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JOURNAL
OF THE
ROYAL
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY:
CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,
AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
MeO MOG, ALIN DS 2 OE Asin
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia),
MICROSCOPYWZ, Sc.
Ledited by
FRANK CRISP, LLB. B.A,
One of the Secretaries of the Society
and a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Society of London ;
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND
A. W. BENNETT, M.A., BSc., F.LS., F, JEFFREY BELL, M.A., F.ZS.,
Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in King’s College,
JOHN MAYALL, Jon., F.Z58., FRANK E. BEDDARD, M.A., F.ZS.,
B. B. WOODWARD, F.G.S., R. G. HEBB, M.A., M.D. (Cantad,),
Librarian, British Museum (Natural History),
AND
J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A.,
FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.
Ser. II—VOL. V. PART 2.
PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY
WILLIAMS & NORGATE,
LONDON AND EDINBURGH.
1885.
The Journal is issued on the second Wednesday of
February, April, June, August, October, and December.
ie
Y, C5)
| Jin Ser. IT. To Non-Fellows, “&
| Wol ¥. Part 4. ¢ @UGUST, 1886. {price bs. |
JOURNAL
OF THE
ROYAL
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY;
CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,
AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
ZRooLtoGey AND BOTAN DT
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia),
MICROSCOPY, ac.
Edited by
FRANK CRISP, LL.B., B.A,,
One of the Secretaries of the Society
and a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Society of London ;
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND
A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc., F.LS., | F, JEFFREY BELL, M.A., F-.Z.8.,
Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in King’s College,
JOHN MAYALL, Jom, F.Z.8., FRANK E. BEDDARD, M.A., F.Z8.,
AND
B. B. WOODWARD, F.G:S.,
. Librarian, British Museum (Natural History),
FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.
BR 24” 2 a oP
WILLIAMS & NORGATE, |
oN (A
bet LONDON AND EDINBURGH, a4
PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,] [STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS»
f
he,
CONTENTS.
———
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SocrmTy—
XI.—Tue Patnogento History anp History UNDER CULTIVATION
PAGE
or A New Baomuvs (B. atvet), rox Cause or A Dismasn —
oF THE Hive Ber HITHERTO KNOWN AS Foun Broop. By
Frank R. Cheshire, F.R.M.S., F.L.8., and W. Watson
Cheyne, M.B., F.R.C.S. (Plates X. & XI. & Fig. 134) ..
XII.— Experiments on Fuxpive some Insucts with THE CuRVED —
or “Comma ” BAcILivs, AND ALSO WITH ANOTHER BAcILLUS
(B. susriiis?). By R. L. Maddox, M.D., Hon. P.R.MS.. . ,
XIIT.—On Four New Specizs oF THE GENus FLOscuLARTA, AND.
Frve oraer New Species or Rotirera. By C. 'T. Hudson,
Li.Di; WBMES. (Plate KIL) eine ise PAs aio et
SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.
ZOOLOGY.
A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology —
of the Vertebrata.
LAvLAWe—Unity of the Process of Spermatogenesis in Mammalia ... 1. .+ ve
Dovat, M.—Formation of the Blastoderm in the Bird’s Hgg .. -. ue oo
DaxestE, C.—Physiological Purpose of Turning the Incubating Hen’s Eggs .. .
LascuenserG, O.—Colours of Birds’ Hogs .. 9.1 ts ww es
Sarasin, P. B. & C, F.—Development of Epicrium ..
° ee oe oe
Ryper, J. A——Translocation forwards of the Rudiments of the Pelvic Fins an
the Embryos of Physoclist Fishes... aeatiehte
Loew, 0., & T. Boxorny—Silver-reducing Animal Organs
Coreman, J. J., & M‘Kenpricx—Hfects of Very Low Temperat
Organisms
Bett, F. JerrRey—Bell’s “ Comparative Anatomy and. Physiology ; i
B. INVERTEBRATA.
Ricnarp—Action of Cocain on Invertebrates... ss 0 ace
MaoMonn, C, A.—Enterochlorophyll and Allied Pigments...
Mollusca.
ViatteTon, L.—Buecal Membrane of Cephalopoda...) .. ..
Gurritus, A. B— Pancreatic Function of the Cephalopod Liver
Patten, W.—Artificial Fecundation of Mollusca... .. .. 2...
Brocg, J.—Development of Generative Organs of Pulmonata » ..
Fou, H.—Microscopic Anatomy of Dentalium
Bouran, L.—Nervous System of Fissurella °.. SE EG ON a
Porter, J.—Anatomy and Systematic Position of Halia priamus Risso .. 5
Vayssiire, A.—Tectibranchiata of the Gulf of Marseilles ..
Nevumayr, M.—Classification of the Lamellibranchs
Ziecurr, H. E.—Development of Cycles Coniige 062i Lyte
Sara : chs Menu in which Lamellibranchs attach themselves
ets. a,
Macponatp, J. D.—General Characters of Cymbulia i
Molluscoida.
a. Tunicata. |
Srpiicer, O.—Development of Social Ascidians .. ., .. ra Niel
BarRnois, J.— Genetic Cycle and Germination of Anchinia.. 2. vs
Rovuz, L.—New Species of Simple Ascidians
ures on Living —
ae or Co
eo ee ee we A
ce
ee ee eo eo oo
581
602
608
eee |
8, Polyzoa.
Harmer, 8. F.—Structure and Development of Loxosomaé ..° ..
MacGiniryray, P. H.—Australian Bryozoa.: .. ee es
y. Brachiopoda.
Joustn—Anatomy of Crania 2. 9 se ee ne eee we
Arthropoda.
« Insecta.
Hickson, S. J.—Eye and Optic Tract of Insects...
Zeiier, R.—Tracks of Insects resembling the Impression of Plants”
Water, A.— Morphology of the Lepidoptera
Packarn, A. S.—Number of Abdominal Segments : in Lepidopier ous Larvae
Lex, A. B.—Structure of the Halteres of Diptera... s
Rowsovzs, J. E.—Movement of Flies on Smooth Surfaces Ss
Crevrzpure, N.—Circulation in Ephemera Larve —-.
SomMMER, ‘A.——Maecrotoma plumbea .. 9.2 oe eS
B. Mysiopoda-
Larzet’s Myriopods of Austria .... e
8. peene ak é
a E. Rayv—New Hypothesis as to the Relepiepety ae the Prt Ri, a
Scorpio to the Gill-book of Limulus... ay
PELsENEER, P.—Coxal Glands of Mygale 6s nee ee ae ee
.- Daut, F.—Anatomy of Spiders... SS ea stig
; ‘MacCoox— Hibernation and Winter Habits of Spiders
e. Crustacea,
“ SPENCER, W. Bitowin Urinary Organs of Amphipoda
a ~-Brano, H.—Development of the Egg and auser of the Primitive Layers v
Cuma Rathkit.. .. ES DR SEIS Bp
_URBANOVICS, F.— Development ‘of Cyclops EA opeSnectea
Hoek, P. P. Again} of the pias wat BNA dce: aly Ha tn
fei soe abl N.—Embryology of Balanus.. 966 +e ue eee ie
beer ! Vornes.
“ -Vorer, W. —Oogenesis and § ey. in Branchiobdella .. ..
_ Lespy, J.—New Parasitic Leech .. BED be AS ier By ENS
~ Micnartsen, W.—Archenchytreus Movit’ <.. Wes Wen, si
_ Provot, G.—Nervous System of Polychxtous Meds Bab Gaiedh ook
4 J. W.—Larval forms of Spirorbis borealis .,
Scuanrr, R.—Skin and Nervous System Bs fi Lies and. t Halioryptas
- Jour, L.— Development of Spherularia bomb 2205)
_ Ferument, L.—New Nematoid from Matasoin Ligh Me RODOEL sant eins
~ Nremmmo, J.—Nervous System of Bothriocephalide 9.0 4.3. a
‘Zsouoxke, F.—Parasites of Fresh-water Wishes 2... 6. uns
/-MameaY-WaicuT, R.—Free-swimming Sporocyst.. 6s 6s aes
ASLAWZEW, Mile. 8.—Development of Turbellaria .. «. .
- Smum1ax, W. A.—Fresh-water Turbellaria of North America .,..
Gesu W.—Later Stages in the Development of Balanoglossus a
cf eh iad Echinodermata.
Ps Spat gs bate ee of Echinoderms’ ..° .. ts ee
- ~ Dunoan, P, Marti. Suapen—Arbaciade - ees ens
- Hamann, 0. —Histology of Asterida
Canvey, P. Henspar—Stallced Orinoids of the ‘ Challenger’ Expedition =
ie Fatt of Comatula.. 2s sey ay ae as
' -. Geelenterata.
» Bais Ww. ‘M.— Australian Hydroid Zoophytes - Or ete
-_. Lexvenrevp, R. voy—Cwlenterates of the ‘Southern Boas pare
| Maem, C. A.--Chromatology Of ADAMS phe a's S845 as
eh Porifera.
. _ pars F. ‘BE Raahonship o nges to Choano-flagellata ..
ie - Canrer, H. J.—New Variely of J asd Gostins Ward bin oh
ad: di ile E.—New Fresh-water Sponge ve
ANSEN, G, A. Bl i a) the Nore North Sea "Expedition 4
> AM
,
poh Sets ~
ee,
Protozoa. PAGE
Grusee, A.—Further Experiments on the Arti, ‘ficial Division of Infusoria eee ROSE
Sroxes, A. C.— ee with two Contractile Vesicles .. Peer REA. NS:
i Jew Fresh-water Infusoria . Be Gt tp OOD
Kr NT, W. eee: Taptartal Parasites of the Tasmanian White Ante 662
Buck, E.—Unstalked Variety of Pedepinds as eine ; wee ee ey | 662
Lock ywoon, Be ~ Peeudo- cyclosis as Se Me EAT MT ME es oe NE
DreEcKke, 'T.—New Protozoon .. PORES es ED Gas i eT a ee
RRUSCHHAUPT, e. —Development of Monocystid Gregarines Be ye Ee ae ee
BOTANY. eg
A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiclogs ues
of the Phanerogamia. ee ithe
a. Anatomy. : ft :
‘Vries, H. pe—Cireulation and Rotation of. Restopiaem as a means of oa of ‘i
Food-matertal..° . ; BR Tassie
GuienarD, L.—Divison of the Cell-nucleus 4 an > Planis and Animals - .. 666.
Frommann, C.—Changes in the ona # POE Call and in the ¢ Hairs of aks
Pelargonium zonale . : Co, 668, ba
Carnoy’s (J. B.) Biology of the Cell aid (ight spas aca a OBOE Nae
RBINEE, J. nape oie of Solutions ‘of Citoraphuit a Light 669
Waescnemer, R.—Spectra of the Pigments of Green Leaves and their Derivatives CEO. 3
Wortmann, J.—Red Pigment in Flowering Plants .. OO (0
Anryaup—identity of the Orange-red Colouring Matter of Leaves with Car otine eae Ose eis
Cuzont, G.— Formation of Starch in the Leaves of the Vine’ «. -. ae nd ee OT0
Fiscuer, A.—Starch in Vessels os Bi nar lanes E PI ce ae acc Obes vias 5 3
Mavument, E. J.—Presence of Mangariese in Plants. AOE LE ciny
GIRARD, A.—Nutritive Pr operties of the various portions of the Gr aim in of. Wheat Pag ool Benen
Prizm, E —Assimilating Cavities in the interior of Tubers of Bolbophyllum.. ... 671
Herxercurr, E.—Idioblasts containing Albuminotds in some Cruciferae .. Pe
Tineuem, P. yan—Annular and Spiral Cells of Cactace® ..0 064 0 ee ee ae g
HECKEL, "E.—Formation of Secondary Corte: 05 as. an 90 Vans Saag ine
Moror, L.—Pericycle of the Root, Stem, and Leaves 62 vs
ScuENCK, H.— Changes of Structure in Land-Plants when growing vibmare
CosTaNtin, J.—Epidermis of the Leaves of Aquatic rea telat Fis p kan eens
Maris, P.—Structure of Ranuneulacer ... cp Heal at ck en cia ee eae
Russy, H. H.— Opening of the Anthers in Bricacez 3. ss aalhy ae tle aaa
Vesqur, J.—Anetomy of the Leaf in Vismiew 6. se ne ae ee oe ws
Heinnicuer, E.—Reduced Organ in Campanula .. Po wd sc akg OWE Oar
Savastano, L.—Hypertrophy of the Bud-cones of the Oarob 3
TOWNSEND, F.— Homology of the Floral Envelopes mn ie aan and C) Cyperacee Chua
Ducwartee, P.—Bulbils of Begonia socotrana .. —.. peeenee
Masters, M. T.—Petalody of Ovules .. Mal Pence ntnetia dies ieee
Haperianpr’s Physiological Anatomy of Plants .. ei atch phe eee ee ae
Buunens’s Tent-book of General Botany... ce 1. eee Bei bara eer tis,
B. Physiology. ; i By
HorrmMann, H iP rodutian of Male and Female Planta os ee ae
JOnsson, B.—Fertilization of Naias and Callitriche .. 0. ek ee cat peaks
Boysuan—Injluence of direct Sunlight on Vegetation .. — .. ; 5
Deneray, P. P., &L. Maquenne—Absorption of Oxygen and Evolution v Carton ee
dioxide in Leaves kept in Darkness .. des
Bonnier, G., & L. Mancin— Variation of: Respiration 1th i Development a
Wonraass, J. ~—Thermotropism of Roote.. 6 Kae) io Se ae
Sonert, M.—Air in Water-conducting Wood .. ss ee ce ae ac tk
Lapornav, A.—Ammoniacal Ferment .. .. RELL
Dierzent, B. E.—Source of the Nitrogen of the Tegan’ Nahticaptat Heine tees
Anwarer, ae O.— Absorption of Atmospheric Ni itrogen by Plants... oe fe:
? B. CRYPTOGAMIA, | :
Cryptogamia Vaerularia, ne
ZritwER, R.— Affinities of Laccopteris .. °° .. tj a
DievLarait—Composition of the Ash of E wiattane
Formation of Coal. ‘ Ae A ee ep ee and ts Bearing a ts 681
TO6prrer, A. —Pransitional Equisetum SARS ONS. MRO PR TN I i Owe ABB ap
é ee oo ee & abet Se =o Tee x!
(93)
Muscinee, PAGE
Haservannpr, G.—Conduction of Water in the Stem of Mosses .. .. 681
ScuLrepHackr, K.— Pottia Giissfeldti, a new Mos’ 52. ++ te ae oe we ne 682
Santon, LecLerc pu—Elaters of Hepatice 1. 2. 0s ee te te ees 682
Alges.
Hicr, T.—Protoplasmie Continuity in the Fucacee «sss eae we 682
Bertuoup, G.—Fertilization of Cryptonemiaces .. 02s we tenet ee 683
WILLE, N.— Sicbe-hypha in Algo be se pane a an Se oe ee ee OBE
Hanseine, A—Algz of Bohemia %. os ee) oe ne a oe ee ee ee oe OSE
~ Soa, R. "F.—Peiagic Alia 2 53 see be NOE See (abn ee
Bike Toad dice ti nese "OO
Rasenuorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Marine Algz) Sie
Taytor, H., & F. Kirron.—Diatoms and Bladderwort’ ..0 01 se an veo 689
MULLER, O. Structure of the Cell-wall of Diatoms (Fig. 135) .. 0s. +) +s ve 689
Van Havrox’s Synopsis of the Diatoms of Belgium... +. ae ee ee te 686
Lichenes.
ZuKAL, H.—Structure of Lichens svi ee ee re ne a ae ae ae 687
seat pa J. M.—Algo-Lichen Hypothesis =... +1 > ee te te nee 688
oes Fungi.
Scur6rer, J.—Classification of Fungi 1.010 ee he te ee oe ee ge ae 689
Fiscu, 0.—Development of Ascomyces .. iP Sirs eS ik ea ale NCR fe
Kuen, L.—Nocturnal Spore-formation in Botrytis cinerea... Pee ere 8)
Winter, G.—Rabenhorst’s sb ok sine Flora os Sone (Fungi). Se oidas. 7 ONO
ZOPE’S ig a it see Regine Mee My ee
ona Protophyta. ~
att Biinscuis, ni — Distribution of Chromatophores and Nuelet in the itilnak penn’ +» 691
- Bruer, A.— Formation of the Spores ws CGS? WeoisG i; Ae ie aes 1
~ Bonet, E., & C. Franautt—Aulosira . 25 ee ee ae eevee hea ae se) 692
“} Ricarer, P.— Microcystis .. HA Sor th 9 Ss) SE Wi gate goles cee A hose aL Wier nu Oa
_ . Boneener, H. —Degeneration of Yi east. 693
Centres, A., & D. Cooutn—Effect of High Pressures on the Vitality of Pecans, and
215% On Fermentation. en pes Seaees 693
- Bécaamp, A.—Organisms Productive of Zymosis .. aS Wale Peta esto! tak ees ently Oee
" WoLLyy, E.— Microbes in the Soil PA Ee aioe che as. Boe
\ Free, D., & Resourcron—Microbe of Vuln Fever, Ne 694
LP Lorrier—Micro-organisms as a cause of Diphtheria in aig Pigeons, and Calves. 694 .
_ ' Briecer, L.— Bacteria wey ov Thee oe se o- * oe ** o* 695
; 696
_ Bruret, A.— Bacterium urex .. *
* Moors, Srencer Le M.—Ideitity of Raden Sale (Thin) with Soil Cocct ... 696
Koon, Garrxy, & Lorrter— Artificial Attenuation ay fags anthracts... s+. +696
_ Bieetow, H. R.—Cholera Bacillus... ... CRN satiate ar ae ey atte Cad,
y Henscourr, J.—Curved Bacilli in Air and SL RANE GHG See eA RI RS Ea RE
7 6 yeaa oa la ait ted EEA nay, ea gine Sala. pee OS
MICROSCOPY.
ait: Vee iY, he _ Instruments, Accessories, &e..
- Bavownsa Stage Microscope (Fig. 136)" EEN acy PM Gel MLN Se: a OP OR
Porrarie Microscopes (Figs. 137-140) .. FRY aan ay DOTY ye Pe or aR ay TOMO cr A
- Prave’s Microgoniometer (Figs, 141 and 149) PAREN AURA Bean Thue undt sere. aks nate ea OM
2 Doonte-Deum Mion (Fig. 143) ‘ SAF She Nast @ Oe
ry | Bares" * Universal (Achromatic) . Pocket itieroseupa » Fig. 144). PS ie artes rhe 0: 3
.. Touman, H. L.—Lye-piece Micrometers .. - 704
_ Bovcwer’s Holder bie Pitan Prism and Goniometer igs. | 145 ond ii re a
| Goypracu, E.—* An rovement in Objectives” uM
ee Wee, Wee Care and the of Objectives... i ies Fe Eh cg arcs al a ores. be Bie OE
Guerewrn’s Mechanical ome Objective (Rig. 147) ep aH eg ke MAGI veh Reet OR
{Se nites G.—Right-angled Prism “hggece! of @ Plane Mirror ss) .6 ie) ae od bey, (709
_ Gegrmayen's Abbe Condenser (Fig. 148) Bee byl BA ew Suetiee eo) hE
_ Torvan's batt spied Migec, Y4RAAS LY se eee Ladd Pees PTA
(82)
Bavscn & Lome Optical Company's “ Hiidseraed a ge 4 ae 152 ane ee a Se
Nexson, E. M.—Jilumination (Figs. 154-170). aes
Hawnins’s Observatory Trough... a gS ae eg
Prinesnemm’s Gas Chambers (ies, 171 and 172) Le, ic er tialy, bttainte vores CNet alate
Deny, J.— Test for the Hand-Lens ..' .. per dedi fone ead cloeld Mere, 4 wlengilem ay
APERTURE Puzzle Pigs. V7IBV15) ise) oe ee ae fee ae ne ee Noes bal Seas ee ee
Govi—Discovery of Pseudoscopy Le Baa Wp i ao artis AO 796 nee
Carpanter, W. B.—Focal Depth with the Binocular Seth ie ir sles Meee in male ale 78°
ScuooLroom, Microscope in «1 +» wt Shieh ee oes a ae
B. Collecting, Mounting and Examining Objects, &e.
Lowe, L. a en Embryos elon che ei care ces ale eee 739
Brass, A.—Methods of Investigating g Animal Cells. ne betea ard Cee) oP te
Lapowsky—Demonstrating the Nuclet in Blood-corpuscles .. et Prag ra
Tizzont— Demonstration of Karyokinesis in Epithelial Tissues 6+ ve ee ABO ‘
Scm1ine, J.—Investigating the Structure of the Central. Nervous Organs .. 730 ees |
Sanu, H.—Application of Bovaz-methylen-blue am the Examination of the Central : eee
Nervous System. 7 1 a
Gotat, C.—Preserving Sections of the Nervous System treated ‘with Bichromate of Se Hae
Potash and, Nitrate of Silver’... .. Vere he eas ee enemas
Zawanyuin, Tu.—Study of Fat-absorption OM 2 the Small Intestine... solo Me ean 53 :
List, J. H.—Preparing the Oloacal Epithelium of Scyllium Caniclla .. 4. 2. 7B i
MAvRICE, C., & A. Scxunein—Preparing Embryos of Amarzcium proliferum ~ .. 731
Gino, R —Mounting Insects without Pressure .. Se ce NOE dit
Sune, H.—Mounting the Proboscis of the Blow-fly im Biniodide of Mercury thee 0733 i
Emnny, C -—Preparing Luciola italica,... we) 133
Kuynet, J. v.—Preparing Embryo of Peripatus Bdwardsié and P. torquetus.. cane Ao
Courroux, E. 8.—Preparing Diatoms from the Stomachs of Mollusca and Crustacea BOTS Sanaa
Baysrrry Tallow jor Imbedding ... .. a, Monte 2) ales Vide ate
_ Biscumr, P, M.—Imbedding and Examining Trematodes te ah oe ge
Harrin.y’s Rotary Section-cutter (Figs. ee and 177).. es ee ae et
Marx, E. L.—Notes on Section- eutting . aoe aroha eat SE oa Gite, oc gy gues Bia
SPEE, ¥ -—Sections in Series .. Se ae re eee Cae Oa te
Hamann, O,—New Carmine Solution hatte vee
Hicxson, 8. J.—Method of Preparing Hematonylon Statning Fig Ou ae aon
BuzzozEro, G., & Torres—Staining for the Study of Red, Blood- -conpuscles sabbath ete
Sanu, H. “New Double Stain for the Nervous System.. ; NE
Apamnrewicz, A —New Method of Staining the Spinal Cord Rr yoru
Kurrrur, C.—Staining the Axis-cylinder of Medullated Nerve- fibres. say tine
Turner, W. B.—Staining Desmids.. 2. 40 sn oe . isle) So'aye vial
~ Wire, A. P.—Boro-glyceride for Mounting. rip ries Rrareeinee ays
Dovenas, J. O.—Litharge and Glycerin ds a “Cement. Hei Wa CU ea Ops aah ere
Hamum’s Ideal Slide (Wigs. 178 and. 179)... eee ee seh beet iw
Hays, J, E.—Finish for Slides... .. jan ‘
Hansun, HE. C.—Counting of Microscopic Objects for. Botanieal Purposes. ;
Avgert, A. B., & J. Desy.—Styrax and Baleam peace cat am al ee
Boureav’ of Scientific Infortnation Vea ebGirietet- Dowty a tii ag
A New Departure ay lee Gi laa dese het Raat heen ta
Rex, G: A.— Collecting and Preservin Myxomycetes op iri Aiea Seah one aa ee
VOLVOX GLOBATOR, Keeping Alive ng MOUNTING cr sic ea teed swash lew ates
Wevpiwe, H.— Examination of Malleable Iron ..
eo ee ee
PRoogEpines oF THE SOCIETY) 6425. ye
ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
COUNCIL.
ELECTED Mth FEBRUARY, 1885.
Hee PRESIDENT.
Rey. W. H. Dauuncrr, LL.D., FBS.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
Joun Antaony, Esq., M.D., F.R.C.P.L.
G. F. Dowprswen, Esq., M.A.
Pror, P. Marts Duncan, M.B., F-R.S.
Aupert D. MicuArn, Esq., F.LS8.
: ~ TREASURER.
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i Numerical Aperture Table.
ese)
_ The “ Arerturs” of an optical instrument indicates its greater or less capacity for receiving rays from the object and
transmitting them to the image, and the aperture ¢fa Microscope objective is therefore determined by the ratio
between its focal length and the diameter of the emergent pencil at the plane of its emergence—that is, the utilized
diameter of a single-lens objective or of the back lens of acompound objective.
- This ratio is expressed for all media and in all-cases by 7 sin wu, n being the refractive index o
f the medium and u the
Semi-angle of aperture. The value of n sin wu for any particular case is the “numerical aperture” of the objective,
Their actual apertures are, however, as
numerical apertures. :
Diameters ofthe — Angle of Aperture (=2 w). Theoretical Pp
Back Lenses of various 7 Tilumi- Resolving S20
Dry and Immersion | Numerical Water. |Homogeneous-| nating | Power, in | T4ng
Objectives of the same Aperture. Dry Immersion| Immersion | Power. | Linestoan lich.| POW:
Power (4 in.) Ce SEE ete) Objectives. Objectives.| Objectives. | (a2.) |_ (A=0°5269 « (-)
from 0°50 to 1°52 NA. (@=1) | =1-33,)) (n= 1°52.) =line EK.) a
1°52 : on 180° 0! | 2°310| 146,528 *658
. 1:50 2 161° 237. | 2-250 144,600 “667
1:48 153° 39’: | 2-190 142,672 | ‘676
1:46... 147° 42’ | 2°132| 140, 744.1 685
f 1°44 142° 40’ |2°074). 138,816 “694
1/42 138° °12’ | 2:016) 136,888 704
1:40 134°. 10’ |:1:960 134,960 |) = 714°
rt 1°38 130° 26’ |1:904| . 183,032 *725
1:36 126° 57’ 41°850} 131,104 *735
1-34 ~128° 40’ | 1°796 | 129,176 “746
1:33 422° 6’ | 1°770). 128,212 752
1°32 120°: 33.) 1°742|- 127,248. *758
; 1°30 117° 34’ 41:690} 125,320 — “769
; 1:28 114°. 44" |1°638} 1255392 "781
d 1:26 111° 59’ | 17588) 121,464 — “794
< ; 124 109° 20’ | 1°538 |) 119,536 *806
3 ~ 122 106° 45' | 1°488}... 117,608 *820
1:20 104° 15’ | 1440) 115,680 | *833
1:18 101° 50’ | 1:392) 118,752 °°} *847
en 1-16 - 99° 29’ | 1°3464 111,824. *862
Soe : 1-14 97° 11’ | 1°300) 109,896 ‘877
‘ 1:12 94° 56’ | 1°254| 107,968 | ~°893
: 1:10 92° 43’ | 1-210}. 106,040: |. “909°
ay 1:08 90° 33’ /1°166| 104,112 "926°,
2 : 1-06 88° 26' |-1°124} 102,184 943.
feet - 1°04 86°.21' | 1°082 100,256 962.
Why 1:02 84° 18’ | 1°040 98,828 }. +980
pagan ON 1:00 © 82° 17" |1:000|,. 96,400 | 1-000
tees es f 0:98 — 80° 17’ | -960 94,472 © | 1-020
ayaa - mae 0:96 78° 201} °9221° 92 5448-11-42
i ey EN 0:94 76° 24' | +884 90,616 | 1:064
Seas i ONG oh . 74°. 30’ | +846 88,688 | 1:087°
oe pa 0:90 72°. 36' | 810 86,760 | 17111
aohes t+ 0-88 70° 44" |. 774 84,832 | 1-136
Layee: NTS Y 0:86 » 68° 54’ | +740 $2,904 | 1-163)
Boe cea TTA Oe 67° 6" | +706} . 80,976 | 17190
oh 0782 65° 18’ |. °672).- 795048) 5 |. 1220
{ ~.0°80 63° 31’ | 640: 77,120" 1 T260™
ke / 0:78. 61° 45’ | -608 75,192). = 15.282-
: 0°76. 60° 0! |. -578| 78,264. | 1+316"
BEA GAR a SAS ee “58° 16" | +548} 71,886 | 1+851-
ae att (On¢e 56° 32’ | +518 69,408 | 1°389
70 0°70 — 54° 50’ | 7490} 67,480 | 17429.
oy de O68: 93° 9! | +462 65,502.) | 1-471
ARE Pets: 0" 6G 51° 28). | +436 63,624 | 1°515.
en ne Bent) Cates ‘OS Ba: 49° 48’ | -410 61,696 | 1*562 ~
a Ere Soe Or Ge. 48°. 9% |" #384 59,768 1°613>
eo, 1 Kh 0760. : - 46° 30’ | -360) 57,840 . | 1°667 ©
Ne Sl @268 44° 51’ |, +336 55,912. | 1°724
a 0°56. 43° 14’ | +314 53,984 | 15786
; 0:54 41° 37° ,°292 52,056. }T* 852°
~ 0:52 40° 0! ) 270). 50,128. |. 1-925".
+90 *0°50.* 38° 24’ | -250| - 48,200 | 2-000
EXAMPLe.—The apertures of four objectives, two of which are dry, one water-immersion, and one oil-immersion,
would be compared on the angular aperture view as aka har? (air), aay (air), ie (water), : ee ,
or'their ©
aay
eale showing
he relation of
Millimetres, |
c., to Inches.
.
s
PEE eet ee bee EEL
PELL ER EL
——
a A Te Ce Pe:
TTTITITTILIL LLU LEE Te
——
ee ee
PLLLLELICLELIELELELLEL ELE LL biti
Se EE eS ES er So
P
TILUTITOT TT
II.
ay
Bt COMO RODHT
Ces)
Conversion of British and Metric Measures.
Micromillimetres, §c., into Inches, §c.
ins,
“000039
- (000079
-000118
*000157
- 000197
-000236
-000276
-000315 |
000354 |
000394 |
“000433 |
“000472 |
“000512 |
“000551
“000591
- 000630
000669
“000709
-000748
*000787
*000827
~000866
*000906
"000945
. *000984
*001024
*001063
-001102
*001142
*001181
*001220
*001260
*001299
*001339
“001378
*001417
*001457
+001496
*001535
*001575
001614
001654
“001693
-001732
-+001772
“001811
- *001850
~ +001890
--001929
001969
002362
*002756
~003150
003543
003937
1007874
011811
“015748.
“019685
023622
“027559
+031496
035433
| mm,
(1.) LINEAL.
ins, } ins.
2 078741 | “52 2°047262 | 1
8 -J18111| 538 2-086633 pa ote
4 157482 |. 54 2-126003 | 2°2°°
5 196852 55 2°165374 | 25902
6 -236223| 56 2-204744 salad
ig -975593 | 57 2244115 ms
8 -314963 | 58 2°283485 eee
9 -354334| 59 2°320855 | 7?
10 (lem.) -393704| 60 (6cem.) 27362226] oA”
11 -4330751 61 2°401596 | zdsn
12 -472445 | 62 2°4409671 soo
13 *511816| 63 2°480337 | soso
14 551186 64 2-519708 ro000
15 “590556 | 65 2°559078 ;
16 629927 | 66 2°598449 | oo
17 -669297 | 67 2:637819 | #00
18 *708668| 68 2°677189 | Too
19 -748038| 69 2°716560.| 307
20 (20m.) °787409| 7O(7em.) 2°755930] ton
21 “826779 |. '71 2°795301} 3°
22 *866150| ‘72 9-934671!. £95
23 -905520| 73 2°874042 | 23°
24 944890 | 74 2913412 |. 59°
25 *984961| 75 2952782 ote
26 1023631 |. 76 2-9921538| | 7?
27 | 1:063002| '7'7 3°031523| 73°
28 --1°102372| 78 8070894 by
29 -1:141748| 79 3-110264| %
80 (8 em.) 1-181113| 80 (8em.) 3-149635| 3°
81 1°220483 | 81. - 8°189005 To
82 1:°259854 | 82 3°228875 is
383 1-299224| §3 8+267746 Te
84 1:338595 | 84 3°307116| 15
85 1:377965| 85 8°346487 ry
86 1°417336 | 86 3:885857
87 1°456706 | 87 3°425228 te
88 1:496076} 88 8°464598 5
89 - ¥-535447 |. 89 8-503968 4
40 (40m.)1:574817 |, 90:9 em.) 3-543339] 6
41. 1:614188| 91 3°582709 8
42 1°658558| 92 3622080 ee
43 1°692929 | 93 8-661450 1
44 ——-1-732299| 94 3°700820| a.
45. 1°771669| 95 3°740191 i HS
46 1°811040| 96 3+779561 Fiat
47 -- 1°850410| 97 3°818932 ry
48 - 1°889781| 98 8+858802 1s
49 1:929151} 99 + -—«-8-897678}
_ 50 ( om.) 1°968522 | 100 (10 cm.=1 decim.)] 35
seh Rhag
-— decim, ins. z
ry 8°937048 3
2 7° 874086 4
3 11°811130 5
4 15°748173 6
5 19*685216 7
6 23+ 622259 8
vf 27:559302 9
8 ** 81°496346 10
9 _ 851438389 11
10 (1 metre) 39°370432 1 ft
= 8+280869 ft. :
= 1°093623 yds. lyd.=
Inches, &e., tnto
Micromillimetres,
§e.
be
°015991
*269989
*693318
539977
$22197
174972
628539
233295
*079954
849943
466591
*699886
*399772
mm.
* 028222
“031750
*036285
*042333
*050800
*056444
*063499
“072571
*084666
*101599
*126999
“169332
*253998
*507995
*015991
* 269989
“587486
*693318
7116648
*539977
7174972
4+233295
4°762457
5° 079954
6+349943
7937429
9°524915
cm.
1°111240
1°269989
1‘428737
1°587486
1°746234
1-904983
2° 063732
2*222480
2°381229
2°5389977
5: 079954
7°619932
decim.
1°015991
1°269989
1°523986
1777984
2°031982
2°285979
2°539977
2'793975
3:047978
metres.
"914392
OINmoOnUPrPWONNH ee
toe
O92 DD DO et et et Rt
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ee
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JOURN.R.MICR.SOC. SER IL VOLV PLX
LES WEIR
Se)
Peart
Venn
Hag oh
Poneman
Bacillus alvei,
“ATT OD WEUCMA NT 'FS 8M ; ‘ : ; “7ysu pe’ [ep eatyseyD yy yaeay
DESEISS7 S45 [| os=: Sp
:. re EE Sse rrRerag
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osex pT Bry
IX Id ATOATI SUS 00S SHOIN & NaANor
JAN @U LIVo
JOUBRNAE: >
OF THE
ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
AUGUST 1885.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.
XI.—The Pathogenie History and History under Cultivation of
a new Bacillus (B. alvez), the Cause of a Disease of the Hive
Bee hitherto known as Foul Brood. By Franx R. Quusuirz,
F.R.MS., F.L.S8., and W. Watson Curynz, M.B, F.R.CS.
(Read 11th March, 1885.)
Puates X. & XI.
Part 1—Pathogenic History. (By Mr. Cuesutre.)
Some indistinct references made by ancient writers as early as the
Christian era to a devastating disease existing then amongst
domesticated bees, render it not unlikely that the malady known
as “foul brood” is far from a novelty; but be this as it may, it is
EXPLANATION OF PLATES X. anp XI.
Fig. 1.—Residue of larva three days dead of Bacillus alvei. 6, bacilli. Spores
and degenerated trachez cover the field.
Fig. 2.—Healthy juices of larva.
Fig. 3.—Juices of larva (living) with disease in acute stage. a a, leptothrix
forms.
Fig. 4.—Bee-comb from a diseased stock. a a, cells containing healthy pups».
bb, cells in which pupz have died; the covers are sunken and often torn or
punctured,
Fig. 5.—Cultivation in sterilized agar-agar showing the colony-form.
Fig. 6.—Same cultivation twenty-four hours later.
Fig. 7.—Passage of spore in bacillus condition.
Fig. 8.—Passage of bacillus in spore condition,
Fig. 9.—Bacillus alvei grown in blood-serum. a a, spores.
Fig. 10.— Spores in line from agar-agar cultivation.
Fig. 11.—Bacilli budding ? from a cultivation.
Fig. 12.—Cualtivation in thin layer of peptonized gelutin, showing colony-
form and bursting-off of lines of bacilli.
Fig. 13.—Drawing from another flat cultivation.
Fig. 14.—Flat cultivation more enlarged ; the bacilli by liquefying the gelatin
form tracks along which they freely swim backwards and forwards. a, bacillus
swimming along track. 4, bacilli in mass. c, bacilli breaking from concentric
rings of growth previously formed,
Ser. 2.—Vo1. V. 2 Q
582 Transactions of the Society.
certain that not until very recent times have its ravages become so
wide-spread as to make it the terror of bee-keepers. Since the
investigation to which I now invite attention conclusively shows
that a bacillus is the mischief-worker, it will be at once understood
why modern methods of management have been the occasion of
spreading far and wide that which formerly existed, though
confined to narrow limits. In ancient days bees rarely changed
hands except at the death of the owner, and in our country, at
least, the selling of a hive was even half a century back dis-
countenanced as “unlucky”; but now bee-dealing is an established
industry not only here but on the continents of Hurope and
America, and the stock of the bee farmer having once become
infected, is inevitably the means of distributing the fatal germs
into the private apiaries which he supplies. Man not alone then
suffers from diseases propagated by modern civilisation, but the
animals which he has associated with himself necessarily suffer
with him. Let us now consider this matter under three heads :—
Firstly, the nature of this germ disease; secondly, the means of
its propagation ; and thirdly, the method of its cure.
Ist. The nature of foul brood as a germ disease.—If a comb
be removed from near the centre of a healthy hive during the
summer months, its cells will normally be filled with eggs, larve,
and pups in every stage of development. The eggs as left by the
ovipositor of the queen or mother adhere commonly by the end to
the base of the cells they occupy, and favoured by the high
temperature constantly maintained within the hive, the germinal
vesicle at about the end of three days matures into a larva ready
for hatching. ‘These eggs I have shown are liable to the disease
even before they leave the body of the mother, but most careful
microscopic examination is needful to make this apparent (and of
which I shall speak presently more particularly). On the contrary,
the larve, which are constantly fed by the workers, so change in
appearance soon after infection, that a practised eye at once detects
the presence of the disease. Whilst healthy their bodies are of a
beautiful pearly whiteness, lying, at first floating, in the abundant
pabulum the nurses are ever at hand to supply. As they grow
they curl themselves at the bottom of the cells until these become
too strait for their occupants, which now advance the head to be
in readiness for the cocoon-spinning which follows upon the close
of the eating stage. When the disease strikes the larve they
move uneasily in their cells, and often then present the dorsal
surface to. its mouth, as I have indicated in the illustration of
diseased comb, fig. 134, so that mere posture is no insufficient
evidence of an unhealthy condition. The colour changes to yellow,
passing on by degrees towards a pale brown, whilst the skin
becomes flaccid and opaque; death soon occurs, when the body, now
Bacillus alvei. By Messrs. F. Cheshire & Watson Cheyne. 583
shrunken by evaporation, lies on the lower side of the cell, increasing
in depth of tone, until in a few days nothing more than a nearly
black scale remains. Should the larve, however, escape contamina-
tion until near the period of pupahood, they are sealed over in the
normal way by a cover made of pollen-grains and wax, plate X.
Fie. 134.
fig. 4 a, and which is pervious to air. ‘he cover furnishes a screen,
on which part of the cocoon is soon after spread, but the inhabitant
of the cell is marked out for death, and before very long the capping
or sealing sinks and becomes concave, and in it punctures of an
irregular character appear, fig. 4 > and fig. 134, and this is a nearly
conclusive sign of the diseased condition of the colony. The sense
of smell is also appealed to, as a peculiar very offensive and extremely
characteristic odour now escapes from the diseased combs. The
bees in addition lose energy, but become unusually active in
ventilating their hive by standing at the door, heads towards home,
and flapping their wings persistently so that a strong out-current,
and as a necessary consequence, a corresponding indraught, are set
up. Should any attempt be made at removing a dead larva which
has assumed a deep brown tint, its body tenaciously adhering to
the cell-wall will stretch out into long and thin strings like half
dried glue. he microscopist can easily explain this. The thin
chitinous aerating sacs and trachesw do not undergo decomposition
at all easily, and these remaining, occasion the peculiarity referred
to. These trachee are well shown in fig. 1. ‘The disease is terribly
infectious, and once started, soon spreads from cell to cell and not
unfrequently from stock to stock.
Should a speck of this tenacious coffee-coloured matter be
examined by a 1/4 in., it would be found to contain Shan
2Q
584 Transactions of the Society.
swarms of very minute bodies which appear under a 1/12 in. as
seen in fig. 1, and which dance in the field with a pronounced
Brownian movement. ‘hese have been supposed to be micrococci,
im consequence of some reported experiments made in Germany
about ten years since by Dr. Schonfeld, of whose account of
the same it is desirable here to give only a very short summary.
He states that having procured some foul-broody matter (1. e. the
brown scales mentioned previously), he by a simple contrivance
aspirated air which he passed over the “foul-broody” mass
through cotton wool, which then he found full of micrococci. But
since he made presumably no attempt at staining, this state-
ment, I submit, can only be received with great reserve. He adds
that this cotton wool spread over the cells of a comb in which larve
were advancing, the latter took the disease and died, with their
bodies filled with micrococci. That lastly, having infected the
larva of Musca vomitoria, it not only died crammed with micro-
cocci, but that these micrococci communicated foul brood to pre-
viously healthy larvee in the bee-hive. These experiments were
~ accepted as so conclusive and satisfactory that for ten years they
were quoted as authoritative, but many observations which could
not be reconciled with commonly received ideas respecting this
malady induced me in June last to attempt to repeat Schonfeld’s
experiments, with such additions or modifications as might seem
most suitable to my purpose. This attempt has left me in intense
bewilderment so far as any possible explanation of the causes of the
errors into which Schonfeld undoubtedly fell. My results showed
that in foul-broody matter no micrococci necessarily existed ; the
disease could not be at all easily communicated to Musca vomitoria ;
but that every dead larva of this fly contained micrococci in-
numerable, and that when larve of Apis mellifica were artificially
infected with “ foul-broody matter” the bacillus nature of the
disease was incontestable, while no micrococci, and not even the
bacillus spore which Schonfeld had taken for a micrococcus, could
be discovered. The confidence with which I, at the outset, left
the old ideas which Schonfeld had promulgated was increased by
the helpful interest which Mr. G. F. Dowdeswell took in my in-
vestigation, and for whose suggestions I now have the pleasure of
returning my thanks. Taking a small quantity of the juices of a
healthy larva and examining under a cover-glass, one is presented
with the appearance of fig. 2. Fat-globules are numerous, whilst
here and there we note the large white blood-disks, and scattered
throughout may be seen minute globular particles with lively
Brownian movements. But if a speck of coffee-coloured “ foul-
broody matter,” as previously hinted, be similarly treated, we find
neither fat-globules, blood-cells, nor molecular base, but observe
amidst the remains of broken-down trachez the field crowded with
Bacillus alvei. By Messrs. F. Cheshire & Watson Cheyne. 9585
small ovoid bodies, as I have shown at fig. 1. These are the
micrococci of Schonfeld; but if this substance be stained according
to the plan of Weigert and Koch, and then carefully examined even
with a good 1/4, we shall in all probability discover a very few un-
doubted bacilli, fig. 1b. Whilst operating thus, the absence of dumb-
bell forms and the distinctly oval shape of what I presently found
to be spores of the associated bacilli, arrested at once my atten-
tion. Now possessing myself. of an infected stock, so that the
course of the disease could be traced, I submitted first the body of
a grub dead, but in a fresher state, to the Microscope ; and here
the bacilli were numerous, although still few in relation to the
number of the spores. ‘hen selecting larve still feeding, but of
suspicious colour, and examining their juices with a power of 600,
I was delighted by seeing hundreds of bacilli actively swimming
backwards and forwards and worming their way amongst the blood-
cells and fat-globules, as presented at fig. 3, whilst the leptothrix
form was not uncommon.
