, b. Although the method gives the use of an increased amount of edge, it does not effect anything for the handle end. For this purpose the author has designed his second method, which consists in modifying the * Bull. Soc. Encouragement, Feb. 1908. See also Nature, lxxviii. (1908) pp. 18-19 (2 figs.). t Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxv. (1908) pp. 53-60 (1 figs.). 656 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING- TO slider-support. Instead of a backward and forward motion of the knife, the author proposes a lateral movement (vide arrow x in figs. 155 and 156), in order to present to the object the parts of the razor 6 Fig. 154. previously unused. The indispensable pieces of construction are shown in fig. 155. The rectangular plate A, with two fillets, R and R', along its greatest sides, is pierced by a rectangular hole, whose longest axis Fig. 155. indicates the direction of the new lateral displacement, as shown by the arrow x. Through this hole passes the stem V of the raising and lowering gear, its head (as dotted) having a firm rest behind the plate ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 657 A. This screw will serve to give solid fixing to the razor support as the old type of raising gear. The support itself will be guided in its movements by the piece B (figs. 155 and 156), on which it rests, and the two little fillets r, r' will amply fix it. The plate B will be itself guided by the said lateral movement by the two fillets R R' of the plate A, between which it will be placed. An inspection of fig. 156 will show the method of operation. The lateral displacement in regard to the object will be effected by gliding this support in the direction of the arrow towards the desired spot. The two fillets r, r of the support will engage the plate B, which, itself engaged by the fillets R, R of the plate A, will thus have Fig. 156. a direction strictly parallel to the axis of A. The screw of the raising- gear V, retained and engaged by the transverse bar T of the support as well as by the hole F of the plate B, will perform all the movements communicated to it by the two pieces. The rectangular hole in A is of such dimensions that it does not interfere with the stem of the screw in this displacement. The older form of movement is not, however, obviated, for when B has arrived at the end of its course the usual antero-posterior displacement of the support will ensue, and can lie used if desired. The author has had the Minot microtome more particularly in view, but with some modifications his design could be adapted to other types of instruments. Celloidin Imbedding.* — L. Neumayer has obtained excellent results by carrying out the various stages of the impregnation in exsiccators * Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxv. (1908) pp. 38-41. Oct. 21st, 1908 2 X 658 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO which must be air-tight and contain some substance like copper sulphate or calcium carbide, for absorbing any moisture. After the imbedding is over, the pieces are covered with very thick celloidin, left exposed to air under a bell- jar for 15-20 minutes, then for 30 minutes to the vapour of 70-80 p.c. alcohol, and finally hardened in 70-80 p.c. alcohol. The author claims that by this method quite large pieces may be prepared. Preparing Celloidin Sections.* — W. Dantschakoff discusses Ru- baschkin's method of preparing celloidin serial sections,! and points out certain defects of the method. One is that instead of the 90 and 70 p.c. alcohol used for dissolving out the oily clarifying mixture, 96 p.c. and absolute alcohols should be employed. When the anilin-oil-of-clove mixture is dropped on there is a great tendency for the section to wrinkle and pucker, and this inconvenience may be lessened by using a mixture of 2 parts of oil-of-clove, and 1 part anilin-oil, instead of equal parts. Kubaschkin smoothed down the section with the brush, but the author finds that it is more efficacious and expeditious to do this with blotting- paper. The albumen-glycerin mixture should be wiped on with a clean rag instead of being smeared on with the finger. On removing the cleared-up sections from the absolute alcohol, they may be placed in ether- alcohol until the celloidin is dissolved, after which down-graded alcohols from absolute to water. They are then stained in the usual way. (4) Staining- and Injecting. New Method of Staining Spores and Metachromatic Granules : a Substitute for Gram's Method.