The examination of a larger number of larva, not only from
the stock referred to, but from combs coming from various parts of
Great Britain and Ireland, showed most conclusively that each in-
dividual at the beginning of the attack contained many bacilli of
an average diameter of 0°5 jy, and length 4 y, mostly swimming with
a corkscrew-like movement, and that if an end view were obtained
of any one of them the termination of the rod constantly described
a small circle; that when the disease was in rapid progress, lepto-
thrix forms were common, some of these even reaching 250 mw in
total length; that as the fluids of the grub failed by loss of fats
and albumenoids, the bacilli began to swell centrally, drawing
the mycoprotein from their extremities, as seen in fig. 8, and
thus gradually becoming spores, fig. 8; that after the death of
the grub and during the assumption of the viscid, putrid condition,
this constant alteration of bacilli into spores continues ; that after
removal from the hive it goes on so rapidly that in a day or two
scarcely a bacillus as such is discoverable, whilst the spores are
innumerable, and, in addition, that a very cautious preparation of
some broken down viscus showed that the bacilli and spores arranged
themselves in that most singular line fashion (fig. 10) which
Mr. Watson Cheyne found subsequently to be characteristic in his
agar-agar jelly cultivations of the same micro-organism.
Since the force of conviction obliged me to deny the accuracy
of Schonfeld’s conclusions, I felt it incumbent upon me to repeat
his experiments, for if the disease be really due to « bacillus, how
could the communication of it to Musca vomitoria produce, as he
says, micrococci in that insect? I experimented on sixty indi-
viduals: twenty were not brought near foul-broody matter, twenty
I attempted to infect with bacilli in their active condition, and
586 “Transactions of the Society.
twenty by spores, but only three of the latter and none of the former
contracted the disease. The general appearance of the tissues of
the dead fly larvae much resembled that of bees similarly affected.
Striving to prove irrefragably the accuracy of the etiology I
have given, I took a number of well-developed drone larvee from
a healthy stock, and expressed their juices into two test-tubes 3 in.
long and 1/2 in. wide. No.1 now received a very minute quantity
of coffee-coloured matter containing spores, whilst No. 2 was in-
fected with a trace of a bacillus-containing fluid from a larva just
dead or dying. These tubes were each supported by a simple ar-
rangement between the combs of a stock of bees, so that the tempe-
rature for germination should be kept up. In twenty-two hours,
examining No. 1, I found no spores, but that bacilli, mostly in
threads, existed in considerable numbers, whilst the bacilli added
to No. 2 were increasing by division, proving again that the spores
produce bacilli so soon as they pass into condition for germination,
the reverse process obtaining when these conditions cease.
The somewhat extensive literature of this disease had always
gone on the assumption that it affected larve, but larve only.
This position did not appear to me to agree with many facts I had
observed; e.g. we may take away two or three combs containing
5000 larvee each from a stock, and it will continue to progress
pretty much as though it had lost nothing, while if foul brood
attacks it and kills say 1000 of its grubs, it as a rule very per-
ceptibly diminishes in strength. The only theory that appeared to
me as satisfactory was that the adults of the hive die with the disease,
but that according to a necessary instinct they leave the hive and
finish their course alone. Going to the diseased stock then in my
possession, I noticed on the ground and close to its entrance one
bee nearly dead on its back, another hopping in abortive flights of
3 or 4 inches, and presently found a third and fourth worn out and
too far gone to enter the hive again. The first bee presented
nothing remarkable, but the second was almost an empty shell, the
air-sacs occupying nearly the whole of the abdomen. ‘The stomach
and colon were exceedingly small, and the amount of fluid I could
obtain truly microscopic; but this was full of active bacilli of the
' game size and character I had previously discovered in the larve.
The third and fourth bees were in similar condition.
The consequences flowing from this discovery have more to do
with practical apiculture than with general science, and so here I
content myself with saying that bee-dealers who had in ignorance
of the facts always proclaimed that swarms were incapable of being
affected by it, and that queens constantly passing from one owner
to another could never communicate it, were now to be told that
this error had in all probability been the reason why foul brood
had grown to be a veritable pest, and that large apiaries were in
Bacillus alvet. By Messrs. F. Cheshire & Watson Cheyne. 587
some instances actually dying out in spite of every effort to save
them, and that in America alone the losses through it had risen to
very many thousands annually.
Continuing the investigation, I found that a large proportion
of imago workers and drones die of this disease if they are raised
in infected stocks, and that this explained the marked dwindling in
numbers in a colony from the very incidence of an attack. But
further, if workers and drones are liable, why may not queens be so
also? and if this be possible, may we not get a solution of certain
peculiarities with which bee-keepers of experience are familiar, e.g.
some months earlier I had imported some queens from Italy, one of
which was inserted into a stock which quickly after developed foul
brood, while the queen lived on six or seven weeks only. In
addition, if the queen may be infected, why not the egg? In the
case of pébrine this had already been proved to be the case. The
bee’s egg is to the size of the bacillus enormous; its diameter of
0:36 mm. and its length of 1-8 mm. would enable it to accommo-
date 100,000,000 spores of this organism, which stands to the egg
itself as a single drop to 1500 gallons. Following this line, and
knowing that foul brood had in some cases appeared to be more
particularly destructive amongst the smaller larve, I not unnaturally
judged that in these cases possibly the egg contained the germs of
the disease at the time of deposition. I communicated my suspicions
to several owners of large numbers of colonies, and explained what
would be the probable peculiarities of genetic foul brood if such a
form really existed. Mr. Hart, of Stockbridge, soon after sent me
a queen from a hive which presented the indicated symptoms, viz.
the early death of the larvae in most cases; the earnestness of the
bees in attempting to raise a new queen, although their numbers
were so small that swarming* was out of the question, this
earnestness seeming to indicate that they were conscious of some
unfitness about the mother, which they desired to remedy by dis-
placing her, and lastly a continuance of their hospitality to drones
at a period of the season when other stocks have destroyed theirs.
The queen was fortunately alive at her arrival, and I forthwith
commenced a careful dissection. Having removed the left air-sac
(which lies within the first and second abdominal rings), which
was very much above the average size, a constant indication as I
have found it of the presence of bacilli, I came upon the ovary, of
which I had upon previous occasions removed many dozens. This
one was abnormally yellow and very soft, so that it was difficult
to detach it from the larger external trachesw without tearing.
I separated an ovarian tube and placed it under a second Micro-
scope using 250 diameters, and at once saw four or five bacilli
* Healthy stocks only raise new queens in the prospect of swarming, or when
the mother is fading through age.
588 Transactions of the Society.
swimming along with a lazy sort of progression. Detaching now
a half-developed egg, and exercising great care to eliminate every
possible source of accidental contamination, I placed the egg with
a trace of water upon a glass slip and crushed it out flat with a
thin cover, and in a few minutes I had counted no less than nine
bacilli. The right ovary was nearly free from disease. During
a prolonged search I traced three bacilli only, which may not im-
possibly have floated on to it during the dissection. Many other
subjects I have since had the opportunity of dissecting, some of
whose ovaries contained bacilli in countless profusion. In one re-
markable case the receptaculum seminis contained no spermatozoa,
although the queen was young and had mated since she had
produced worker bees, but was filled with a dirty fluid through which
were scattered innumerable minute and irregular granules, amongst
which swam large numbers of bacilli. Here then was a distinct
point of incidence for an attack, which left the ovaries still in
perfect health. A question of some difficulty here to my mind
presents itself. The disease seems always acute in the case of the
larvee, embracing all parts of their organization. This may possibly
result from the thinness of their membranes, the freedom of their
viscera, the frequency of invagination, and the rapidity of interstitial -
changes in their case. In the imago, on the contrary, the disease
assumes a chronic condition, and confined to a portion of the frame
at least temporarily, may be several weeks, and possibly in queens
even months, in running its course.
The name foul brood, given in ignorance of the nature and
scope of the malady, is manifestly utterly inappropriate. To say
that a queen igs sufferimg from foul brood would be as illogical and
ridiculous as talking of toothache in the liver. I therefore have
proposed the name Bacillus alvec, which has been at once accepted
and adopted amongst intelligent apiarians both in England and
America.
The necessity of a specific name has recently become more
apparent, since during these investigations I have found that bees
are not only liable to suffer from attacks of the organism now
engaging our attention, but from many others producing certain
characteristic symptoms, and of which I hope to speak in particular
in a future communication. The old notion that the adult bee
had perfect immunity from diseases, and which no doubt was based
upon the constancy of its external appearance ag the outcome of an
external skeleton, turns out to be the opposite of the truth, and the
Microscope has supplied me at once with the means of explaining
observed singularities in special stocks by revealing in each case
disease organisms of some destructive type. These industrious
creatures live in numerous colonies, of which the members are
always in the closest contact; their usual system of communication
Bacillus alver. By Messrs. F. Cheshire & Watson Cheyne. 589
is by actual touch ; they habitually pass their food from one stomach
to another; all food has been carried either within or upon the
bodies of their fellows; their very home is formed of one of their
secretions; and their beds, cradles, and larders are all interchange-
able. These are the conditions indeed in which disease organisms
have the highest opportunity of running riot, and which makes the
discovery of many pathogenic bacteria in their colonies to me the
reverse of surprising.
It is needful before passing to the second head to anticipate
one or two points to which Mr. Watson Cheyne will especially
refer. After very many cultivations conducted in series by that
gentleman, a small quantity of sterilized milk was inoculated from
the last tube. It behaved characteristically, as Mr. Cheyne will
describe, the flask emitting upon the drawing of the plug the
unmistakable odour so distinctive of the disease in the hive. Some
of this milk I diffused through water, and sprayed from an atomizer
over a healthy comb of larve, part of which was protected by a
cardboard sheet into which four lozenge shapes had been cut. The
larvee protected matured in health; those exposed to the spray in
many cases were removed by the bees, while the rest died, their
bodies filled with Bacillus alvei. This last experiment seems to
complete the chain of evidence in favour of ‘foul brood” not
being accidentally associated with this bacillus, but actually its
result.
2ndly. The means of the propagation of the disease. Popular
apiculture has greatly suffered because its supposed leaders have
only very rarely been equal to any scientific analysis, and so crude
guesses have frequently been as unhesitatingly accepted as though
they had been theories supported by an exhaustive examination of
facts. It isso here; the larvee alone were supposed to suffer from
the disease under discussion, and so it was confidently asserted that
it was propagated by bees from healthy colonies getting into con-
tact with these larvee by taking advantage of the weakened dispirited
condition of infected stocks by invading them and stealing from
them their honey, which honey was said to abound with micro-
cocci, but I have searched most carefully in honey in contiguity
with cells holding dead larve, have examined samples from stocks
dying out with rottenness, inspected extracted honey* from terribly
diseased colonies, and yet in no instance have | found a living
bacillus, and never have been able to be sure of discovering one in
the spore condition, although it must be admitted that the problem
has its microscopic difficulties, because the stains used to make the
bacilli apparent attach themselves very strongly to all pollen-
grains and parts thereof, and somewhat interfere with examination.
* Honey thrown out from the comb by a centrifugal machine called an
extractor.
590 Transactions of the Society.
All attempts at propagating bacilli in honey I have found utterly
futile. The presence of bacilli in honey as an accidental con-
tamination would, it may be remarked, in no way render it in-
jurious, for many pathogenic bacteria may be swallowed without
risk if there be no internal rupture of the mucous membrane, and
placing this bacillus in a skin wound has in my own case produced
no disagreeable results.
My belief is that the grubs are most usually infected by the
antennz of the nurses. These travelling in the darkness of the
hive become aware of the condition and needs of the occupants of
the brood-cells by constantly inserting their antenne, which must
continually where disease reigns be brought into contact with
bacilli, and also into contact with those sticky masses into which
the larva change about two days after death. The removal then of
spores is highly probable, and these transferred to the next grub
fed will there start the disease. These sticky masses will be found
too to extend to the very front of the cells, and as the bees
perambulate their combs the pulvillus will be in danger of re-
moving spores and depositing them upon other cell edges to infect
other grubs at the critical time of cocoon spinning. It is also
extremely likely that the tramp of the bees frequently detaches
numbers of spores, which fly about in the air and settle here and
there, often where they take effect, many of them being carried
into healthy stocks with the indraught set up by the fanners.*
A large number of observations has shown that the disease in
the larva at least is not one of the digestive tube, but of the blood,
and through it of every viscus. If honey were the means of com-
municating it, certainly traces of it should be found in the alimentary
sac; but here I find only very occasionally bacilli. In the adult
bee, however, although the disease fills the blood, it is still very
prominent indeed in the chyle stomach. Microscopists will have
no difficulty in accepting the idea of these organisms being carried
about in air currents when it is remembered that a single cubic
inch of material would form a quadruple line of these bacilli from
London to New York. Ordinary dust motes are to such organisms
as hens’ eggs to sand grains. Nor is their multitude less remarkable
than their minuteness. I have examined many larvee which must
at least have contained 1,000,000,000; so that the means by which
they are disseminated must be altogether too varied. In the royal
jelly—so called—of a queen pupa dead of bacillus I could discover
no bacilli, nor have I succeeded better with the food provided to
the workers, notwithstanding that I examined several hundreds of
the cells containing feeding larvee where disease was rife; so that,
although I would not dogmatize, my strong opinion is that commonly
neither honey nor pollen carry the disease, but that the feet and
* See supra, p. 583, line 18 et seq.
Bacillus alvei. By Messrs. F. Cheshire & Watson Cheyne. 591
antennze of the bees usually do. I also think it probable that
occasionally at least, nurse bees infected bring the disease-germs
to the mouth in feeding the larve, and then, turning foragers, leave
a germ or germs on the nectary of a flower, which, visited by
another bee, becomes the means of infection to it. The malady is
thus carried into other, and perhaps somewhat distant, apiaries.
Balancing all the probabilities, it would appear that most gene-
rally the adult bee takes the disease, and then carries it directly or
indirectly to the brood. In a somewhat different malady, Empusa
musci of the housefly, the germs are known to take effect by
settling on the spiracles or between the abdominal rings, and the
spiracle of the bee in all its stages may be the especially vulnerable
oint.
4 3rdly. The method of the cure of Bacillus alvei. Upon this
question the scientific is perhaps less than the practical interest,
and so I shall content myself with a bare outline. Salicylic acid
has been used in attempting to combat this disease with fluctuating
and partial success, but phenol I have found perfectly specific. The
difficulty of administration I overcame as follows: phenol was
mingled with ordinary sugar syrup of a density most suitable for
feeding purposes in the proportion of 1 to 500 by weight of the
syrup, and this was then poured into the comb in which brood was
being raised. The nurse bees immediately accepted the medicated
food, and as a result the malady in the very worst cases disappeared,
the exceptions being those in which the queen herself was badly
diseased. ‘This would rather seem to indicate that the drug acts
as a prophylactic, but upon this most vital point time has not at
present enabled me to settle the ground for an opinion. The
problem is beset by difficulties, but during the advancing summer
experiments will be made in the hope of gaining evidence respecting
it. Even apart from the solution of this question, this investigation
promises to have a very important bearing upon the future of
apiculture by exposing the errors of the past and supplying a satis-
factory method of treating a disease which had promised to so
increase as to thoroughly imperil the very existence of apiculture
as an industry.
Parr Il.— History under Cultivation. (By Mr. Curyne.)
On August 11th, 1884, Mr. Cheshire brought to me a piece of
comb containing larve affected with foul brood, with which I per-
formed the following experiments:—Selecting cells which were
closed, but which Mr. Cheshire thought contained diseased larvee, I
brushed them over with a watery solution of bichloride of mercury
(1 : 1000) to destroy the organisms on the outside. With several
forceps that had been heated and allowed to cool, the covering of
592 Trans ictions of the Society.
the cell was picked off so as to display the diseased larvee. These
larvee were dead, of a yellowish colour, and almost liquid; and on
examination afterwards their juices were found to contain numerous
moving bacilli. By means of a heated platinum wire, tubes of meat
infusion rendered solid by gelatin (10 per cent.), or by Japanese
isinglass, were inoculated from several of these larvee and kept at
a suitable temperature. Development of bacilli, microscopically
similar to those seen in the juices of the larvee, occurred: the cha-
racteristics of this development will be presently described. Further,
in the tubes, kept at the body temperature, there was not only a
development of bacilli, but also of spores.
These bacilli, as seen in the larval juices, measure about 1/7000
in. in length, and 1/20,500 in. in breadth. ‘They are rounded or
slightly tapering at their ends, and often have a clear space near
one end. In the juices of the larva during life they apparently do
not produce spores, although after death spores abound.
In the cultivation in the peptonized meat infusion, rendered
solid by agar-agar, the bacilli vary considerably in size, their average
length being 1/7260 in., some being as small as 1/10,000 in. and
others as large as 1/5000 in. When they have attained the latter
size, division of the rod seems to begin. They are always some-
what pointed at their ends. Their average breadth is 1/30,000 in.,
varying from 1/35,000 to 1/25,000.
The spores are largish oval bodies, averaging in length 1/12,000
in. (varying from 1/13,100 to 1/10,200 in.), and in breadth
1/23,700 in. (varying from 1/24,000 to 1/25,000 in.).
In the agar-agar material the spores are generally arranged
side by side in long rows, and in old cultivations only a few bacilli
can be seen, some forming spores, some without any indication of
spores (figs. 10 and 11). That these small bacilli can produce such
large spores seems at the first glance at a microscopical specimen
almost inconceivable, but I have been able to trace on the one hand
the development of the spores in the rods, and on the other the
sprouting of the spores into adult bacilli. This can be done in
the following very simple manner :—
Take a number of glass slides, each having a moderate-sized
cell hollowed out in its middle; clean it, and pass through a
Bunsen flame several times to destroy any bacteria on its surface.
With a brush apply a very little vaseline around the depression,
and then place the slide under a glass shade to keep it from the
dust. Clean a number of cover-glasses, purify them in the flame,
and place them on a pure glass plate beneath another shade. With
a fine pure pipette put a small drop of sterilized cultivating fluid
(meat infusion with peptone) on the centre of each of these cover-
glasses; then with a fine platinum wire inoculate each of the drops
with the spores, or with non-spore-bearing bacilli; rapidly invert
Bacillus alvei. By Messrs. F. Cheshire & Watson Cheyne. 593
them over the cell, press down the cover-glass so as to diffuse the
vaseline around its edge, and place the slides in an incubator kept at
the temperature of the body. These slides are removed at different
intervals of time, and as soon as each is taken out the cover-glass
is turned over and the drop of fluid rapidly dried. The specimen
can then be stained, mounted in Canada balsam, and studied at
leisure. This method seems to me to be much more satisfactory
than the observation of the organisms swimming about in the drop
of fluid, while the specimens can be kept permanently and compared
with one another.
In order to study the growth of the spores I used a cultivation
on the agar-agar cultivating material which had been kept at the
temperature of the body for fourteen days, and which consisted
almost entirely of spores, though a few bacilli were present. As
the result of several experiments, I have got a series of preparations
which have been taken at various times (15 min., 30 min., 40 min.,
1 hour, 13 hour, 1 hour 50 min., 2 hours, 2 hours 20 min., 2 hours
50 min., 2 hours 55 min., 3 hours 20 min., 4 hours 20 min.,
5 hours, 5 hours 385 min., 5 hours 40 min., and 7 hours 50 min.),
and the course of events is shown in plate X. The bacilli stain
with various anilin dyes—best, I think, with methyl-violet; but
the spores resemble the spores of other bacteria in not taking on
the stain. The cover-glasses cn which the organisms are dried are
passed three times through the gas flame and floated on. the sur-
face of a fairly strong watery solution of methyl-violet for one to
two hours. ‘They are then washed in water, and afterwards laid in
weak acetic acid (1 per cent.) till no more stain comes out. ‘They
are again washed in water, allowed to dry at the ordinary tem-
perature, and mounted in Canada balsam. A spore-bearing culti-
vation shows the bacilli stained violet, and the spores unstained,
with the exception of their outline, which is of a faint violet
colour. In most cases no trace of the rod in which the spore was
formed can be seen (see fig. 7). The first change which is
observed on cultivation is that in many cases the outline of the rod
in which the spore was formed becomes faintly visible (see fig. 7).
This can be seen in fifteen minutes, and is, I think, simply due to
swelling by the fluid, as it is also evident to some extent in the case
of spores soaked in water for the same length of time. In from
half an hour to an hour it is evident that the bacilli which were
present in the original material are beginning to multiply, and a
considerable number of rods are now seen containing spores.
It is evident that these spores are newly formed, as extremel
few bacilli containing spores were seen in the original natant
whereas in the preparations taken from in half an hour to an
hour a considerable number are present. That some of the rods,
instead of growing by fission, at once proceed to form spores
594 Transactions of the Society.
is probably to be explained in this way. When the cultivation
was removed from the incubator, some bacilli were growing by
fission, some were forming spores, and some had passed into a state
ready to form spores. The first go on growing by fission, the last
complete their spore-formation, which was arrested by removal
from the warm temperature. ‘That actively growing rods would
not have formed spores so early is evidenced by the facts observed
in the second series of observations on the formation of spores.
The next thing that is observed is that several of the spores take
on the stain, and are as intensely violet as the adult bacilli (see
fig. 7). The number of the spores which take on the stain in
this way goes on increasing as time passes, till in about four hours
almost all the spores stain violet. In three hours the first indica-
cation of sprouting of these spores becomes evident. The stained
part of the spore loses its oval shape, becomes elongated, and is
soon seen to burst through the spore-capsule at one part (see
fig. 7). It then presents the appearance of a short rod, with a
pale envelope embracing one end. ‘This rod gradually leaves the
spore-capsule and then goes on multiplying as a full-grown bacillus.
In specimens taken from four to five hours all stages of growth can
be seen, and the remains of the ruptured spore-capsules are evident
(see fig. 7).
The bacilli appear to grow mainly by fission, but I have seen
appearances which seem to me only explicable on the supposition
that they also grow by sending out buds from one end (see fiz. 11).
A bacillus may be seen with a small somewhai conical stained point
attached to one end, though separated by a marked division. This
is certainly not the common mode of growth by fission, for there
the rod seems to divide into two pretty equal halves, while here
we but have a minute piece attached to one end.
The mode of formation of spores may be traced in a similar
manner to that described above in the case of the sprouting of the
spores. It is, however, as a rule necessary to leave the organisms
to grow for a much longer time than in the former instance. I
have not found development of spores as a rule before twenty-three
hours, but this depends very much apparently on the amount of
fluid that was present and the number of bacilli introduced at the
time of inoculation. The first thing noticeable is that the rod
begins to swell and becomes spindle-shaped (see fig. 8). This swell-
ing, which generally affects the middle of the rod, but may in some
cases be most marked toward one end, increases in size, and the
centre of the swelling gradually ceases to take on the stain (fig. 8).
The capsule of the spore apparently is also formed within the rod, and
is not merely the outer part of the rod. In three or four hours the
rod is seen to have almost or completely disappeared, leaving the
spore lying free or within the faint outline of the original bacillus
Bacillus alvei. By Messrs. F. Cheshire & Watson Cheyne. 595
(figs. 7 and 8). It seems to me that the view that spore-formation
occurs when the food is getting exhausted is correct, for the time at
which this appearance is found depends greatly on the size of the
drop placed on the cover-glasses, and I have found in one experiment
that in one specimen after twenty-three hours most of the rods
were forming spores, while in another specimen where the drop
was much larger there was no trace of spore-formation after twenty-
eight hours. I have here described the results of my earlier and
rougher attempts to study the formation of spores. I have, how-
ever, now improved the method in the followmg way. As I have
just now shown, the period at which spores are first seen seems to
depend mainly on the amount of fluid used and the number of
of bacilli introduced, and as in the above method both these factors
vary in each case, one cannot get a regular series of preparations
showing the different stages at different times. In studying the
sprouting of spores the amount of fiuid and the number of spores
does not matter, for if sufficient nutriment is present and a proper
temperature maintained the spores must sprout, and probably they
always take about the same length of time. The difficulty of obtaining
a series of specimens illustrating spore-formation is easily obviated
in the following manner. Take a pure flask containing a small
quantity of sterilized infusion, and inoculate it from a cultivation
containing only bacilli. Place it in the incubator for two or three
hours, so that the bacilli may increase somewhat in number and
diffuse themselves through the liquid. Thus the cultivating mate-
rial contains bacilli pretty equally diffused through it, and if after
shaking the flask drops of equal size are taken, each will probably
contain about the same number of bacilli. ‘The minutest quantity
of fluid can easily be obtained by means of a syringe having a fine
screw on its piston and a large nut revolving on this screw. The
circumference of the nut being equally divided into a number of
small segments, the same quantity of fluid can always be expelled
from the syringe. By proceeding in this way equal sized drops
containing an equal number of bacilli can be used and a regular
series of specimens obtained. I have found that using 2/5 of a
minim containing one bacillus and keeping the specimen at 36° C.,
en earliest appearance of spore-formation was evident in forty-one
ours.
Leaving these matters, which are of great interest not only in
regard to the Bacillus alvei, but to all spore-bearing bacteria, and
which I have therefore dwelt on at reife we must pass on to the
further consideration of this particular organism. The first point
to be determined in investigating its relation to foul brood was
whether this was a new bacillus, unknown except in connection
with this disease of bees, or whether it was a more or less well-
known form. ‘To ascertain this point with regard to muicro-
596 Transactions of the Society.
organisms the Microscope is of little use; recourse must be had to
the study of their life-history, more especially of their peculiarities
of growth on different soils. Of all the materials employed as
cultivating media, Koch’s gelatinized meat infusion is the most
useful for purposes of diagnosis. This is composed of an infusion
of meat containing 1 to 3 per cent. of pepton, 10 per cent. gelatin
made neutral by carbonate of soda, and thoroughly sterilized. This
material was first introduced with the view of having a highly
nutritive solid and at the same time transparent medium, on which
to carry on pure cultivations, but it was soon found that owing to
the remarkably diverse ways in which different micro-organisms
grew in it, it could be used as a means of diagnosis of the kind of
organism, a means more certain than any other which we at
present possess. For purposes of diagnosis as well as with the
view of carrying on pure cultivations this material is used in three
ways. While the material is still fluid a small portion is poured
into a number of pure tubes plugged with cotton wool, sterilized,
and allowed to solidify. A fine platinum wire, heated in a flame
and allowed to cool, is dipped into the material containing the
bacterium in question, and then, after the removal of the cotton-
wool plug, is rapidly plunged down through the gelatin to the
bottom of the tube and then withdrawn. The plug is reinserted
and the tube kept at a temperature suitable for the development of
most forms of bacteria, but not high enough to melt the gelatin.
If growth takes place at this temperature it occurs either on the
surface around the point of entrance of the needle or along the
needle track, or in both places, and the appearance of the growth
varies remarkably, according to the different species of micro-
organisms studied. ‘The second way is to liquefy and pour out a
little of the gelatinized material on microscopic slides or on larger
plates of glass which have been sterilized by heat. These plates
are placed in giass vessels containing moist blotting-paper to
prevent drying of the gelatin and to protect them from the dust.
After the gelatin has solidified the purified platinum needle charged
with the bacteria is drawn rapidly over the surface of the gelatin.
Bacteria are sown along the track, grow there, and the whole can
be placed under a Microscope and the characteristics of the growth
studied with a low power. In the third mode a tube of the gelatin
mixture is inoculated with a very minute quantity of the bacteria.
The tube is then placed in water at the body temperature to melt
the gelatin. When the material has melted it is thoroughly
shaken up to diffuse the bacteria through it, and while still liquid
is poured out on sterilized glass plates kept in a moist chamber, as
in the former case. Solidification very soon occurs, and the bacteria
being caught at various parts of the gelatin grow there in the form
of groups or colonies, which can be observed under a low power of
Bacillus alvei. By Messrs. F. Cheshire & Watson Cheyne. 597
the Microscope. I shall now describe the characteristics of the
Baciilus alvet when cultivated in these three modes.
a. Test-tube cultivations.—If an infected needle be plunged
into a tube of gelatinized meat infusion, in the manner described
above, growth occurs both on the surface and along the needle-track.
On the surface the bacilli shoot out in all directions from the point
of entrance of the needle, forming a delicate ramifying growth on
the top of the gelatin; the characteristics of this growth will be
presently described under b. Along the track whitish irregular-
shaped masses appear, which slowly increase in size and run
together. In a few days processes are seen to shoot out from these
masses, which may extend through the gelatin for long distances
from the track, being thickened at various parts and clubbed at the
ends. These processes do not appear to join one another at their ends
(see figs. 5and 6), A very beautiful and characteristic appearance is
got where very few bacilli are introduced with the needle and where
therefore at various parts of the track, more especially at the lower
part, individual bacilli or groups of bacilli are planted at a consider-
able distance from each other. In a few days minute round whitish
specks become visible to the naked eye. These increase in size till
in about ten days shoots begin to appear. These radiate from the
central mass in all directions and become nodular at various parts
as described above. When such a cultivation is old the white
branches disappear, and only little whitish collections of bacilli
are seen at various parts. On examining such a tube with a pocket
lens, however, numerous watery-looking tracks are seen running
through the gelatin from the central mass to the whitish collec-
tions. The gelatin at the upper part of the track generally
evaporates, to some extent giving rise to the air-bubble appearance
so characteristic of the cholera bacillus (see fig. 6). ‘Lhese are
the appearances seen where the material contains gelatin in the
proportion of 10 per cent. Where less gelatin is present the
naked eye appearances, while possessing the same characteristics,
are somewhat different. The shoots are much more numerous and
appear much more rapidly, giving rise to a haziness around the
needle track which with the pocket lens is seen to consist of
numerous delicate branches clubbed at the ends ax in the former
case. I think the amount of peptone present also makes a difference
in the appearance, though of this point I am not yet absolutely
certain. The most characteristic growth is, however, obtained
when the material contains 3 per cent. peptone as well as 10 per
cent, gelatin, the shoots being then Jess numerous and much
coarser. And I can easily understand that this would be the case,
for the bacilli would have a large supply of nutriment in their
immediate vicinity without the necessity of having, so to speak, to
spread out through the gelatin in search of food, as may be the
Ser. 2.—Vou, V. 2k
598 Transactions of the Society.
case where no peptone, or only a small amount, is present. This
appearance is quite characteristic of this bacillus, and is not seen
in the cultivation of any other organism that I know of. The
bacilli of anthrax and of mouse septicemia also spread out from
the needle track, but the appearance of their cultivation is quite
different. In anthrax delicate threads, not clubbed, shoot out from
the track, soon anastomosing with other threads and forming
a delicate network throughout the gelatin. In mouse septicaemia
the appearance is that of a delicate cloudiness spreading through
the gelatin. ‘These foul brood bacilli, growing in this material,
render it liquid after a time, the liquefaction beginning at the
surface and only spreading slowly downwards, but ultimately the
whole tube becomes liquid. After two or three weeks’ growth the
appearance presented by the tube is that of a layer of liquid at the
upper part, and the growth along the needle track with the other
appearances described at the lower part. The liquid portion is
clear except at the bottom of the liquid, where there 1s a loose white
flocculent deposit of bacilli, and on the surface there may be a very
thin scum. The liquid becomes yellowish in colour after a time,
and gives off an odour of stale, but not ammoniacal urine, or what
may be better described as a shrimpy smell. This yellowish colour
and the peculiar odour have been found by Mr. Cheshire to be
distinctive of the diseased larvee.
b. If gelatin be poured out on a plate, allowed to solidify, and
then stroked with an infected needle, we learn the explanation of
the appearances seen in the test-tube cultivations. The bacilli at
first grow along the needle track, but very soon they are seen to
be collecting at parts forming pointed processes. From the
processes the bacilli grow out into the gelatin, often a single series
of rods, in Indian file, or two or three rods side by side. These
processes are not quite straight, but tend to curve, and at a little
distance from the track they grow round so as to form a circle
(see figs. 13 and 14c). From this circle, which may be formed of
single bacilli, the process continues forming a fresh circle further
on. The bacilli in the circle increase in number till ultimately it
becomes completely filled up, and we have a nodule consisting of
bacilli in the course of the shoot. These shoots may also join one
another, forming a curved anastomosis, and the gelatin in the
immediate vicinity of the bacilli becoming liquid, a series of channels
are formed in the gelatin containing fluid in which the bacilli
swim backwards and forwards. later on, parts of these channels
become apparently deserted by the bacilli, so that the circles look
to the naked eye as if they were detached from the main track, but
with a low power of the Microscope the empty channels can be
traced. (See figs. 13 and 14.)
It is impossible to give a proper idea of the appearances of the
Bacillus alvei. By Messrs. F. Cheshire & Watson Cheyne. 599
growth. The forms assumed are the most beautiful shapes I have
ever seen, but they are very numerous, always however retaining the
tendency to form curves and circles; thus we have the explanation
of the appearances previously described in the test-tube cultivations.
c. The appearances of the colonies on plates on which the
mixture of bacilli and gelatinized infusion has been poured out is also
very characteristic. The earliest appearance of colonies is a small
oval or round group of bacilli. This group is not homogeneous in
appearance under a low power of the Microscope, but lines indicating
the bacilli are seen in it. It very soon becomes pear-shaped, and
from the sharp end of the pear processes begin to pass out into the
gelatin, as before described. (See fig. 12.)
These bacilli do not grow below 16° C. The best growth in
gelatin is obtained at a temperature of about 20°C. They grow
most rapidly in cultivating materials kept at the body temperature.
Very few spores are formed at the lower temperatures, but they
appear rapidly and in large numbers at the body temperature. I
have several times observed bacilli containing spores swimming
about freely. The reaction of the medium is not of any very great
importance, but a neutral medium is apparently the best. The
bacilli swim freely in fluids with a slow oscillating movement.
They grow readily at the body temperature in meat infusion
with peptone and rendered solid by agar-agar, but the appearance
of their growth is not nearly so characteristic as in gelatin. This,
indeed, is the case with most bacteria, so that agar-agar preparations,
though very useful for carrying on pure cultivations at the tem-
perature of the body, are of little value for diagnostic purposes.
They grow most rapidly on the surface of the agar-agar, forming a
whitish layer, but the shoots described above in the case of gelatin
do not occur, or only very imperfectly, in agar-agar. Here the
bacilli arrange themselves apparently side by side, and, producing
spores in this position, we have as a result, after a few days’
cultivation, long rows of spores lying side by side with here and
there an adult bacillus. (See figs. 10 and 11.)
On potatoes they grow slowly, forming a dryish yellow layer
on the surface. They grow very slowly indeed at the lower tem-
perature. In order to get good growth it is necessary to keep the
potato at the body temperature.
In milk they grow well at the body temperature, and in a few
days cause coagulation of the milk, which also assumes a yellowish
palbtic and gives off the odour previously described. ‘The coagulum
is not firm, like that caused by the Bacteriwm lactis, but is like a
tremulous jelly, and may remain for a considerable time without
the separation of any fluid, but ultimately it becomes liquid, and
after some months assumes the appearance of a dirty, brownish-
yellow, glairy fluid. It is very slightly, if indeed at oi es
©) R €
600 Transactions of the Society.
They grow extremely slowly in coagulated blood serum, though
kept at the body temperature, and there form very long filaments
(see fig. 9) with comparatively few spores.
In meat infusion kept at the temperature of the body they grow
readily, causing muddiness, and after a few days a slight but not
tenacious scum. ‘The same peculiar odour is also developed here,
more especially if the infusion contains a considerable amount of
peptone. I do not think that there is any change in the reaction
of the fluid; I generally make the infusions faintly alkaline, and
after the growth of this organism in it it is faintly alkaline.
These characteristics show that this is a new bacillus, and one
which, so far as my knowledge and experience goes, is only found
in foul brood. ‘The constant preseuce in large numbers of a cha-
racteristic organism in a disease and its absence elsewhere must,
according to our accumulating experience, afford a strong pre-
sumption that the organism is the cause of the disease. In the
case of foul brood this matter has been completely proved by the
following experiments, the details of which will be found in Mr.
Cheshire’s part of this paper. With a cultivation in milk he sprayed
a comb containing a healthy brood, allowing the spray to act only
on a particular part of the comb. ‘This part and no other became
affected with foul brood. He has also succeeded in infecting adult bees
by feeding them with material containing these cultivated bacilli.
I have also had the opportunity of watching the effect of feeding
flies with material containing spores and bacilli I was one day
testing some milk in which these bacilli were growing; a large
bluebottle fly settled on it and commenced to eat. I at once put a
large glass funnel over the insect, leaving plenty of air. When I
came to the laboratory twenty-two hours later the fly was in the
sitting posture on the table and was dead. Its juices were full of
these bacilli, as shown by microscopical examination and by
cultivation.
_ Other animals which I have tested are more or less refractory
to this bacillus. I have kept cockroaches for days in a box in
which was milk containing these bacilli mixed up with sugar. I
have also kept them in a box containing a piece of paper which
had been thoroughly smeared with the spores. None of them died,
but I cannot be certain that in either case they ate any of the
material, for I never saw them even near it.
I inoculated two mice and one rabbit with a spore-bearing
cultivation without effect.
I injected half a syringeful of a spore-bearing cultivation into the
dorsal subcutaneous tissue of each of two mice. One of these died in
twenty-three hours, the other seemed unaffected, but in the second
case I doubt whether the full quantity was introduced. In the
case of the mouse which died the seat of injection and the neigh-
Bacillus alvet. By Messrs. F. Cheshire & Watson Cheyne. 601
bouring cellular tissue was found to be very cedematous, but
no macroscopic changes were apparent in the internal organs.
Numerous bacilli were found in the cedematous fluid, as also a
number of spores which had not yet sprouted, and there were also
a few bacilli in the blood taken from the heart. This was proved,
of course, by cultivation as well as by microscopical examination.
On examining sections of the various organs no morbid changes
were found, and only very few bacilli were seen in the blood-
vessels.
At the same time that I injected the mice I injected a syringeful
of the same cultivation subcutaneously into a guinea-pig. This
animal died six days later with extensive necrosis of the muscular
tissue and skin, and cheesy looking patches distributed through it.
There was no true pus. On making sections of the necrosed tissue,
numerous bacilli, apparently Bacillus alvei, were seen, but there
were other bacteria and also micrococci, as of course would be the
case on account of the death of the skin. No micro-organisms
were seen in the internal organs. It thus remains questionable
whether the necrosis was due to the Bacillus alvei or not, more
especially as I have since injected three guinea-pigs subcutaneously
with spore-bearing cultivations, but without effect. I must reserve
the action of these bacilli on the higher animals for further investiga-
tion, as well as several other points of interest in regard to this
organism to which I have not here alluded.
I venture to think that when all the evidence brought forward
by Mr. Cheshire and myself is carefully weighed no doubt can be
entertained that this bacillus is new to science, and is the cause of
foul brood. Many questions of course still remain open, requiring
further investigation into the life-history of the disease.
602 Transactions of the Society.
XII —Eaperiments on Feeding some Insects with the Curved
or “Comma” Bacillus, and also with another Bacillus (B.
subtilis ?).
By R. L. Mappox, M.D., Hon. F.R.MS.
(Read 13th May, 1885.)
Tue record of a few experiments on feeding insects with the
“comma” bacillus, and also with a straight bacillus (B. subtzlis ?)
may be of some interest, as I am not aware that a similar attempt
has been previously made and published. Although these expert-
ments are too few to speak positively as to results, they are brought
before the Fellows of the Society in the hope that others may be
induced to extend them. They are of interest as bearing on the
question of a possible mode of contagion, and are deserving of a
more methodical inquiry, which as the season advances, I may
perhaps be able to follow out.
On the morning of the 23rd of April a bee and two blowflies
were captured and put under a clean tumbler resting in a saucer, a
small square of clean glass being also placed in the saucer. Hach
was then fed off a bit of lump sugar well saturated with a
liquefied impure gelatin culture of the “comma ” bacillus abound-
ing in living specimens of this organism, but contaminated with
micrococci. One of the flies appeared to have been somewhat
injured in the capture.
A few minutes afterwards a large wasp and another blowfly
were captured, and placed together under the same conditions in
another tumbler, and fed in the same way. Hach insect was seen
to feed freely off the saturated sugar. Provision was duly made
for ventilation by supporting the tumblers on strips of card placed
in the saucers. On the 24th, 9 a.m., the bee seemed very dull,
and one of the flies, the injured one, scarcely able to stand. The
bee was now fed with a drop of fresh milk from the breakfast table,
of which it partook freely, and about three minutes after it had a
violent dejection on the square piece of glass, and then appeared
very lively, but for more than twenty minutes it seemed unable to
clean itself of the excreta or make itself presentable. Part of the
dejection was at once placed on some clean thin covers and allowed
to dry without heat; also examined wet; some of the curved
bacilli were in motion. The wasp was also fed with the milk, and
the blowflies partook of the same, but without any similar result.
The small lump of sugar in each saucer was again moistened with the
culture fluid. Later in the forenoon another hive bee was caught
and put under the tumbler with the first one. All were now seen
to again feed off the sugar, and the wasp in the interim had had a
Feeding Insects with Bacilli. By Dr. R. L. Maddox. 603
copious dejection on the side of the tumbler, consisting of solid and
fluid matter. The tumbler was removed and a fresh one sub-
stituted. Part of the excreta was taken up by a flattened clean
needle and spread on some clean cover-glasses and allowed to dry ;
also examined wet; the bacilli were not in motion ; one of each of
the covers was then stained with rose-anilin acetate in glycerin,
the others with a watery solution of methyl-violet. Among the
débris of the excreta of the wasp, which contained some fatty
substance, were many of the “comma” bacilli, some micrococci, and
some short straight bacilli. In the dejection from the bee, the
“comma ” bacilli were very abundant, as likewise the micrococci,
mingled with some pollen-grains. On the 25th they were all
again fed with the liquefied culture, but on the 26th the sugar was
moistened with distilled water only. On the 27th they were all fed
as on the 25th. On the 28th the injured blowfly was found dead ;
it was not examined. The others were fed with the curved bacilli
culture. Another bee was caught and put into the tumbler with
the two bees—there was an instant recognition and welcome by
. the second bee—they were each seen to partake of the moistened
sugar.
On the same day a very large humble bee was captured, placed in
captivity under similar conditions, and fed in the same way with
the liquefied gelatin culture, of which it partook freely.
On the 29th all were again fed in the same way, save the bee
which had been the first caught. It was found lying on its back
and soon died. It was easily recognised as the first one, by being
smaller than the other two. It was at once examined. A section
was made at each side of the abdomen and the abdominal plates
lifted, the viscera were removed to a clean slide with some distilled
water freshly boiled, then placed on a cover with some rose-
anilin in glycerin and spread out. Some of the water the viscera
had been placed in was put on thin covers, allowed to dry, then
stained and examined, whilst another portion was examined wet
and without staining, when several curved bacilli were seen in each
field, many of them in active motion and among them numerous
micrococci. The stained covers showed also the ‘“‘ comma ”’ bacilli and
micrococci. ‘This examination took some time, hence the viscera
were much oyverstained; no soaking unfortunately detached the
stain sufficiently for the slide to be of use for further investigation.
The 30th the rest were fed as before, save the blowfly in
company with the wasp, which had succumbed ; the legs and wings
had been bitten off and part of the thorax destroyed by the wasp.
Part of the contents of the abdominal cavity, the perivisceral fluid,
was spread out on a thin cover and showed a few curved bacilli
and short rods, also some micrococci, but none abundant; some of
the curved bacilli had a very slight motion.
604 Transactions of the Society.
May 1st.—A culture medium made with gelatin, Carragheen
moss, and Liebig’s extract of meat, and rendered rather too alkaline,
which had not been used in any way from the time of making,
nearly a month before, was found broken down, very much liquefied,
and contaminated with a straight bacillus, which had formed cloud-
like dense folds, exceedingly tender, and near to the surface. The
two bees and blowfly, also the humble bee and wasp, were each fed
with some of this culture on sugar. They all fed eagerly of the
same. A medium-sized blackbeetle which had been caught on the
27th and treated to the culture of the “comma” bacillus on bread-
crumb, was likewise fed with the same straight bacillus. The
excreta of the beetle abounded in bacteria and bacilli, and amongst
them the comma bacillus in motion.
This food was repeated on the next day with all the insects,
and on the 3rd they were found to be, so far as could be judged,
unaffected. The two bees, humble-bee, and blowfly were allowed
their liberty in the garden; the bees immediately went to some
flowers, but the humble bee circled round until as high as the house,
when it immediately flew off in one direction.
On the 4th and 5th the wasp and beetle were fed with the
straight bacillus, and on the 6th another blowfly was put with the
wasp. All were again fed with the same culture up to the 9th,
when, about 9 a.m., the fly was found on its back, and died very soon
alter; the abdomen appeared tense and swollen. Within a few
minutes a cut was made along one side of the abdomen, when the
perivisceral fluid gushed out from this dropsical fly. Several
covers were smeared with this clear but very sticky fluid, which
would not dry well, but remained tacky and bright like albumen.
Upon staining, a few short straight rods were found on all the
covers, also some diplococci. ‘The fluid was miscible with water,
remaining clear. Whether this effusion into the perivisceral cavity
was due to the food, or to some by-play on the part of the wasp, I
cannot say, but I suspect the latter as the cause of the intense
effusion. Unfortunately engagements prevented the examination of
the viscera. The wasp was dull and sleepy, and would not feed freely
of the culture and sugar. The culture medium had now a rather
more unpleasant smell, and when examined was found, though
abounding in resting and motile rods, to be largely contaminated
with Bacterium termo, the reaction being still markedly alkaline.
10¢h.—The wasp had much recovered, and was again fed in
the same way.
11th.—While changing the saucers and squares of glass the
wasp had a very fluid dejection, containing only a small lump
of solid matter. The mixed dejection was at once placed on some
thin covers, dried without heat, and when examined with the
Microscope found to be swarming with short rods and the débris
Feeding Insects with Bacili. By Dr. R. L. Maddox. 605
of the bacilli. There were also a few diplococci and Bacterium
termo. ‘The wasp seemed very sleepy the greater part of the day,
and at one time | thought it was dead.
12th—It was as lively as before. The sugar was now
only moistened with distilled water. The beetle remained dull
during the daytime since its captivity, and I could never see it
actually partaking of the gelatin culture, though I could see the
bread had been on many occasions partially eaten, and the curved
bacilli had been found in the excreta.
The question will naturally arise as to the value of these
experiments. I think we may conclude that the “comma” bacillus
is not pathogenic to the insects upon which the experiments were
instituted. The two bees by being fed with a culture medium
rich in this organism, one for seven days, had ample time for the
effect of the organism, if pathogenic, to have been established, as
also the wasp and the humble bee. In reference to the blowflies that
died, I think they must be withdrawn from the list, and the one
that was loosed from captivity had also sufficient time for any ill
effects to be noted. ‘The wasp has been in captivity twenty-one
days, and has withstood the variety of feeding with the comma
bacillus and the straight bacillus, as also has the blackbeetle; but
it is possible these organisms may have had some pernicious effect,
as a diet contrary to the natural one, and may have caused in the
three observed instances the increased dejections. They moreover
show that the “curved” bacillus can be passed through their in-
testines and ejected as a living organism, so that were this organism
truly pathogenic to man and animals, the chances of contagion
might be enhanced.
Since commencing these experiments I see recorded in the
‘British Medical Journal’ for the 9th inst. that Mr. Watson Cheyne,
who had already, I believe, proved the Bacillus alvei of the bee
to be pathogenic to the blowfly, has also met with a curved
bacillus in a diseased bee.
These experiments I regard as simply preliminary; though
not coupled with control experiments, they appear to me worth
recording.
Some experiments were also commenced by growing seeds on a
damp clean medium, as embroidery canvas and coarse flannel.
When the radicles had passed through the meshes, the whole was
placed on some diluted “comma” bacillus culture for forty-eight
hours, and afterwards transferred to distilled water for twenty-four
hours, when the whole was again transferred to a weak watery
solution of methyl-violet for forty-eight hours, and then again
placed on distilled water for a day or more before examining them
by the Microscope. In the case of the fine side radicles of the
common Sinapis or mustard-seed, I thought I could in several
606 Transactions of the Society.
instances, when mounted in water on a slide, detect the “ comma ”
bacillus amongst the plasm of the cells, but I could not speak
positively on this rather difficult pomt. The experiments require
repetition. Still, if it be a fact that the rootlets can take up these
organisms, it may point to another source for the conveyance of
such into the intestines of man and animals, especially of birds and
rodents.
It may be an error, but I believe these experiments with these
particular bacilli to be the first recorded. In reference to the
straight bacillus, I cannot positively say it is Bacillus subtilis, but
I expect it is. My friend Mr. Dowdeswell, who is more acquainted
with these organisms than I am, has had some for examination, and
I am now able to add his opinion, which is that they closely re-
semble Bacillus subtilis, if not it. Experiments in these directions
open a large field of inquiry, and I am not aware they are
trammelled by any Act of Parliament.
P.S. 19ti.—The abdominal sac of the bee that had been
overstained and left covered on the slide in weak acetate of potash,
was laid open in a little freshly boiled distilled water on the slide.
A considerable number of bacteria were seen, some as narrow rods
cf various lengths, another kind with slight motion, and some curved
bacilli. A very few amongst these had slight though perceptible
motion. ‘There were also straight rod-spores in full development.
The dejections of the wasp after feeding on lump-sugar moistened
with distilled water for five days, yielded scarcely a rod and the
micrococci were much less numerous. The dejections had a very
small portion of solid matter.
21st—A long red-bodied fly I had put with the wasp was soon
killed; the head, legs, and wings were nipped off and the contents
of the thorax speedily devoured.
22nd.—Fed with the sugar and water, and a blow-fly (Musca
vomitoria) put with it in the same tumbler.
237rd.—Both were seen to feed freely off a lump of sugar
moistened with old dried blood of mouse, dead of anthrax, mixed
with distilled water. In the mixture only a few rods were noticed
when examined microscopically.
24th.—Fed in the same way, and both watched feeding.
25th.—The two insects were separated, and just as the vessels,
&c., had been changed, and before feeding them with the same
blood-mixture, the wasp had a clear fluid dejection, which was im-
mediately examined. Only six rods were counted in many fields.
Within a quarter of an hour after feeding the wasp had three other
dejections on the fresh square of glass, one with a tiny lump of .
solid matter. Within ten minutes another clear fluid dejection
was passed. This had some peculiar bodies which I regarded as
intestinal parasites, ranging in size from the sixth to the half
Feeding Insects with Bacilli. By Dr. R. L. Maddox. 607
diameter of the human blood-corpuscle. Seen on one surface they
appeared circular and bright, with a central dot; seen on the
reverse side, the largest had a pale centre, then a darkish ring,
then a pale ring surrounded by a dark outline. The window-frame
could be, with a little care, focused on this surface, but not on the
opposite side. Seen in side view they were concavo-convex, the
protoplasm forming a dark body like a comma lying closely against
the inner edge of the outer convexity. Most of them had a
gentle rolling, tumbling kind of motion, often springing up sud-
denly and being for the moment lost to view, but directly after
found in the same spot. This springing occurred only when seen
with the ringed side upwards. It seemed as if the little organism
had got twisted upon flagella which suddenly untwisted, throwing
the object immediately out of focus, though I could not with cer-
tainty detect any flagella. The organism was quite new to me.
In the other three dejections nothing of moment was noticed, save
a very few of the same organisms and a few rods in the solid por-
tion, the longest being beaded. ‘The wasp was exceedingly restless
all the forenoon. The blow-fly some little time after feeding on
the sugar with the blood-mixture had a dejection, which was
directly examined, and found to contain a few beaded rods amongst
a considerable amount of débris. The rods in each resembled the
anthrax rods.
26th and 27th—Again fed on the sugar moistened with dis-
tilled water, and a humble bee (Bombus lapidarius) which had
been captured on the 27th, was fed in the same way. A dejection
from it that had been passed on to the square of glass was ex-
amined and furnished amongst the débris a few very thick short
non-motile rods with rather pointed ends.
On the 28th, after changing the vessels and feeding with sugar,
the three insects were unfortunately placed on the outside window-
ledge in full sunshine, the window being slightly open. All were
found dead at 3 p.m., supposed to be due to the powerful heat of the
sun and a very free current of air. In the perivisceral cavities of
the wasp and Bombus nothing of moment was noticed. The fly
was not examined. The beetle (Blaps mortisaga) had not been
fed on the blood-mixture, but on a variety of ordinary food-articles,
and is still living.
That specimen of anthrax blood, it seems, was not pathogenic
to the fly or wasp. The death of the three insects appeared to be
solely due to the high temperature (136° F.) under confinement
(heat asphyxia ?), as all were lively enough when the vessels were
changed.
608 Transactions of the Society.
XIII.—On Four New Species of the Genus Floscularia, and Five
other New Species of Rotifera.
By C. T. Hupson, LL.D., F.R.M.S.
(Read 18th May, 1885.)
Puate XII.
WueEn in 1883 I described in the pages of this Journal four new
species of Floscules, I did not anticipate that, in two years’ time, I
should have as many more to add to the genus; and yet such is
the case.
Scotland sends us two; one (discovered by Mr. J. Hood, of
Dundee) with only two lobes, and one (discovered by Mr. W.
Dingwall, of Dundee) without any lobes at all; so that there is
now a regular series of Floscules with 7, 5, 3, 2 and O lobes.
England, however, caps these additions to our rotiferous fauna,
with two of the strangest species that have yet been found in the
genus Floscularia. The one has setze which appear to be always in
motion, each slowly extending and contracting in amoeboid fashion,
but always in the direction of its length. ‘The other, to the horror
of every classifier, is a swimming Floscule; and, as if that were not
absurdity enough, it carries its eyes nearly at the summit of its
dorsal lobe.
The former of these was discovered by Mr. W. G. Cocks, of the
Quekett Club, and the latter by Mr. T. Bolton, of Birmingham.
Mr. Bolton has also added to his swimming Floscule a solitary
swimming Conochilus, with an extraordinary pair of antenne; a
large new Notommata with four spiky antennee; and a new species
in each of Mr. Gosse’s rare genera Taphrocampa and Pompholyz ;
while Mr. J. Hood has found yet another species of the rapidly
extending genus Stephanops.
Indeed, the record of the last three or four years shows how
many pleasant surprises Nature has yet in store for us, if there were
only reapers for the harvest. If the Scotch lakes and the English
ponds have contributed so many new and strange forms, when
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.
Fig. 1.—Floscularia mutabilis (at rest).
2 Es Ss (swimming).
7 7 5 male.
» +£—Conochilus dossuarius.
» 0.—Notommata spicata.
», 6.—Stephanops armatus.
» 1.—Pompholyx sulcata (side view).
>» &— rs » (front view).
» %—Taphrocampa Saundersie.
JOURN. R. MICR. SOC. SER. I. VOLN_ Pl. XT.
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New Species of Floscularia, &c. By Dr. C. T. Hudson. 609
skilfully fished by Mr. Bolton and Mr. Hood, why should not the
Welsh and Irish lakes, marsh ponds, and moorland pools yield
forms equally curious and beautiful under similar treatment ?
Let any one reflect that during the hundred years from 1766
to 1866 there were only three known species of Floscules, and that
in the next twenty years no less than eleven very remarkable
species have been added to the older three, mainly through the
persistent researches of Mr. Bolton in England and Mr. Hood in
Scotland, and he will at once admit that it is rather the lack of
skilled observers, than the poverty of Nature, which we have to
complain of.
Floscularia mira n. sp. mihi.
This is perhaps the most remarkable of all the strange creatures
that belong to the genus. It was discovered by Mr. W. G. Cocks.
It is a small Rotiferon; at least the only specimen that I have
seen was but 1/100 in from the tops of the knobbed lobes to the
extremity of the foot. It closely resembles F. ornata except in
two points, viz. its tube and its setae. The tube is much more like
the case of a Stephanoceros than that of a Floscule: but no great
stress should be laid on this, as the cases of the tube-maker often
differ a good deal from one another, even in the same species ; and
of this species, as I have already said, I have seen but one
specimen.
The setae, however, are absolutely unique; no other Rotiferon that
I am acquainted with has anything resembling them. When seen
by transmitted light there is nothing remarkable about them, except
their great length and abundance ; but, with dark-field illumination,
they are at once seen to be all lengthening and contracting like the
fine processes of an Actinophrys, only at a more rapid rate.
The setee move quite independently of each other, not at all in
groups; so that any score of them in view at once are in every
phase of extension and contraction: and tiny particles may be seen
to move along inside them as if carried by some current.
When a contracted seta begins to extend in length, its tip is
often driven forward with a curious flourish, such as the end of an
empty elastic tube might give if a stream of water were suddenly
driven along it.
Floscularia mutabilis n. sp. Bolton. Plate XII. figs. 1, 2, and 3.
This swimming tube-maker was discovered by Mr. Bolton in
September 1884, and named, figured, and described by him in one
of his fly-leayes sent out with each specimen. It is about 1/65
in. long; and, when quiet in its tube (fig. 1), looks as if it
610 Transactions of the Society.
were some two-lobed Floscule that had dropped off its perch. The
setze surrounding the trochal cup are somewhat scanty and short,
but do not seem to differ from those of an ordinary species. After
a few moments’ rest, however, the Floscule pulls down its two lobes,
and so alters the aperture of its disk (fig. 2) that it now resembles:
that of an Cicistes.
At the same time the sete lash the water as cilia do, and the
creature sails away, case, eggs, and all, stern foremost. Mr. Bolton
thinks that the sete are held stiffly out (as usual) when the
Floscule swims, and that the motion is effected by a row of small
cilia running round the trochal cup, just under the bases of the
setae. In favour of this supposition is the fact, that some species of
Floscules have such a row of cilia, and that just such an arrange-
ment appears to exist in the male (fig. 38): but I confess
that my own opinion is adverse to this suggestion. I spent much
time watching the disk of F’. mutabilis as it swam, and it appeared
to me that it was the row of sete themselves which set up the
apparent ciliary action. It was very striking how each individual
seta became instantly visible as the action ceased, though quite
invisible before.
I saw two forms of young, one of which (fig. 3) I have
little doubt is the male. I did not, however, succeed in catching
it, and in viewing its internal organs.
Floscularia calva n. sp. mihi.
This is a rare Rotiferon, and was found last year by Mr. J. Hood
in the lochs and marsh-pools of Fife and Forfar, on Myriophyllum
and Sphagnum.
It is a very bad traveller, for it appears to withdraw its foot
from the plant it is on, and to fix it in the tube itself. In con-
sequence of this the tube and the Rotiferon are easily knocked off the
‘stem they were originally on ; and every specimen, that came to me
alive, was lying at the bottom of the tube mixed up with débris of
all kinds. Under these cireumstances it was difficult to observe it
well; still 1 made out distinctly that it had only two lobes, a
dorsal and a ventral one, and that the setsze were remarkably short.
The dorsal lobe, as usual, was the larger, and was a little swollen at
its highest point, so as to give it rather a knobbed look when seen
sideways. The body too was unusually slender for its length, so
that the whole outline from the junction of the foot to the top of
the trochal cup was almost cylindrical.
It resembles F’. mutabilis in having only two lobes, but differs
from it in its cylindrical shape, in the position of the eyes (which
ig normal), and in the inability to alter its disk and swim.
It is the first two-lobed Floscule that has ever been found.
New Species of Floscularia, &e. By Dr. C. T. Hudson. 611
Floscularia edentata (?) Collins.
In this species the lobes of the trochal disk have vanished
altogether. There is a wrinkled edge to the trochal cup, and a few
short setz rise from it, chiefly towards the dorsal and ventral sides ;
but its roughly circular outline has no elevations or hollows, and
lies in a plane transverse to the long axis of the body. This animal
was discovered by Mr. W. Dingwall, of Dundee, in July 1884,
near Blair Athol. I have only seen two specimens, but they were
exactly alike. It is a very stout Floscule with a broad body and
short foot, and the internal organs in each case were obscured by
the gorged stomach. In each case too there were eggs, both within
the body, and attached to the foot. The lobeless trochal cup in
no way resembled the delicate contrivance with which Apsilus
lentiformis fishes for its prey: it was a stout inverted cone, just
such a one as might be produced by trimming off the lobes of an
ordinary Floscule.
I have considerable doubt as to whether this is a new species,
or whether it is Floscularia edentata, which was discovered by
Dr. F. Collins near Sandhurst about 1866, and described and
figured by him in ‘Science-Gossip ’ for 1872, p. 9.
The figure and the description tally with Mr. Dingwall’s Rotifer
in many respects; but Dr. Collins says that his animal had neither
maxillary apparatus nor tube. The apparent absence of tube is of
little consequence, as this structure has been repeatedly overlooked
in Floscules that are well known to have it. The absence of maxil-
lary apparatus in a female rotifer is, however, a much greater diffi-
culty ; yet Dr. Collins says that his specimen had no teeth, and that
its food passed directly through the throat into a very capacious
stomach. He also adds, that each of his specimens laid an egg
while under observation, thus showing that they were females.
The length of his specimens was 1/80 in., and that of those sent
to me by Mr. Dingwall was 1/55.
I am inclined to think that these Rotifera are the same, and so I
have retained Dr. Collins’ name edentata; although it unluckily
asserts as a specific distinction a doubtful fact: probably the teeth,
which are at best small and inconspicuous, were lost to view in the
gorged intestine.
Conochilus dossuarius n. sp. Bolton. Plate XII. fig. 4.
This is another swimming tube-maker, and is also one of
Mr. Bolton’s prizes. The specimens sent to me were all solitary,
and all swimming about in their cases; but Mr. Bolton noticed
that the larger individuals have generally one or two younger
specimens adhering to them.
612 Transactions of the Society.
The most remarkable features, in the new Conochilus, are the
position and form of the antenne. These are long, and grow
together for nearly two-thirds of their height ; and, as they stand
perched on the ventral surface, remind one a little of a rifle-sight.
They are too, for a Conochilus, in an unusual position; for in
C. volvox they are close to the mouth, and within the inner circlet
of cilia. In C. dossuarius they are far away from the mouth,
and entirely outside the trochal disk.
The young of C. volvow are in the habit of clustering together,
with their feet all tending to a common centre ; and, after swimming
for some time in this odd fashion round about one another, they
secrete tubes that fill up the spaces between the individual animals,
and clasp them all together into one sphere.
~ But, from Mr. Bolton’s observation, this does not seem to be
the case with C. dosswarius. Here young animals of different
ages are attached by their tubes to the much larger tube of their
common parent, forming clusters irregular in shape, and varying in
size. However, I will not pursue the subject, as I hope that this
summeny/resh specimens will enable us to see whether this Cono-
chilus ever forms clusters, like the beautiful spheres of C. volvow.
Notommata spicata n. sp. mihi, Plate XII. fig. 5.
Mr. Bolton sent me this very large and remarkable Notommata
in May 1884. It is 1/25 in. m length, and is surrounded with
a transparent gelatinous covering, out of which peep the ends of
its four dart-like antenne. It is something like N. centrura, but
this latter has only one anterior antenna on the median dorsal
line; and its two posterior dorsal antenne are not nearly as long
as those of N. spicata, and are quite buried under the creature’s
gelatinous coat. They both have the same funnel-like ciliated
mouth, with its edges hanging down from under the ventral sur-
face, but their general contour is unlike; N. centrwra, when viewed
dorsally, is wider across the posterior end in proportion to its
length: N. spicata tapers much more gradually. However, the
four antenne are enough, I believe, to distinguish it from all other
species.* It has a very long tapering stomach, much sacculated
at its anterior end, and four gastric glands close beneath the
mastax. The ovary, in the specimens I saw, was a long thick
rope, with the germs lying in it singly one above another.
I had the good fortune to see the adorning of a lasting-egg with
* WN. spicata has a superficial resemblance to W. copeus; but the latter has a
dorsal antenna on the median line (which the former lacks), as well as two stout,
flexible, cylindrical auricles, which it moves into various positions, and each of
which bears a circle of cilia on its free extremity. If WN. spicata has ciliated
auricles, I have not seen them exhibited: I only know N, copeus from Ehrenberg’s
drawings and description.
New Species of Floscularia, &e. By Dr. C. T. Hudson. 613
its bristles. The large egg shown in fig. 5 was, when I first saw
it, quite smooth ; and was separated by a clear space from its outer-
most covering. After a little while the outline of the egg grew
wavy, owing to small protuberances which projected into the clear
space, and which by focusing I could see extended all over its
surface. The growth of these protuberances was quite perceptible
at the end of every ten minutes or so, and in two hours’ time they
had grown long enough to stretch almost across the clear space
that separated the two coverings of the egg. They were stouter
than mere hairs, but cannot be effectively rendered on the small
scale of fig. 5.
Stephanops avmatus n. sp. mihi. Plate XII. fig. 6.
This three-spined Stephanops was first found by Mr. J. Hood
in Roscobbie Loch, in August 1884. I have not seen it; and the
figure I have given is copied from a drawing of Mr. Hood’s. Its
specific distinction lies in the presence of two posterior lateral
spines, along with one long dorsal one.
As this genus has received several additions lately, I here
subjoin an analysis of its species.
* No dorsal spine.
Without posterior spines .. Stephanops muticus Ehrenberg.
With two ,, » +. 8. ctrratus Miller.
With three _,, » ++ SS. lamellaris Miller.
** With a dorsal spine.
two toes .. S. longispinatus Tatem.
three toes S. wniseta Collins.
With one posterior spine... .. .. S&S. befureus Bolton.
With two posterior spines.. .. .. S. armatus Hudson.
Besides these there are S. ovalis Schmarda and S. tridentatus
Fresenius; but I have not seen the descriptions of these. Possibly
the latter of the two may be the same as S. armatus. Mr. J. EK.
Lord’s three-toed Stephanopst is I think probably Dr. Collins’s
S. uniscta.
Without posterior spines \
Pompholyx suleata n. sp. Bolton. Plate XII. figs. 7 and 8.
This new species differs from Mr. Gosse’s P. complanata in the
shape of the lorica. In this latter the lorica is greatly compressed
dorsally and ventrally, so as actually to be concave at the median
line on both surfaces. But in P. sulcata the dorsal and ventral
+ Microscopical News, iy. (1884) p. 146, fig. 24.
Ser, 2.—Vo. V. 238
614 Transactions of the Society.
surfaces are both sharply convex, and there are convex lateral
surfaces as well; in fig. 8 a transverse section of the lorica is given,
showing its four-lobed form. This may be easily obtained from
the live animal, as it has a habit of swimming head downwards with
its trochal disk close to the glass.
Mr. Bolton found this pretty little rotifer last summer in the
same water with Conochilus dossuarius.
Taphrocampa Saundersiz n. sp. Gosse. Pl. XII. fig. 9.
Mr. Bolton sent me several specimens of a new Taphrocampa
in July 1884. It is somewhat like Mr. Gosse’s T. annulosa, but
differs from it in having a square curved hood projecting downwards
over the head, and looking like a hook in profile; also in having
two colourless spots like eyes on the head; as well as a stout short
truncate tail, just above the forked foot.
I did not notice the slightest trace of ciliary action about
the head, neither has Mr. Gosse observed any, either in this
species orin 7. annulosa; and yet it is possible that both animals
possess ciliated auricles, for Mr. E. B. Brayley, the Hon. Secretary
of our Bristol Microscopical Society, has given me a rough sketch
of an animal which is probably T. annulosa, and which on several
occasions he observed to put out little tufted auricles from the sides
of its head and swim with “a slight vermiform movement.”
He thinks also that “a row of very short cilia extend right across
the forehead.”
Mr. Gosse has named this new animal 7. Saundersiz, after
Miss Saunders, of Cheltenham, who has sent both to Mr. Gosse
and myself several specimens of rare Rotifera.
I have been compelled by lack of leisure to give very brief
notices of the above new species, and but few figures; but they
will be dealt with in a more satisfactory manner in the Monograph
on the Rotifera by Mr. Gosse and myself, which is now being
prepared for publication.
(276155
SUMMARY
OF OURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO
2.0 GY AND. BOUT AUN Y,
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia),
MICROSCOPY, &c.,
INCLUDING ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.*
ZOOLOGY.
A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology
of the Vertebrata.
Unity of the Process of Spermatogensis in Mammalia.f—M.
Laulainé recognizes two periods in the process of spermatogenesis ;
the first is one of proliferation (formation of spermatoblasts), the
second of differentiation (evolution of spermatoblasts); the former
has been observed to take place either endo- or exo-genetically. In
the horse and the pig spermatogenesis is similar to that in the rat,
but the author does not agree with Balbiani in regarding the pheno-
menon as exogenetic in character; indeed, the term exogenetic can
only be used if we ceased to ascribe to it the meaning of there being
proliferation by budding, and limit it to the intervention of the ramified
cells first described by Sertoli. In mammals with an exogenetic method
of spermatogenesis, the spermatoblasts are collected by the cells of
Sertoli, and go through all the phases of their development on the
surface of these cells; the last are only permanent elements of sup-
port. In all mammals proliferation takes place by division.
Formation of the Blastoderm in the Bird’s Egg.t—M. M. Duval
denies that there is any absolute line of demarcation beyond the germ
proper and the white yolk; indeed, we cannot even say that the
* vitellus de formation ” only takes part in the process of segmentation,
and that the ‘ vitellus de nutrition” has no share in it, for after the
formation of the blastoderm a secondary segmentation goes on in the re-
mainder of the yolk; and it is impossible to say exactly where this
secondary segmentation ends. Segmentation, as Kélliker has pointed
out, is excentric, or commences at a point which does not correspond
* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers
noted, or for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. ‘The object of
this part of the Journal is to presenta summary of the papers as actually published,
and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new
or have not been previously described in this country.
+ Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 1407-9.
¢ Ann. Sci. Nat.—Zool., xvili. (1884) 208 pp. and 5 pls. a te
8
616 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
to the centre of the future blastoderm, and goes on most actively in
this region ; to this the author adds the rider that the point where
the most active segmentation commences corresponds to the future
posterior region of the blastoderm, and we can, therefore, early distin-
guish the front from the hind end. Like those of lower vertebrates
the ova of birds have a true segmentation cavity, which has the form
of a slit, is often difficult to recognize, and marks the point where
the ectodermal are separated from the subjacent elements; as segmen-
tation extends more deeply it affects the yolk-layers which ought to
be considered as belonging to the white yolk; but at a certain depth
this segmentation seems to stop; it does not really do so, there is
only a modification of its rhythm ; the cavity formed by the furrows
is the subgerminal cavity which is produced from behind forwards,
and is the homologue of the primitive enteron of Batrachians, or
in other words, represents the gastrula-invagination of lower verte-
brates. :
After the formation of this subgerminal cavity a number of free
nuclei are to be found in the yolk which forms its floor; these arise
from nuclei which, during the formation of the cavity, had divided
into two ; of the halves one remained in one of the deeper spheres of
the blastoderm, and the other in the floor of the segmentation cavity.
A secondary segmentation appeared around these nuclei, which, at
first inactive, afterwards became very active; the multiplication of
nuclei in the yolk gives rise to the production of the vitelline
endoderm.
The blastoderm of the freshly laid egg is formed of two layers ;
the upper consists of a single row of cells, which form a distinct ecto-
derm; the cells of the lower layer vary in size, are in the stage of
segmentation, and form an irregular mass from which arises both
endoderm and mesoderm; this may be called the primitive endo-
dermic mass.
From the time when segmentation ends until the appearance of
the primitive groove, the edge of the blastoderm passes through three
stages ; it is at first raised into a ridge, and the ectoderm is continuous
with the endoderm; the latter consists of several layers of cells and
forms the greater part of the swelling. The ectoderm then separates
from the primitive endoderm along the edges of the blastoderm, and,
while the ectoderm extends very far over the yolk, the margin of the
endoderm fuses with the yolk, to form an endodermo-vitelline enlarge-
ment; as the yolk divides around each nucleus there appear large
cells which, by further division, increase the surface of the endoderm.
We next have a large vitelline layer (vitelline endoderm) with free
nuclei, and finally a layer of yolk without nuclei.
The author finds that it is necessary to distinguish the axial plate
and the primitive line as two successive phases of one and the same
ean the former has the same constitution as the blastodermic
ridge.
_ All along the axial plate the connections of the ectoderm with the
primitive endodermic mass exist from the moment when there first
appear the rudiments of this plate; when its groove becomes more
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 617
deeply hollowed, the connections between the ectoderm and the axial
plate seem to become more intimate along its base, and, at the same
time, the groove becomes divided into proper endoderm and meso-
derm. It is the multiplication of the elements of this mesodermic
plate that causes the greater distinctness of the groove of the primitive
line. The axial plate of birds ought to be considered as the homologue
of the anus of Rusconi in Batrachians; it is rudimentary, indeed, its
lips being fused in a kind of antero-posterior median raphe, and it is
at these lips that we have most actively multiplying the elements
which are destined to form the mesoderm. At the bottom of the
groove the mesoderm grows at the expense of a cellular mass which
is common to the mesoderm and ectoderm; but this fact must not be
ornare to prove the origin of the middle from the outer germinal
ayer.
In combining with his own the results of other workers, M. Duval
takes occasion to consider the work of his predecessors.
Physiological Purpose of Turning the Incubating Hen’s Egg.“
—The sitting fowl frequently turns her eggs during incubation, and
when this process is carried on artificially, mechanical means must be
adopted to effect the same purpose.
M. C. Dareste finds that during the first week of artificial incuba-
tion, eggs which are turned develope in essentially the same manner as
those which are allowed to rest, but the monstrosities which have
already been formed in the latter soon take on an excessive develop-
ment, and in very few eggs which are allowed to remain unmoved
during the whole period of incubation does the body-cavity of the
embryo become closed in. ‘The cause of death in the unmoved eggs
is, according to Dareste, the union by growth of the allantois with
the egg-yolk, which latter is thus prevented from becoming finally
absorbed into the alimentary canal preliminary to the closure of the
body-cavity. These adhesions of the allantois with the vitelline
membrane lead to frequent rupture of the latter, whose contents are
thus largely lost to the embryo. Death of the chick in the unturned
eggs usually occurs about the second week of incubation, When the
eggs are turned over it is probable that the position of the allantois
upon the yolk is shifted, and this daily movement prevents adhesion
between the two surfaces,
Sixteen eggs were placed under the same conditions of artificial
incubation, but eight were allowed to remain unmoved, while the
eight remaining were turned over twice aday. In the first set absorp-
tion of the yolk did not occur in any specimen, and all the embryos
died in the course of the second or third week. In the second set, in
six eggs the yolk was absorbed in the normal manner ; in a seventh,
opened on the twenty-second day, the chick was alive and hearty and
the yolk was being absorbed; in the eighth egg the chick was dead
on the twentieth day, and adhesion between the allantois and yolk had
prevented absorption of the latter.
* Comptes Rendus, c, (1885) pp. 813-4. See Amer, Naturalist, xix. (1885)
pp. 619-20.
618 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Colours of Bird’s Eggs.*—Dr. O. Laschenberg has published a
short abstract of his investigations into this subject; the more im-
portant results are as follows :—As Krukenberg has stated, the ground
coloration originates in a different way from the spots and markings,
though both are derived from the blood and not from special pigment-
glands. The ground coloration is caused by a transudation through
the uterus which is richly supplied with blood-vessels ; the spots are
formed by particles of pigment which are found throughout the ovi-
duct and probably arise in the Graafian follicle; the formation of
pigment is no doubt to be referred to a process similar to that which
causes the corpus luteum in the ovary of mammals.
Development of Epicrium.j{— Herren P. B. and C. F. Sarasin
have taken advantage of their visit to Ceylon to investigate the deve-
lopmental history of Epicrium glutinosum. The ovarian eggs are more
like those of reptiles than of amphibians, are oval in form, and about
9 mm. in their longest and 6:5 mm. in their shortest diameter ; there
was a considerable quantity of yolk, and a rounded whitish germinal
disk, in the centre of which is the darker germinal vesicle; the arrange-
ment of the yolk was not unlike that which is seen in the bird; in
the oviducts the ova become surrounded by a quantity of albumen, and
a spirally coiled cord appears at either pole. Epicrium, unlike its
American ally Cecilia, lays eggs, and also hatches them. Embryos
about 4 cm. long move livelily in their shelis; on either side of and
behind the head arises a tuft of three blood-red external gills, which
constantly move about in the ovarian fluid. The three tufts vary in
length, the shortest being 2, the longest 9 mm. long; the tail, which
is short but quite distinct, has a well-marked fin; the eye appears to
be proportionately very large and distinct; dermal sensory organs
can be made out with the aid of a magnifying glass, and have the
appearance of white dots: the body is of a greyish-blue colour, clearer
below, and has a black stripe along the dorsal middle line; the two
beautiful yellow bands which are found in the adult are absent from
the embryo. The gills develope very early ; when they are lost, the
young pass into the nearest pool and begin to lead a free life. In
the water they grow to a length of about 16 cm., and lose their gill-
clefts and caudal fin; the structure of the skin changes, and they
become adapted to a terrestrial mode of life.
The authors are of opinion that the Gymnophiona are to be asso-
ciated with or stand quite close to the Urodela; as embryos they are
perennibranchiata, as larve derotrematous, and in their adult terrestrial
condition they correspond to the Salamandrina. Embryology is sup-
ported in this view by histology, for the spermatozoa have been found
to have an undulating membrane, and by anatomy, for there is a fourth
arterial arch in the vascular system of the adult.
Translocation forwards of the Rudiments of the Pelvic Fins in
the Embryos of Physoclist Fishes, —Mr. J. A. Ryder cites the
* Zool, Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 243-5.
t Arbeit. Zool.-Zoot. Inst. Wirzburg, vii. (1885) pp. 291-9,
$ Amer, Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 315-7.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 619
observations of A. Agassiz on the translocation forwards of the rudi-
ments of the pelvic fins in the young larva of Lophius, as demon-
strating beyond any doubt that the Physoclisti have descended from
the Physostomi.
Silver-reducing Animal Organs.*—The success of Drs. O. Loew
and T’. Bokorny with vegetable cells induced the former to try and
see if the protoplasm of animal cells would not likewise have a silver-
reducing effect. Into between fifty and one hundred cubic centimetres
of a solution which contained about 5 per cent. of silver the author
placed the kidneys freshly taken from a frog or toad, with the
ventral side turned upwards; the light was immediately cut off, but
within fifteen minutes the bright bands on the surface became
darkened, and in less than two hours were quite black. This very
remarkable reaction is only to be observed with living tissues. The
tissue may be seen under the Microscope to be traversed by black
dots, more or less closely packed together. If the kidneys are left
for twelve hours in the solution, a number of black dots may be
observed in the interior of the kidney, and especially in the neigh-
bourhood of such canals and other spaces as afford an easy means of
passage for the reagent. These experiments are sufficient to show
that living animal protoplasm can effect a reduction of silver.
Effects of .Very Low Temperatures on Living Organisms,,—
Mr. J. J. Coleman and Prof. M‘Kendrick have made some remark-
able experiments on the effects of low temperatures on living
organisms, particularly microbes, using for this purpose the cold-air
machinery invented by Mr. Coleman, which, in its ordinary working,
delivers streams of air cooled to about 80° below zero (—63° C.), but
by certain modifications as low temperatures can be secured as have
yet been produced in physical researches.
The experiments consisted in exposing for hours to low tempera-
tures putrescible substances in hermetically sealed tins or bottles, or
in flasks plugged with cotton-wool. The tins or flasks were then
allowed to thaw, and were kept in a warm room, the mean tempera-
ture of which was about 80° F. They were then opened, and the
contents submitted to microscopical examination. The general result
may be stated thus:—The vitality of micro-organisms cannot be
destroyed by prolonged exposure to extreme cold. It is clear, there-
fore, that any hope of preserving meat by permanently sterilizing it
by cold must be abandoned, for the microbes, which are the agents of
putrefaction, survive the exposure.
Some of the experiments on which this conclusion rests are briefly
described. Meat in tins, exposed to 63° C. for six hours, underwent
(after thawing) putrefaction with generation of gases. Trials with
fresh urine showed that freezing at very low temperatures delayed the
appearance of the alkaline fermentation, but a temperature of 63° O,
for eight hours did not sterilize the urine. Samples of fresh milk
* Pfliiger’s Archiv f. d. Gesammt. Physiol., xxxiv. (1885) pp. 596-601,
+ Journ, of Anat. and Physiol., xix. (1885) pp. 335-44.
620 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
exposed to temperatures of from zero to —80° F. for eight hours,
curdled, and showed the well-known Bacterium lactis; and so far as
could be observed, freezing did not delay the process after the flasks
were kept at a temperature of about 50° F. Similar results were
obtained with ale, meat-juice, vegetable infusions, &e.
It is probable that the micro-organisms were frozen solid. One
cannot suppose that in these circumstances any of the phenomena
of life take place; the mechanism is simply arrested, and vital
changes resume their course, when the condition of a suitable tem-
perature is restored. ‘These conditions led the authors to examine
whether any of the vital phenomena of higher animals might be re-
tained at such low temperatures. ‘They ascertained that a live frog
may be frozen through quite solid in about half-an-hour at a tem-
perature of —20° to —30° F. On thawing slowly, in two instances
the animal completely recovered. After longer exposure the animals
did not recover. In two cases frogs were kept in an atmosphere of
—100° F. for twenty minutes, and although they did not revive, yet,
after thawing out, their muscles still responded feebly to electrical
stimulation. One experiment was performed on a warm-blooded
animal—a rabbit. The cold-blooded frog became as hard as a stone
in from ten to twenty minutes, but the rabbit produced in itself so
much heat as enabled it to remain soft and comparatively warm
during an hour’s exposure to —100° F. Still its production of heat
was unequal to make good the loss, and every instant it was losing
ground, until, at the end of the hour, its bodily temperature had
fallen about 56° F. below the normal, but was still 143° F. above the
surrounding temperature. When taken out the animal was coma-
tose, and reflex action was abolished. Placed in a warm room, its
temperature rose rapidly, and the rabbit completely recovered.
The observations are of great value and highly suggestive. Those
upon the rabbit indicate that death from cold is preceded by loss of
consciousness, owing to the early suppression of the activity of the
grey matter of the encephalon. This confirms the belief that death
by freezing is comparatively painless. The viability of microbes at
low temperatures has also been demonstrated by Pictet and Yung,*
who found that various bacilli can survive —70° C. for 109 hours.
After such exposure, Bacillus anthracis retained its virulence when
injected into a living animal.
“We cannot refrain from asking, Are not frozen micro-organisms
the means of disseminating life through the universe? An affirma-
tive answer is at least a better hypothesis than the assumption of
Spontaneous generation to account for the origin of life on the earth.
May not life be coeval with energy? May it not have always
existed ?” f
Bell’s ‘Comparative Anatomy and Physiology.’ t{—In this manual
Professor I. Jeffrey Bell arranges the elementary facts of zoology by
* See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 432.
+ Mr. C. S. Minot in Science, y. (1885) pp. 522-3.
¢ Bell, F. J., ‘Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, 555 pp. and 229 fie
8vo, Cassell and Co., London, 1885, Y SSP Ub Gor de Sh ca
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 621
organs instead of by the groups of animals; he says in his preface
that he has constantly kept before himself, and hopes “the student
will faithfully bear in mind that there has been an evolution of organs
as well as of animals, and that he who desires to understand the most
complicated organs must first know the structure of such as are more
simply constituted.” There are a large number of woodcuts, many
of which are new to English text-books, and the more important
discoveries of recent years appear to be incorporated with what the
author calls “the general property of zoological workers.” There is
@ copious index to the animals mentioned in the text.
B. INVERTEBRATA.
Action of Cocain on Invertebrates.*—M. Richard finds that an
injection of hydrochlorate of cocain stops the heart of a snail in
diastole ; the animal will recover from a dose of 0°003 gr.; it takes
longer to recover from twice as large a dose, and if 0-025 gr. are
given the animal takes two days to recover. An earthworm soon has
the middle part of its body rendered insensible by the injection of a
dose of 0-006 gr., but the two ends retain their power of movement ;
a further dose of the same strength causes the voluntary movements
to slowen gradually, but it takes 20 hours before they cease altogether.
A small colony of Bryozoa was placed in 5 ec.c. of fresh water to which
0-5 c.c. of 100 per cent. solution of cocain were added; the animals
remained extended ; ten minutes afterwards, a shaking of the glass
made them retreat normally. Daphnie resist for a long time the
action of the drug. Hydre in 5 c.c. of water ta which 1 ¢.c. of the
solution was slowly added, died in an extended state, and for them
and for Bryozoa the author suggests the use of the drug as enabling
us to preserve these delicate animals in an extended condition.
Enterochlorophyll and Allied Pigments.t—Dr. C. A. MacMunn
in 1885 described the spectroscopic and other characters of entero-
chlorophyll which was obtained from the liver or other appendage of
the enteron of various invertebrates. It is now shown that this
pigment is not due to the presence of symbiotic algw, or immediate
food-products, but is built up by the animal containing it.