^ — L. Trincas stains spores as follows : — maceration for some minutes in 5 p.c. chromic acid ; heat in carbol- fuchsin, wash, decolorise with 10 p.c. hypochlorite of lime, wash freely, pass through 40 p.c. formalin (a few seconds), wash freely, stain with 1-30 chrysoidin solution. The spores are red-brown, bacilli yellow, and the vacuoles lemon-yellow. For demonstrating the metachromatic granules, the author stains for 1 minute in the following solution : — toluidin blue 0*25, alcohol 5, acetic acid (2 p.c.) 100. The preparations are transferred without washing to 1 p.c. vesuvin solution for 1 minute. The granules are blue-black, the other parts of the cells pale green. New Cold Injection Method.§— H. J. Hamburger has improved on Grosser's injection fluid |j by substituting horse or ox blood-serum for egg-albumen, and using a fluid preparation of indian ink, commercially known as Perltusche. Three volumes of serum are mixed with two of the ink. The material is fixed in sublimate-formalin, and after staining with alum-cochineal, paraffin-sections made. The results are stated to be excellent. * Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxv. (1901) pp. 32 -7. t See this Journal (1907) p. 633. % Sec. Sci. Med. e Natur. di Cagliari, 1907. See also Centralbl. Bakt., lte Abt Ref., xli. (1908) p. 316. § Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxv. (1908) pp. 1-3. || See this Journal (1900) p. 732. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 659 Bielschowsky's Method for Demonstrating Connective-tissue Fibres.* — A. Zimmermanrj fixed the material in formalin and after- wards in alcohol. Paraffin sections were made and then the imbedding matrix removed with xylol. The sections were then placed for 48 hours in 2 p.c. silver-nitrate, and then, after a wash in water, in the ammonia- silver solution, prepared by adding 40 p.c. caustic soda solution to 10 p.c. solution of silver-nitrate until no more precipitate falls. The precipitate is then dissolved in as little ammonia as possible, filtered and diluted four times with distilled water. In this solution, which must always be freshly prepared, the sections remain for i-hour. On removal they are washed rapidly in water and placed in the reducing fluid, 5 p.c. formalin, for ^-hour. On removal the sections are washed and then immersed in a 1 per 1000 gold-chloride solution to fix the silver. After another wash in water the sections are placed in 5 p.c. sodium- hyposnlphite in order to remove any unreduced silver. After this they are washed in running water for 6-12 hours, then dehydration in upgraded alcohols, xylol, balsam. The foregoing procedure, which is very successful for locating connective-tissue elements, differs only in detail from Bielschowsky's original method.! Demonstrating the Presence of Tannin.} — L. E. Cavazza recom- mends chloride of vanadium for demonstrating the presence of tannin in vegetable sections. It imparts a dark indigo hue, due to the forma- tion of tannate of vanadium. Vanadium chloride is preferable to iron- chloride in that the reaction occurs more readily and with greater intensity. The greater part of the author's paper is purely chemical. (6) Miscellaneous. Examining Seminal Stains.§— F. N. Windsor soaks a small piece of cloth with the suspected stain in Midler's fluid for 24 hours, preferably at 37° C. On removal the piece is well washed in water and then picked up by forceps, is drained on blotting paper, after which it is laid flat on a slide. Xext both surfaces are scraped with a scalpel or another slide. The piece is then picked up and squeezed between thumb and finger, the exuded fluid being allowed to fall on the slide already used. The film is then dried and fixed with heat or saturated sublimate, after which it is stained in 1 p.c. aqueous solution of eosin for 3 minutes. After washing in water, the film is dried and mounted. This method is specially suitable for old dried stains or those subjected to a tropical climate. * Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxv. (1908) pp. 8-13. + See this Journal, 1906, p. 735 ; and 1907, p. 498. X Zeitschr. wiss. Mikrosk., xxv. (1908) pp. 13-20. § i:rit. Med. Journ. (1908) ii. p. 501. 