Taking the six bands ¢ of vegetable chlorophyll in alcoholic solu-
tion described by Kraus, the first two and the fourth are coincident
with those of enterochlorophyll in a similar solution ; the third band
is, however, frequently missing from the latter. The fifth and sixth
bands belong to the yellow constituent, which Hansen shows to be a
lipochrome ; the corresponding bands in the case of enterochlorophyll
also belong to a lipochrome, and are not always coincident with the
lipochrome bands of plant-chlorophyll. This was proved by saponi-
fying enterochlorophyll by Hansen’s method. But saponification of
vegetable chlorophyll changes it considerably, as bands of a solution,
* Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 1409-11.
+ Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxviii. (1885) pp. 319-22.
t The five bands in a leaf, as described by Kraus, can be secn by using a
micro-spectroscope of small dispersion and a good substage achromatic condenser.
622 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TOC
before saponifying, do not éorrespond with those of a similar solution
after saponifying. THansen’s results were confirmed as far as the
separation of “chlorophyll-green” and “chlorophyll-yellow” are
concerned, and the crystals described by him obtained.
While the dominant band of “ chlorophyll-green” in solutions of
plant-chlorophyil is moved much nearer the violet by saponifying, or
split up into two in some cases, the corresponding band of entero-
chlorophyll disappears in toto, or remains in the same place. Another
difference was also noted in the case of enterochlorophyll and in the
case of Spongilla-chlorophyll, namely, that it is impossible to bring
about a complete separation of the constituents in most cases by
saponifying and treating as Hansen directs.
All the bands of asolution of Spongilla-chlorophyll are coincident
with those of a similar solution of plant-chlorophyll, as already
proved by Prof. Lankester and Dr. Sorby.
From the enterochlorophyll of Uraster rubens crystals of “ chloro-
phyll-yellow ” and “ chlorophyll-green ” were obtained by saponifying.
Morphologically, enterochlorophyll occurs—as proved by the ex-
amination of fresh-frozen sections—in oil-globules, granules, and
dissolved in the protoplasm of the liver-cells ; no starch or cellulose
could be found in such sections after adopting the usual botanical
precautions.
Hence enterochlorophyll is an animal product, and a chlorophyll
of which there are probably several recurring in animals.
Mollusca.
Buccal Membrane of Cephalopoda.*—M. L. Vialleton has studied
the morphological nature of the buccal membrane of cephalopods
by the aid of its nervous supply, and comes to the conclusion that the
muscular mass of the lobes, the presence of suckers, and, above all,
the existence in each of the ganglionic cord, analogous to the nerves
of the arms and of the same origin as they, show that we must
regard these lobes as true rudimentary arms ; if this be so it is clear
that the buccal membrane belongs to a series of arms in which the
interbrachial membrane is proportionately better developed than the -
arms themselves. He rejects the view that the membranes are to be
regarded as hypertrophied lips, inasmuch as the nerves are received
from the sub-cesophageal portion of the cerebral mass, whereas the
labial nerves arise from the supra-cesophageal portion. Loligo
vulgaris and Sepia officinalis were the two types studied.
Pancreatic Function of the Cephalopod Liver.;—Mr. A. B.
Griffiths, in addition to the facts already brought forward { to show
that the cephalopod liver is pancreatic in function, now adduces the
following.
Portions of the organ removed from a fresh Sepia had an alkaline
* Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 1301-3.
i ae News, li. (1885) p. 160. See Journ, Chem. Soc.—Abstr., xl viii. (1885)
pp. —30.
+ Chem, News, xlviii. (1884) p. 37.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 623
reaction, converted starch into dextrose, and oil into fatty acids ;
6 mgrms. of the tissue of the organ rendered 15 c.c. of milk trans-
parent in four hours. Moreover, the ferment, removed from the
organ, previously hardened by treatment with alcohol, by extraction
with glycerol and subsequent precipitation with alcohol, converted
starch into dextrose, and fibrin into leucine and tyrosine. The organ
contains neither glycoholic nor taurocholic acid nor glycogen ; it is
therefore evident that this so-called “liver” is a true pancreas.
Artificial Fecundation of Mollusca.*—Mr. W. Patten has suc-
ceeded in the artificial fertilization of the ova of Haliotis and Patella ;
this experiment has not been previously performed on any mollusc.
Careful investigations were made in order to exclude the possibility
of there having been a previous internal fertilization ; the absence of
an albuminiparous gland and external sexual organs in these molluscs
appears to show that the ova undergo naturally an external fecun-
dation.
Development of Generative Organs of Pulmonata.t—Herr J.
Brock finds that the generative organs of pulmonate gastropods begin
to be developed in the last stage of larval life; just below the cutis
there is, on the right side and in front of the cesophageal ring, a fine
cord of cells with a distinct lumen. A little later there is distinct
evidence of the presence of a commencing hermaphrodite gland, and
it is found that it and the efferent organs are developed in one and the
same mesodermal blastema. Primordial ova appear very early. The
author is convinced that in the formation of the external generative
orifice the ectoderm does not take any share, by the formation of any
invagination. After the formation of the oviduct the vas deferens
appears; after this there is growth, but for a time no new formation ;
then the receptaculum seminis appears in the form of a wide-necked
outgrowth of the genital atrium. The author was not able to follow
out the later stages, but he thinks it is clear that the simple condition
of the generative organs which is permanent in the Prosobranchiata
is passed through during the development of the Pulmonata.
Microscopic Anatomy of Dentalium.{—Prof. H. Fol finds that the
epidermis of Dentalium is nothing more than a simple epithelium, the
characters of which vary in different regions; at either extremity of
the tube formed by the mantle some of the cells are modified to form
a mass of very large glandular cells; each of these is imbedded in
the subjacent dermal tissue and has a more or less flask-shaped form,
and is filled by a granular secretion; one of these unicellular glands
may be one hundred times as large as the ordinary epidermic cells;
they are the chief agents in the formation of the shell.
The nerve-ganglia are formed of a cortical grey and an internal
white substance; the latter consists solely of nevve-fibrils, without
any neuroglia; the grey matter is made up of ganglionic cells which
* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 236-7.
+ Nachr. K. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen, 1884, pp. 499-504.
+ Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 1353-5,
624 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
are all unipolar. In the central ganglia groups of very large cells
alternate quite regularly with other masses which are formed of much.
smaller cells.
The muscles are composed of ribbon-shaped smooth fibres, disposed
like those of the non-striated muscles of higher vertebrates; in each
fibre there is a rod-shaped nucleus. In the foot the muscles are very
regularly arranged, and form two external circular layers, within
which are some thirty longitudinal bundles. —
The digestive tube is clothed by a simple epithelium, which is in
some regions distinctly glandular, and in others ciliated; the liver
and the kidney are hollow pouches, the wall of which is a simple
glandular epithelium ; below the anus there is a pouch common to the
two halves of the kidney.
The generative organs are filled by a compact mass of generative
products; near the surface of the ovary there are young ovules, the
greater part of which is occupied by the nucleus, within which there
is a nucleolus composed of two very dissimilar halves. In the mature
ovum the double nucleolus disappears. M. Fol has not been able to
find the efferent genital canal which has been described by Lacaze-
“Duthiers; the glands appear to him to empty themselves merely by
dehiscence into the pallial cavity, the renal gland, or, as is most
probable, by the anal gland.
Nervous System of Fissurella.*—M. L. Boutan describes the
nervous system of Fissurella aliernata and comes to a different con-
clusion from that arrived at by Ihering from an investigation of
F. maxima. In Fissurella, as in the typical nervous system of
Gasteropoda, there are two cerebroid, two pedal, and five asymmetrical
ganglia. There is, besides, a triangular nervous mass the morpho-
logical signification of which has been pointed out by Lacaze-Duthiers.
This triangle is a simple extension of the pedal and the two first
asymmetrical ganglia, which, being linked together, have acquired an
exceptional development and become drawn out.
The nervous system of Parmophora is intermediate between that of
Haliotis and of Fissurella ; Emarginula is likewise furnished with the
nervous mass above named and ranks between Parmophora and
Fissurella, for the coalescence of the pedal and asymmetrical centres is
carried in each animal a little less far than in the last-named type.
Anatomy and Systematic Position of Halia priamus Risso.;—
M. J. Poirier gives a full description of the anatomical structure of
Halia priamus Risso. With the exception of the operculum, which
is wanting, the greater number of the organs resemble in form those
of Buccinum. The formula of the radula is 1, 1, 1, not 1, 0, 1 as has
been erroneously stated. Hence its systematic position is no longer
with the Pleurotomide where lately it has been placed, but with the
Buccinide.
Tectibranchiata of the Gulf of Marseilles.;:—M. A. Vayssiére has
examined thirty-seven species of Tectibranchs; they are all Opistho-
* Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 467-9.
+ lbid., pp. 461-4. { Ibid., pp. 1389-91,
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 625
branchiata, and von Ihering was wrong in denying this. The incom-
pletely known Notarchus has a small shell very like that of Gastro-
pleron meckelii, its digestive tract and generative organs are almost
exactly like those of Aplysia, and the same is true of its nervous
system.
In Umbrella mediterranea the nervous system, as in almost all
Tectibranchs, has a very delicate subcesophageal intercerebral commis-
sure; the presence of otocysts was determined, and these organs,
though lying in the pedal ganglia, are attached by very small nerves
to the cerebral ganglion. The cesophageal nerve-collar of Tylodina,
though very like that of Umbrella, has three instead of two visceral
ganglia, and the median one gives rise to the genital nerves. Leach’s
name of Ascanius is applied to Pleurobranchus membranaceus and
P. tuberculatus, and the genus is regarded as being intermediate
between Pleurobranchus and Pleurobranchea.
Classification of the Lamellibranchs.*—Dr. M. Neumayr gives
a new classification of the Lamellibranchs, founded upon the hinge.
The oldest forms have no, or only the faintest, trace of hinge-
teeth, the shells are thin, and there is usually neither mark of muscle
nor of pallial sinus. For these forms, supposed to have two equal
adductor muscles and an entire mantle-line, the order Paleconche is
proposed. From these are supposed to diverge the Desmodonta, with-
out hinge-teeth, or with irregular hinge-teeth, with two equal adductor
muscles and with a pallial sinus ; and the Taxodontx, with numerous
undifferentiated teeth and two equal muscles. ‘T'o the first of these
groups belong the Pholadomyide, Corbulide, Myide, Anatinide,
Mactride, Paphide, Glycimceride, and Solenidz (?), and to the second
the Arcide and Nucalide. The Tubicole forma suborder of the Des-
modonta. From the Taxodonta branch off in one direction the Hetero-
donta, with distinct cardinal and lateral teeth fitting into each other,
and two muscle impressions (Najade, Carinide, Astartide, Crassatel-
lide, Megalodontide, Chamide, (Rudistes) (Tridacnide), Erycinide,
Lucinide, Cardiide, Cyrenide, Cyprinide, Veneride, Gnathodontide,
Tellinidw, Donacide, and in another, the Anisomyaria, with irregular
or no hinge - teeth, two unequal muscles or one only, and no
pallial sinus. These form two suborders, Heteromyaria (Aviculida,
Mytilide, Prasinide, Pinnidew ) and Monomyaria (Pectinide, Mytilide,
Spondylide, Anomide, Ostreide). The Trigonide are considered a
suborder of Heterodonta.
Development of Cyclas cornea.t—Dr. H. E. Ziegler finds that the
segmentation of the egg of Cyclas is, from the first, unequal ; and the
small cells, as usual, divide more rapidly than the larger. The egg,
like those of the Najadw, has a micropyle ; the carlier stages of cleay-
age are passed through in the brood-sacs. The observations on the
gastrulation were incomplete, but there was seen to be invagination,
and two large primitive mesenchym-cells were detected. The differ-
ences in the quantity of fluid found between the ectoderm and endo-
* 8B. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Ixxxviii. (1884) pp. 385-420 (1 pl.). Amer.
Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 404-5. See also this Journal, ante, p. 229,
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xli. (1885) pp. 525-69 (2 pls.).
626 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
derm of various individuals seem to be due to physiological relations.
The blastopore is in the form of a slit, the length of which is about
equal to that of the archenteron; the hinder end of the gut never
separates from the ectoderm, and the anus arises at their point of
junction. Dr. Ziegler compares the mode of development which
obtains in Lamellibranchs with what is found in Gastropods, and
shows how they both point to a common primitive mode of develop-
ment.
The trochophore of Cyclas has all the organs homologous with
those found in the corresponding stage of marine Lamellibranchs and
Gastropods; as to the locomotor organs, the trochophore of Cyclas
diverges somewhat from the marine Lamellibranchs and approaches
rather the Pulmonata.
In describing the development of various organs, the author insists
that the pericardiac cavity is not, as has been thought, part of the
blood-vascular system, its fluid is not blood, and contains no blood-
corpuscles. The gill-lamella is, at first, a simple fold; and, as differ-
entiation extends from before backwards, it is possible in one and the
same gill to observe various stages in the process of differentiation ;
from its lower margin the outer ectodermal layer gradually forms a
fold which has the form of a groove, and this gradually grows up-
wards; there then appears on the lower margin of the fold a small
corresponding infolding of the inner ectodermal layer; the lamella
fuse, and vertical clefts appear in their substance. After describing
the appearance of the brood-pouches, the author concludes with a
short account of the genital glands; these form at an early stage two
club-shaped masses which touch in the middle line; the sexes are
united, and the disposition of parts is such that there appears to be
self-impregnation.
Manner in which Lamellibranchs attach themselves to Foreign
Objects.*—Dr. J. T. Cattie describes the means by which the common
mussel attaches itself to foreign objects. When the foot commences
to grope about, it may become two or three times as long as the body
of the animal without finding any object within its vicinity ; it then
moves about till it finds some point of support ; when this is effected
there appears from the transverse cleft, which terminates the ventral
groove, a whitish substance which gradually becomes more opaque ;
sometimes the slit takes on the form of an equilateral triangle, and
then the quantity of matter which exudes from it is greater; this
matter obviously comes from the cylindrical tubes which are scattered
in the glandular substance of the foot. A terminal plate having been
formed the foot is withdrawn, and the plate and the byssus are
merely connected by a delicate thread. The time necessary for an
animal of average size to form the plate varies between 55 and 90
seconds; in some cases two connecting threads become developed.
The terminal plate, when studied under the Microscope, was found
to be formed of thousands of small granules, irregularly distributed,
and varying considerably in size. The fine threads appear to be
* Tijdschr. Neder]. Dierk. Vereen., vi. (1882-5) pp. 56-63.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 627
formed by the agglutination of granules of various sizes, but large
granules are formed by the fusion of several smaller ones.
The formation of the byssus is regarded by the author as being
very simple; the walls and the lamelle of the byssus-cavity con-
tinually secrete a byssogenous matter; the lamelle in the anterior
and narrow part of the cavity unite and fuse with one another, while
the narrower shape of the orifice gives the byssus-threads their form.
Owing to the relations of the ventral groove of the foot each byssus-
thread is immediately fused to the main trunk.
The author doubts the correctness of A. Miiller’s view that there
is an agglutinating and a byssogenous substance; and speaks severely
of the artificial character of that author’s classification of the species.
General Characters of Cymbulia,*—The Pteropoda being so
purely pelagic in their habit, places them out of the reach of zoologists
in general; and even systematic writers, as in other cases, are often
misguided by incorrect figures and descriptions made up probably
from scanty or defective data, but which have, nevertheless, been
handed down to us with a show of truth. Dr. J. D. Macdonald was
impressed with the idea that the figures and descriptions of the species
of Cymbulia extant were not reliable; and having had an opportunity
of examining some specimens taken in the Indian Ocean, he found
that such was really the case.
In the natural position of the animal the toe of the hyaline slipper
of Cymbulia should be taken as posterior, and the broadly notched
heel as anterior. Both animal and shell are reversed in Mr. Adams’s
figure of Cymbulia proboscidea, but this is, after all, an error of less
importance than that in De Blainville’s figure, in which, although
the shell is represented in its proper position, the animal is reversed.
A pair of eyes are also given in a position where ears alone would
be possible, while there is no more evidence of the existence of eyes
in Cymbulia than in any other genus of Pteropods. The notion of a
ventral connecting lobe between the fins is a mistake, though these
organs are connected above and behind so as to form a broad, con-
tinuous plate.
Molluscoida.
a, Tunicata.
Development of Social Ascidians.t—Dr. O. Seeliger finds in
the Salpidw, Doliolids, and Anchinia various modifications of a true
alternation of generation which, as a developmental cycle, was peculiar
to their common stem-form. This form was free-swimming and
developed ventral buds, just as now the tailed Doliolum-larva
developes the rosette-shaped organ. Primitively the solitary forms
may have passed over their capacity to develope generative products
to the buds, but very soon the whole of the embryonic material
appears to have passed into the buds, which had probably a somewhat
complicated structure. The developmental cycle of the Pyrosoma-
tide is also to be referred to the budding of the same free-swimming
* Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxviii. (1885) pp. 251-3 ( 1 fig.)
+ Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xviii. (1885) pp. 528-96.
628 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
stem-form ; the generation of the ascidiozooid was, however, inter-
calated between the sexually formed solitary form, and the first
generation of ventral buds. The cycle of the composite Ascidians
had a somewhat different origin, for it sprang from a bud which
appeared after the free-swimming stem-form became fixed : the various
differences which we now observe only appeared later in its history.
It is probable that the pelagic Tunicates and the Ascidie are
only connected by a very old larva-like stem-form, which was endowed
with the power of multiplying asexually. This stem-form was
distinguished from the Appendiculariz by the two arterial passages
fusing into a dorsal cavity, which opened to the exterior by an un-
paired orifice.
In his second chapter the author considers the developmental
history of the Ascidians in its relations to the theory of the germinal
layers; he concludes that there is a fundamental difference between
mesenchym and mesoblast, but that it is purely morphological, and
that no genetic conclusions are to be based on its consideration. The
mesoblast arises primitively from diverticula of the archenteron ;
secondly, from paired mesoblastic mother-cells which lie near the
blastopore, and give rise to the mesoblastic sacs which inclose the
secondary ceelom; thirdly, in the Tunicata it arises directly from the
lateral walls of the archenteron. The formation of the first two
kinds of mesoblast is associated with the formation of a new secondary
coelom; in the Tunicata, however, there is no secondary ccelom, but
the primary, being narrowed not only by the peribranchial space, but
also by mesenchymatous connective-tissue-cells, and by an inner
mantle of cellulose (in some forms) must be regarded as a true
pseudoceel.
In the third chapter the genetic relations of the Tunicate phylum
are discussed, and the following table is given :—
Ascidian trunk
Ase. Social. Botryllide
/ _—— Polyclinide
SE renee t {Somes
Didemnide
Asc. Simpl. /
ase Doliolide
Pyrosomatidee Anchinia D
on
OS | Salpide
Salpine trunk
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSOOPY, ETC.
629
With regard to the homologies of the most important organs of
the Tunicata, the following useful table is given :—
| Ascidian
Appendicu-
| larvee
lariz
Ascidise
Branchio-enteric cavity
Digestive tract
Ciliated arches
Ciliated pit
Pyrosoma | Doliolide | Salpida
Respiratory cavity
Digestive tract
Ciliated arches
Ciliated pit
— — Hypophysial — — —
gland
Brain Sensory | Ganglion (?) Ganglion Ganglion
vesicle
_— Eye j — Eye — Eye
Otolith Otolith — Otolith Otolith a
Caudal muscle iaesent
material and
Nerve-cord fear naaene Eleoblast Eleoblast
Notochord derm-eells
2 Atrial Cloacal |Peribranchial|Peribranchial) Cloaca Cloaca
ducts vesicle cavity and tube
cloaca
2 Spiracula Egestive orifice Egestive Egestive orifice
orifice
—_- Long. Muscle-cells | Mesenchym-| Scattered mesenchym-
muscles muscle muscle-cells
Circular aa (?) (?) Circular muscular
muscle
bands
Dr. Seeliger regards the Vertebrata and Tunicata as being two
separate branches derived from a common root-form; whatever be
the real position of Amphioxus, it cannot, he thinks, be regarded
as the bond of connection between the Vertebrata and the Tunicata.
The stem-forms may have had close relationships to the segmented
worms, and it is even possible that they have several common ances-
tors; in such case the nerve-tube of the Tunicate larve might be the
homologue of the ventral cord of worms. This view seems to be
supported by the discoveries of Hatschek and Kowalevsky ; but it
is to be noted that the gastrula of Ascidians is not completely homo-
logous with the primitive form common to all the Metozoa, inasmuch
as it contains the materials of three segments, derived by a double
gemmation from the primitive one.
Ser. 2.—Vo1. V. 27
630 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Genetic Cycle and Germination of Anchinia.*—Dr. J. Barrois re-
cognizes in the life-cycle of Anchinia one sexual and two sterile forms ;
in all these we may regard the bud as being primitively formed of an
ectoderm and endoderm, the latter composed of cells of various kinds ;
there soon appears an endodermal nucleus, around which groups of
three different kinds of cells become arranged—these are nervous,
genital, and “‘ disseminated.” In the proliferous stolon this endoderm
forms a solid rod which is at first formed of cells of one kind only,
but which very soon becomes differentiated. The endcdermic nucleus,
becoming constricted, forms on the ventral surface a pharyngo-
stomachal mass ; below is the nervous mass; behind, the genital and
disseminated cells ; the first of all of these comes into relation with the
outer world by the buccal and anal orifices; the pharyngeal mass
divides directly into pharyngeal sac and a pericardium, the endostyle
is not formed till later, when it arises as a small swelling of the
pharyngeal sac. In the sexual form the nervous mass is continuous
posteriorly with a large cord which passes between the cloaca and the
esophagus, and terminates in a ganglion which is covered by the
genital mass. In one sterile form the coil is formed by the constric-
tion of a cylindrical nerve-tube, which extends along the whole
length of the embryo, whose anterior part corresponds exactly to the
entire nervous mass of the sexual form. It is very probable that
this cord corresponds to the large dorsal nerve which, in the Appen-
diculariz, connects the cephalic ganglion with the large swelling
which is formed at the base of the tube. The anterior swelling is
converted into a hypophysis, but it also gives rise to nervous parts of
great importance.
The muscular layer divides into two bands, and then becomes
broken up into six semicircles in just the same way as in Doliolum.
The cloaca is the most important part which is formed by the ecto-
derm. The genital mass and the disseminated cells form for a long
time a mass which is placed posteriorly, and which in the sexual
forms gives rise to two genital glands, and in the sterile becomes
reduced to a few cells which are found in the neighbourhood of the
visceral ganglion. The disseminated cells unite into a ventral plate
which possibly represents the eleoblast. Especial attention is to be
directed to three points in which the history of their development
approximates Anchinia to the Appendicularie : these are—
1. The primitive constitution of the cloaca, the two short tubes
being comparable to the respiratory orifices of the Appendicularie.
2. The presence of a nerve-tube along the whole length of the
body, and its termination by cephalic and visceral enlargements.
3. The primitive presence of the anal orifice on the surface of
the skin. The formation of the cloaca at the expense of the ecto-
derm is a rare phenomenon.
Anchinia may, in a sense, be regarded as representing a Doliolum
with six (instead of eight) bands; the stolon is extremely like that
of Doliolum, but differs internally from that of any member of the
* Journ. Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), xxi. (1885) pp. 193-267 (4 pls.),
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 631
group of the Thaliacea, for there is but one cord, and that is solid,
and is composed of endodermic cells; so far it resembles the cord
rather of Ascidiz than of Thaliacea; at the same time this character
is to be put against the precocious differentiation of the young bud,
the cells of which are derived from the endodermic cord.
New Species of Simple Ascidians.*—M. L. Roule describes three
new species of simple Ascidians from the shores of Provence. The
first is most like the members of the genus Molgula, but is remark-
able for having, as has Hugyra, only one genital gland ; the structure
of its gill is like that of both the genera just mentioned, so that it
appears to be necessary to form for it a sub-generic division of
Molgula, to which the name of Eugyriopsis may be applied.
There is a new species of Microcosmos, most like M. vulgaris of
Heller, but differing by its larger size, the colour of its tunic, and
the form of its tentacles. It is called M. sabatierit. The other
new Cynthiad is like Cynthia scutellata of Hiller, but is larger, has _
its siphons approximated instead of separated, and differs by other
characters, among which is the fact that the genital glands are broken
up into small parts, each of which has its own excretory ducts; it is
of a fine red colour, and is to be called Cynthia corallina.
B. Polyzoa.
Structure and Development of Loxosoma.{—Mr. S. F. Harmer
observed at Naples five species of Loxosoma, one of which, L. lepto-
clini, is new ; it was not uncommon on the compound Ascidian Lepto-
clinum maculosum. The term ventral is, in opposition to Caldwell,
applied to the line of the body between the mouth and anus; the
dorsal region is drawn out into a stalk, on which the calyx or body
of the animal is carried; when, in his descriptions, the author speaks
of a transverse section, he means one which passes in the plane of
the stalk through the right and left side; a horizontal plane is one
which is at right angles to the long axis.
In Lozosoma the buds become free as soon as they reach maturity,
and this genus ditfers therefore from all other Polyzoa in never
forming colonies. The cells of the ectoderm were best studied by a
special use of nitrate of silver; the tissues are washed “in a solution
of a neutral salt (KNO,), which gives no precipitate with nitrate of
silver, the solution having the same specific gravity as sea-water” ;
there was thus no precipitate of silver chloride; these cells were
found to be large and polygonal, or sense-cells, bearing one or more
fine, stiff, tactile hairs which project into the water, and gland-cells ;
the last differ in character in different species. The foot-gland is
either retained by the adult or found only in the bud; in some
species it has wing-like lateral outgrowths. It seems to be composed
of two distinct portions—the gland, which consists of a small number
of granular nucleated cells arranged round a central lumen, and a
“duct,” which is really an open groove.
* Comptes Rendus, c, (1885) pp. 1015-7.
+ Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xxv. (1885) pp. 261-338 ae ag
ft.
632 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Mr. Harmer considers that the true ganglion has been mistaken
for part of the generative apparatus, and describes it as being dumb-
bell-shaped and lying transversely across the intestine, as consisting
mesially of a fibrous commissural portion and of two lateral ganglia,
and as being altogether devoid of any central duct. The peripheral
neryous system is best examined in living specimens, and the trans-
parent L. crassicauda is a most favourable species for investigation ;
it is described in detail. There is no striking objection to the idea
that the posterior sense-organs are homologous with the “ osphradia”
of Mollusca, but it is more probable that they are merely specialized
sense-cells.
After describing briefly the alimentary and muscular systems, the
author comes to the excretory organs, our knowledge of which is
exceedingly incomplete ; as described by Mr. Harmer they are seen to
differ markedly from those of the Brachiopoda, but to have the closest
similarity to the head-kidney of many Trochospheres. Dr. Meyer’s
as yet unpublished drawings of the head-kidneys of various Annelid
larve present a striking resemblance to Loxosoma in the number of
the excretory cells, in the relative size of the lumen in different parts
of the organ, and in the mode of termination in a flame-cell, as well
as in other points. The generative organs are next described, and
are stated to be ‘ idiodinic.”
A careful account is given of the history of development, with
numerous references to the illustrative figures, which must be seen if
the account is to be fully understood; this much, however, may be
here stated. The ova may be small, and be supplied with nutriment
from the glandular epithelium of the brood-pouch, or large, when
they take up the surrounding cells which play the part of a vitel-
larium ; the blastopore appears to form the permanent anus, and a
stomodceum is developed anteriorly ; the greater part of the mesoblast
arises from two cells which are placed at the sides of the blastopore.
The so-called dorsal organ is of epiblastic and not of hypoblastic
origin, and is not a budding structure, but the supra-cesophageal
ganglion. Between the mouth and anus two epiblastic invaginations
appear, and, later on, fuse medianly; they form the deeper part of
the vestibule, and, by the thickening of their floor, give rise to the
subcesophageal ganglia; coming into contact with the “wings of the
crescent-shaped brain,” they establish a complete circumcesophageal
nerve-ring.
The Entoproctous Polyzoa, both larval and adult, are true
Trochospheres, with a ventral flexure of the alimentary canal, no
true body-cavity, and a pair of head-kidneys. The metamorphosis of
the Ectoprocta is a process of budding; the Entoprocta have certain
affinities with Actinotrocha, while the affinity of the Polyzoa to the
Brachiopoda is more doubtful than to Phoronis. The nearest allies
of the Entoproctous Polyzoa are the Trochosphere larve of Molluses
and Cheetopods, and the adult Rotifera; the Entoprocta are the most
archaic of the Polyzoa, but their relations to the rest are, as yet,
obscure. :
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 633
Australian Bryozoa.*—In the new decade, which completes the
first volume of the ‘ Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria, Professor
P. H. MacGillivray continues his valuable contributions on the Polyzoa
of Victoria. The present number deals with Retepora, a genus better
represented in the southern hemisphere than in the northern. Twelve
species are described and three varieties of the well-known Retepora
monilifera MacG., and besides the figures of these, one plate is
devoted to drawings of the opercula, which in Professor MacGillivray’s
hands have proved of great value for specific determination.
The preface is dated 1883, and the paper having been written
nearly two years, there is consequently some overlapping with this
and Mr. Busk’s work on the ‘ Challenger’ Polyzoa.
Y. Brachiopoda.
Anatomy of Crania.t—In continuation of a previous paper,t{
M. Joubin describes further points in the anatomy of Crania.
The shell is formed of extremely fine calcareous fibres; it is
traversed by perforations spreading out, in the upper valve, in
arborescent ramifications, of which the final branches are attenuated
filaments terminating on the external surface. In the ventral valve
the perforations are only at the points where there are no muscular
insertions. The mantle is composed of two portions—an interior and
an exterior. There are three principal pairs of muscles, two of which
are adductors; the less important muscles sustain the arms and
perform other functions. The arms are not supported by any calca-
reous loop. Respiration is not effected by any special organs, and
there is no circulatory system. The nervous system, as in Lingula, is
very poorly developed.
Arthropoda.
a, Insecta.
Eye and Optic Tract of Insects.s—Dr. 8. J. Hickson, in the first
portion of his paper, gives a detailed account of the eye and optic
tract of Musca vomitoria, and afterwards discusses and attempts to
clear up the differences between his results and those of other
investigators.
The account of the eye of Musca is only intelligible when studied
with the aid of the accompanying illustrations; in it the following
new terms are used: the oplicon is the ganglionic swelling which is
separated from the cerebral by a narrow constriction, which is, as
Beyer has shown, the homologue of the optic nerve of other arthro-
pods: the second swelling, which is separated from the opticon by
a tract of fine nerve-fibrils, is called the epi-opticun ; while the third,
or peri-opticon, is separated by a bundle of long optic nerve-fibrils.
The term neurospongium is given to the fine meshwork of minute
* Prodromus of the Zool. of Victoria, decade x., 1885.
+ Comptes Rendus, ec. (1885) pp. 464-6.
t Ibid., xcix. (1884) pp. 985-7. See this Journal, ante, pp. 233-4,
§ Quart. Journ, Mier. Sci., xxv. (1885) pp. 215-51 (3 pls.).
634 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
fibrils, which are similar to those described by Gerlach in the
mammalian brain and spinal cord.
; The comparative anatomy of these parts is thus summed up: “In
the young Periplaneta the optic nerve-fibrils which leave the peri-
opticon pass without decussating, to the ommateum (eye proper); in
the adult Periplaneta there is a partial decussation, in Nepa there is
no decussation, but the anastomosis is complicated by the presence
of looped and transverse anastomoses. In Musca, the fibrils are split
up into little cylindrical blocks of neurospongium, which I have
called the elements of the peri-opticon ; in bees, wasps, and many
Lepidoptera, the elements of the peri-opticon are long, slender, and
close-set; in Aischna they have partially fused with one another ;
and in Bombyx, Hristalis, and the Crustacea they have completely
fused to form a complete and continuous ganglion, similar in every
way to the opticon and epi-opticon.
Three series of pigment-cells are very constant throughout the
Hexapoda; there are (1) a series of pigment-cells which insheath
the cone and prevent extraneous rays of light from escaping; they
may be called the cone pigment-cells. (2) In the outer region of the
rhabdom there is a series of external pigment-cells, which have long
processes passing between the retinule and elsewhere. (3) The
name of internal pigment-cells is given to the series which usually
rests upon the basilar membrane. This last varies considerably in
thickness.
In the historical and critical portion of his paper, Dr. Hickson
deals only with what has been published since 1879, the date of
Grenacher’s great work. With regard to the view of Mr. Lowne
that the retinule are not the nerve-end-cells at all, and that the true
retina is situated behind the basilar membrane, the author remarks
that not only does anatomy teach us that the optic nerve-fibrils end
in the retinule, but morphology teaches us that they are homologous
with the nerve-end-cells of other animals, while the few physiological
experiments yet made show that they are eminently adapted for light-
perceiving purposes. These considerations are clenched by Leydig’s
discovery of a true retina-purple in the retinula.
The view of Ciaccio, Berger, and others, that the layer of retinulz
and rhabdoms cannot be considered as the equivalent of the retina
of other animals is accepted ; it is only part of the retina, or that
which bears the nerve-end-cells, and corresponds functionally to the
layer of rods and cones in the eyes of Vertebrates. We cannot
compare layer for layer the different strata of eyes in different
animals; all we can say is that in all animals with highly organized
eyes, there are certain complicated nervous structures, between the
nerve-end-cells and the brain, which have probably the function of
elaborating and combining the sensations received by the end-cells.
The author thinks that all the nerve-structure lying between the
crystalline cone-layer and the optic nerve is analogous with the retina
of other animals ; in other words, the retina of insects consists of the
retinule, peri-opticon, epi-opticon, opticon, and all the intermediate
nerve-tracts.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 635
The best method of making sections through the eye of Musca
vomitoria is to expose it to the fumes of 1 per cent. osmic acid
solution for 40 minutes, then to wash for a few minutes in 60 per
cent. spirit, and finally to harden in absolute alcohol. When the
hardness of the chitin prevents the use of the automatic microtome, a
Jung’s microtome with the razor set so as to give a long sweep at each
stroke may be used. The best method of depigmenting the eye, is
to expose the sections to the action of nitrous fumes ; for teasing the
best solution is chloral hydrate.
Tracks of Insects resembling the Impressions of Plants.*—M.
R. Zeiller describes the burrows made by Gryllotalpa vulgaris in the
clay soil at the bottom of a little pool of water, that was sometimes
nearly dry. These tracks, owing to their arrangement and the marks
made on their surface by the insect in traversing its burrow, bear a
striking resemblance to the impressions of certain fossil plants.
They suggest a comparison with Phymatoderma liasicum and present
at the same time an analogy to certain impressions of conifers
belonging to the genus Brachyphyllum, notably B. Desnoycrsi Brgt.
from the oolite.
Morphology of the Lepidoptera.;—Dr. A. Walter finds that the
views of Savigny as to the morphology of the gnathites of the Lepi-
doptera must now be definitely given up; the parts which he re-
arded as mandibles are the projecting angles of a labrum, and the
plate which he regarded as the labrum is an epipharynx. True and
functional mandibles in the form of toothed appendages are found
only in some of the lower Micropteryginez, such as Aruncella, and
Anderschella. True mandibles without denticulations are to be found
in the higher Micropterygine, such as Micropteryx, Purpurella, and
Semipurpurella. Various stages of reduction are to be observed in
various forms, and it is possible that remnants of mandibles are to be
made out in all the’ Microlepidoptera. There can be no doubt that
the lower Micropteryginz exhibit the most primitive form of gnathites
found among the Lepidoptera.
There are two maxillary palps, the outer of which forms the most
primitive rudiments of a proboscis, while the inner forms a groove-
like horny plate which affords a lateral support for the labium. The
Lepidopterous proboscis is to be regarded as being primitively
- derived from the outer palp of the maxilla; in the higher forms the
inner palps are reduced.
In the lower Micropteryginz the labium has the free palps and
typical ligula of lower insects, the latter being formed by the fusion
of the inner palps into a short tubule, which is open externally; a
short hypopharynx is to be detected on the soft inner or hinder wall
of this ligula.
In the higher Micropteryginz the mandibles lose their teeth, and
the maxillw the inner palp; the halves of the proboscis are applied to
* Bull. Soc. Geol. France, xii. p. 676. See transl. by Prof. J. F. James in
Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., viii. (1885) pp. 49-52.
+ Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xviii. (1885) pp. 751-807 (2 pls.).
636 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
one another to form the typical sucking tube, and the short organ is
already capable of being rolled up; the labium is elongated, has no
free outer palps, and the hypopharynx is still discernible at its base.
The author inclines to the view that the nearest relatives of the
Lepidoptera are, among other insects, the Hymenoptera.
Number of Abdominal Segments in Lepidopterous Larve.*—
Dr. A. 8. Packard finds that no caterpillars known to him have less
than ten abdominal segments. The ninth segment, however, is liable
to be much reduced in size and to more or less coalesce with the
tenth or anal segment. The ninth segment is most rudimentary in
the Sphinges. In the larval butterflies it is rather more distinct;
whilst the tenth segment is, as in all caterpillars, represented by the
supra-anal plate and anal legs.
In the Algerians, Zigzenide, and Bombycide (the latter especially),
the ninth segment is very distinct. In Halesidota the ninth segment
is quite long, forming an entire segment. In Datana it is longer than
the supra-anal plate. In Limacodes scapula and P. pithecium there
are no traces of legs; the number of abdominal segments appears
to be ten. In the Noctuide the ninth segment is distinct. In the
Geometers it is distinct above, but below is merged into the infra-anal
plate. In the Pyralid caterpillars, as well as the Tortricids and
Tineids, the ninth segment is longer and more distinct than in the
higher families.
The Bombycide seem to be the oldest, most generalized group of
Lepidoptera, and it is a question whether the Pyralids, Tortricids,
and Tineids are not degenerate forms which have descended from
the Noctuide and ultimately from the Bombycide; there are indica-
tions that the Noctuide have descended from the Geometers. At any
rate the primitive caterpillar had ten pairs of abdominal legs. The
saw-fly larvee (Lophyrus) have eight pairs of abdominal legs, while the
embryo honey-bee has ten pairs of temporary abdominal appendages.
Structure of the Halteres of Diptera.t—Mr. A. B. Lee contributes
some further details to our knowledge of these organs, which were
believed by Leydig to be auditory in function. It appears that there
are two distinct organs contained in each of these structures: one an
auditory organ, the other an organ of problematical function, which
may be olfactory; the structural details, which are briefly mentioned,
will no doubt be published by the author in an illustrated form.
Movement of Flies on Smooth Surfaces.;—Dr. J. E. Rombouts
supports, as against the observations of Dewitz, his former conclusions
on this subject already noticed in this Journal.§ It will be remem-
bered that it was then established that flies attached themselves to
smooth surfaces by the help of a liquid secretion from the feet; this
liquid, however, is not sticky, but the attachment is brought about
by capillary attraction; this conclusion is strengthened by another
* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 307-8.
+ Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xiii. (1885) pp. 1-3.
t Zool. Anzeig., vii. (1884) pp. 619-23.
§ See this Journal, iy. (1884) p. 787.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY,- ETC. 637
experiment described in the paper before us. Several flies are con-
fined on to a glass plate by strips of paper, and the liquid that accu-
mulates is sufficient to be perceptible to the naked eye; by the help
of experiments with glass balls, detailed in the former paper, it was
ascertained that the adhesive power of the liquid was less than that
of water, and about equal to olive oil; hence capillary attraction is
obviously the only force which could bring about the required result.
Circulation in Ephemera Larve.*—M. N. Creutzburg finds that
in the larve of certain Ephemerida—contrary to the statements of
Verloren—the vascular ampulla which supplies the caudal sete is in
communication with the dorsal vessel, and not with the body-cavity ;
this portion of the vascular system is, however, separated from the
dorsal vessel by a pair of valves.
Macrotoma plumbea.t—Dr. A. Sommer gives a detailed account
of this Podurid, a member of a group the anatomy of which has long
required revision. Asin most insects the integument consists of three
layers—the cuticle is transparent, thin, and flexible; the subjacent
matrix varies considerably in thickness in different parts of the body,
and itscells appear to be devoid of distinct boundaries ; the basal mem-
brane is structureless.
The excretory organs are rounded in form and extend through the
whole of the abdomen ; the concretions are dirty white with reflected,
and pale green with transparent ight; they vary somewhat consider-
ably in form and size, but generally exhibit a distinct concentric
striation, like starch-granules; they are insoluble in water and alcohol,
but are, when fresh, dissolved by acetic acid. The simplest muscles
consist of a single muscular fibre; the muscles are not inserted
directly but by a tendon formed by the cuticle; they have a finely
granular perimysium, in which a number of small round nuclei are
imbedded ; their substance exhibits transverse striation and appears to
be well adapted for the study of this curious phenomenon.
The most interesting appendage of the body is the ventral tube ;
the numerous cells found in it are elongated oviform in shape, are
limited externally by a distinct membrane, and have a very finely
granulated protoplasm. The cuticular tubules formed by the cells
open to the exterior by rounded orifices, and it is clear that we have
here to do with unicellular glands; their close connection with the
muscles of the ventral tube, leads us to suppose that when the latter
is put into function there is an evagination of the connected pouches,
owing to the pressure of the secretion which flows out from the gland-
cells. If the ventral tube really serves as an organ of attachment we
may suppose that the secretion is a material which acts as an adhesive
agent.
P After describing in detail the structure of the digestive tract, the
author passes to the dorsal vessel and the blood ; the former is a tube
which extends from the eighth abdominal segment into the thorax,
and passes between the dorsal longitudinal muscles ; it is continued
* Zool. Anzeig., viil. (1885) pp. 246-5.
+ Zeitechr. f. Wiss. Zool., xli. (1885) pp. 683-718 (2 pls.).
638 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
forwards into an aorta; posteriorly it is attached by fine fibrils to
the tergal region of the body; no posterior orifice was to be detected ;
there are five pairs of ostia, and five pairs of alary muscles. The
cardiac tube consists of a plexiform nucleated tissue, broken through
at various points ; then follows a well-developed muscular layer which
forms the chief part of the tube, and internally to it there is a delicate,
hyaline, and structureless layer. The bloodis of a yellowish-red colour,
and contains a fairly large number of blood-corpuscles. They have a
clear, homogeneous ground-substance with dark refractive granules,
and no investing membrane; they exhibit amceboid movements.
The author was unable to find any traces of a visceral nervous
system or of nervi transversi; the absence of the latter may be asso-
ciated with that of a tracheal system. Sensory sete are to be observed
on the legs, palps, and labium and labrum.
The generative organs are carefully described, and there are some
remarks on ecdysis; the author found that Gregarines, Cysticerci, and
a number of Nematoid worms lived parasitically in Macrotoma.
B. Myriopoda.
Latzel’s Myriopods of Austria.*—The first volume of Dr. R.
Latzel’s work dealt with the Chilopoda, while the second includes the
Symphyla, Pauropoda, and Diplopoda. Nine years of close attention to
the study of the Myriopods have enabled Dr. Latzel not merely to
complete a monograph of the species inhabiting his native country,
but to complete it in such a manner that he has written a book which
must be useful to the student of the Myriopoda of any country.
Minute descriptions of some 170 species are given, and also tables
which make it a matter of ease to determine the genus of any
Myriopod. :
Where possible, full descriptions are given of the young stages of
each species, and the results of all recent researches into the minute
anatomy of the Myriopods are embodied. Embryology, indeed, has
not received a very large share of attention, but references are given
to all writings on the subject. Dr. Latzel differs from some American
authorities in looking on Scolopendrella as a true Myriopod, and
places its order Symphyla as intermediate between the Chilopoda
and the Pauropoda. Dr. Latzel agrees with Menge in considering
those organs which Ryder has described as trachee in Scolopendrella,
as being merely chitinous supports for muscle-attachment. These are
the same organs which Wood-Mason considers to be of the nature of
segmental organs.
Dr. Latzel looks on Peripatus as forming an order equivalent to
other orders, the Chilopoda, the Symphyla, and the Diplopoda.
A most useful bibliography, brought down to the date of publica-
tion, is comprised in the work. f
* Latzel, K., ‘Die Myriopoden der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie,’
2te Halfte, xii. and 413 pp. and 16 pls., 8vo., Vienna, 1884.
+ See Nature, xxxi. (1885) p. 526,
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 639
§. Arachnida.
New Hypothesis as tothe Relationship of the Lung-book of
Scorpio to the Gill-book of Limulus.*—Prof. E. Ray Lankester with-
draws his suggestion that by the enlargement of the hollow stigmata
connected with the thoracobranchial muscles of an ancestral scorpion
the branchigerous appendage might come to lie in the pit of the
tendon of the muscle, and that eventually the hollow might inclose
it, and replaces it by a more simple explanation. He was led to give
up his earlier view by finding that the veno-pericardiac muscle
attached to the apex of each lung-sinus in Scorpio had no relation to
the thoraco-branchial muscles of Limulus, but was represented in it
by exactly similar veno-pericardiac muscles,
In Limulus, as in Scorpio, there is on each side of the sternal
surface a great blood-sinus in free communication with the lamelli-
gerous organs. If we suppose the mesosomatic appendages in the
Scorpion branch of the family to grow relatively smaller and smaller,
and to be purely respiratory in function, and to be aerial rather than
aquatic ; we have only further to imagine the four hinder pairs to
have taken on in the embryonic condition a very common trick of
growth, viz. an inward growth of invagination, to have the exact
condition of the modern scorpion’s lung-book.
The best known example of such inward growth is seen in the
hydatid-stage of Tcenia solium, and the introversion is probably due
to external pressure. Now, it is to be borne in mind that in the
modern scorpion development goes on within the ovary; the pressure
of the ovarian tunic must be considerable, and is at any rate a
possible cause of the invagination.
Coxal Glands of Mygale.t—Dr. P. Pelsencer describes the coxal
glands in a large South American Mygale (Theraphosa). The two
glands, which are quite separate, are placed on each side of the cepha-
lothorax, at the side of the entosternite (enthodére of Dugés) between
the lower plate and the upward prolongations of it, to which latter
they are intimately related in position, size, and form.
As surmised by Prof. Lankester, this gland is not a simple ovoid
glandular body, as in Scorpio, but is furnished with lobes correspond-
ing to the cox of the cephalothoracic appendages, as in Limulus. In
addit:on to these four coxal prolongations, the gland has two internal
projections near its middle third, corresponding to two slight excava-
tions of the entosternite, between its lower plate and its upper pro-
longations. The colour of the gland is uniform, a brownish-yellow,
not unlike that of the stomach and its lateral diverticula. Its
appearance is coarsely cellular, showing distinctly the groups of cells
of which it is made up. No efferent duct, either passing to the
exterior, or to any internal organ, was seen. The gland in Mygale,
like that of the adult Limulus and Scorpio, is therefore a closed
gland.
* (Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxv. (1885) pp. 339-42,
+ Proc. Zool. Soc, Lond., 1885, pp. 3-6 (1 pl.).
640 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Anatomy of Spiders.*—Dr. F. Dahl reviews certain statements of
Bertkau with respect to the anatomy of spiders. This observer has
mentioned that salivary glands have not been figured; Dahl calls
attention to the fact that he has himself observed and figured them in
Epeira cornuta, in the males of which species they are far better
developed than in the females; this may be accounted for by the fact
that the mature male takes little or no nourishment while the female
after depositing her eggs spins a web and catches and devours insects.
The paper contains rectifications of a few other statements made by
Bertkau which are believed by Dahl to be erroneous.
Hibernation and Winter Habits of Spiders.j—The Rev. Dr.
McCook describes some observations on this subject. In the case of
Theridion tepedariorum it would seem that the hibernation is not
accompanied with a great degree of torpidity ; that the spiders pre-
serve their activity and spinning habit while exposed to cold ranging
from freezing point to zero (Fahr.); that after long and severe
exposure, the recovery of complete activity when they are brought
into a warm temperature is very rapid, almost immediate ; and that
on the return of spring, even after a prolonged and severe winter,
they at once resume their habits.
In all the specimens experimented on the abdomens were full,
indicating perfect health. Other spiders hung upon their webs with
shrivelled abdomens, quite dead; but the author could not determine
that they perished by the cold. There appeared to be no growth
during hibernation. The same facts hold good as to the winter habits
of orb-weayers. The young survive in the cocoons provided by
maternal instinct. But early in the spring many adults of both sexes
are found, who have also safely weathered the cold months. Many
specimens of Hpeira vulgaris shelter within a thick tubular or arched
screen, open at both ends, which is bent in the angles of woodwork, or
beneath an irregular rectangular silken patch stretched across a
corner. Many others burrow behind cocoons, and are quite covered
up by the thick flossy fibre of which these are composed. Examples
of EH. strix were found blanketed in precisely the same way during the
winter months.
e. Crustacea.
Urinary Organs of Amphipoda,t—Mr. W. Baldwin Spencer finds
that little is stated in the text-books as to the presence in certain
Crustacea of small but well-defined appendages which open into the
posterior part of the alimentary canal; the best method of examining
these tubes is to cut sections through the whole of the body, when
the course that they take and their relation to the neighbouring
organs can be easily made out.
The author has carefully investigated the tubes of Talitrus locusta ;
the walls were found to be cellular in nature, and within these were
* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 241-3.
+ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1885, pp. 102-4.
t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxv. (1885) pp. 183-92 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 641
very definite concretions, but in no case could any sign of a concretion
be detected within or between the cells. The presence of these
bodies, which are extremely minute, may be associated with the pro-
cess of ecdysis ; phosphoric acid was found in them, whereas Nibeski
found carbonate of lime in Orchestia cavimana. We must wait for a
knowledge of their developmental history before we can say definitely
whether or no they are homologous with the Malpighian tubes of the
Tracheata.
Development of the Egg and Formation of the Primitive
Layers in Cuma Rathkii*—Dr. H. Blanc’s researches on this
subject, of which mention has already been made,t} are now published
in eatenso.
Development of Cyclops.t{—The development of Cyclops has been
studied by a great many authors, but little is known concerning the
origin of the body-cavity and most of the internal organs. M. F.
Urbanovies has addressed himself to solve these questions, and has
arrived at the following results :—
A dorsal organ is formed as in the Isopoda, which is composed of
a single layer of cylindrical cells. The body-cavity is formed by
paired excavations of a mesoblast band; each pair of cavities corre-
sponds to a segment and the dissepiments dividing them from each
other only disappear very late; the dorsal and ventral mesenteries
persist throughout life; the dorsal mesentery contains a space which
is a remnant of the blastoccel and plays an important part in the
circulation in the absence of a heart. It is obvious that these facts
indicate a far closer similarity with the Tracheata and Annelida than
is admitted by Balfour in his ‘ Comparative Embryology.’
Anatomy of the Cirripedia.s—Dr. P. P. C. Hoek has issued a
supplementary memoir on the Cirripedes of the “ Challenger,” which,
as we have already stated, || he promised to prepare.
The complementary male of Scalpellum has never been described
since the time of Darwin’s first notice of it ; Dr. Hoek found this
male in 19 out of 41 new species, and always at about the same
place, that is, a little above the musculus adductor scutorum; in 18
of the species the testes were mature ; in thirteen cases the male was
more degenerated than in S. vulgare. The 24 forms whose males
are now known have either a special capitulum and a stalk, as in
three species; or there is no division of the body, but there are rudi-
mentary shell-valves, as in eight species; or there is no division of
the body and no valves, as in thirteen species. The first of these are
littoral in habitat; the second live at depths of at least 700 fathoms ;
and the third (with three exceptions) live at depths greater than 1000
fathoms. Two of the three exceptions belong to the arctic fauna,
where, as is now well known, deep-sea forms of other latitudes are
found living at lesser depths.
* Rec. Zool. Suisse, ii. (1885) pp. 253-75 (1 pl.).
¢ See this Journal, ante, p. 238.
t Zool. Anzeig., vii. (1884) pp. 615-9.
§ Tijdschr. Nederl. Dierk. Vereen., vi. (1882-5) pp. 64-142 (6 pls.).
\| See this Journal, iv, (1884) p. 891.
642 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
After describing the Cypris-larval forms, the author passes to the
male of Scalpellum regium, where the microscopic body consists of an
elongated sac, closed on all sides; there is only a very small cleft
between the two scuta; the tentacles are the only appendages which still
show their primitive form; the feet are functionless and straight, and
the gnathites have disappeared. In young males the cement-apparatus
is well developed, but in mature forms it is not so distinct; the
enteron is aborted and functionless, and no signs of circulatory or
respiratory organs are to be detected. The nervous system consists
of arather small cerebral ganglion, a comparatively feeble esophageal
ring, and a large ventral ganglion; the peripheral nerves are not
well developed, and there do not seem to be any eyes, or other sensory
organs. The generative system is the only one which is well
developed, and of it only the male organs; even these are much
more concentrated than in ordinary hermaphrodite Cirripeds; there
is only one testis, which has the form of a compressed gland, and
the seminal vesicle is single, instead of being double. In all
these points the small males of other deep-sea species agree with
S. regium.
In the genus Scalpellum Dr. Hoek distinguishes three stages of
sexual differentiation.
J. True hermaphrodite species, all members of which have both
female and male genital products; they are probably self-fecun-
dating. Ex. S. balanoides.
II. Species with large hermaphrodite members, and small males ;
the latter may (S. villosum), or may not (S. vulgare) have a stalk, a
mouth and a stomach.
III. Species with the sexes separate; the females large, the males
small, and, probably, short-lived; e. g. S. regium.
The Cirripedes are rich in organs of an unknown, or at least
problematical function, and those first discussed are the “‘ Segmental
organs”; these were regarded by Darwin as being sensory in func-
tion, but Hoek ascribes to them the duty of excretory organs: he is
supported in this view by the presence of muscular fibres connected
with the numerous lacune, similar to those seen by Grobben in the
region of the antennary gland of the Decapoda.
The cement-glands are next discussed ; and then the “ true
ovaries ” of Darwin, which Hoek looks upon as having a function in
relation to the digestive tract, though it is clear that they are not
salivary glands; they probably approximate to pancreatic or hepatic
cells.
The eye of a Cirriped was first seen by Leidy, who described the
two small lateral eyes of Balanus ; Dr. Hoek describes the eye of
Lepas, and points out that there are certain points of resemblance to
what Leydig has described in insects.
The paper concludes with an account of the female generative
organs; the apparatus which is found at the end of the oviduct
possibly represents a second segmental organ; the sac is regarded as
representing the infundibulum of the primitive segmental organ, and
it is no objection against this homology that it serves for the
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 643
evacuation of genital products, or that its cells, in place of being
excretory, have the function of providing a cementing mass for the
ova.
Embryology of Balanus.*—According to M. N. Nassonow the
ovum divides vertically into two sub-equal segments, of which the
anterior forms the later ectoderm, whilst from the posterior and
granular segment is exclusively derived entoderm and mesoderm.
An amphigastrula is formed, the blastopore closes, and the entoderm
divides, beginning ventrally, to form a symmetrical plate of mesoderm.
The chief part of the mesoderm goes to form the three pairs of ventral
projections which are the rudiments of the limbs of the nauplius, and
does not take any share in the formation of the muscular system.
The anus is formed at the spot where the blastopore originally
occurred.
Vermes.
Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis in Branchiobdella.tj—Dr. W.
Voigt finds that the reproductive organs of Branchiobdella are formed
on the type of the Oligocheta; the two ovaries are in the eighth
segment, and, even in living forms, are distinguishable by their
whitish coloration; each consists of a compact mass of cells attached
to the septum by a muscular stalk; the testes are found in the sixth
segment, but their stalk of attachment is not provided with muscular
tissue. During its development the cells of the ovary exhibit great
powers of multiplication; the ova derive their nourishment from a
pair of vascular loops which extend from the dorsal to the ventral
trunk.
in treating of spermatogenesis, the author makes use of the
terminology of La Valette St. George, who recognizes five stages—those
of the sexual cells, spermatogonia, spermatocytes, spermatids, and
spermatosomata. What Mr. Blomfield called the blastophor is here
called the cytophor. The sexual cells give rise to spermatogonia in
the ordinary way, and by indirect division of the latter to spermato-
germs. The author has been able to observe in both testes and
ovaries degenerated cells, the cause of which is often due to the
taking in of a large quantity of fluid.
New Parasitic Leech.}—Dr. J. Leidy describes a new parasitic
leech infesting the mouth of the so-called Colorado pike (Ptychochilus
lucivs). From its conspicuous gland-like organs and habit, Dr. Leidy
proposes to name it Adenobdella oricola.
Archenchytreus Mobii.§—The structure of this new species is
briefly described by M. W. Michaelsen. The worm has about sixty
sete-bearing segments, and the sete are aggregated in bundles of three
to five. The testes are developed on the mesentery, separating
segments 10 and 11, the ovaries on the succeeding mesentery. The
* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 193-5.
¢ Arbeit. Zool. Zoot. Inst. Wirzburg, vii. (1885) pp. 300-68 (3 pls.).
$ Science, v. (1885) pp. 434-5 (1 fig.).
§ Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 237-9.
644 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
vasa deferentia open on to segment 12; the oviducts on to segment 13.
The spermathece are in segments 4 and 5; each is furnished with a
pair of diverticula. During sexual maturity the spermathece com-
municate with the lumen of the intestine; in the neighbourhood of
the spermathecal apertures are peculiar aggregations of cells con-
nected with nerves and apparently sensory ; the buccal cavity contains
a projecting process of the mucous membrane, similar to what has
been described by Vejdovsky in Anacheta bohemica ; it appears, how-
ever not to be a gustatory organ but a sucker.
Nervous System of Polychetous Annelids.*—M. G. Pruvot finds
that the nervous system of Annelids is always, even when it is more
deeply situated, continuous with the hypodermis by at least part of
the surface of its ganglia; it is always composed of a cortical sub-
stance which encloses nerve-cells in a stroma of anastomosing fibres,
and of a medullary substance which consists of peripheral nerve-cells
in a central dotted substance; this last is to be regarded as the true
centre, and all the nerves really arise from it. The medullary sub-
stance forms four longitudinal trunks in the ventral chain, and of
these the two external do not communicate directly with one another,
but only with the two internal.
The ganglia which are sometimes found on the cesophageal con-
nectives are only the first ventral ganglia which have ascended, and
have lost their transverse commissure. ‘The stomatogastric has some-
times a double (cerebral and sub-cesophageal), sometimes only sub-
cesophageal or a cerebral origin; when well developed it may, as in
the Euniceide, reveal the characters of the general nervous system,
by forming a small ventral ganglionic chain, and an cesophageal collar ;
or, as in the Nepthydez and Phyllodoceide its elongated roots may
terminate in a small peri-proboscideal ring formed by a large number
of small similar ganglia.
In each segment the pedal nerve arises from the two ventral cords
by two roots; it follows the integument for the whole of its course,
and divides into two branches, which again divide into two trunks
for the setigerous bulb and the pedal cirrus. AIl the appendages of
the somites are to be regarded as more or less modified feet; the author
points out the differences which are to be found in different appendages
of various parts of the antenne, especially with regard to their
nervous supply. As the investigation of this necessitates the destruc-
tion of the animal, he points out that palpi may always be dis-
tinguished from antenne by their insertion in the ventral surface of
the body, and by their form or size.
Larval forms of Spirorbis borealis.;—Mr. J. W. Fewkes gives a
detailed description of the larval forms of Spirorbis borealis Dandin.
The ova are in bead-like strings, composed of from one to four
rows with ten to fifteen or more eggs each. The later stages in the
segmentation of the egg resemble those of other chaetopod eggs: the
younger stages were not found.
* Arch. Zool. Exper. et Gén., iii. (1885) pp. 211-336 (6 pls.).
+ Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 247-57 (2 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 645
The larve described differ in some particulars from those of
S. spirillum Gould, described by A. Agassiz, and even more widely
from the young of S. spirillum, described by Pagenstecher; but are
considered by the author to be of the same species as that described
as S. spirillum by A. A. Gould.
On escaping from the egg capsule, the young larva swims about
in the water with considerable activity, and is often captured with
the dip-net in surface fishing. The free larva often does not im-
mediately settle to the bottom prior to the secretion of the case in
which it lives, but passes through the preliminary stages while floating
on the water, until the increasing specific gravity of its body sinks it.
The case or shell is not at first coiled, but horn-shaped. The most
prominent structure about the body of the larva at this stage is an
oblong mass of cells of brick-red colour seen through the transparent
walls of the shell, but of their probable function nothing is said.
Skin and Nervous System of Priapulus and Halicryptus.*—Dr.
R. Scharff finds in the skin of these Gephyrea a third layer, or one
additional to the cuticle and hypodermis described by Ehlers; this is
extremely thin, and consists of connective tissue ; it is well developed
in Sipunculus nudus, where it is the seat of secreting glands and of
accumulations of pigment; the cuticle lines the interior of the
cesophagus; around the anus of P. caudatus the hypodermis is
curiously modified, its cells being much elongated, and at the same
time expanded so as to form a compact mass, to which the author is
inclined to ascribe an excretory function.
The proboscis of both Priapulus and Halicryptus is provided
with small dermal projections arranged in numerous longitudinal
rows ; on the body there are circular rows. In Priapulus caudatus
the spikes have the form of small trugcated cones, just visible to the
naked eye; through the circular opening at their top there project a
number of delicate hairs; the spikes appear to be retractile. The
most striking analogy between these and sensory organs in other
animals is to be found by comparing them with the organs of the
lateral line in fishes.
As to the nervous system, the author’s results agree generally
with those of Horst; in both genera examined the system lies entirely
in the-ectoderm ; the position of the cord is marked externally by a
shallow groove on the ventral surface ; the apparent swellings seen at
regular distances along the nerve-cord seem to be due to the power-
ful contractions of the annular muscles, by means of which the cord
is found to bulge out in the intervening spaces. Dr. Scharff differs
from all his predecessors in stating that the nervous system lies not
immediately under the hypodermis, but within it. The ganglionic
are merely modified hypodermic cells. Unlike Saenger, he was
unable to detect lateral nerves given off from the main trunk and
surrounding the body as in Sipunculus nudus; though thinking it
rash to deny the presence of peripheral nerves, the author inclines to
the view that the whole of the hypodermis acts as a kind of nervous
* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxy. (1885) pp. 193-213 (1 pl.).
Ser. 2.—Vou. V. ZU
646 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
layer ; at the same time he recognises that the well-developed sensory
organs and the organisation of the nerve-cord hardly support this
idea.
Development of Spherularia bombi.*—M. L. Joliet has a note on
Schneider’s account of his recent observations on the development
of this parasite. Female Bombi, infested by Spherularia, do not
prosper, but die at the beginning of June, when the embryos of the
parasite are set at liberty. These require a damp, well-aerated, and
non-putrefying situation; «fter two successive moults they acquire
their sexual characters. During the free stage they take no food,
and do not copulate. If they succeed in introducing themselves into
the intestine of a larval Bonbus they continue their development.
New Nematoid from Merlangus.j—M. L. Ferument describes a
new nematoid from the intestines of Merlangus vulgaris, for which he
proposes the name of Spinitecius oviflagellis; it 1s very delicate in
form, and has its integument completely covered by an armature of
spines arranged in transverse rings, by means of which it is enabled
to fix itself firmly to the mucous membrane of its host. The head is
unarmed. There is no swelling of the digestive tube. The eggs
are proportionately large, being one-fifth of the width of their
parent; they are characterised by having at either pole a small
appendage in the form of a flattened button; at its circumference
there are, at definite distances from one another, three very fine fila-
ments which, when unrolled, are fourteen or fifteen times as long as
the egg.
The new genus appears to belong to the family of the Filaride
and to stand nearest to the genus Hystrichis.
Nervous System of Bothriocephalide.t—M. J. Niemiec has
investigated the nervous system of Bothriocephalus latus, and of a
species of the same genus which is parasitic in the dog. The lateral
nerve-cords ascend into the scolex where they continue their original
direction ; there are no ganglia or any commissures in the hinder
part of the scolex, as has been asserted by some previous observers.
It is only in the anterior extremity of the scolex that the lateral cords
turn towards one another, and, after an inconsiderable enlargement,
unite by a well-developed commissure ; this last contains ganglionic
cells, and may be called the central ganglion, though it is not so
sharply delimited as in Tenia. The lateral cords give rise, just
below the commissure, to four nerves on either side, which spread out
radially, and then curve backwards to accompany the principal cords.
The latter give off a series of short nervous filaments which pass to
the epithelium. The author points out the value of the study of the
nervous system of Bothriocephalus as explaining that of Tenia ; it is
simpler and more primitive in character.
* Arch, Zool. Expér. et Gén., iii. (1885) p. Ixxii.
+ Ann. Sci. Nat.—Zool., xvii. (1885) 8 pp. and 1 pl.
{ Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 1013-5.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 647
Parasites of Fresh-water Fishes.*—M. F. Zschokke has been in-
vestigating the organization and zoological distribution of the para-
sitic worms of fresh-water fishes. He has examined twelve species
from the Lake of Geneva, among which are Perca fluviatilis, Cyprinus
carpio, Trutta variabilis, Salmo umbla, and Esox lucius. The first
result of these studies is to demonstrate the presence of 87 species
of parasitic worms; three at least of these are new species; they are
found in nearly all the organs of the body; six of the eleven species
of Cestoda were found in the strobila-stage, two in the scolex, and
three in both. Only three of the species had no special parasite
(namely, Coregonus, Trutta, and Cyprinus carpio). A table of distri-
bution shows that the rapacious fishes (Salmonide, Gadide, Esocide)
are the richest in different species of parasites. The genera of
parasites have a close relation to the food of their host; thus the
carniyorous forms have a very remarkable preponderance of adult
Cestoids ; on the other hand, the Cyprinide, which are herbivorous,
are rich in Acanthocephali, for with their vegetable nutriment they
take in a number of small Crustacea. The Trematoda are very
regularly distributed ; Nematoids are found in nearly all.
The author further directed particular attention to the difficult
question of whether the parasites are the same throughout the year,
or vary with different seasons, and, so far as he was able to judge,
he found that the number of parasites does not vary considerably
during the year. He notes, lastly, what must have struck other ob-
servers, that the number of female Ascarids is excessively large in
proportion to the males.
The preceding introduction to the paper is amply supplied with
very valuable tables of statistics.
Dealing with the species in detail, the author gives notes on the
various forms: Tenia salmonis umble is a new species found in the
intestines of Salmo wmbla ; it is from three to five centimetres long,
the jointing is only feebly indicated, and the head has, on its anterior
surface, a slight depression, which has the appearance of being a
large but very shallow sucker. The genital orifices are placed in
pits, and alternately, though not regularly, on either side. No ripe
proglottids were detected. The author proposes to unite the species
distinguished by Rudolphi as Bothriocephalus infundibuliformis and
B. proboscideus.
Nothing is to be added to the excellent account given by Pintner
of the excretory system of Tricnophorus.
Distoma nodulosum was found in eight of the twelve hosts ex-
amined, and D. globiporum is very widely distributed; D. tereticolle
is most common in the trout. With some hesitation, Diplozoon
paradoazum, in its Diporpa-stage, is reported from the gills of Lota
vulgaris and Cottus gobio.
Sporocystis cotti n. sp. was very frequently found in the muscles
of Cottus gobio, under the form of small, whitish, elongated cysts, but
the Distomum to which they belong has not yet been discovered.
* Arch. de Biol., y. (1884) pp. 153-241 (2 pls.).
202
648 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Echinorhynchus proteus and EH. angustatus are very common, but
E. claveeceps was only found once in the rectum of Leuciscus rutilus.
With a good deal of hesitation, a specimen found in the intestine
of Thymallus vulgaris is regarded as being a young form of Gordius
aquaticus ; such characters as were to be detected seem to justify the
author’s view, but they are hardly sufficient for certainty.
In an appendix a report is made on certain psorosperms which
were found under the skin of Coregonus fera, and appear to be the
cause of an affection to which this fish is subject, especially in the
spring; agrecing generally with the piscine psorosperms described
by Balbiani, they do not exactly resemble those seen by Lunel and
described by Claparéde ; they have two vesicles at the end opposite
to the “ tails,” whereas, in all species, according to Balbiani, they are
found near the tails; as, however, these vesicles give off an extremely
fine canal, which passes to the base of the tail, it is probable that, as
in others, they serve as a sheath for these processes.
Free-swimming Sporocyst.*—Prof. R. Ramsay-Wright records the
existence of a hitherto unknown form of sporocyst, one specimen of
which he observed recently swimming very actively in an aquarium
containing a few water-plants and fresh-water mollusca. In form and
size it recalls the larger Cercarie with forked tails, and contains a
single tailless Cercaria or larval Distome. In accordance with its
free life, the muscular system is much better developed than usual,
and the same is true of the water-vascular system. Of special inte-
rest are tactile papille, which beset the surface, and which obviously
enable the sporocyst to find the definitive host for its contained larva.
Development of Turbellaria.j—Mlle. 8. Pereyaslawzew communi-
cates a short abstract of her results obtained by studying the develop-
ment of the Turbellaria Accela. The ovum divides into two equal
halves, from each of which a small cell is detached; the further pro-
cesses of cell-division are detailed; they result in the formation of a
gastrula, the smaller cells becoming the ectoderm; the larger cells
form the endoderm, and also give rise to the mesoderm ; as develop-
ment advances the embryo takes on an angulated contour such as has
been figured by Metschnikoff; when it reaches the gastrula stage it
becomes again rounded and clothed externally with cilia.
Fresh-water Turbellaria of North America.{—Mr. W. A. Silliman
has been engaged in studying the fresh-water T'urbellaria of Monroe
County (State of New York), and as the area is rather limited, he
thinks it probable that he has found all the forms that live there.
A comparatively large number of new species are described.
Macrostoma sensitivum n. sp. has generative organs of much the
same character as those of M. hystrix, but the male orifice is not at
the end of the penis, but some distance behind it. The author finds
that forms with no schizoccel have a more richly branched water-
vascular system, while Microstoma and others which haye a well-
* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 310-1.
+ Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 269-71.
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xli. (1884) pp. 48-78 (2 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 649
developed ccelom have a proportionally smaller number of vascular
branches; the physiological cause of this appears to be that, in the
latter, the ciliated funnels are nearer to a larger quantity of lym-
phatic fluid, and so are more easily able to conduct it into the
capillaries of the water-vascular system. The integument of Platy-
helminths appears to be capable of endosmosis but not adapted to
exosmosis ; in consequence of this the received water has to make
its way out by special efferent canals. The two species of Micro-
stoma described are M. lineare of Oersted, and M. caudatum of Leidy.
Stenostoma agile is a new species, in which the ciliated pits lie
far forwards, and are innervated by nerves from the anterior lobes
of the cerebral mass. There are four new species of Mesostoma.
M. gonocephalum, in which the eyes are reniform and appear to have
small lenses, which are not, however, highly refractive. MM. cecum,
which has no eyes, is without true pigment, and is only occasionally
coloured by its food; there are no flagella or other tactile hairs; it
was found in mud, under stones. M. pattersoni has a number of cells
and cell-spheres in its perienteric fluid, and these are driven about by
every contraction of the body-wall; the water-vascular system is
particularly easy to detect, and the ciliated lobes are most numerous
in the cephalic region. The interesting peculiarity of M. viviparum
is denoted by its specific name; there appears to be no vitellarium,
the ovary is not well defined in area, the ova lying in the parenchyma,
near the genital orifice. There is no sign of any bursa copulatrix or
receptaculum seminis. All the embryos of one mother appear to be
at about the same stage in development. The author hopes to
describe the developmental history at a future time. True viviparous
Turbellaria are extremely rare, none being known in Europe, though
two have been described by Girard from North America, Chlorophyll-
bodies are richly developed, and the author refers them to the pre-
sence of alg; he goes so far as to correlate with their presence the
absence of a vitellarium, and the habit of viviparity, thinking that the
embryos find the maternal body a suitable place for development in
consequence of the abundance of food and oxygen.
Gyrator (?) albus n. sp. is the name given to a sexually immature
species.
In Vortex pinguis n. sp. the testes are irregular sacs, and the
penis is completely separated from the seminal vesicle; the sperma-
tophores are fairly simple in structure ; the vestibule of the generative
organs is s0 spacious as to serve for a uterus, in which the ova are
invested by yolk after fertilization. V. blodgetti n. sp. has the copu-
latory organ provided with six spines.
Plagiostoma(?) planum is the name of a new species which is
founded on a single example, with an extensile terminal mouth, and
with a spacious intestine which is provided with a pair of diverticula ;
these are not mere constrictions as in some species. Spaces or
lacune in the body-parenchyma are very rare.
The author takes the opportunity of describing Tetrastemma
aquarum duleium to express his belief that the four groups of
Rhabdocela, Triclada, Polyclada, and Nemertinea are of the same
650 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
classificatory value, and are four orders of the class Turbellaria.
He enumerates in all twenty-one species, and expresses his opinion
that a considerable proportion will be found to be common to North
America and Europe; into the interesting remarks that he makes on
already known species our space forbids us to enter.
Later Stages in the Development of Balanoglossus.*— Mr. W.
Bateson gives an account of his observations on the later develop-
mental stages of Balanoglossus Kowalevskii, and makes a suggestion
as to the affinities of the Enteropneusta. A notice of Mr. Bateson’s
work on the earlier stages of the species has been already given.
As the cilia of the larva disappear a peculiar organ, in the form of
a small papilla, bearing long cilia and mucous glands, appears on the
central part of the posterior surface ; this serves as asucker, and then
entirely disappears ; it is essentially similar to the larval suckers of
Tunicates, Ganoids, and Amphibians, but it is not, apparently, an
ancestral character.
Owing to the transparency of the body at an early stage the ali-
mentary canal may be easily seen to consist of an anterior branchial
tract, a middle digestive, and a posterior intestinal portion. As the
animal loses its cilia and before the second pair of gill-slits become
developed it creeps into the upper layer of mud, its mouth comes
to be directed forwards, a notochord becomes distinctly visible, and
the opercular fold appears in the form of a circular thickening.
As the body increases in size it becomes more and more trans-
parent, but this phenomenon is, possibly, of no real significance, being
due merely to the rapid growth of the animal. As the body grows,
the number of gill-slits increases ; it seems probable that they go on
increasing during the greater part, if not the whole, of the life of the
animal; the largest number of pairs of slits observed was fifty-seven.
As the gills appear in greater number the distinction between the
digestive and intestinal regions of the animal becomes better marked.
Balanoglossus appears to have a very peculiar odour, which is
described by Mr. Bateson as being “very penetrating and persistent,
resembling that of chloride of lime with a fcecal admixture.” Ina
new and as yet undescribed species—B. Brooksii—the smell, which
is strongly suggestive of iodoform, is very distinct after some months’
preservation in spirit (often changed), and is “a considerable draw-
back to investigating the species.”
There appears in the anterior dorsal wall of the gut, a most
remarkable structure which is regarded by Mr. Bateson as the noto-
chord ; it first arises by a forward growth of the anterior dorsal wall
of the pharynx, which thus shuts off a short diverticulum of hypo-
blast; this is aided by a longitudinal constriction of the dorsal region
of the pharynx which gradually travels backwards, separating a hollow
hypoblastic tube, which remains open to the gut behind, and by a
forward growth from the point of junction with the gut.
The skeletal rods first appear as two short rods of a deeply
stained, structureless substance which lie in the angles between the
* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. Supplement (1885) pp. 81-122.
+ See this Journal, ante, p. 461.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 651
notochord and the dorsal wall of the pharynx; they appear to be of
hypoblastic origin, and it is possible that they are formed at the
expense of the notochord. Later on, the notochord increases greatly
in size, and becomes vacuolated just like the notochord of young
Lampreys and Elasmobranchs; the skeletal rods, becoming of con-
siderable size, unite anteriorly to form a single bar, while the whole
structure forms the support of the proboscis.
“ From its development, position, relations to surrounding parts,
histology, and function,” Mr. Bateson says, “it appears to me to be
comparable with the notochord of the Chordata, and this name is
strictly appropriate to it. Even if the suggestions which will be
made hereafter as to its phylogenetic significance be not accepted, this
rejection would in no way militate against the fact that this structure is
to all intents and purposes a notochord, which can only be designated
as a longitudinal dorsal supporting rod, derived from the hypoblast.”
Particular attention is given to the resemblances between the
Enteropneusta and Amphioxus ; as to the position and mode of origin
of the central nervous system there is great similarity, the only im-
portant point of difference being that the invagination of the dorsal
cord is only partial in Balanoglossus, but is complete in Amphioxus.
Echinodermata.
Phylogeny of Echinoderms.*—Mr. H. F. Nachtrieb records some
observations made on the development of many of the Echinodermata
of Beaufort, and concludes with some remarks on the phylogeny of
Echinoderms. If we compare the origin of the body-cavity and water-
vascular system in the different classes, we see that in the Holo-
thurians we have one median pouch given off from the enteron,
and that it, by division, gives rise to the body-cavity and water-
system. In the Echinoids there is a two-horned pouch given off. In
the star-fish there are two separate lateral pouches given off, of which
the left gives rise anteriorly to the water-system, and the right and
the posterior part of the left become the body-cavity. In Ophiurids
so far as known, there are two separate pouches, both of which divide,
the anterior part of the left becoming the water-system, the anterior
of the right atrophying, and the posterior parts of the right and left
becoming the body-cavity. In the Crinoids there are first given off
two separate pouches, which become the body-cavity, and then a
single one, that becomes the water-system. Assuming that the story
of the Ophiurids and Crinoids is correct, we have here a rising scale,
in which the Holothurians occupy the lowest, the star-fish the middle,
and the Crinoids the highest position. In favour of this there are
some anatomical facts.
The objections of paleontology are not very difficult to answer. In
assuming the Holothurians as the primitive forms it is not necessarily
implied that the line of development is a straight one, as it is repre-
sented above. It is quite probable that the line began to break with
the appearance of the star-fish.
* Johns-Hopking Univ. Cire., iv. (1885) pp. 67-8.
652 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Arbaciade.*—In this first part of their paper on the family
Arbaciade Gray, Dr. P. Martin Duncan and Mr. W. P. Sladen treat
of the morphology of the test in the genera Colopleurus and Arbacia.
These two forms, as is shown by a minute study of the fossil and
recent species, have a great similarity of structure. In all (for
Arbacia nigra belongs to a different genus) the compound plates of
the ambulacra are formed of an adoral and an aboral demi-plate with
a large central primary plate. In all forms the optic pores are
double, and the perforation is in the adoral edge of the plate, a process
separating the pores. In all the forms the median or vertical sutures
of the interradia are marked with knobs or ridges, which correspond
with sockets or short grooves on the opposed plate edges. This kind
of dowelling is even seen in the ambulacra of Arbacia and along the
transverse interradial sutural edges of Calopleurus. :
Celopleurus is the oldest of the two genera: there are species
with the peculiar ambulacra in the Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene.
The recent species from the Indian Seas only differs from the Miocene
form in having high and not oblique interradial plates. All the
species of Arbacia, which are recent forms, that were examined pre-
sent no greater differences than can be accounted for on the theory of
descent.
Histology of Asterida.;—Dr. O. Hamann has a preliminary
notice on the histology of star-fishes, in which he points out that the
body-wall consists of an epithelium, which is followed by a layer of
connective tissue, in which the calcareous structures are developed.
Internally to it are a layer of circular and a layer of longitudinal
muscles; the latter was described by Ludwig as the lamella of sup-
porting substance ; in it the so-called ossicles are developed. In the
layer of supporting substance which lies on the muscular layers we
find the canal-system of the body-wall, which is invested by an
epithelium. Muscular bundles, passing off from the circular layer,
traverse the lumen of the canals, and end or branch at definite points
in the layer of supporting substance. The muscular layers may be
traced to the ossicles; and it is pointed out that the discovery of
these muscles enables us to explain the movement of a star-fish and its
arms. ‘The ambulacral gills are to be regarded as evaginations of the
dorsal wall, and have the same structure as it; their protrusion and
retraction is to be explained by their possession of a similar system
of muscles.
In addition to the well-known oral nerve-ring the author was able
to detect a nerve-plexus in the oral disk; this consists of nerve-fibrils
with scattered ganglionic cells, which pass into the epithelial cells of
the disk. It is pointed out that we have here an arrangement which
is comparable to that which Dr. Hamann has already described as
obtaining in Holothurians. In the dorsal integument there are
nerve-trunks which are ordinarily set at right angles to the long axis
of the arm. The dorsal epithelium consists of simple supporting
* Journ, Linn, Soc. Lond. (Zool.), xix. (1885) pp. 25-57 (2 pls.).
+ Nachr. K. Gesell. Wiss. Gattingen, 1884, pp. 885-6.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 653
cells among the basal prolongations of which we find nerve-fibrils, of
sensory, and of goblet-shaped glandular cells.
Stalked Crinoids of the ‘Challenger’ Expedition.*—Dr. P.
Herbert Carpenter has published in the ‘ Challenger’ reports a very
full monograph of the morphology of Crinoids generally, and an
extensive account of the stalked forms.
The first, or morphological, portion deals with the skeleton gene-
rally, and the mode of union of its component joints; in the second
chapter the stem and its appendages as seen in the Pentacrinide,
Bourgueticrinide, and Hyocrinide are considered, and the differences
in the three groups are pointed out; the author thinks that “the
resemblance and ‘ probable homology’ which Prof. Perrier sees be-
tween the arms and the root of a Crinoid are .... forced in the
extreme”; for the former are merely extensions of the body, while
the branches of the root have a very different structure, or, in other
words, that of the stem, as is indeed allowed by Perrier himself.
The terminal faces of the stem-joints of Hyocrinus are interesting as
being of the same nature as those of the Apiocrinide and many of
the Palezocrinoids.
In the third chapter the calyx, and in the fourth the rays are
dealt with; the characters of the pinnules of Paleocrinoids are dis-
cussed, and the view of Wachsmuth and Springer that the alternate
plates of Cyathocrinus are rudimentary pinnule is objected to,
analogy being apparently confused by them with homology. The
three functions of pinnules are, it is pointed out, that of protecting
the fertile portions of the genital glands, of serving as respiratory
organs, and of aiding in alimentation; in Cyathocrinus all these
functions might have been performed by the branching arms.
The division by Ludwig of the ccelom into an intervisceral and
circumvisceral portion is regarded as convenient, but it is pointed out
that in some species—such, for example, as Antedon eschrichti among
the Comatulids, and in the stalked Crinoids—it is difficult to fix a
definite boundary between them. The oral plates which, formed in
Pentacrinoid larvew, are absorbed during development, are retained
throughout life by Holopus, Hyocrinus, Rhizocrinus, and Thawmato-
erinus. \Vyville Thomson’s name of perisomatic skeleton is adopted
for “the basal and oral plates, the anal plate, the interradial plates,
and any other plates or spicules which may be developed in the
perisome of the cup or disk,” while that of “visceral skeleton” is
used to denote the “numerous spicules and networks of limestone
which occur more or less plentifully in the bands of connective tissue
that traverse the visceral mass of the Comatule” and the more or
less regular plates which are found within the disk of Pentacrinus ;
these are formed of a calcareous network interpenetrated by an
organic basis, which is of the same nature as in the joints and arms.
In the sixth chapter the minute anatomy of the disk and arms is
dealt with, and the author states that his extended observations on
* Report of the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger’—Zoology, xxxii, (1884)
440 pp. and 69 pls.
654 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Comatule and on Pentacrinus, Bathycrinus, and Rhizocrinus, enable
him to confirm in almost every respect the investigations of Ludwig
on Antedon rosacea ; especial attention is, as may be supposed, given
to the nervous system. In the discussion on the characters of the
colouring matter, it is interesting to observe that pentacrinin was
found in Holopus; one species of the new genus Metacrinus has a
different colouring matter, which is light pink when fresh.
The seventh chapter deals with the habits of Crinoids and their
parasites; the eighth with their geographical and bathymetrical dis-
tribution, the results of which are usefully arranged in tabular form.
A characteristic of the work is the attention which is given to
paleontological discoveries, and the relations of the Neocrinoids to
the Paleocrinoids. The following table shows the mutual homologies
of the principal plates in the actinal and abactinal systems of
Kehinoderms.
URCHINS. OPHIURIDS. CRINOIDS.
Abactinal | Abactinal | Actinal | Abactinal Actinal
MAT a aS
Symbatho- Actino-
crinus erinus
1. Central plate | Dorso- Dorso- 0 Terminal Oro- Oro-
central central plate at central -| central
base of
larval stem
2. First series, fd Under- Ne Under-
radial basals basals
(variable) variable.
3. Second serics,| Genitals Basgals Mouth- Basals Orals Proximal
interradial shields dome-
plates
4. Third series, | Oculars | Radials 36 Primary bo Primary
radial calyx dome-
radials. radials,
Orders of Orders of
calyx radials.
radials, Dome
Calyx interradials
interradials
The following is the classification adopted :—
Phylum. Echinodermata.
Branch. Pelmatozoa.
Class 1. Crinoidea.
», 4. Cystidea.
s,s o» Blastoidea.
In the order Neocrinoidea we have descriptions of the several
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 655
forms ; the first family is that of the Holopide, under which Holopus
is very fully described; the second family, that of the Hyocrinida,
is new, the character of Hyocrinus being sufficient to distinguish it
from the Apiocrinide ; de Loriol’s family name of Bourgueticrinide
(1882) is accepted for Bathycrinus and Rhizocrinus, the characters
of which are emended. In the Pentacrinide there is the new genus
Metacrinus for forms which appear to be confined to the Eastern seas.
Various problems are discussed in an appendix, and the whole work
concludes with a full bibliography of the Neocrinoids and an excellent
index.
Development of Comatula.*—Professor E. Perrier in a preliminary
notice brings forward the following facts concerning the organogeny
of Comatula.