660 SUMMARY OF e dangerously low. Over-annealing (excessively slow cooling from a high temperature) causes the formation of pearlite in which the lamellar structure is highly developed, and the partial separation of pearlite into massive cementite and ferrite. The author explains the formation of decarbonised " ghosts," on the theory that dissolved phosphide of iron expels carbon from a segregated spot. The author's alternating stress test is described, and though its theoretical defects are admitted, it is recommended in preference to Wohler or similar tests in which the elastic limit is not exceeded, for the detection of brittle material. The possible danger in using steels of high elastic limit is indicated. Planimetric Analysis of Alloys. || — A. K. Huntington and C. H. Desch describe the method of determining the proportions of the component metals by microscopic examination of alloys. A constituent * Comptes Rendus, cxlvi. (1908) pp. 1397-1400. t Op. cit., cxlvii. (1908) pp. 244-5. { See this Journal, 1908, p. 124 § Engineering, lxxxv. (1908) pp. 565-6, 59S-601 (16 figs.). || Tom. cit., p. 589. til") 2 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO may be of fixed composition (a pure metal, a definite compound, or a eutectic mixture), or its composition may vary within a certain range (a homogeneous solid solution). If the alloy is in a known condition of equilibrium, reached by slow cooling or by quenching from a given tem- perature, and the composition of the constituents is known, the propor- tions of the metals present may be determined by measurement of the areas of the constituents. It is often necessary to enlarge photo- micrographs or to project them on to drawing or tracing paper. A planimeter is used to measure the area of any particular constituent, or if the pattern is complicated the drawing may be divided into squares of 1 cm., and the proportion of one constituent, which may be shaded in the drawing to distinguish it, estimated in each square. By the planimetric method the composition of Muntz metal might be de- termined with remarkable accuracy in half an hour ; this includes all operations, from grinding to planimetric measurement. The method failed to yield satisfactory values for copper-phosphorus alloys, the explanation being the segregation of copper from the eutectic. The correction to be applied was calculated, and the method then gave reliable results. New Fatigue Test for Iron and Steel.* — T. E. Stanton has de- vised a test which gives a combination of rolling abrasion and alternate bending. A hollow ring of rectangular section, cut from the steel to be tested, is placed between three hardened steel rollers. The upper roller is loaded with a weight and rotated, thus imparting rotation to the test-piece and the two lower rollers. The outer surface of the test- ring is thus subject to rolling abrasion, and every radial section of the ring is subject to alternate bending stresses which go through a com- plete cycle three times in one revolution. A number of steel rails were tested in this manner, at 800 reversals per minute. In the course of the test the outer surface of the ring is worn down and spread over the edges. In time small cracks appear parallel to the axis, and failure takes place through the development of one of these cracks. The number of reversals endured varied from 25,000 to 370,000. Metallurgical and Chemical Laboratories in the National Physical Laboratory.'}' — W. Rosenhain, in the course of this paper, de- scribes the rnetallographical outfit. The following details may be noted. A Zeiss stereoscopic binocular Microscope is used for examination of fractures. Two small rooms are provided for preparation of metal sections, one is devoted to grinding (for which two carborundum wheels are used), and emery rubbing, while the other is reserved for the last stages of polishing and etching. A horizontal disk 9 in. diameter, covered with cloth, is used for polishing. For etching steel sections picric acid in alcohol and nitric acid in amyl-alcohol are employed. The author describes his method of heating and quenching metal specimens without contact with ah" : the metal is heated in an evacuated tube of fused silica, through which a heavy stream of water may be directed when the specimen is at the desired temperature. * Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., lxxvi. (1908) pp. 54-70 (9 figs.) t Tom. cit., pp. 87- 108 (9 figs.). ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. t'>'"'0 Application of Colour-photography to Metallography.