From the archenteron are developed three diverticula; two
form the general body-cavity, while the third gives rise to the
ambulacral ring; directly the latter is formed it communicates with
the exterior by a single “stone canal.” The rudiment of the structure
termed by Ludwig the dorsal organ arises by a columnar thickening
of one of the layers of the right peritoneal sac; round the prolonga-
tion of the right peritoneal sac into the axis of the peduncle the
mesodermic tissue becomes differentiated into the chambered organ ;
a similar differentiation takes place in the walls of the calyx to form
five cords, which pass to the septum, separating the two halves of the
body-cavity ; these cords as well as the two peritoneal sacs and the
ambulacral sac share in producing the rudiments of the arms, which
thus contain (1) an ambulacral canal, (2) a subambulacral cavity con-
tinuous with the left peritoneal sac, and (3) a much smaller cavity
connected with the right peritoneal sac; later this cavity enlarges
and a new cavity—the genital space—appears between it and the
subambulacral cavity. The young Comatula is set free at the period
when each arm has only a single pair of pinnules; there are at that
time five “stone canals” which open directly on to the exterior;
these tubes generally rupture at the point where they enter the body-
walls, and appear therefore to open into the body-cavity, which they
never do in reality, even in the adult. At the same period of deve-
lopment a number of fibro-cellular cords appear around the cesophagus
and along the dorsal organ, which form a plexus of vessels which
send off branches, some opening on to the exterior of the body, and
some into the body-cavity and into the ambulacral vessels; a plexus
of these vessels envelope the dorsal organ, and has been compared by
Claus with the heart of sea-urchins and star-fishes. The ambulacral
system, therefore, together with these vessels, forms a single vascular
system functionally one, though developmentally composed of two
distinct and separate systems. The dorsal organ is prolonged into the
arms and into the pinnules, and forms the genital rachis; the dorsal
organ itself consists of pyriform cells which come to be grouped
round a central cavity ; this gives off short diverticula, and transverse
* Zool, Anzeig., viii, (1885) pp. 261-9.
656 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
sections of the whole organ occasionally present the appearance of
a glandular organ like the salivary glands; it is these numerous
cavities, no doubt, which led Ludwig to describe the dorsal organ as
a plexus of blood-vessels.
Ccelenterata.
Australian Hydroid Zoophytes.*—Mr. W. M. Bale has compiled
a catalogue of the Australian hydroid zoophytes, with a view not
only of affording a guide to the collections in the Sydney Museum,
but of providing students of natural history with a compact account
of all that has been done in the description and illustration of the
Australian representatives of this group. A general introduction on
the morphology of the Hydroida is prefixed to the systematic portion
of the catalogue, which contains a large amount of new and valuable
matter, including descriptions of 23 new species:—Pennaria (1),
Campanularia (3), Lineolaria (1), Sertularia (7), Thuiaria (2), Plumu-
laria (4), Antennularia (1), Halicornaria (4).
Ceelenterates of the Southern Seas.+—Dr. R. von Lendenfeld, in
his fifth communication, deals with the Australian Hydromeduse ;
in his introduction he notes the great abundance of marine animals
in Port Jackson, and states that his investigations have been greatly
aided by the liberality of Mr. W. Mackay. The list of species
amounts to no less than two hundred and forty-one.
In his sixth communication ft the author deals with Neis cordigera
of Lesson, a Beroid which was first discovered in 1824; from Beroe
the species differs by having high lobes which project far above the
sensory poles, and by not having the vascular system of the gela-
tinous tissue of one-half of the body separated from that of the other.
In form, Neis is intermediate between Beroe and the Lobate; four of
the ctenophores are longer than the other four; the sensory organ at
the aboral pole has no special peculiarities; the generative products
appear to be confined to the parts of the vascular plexus which are
widely separated by the meridional canals, and in this point this
Australian species differs essentially from Beroe.
Chromatology of Actinie.§ — Dr. C. A. MacMunn finds that
Actinia mesembryanthemum contains a colouring matter which can be
changed into hemochromogen and hematoporphyrin; this is present in
other species, and from its characters it is provisionally named
actiniohematin. It is not actiniochrome (a pigment found by
Prof. Moseley in the tentacles of Bunodes crassicornis), as its band
occurs nearer the violet than that of actiniochrome. Moreover, both
actiniochrome and actiniohematin- can be extracted with glycerin, in
which the latter is convertible into hemochromogen, but the former
remains unchanged. Actiniochrome is generally confined to the
* Bale, W. M., ‘Catalogue of the Australian Hydroid Zoophytes,’ 8vo,
Sydney, 1884, 198 pp. (19 pls.).
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xli. 1885) pp. 616-72.
t{ Tom. cit., pp. 673-82 (1 pl.).
§ Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxviii. (1885) pp. 85-7. See this Journal, ante, p. 464,
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 657
tentacles, and is not respiratory ; actiniohematin occurs in the ecto-
derm and endoderm, and is respiratory.
A special colouring matter is found in Sagartia parasitica, different
from either of the above, and this too exists in different states of
oxidation. It is not apparently identical with that obtained by Heider
from Cerianthus membranaceus.
In the mesoderm and elsewhere in Actinia mesembryanthemum and
other species, a green pigment occurs which alone and in solution
gives all the reactions of biliverdin.
Anthea cereus, Bunodes ballii, and Sagartia bellis, yield to solvents
a colouring matter resembling chlorofucin, and all the colouring
matter, which in them shows this spectrum, is derived from the
yellow cells” (= symbiotic alge) which are abundantly present in
their tentacles and elsewhere. It is not identical with any animal or
plant chlorophyll, as is proved by adding reagents to its alcoholic
solution.
When “yellow cells” are present, there appears to be a sup-
pression of those colouring matters which in other species are of
respiratory use.
Porifera.
Relationship of Sponges to Choano-flagellata.*—Dr. F. E. Schulze
criticizes the views held by Saville Kent and others, respecting the
systematic position of the sponge; the so-called collared cells are
closely similar to certain flagellate Infusoria; and this resemblance
was held by these authors as a proof of the close affinity between the
two groups. Saville Kent has brought forward other reasons in
support of this opinion ; in the first place he has studied the larve of
certain sponges, and has inferred from their development and struc-
ture that they do not correspond in any sense to a gastrula, but are
to be interpreted as simple colonies of Choano-flagellata; a mature
sponge larva consists of a hollow sphere surrounded by a single layer
of collared cells, and those cases where the larva consists of simple
flagellate cells in one half of the sphere and granular non-ciliated
cells in the other half are believed by him to be later developmental
stages. Schulze points out that Saville Kent’s statements have not
been borne out by other investigators, and that no one but himself
has seen the collared cells in the larve ; he suggests further that the
so-called “larve” are in reality nothing more than portions of
sponge tissue separated by teasing, which would account for the
appearances observed and described by Saville Kent. Evenif Kent’s
observations are correct, the fact of the development of the sponge
gemmule from an ovum fertilized by true spermatozoa at once sets
aside any possibility of a comparison with a colony of Choano-
flagellata. The discovery of a Choano-flagellate (Protospongia) con-
sisting of numerous collared cells imbedded in a common gelatinous
matrix is not, as Saville Kent thought, an argument in favour of his
hypothesis, since in sponges the gelatinous tissue compared by him
* SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1885, pp. 179-91. See Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist., xy. (1885) pp. 365-77.
658 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
to this matrix is a true connective-tissue and has indeed been recently
shown by Von Lendenfeld to contain nervous and sensory cells; it is
true that in the Choano-flagellate amceboid cells wander into the
gelatinous matrix, but this is connected with spore formation, and
“no fixed connective-tissue cells at all are formed,” not to mention
the nervous structure already referred to.
New Variety of Meyenia fluviatilis.* — Mr. H. J. Carter de-
scribes a new variety of Meyenia fluviatilis, for which he proposes the
varietal name of angustibirotulata. 'The specimens were obtained near
Brentwood in Essex, and from the Calumet River, U.S.A. The dis-
tinguishing features of this new variety are the length and hour-glass
shape of the birotules, and the smooth skeletal spicule. The only
variety of M. fluviatilis with which it can be confounded is that of
Bombay. In this last, however, the shaft of the birotule is equal in
thickness throughout, and the skeletal spicule may be spiniferous
as well as smooth.
New Fresh-water Sponge.t—Mr. E. Potts describes a new fresh-
water sponge, Heteromeyenia Pictouensis nu. sp., from Pictou, Nova
Scotia. It is near H. Ryderii, but the peculiarities of its birotulates
distinguish it from that or any other species. It appears to be an
“evergreen,” continuing its life in the normal state throughout the
year, and for this reason seems not to form “ protected gemmules” in
such abundance as do other species.
Sponges of the Norwegian North Sea Expedition.{—Dr. G. A.
Hansen gives an account of forty-five species of sponges collected
during the Norwegian North Sea Expedition of 1876-8; there is one
new genus Clavellomorpha, which is placed next to Thenea. 'There is
a new species of Hyalonema, H. arcticum, many of the long spicules of
which are enlarged in the middle, where the axial canal is divided.
Twelve new species are placed in the genus Reniera, five with Suberites,
four with Myxilla, and two with Sclerilla ; there are four new species
of Desmacidon, and one of Gerodia. The five calcareous sponges have
all been described, and the nomenclature of Hickel is adopted.
Many of the specimens were incompletely preserved owing to the
evaporation of the alcohol, and the author was unable to trace out the
canal system; the species are, therefore, discriminated by their
spicules, in the description of which the stenographic system of
Vosmaer is made use of.
Protozoa.
Further Experiments on the Artificial Division of Infusoria.s—
Herr A. Gruber has been making some further observations on Stentor
ceruleus. An example a was cut transversely into two pieces; on
the next day both had become perfect organisms a’; one was again
* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xv. (1885) pp. 453-6.
+ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1885, pp. 28-9 (1 fig.).
{ Hansen, G. A., ‘Den Norske Nordhavs-Expedition, 1876-8, xiii., Spon-
giade,’ fol. Christiania, 1885, 25 pp., 7 pls. and 1 map.
§ Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) p. 137. See Naturtorscher, xviii. (1885) p. 204.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 659
divided into two, and on the next day there were two complete a’;
one of these was again cut with the same result, and one of the a’”’
in a similar way, with the like result. Further experiments have -
strengthened the belief of the author in the value of the nucleus in
regeneration ; pieces without a nucleus did well, but never grew up
into complete animals.
Vorticelle with Two Contractile Vesicles.*—Dr. A. C. Stokes
points out that besides Vorticella Lockwoodii Stokes, and V. monilata
Tatem, the following species of the genus possess two pulsating
vacuoles, a point in their structure which has been overlooked, viz. :—
V. vestita Stokes, and V. rhabdophora Stokes. The presence of double
vesicles has so far been observed only in such members of the genus
as possess some form of cuticular investment or of surface ornamenta-
tion rather.than transverse stria. As these species are apparently
more highly organized, and presumably somewhat higher in the scale
than are the smooth or simply striated forms, so are they slightly
more complex in structure.
New Fresh-water Infusoria.t—Dr. A. C. Stokes describes some
new fresh-water Infusoria from shallow ponds in central New Jersey.
Heteromita mutabilis n. sp. is remarkable for the presence and
variety of the posterior protrusions of the body-sarcode. From H. lens
(Mull.) S.K., it can be distinguished by its normally ovate or sub-
pyriform contour, but chiefly, apart from the posterior changes of
shape, by the diverse length and thickness of the flagella.
Petalomonas carinata n. sp. seems to combine the characters of
P. abscissa (Duj.) Stein and of P. mediocanellata Stein, the former
bearing one or two dorsal keel-like elevations, and the latter having a
groove traversing its ventral surface, while P. carinata possesses
both in a marked degree. It is much the smallest member of the
genus hitherto observed. Zygoselmis acus nu. sp. has its favourite
haunt in dead and partially empty algal cells. Anisonema emarginatum
n. sp. LEntosiphon ovatus n. sp. is much larger than EF. sulcatus (Duj.)
Stein. Tillina flavicans n. sp. somewhat closely resembles T. inflata
Stokes, which is here diagnosed and figured for comparison. Lacry-
maria truncata n. sp. is the only fresh-water member of the genus thus
far observed. It is remarkable for the very long and band-like
nucleus, and especially for the capacious conical pharyngeal passage
which has hitherto not been recorded as appearing in any of the
several marine species. Colpidium truncatum n. sp. differs from the
hitherto single known member of the genus in the oblique truncation
of the frontal border, the single nucleus, and the position of the con-
tractile vesicle. Vorticella octava n. sp. is characterized by the
peculiar twisted appearance of the sheath about the pedicle ; in none
of the previously described Vorticelle has such an appearance been
noted. Urostyla trichogaster n. sp. was for some time the pre-
vailing form in a vegetable infusion, gliding over the fungoid slime
on the surface as visible whitish spots.. By transmitted light it is
* Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 52-3.
+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xv. (1885) pp. 437-49 (1 pl.).
660 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
brown and semi-opaque. Opisthotricha emarginata n. sp. in its move-
ments is rapid and erratic. The contractile vesicle expels its contents
through the dorsal surface, forming there at complete systole a con-
spicuously projecting elevation of the cuticular surface. Stylonycha
notophora n. sp. differs from S. mytilus Ehr., which it most resembles,
in that the extremities are subequal in width, in the rounded posterior
margin beyond which project three instead of two anal styles, in the
possession of motionless bristle-like hairs on the dorsal surface, and
especially in having the opening of the anal orifice on the superior or
dorsal aspect. Podophrya brachypoda n. sp. may be recognized by
the foot-stalk being very short and inconspicuous; unless seen in profile
or side view, or in longitudinal optic section and attached to the sup-
porting object from which it is readily separated, it bears a not remote
resemblance to Spherophrya. Dr. Stokes suggests that P. Buckei
S.K. is probably an immature form of an unobserved, more distinctly
pedicellate member of the present genus, and not, as Keni thought,
likely hereafter to become the type of a new genus. In Solenophrya
inclusa n. sp. the frontal convexity or roof is so hyaline that its
existence can be satisfactorily observed only by the use of some
chemical means of removing the enclosed zooid. This is readily
accomplished by a drop or two of caustic potash in solution. Dr.
Stokes has been unable to detect openings in the upper surface or
dome-like roof of the lorica. S. pera n. sp. The form of this lorica
is so much like that of the ordinary hand-satchel now popular among
ladies that it suggested the specific name. Acineta urceolata n. sp. is
the last species described.
Dr. A. C. Stokes also describes * some new fresh-water Infusoria
from the shallow ponds and streams of New Jersey.
Physomonas vestita n. sp. differs from the hitherto single known
member of the genus in the absence of the truncated anterior border,
and in the presence of a linear, dark-bordered band or depression near
the frontal margin, as exists in Spumella.
Bicoseca lepteca nu. sp. is among the largest, if not the largest of
the genus. It differs widely from the only fresh-water species,
B. lacustris J.-Clk., hitherto observed in American lakes, JB. lepto-
stoma n. sp. most closely resembles the salt-water B. tenuis S.K.,
and may be considered its fresh-water representative. B. longipes
n. sp. Stylobryon Abbotti n. sp. This polythecium, unlike that of
S. petiolatum (Duj.) 8.K., which it most resembles, is subject to but
little variation in its mode of colony-building. Tillina helia n. sp.
has the nucleus placed subcentrally, but its position in reference to
any special region is not constant.
Derepyzxis nu. gen. is near Stein’s Chrysopyxis, but differs in the con-
stantly pedicellate character of the lorica. Two new species,
D. amphora and D. ollula, are described. Chilomonas ovata n. sp. is
the most minute fresh-water species yet recorded. Loxophyllum
flexilis n. sp. is remarkably irregular in outline, and this peculiarity
is increased by the presence of two little projections, on the posterior
* Amer. Journ. Sci., xxix. (1885) pp. 313-28 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 661
part of the dorso-lateral border, that are constantly present but which
vary somewhat in size and form. Spirostomum loxodes un. sp. in ex-
ternal contour bears a striking resemblance to Loxodes ; it approaches
nearest to S. teres C. & L. The lorica of Vaginicola leptosoma n. sp.
resembles in form V. attenuata (From.) 8.K., but is just twice as
large, besides differing in the proportion borne by the length to the
width. In Cothurnia annulata n. sp. the enclosed animalcule differs
from all hitherto known species in the possession of a transversely
striated cuticular surface, and the ridge-like elevation encircling the
central portion of the body ; the lorica also differs in form from that of
other species. Litonotus vesiculosus n. sp. resembles L. Wrzesniowskit
8.K. Its chief diagnostic characters, in the internal structure, are
the presence of very many minute, quickly and irregularly pulsating
contractile vesicles scattered about the cortex, while in the animalcule
most resembling it the pulsating vacuole is large, single, and located
near the origin of the caudal extremity. Litonotus carinatus n. sp.
cannot easily be mistaken for any other species of the genus.
Litonotus trichocystus n. sp. to a certain extent resembles LD. fasciola
(Ehr.) §.K. It is, however, easily distinguishable by its shorter
and less conspicuously flattened neck-like part, and especially by the
number and arrangement of the trichocysts, which are constant.
Chilodon fluviatilis nu. sp. differs from all other forms in its shape,
and its preference for water not entirely still. Chilodon caudatus
un. sp. has the postero-terminal border of the dorsum continued as an
acuminate and rigid spur which, with the prominent anterior lip,
renders this infusorian readily recognizable. Dewiotricha n. gen.
approaches nearest to the Bursariade of Stein; but diverges widely
from the members of that family in the absence of the conspicuous,
excavate peristome field, and especially in the presence of the row of
adoral cilia on the right-hand side instead of the left, and in the
presence of a ciliated pharynx, a feature to be distinguished only
under high amplification and the most favourable position of the
infusorian and the direction of the illuminating ray. One species,
D, plagia n. sp. is described.
Dr. A. C. Stokes also describes and figures * the following.
Atractonema tortuosa nu. sp. differs from the hitherto only known
species, A. teres Stein, in being less fusiform. The single fla-
gellum arises within the pharyngeal passage, a point on the wall, pre-
sumably the roof, serving as the basis of attachment. In Noto-
solenus, primarily described by the author as Solenotus, although
an oral aperture has not been actually discerned, yet the appearance
of what seems to be a short pharyngeal tract is so constantly present
that an oral orifice probably exists and the animalcules must be re-
moved from the neighbourhood of Stein’s Colponema and placed near
Dujardin’s Anisonema. In N. sinuatus n. sp. the appearance of a
pharyngeal tract is more clearly defined than in the other species,
and the infusorian is by far the largest of those hitherto observed.
Paramecium trichium un, sp. is nearest to P. bursaria (Ehr.) §8.K.,
* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 433-43 (10 figs.).
Ser. 2.— Vou. V, A
662 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
but differs from it conspicuously in form, especially in the apparently
oblique curvature of the anterior extremity, in the absence of the
truncation of the same part, the absence of the rapid and continuous
circulation of the endoplasmic contents, and particularly the green
coloration of the cortex and sarecode. Trichocysts are very abundant.
Cyrtolophosis nu. gen. forms and inhabits singly or several in company
a very soft, shapeless, coarsely granular zoocytium. This sheath or
zoocytium appears to be formed primarily by a thin exudation from
the creature’s body, that would be nearly invisible were it not for
the extraneous particles that adhere to the surface, and especially for
the zooid’s excrementitious matter which seems to be the principal
building material, and the cause of the coarsely granular aspect.
The infusoria are ovate in form and entirely ciliated. One species,
C. mucicola, is described. Euplotes carinata n. sp. differs from all
other species in the number of the frontal styles, the character and
arrangement of the anal styles and caudal set, and in the shape of
the carapace, which has a very conspicuous keel or high acute ridge
traversing the dorsum from the frontal to the posterior borders. In
conclusion, a corrected drawing of EH. plumipes Stokes is given and
the species described.
Infusorial Parasites of the Tasmanian White Ant.*—Mr. W.
Saville Kent describes the parasitic Infusoria from the intestine of
the Tasmanian white ant.
Like the types described by Dr. J. Leidy, from the North
American white ant, they belong to three distinct varieties.
Trichonympha Leidyi n. sp. differs from Dr. Leidy’s T. agilis in
the relative shortness of the hair-like cilia which clothe the entire
surface of the body. The mouth of Trichonympha, left undetermined
by Dr. Leidy, is shown by Mr. Saville Kent to take the form of a
transverse slit developed upon one side of the body at a short distance
only from the apical extremity. It is followed by a narrow ceso-
phageal track which opens into the capacious digestive cavity that
occupies one-half or two-thirds of the posterior region of the body.
When placed in diluted milk the adult and immature forms of both
the American and Tasmanian species, have a habit of anchoring
themselves by means of the long fascicle of hair-like cilia that are
produced from their posterior extremity.
Of the two remaining Infusoria, the one is apparently referable to
Leidy’s genus Pyrsonympha, while the other belongs to Stein’s Lopho-
monas, so far recorded as a parasite only of Blatia and Gryllotalpa.
Unstalked Variety of Podophrya fixa.t—Dr. E. Buck describes
the form of the unstalked variety of Podophrya fixa as being rounded ;
four phases in its life-history were observed. In the first or swarm-
ing stage the plastids consist of a finely granular parenchyma, the
body is rounded at either end, somewhat constricted in the middle,
and has a round projecting nucleus. In the second or Spherophrya-
* Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1884 (1885) pp. 270-3. See also
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xv. (1885) pp. 450-3.
+ Ber. Senck. Naturf. Gesell., 1884, pp. 298-314.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 663
stage the tentacles developed from, as it seemed, the middle of the
ventral surface ; food was taken in abundantly, but there did not seem
to be any parasitic habit. The third stage is that of the free
Podophrya, in which the body forms an elongated ellipse, and has the
two tufts of tentacles carried to either end of the body, the form of
which varies with the amount of food ingested. The fourth phase is
that of the fixed or Acineta condition, which is entered upon by the
organism surrounding its hinder end with a kind of gelatinous
material, which gradually elongates into a more or less tail-like pro-
cess. The gelatinous material gradually increases in consistency,
and takes on a cup-shaped or infundibular form.
Pseudo-cyclosis.*— Under this heading Dr. 8. Lockwood describes
the movement of the food-particles (green unicellular alge) that he
witnessed in a specimen of Ameba diffluens, and which at first sight
he mistook for the phenomenon of cyclosis.
“ As the Ameba advances, the green bodies are left in a cluster at
its hinder part. Now the Ameba’s movement stops, and now the little
spheroids begin rushing in a well-defined stream towards the advanced
portion of the protoplasm. . . . Again the containing body advances,
and those contained recede—that is, are left at the hinder part of the
protoplasm. We notice also a resting of the host, and the rush forward
of the smaller bodies. The Ameba again advances, this time but a
very little. It seems even to recede. Really it contracts, then
spreads out unsymmetrically on two sides, producing an object not
unlike the ankle and foot. Now comes the usual rest succeeded by
the movement of the contained bodies, which this time start in two
streams, the smaller group towards the heel and the larger to the
toes of the so-called foot. This alternating of the two kinds of
activities is quite interesting to witness: the streaming inner move-
ment always obeying two facts—following a rest of its own, and
taking the occasion of a rest of the Ameba.”
In every instance the food-propulsion was a movement in the
direction of the outward or forward flow or progression of a part of the
Ameba, and this was always followed by an illusory recession, that is a
seeming stream of the little alge backward caused by the advancing
protoplasm leaving these objects behind until the new pseudopodium
rested, when the trend of the little bodies immediately advanced.
The object of this movement is to bring the food into actual
contact with every molecule of the gelatin body, thus making the
entire body take part in the process of digestion, and securing to
the whole an equal alimentary distribution.
New Protozoon.{—Mr. T. Deecke describes an unnamed protozoon
which produced perforations in the plates at the bottom of a water-
tank made of tinned copper. Furrows radiated irregularly from
these perforations as if excavated by a graving tool. The holes and
furrows were filled out with an earthy material, consisting mostly of
carbonate of copper. When a small piece, still moist, was placed in
* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 46-7.
+ Scientific American, ii. (1884) p. 136.
pe Fe
664. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
the centre of a drop of water on a life-slide provided with a circular
air space, and covered with a cover-glass, the clear water surrounding
the opaque mass was filled in a short time with a protozoon be-
longing to the Protamceebe. It was not difficult to see them, in
all possible shapes and sizes, creep out from the dark mass and
wander slowly toward the margin of the drop bordering the air space,
and the more numerous they were the more the air contained in the
water was consumed. This is a very convenient method, the author
adds, to which he has often resorted for bringing micro-organisms,
which live in hiding places, into view. It is air that they, like all
living beings, need for their existence, and the scarcer this becomes
in the isolated drop of water the more they approach from the centre
of the drop to its margin, which remains in contact with the air.
The protamcebe observed differ from the ordinary species, not so
much in the peculiar shapes they assume as in the dark colour of
their contents, or rather in the presence of a dark, finely divided
substance imbedded in the otherwise transparent and colourless
gelatinous little mass. By the action of dilute hydrochloric acid,
under the development of a gaseous product (carbonic acid) the dark
contents are dissolved into a colourless fluid, while the bodies of the
protamcebe mostly assume more or less spherical forms, resembling
drops of oil.
“Considering the great numbers in which these micro-organisms
are present, their peculiar mode of life by adhering to, and of loco-
motion by slowly creeping over a surface, their feeding by the simple
extension of their sarcode body over any material in their way, a
process very likely associated with some secretory function, it seems
quite probable that they exert an observable influence wherever they
happen to locate. This influence is probably of a mechanical as well
as of a chemical nature. When the material which fills out the furrows
is removed, the perfectly pure metallic surface of the copper is brought
to view, as if acted upon by the use of an acid. Thus, at first, as it
seems, the copper is dissolved in minute quantities, which afterwards,
by the interchange of. the acid with the carbonic acid of the lime salt
contained in the water, forms a soluble organic lime compound and
carbonate of copper, the latter of which is deposited in the furrows.
That a portion of this as a comparatively indifferent material is taken
by the protamcebe is not surprising. They certainly do not feed on
the copper. Its presence is merely accidental, and the whole pheno-
mena, as I believe, should be looked upon from this point of view.
The species, even if brought into existence only by this peculiar
combination of circumstances, may be regarded as distinct, since it
has developed peculiar qualities and a mode of life of its own. The
origin of the protozoon is easily explained, and must be sought in the
rain-water which occasionally flows into the tank, carrying down
from the roof of the buildings microscopic forms of life.”
The author suggests that perhaps in other similar cases hitherto
ascribed to galvanic action or that of air and water, processes asso-
ciated with micro-organic life are of greater importance than has
been recognized.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 665
Development of Monocystid Gregarines.*—Herr G. Ruschhaupt
has been closely studying the Gregarine which is found in the testicles
of Lumbricus agricola ; the species of Gregarines found in earthworms
are Zygocystis cometa, Monocystis magna, M. cristata, M. porrecta, M.
cuneiformis, M. agilis, and M. minuta, the characters of which are
described by the author.
Encystation of solitary forms was very frequently observed, the
cuticle of the Gregarine forming the outer envelope of the cyst,
while the subcuticular sarcocyst formed a second inner envelope ;
M. porrecta frequently, and M. cuneiformis sometimes complete their
development within the sperm-mother-cells of the Lumbricus. Obser-
vations made on M. magna showed that the sporoblasts were formed
in the neighbourhood of the nucleus, and afforded pro tanto evidence
against the formation of sporoblasts by budding at the periphery of
the cyst. Attention is directed to the presence of macrospores and
microspores within one and the same cyst; the “ restmasse” of the
spore or nucléus de relicat is seen to represent the true germ, and
may be compared to what is to be seen in the ova of more highly
differentiated animals. The author was on three occasions able to
observe the entrance of spores into the sperm-mother-cell ; within it
there occurred the following set of changes: the rapidity of these
changes were, it may be premised, dependent on the state of matura-
tion of the spore; the spore filled its shell as a homogeneous and
clear mass of protoplasm which was inclosed by a quite fine envelope;
changes began to be apparent in the shell itself, which were similar
to those observed in degenerating spores; at last the contents were
naked. Later on these exhibited ameboid movements of a highly
differentiated character.
In conclusion the author discusses the connection between the
Gregarines and the generative products of the earthworm, the in-
fection of earthworms with Gregarines and the relations between these
parasites and coccidia,
BOTANY.
A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.
a, Anatomy.t+
Circulation and Rotation of Protoplasm as a means of Trans-
port of Food-material.{—Dr. H. de Vries points out that the pro-
cess of diffusion acts so slowly that it can be of no practical im-
portance in determining the transport of food-material from one part
* Jenaisch, Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xviii. (1885) pp. 713-50 (1 pl.).
+ This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm (including the
Nucleus and Cell-division) ; (2) Other Cell-contents (including the Cell-sap and
Chlorophyll); (3) Secretions; (4) Structure of ‘issues; and (5) Structure of
0
rgans.
t Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 1-6, 17-26.
666 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
of the plant to another. During the brief duration of a summer night
the whole of the starch accumulated during the day in the large leaves |
of Helianthus and Cucurbita passes through the leaf-stalk into the
stem. Researches into the rapidity of diffusion show that if this pro-
cess were the sole cause of the movement it would take months or
even several years to accomplish. The author is of opinion that it
is effected mainly by the rotation and circulation of the protoplasm.
In order to determine the wide distribution of these phenomena,
the author subjected a number of plants to examination. In Tades-
cantia rosea he found these movements in the conducting cells of the
phloém of the vascular bundles; in this instance a true rotation
passed up one longitudinal wall of the cell and down the other wall,
the movement being at the rate of 0:2-0°4 mm. per minute. The
movement was observed in the young half-developed branches, in all
the internodes of the stem, in the central veins of the leaves and of
the leaf-sheath, and in the rhizome and roots, always in the paren-
chymatous cells, the rotation of the protoplasm carrying with it the
microsomes, chlorophyll-granules, and starch-grains. A movement of
circulation was equally universal in the epidermal cells of all organs,
and one of rotation in the xylem-cells and in the young, thin-walled,
but very elongated elements of the stiffening-ring.
Similar phenomena were observed in Tropeoleum majus, Cucurbita
Pepo, Elodea canadensis, Hydrocharis morsus-rane, and Limnocharis
Humboldtii, in some cases also in the young bast-fibres, the wood-cells,
and the epidermal cells; all intermediate stages being noted between
typical rotation and circulation. The movement is, however, most
easily seen in the conducting-cells of the phloém.
The author concludes that movement of the protoplasm is a uni-
versal phenomenon in tissues adapted for the accumulation and
conduction of food-material; and that the protoplasm, not only in
special cases or during particular periods of life, but everywhere and
so long as it is active, has portions which are in motion.
Division of the Cell-nucleus in Plants and Animals.*—M. L.
Guignard continues his researches on this subject, and has further
established the identity of the process of indirect division in the two
kingdoms. He finds the highest of the vegetable types, and the one
which displays most completely the analogy with the animal kingdom,
in the nucleus of the embryo-sac of Lilium candidum.
The nucleus is composed of a single filament, the folds of which
frequently anastomose to form a network; and the author considers
that the difference on this point between the views of Prof. Strasburger
and M. Flemming is apparent rather than real. The granulations or
chromatic microsomes are arranged in a single row in the hyaloplasm
of the filament. Their size varies not only in different filaments, but
even in the same.
The nucleoli, from their first appearance, present distinct
reactions, showing that their chemical composition differs from that
* Ann. Sci. Nat.—Bot., xx. (1885) pp. 310-72 (4 pls.). See this Journal, iii,
(1883) p. 864; iv. (1884) p. 915.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 667
of the chromatic granulations ; they are not really comprised in the
hyaloplasm, but probably contain a certain quantity of the chromatin
of the nuclear filament. On attaining a certain size they detach them-
selves from the folds of the filament; their presence can only be
detected with certainty when their volume considerably exceeds that
of the largest of the chromatic granulations. Their function in the
life of the nucleus is at present unknown.
The nuclear membrane is sometimes extremely delicate, as in the
endosperm, sometimes thicker, as in the large nucleus of the embryo-
sac. It is composed of a single layer of granulations, which may be
isolated from the cytoplasm. The currents between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm are the result of osmosis; the cytoplasmic reticulum
and the framework of the nucleus are both in intimate connection
with this membrane. It is achromatic and derived from the
cytoplasm.
As regards the chemical composition of the different parts of the
nucleus, they may be divided into two groups, although their exact
nature cannot at present be determined. The chromatic granulations
of the filament, which alone enter into the constitution of the nuclear
plate, contain the nuclein of Zaccharias, or the soluble nuclein (in
caustic soda) of Miescher. The hyaloplasm and nucleoli are com-
posed, according to Zaccharias, of insoluble nuclein or plastin.
In the process of indirect division of the nucleus, Strasburger has
adopted a distinction into three phases :—prophasis, metaphasis, and
anaphasis; Guignard prefers to admit simply progressive and
regressive phases, with the separation of the elements of the nuclear
plate as the culminating point.
The first change is usually to be observed in the nucleus itself;
this is much less often preceded by a striation of the surrounding
cytoplasm. This change consists in the formation of the knot
(peloton), the folds of which gradually contract and thicken. The
nuclear membrane becomes more visible; and towards the end of this
stage two rows of chromatic granulations are sometimes seen in the
hyaloplasm of the filament.
The segmentation of the filament takes place most often before,
less often after, the disappearance of the membrane. As soon as the
segments are formed, the doubling of the chromatic granulations
in the hyaloplasm makes itself manifest. At whatever time this
doubling takes place, the segments have always the form of a ribbon
at the moment when their longitudinal fission is about to take place in
the nuclear plate. In pollen-mother-cells and in the embryo-sac
their halves remain recognizable after the formation of the two rows
of chromatic granulations.
When the nuclear membrane is resorbed, the cytoplasm penetrates
into the nuclear fluid. The achromatic threads of the spindle are
then formed at the same time as the poles, which always appear as if
situated, not in the interior of the nucleus, but in the cytoplasm itself.
The threads, which are continuous from one pole to the other, are
derived entirely from the cytoplasm in all cases in the vegetable
kingdom which have yet been observed; while in the salamander and
668 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
hydra, the nuclear hyaloplasm takes part in their formation. In the
embryo-sac of Lilium the amphiaster is visible before the poles act as
centres of attraction ; in other cases it originates later.
When once the nuclear plate is completely formed, the longitu-
dinal fission of the chromatic elements commences at the extremity
nearest to the centre; the two halves, separating more and more,
glide in the direction of the poles. With complete separation the
progressive phases of the division end. This is the stage designated
by Flemming metakinesis.
The regressive phases commence with the movement of the two
chromatic groups towards the poles, between which remain the
threads of the spindle. In each group the rods form together a
radiate figure, the star (étoile) of the daughter-nucleus. Arrived at the
poles, the rods contract and curve in various directions, so as to bring
their free ends into contact, which then unite so as to form a con-
tinuous filament from one pole to the other. Finally, the contraction
and reconstitution of the filament is succeeded by the separation of
the folds, accompanied by the formation of the nuclear fluid and
membrane. The chromatic granulations become distinct in the
hyaloplasm, at the same time that the nucleoli make their appearance
in contact with the folds. The filaments may now remain as such, or
may be converted into a new network resembling that of the parent
nucleus.
Changes in the Cell-walls of Epidermal Cells and in the Hairs
of Pelargonium zonale.*—In the course of an article on this subject
containing a very large amount of detailed observation, Dr. C.
Frommann makes the following statements with regard to the inter-
cellular protoplasm :—Many intercellular spaces, together with the
cleft-like prolongations into which they run out, are so densely and
uniformly filled up by granular protoplasm throughout their entire
contents, and are, as it were, thus stopped up, that it is impossible to
make them absorb water. In cases where the cell-walls are penetrated
by threads which connect the parietal intracellular protoplasm with
that contained in the intercellular spaces, it is impossible to doubt
that the latter has pre-existed as such. There are sometimes small
intercellular cavities filled with protoplasm and situated beneath
the cut surface, completely surrounded and isolated by cellulose,
where there is no possibility of the protoplasm being detached
portions which have forced their way in, The granules and threads
inclosed in a slightly refractive layer of cellulose by the solidification
of the intercellular spaces, which are yet distinctly differentiated,
show the same properties as those which still lie free in the inter-
cellular spaces, Even after the intercellular spaces have become
completely solidified, chlorophyll-bodies and denser protoplasm-
granules can sometimes be distinguished in them, even when the fine
granules and filaments have completely disappeared or become indis-
tinguishable. It is evident that in these cases also the protoplasm
imbedded in the cellulose must have previously existed free in the
intercellular spaces.
* Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xviii. (1885) pp. 597-665 (2 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 669 °
Carnoy’s Biology of the Cell.*—In this work Prof. J. B. Carnoy
arranges his account of the structure of the cell under three heads :—
The protoplasm and its contents; the cell-membrane; and a general
account of the entire cell, The book on the nucleus consists of three
chapters, treating of the chemistry of the nucleus, its structure
when at rest, and its morphography. The nucleus consists, accord-
ing to the author, of a membrane, a protoplasmic portion (reticulum
and echylema) and a nuclein-filament, which contains the nuclein,
and forms, in typical nuclei, a continuous thread, but may break up
into pieces of various form, or may become absorbed and disappear
altogether. In his account of the structure of the nucleus, the author
differs in some essential points from that of Strasburger. He main-
tains that outside the nuclein-filament is a protoplasmic network, out
of which the spindle-threads are produced by division, He states
also that the nucleoli are sharply differentiated from the nuclein-
elements by containing no nuclein, The nucleolus forms a kind of
reserve of nuclear protoplasm, and disappears altogether when the
nucleus divides. ‘The “para-nucleolus” of Strasburger is the
nucleolus itself.
Decomposition of Solutions of Chlorophyll by Light.t—Dr. J,
Reinke describes a series of experiments on this subject, from which
he derives the general conclusion that the groups of rays of the solar
spectrum may be arranged in the following series according to their
power of decomposing chlorophyll :—red, orange, violet, yellow, blue,
dark red, green. This series shows further that the power of any
given rays to decompose chlorophyll is a function of the degree of
their absorption in a solution of chlorophyll. The absolute maximum
of the curve of this power coincides with the maximum absorption
between the lines B and C; from here the curve falls rapidly to the
ultra-red, more slowly through the orange and yellow to the green,
where its minimum again coincides with the minimum absorption,
rising then, through the blue, to a second smaller maximum in the
violet. The separate values obtained by observation for alcohol-
chlorophyll and benzol-chlorophyll nearly agree ; aleohol-chlorophyll
does not show any stronger decomposibility in the blue and violet
than benzol-chlorophyll does, which might have been expected,
because in the former the absorption between F and G is increased
by the greater proportion of xanthophyll.
The curve of the action of the colours of the spectrum is perhaps
a function of the absorption in pure chlorophyll; xanthophyll does
not appear to act as a sensitizer in this process. The author claims
to have shown that the decomposition of chlorophyll by the rays of
the sun is in proportion to the absorption of the latter; and chloro-
phyll no longer furnishes an exception to the general law with regard
to substances sensitive to light,
* Carnoy, J. B., ‘La Biologie Cellulaire: Etude comparée de la cellule
dans les deux régnes. Fasc. 1. Technique microscopique.’ 8vo, Lierre, 1884,
271 pp. and 141 figs.
+ Bot, Ztg,, xliii, (1885) pp. 65-70, 81-9, 97-101, 113-7, 129-37.
670 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Spectra of the Pigments of Green Leaves and their Derivatives.*
—Herr R. Wegscheider gives particulars, in the form of comparative
tables, of the position of the bands and the maximum of absorption in
the cases of the spectra of (1) the living leaf; (2) tincture of chloro-
phyll; (8) alcoholic solution of the crystallized chlorophyllan
obtained by Tschirch; (4) the pure chlorophyll of Tschirch ; (5) the
alkali-chlorophyll of Tschirch; (6) the y-xanthophyll of Tschirch in
etherial solution.
‘— Red Pigment in Flowering Plants.t—Dr. J. Wortmann replies
to the statements on this subject by Dr. H. Pick, many of which he
considers to rest on erroneous observation. Especially he objects to
Pick’s view on the influence of the red pigment in the transport
of starch, in which he neglects the fact of the difference in the ob-
jective intensity of rays of the same wave-length which have passed
through media of different colours.
Identity of the Orange-red Colouring Matter of Leaves with
Carotine.{—M. Arnaud has prepared from the leaves of the spinach
the orange-red colouring matter called by Bougarel erythrophyll.
After purifying by repeated distillations in benzine it appears in
small flattened rhombic crystals, dichroic, and with the iridescence of
certain anilin colours. He finds this substance to be identical in its
crystalline form, its solubility, its fusing point (168° C.) and in other
characters, with carotine, the red colouring matter of the carrot, to
which Husemann gives the formula C,,H,,0. The same substance
occurs also in the leaves of the mulberry, the peach, the sycamore,
and the ivy, and in the fruit of the gourd.
Formation of Starch in the Leaves of the Vine.§—In pursuance
of the experiments of Prof. Sachs || on the formation of starch in
leaves, Sig. G. Cuboni has made a series of observations on its presence
in the leaves of the vine. In March and April, when the leaves are
first formed, starch was never found, even in bright sunshine. It
first made its appearance in May, and the quantity increased con-
tinually till July. This is not solely dependent on difference in
temperature, since starch is still formed in the leaves at the end of
October and in November; while even in the height of summer the
young leaves and shoots are not able to form starch until they are at
least a month old. It depends, however, to a certain extent on the
maturity of the chlorophyll-grains. In a leaf containing no starch at
the outset, abundance was found after an hour’s exposure to the direct
action of the sunlight; and the maximum quantity was obtained by
two hours’ intense sunshine. Four hours of complete darkness is
sufficient to cause the whole of the starch to become absorbed.
Although the youngest leaves are unable to form starch, the
* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., ii. (1885) pp. 494-502.
+ Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 39-43. See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 257.
~ Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 751-3
§ Rivista di Viticoltura ed Enologia Italiana, ix. (1885) p. 13. See Natur-
forscher, xviii. (1885) p. 224.
|| See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 089.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 671
maximum development is not obtained by the lowest leaves on a
branch, but by those on the middlemost nodes; on a branch containing
sixteen leaves by those from the seventh to the eleventh, the lowest
showing less than half the maximum power of production.
Tf an annular incision is made above and below a leaf, separating
the elements of the soft bast, the starch in the leaf is not absorbed
and transformed in the dark; but if a similar incision is made only
below or only above the leaf, the ordinary process is not disturbed ;
and this is also the case if a leaf separated by an incision on both
sides has a panicle of fruit or flowers opposite it on the same node.
No starch is formed if the leaves are etiolated or attacked by Perono-
spora viticola.
Starch in Vessels.*—Dr. A. Fischer records the abnormal occur-
rence of starch in vessels in the leaves of Plantago major. He found
them only in the vessels of the leaf-stalk, not in those of the veins of
the leaf itself, and mostly only in the spiral vessels of the stronger
bundles. Portions of these vessels were filled with starch-grains,
while in other parts they were entirely wanting.
Presence of Manganese in Plants.t—According to M. E. J.
Maumene, manganese occurs in small quantities in most vegetables.
Tea is particularly rich in manganese, from 0°5 to 0°6 p. c.; so also
is tobacco, especially the Kentucky variety, which contains from 1°5
to 1-6 p.c. Both yellow and red cinchona bark appear to contain
more than traces of manganese.
Nutritive Properties of the various portions of the Grain of
Wheat.i—M. A. Girard states that of the three parts of which the
grain of wheat may be said to consist, viz. (1) the integument, in-
cluding the outer envelope of the endosperm, (2) the endosperm,
and (3) the embryo, the value for nutritive purposes resides almost ex-
clusively in the second. Both the integument and the embryo contain
a considerable proportion of nitrogenous substance ; but this is chiefly
in the form of cerealin, a substance almost valueless for nutritive
purposes from its insolubility. Its fermenting properties render
cerealin absolutely injurious in the making of bread. The embryo
contains in addition an easily oxidizable oil, which has a very pre-
judicial effect in promoting the rapid decomposition of the bread.
Assimilating Cavities in the interior of Tubers of Bolbo-
phyllum.§—Prof. E. Pfitzer describes the structure of the remark-
able Bolbophyllum minutissimum, from Port Jackson, one of the
minutest flowering plants. One of the most remarkable features is
the occurrence in the disk-shaped tubers of peculiar chambers opening
out into the external air only by a narrow cleft, the epidermal layer
* Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 89-95.
+ Bull. Soc. Chim., xlii, pp. 305-15. See Journ, Chem. Soc.—Abstr., xviii.
(1885) p. 421.
¢ Ann. Chim. et Phys., iii. (1884) p. 289. See Naturforscher, xviii. (1885)
p- 44.
§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot, Gesell., ii. (1885) pp. 472-80 (1 pl.).
672 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
of which is abundantly provided with stomata, and which apparently
serves for purposes of assimilation. Similar structures were found in
a previously undescribed species, B. Odoardi, from Borneo.
Tdioblasts containing Albuminoids in some Cruciferee.*—Herr
E. Heinricher describes the structure of peculiar cells found beneath
the epidermis in the leaves of Moricandia arvensis, not readily dis-
tinguishable in the living state from the ordinary assimilating cells,
but easily differentiated on treatment with alcohol, when their con-
tents are seen to be chiefly, if not exclusively, of an albuminoid
character; they contain neither sugar, starch, nor tannin. In Mor-
candia these peculiar cells occur also in the floral organs with the
exception of the petals and stamens; and the author has detected
them also in four other species belonging to the tribe Brassicese of
Crucifere, viz. Diplotaxis tenuifolia, Sinapis alba and nigra, and
Brassica Rapa, where they are found within the assimilating paren- .
chyma of the leaf, and in the deeper layers of the cortex of the stem
and root; in Diplotaais tenuifolia even in the pith.
These cells are certainly not excretion-receptacles, and it is
doubtful whether they serve physiologically for the formation or for
the storing-up of albuminoids. Morphologically they appear to be
most closely related to laticiferous tubes, and are possibly derived
from these organs by degradation, thus indicating a phylogenetic
affinity with the allied order of Papaveracee.
Annular and Spiral Cells of Cactacee.;—M. P. van Tieghem
describes the structure and arrangement of these cells, the latter of
which may be arranged under three types, all found in different
species of the genus Opuntia. In O. flavicans the stem possesses four
fibrovascular bundles separated by large rays, and surrounding a
small pith. In these rays and pith the spiral and annular cells are
found in large numbers, but not in the bundles themselves. After
the formation of the secondary tissues the four fibrovascular bundles
are very narrow, but strongly elongated radially, and are separated
by four large fan-like secondary rays, which are composed exclusively
of spiral and annular vessels, the secondary wood being again entirely
destitute of them. The same is the case in O. flavicans and cylindrica.
In O. tunicata, on the contrary, these cells are localized in the
primary and secondary wood, and are wanting in the pith and rays.
The same mode of distribution occurs in the genera Mamillaria,
Echinocactus, and Melocactus. O. Salmiana, pubescens, and some
other species display a combination of these two arrangements, the
spiral and annular cells forming a more or less thick continuous
sheath enclosing the wood, and they are also found in the primary and
secondary wood. Finally, in O. Ficus-indica, brasiliensis, and in
most species with flattened stem, these elements are altogether
wanting.
As far as their structure is concerned, they are living cells, with
perfectly closed cell-wall, protoplasmic body, and nucleus. They
constitute in fact a remarkable kind of parenchyma.
* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., ii. (1885) pp. 463-6 (1 pl).
¢ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885) pp. 103-5.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 673
Formation of Secondary Cortex.*—M. E. Heckel describes the
peculiar structure of the wood of a young branch of Sarcocephalus
esculentus from ‘Tropical Africa. During the various stages of
development of the primitive cortex to the condition of definite
secondary cortex, all the initial layers disappear in succession, either
by compression or by giving rise, by cell-division and multiplication,
to new zones, two of which have a permanent existence. A cortex is
thus again formed, constituted definitely of two tissues of secondary
or even tertiary formation, entirely destitute of liber, the place of
which is taken, from a physiological point of view, by certain elements
which have become sclerotized. The author believes this structure to
be not uncommon in tropical woods,
Pericycle of the Root, Stem, and Leaves.t—According to M. L.
Morot, there exists in all flowering plants, outside the central cylinder
of the root, between the endoderm and the outermost part of the
fibrovascular bundles, a layer of tissue, of the same origin as the pith
and the medullary rays—the pericycle. It is the most important
part of the internal conducting system of the root, from the secondary
and tertiary formations to which it gives birth, and from the frequent
absence of the pith in consequence of the fusion of the primary
bundles, and also of the medullary rays. Although most often re-
duced to a single layer of cells, it sometimes constitutes a layer of
considerable thickness. It is usually homogeneous, but sometimes
contains secreting canals. It is from the pericycle that the secondary
roots always proceed; and it may, by the repeated divisions of its
cells, produce cork, secondary parenchyma, and secondary or tertiary
fibrovascular bundles.
The presence of the pericycle is nearly as invariable in the stem,
where it may also persist in the absence of the pith and medullary
rays. The only instances of its being entirely wanting are in certain
aquatic plants of degraded structure. Occasionally it forms a separate
envelope round each bundle; in the vast majority of cases it consti-
tutes a continuous sheath round the whole of the central cylinder.
It usually consists of a number of layers of cells, but is sometimes
reduced to only one. Its structure is more complex than in the root.
Sometimes it remains entirely parenchymatous ; but it is most often
partially sclerotized, and then contributes largely to the constitution
of the stereome of the stem. In addition it may inclose laticiferous
vessels, resiniferous cells, and secreting canals. Like that of the
root, the pericycle of the stem may generate new tissues. From it
proceed underground or aerial lateral roots; or it may develope
intercalary vascular bundles between the primary ones, cork, secondary
parenchyma, and centrifugal layers of meristem.
The pericycle occurs equally in the leaves, where it is inclosed,
like the endoderm, between the bundles, rarely forming a complete
ring round them. Its composition varies greatly as in the stem; it
* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1884) pp. 95-9 (1 pl.).
+ Ann. Sci. Nat.—Dot., xx. (1885) pp, 217-309 (6 pls.).
674 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
rarely forms new tissues, but it may be the seat of the formation of
adventitious roots.
The recognition of the pericycle as a distinct element in the con-
stitution of the root, stem, and leaves, greatly facilitates the distinc-
tion between the central cylinder and the cortex. The imnermost
layer of the cortex is the endoderm; but this frequently loses the
special characters by which it is ordinarily distinguished, and the
boundary of the cortex can then be determined by the pericycle, which
is always recognizable by the presence of scleric elements and by its
generating power. It also serves to define more exactly the position
and constitution of the liber. To this latter have frequently been
erroneously referred certain lignified elements which really belong to
the pericyclic layer between the outermost portion of the bundles and
the endoderm. Furthermore the recognition of this structure permits
the place of formation to be exactly defined of elements hitherto
referred to various anatomical regions. A good illustration of this
is afforded by Van Tieghem’s observations * that the oleiferous canals
of Umbelliferze, Pittosporee, and Hypericum, originate in the peri-
cycle, equally. in the root, stem, and leaves; while the laticiferous
vessels of Cichoriacez have their origin in the pericycle in the stem
and leaves, in the liber in the root.
Changes of Structure in Land-Plants when growing sub-
merged.j—Herr H. Schenck describes these changes, which are espe-
cially pronounced in the case of Cardamine pratensis when growing
entirely submerged in water. They are all in the direction of the
structure of the organs and of the tissue in plants which grow ordi-
narily beneath the surface of the water. The leaves acquire long
stalks; the mechanical elements are greatly reduced; the cuticle of
the epidermis being thin, and the fibrovascular bundles reduced in
size, especially the xylem. On the other hand, the assimilating tissue
of the leaves is much more strongly developed, the cells of the
mesophyll being rounded and very loosely associated.
Epidermis of the Leaves of Aquatic Plants.;—M. J. Costantin
disputes the statement of Brongniart and Jussieu that the leaves of
aquatic plants are destitute of an epidermis. This statement rests on
the hypothesis that epidermal cells do not contain chlorophyll, and
that the leaves of aquatic plants do not possess stomata; but the
author points out that both these assertions can only be accepted with
a considerable amount of exception. He states also that the number
of stomata varies in leaves of precisely the same character in the same
species, and that the water surrounding the leaves has a direct
influence on the formation of stomata.
Structure of Ranunculacee.$—M. P. Marié has made a close
examination of the structure of the different organs in the various
genera and subgenera of Ranunculacex, which he describes in detail,
* See this Journal, iv. (1884) pp. 767-70.
+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., ii. 1885) pp. 481-6 (1 pl.).
} Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885) pp. 83-92.
§ Ann. Sci. Nat.—Bot., xx. (1885) pp. 5-180 (8 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 675
giving also a number of characters which are common to the whole
order, in the form and arrangement of the stomata, the structure of
the tissues, arrangement of the fibrovascular bundles, &c.
Opening of the Anthers in Ericacee.*—Mr. H. H. Rusby de-
seribes the position in which the pores are found through which the
pollen escapes from the anthers in this order, which differs materially
in the different genera. The basal position of the pores in some
genera, and their apical position in others, depends on variations in
the mode in which the filament is folded in the bud. The “horns”
attached to the anthers have an important function in determining
the direction in which the pollen is discharged.
Anatomy of the Leaf in Vismiew.j—M. J. Vesque gives details
of the anatomical structure of the leaf in the four genera which make
up this tribe of Hypericaceee. They are characterized by the stomata
being accompanied by two parallel cells at the mouth, by stellate
hairs with conical or cylindrical rays, by rounded schizogenous
glands in the mesophyll, canaliform glands in the pericycle and
secondary liber, and by agglomerations of crystals.
Reduced Organ in Campanula.{—Dr. E. Heinricher describes
a peculiar structure, hitherto unnoticed, in the epidermal cells, most
commonly of the upper surface of the leaf, of Campanula persicifolia.
They consist of protuberances of the cell-wall nearly in the middle of
the outer wall of the cells, often projecting considerably into the cell-
cavity ; corresponding to these were frequently also projections from
the outer surface of the cell-wall. This species has two distinctly
marked forms, hairy and glabrous; and the author regards these peculiar
structures as reduced trichomes. The application of reagents showed
that they do not consist of pure cellulose. They were observed in all
specimens examined of C. persicifolia, also in C. grandis and patula.
Hypertrophy of the Bud-cones of the Carob.S—M. L. Savastano
describes an abnormal growth of the singular organs which he terms
“bud-cones” in the carob-tree (Ceratonia siliqua) in the south of Italy.
Ordinary buds appear in the axil of a branch, and develope either
into a branch the following year or into one or two inflorescences
during the third year, which rarely bear fruit. At the same time is
formed the “ bud-cone,” which will put forth an annual succession of
inflorescences for fifteen or twenty years, after which its activity
ceases and it disappears. These bud-cones are subject to a disease
which causes them to swell to the size of a wen, producing each year
an unusual large number of inflorescences which, however, wither
without fruiting, and after a time cease to be produced. These wens
are found to consist mainly of a uniform tissue of irregular cells of
* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xii. (1885) pp. 16-21 (13 figs.). [The author uses
the term “anthesis” incorrectly for the Diicstitig of the anther instead of the
opening of the flower.—Eb. |
+ Comptes Kendus, c. (1885) pp. 1089-92.
¢ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 4-13 (1 pl.).
§ Comptes Rendus, c, (1885) pp. 131-3.
676 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
large size without any woody elements. The malformation is due
neither to the attacks of parasites nor to external causes, nor to a
formation of gum, but to simple hypertrophy of the tissues.
Homology of the Floral Envelopes in Graminee and Cyperacee.*
—Mr. F. Townsend seeks to prove that the pale in the floret of
grasses is the homologue of the ochrea and utriculus in Carex, and
that the latter is a single floral envelope; hence the pale is also
single.
“The author gives notes on several species of the order Cyperacee,
more particularly with the view of ascertaining the homology of the
parts of the inflorescence; and records a few instances of abnormal
development in the order Graminez which bear on the subject.
The utriculus of Carex, like the inner and lower barren glume of
grasses, is always next the rachis, and the position of the subtending
bract of the female spike of Carex is exactly that of the usually
suppressed bract at the base of the spikelets of grasses.
The tendency of the utriculus or ochrea is to become divided, and
this division occurs in the lower barren glume of Festuca, and also in
the pale of grasses generally, which is the homologue of the utriculus
of Carex; as the fertile glume of the spikelet in grasses is the
homologue of the subtending bract of the utriculus in Carex. The
seta, more or less developed in many species of Carew, is the rudi-
mentary development of a secondary axis, while the “acicula” of
Dumortier is the terminal portion of the spikelet.
Bulbils of Begonia socotrana.;—M. P. Duchartre describes the
peculiar bulbils of this species, formed in large quantities on the
rhizome. 'They have a peculiar organization which enables them to
develope, after a period of repose, into a new plant bearing flowers
and bulbils. This organization is extremely complex, each bulbil
containing within it a rudimentary branch, consisting of a well-
developed axis to which are attached thick fleshy bodies 4-5 mm. in
length, the rudiments of leaves. This structure is itself a store of
nutriment for the young plant, its envelope consisting simply of two
large but very thin leaf-scales, superposed entirely one on the other,
except at the base.
Petalody of Ovules.{—Dr. M. T. Masters describes a remarkable
case of malformation in Dianella cerulea, belonging to the Aspara-
gacez, from Australia. The flowers are very much more densely
crowded than in the normal form, and in a large number of the
flowers a multiplication of perianth-segments has taken place at the
expense of the stamens and carpels, but with scarcely any intermediate
forms. In other flowers the amount of change has been much legs;
the perianth retaining itsnormal condition while the thickened fleshy
filament is replaced more or less completely by a slender ribbon-like
stalk, to which the anther is dorsifixed instead of basifixed. The
ovary is transformed from a trilocular condition with axile to a
* Journ. of Bot., xxiii. (1885) pp. 65-74 (19 figs.).
+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885) pp. 58-63.
t Nature, xxxi. (1885) pp. 487-8.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 677
unilocular condition with parietal placentation. But the most
remarkable changes are in the placenta, consisting in the outgrowth
from the ventral suture of two narrow parallel longitudinal plates of
a bright blue colour extending the whole length of the carpels.
In flowers in which this petalodic condition of the placenta is
present, there are no ovules in carpels which are closed and unilo-
cular, while in cases where the ovary is still trilocular ovules in a
very rudimentary condition are present, reduced to a funicle and
irregular plate of cellular tissue more or less blue in colour, but
without any nucellus. This is the first instance recorded of petalody
or of any form of phyllody of ovules in Monocotyledons.
Haberlandt's Physiological Anatomy of Plants.*—The special
characteristic of this work is that it k«mgs prominently forward the
function of the various kinds of tissue, classifying them as formas
tive, epidermal, mechanical, absorptive, assimilating, conducting,
accumulating, aerial, and secreting. It will illustrate the treatment
to mention that such terms as bast, cambium, &c., are not used by
the author as defining tissues found in special positions, but as tissues
performing special functions. ;
Behrens’s Text-book of General Botany.}—The speciality of this
text-book (translated from the German and revised by Prof. P.
Geddes) is the abundant detail in the account of the morphology of
the various organs of flowering plants. Under the head of Physio-
logical Botany large space is devoted to the phenomena of pollina-
tion and fertilization, and the illustrations are numerous and good.
8B. Physiology.t
Production of Male and Female Plants.s—Dr. H. Hoffmann has
attempted to determine the conditions under which male or female
individuals are produced in the case of the following dicecious
plants :—Lychnis diurna and vespertina, Valeriana dioica, Mercurialis
annua, Rumex Acetosella, Spinacia oleracea, and Cannabis sativa. He
finds that in most, if not all these cases, dense sowing increases the
proportion of male plants produced, and this results from an insuffi-
cient supply of nutriment. As a general law, the production of male
plants is promoted by the want of an adequate supply of food when
in an embryonal condition.
Fertilization of Naias and Callitriche.||—According to Dr. B.
Jonsson, the fertilization of the Naiadacesw is purely hydrophilous,
and takes place in the following way. The flowers are either mone-
cious or diccious; in the monccious species the male flowers are
* Haberlandt, G., ‘ Physiologische Pflanzen-anatomie im Grundriss dar-
gestellt, 140 figs. 8vo, Leipzig, 1884.
+ Behrens, W. J., ‘Text-book of General Botany,’ revised by P. Ged les.
viii. and 374 pp., 408 figs. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1885.
¢ This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction (including the formation of the
Embryo and accompanying processes) ; (2) Germination ; (3) Growth ; (4) Respira-
tion; (5) Movement; and (6) Chemical processes (including Fermentation).
§ Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 145-153, 161-9.
|| Lunds Univ. Ars-skr., xx. (1884) 26 pp. (1 pl.).
Ser. 2.—Vo.. V. 2Y¥
678 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
seated higher on the axis than the female, which are mature about
the same time; the male flowers being very much the more nume-
rous. When the anther is ripe, the pollen-mass, in which the last
ordinary stages of development are suppressed, becomes free ; and the
elliptic-cylindrical pollen-grains, which are completely filled, except
at the two polar ends, with starch-grains, sink in the water in conse-
quence of their greater specific gravity, and are caught by the
detaining apparatus of the female flowers. In diwcious species the
process varies only in the pollen having to be carried to the stigma
of another plant.. When once the pollen-grain is detained, the
pollen-tube passes into the canal of the style, by the wall of which
it is attracted and hindered in its growth, in consequence of which
it becom7s separated by collenchymatous septa, so that the rapid
access of 1ood-material is prevented. From the conducting tissue
at the mouth of the canal, the pollen-tubes usually find their way
direct to the conducting tissue at the mouth of the micropyle, whence
they reach the wall of the embryo-sac.
In Callitriche autumnalis the pollen-grains are round, filled with
oily protoplasm, and lighter than water. They are carried actively
by the water to the stigma, whence they reach the canal of the style.
The difference in the mode of fertilization in Naias and Callitriche
corresponds to the difference in their habit, the former preferring
still, the latter running water.
Influence of direct Sunlight on Vegetation.*—M. Buysman calls
attention to the influence of direct sunlight on vegetation, tracing in
the first place the effect of the sun’s rays in the tropical regions and
afterwards in the temperate and arctic zones.
The constant high temperature within the tropics is the cause of
the plants being less dependent on the direct solar heat than is the
case in the greater part of the temperate and cold zones. Plants in
the high northern regions when they vegetate receive more warmth by
insolation than is often supposed—Ist by the direct solar light itself,
and 2nd by the heated surface of the ground. The snow and ice being
melted by the sun, the necessary water and humid atmosphere never
fail; thisis the cause of the luxuriant growth of grass on some places
of the Tundra. The flowing water gradually communicates its
warmth to the soil, and prevents also nightly radiation.
In the temperate regions vegetation commences in spring when the
difference in temperature between night and day is greatest; in the
high north this difference is often insignificant because the sun
remains above the horizon ; but the temperature of the soil being at
this time very much lower than that of the objects exposed to the
sun’s rays, even this great difference is the cause of the very rapid
vegetation in sheltered localities and under the influence of the solar
light,
Absorption of Oxygen and Evolution of Carbon dioxide in Leaves
kept in Darkness.;—MM. P. P. Dehérain and L. Maquenne, repeating
* Nature, xxxi. (1885) pp. 324-6,
+ Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp, 1234-6,
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 679
the experiments on this subject of MM. Bonnier and Mangin,* have
arrived at somewhat different results. They describe the apparatus
used, the plant experimented on being Euonymus. Instead of the
value of Le being usually less than unity, they found it to vary from
0-96 (in February) to 1°20 (in April), being most often greater than
unity. The cause of this difference the authors suggest to be that the
carbon dioxide measured by MM. Bonnier and Mangin included a
portion of that formed by respiration. They consider the facts
observed to show that in the plant examined a portion of the carbon
dioxide given off is the result of internal combustion similar to that
which takes place in fermentation.
Commenting on this paper, M. Th. Schleesing t considers the
results obtained by MM. Bonnier and Mangin to be very well authen-
ticated, and points out the singular fact, which he does not attempt to
explain, that the proportion of hydrogen in the plant is larger than
might be expected to result from the fact that it becomes fixed in the
plant along with oxygen in the proportion in which the two together
constitute water.
Variation of Respiration with Development.{—As the result of
further experiments on the relation between the amount of oxygen
inhaled and of carbon dioxide exhaled by plants, Messrs. G. Bonnier
2
and L. Mangin state that the value of the fraction “OF is not constant
for the same species in different stages of development; but that at
the same stage of development it is always constant whatever the
temperature. This corresponds to the law already established by the
authors for the relationship between the gases absorbed and exhaled
by leaves in darkness.
Thermotropism of Roots.s—New experiments on the pheno-
menon to which Dr. J. Wortmann has given this name,|| made on
seedlings of Ervum lens, Pisum sativum, Phaseolus multiflorus, and Zea
Mais, have led him to the general conclusion that not merely the tip,
but the entire growing region of the root, is sensitive to heat striking
it on one side. By the application of higher temperatures, decapitated
roots displayed the same energy in their thermotropic movements as
normal roots. A similar sensitiveness was shown by the secondary
roots of the scarlet runner.
Air in Water-conducting Wood.{—Dr. M. Scheit lays down the
following propositions on this subject :—So long as the cell-walls are
moist, as is the case with living plants under normal conditions, no
air can diffuse through the tracheids ; for it can be demonstrated that
even under pressure, lasting for weeks, greater than that which is
* See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 591; ante, p. 488.
+ Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 1236-8.
¢ Ibid., pp. 1092-5. See this Journal, ante, pp. 94, 488.
§ Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 193-200, 209-16, 225-35.
|| See this Journal, iii. (1883) p. 873; iv. (1884) p. 588.
§ Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xviii. (1885) pp. 463-78.
ZY 2
680 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
exerted on the plant from without, no diffusion takes place. When
the consumption of water is greater than the supply, bubbles, not of
air, but of aqueous vapour, arise so soon as the conducting elements
are protected from the access of the external air. The bubbles which
make their appearance in microscopic sections can only be air-bubbles
when the making of the section does not prevent the access of the
external air. Even with the water of transpiration no air can reach
the woody elements in which this takes place. The escape of bubbles
of gas from “ weeping” rootstocks and other parts of plants, and the
mixture of bubbles of aqueous vapour with those of air, can be ex-
plained by the access of the external air on making the section, and to
the opening of cells or vessels which are filled with aqueous vapour
and impermeable to air when closed. The observations of the author
confirm the statement that no bubbles of air occur in the conducting
organs of growing plants.
Ammoniacal Ferment.* — According to M. A. Ladureau, the
ferment which transforms urea into ammonium carbonate occurs in
the soil, the air, water, rain, &c. It acts in vacuo as under normal
pressure, also under the pressure of three atmospheres, and in the
presence of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, &c. Antiseptics act
on this ferment only when present in large quantities; of anesthetics
chloroform only modifies its action.
Source of the Nitrogen of the Leguminosz.t—M. B. E. Dietzell
has grown clover and peas under conditions as nearly natural as
possible, in pots of ordinary garden soil, in the open air, but sheltered
from the weather and watered with pure distilled water. The quantity
of nitrogen in the soil, the seeds, and the mature plant was deter-
mined, and the result arrived at was that peas and clover do not absorb
combined nitrogen from the air. In all cases except two there was
an actual loss from 5-1 to 15°82 per cent. of the nitrogen in the soil.
Absorption of Atmospheric Nitrogen by Plants.t—Mr. W. O.
Atwater describes a series of experiments in growing peas in a nutrient
fluid composed of potassium nitrate, calcium nitrate, calcium phos-
phate, magnesium sulphate, and chloride of iron, and protected from
rain and dew. He finds as a uniform result that the mature plant
contains much more nitrogen than it could have obtained from the
nutrient fluid and from the store cf food-material in the seed. The
amount of nitrogen thus obtained from the atmosphere increased in
proportion to the supply of nutrient material in the root. In some
of the experiments from one-third to one-half of the total amount of
nitrogen in the plant must have been obtained in this way.
The author is unable to determine in what form and through
what organ this nitrogen was absorbed by the plant, whether as free
nitrogen, or aS ammonia, nitric acid, or any other compound, and
* Comptes Rendus, xcix. (1884) p. 877.
+ Ann. Agronomiques, x. pp. 543-4. See Journ. Chem. Soc.—Abstr., xviii. -
(1885) p. 418.
{ Amer. Chem. Journ., vi. (1885) p. 365. See Naturforscher, xviii. (1885)
p. 237.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 681
whether through the leaves or in the nutrient solution through the
root; any one of these modes being in opposition to well-attested
experiments. A possible explanation seems to be that free nitrogen
is absorbed by decaying vegetable substances by the assistance of
electricity.
B. CRYPTOGAMIA.
Cryptogamia Vascularia.
Affinities of Laccopteris.*—The genus Laccopteris is formed of
several species of fossil ferns the remains of which are found in
strata from the Rhetian to the Cretacean, and has been referred to the
Gleicheniacew. This distribution is confirmed by M. R. Zeiller, who
points out that the structure of the sporangia is almost identical with
that in Matonia. The sori are composed of from 5-11 large sporangia,
arranged in a stellate manner, differing only from those ot Matonia in
the absence of the membranous indusium, which may not be constant.
The sporangia are furnished with a large complete oblique annulus.
The spores have the same tetrahedral form.
Composition of the Ash of Equisetacez, and its Bearing on the
Formation of Coal.t—M. Dieulafait has examined 168 samples of the
ash of various existing species of Equisetacee collected in different
localities. Although the ashes of different species vary considerably
in composition, they are all characterized by the presence of. calcium
sulphate in large excess, and the total absence of alkaline carbonates.
The proportion of ash varied from 5*2 to 8°3 per cent. of the fresh
plant, and the mean amounts of potassium sulphate and calcium
sulphate in the ashes were 12:0 per cent. and 14°3 per cent. respec-
tively. ‘The mean percentage of sulphuric acid was 13°91, whilst
the amount of this acid in the ashes of other plants collected in the
same places was not more than 1 per cent. ‘These latter ashes also
contained a large proportion of alkaline carbonates.
The presence of such large quantities of sulphuric acid in the
Equisetacez is obviously one of the causes of the presence of sulphur
in coal.
Transitional Equisetum.{—Herr A. Tépffer describes an Hqui-
setum found at Gastein intermediate between EH. variegatum and E.
scirpoides, agreeing in all respects with EH. variegatum var. anceps, but
possessing the peculiar “root-felt” of H. scirpoides.
Muscinee.
Conduction of Water in the Stem of Mosses.§—Dr. G. Haber-
landt replies to the observations of Herr F. Oltmanns || on this subject.
He objects to the experiments of the latter on Mnium that he allowed
the plant to become too dry; and contends that the central bundle is
the organ by means of which the plant raises water out of the soil.
* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885) pp. 21-5 (1 fig.).
+ Comptes Rendus, ec. (1885) pp. 284-6.
$ Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xxxv. (1885) pp. 121-2.
§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., ii, (1885) pp. 467-71.
|| See this Journal, ante, p. 493,
682 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
To this critique Herr Oltmanns * again rejoins, maintaining that
even in the case of Polytrichum and Mnium the power of conduction of
the stem is so small that only in an atmosphere of at least 90 per
cent. relative moisture is it sufficient to meet the consumption. The
internal conduction must therefore in any case be of very subordinate
importance.
Pottia Gussfeldti, a new Moss.j— Under this name, Herr K.
Schliephacke describes a new species of moss from the mountains
of the Argentine Republic, of interest as belonging to a European
type, and replacing in that country the P. latifolia of our Alps. The
author dissents from Venturi’s proposal to establish from P. latifolia
a new genus Stegonia dependent on the peculiar character of the cells
and nerve of the leaf; but proposes, on the other hand, to form under
the same name a subgenus of Pottia which shall comprise the two
species P. latifolia and Giissfeldti.
Elaters of Hepatice.{—M. Leclere du Sablon defines the part
played by the elaters in the dissemination of the spores of the
Hepatice. He points out the resemblance in the structure and the
mode of dehiscence of the sporogonium of Hepatic and the anther
of flowering plants, and describes the former in detail in the case of
Pellia epiphylla, Calypogeia Trichomanis, and Frullania dilatata. As
the elater dries it contracts considerably, and the coils of the spiral
become closer, expanding again on moistening. The intervals be-
tween the coils of the spiral contract more than the spirals themselves,
which are lignified. In addition to their contraction, the elaters also
change their position when the sporogonium dehisces; before de-
hiscence they are parallel, afterwards divergent; and this last is the
chief agency in violently separating and dispersing the spores.
Algee.
Protoplasmic Continuity in the Fucaceze.§—In continuation of
his previous observations on the continuity of protoplasm from cell
to cell in the thallus of the Floridez, || Mr. T. Hick now describes
the same phenomenon in several species of Fucacex, especially Fucus
nodosus (Ascophyllum nodosum), F. vesiculosus, and F’. serratus. In the
first species named, in the cortical layers and in the filaments of the
central tissue, the protoplasm appears to run uninterruptedly from
cell to cell in the longitudinal direction.
At the ends of the cells, i. e. at the point where two adjacent cells
are united, there is an annular thickening on the internal wall not
unlike a strongly developed ring of an annular vessel. The material
of which this ring is composed differs from that of the cell-walls in
not dissolving or undergoing gelatinization under the influence of
reagents. It seems to resist alike the action of the strongest acids
* Op. cit., iii. (1885) pp. 58-62.
+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. ii. (1885) pp. 461-2.
t Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885) pp. 30-4.
§ Journ. of Bot., xxiii. (1885) pp. 97-102 (1 pl.).
|| See this Journal, iv, (1884) p. 101.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 683
and the strongest alkalies, as well as the disintegrating action of a
solution of bleaching powder. Within this ring the arrangements
are not the same in all cases, but for the most part they conform to
one of four types.
1. In the first type the ring surrounds a comparatively wide and
open pore, through which the protoplasm is continuous in a single
thread. This type is not very common, but isolated cases are to be
met with here and there.
2. In the second type a delicate diaphragm stretches across the
space inclosed by the ring, and through this the protoplasm is con-
tinuous, as through a sieve-plate, by a number of delicate threads.
This is perhaps the commonest form of continuity, and bears the
closest possible resemblance to that met with in the sieve-tubes of
higher plants.
3. The third type agrees with the second, except that continuity is
effected by a thin and delicate ribbon of protoplasm which passes
through a narrow slit in the diaphragm. This form is not abundant,
and appears to be intermediate between the second and the fourth.
4, In the fourth type the diaphragm is complete and impervious,
except at the centre, where there is an extremely minute pore, through
which a single delicate strand of protoplasm maintains the con-
tinuity.
The delicate diaphragm met with at the ends of the cells, like
the annular thickening which incloses it, does not swell up under
the action of reagents, nor does it stain like the rest of the walls.
In Fucus vesiculosus and serratus the same phenomena of con-
tinuity were observed, both in the layers of cortical cells and in the
fibres which arise from them and curve inwards to interlace with the
central filaments.
Fertilization of Cryptonemiacew.*—Dr. G. Berthold publishes a
monograph of the species of this family of Floridew found in the
Bay of Naples, belonging to the genera Halymenia, Grateloupia,
Cryptonemia, Schizymenia, Sebdenia, Halarachnion, Nemastoma, Gym-
nophiea, Calosiphonia, and Dudresnaya. These are classified by the
author under four tribes:—Halymeniex, including Halymenia,
Cryptonemia, Grateloupia, and perhaps Schizymenia; Nemastomes,
including Dudresnaya, Calosiphonia, Nemastoma, and Gymnophlea ;
while Sebdenia and Halarachnion each constitutes a tribe by itself.
The vegetative structure presents nothing very remarkable. In
most forms there are found at the apex several apical cells, from which,
lying side by side, the thallus is constructed. Dudresnaya and
Calosiphonia differ from the remaining genera in presenting only a
single apical cell. In none of the Cryptonemiacex are tetraspores
found on the same individual as the sexual organs.
The mode of fertilization presents in all the genera the same
essential features as that already known in Dudresnaya and Polyides,
The lower portion of the impregnated trichogyne is separated off by
* Berthold, G., ‘Oryptonemiaceen. Fauna u. Flora des Golfes v. Neapel.
Monog. xii., 27 pp. (8 pls.). 4to, Leipzig, 1884.
684 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
a septum as the carpogonium. The cells with which the trichogyne
or tubes which proceed from it, conjugate, the auxiliary cells, are of
two kinds:—fertile, those which, after conjugation with the connect-
ing filaments which proceed from the carpogonium, form cystocarps ;
and sterile, which do not bring about this result. These sterile
auxiliary cells occur in Dudresnaya, Calosiphonia, and Nemastoma,
but not in the other genera. When present they are always in the
immediate vicinity of the carpogonium, while the fertile cells are
often at a greater distance from it. In the Halymeniez (Halymenia,
Grateloupia, and Cryptonemia) the auxiliary cell is homologous
morphologically with the carpogonium, and is surrounded by a similar
group of investing filaments. Hach fertilized carpogonium may give
birth to a large number of auxiliary cells for the purpose of forming
a cystocarp; and this is especially the case in the Halymeniee and
in Nemastoma.
The number of species described is twenty, among which are two
new ones, Gymnophlea pusilla and Calosiphonia neapolitana.
Sieve-hyphe in Algw.*—Dr. N. Wille states that in the stipes
of certain Laminariacez, a portion of the hyphe running through it
in a longitudinal direction have long narrow cell-cavities, and that
the transverse walls of these cells are perforated in the same way as
those of the sieve-tubes of Phanerogams. These sieve-hyphe are
also connected with one another transversely by short branched hypha,
thus causing a complex system of communication of the sieve-hyphe
with one another, and between these and the assimilating system.
The sieve-hyphe occur also as'a middle lamella between the two
assimilating layers in the leaves of Laminaria ; and evidently per-
form a very important function in the conveyance of nutriment from
one part of the plant to another.
These sieve-hyphe were observed in Laminaria digitata, Clustont
and saccharina. A somewhat similar structure occurs in the leaves of
Fucacee ; andin Chorda filum,a similar though less developed system ;
also in Chordaria flagelliformis. In the Floridee conducting hyphe
of various kinds are also found. In Cystoclonium purpurascens the
eutire conducting system is surrounded by a protecting ring of large
thick-walled cells.
Algez of Bohemia.j— Dr. A. Hansgirg enumerates the fresh-
water alge found in Bohemia, which have not previously been
observed, and describes the following new species :—Micrococcus
ochraceus, Gloeocapsa salina, Nostoc halophilum.
Pelagic Alge.t—Dr. R. F. Solla gives a list of twenty-three
species of marine algz (besides four unnamed) obtained from the
island of Lampedusa, and eighteen from the island of Linosa, both off
the coast of Sicily. They belong to the families Porphyracez,
Ceramiaceze, Spyridiaces, Rhodymenacer, Hypneacer, Gelidiaces,
* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 29-31 (1 pl.).
+ Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xxxy. (1885) pp. 113-7, 161-6.
{ Ibid., pp. 48-53.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 685
Rhodomelacesw, Corallinacese, Fucacez, Dictyotese, Scytosiphonaceer,
Ulvacez, Confervaces, Valoniacex, Bryopsides, Codiacerw, Dasycla-
dacez, and Nostocacee.
Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Marine Algz).
—We have now the completion of this, which constitutes the second
volume of the entire work. The last two parts (9 and 10) include
the completion of the genus Cladophora, and the families Anadyo-
-menez, Valoniew, Dasycladee, Nostocacez, and Chroococcaceer, in-
cluding under the Nostocaceew the genera Rivularia, Lyngbya,
Oscillaria, and others. The mode in which this section of Dr.
Rabenhorst’s great work has been accomplished reflects the greatest
credit on Dr. F. Hauck, to whom it has been intrusted.
Diatoms and Bladderwort.*—Mr. H. Taylor has forwarded to
‘Science Gossip’ a slide containing a bladder of Utricularia upon or
within which are to be seen numerous frustules of diatoms, upon the
decomposing endochrome of which he thinks the plant may have fed.
He says that Mr. Darwin, who does not, in his work on carni-
yorous plants, mention Diatomaces being found in the bladders of
any of the species, “appears to think the taking-in of food by the
bladders is not owing to any voluntary act on their part, but that the
different things found in them have merely forced their way in; but
as many of these diatoms are stipitate and attached forms, having
no power of locomotion, like the free frustules, this looks very much
like their being seized by the antenne round the valve of the blad-
der, and conveyed or swallowed in.” Mr. Taylor is not, however,
certain whether the diatoms are inside or outside the bladder, and
even if they be inside it still remains to be shown that they are
utilized as food by the plant.
Mr. F. Kitton has given his opinion as to the position of the
diatoms. Speaking about the slide forwarded, Mr. Kitton says:
“The diatoms are, I have no doubt, upon the bladder of the Utricu-
laria as the species are all parasitic (and no doubt occurred on other
parts of the plant); they could not have been injected by the bladder,
as it possesses no prehensile organs which would be necessary to
detach the diatoms from their stipes. The following are the species
attached: Gomphonema constrictum, Synedra capitata, Cocconema lan-
ceolatum, Diatome vulgare.’ The point, however, is one of some
interest, and it would be well if it were thoroughly cleared up by
means of the examination of fresh specimens, Mr. Taylor's having
been a dried one.
Structure of the Cell-wall of Diatoms.t—Dr. O. Miiller replies to
the paper by Dr. J. H. L. Flogel { which has appeared in this Journal.
He states the difference between Dr. Flégel’s view and his
own to be that the former considers he has proved the existence
within the cell-wall of Pleurosigma of numerous closed cavities
corresponding to the well-known polygonal markings on the surface ;
* Sci.-Gossip, 1885, p. 164.
+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., ii. (1885) pp. 487-94 (1 fig.).
t See this Journal, iv. (1884) pp. 505-22, 655-96 (5 pls.)
686 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
whilst he objects that these chambers cannot be closed on all
sides. This is the kernel of the dispute, everything else is unim-
portant. Dr. Flogel objects to Dr. Miiller’s experiments in flooding
the walls of the diatoms with fluids of different densities, on the
ground that “all the fluids named by him will penetrate the inter-
stitial molecules of thin membranes with the greatest facility ” ; from
this assertion Miller dissents as regards the silicified cell-walls of
diatoms, while pointing out the ambiguity of the term “ interstitial
molecules.” He objects also to Dr. Flogel’s application of the term
endosmose to processes which have not the slightest connection with
diosmose, e.g. to the passage of fluid through a porous membrane
which is bounded on the other side by air. The fact of the rapid
filling up of the chambers and their emptying by evaporation is,
according to Dr. Miiller, explained in the simplest manner, if the
structure of the cell-wall of Plewrosigma is regarded as analogous to
that of Triceratiwm in this respect, that every chamber is in free
communication with the air. This analogy might be carried further,
and the author is inclined to assume a double communication, on one
side with the outer air or water, on the other side with the cell-
cavity. In Triceratiwm this double connection can be proved—out-
wardly a large circular opening, towards the cell-cavity a number of
visible pores; it is very doubtful, however, whether the hypothetical
openings in LPleurosigma correspond anatomically to those of
Triceratium.
Dr. Miller considers it most probable that the cell-wall of Pleuro-
sigma consists simply of a poly-
gonal network of minute thin bands
placed at right angles to the sur-
face, and more strongly thickened
at the angles on both sides, inwards
and outwards. Both the inner and
outer edges of transverse sections
would therefore have a moniliform
appearance (see fig. 135). A com-
plete separation of the separate
Diagrammatic representation of * pearls” or transverse sections of
Pleurosigma. a, chambers; 6, openings. the thickened angles can scarcely
be expected, since in that case the
section must be thinner than the diameter of the openings. In the
general way the projections of the margins of the cut openings which
lie somewhat higher or lower must unite the separate “pearls ” with
one another, which will readily give the impression of closed
chambers.
Van Heurck’s Synopsis of the Diatoms of Belgium.* — This
magnificent work gives a description of every species of diatom as
yet gathered in Belgium. The introduction commences with an
account of the structure and life-history of diatoms, including their
Fig. 135.
* Van Heurck, H., ‘Synopsis des Diatomées de Belgique.’ Texte. 235 pp.
8vo, Anvers, 1885.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 687
mode of reproduction. Then follows a guide to their study, the
mode of collection and cleaning, the best instruments to employ in
their examination, the most advantageous methods of preparation and
media for mounting. A glossary is given of all the terms employed
in diatomography, and an account of the best systems of classification,
the one followed in the book being that of Prof. H. L. Smith, de-
pendent entirely on the characters of the siliceous envelope, without
reference to the endochrome. In the determination of species, since
the work is intended for beginners as a guide to the naming of
diatoms, the term (“species”) is used in its widest significance; a
comparatively small number of primitive types being adopted under
which the secondary types are ranged. A bibliography is appended ;
followed by the detailed descriptions of the genera and species,
Lichenes.
Structure of Lichens.*—Herr H. Zukal describes the “ gono-
cysts” of Manzonia Cantiana, where they occur on the surface of the
thallus, and especially on its outer margin. On the blue-green short-
celled hyphe are found globular “capsules ” of various sizes, opaque,
of a dark colour, and consisting of one, two, four, or more chambers,
each containing a green spherical or elliptical cell, or gonidium.
Sooner or later the wall of this capsule becomes mucilaginous, and
the gonidia are now inclosed by hyphz from the adjacent thallus, the
thallus itself thus increasing in size. In other cases the gonocysts
become detached from the thallus, are carried away, and, when
reaching a suitable nidus, develope into a new thallus formed from
the fragments of hyphe which remain attached to these. The gono-
cysts are now formed by gonidia making their appearance on the
margin or surface of the thallus, which become enveloped in a thick
dark-coloured membrane. The gonidium divides within this “cap-
sule” into a number of daughter-cells, until the wall of the capsule
finally becomes absorbed.
The gonangia are roundish bodies, consisting of a brown pseudo-
parenchymatous envelope, in connection with a hypha, and containing
in their cavity a number of green pleurococcus-like cells, which are
not formed either in the envelope or from it. They occur in large
quantities in all situations, especially on bark and wood, and are
surrounded by the hyphw, which in the lower cortical layers are
colourless and thin-walled, on the surface thicker, brown, and com-
posed of short cells, forming the pseudo-parenchymatous envelope
round the gonidia or algal cells. The gonangia apparently assist in
the dissemination of the lichens, and are found in those species which
inhabit bark, though comparatively rarely.