* - - E. F. Law draws attention to the unsatisfactory character of ordinary photo- graphs of metal sections in which the constituents have been distinguished by differential colouring. Coloured sections are obtained by heat-tinting, by allowing the polished surface to tarnish by exposure to the atmo- sphere, or by heating the specimen in air containing iodine, bromine, or sulphuretted hydrogen. Photomicrographs of such sections in their natural colours are given by the Lumiere process. A colour-photograph can be taken, developed, dried, and bound as a lantern-slide in less than one hour. Microscopic Features of Hardened Supersaturated Steels.j — E. Hess heated three bars of crucible steel containing 101, 1'41, and 1 • 77 p.c. carbon respectively, in such a way that one end was white-hot while the other end was below the critical temperature. The bars were then quenched, and sections cut from each at points 1 in. apart. The difference of structure between edge and centre leads the author to doubt whether the real condition at high temperatures is preserved by sudden cooling. Howe's theory that supersaturated steels at tempera- tures above the critical range consist of austenite is held to be confirmed. The austenite undergoes partial decomposition when the steel is quenched. Iron, Carbon, and Sulphur.J — D. M. Levy has made a very complete investigation of the effect of sulphur on iron-carbon alloys. A number of alloys were prepared by melting pure cast iron with sulphide of iron, cooling curves were taken, and physical and chemical properties and microstructure were studied. In cast-iron free from silicon and manganese the saturation limit is about 0 ' 8 p.c. sulphur ; it exists as FeS (melting point above 1180° C). A certain excess of FeS may be mechani- cally retained. Sulphur lowers the melting-point of cast iron. At about 1130° C. the sulphide separates from a solidifying alloy, as a constituent of a triple austenite-cementite-sulphide eutectic. In sulphur-free cast iron the cementite segregates into large masses which decompose at high temperatures, giving rise to graphite : grey iron is thus produced. When iron sulphide is present it forms layers and films in the eutectic. These appear to prevent the coalescence of the cementite, which is a necessary preliminary to its decomposition. Thus the iron is retained in the white form. No evidence of any chemical union of the sulphide with the carlton or carbide was obtained. The influence of sulphur in retaining the carbon in the combined state appears to be purely physical or mechanical. Constitution of Iron and Phosphorus Compounds. § — B. Saklat- walla has made a thermal and microscopical investigation of the iron- phosphorus system. Pure electrolytic iron was used. Much difficulty was experienced in preparing a high phosphorus alloy free from im- * Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., lxxvi. (1908) pp. 151-4. t Op. cit,, lxxvii. (1908) pp. 1-4 (30 figs.). X Tom. cit., pp. 33-91 (31 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 92-103 (10 figs.). 664 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES, parities ; it was finally made by melting pure iron with phosphorus in an atmosphere of nitrogen, in a carbon resistance furnace. A tantalum- wire resistance furnace was also used. Up to 1*7 p.c, phosphorus forms a solid solution with iron. This solid solution forms a eutectic with Fe3P, melting-point a little over 1000° C, and about 10 ■ 2 p.c. phosphorus. Fe3P forms a eutectic with Fe2P, 16*2 p.c. phosphorus, melting-point 960° C. Another eutectic appears to exist, and melts about 1218° 0. The micro-sections were heat-tinted. JOURN.R.MICR.SOC.1908.P1.XV. J. Murray del. ad nat. West, Newman photo-litk. African Rotifers. JOUENAL OF^THE * i ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY DECEMBER, 1908. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. XVII. — -Some African Rotifers. By James Murray. (Read December 18, 19070 Plate XV. Through the kindness of friends I have recently had the oppor- tunity of studying the Bclelloid Rotifers of various parts of Africa. Mr. W. Milne, of Uitenhage, Cape Colony, sent me moss from several localities in Cape Colony. This moss was primarily examined for Tardigrada, but it was noted that the fauna of Bdelloida was abundant and peculiar, including many undescribed species. As Mr. Milne was already far advanced in a study of the Bdelloids of Cape Colony, my notes and sketches were put at his disposal. About the same time, Mr. N. D. F. Pearce, of Cambridge — to whom I am already deeply indebted for opportunities to study the microfauna of many lands — sent moss, or moss-like plants, from Old Calabar, Uganda, and Madagascar. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV. Fig. 1. — Callidina multispinosa var. brevispinosa var. n. Ventral view, feeding. 2.— Ditto. Dorsal view, contracted. 3. — Ditto. Dorsal view of head. 4. — Ditto. Egg, seen in body of parent. 5. — C. pinniger sp. n. Dorsal view, feeding. 6. — Ditto. Head, showing two necklets. 7. — Ditto. Jaw. 8. — Rotifer longirostris var. bitorquata var. n. Dec. 16th, 1908 2 Y 666 Transactions of the Society. The present communication deals with the Bdelloids obtained in those three localities. The moss reached me in the dry condition, and was moistened in fresh, cold water. The study of the Eotifers was made within a few hours after moistening the moss, as very few of them will survive for any length of time. Most of the examples found had made the journey in the contracted state, though some may have hatched out from eggs. A Bdelloid which has been dried for a long time may generally be recognised by the condition of the intestine, the contents of which form a compact ball of dark colour, which does not soften and expand for some time after the animal has resumed full activity. Old Calabar. The material received from this district looked very unpromis- ing. There seemed to be little true moss in it, but a sort of whitish dust containing many vegetable fragments, which might be leaves. When moistened it made a sort of porridge. It was very poor, but yielded four species of Bdelloids, and only one example of each, except Gallidina longiceps, which was abundant. C. angusticollis Murray (-/).* — The typical case measured 166 // in length. The contained animal did not extend itself. C. 'perforata Murray (5). — Only the empty case was seen. It was like the Indian type, but there was an obscure panelling of the surface, as in the var. americaiia Murray (6). C. longiceps Murray (4). — Till it reappeared in Old Calabar, this species was only known from a very few examples found in Loch Morar, in Scotland. There was some doubt as to whether the very peculiar case which it inhabits was a normal structure appertaining to the species, or had merely been adopted for shelter. The case is of an irregular flask- shape, jagged at the mouth, of a yellow colour, the surface traversed by numerous curved lines. The great abundance of the cases in Calabar, each case contain- ing a Bdelloid with the correct dental formula, renders it certain that the case is proper to the species, though it was never seen in process of formation. None were seen actually feeding, but several were seen partly extended. C, multispiaosa Thompson (7) var. brevispinosa var. n., plate XV. figs. 1 to 4. Distinctive Characters. — Spines all short, few on anterior trunk- segments. Central surface of trunk transversely plicate and crenate with papilla?. * The figures in brackets refer to the bibliography at end of paper. Some African Rotifers. By James Murray. 667 There is a ventral necklet of hemispherical processes close under the mouth, and close below this is a second necklet of sharp spines. On the dorsal surface flf the trunk there are two transverse rows of spicules, as in the type, and there are many small spines on the rump and foot. Dental formula, 2/2 or 2 + 1/1 + 2. Length, creep- ing, 250 /j,. The egg measures about 100 /a in length, and bears a number of low rounded prominences, one of which coincides with the anterior pole of the egg, as seen within the body of the parent (plate XV. fig. 4). The variety is widely distributed, being known to occur in India, British Guiana, Uganda, Madagascar, and Cape Colony. The species C. multispinosa is extremely variable. Even in Britain there is much variety in the number, size, and arrange- ment of the spines. In tropical and subtropical countries there is a profusion of forms which can be grouped round C. multispinosa, but some of which differ very markedly from the type. The most distinct of these are almost certainly of specific value, but as there are many intermediate forms it seems well, pending further study, to retain most of them as simple varieties. The variety brevispinosa appears to be pretty constant. The reduction of the spines is not its sole distinction from the type. The dorsal and anterior-lateral processes are fewer in number, and the small spines and papillaa on the ventral surface more numerous. Uganda. The moss from Uganda was more productive than either of the others. Seven species were noted, and several varieties — one species and two varieties being previously undescribed. Philodina br/jcci Weber (