Many lichens pass, when under certain conditions, into a vegeta-
tive condition characterized by peculiar changes in the contents of
the hyphal cells. The protoplasm becomes nearly homogeneous,
strongly refringent, and has a distinct green tint. It then breaks up
readily into regular minute spherical bodies, uniform in size, the
* Denkschr. K, Akad. Wiss. Wien, xlviii. See Hedwigia, xxiv. (1885) p. 43,
688 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
microgonidia, arranged in a moniliform manner and filling up the
hyphe. The protoplasmic nature of these bodies can be readily
proved ; but no cell-wall can be detected nor any green pigment.
They may lie for weeks in absolute alcohol or ether without the green
colour being removed ; this colour depending on a peculiar property
of absorption and refraction of these very dense protoplasmic bodies.
In Verrucaria rupestris var. rosea and Hymenelia cerulea the
thailus is composed for the most part of branched colourless thin-
walled hyphe, containing a larger or smaller number of bladder-like
bodies of roundish, ovoid, pear-shaped, or ellipsoidal form. In the
upper zone of the thallus which bears the gonidia, these bladders
not unfrequently contain two or four daughter-cells, which are not
gonidia although possessing a green tint. With iodine and sulphuric
acid the cell-walls of these bladders and of their daughter-cells
become yellow, while those of the gonidia turn a beautiful blue.
In Petractis exanthematica the alga which forms the gonidia is a
Scytonema, and the lichen possesses the peculiarity of that genus that
the hyphe are of very different thicknesses. In Verrucaria fusca we
find also a Scytonema in the form of gonidia, and in addition masses
of blue-green cells resembling a Gleocapsa, and apparently resulting
from the breaking up of the Scytonema-filaments. ‘The same genetic
connection between Scytonema and Gleocapsa occurs, therefore, within
the lichen-thallus as in the free alge.
The author describes a new genus of lichens, Holichen, with the
following characters:—Thallus roundish, gelatinous, pellicular,
1-5 mm. in diameter, adhering to the substratum by the entire
surface. The gonidia are species of Sirosiphon and Scytonema; the
hyphe are segmented in a leptothrix-fashion. Apothecia globular,
brownish-red, pellicular, perforated at the apex. Spores in eights, in
two indistinct rows, inclosed in a narrow club-shaped ascus. Para-
physes wanting. Three species are described :—EH. Heppii, compactus,
and clavatus. In the last species the nutrient alga is a Scytonema, in
the two others a Sirosiphon.
Algo-Lichen Hypothesis.*—Reyv. J. M. Crombie says that “in
addition to the various direct and indirect arguments which have
been adduced against this theory, another, and in some respects, a
still more convincing proof, has quite recently been brought under
notice by Dr. Nylander.t In his observations upon Gyalecta lampro-
spora Nyl., a new species from North America, collected by Mr.
Willey, of which a full diagnosis is given, he writes: ‘ Hach goni-
dium of this Gyalecta is distinctly seen to emit from its thickish
cellular wall (as do also the young gonidia) a firm medullary filament
and often two such filaments, characteristic of the nature of lichens.
It is most manifest that these licheno-hyphe are productions, and
indeed continuations, of the cellular wall of the gonidium itself’ In
the species under notice it may be mentioned that the thallus is not
corticated, and that the gonidia are most frequently chroolepoidly
* Journ. of Bot., xxiii. (1885) p. 219.
+ Flora, Ixviii. (1885) p. 313.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 689
seriated and moderate. Now this very important discovery of the
veteran and distinguished lichenist is, beyond all question, sufficient
of itself at once to disprove Schwendenerism in all its phases. For
if the gonidia thus send forth filaments in the manner stated, then the
gonidia clearly cannot be algals; and if licheno-hyphe are thus pro-
duced by gonidia, then these hyphe as clearly cannot be parasitic
fungal mycelia. On these grounds alone (apart from other considera-
tions), this plausible hypothesis necessarily collapses, and ‘ symbiosis’
is seen to be but a mere fable.”
Fungi.
Classification of Fungi.*—In Cohn’s ‘Kryptogamen-Flora von
Schlesien,’ Dr. J. Schréter proposes the division of the Fungi into the
three following primary groups :—I. Myxomycetes; II. Schizomycetes
(parallel to the Phycochromacex); IIT. Eumycetes, distinguished
by their spores being formed by a sexual act. The Eumycetes are
again divided into seven families, viz.: 1, Chytridiei; 2, Zygomycetes ;
3, Oomycetes (related to the Siphonex); 4, Ascomycetes; 5, Uredinei;
6, Auriculariei; and 7, Basidiomycetes. The Basidiomycetes are
divided into (1) Tremellinei; (2) Dacryomycetes ; and (3) Eubasi-
diomycetes, which again are made up of (a) Hymenomycetes, (6)
Phalloidei, and (c) Gasteromycetes.
Development of Ascomyces.t—Herr C. Fisch has studied the
structure and development of this genus of Fungi, and especially of
a species which he calls A. endogenus, formerly known as A.
Tosquinetii and as Exoascus Alni. It is found on the leaves of the
alder, but only in the epidermal cells, the formation of asci being
usually confined to the under side. The production of asci is pre-
ceded by a reticulate condition of the protoplasm, and is first indicated
by a slight protuberance in the outer surface of the epidermal cells,
which the ascus finally breaks through. The contents of the asci are
at first a perfectly homogeneous and finely granular protoplasm, with
a moderately large round nucleus, in which, during the formation of
the ascospores, the process of nuclear division can be watched with
great ease. The commencement is indicated by the appearance of
smaller and larger granules in the nucleus, this being immediately
followed by the spindle-stage. The number of spindles is always very
small; they are thick, and converge strongly at their ends, the whole
structure having a barrel-like appearance. In this stage the nucleus
differs in nothing except its small size from that in the embryo-sac of
flowering plants. In the subsequent stages the processes differ from
that in the higher plants, and also from that described by Strasburger
in Trichia, in the threads which connect the secondary nuclear plates
being parallel to one another, and in the invariable absence of a cell-
plate. After division, the eight nuclei are distributed nearly
uniformly through the ascus, and form the centres of the ascospores.
* Cohn’s ‘Kryptogamen-Flora von Schlesien. III. Band: Pilze, bearb. v.
Dr. J. Schréter. 1 Lieferung. Breslau, 1885. See Hedwigia, xxiv. (1885) p. 121.
+ Bot. Ztg., xliii, (1885) pp. 33-9, 49-59 (1 pl.). See also Bot. Centralbl., xe1ly
(1885) p. 126.
690 ' SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
With regard to the genetic relationship of the genus, the author
inclines to the opinion that the three genera Ascomyces, Exoascus, and
Saccharomyces should be united together into the group Hxoascex,
the species of which exhibit themselves in three different forms,
viz. :—(1) Not parasitic (Saccharomyces); (2) growing outside the
host-plant, and producing within it asci only (Ascomyces, including
the species A. endogenus on Alnus glutinosa, A. Tosquineti (?), on the
same, and A. polyporus on Acer tataricum); (8) growing outside the
host-plant, and producing within it both asci and mycelium (Hxoascus).
Nocturnal Spore-formation in Botrytis cinerea.*—Dr. L. Klein
records a series of experiments for the purpose of determining why
Botrytis cinerea (Peziza Fuckeliana) forms its spores only in the
night-time, under whatever conditions the development takes place.
The conclusion arrived at is that the red-yellow half of the solar
spectrum promotes, while the blue-violet half acts prejudicially on
the formation of spores; and this retardation is sufficiently strong to
render the net result in the daytime nil. Lamplight, on the other
hand, in which the red-yellow half is stronger, acts as a positive
inciter. Darkness favours the formation of spores, as is shown by
shutting off the light from young cultures.
Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Fungi).—Dr.
G. Winter has now (in parts 16 to 18) given a further instalment of
Dr. Rabenhorst’s important work, still concerned with the Pyrenomy-
cetes (Hypocreaceze and Spheriacee). This difficult family is being
worked out with very great care, the synonymy and literature are
referred to, a point of great importance in determining species, and each
species is illustrated with well-executed and characteristic woodcuts.
Zopf’s Myxomycetes.j—Of this most exhaustive account of the
structure, development, and affinities of a most difficult group, we
can give only the outlines of the classification, viz. A. Monapinnz;
mostly hydrophytes, partly parasites; usually with a zoocyst form;
plasmodia wanting, or arrested at early stages of development.
I. M. azoosporee. (1. Vampyrellee; 2. Bursullines; 3. Mono-
cystacee.) II. M. zoosporee. (1. Pseudospores ; 2. Gymnococcacee ;
3. Plasmodiophore.) B. Humycrtozoa: aerial organisms, never
parasites; plasmodia never wanting, usually highly developed; fruc-
tification generally highly developed. I. Sorophoree. (1. Guttulines ;
2. Dictyosteliaceze.) II. Hndosporee. (a) Peritrichee (1. Clathro- —
ptychiacee ; 2. Cribrariacee); (6) Endotrichee; a. Stereonemes (1.
Calcariacew ; 2. Amaurochetacez); 6. Coelonemex (1. Trichiacen ;
2. Arcyriacese ; 3. Reticulariacee; 4. Liceacee; 5, Perichenaces).
III. Exosporee.
Zopf adopts Rostafinski’s term, plasmodiocarp, to express sporo-
cysts (or cysts which contain resting reproductive cells) which remain
in the condition of plasmodia.
* Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 6-15.
+ Zopf, W., ‘ Die Pilzthiere oder Schleimpilze’ (Breslau, 1884) (Schenk’s
‘Handbuch der Botanik,’ in Encyklop. der Naturwissenschaften).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 691
Protophyta.
Distribution of Chromatophores and Nuclei in the Schizo-
phycee.*—Dr. A. Hansgirg describes a new genus of Cyanophycee,
Chroodactylon, with the following characters :—Thallus small, hemi-
spherical, gelatinous, pale-blue, attached to rocks. Vegetative cells
oblong-cylindrical or ellipsoidal, rounded at both ends, united into
filiform-cylindrical families more or less irregularly lobed or appa-
rently branched ; lobes uniseriate, inclosed in a common colourless
gelatinous integument. Cytoplasm homogeneous; chromatophores
distinct, star-shaped, central, inclosing globose pyrenoids. Cell-wall
colourless, more or less thickened ; cell-multiplication by successive
transverse bipartition, in one direction only. Spores unknown. The
typical species, C. Wolleanum, was found on moist siliceous rocks in
Bohemia.
Chroodactylon is distinguished from most of the blue-green uni-
cellular Alge by its distinct cell-nucleus, and by the peculiar form of
the chromatophores, which inclose moderately large pyrenoids. Both
were stated by Schmitz to be wanting in the Phycochromacez, but
have since been found by Schmitz himself, Zopf, and Lagerheim.
The author claims to have determined that Zopf’s Phragnomena
sordidum is a true Phycochromacea, and connected genetically with
other blue-green alge; also that Porphyridium cruentum Nig. (Pal-
mella cruenta Ag.) is connected in the same way with Lyngbya antliaria
Hansg. (Oscillaria antliaria Jiirg.), and is in reality an Aphanocapsa.
In both these species are evident nuclei and star-shaped chromato-
phores inclosing globular pyrenoids. The reason why they have
hitherto generally escaped observation is probably that they are to be
found only in the living cell, and not in prepared specimens.
It is stated by Hansgirg to bea general rule that in the more
highly developed Phycochromacezx, viz. the Lyngbyacer, Calotri-
chacez, and Scytonemacee, nuclei, pyrenoids, and chromatophores are
not to be found except when they are in a condition of retrogression
from the filiform state, and are breaking up into the unicellular
condition.
Chroodactylon is distinguished from its nearest ally among the
Phycochromacee, Chroothece, by the formation of cell-families branch-
ing in an arborescent manner, and by the star-shaped chromatophores
with long rays; from Synechococcus and Aphanothece by the clearly
developed cell-wall of the several vegetative cells and by the forma-
tion of a common gelatinous envelope which does not deliquesce.
Agreeing with all these genera of Schizophycee in its cells dividing
by transverse septa only, it differs from them not only in the peculiar
form of the chromatophores, but also in the cells of successive genera-
tions being inclosed in a common branched gelatinous envelope.
With the genus Chroodactylon the author unites Thwaites’s Hormo-
spora ramosa under the name C. ramosum.
Chromatophores with inclosed pyrenoids have been detected by
* Ber. Deutsch. Bot, Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 14-22 (1 pl.).
692 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Hansgirg also in Chroothece Richteriana Hansg., Chroococcus turgidus
Nag., and Urococcus insignis Ktz. (Chroococcus macrococcus Rbh.).
True chromatophores are not to be found in the filiform conditions
of species of Lyngbya or Oscillaria growing in air or water.
The paper concludes with the description of a new species of
Oscillaria, O. leptotrichoides, found on the walls of hothouses in
Prague, associated with Lyngbya calcicola.
Formation of the Spores of Cladothrix.*—M. A. Billet has
observed the formation of spores of Cladothrix dichotoma ‘xr water in
which human bones had been macerated. They are formed in the
interior of filaments with false ramification, not differing in appearance
from the vegetative filaments. When a spore is about to be formed,
the protoplasm of the filament, hitherto homogeneous throughout,
contracts into a rounded corpuscle of greater refrangibility, resembling
a cell-nucleus. This body elongates, contracts in the middle into
an hour-glass shape, and then divides transversely into ten cells of
rectangular form, each having a nucleus. These rectangular cells
round themselves off, and become elliptical sporiferous cells of which
the nucleus is the spore with a diameter of 1-1-5 ». The spores are
united together into a zooglea-like mass, and, on germinating, put
out a filament of smaller diameter than that of the spore, which
elongates into a new filament.
The reagent used was dilute sulphuric acid (1 part acid to 3 of
distilled water); a dilute aqueous solution of methyl-blue and hema-
toxylin being the best staining reagents.
Aulosira.t—MM. E. Bornet and C. Flahault describe this genus
as forming a remarkable exception to the group of Alge (or chloro-
phyllaceous Protophyta) to which it belongs, viz. the Nostocacez.
While in the other genera, Anabena, Nodularia, Cylindrospermum,
Spherozyga, and Nostcc, the trichomes are naked, or if inclosed in a
sheath the latter is soft, gelatinous, and diffluent, the sheath of
Aulosira is thin, membranous, and dry. The relative position of the
spores and heterocysts is not sufficiently constant to be used as a
diagnosis of the genera. A new species, A. implexa, from Montevideo,
is described and figured.
Microcystis.t—Dr. P. Richter gives reasons for suppressing this
genus of Kiitzing, and for regarding it as a resting condition of
Huglena, which he agrees with Klebs in placing under Alge (or
chlorophyllaceous Protophyta) rather than under Infusoria. Of the
four species described by Kiitzing, M. Noltii (red), olivacea (olive-
brown), and austriaca (yellow), may all be determined to be forms of
development of Huglena viridis, M. olivacea agreeing exactly with
Klebs’s description of the encysted condition of E. viridis B olivacea.
M. minor the author was not able to identify specifically with a
corresponding Euglena.
* Comptes Rendus, ¢. (1885) pp. 1251-2.
+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885) pp. 119-22 (1 pl.).
t Hedwigia, xxiv. (1885) pp. 18-20.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 693
Degeneration of Yeast.*—M. H. Bungener states that yeast which
has been repeatedly employed for fermenting purposes becomes after
several generations unfit for further use. This is apparently due to
differences in the composition of the wort, especially with reference
to its nitrogenous constituents. After each fermentation the quantity
of the nitrogen in the yeast increases, as does also its fermenting
power; but after a time the fermentation ceases, leaving the cells
still suspended in the liquid, and the yeast is no longer fit to use.
Effect of High Pressures on the Vitality of Ferments and on
Fermentation.{—In continuation of previous experiments on the effect
of high pressures on low organisms by M. A. Certes,t MM. Certes
and D. Cochin state that the vitality of Torula is not destroyed by a
pressure of 300-400 atmospheres continued for several days. Exami-
nation under the Microscope shows no perceptible change in the form
or appearance of the cells; and when afterwards brought into contact
with saccharine solutions, they multiply and otherwise behave in the
normal way. Under the same pressure alcoholic fermentation always
takes place after some time. When fermentation occurs under high
pressures, the development of carbon dioxide appears to ensue under
special conditions of molecular equilibrium.
Organisms Productive of Zymosis.s—M. A. Béchamp, &@ propos
of communications by MM. Duclaux and Pasteur,|| claims priority for
the discovery of the production of diastases by germs and the réle of
these same germs in digestion. He cites passages from the ‘ Comptes
Rendus,’ and states that it would be easy to prove by other quotations
from the same source that diastase, synaptase, the soluble ferment of
the pancreas, pepsine, &c., are equally products of the physiological
activity of microzoa, bacteria, or autonomous cells.
Microbes in the Soil.{—Dr. E. Wollny states that the changes,
physical and chemical, which take place in earth containing humus,
or the organic remains from which it is formed, have important
bearings on the fertility of the soil. In well-worked porous and
aerated ground the decomposition of organic matter under favourable
conditions liberates carbon dioxide, water, ammonia, and a little free
nitrogen, some of which combine with the inorganic substances
necessary for the growth of the plant. In well-aerated soil little
ammonia is formed; it is quickly oxidized to nitric acid. The agent
in this nitrification consists of small filiform bodies which are widely
diffused in arable soils, but apparently do not exist in the air. If this
organism is destroyed by treatment with chloroform or carbon bisul-
phide, or by heat, the ammonia remains or the nitrites and nitrates
are reduced. Heat greatly influences the growth of this ferment; at
* Bull. Soc. Chim., xlii. pp. 567-73. See Journ, Chem. Soc.—Abstr., xlviii.
(1885) p. 417.
¢ Bul). Acad. R. Belg., viii. (1884) pp. 652-4.
¢ See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 867.
§ Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 458-61.
|| See this Journal, ante, p. 295.
{ Bied. Cent., 1884, pp. 796-814. See Journ. Chem. Soc.—Abstr., xlviii.
(1885) p. 426.
Ser. 2.—Vo.. V. 2 2
694 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
5° C. the process goes on slowly; at 12° it is clearly perceptible; at
87° it reaches its maximum; at 55° it ceases. Light is unfavourable
to their development.
The oxidation of the carbon of organic matter is caused in a
similar way by minute organisms, and under conditions very similar
to those of nitrification. Treatment with vapour of chloroform, the
addition of antiseptics such as carbolic or boric acid or thymol, or a
high temperature, very materially retard the production of carbon
dioxide. Organic substances used as manures decompose more
rapidly in well-aerated sandy or gravelly than in close loamy or
argillaceous soil. The reduction of the nitrates already formed must
be regarded as a physiological process, dependent on the presence of
organisms which do not require oxygen, Pasteur’s anaerobes. Deprived
of air, the organic matters yield small quantities of carbon dioxide,
water, ammonia, free nitrogen, and a carbonaceous black peaty mass,
an acid humus difficult of decomposition.
The chemical composition of soils has an important bearing on
the decomposition of organic matter; the presence of lime facilitates
it greatly. The amount of humus is also a factor; the production of
carbonic dioxide does not always proceed at so rapid a rate as at first ;
and too great a quantity may hinder the activity of the microbes.
Microbe of Yellow Fever.*—Messrs. D. Freire and Rebourgeon
cultivated in bouillon of 38° C. micrococci obtained from the blood
of a patient who had died of yellow fever. He found minute hyaline
micrococci cells about one-quarter the size of a blood-corpuscle,
larger cells of the same kind, and black cells resembling epithelial
cells out of which micrococci were produced. Under cultivation the
micrococci went through all these stages; the lowermost layers were
black, and exhibited, like the black cells found in the dejections, the
reaction of ptomain. The dead black remains of these organisms act
pathogenetically by the formation of ptomain.
Micro-organisms as a cause of Diphtheria in Man, Pigeons,
and Calves.;—For demonstrating the presence of micro-organisms in
the diphtheritic process, Herr Loffler used the following staining
solution :—30 c.c. of a concentrated alcoholic solution of methylen-
blue to 100 ¢.c. of an aqueous solution of caustic potash (1/10,000).
It is sufficient to leave sections for only afew minutes in this solution
to deeply stain most known bacteria. They are then washed in a
1/2 per cent. solution of acetic acid, dehydrated, clarified in cedar
oil, and mounted in balsam.
In twenty-seven cases in which the diphtheritic membrane was ex-
amined, two definite species of micro-organism were found—a chain-
forming micrococcus and abacillus. The former was cultivated pure
on meat-jelly, blood-serum, and cooked potatoes. It bears a very
strong resemblance to the micrococcus of erysipelas, both morpho-
logically and as regards its mode of growth, but is only of secondary
importance with respect to the diphtheritic process.
* Comptes Rendus, xcix. (1884) p. 804.
+ MT. K. Gesundheitsamte, ii. (1884).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 695
The bacillus could not be grown on meat-jelly or potatoes, but on
blood-serum at 37° C. it formed within three days, whitish, opaque
colonies, which did not liquefy the serum. The bacilli are of about
the same length as the tubercle bacillus, but about twice as thick ;
they are generally more darkly stained and slightly thickened at the
poles. A definite spore-formation was not observed in the cultiva-
tions.
A variety of animals were inoculated with the pure cultivation,
and in some an appearance was produced at the seat of inoculation,
e.g. the formation of a false membrane on the tracheal, conjunctival,
and vaginal mucous membrane, which closely resembled the local
appearances in man.
Herr Léffler also found on the surface of a condyloma a bacillus
which possessed a great resemblance, both morphologically and as
regards its pathogenic action, to the bacillus of diphtheria of calves,
and gave rise to diphtheritic infection in rabbits.
Bacteria.*—Herr L. Brieger in a previous paper described the
method by which he obtains pure cultures of bacteria from human
feces; the sample was placed in a sterilized half-litre flask in which
water had been long boiled, shaken up so as to be finely divided; 20-
30 c.cm. of the mixture was then placed in a shallow dish containing
200-300 c.cm. of Koch’s peptonized gelatin, slightly warmed, the
contents mixed by agitation, the dish covered with another of larger
size, but inverted, and so closed as to prevent the entrance of bacteria
from the air, and the whole arrangement covered with a bell-glass.
The arrangement was kept at ordinary chamber temperature ; after a
short time micrococci made their appearance in different places, and
the species could be isolated. In a previous paper, the author
described the bacteria which decompose carbohydrates, and also a
coccus which produces ethyl-alcohol from both grape- and cane-sugar,
but is not dependent on the last two for its existence, as it also lives
on albumen, white of egg, serum-albumen, and fibrin; it has not,
however, the power of liquefying those substances, nor does it produce
any chemical change in them at any temperature. A bacillus is also
described which forms irregular concentric rings on Koch’s gelatin,
and which, when injected into guinea-pigs, kills them instantaneously ;
it has not the power of decomposing albumen; it is a remarkable
feature of this bacillus, that when left a long time in the nutritive
matter its central portions assume a yellowish-white colour caused by
an incrustation of salts—no matter whether cultivated on carbo-
hydrates or albumen, at high or low temperatures; when injected
into the blood of guinea-pigs it is injurious, but rabbits and mice are
not affected ; its action on sterilized grape-sugar at 36-38° produces
propionic acid.
Other species of bacteria have been obtained by the author from
feces, but are not described.
Experiments were also made with the coccus which has been
* Zeitschr. Physiol, Chem., ix. (1885) pp. 1-7. See Journ. Chem. Soo.—
Abstr., xlviii. (1885) pp. 578-80.
222
696 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO
described by Friedlander as the excitant of the croupous form of
pheumonia ; it was cultivated with success in solutions of grape- and
cane-sugar neutralized with lime and containing fibrin and nutrient
salts, sodium chloride, potassium phosphate, and magnesium sulphate.
The author describes the precautions used in preparing sterilized
flasks, &e.
Bacterium ures.*—This microbe, hitherto known only in the
micrococcus form, has been observed by M. A. Billet also in the
diplococcus, streptococcus, bacterium, diplobacterium, streptobac-
terium, leptothrix, and vibrio conditions. The different forms may
be associated in the same filament, showing that they all belong to a
single species. The micrococcus and torula forms occur always in
ammoniacal urine; the leptothrix, bacterium, streptobacterlum, and
vibrio forms are more frequent in acid urine left in contact with the
air. In proportion as the acidity diminishes, the elements of a
filament divide more and more and separate into elements which are
ultimately the micrococcus form.
The most instructive preparations were obtained by the use of
methyl-violet B in very dilute aqueous solution, and mounting in
Canada balsam or glycerin saturated with tincture of iodine.
Identity of Bacterium fceetidum (Thin) with Soil Cocci.} — Mr.
Spencer Le M. Moore gives details of experiments affording morpho-
logical and chemical proof of the identity of Bacteriwm fotidum
Thin (found on the soles of the feet) with the cocci of surface soil
(‘corpuscles brillants” of Pasteur). Access of the ferment to the
sole of the foot must take place by the penetration of fine dust
containing ferment through the seams of boots; for not only is the
ferment of universal occurrence in surface soil derived from deposits
belonging to all the great geological horizons, but cocci are always
to be found upon the feet even under the most cleanly conditions.
Whether the ferment has any relation of causation to an abnormal
escape of fluid from the soles is a very obscure problem. The soil
ferment is possessed of greater chemical energy than is the
bacterium.
Artificial Attenuation of Bacillus anthracis.{—Drs. Koch,
Gaffky, and Léffler made experiments, as a control of Pasteur’s
observations, on the attenuation of the virulence of Bacillus anthracis,
and on inoculation with the attenuated bacilli to confer artificial
immunity against the virulent form of splenic fever. The thermostat
of Arsonval was used as an incubator. Small pieces of virulent
splenic fever material were introduced, with proper precautions, into
Erlenmeyer’s tubes, and kept at a temperature of 42°-48° C. The
alterations in virulence were tested by taking samples of the cultiva-
tions, and introducing them directly, or after further cultivation in
meat-jelly on glass slides, into mice, guinea-pigs, rabbits, and wethers.
* Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 1252-3.
+ Journ. of Bot., xxiii. (1885) pp. 149-53.
t MT. K. Gesundheitsamte, ii. (1884).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 697
Spontaneous attenuation of virulence was only observed in a few
eases. Pasteur used as his first vaccine, material which had been
kept for 24 days, and as his second, material which had been kept for
12 days at 42°-43° C. The authors used as their first vaccine, material
of 24 days, which did not kill rabbits or wethers, but killed mice
regularly, and as their second, material which killed mice and guinea-
pigs, but did not kill rabbits with certainty, and was quite inert on
wethers. Further, a third and fourth vaccine were used. Still two out
of five wethers died after inoculation with virulent material; rabbits
and guinea-pigs could not, as a rule, be rendered proof against the
disease. The authors have arrived at the conclusion that vaccination
is only a very doubtful gain as a preventive measure.
Cholera Bacillus.*—Dr. H. R. Bigelow mentions that out of six
guinea-pigs inoculated in the duodenum by Babes, three presented
the lesions of cholera; and pure cultivations of the bacillus of Koch
were obtained from the intestinal contents. Koch has just introduced
a new method of operation without the production of any external
lesion, and he reports the cases as completely confirming the view of
the pathogenic nature of the bacillus. The method of staining the
bacillus in the tissues adopted by Babes consists in cutting thin
sections in close proximity to a Peyer’s patch, placing them in an
aqueous solution of fuchsin for 24 hours, washing in sublimate
solution (1-1000), passing rapidly through alcohol and oil of
cloves, well drying with blotting-paper, and mounting in Canada
balsam.
Curved Bacilli in Air and Water.j—In the present state of
confusion which exists as to the exact réle which Koch’s comma
bacillus plays in cholera, any information on the subject of curved
bacilli is of interest.
M. J. Hericourt finds that curved bacilli, some of the same type
as the cholera bacillus, are present in all water, no matter what its
source. The constant presence of these organisms can only be
explained by supposing the existence of their germs in the air, in
which they are present in the spore condition. Neutral bouillon and
potatoes were sterilized and inoculated with dust from various places,
and many curved bacilli developed in all the cultivations. They
showed all the described forms, commas, curves, omega, §, spirals, &c.
Intestinal dejecta in simple diarrhoea, dysentery, and typhoid fever,
broncho-pulmonary secretions in all diseases of the lungs, pus exposed
to the air, the saliva of healthy and sick persons, were all found to
contain curved bacteria, often in much greater number than other
forms of bacteria. Collected first on bouillon or cooked potato, and
then cultivated on nutrient jelly, these curved bacilli form rounded
colonies with serrated edges, composed of highly refractive granules.
These colonies, kept at 20°-22° C., grow in the jelly and liquefy it,
producing colonies of the shape of a gloved finger.
* Science, v. (1885) pp. 454-5 (3 figs.).
+ Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp, 1027-9.
698 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Woodhead and Hare’s ‘ Pathological Mycology.*—As in the
case of the ‘ Practical Pathology’ of the first-named author, any success
which may attend the publication of this work must depend in great
measure upon the skill of the artist. ‘Those who visited the Bio-
logical Laboratory at the Health Exhibition last year will at once
recognize the accuracy of the coloured figures representing the mode
of growth of bacteria, most of which were imported from Dr. Koch’s
laboratory on nutrient jelly, potatoes, and bread-paste. The draw-
ings made from microscopical preparations are artistically executed.
In fig. 7 we notice that large numbers of micrococci with capsules
stained by gentian violet are represented in sputum from a case of
acute pneumonia. A description of the special method, if any,
which was used in the staining of this specimen would be interesting
as our Own experience coincides with that of Friedlander that, though
the capsule can be easily demonstrated in the tissues, its presence can
hardly be detected in sputum by staining methods.
The description of the processes which are generally useful for
staining bacteria is somewhat confused, and we cannot agree with the
authors that “ Baumgarten’s method ” (by which the bacteria are ex-
amined in an unstained condition) ‘is undoubtedly one of the most
effective, and may be applied to any of the fluids.” It must be ad-
mitted by any one who has practical experience in the microscopical
examination of bacteria, that especially when present in small numbers,
they are rendered much more conspicuous when properly stained than
when merely treated with a solution of caustic potash. The subject
_ of the cultivation of bacteria leaves much to be desired, as a descrip-
tion of many useful methods of study is omitted. The important
question of illumination is dismissed in less than a page. Neverthe-
less, in spite of its shortcomings, the book will undoubtedly be found
a useful guide by those who are unable to refer to foreign literature,
and it is probably the best of the very few books on the subject in
the English language, though it can hardly pretend to compare with
the excellent practical and theoretical works by some of those, such
as Hiippe and Pfliigge, who have worked under Dr. Koch’s guidance
for a long time.
* Woodhead, G.S., and A. W. Hare, ‘ Pathological Mycology. An inquiry
into the Etiology of Infective Diseases.’ Sec. I. Methods. x.and 174 pp., 60 figs.
8vo, Edinburgh, 1885.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 699
MICROSCOPY.
a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*
Revolving Stage Microscope.—This instrument (fig. 136) appears
to have anticipated those of Klénne and Miiller and of Mirand figured
in this Journal, Vol. III. (1880) p. 144, and Vol. IIT. (1883) p. 897.
No definite date can be assigned to it, but it bears the appearance of
Fie, 136,
having been made at least twenty-five years ago. It was apparently
designed for some special purpose, as the rotating stage is only 4 in.
in diameter, and is not adapted to take even the smallest-sized slides.
The objects were placed in ten circular apertures (5/16 in. in diameter)
* This subdivision is arranged in the following order :—(1) Stands; (2) Fye-
pieces and Objectives; (3) Illuminating Apparatus; (4) Other Accessories ;
(5) Photo-micrography; (6) Manipulation; (7) Microscopical Optics, Books,
and Miscellaneous matters.
700 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
in the stage, the bottom of each being closed by a piece of glass.
They were protected by a cover-glass, which was held in a pivoted
frame, so that it could be turned away from the cell when desired.
The instrument is of French workmanship.
The arrangement for focusing is peculiar, the arm carrying the
body being raised and lowered by
es TET the milled head below the stage at
Dp the back.
Portable Microscopes. — The
following forms complete, we be-
lieve, the history of portable Micro-
scopes, many of which have been
already illustrated in the Journal.
Nachet’s Pocket and Portable
Microscopes —The original form of
M. Nachet’s Pocket Microscope for
powers up to 1/8 in., constructed
in 1854, is shown in fig. 187. The
metal box into which it is packed
measures 33 x 25 x 13 in. In use
the Microscope was screwed to the
a box, as shown in the fig. The
mirror is seen through the opening in front, which is closed by a disk
of glass. It has a fine adjustment, and for oblique light it is suffi-
cient to slide back the lid of the box as shown in the fig.
Fig. 138. es
To meet the demand for a portable Microscope of larger size,
M. Nachet devised the newer model shown in fig. 138. This when closed
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 701
is 53 x 31 x 23 in. The Microscope is screwed to a metal plate
which turns on a hinge joint at the side of the box. This plate forms
the stage, and carries a mirror beneath. When the Microscope is
removed and placed in the box the plate is turned back on the top
of it. A rackwork coarse adjustment has since been added. The
Microscope can be inclined, as shown in the figure, or used vertically.
To prevent overbalancing, the bottom of the box is provided at each
end with a flat brass slide, which can be extended 2 in. in front of
the box.
Collins’s Portable Microscope.—The peculiarity of Mr. C. Collins’s
portable Microscope (fig. 139) is that it is permanently attached to the
Fic. 159.
lid of the box, so that no time is lost in screwing it to its support as
in other cases. The lid itself is fixed to the box, and has a hinge
joint at its lower end by which it can be inclined. A small clamp-
screw acting on the brass support fixes the lid, and with it the body-
tube, at any desired degree of inclination.
To replace it in the box the mirror is pushed up to meet the
stage, the body-tube racked down, and the inclined support with-
drawn and allowed to fall into the box. The lid is turned a half-circle
on @ pivot at the centre of its lower end, so that the Microscope now
faces the inside of the box, into which it can then be dropped by
means of the hinge on the lid.
Box Microscope.—The instrument shown in fig. 140 was purchased
in Paris, and was apparently made some twenty-five years ago. Like
that of Mr. Collins, the Microscope is fixed to the lid, and when not
702 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
in use the body-tube is removed and divided, and the two pieces
packed in the box, which can then be closed by the lid. It can only
be used upright, as there is no provision for inclining it.
Fic, 140,
Pfaff’s Microgoniometer.* —Dr. F. Pfaff’s microgoniometer
(fig. 141) is practically a theodolite in which the telescope is re-
placed by a Microscope. A short pillar carries a large block to
which the arc, graduated to 58°, is attached. The block has two
sockets in faces at right angles to each other, so that the are can be
set vertically, as in the fig., or horizontally. The alhidade can be
clamped at any point of the are by a screw behind the latter, a slight
movement being still capable of being imparted to the alhidade by the
other milled head. The vernier reads to 4’. The lens is for reading
the angles. The Microscope rests in the two frames attached to the
alhidade, shown in the fig., and can be depressed or raised at the lower
end by a spring screw (so that its axis coincides in direction with a
radius of the arc), or moved nearer to or further from the centre of
the cirele by loosening the side screws in the frames. For micro-
scopic objects a stage (fig. 142) is provided, the bent arm of which
* Pfaff, F., ‘Das Mikrogoniometer : ein neues Messinstrument, und die damit
bestimmten Ausdehnungscoéfficienten der Metalle,’ 20 pp. and 1 pl. §8vo,
Erlangen, 1872.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 703
slides in the guides at the top of the block. The milled heads at the
end of the feet are for levelling the instrument.
The author claims that the instrument will measure to 1/ 100,000
of a millimetre, and gives a table showing the dimensions of an object
Fic. 142.
(at a distance of 1 mm, from the
centre of the circle) for angles from
4” to 5°, Directions for use are
also given, with remarks on the
determination of the coefficients of
expansion of the metals.
Double-Drum Microscope. — In
this form (fig. 143), the peculiarity
is found of two drums, the one
serving as the base of the Microscope,
and the other as the support of the
Fic. 143.
704 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
socket for the sliding body-tube. This latter application of the drum
has no raison-@étre that we can discover, adding nothing to the con-
venience or stability of the instrument.
Theiler’s ‘“‘ Universal (Achromatic) Pocket Microscope.’—The
commendations of Microscopes and microscopic apparatus by what we
may term the “lay” press are often very wonderful, and after reading
the following descriptions it was not perhaps surprising that we.
should have become somewhat eager to possess the instrument.
“ We have received from Messrs. Theiler and Sons a specimen of
their Universal Pocket Microscope, which magnifies 50 diameters. It
is a very admirable contrivance, and should
Fic. 144. be in the hands of all young people.”
— “This instrument is a virtual Micro-
scope, giving beautifully well-defined images,
and may be used either by the aid of day-
i al! gge== or lamp-light. No one having any interest
i] in microscopy should leave home unaccom-
panied by such a small and so efficient an
instrument. Its cost may be measured in
the inverse ratio to its utility and value.”
The instrument when received (from
Messrs. M. Theiler and Sons, of London)
turned out to be the familiar “ Taschen-Mikroskop” of the German
opticians supplied for many years past. It is shown in fig. 144,
The slide is inserted in the slit of the tube by pressing down the
spring which keeps it in place.. The adjustment of focus is effected
by screwing the lens in or out. Some of the German makers supply
the instrument to take ordinary 3 x 1 slides.
Eye-piece Micrometers.*—Mr. H. L. Tolman records that for
- some months past he and Dr. M. D. Ewell, having been working at
micrometry and the relative sdvantages of the eye-piece and cobweb
micrometers, decided to make a series of independent measurements
to see which method was superior.
Two slides of fresh blood were prepared under the same circum-
stances, as nearly as possible, the blood was dried about half an hour
in the air of a well-warmed room, and then sealed in a cell, so that
the degree of desiccation would be the same, and the measurements .
were made the same evening, independently. Dr. Ewell used a
1/10 Spencer (homogeneous immersion, N.A. 1°35) with an amplifier
and a 1 in. eye-piece, giving a power of about 2000, and Mr. Tolman
a 1/10 Spencer (homogeneous immersion, N.A. 1:25) with a 3/4 in.
eye-piece, power 1562. The former measured twenty-five corpuscles,
the average being 1/3138 in., and the latter measured fifty with an
average of 1/3139 in., the difference between the measurements being
only 1/985,000, an amount far too little to measure. Mr. Tolman
feels pretty well convinced, therefore, that the cobweb micrometer
does not offer sufficient advantage in point of accuracy to compensate
for its additional cumbersomeness and expensiveness.
* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 115-6.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 705
In another report* of the measurements the matter is thus dealt
with.
“While of course these measurements have no tendency to prove
the possibility of identifying blood by the diameter of the corpuscles,
they are admissible to show that under exactly the same conditions
there is an average diameter of the blood-corpuscles of an individual
which varies within exceedingly narrow limits, and that this diameter
may be measured with very great accuracy. The limits of error
certainly fall within the 1/200,000 in., and probably within the
1/250,000. Whether this average diameter varies from time to time
is a question not yet determined.”
Boecker’s Holder for Analysing Prism and Goniometer.—This
(fig. 145) serves not only to hold the analysing prism, but can also
be used for a Leeson’s goniometer.
Fic. 146.
Te
wn
The apparatus is attached to the body-tube by the ring a b, over
which is fixed the divided circle cd. Within the latter turns con-
centrically the tube e f, with a bevelled plate on which is the index-
mark. This tube receives either an analysing prism or the doubly-
refracting achromatic quartz prism of Leeson’s goniometer (fig. 146).
The rotation of the tube can be prevented when desired by the clamp
screw r.
“‘An Improvement in Objectives.’”{|—This is another paper by
Mr. E. Gundlach, which we reproduce in its original form :—
“Hight years ago I presented to the American Association for
the Advancement of Science a description of a new quadruple
objective for astronomical telescopes.{ The general acknowledgment
with which the paper was received, and the high estimation of the
theoretical principles of the invention by scientific authorities of this
country as well as Europe, encourage me to present to this Society
- a description of another improvement in objectives, which I expect
will be of equal value for both the telescope and the Microscope.
Although I have unfortunately not had sufficient opportunity for
properly executing an objective of the above-mentioned description,
and thus practically demonstrating its advantages, I must confess
that during the time I have become conscious of a practical defect,
* The Microscope, v. (1885) pp. 113-4, from ‘ Legal News.’
+ Proc. 7th Aun. Meeting Amer. Soc. Microscopists, 1884, pp. 148-52,
} Sce this Journal, ii. (1879) p. 75,
706 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
which is, the increased number of lenses. I am now of the opinion
that any improvement of objectives which requires additional lenses
will always be objectionable, however valuable the improvement may
otherwise be.
“The objective which I now wish to describe is free from this
defect. It consists of two lenses only, one of crown and one of flint
glass, like the ordinary objective. But the formula is based upon a
new principle. In my description of the quadruple objective I have
spoken of the so-called aberrations of higher order. Let me briefly
review this for the better understanding of the following description.
“We know that the flint glass lens of an objective acts merely as
a corrector of both the spherical and chromatic aberrations of the
crown glass lens; but, owing to this double action, the said correc-
tion is, even in its best possible form, imperfect in so far as, when
the part or zone lying about midway between the centre and the
periphery is just right in correction, then the central part leaves a
small remnant uncorrected, while the peripheric zone is already over-
corrected. ‘These unremovable remnants or so-called aberrations of
higher order are the only cause of those imperfections of the achro-
matic objective which are dependent on the figure or curvature of
the lens, and therefore the best formula for an objective will be that
by which these aberrations are mostly reduced. Since the discovery
of achromatism nothing has been spared to find by the aid of mathe-
matics the best possible form for the flint glass lens for the correction
of the aberrations of the crown glass lens; but for the finding of the
proper form, or to better the proportion of curvatures of the crown
glass lens itself, there never was a special rule adopted nor theoretical
law found after which to obtain the most favorable result. But the
calculations were based upon the principle that for any positive
crown glass lens a negative flint glass lens can be found, combined
with which it will form an achromatic objective in the common sense,
and according to this principle no special pains were taken to find the
proper form of the crown glass lens.
“My object in this paper is to show that for the best possible
construction of an achromatic objective the proper figure or proportion
of curvatures of the crown glass lens is an important factor, submitted
to a positive theoretical law, and that, as a consequence of the neglect
of this law, the present objective is far from having the best possible
form. The angular aperture, or, in other words, the proportion of
aperture to focal distance of an objective, is limited by the spherical
aberration of the crown glass lens, because the latter greatly increases
with the increase of the angular aperture, and consequently the
aberrations of the higher order are increased. But this limit can be
extended, if the spherical aberration of the crown glass lens can be,
without change of focal length and diameter, reduced by a mere
change of curvature, because this reduction involves a corresponding
reduction of the aberrations of higher order. According to this we
can imagine two achromatic objectives which are equal in focal
distance and aperture, but although the flint glass lens of both have
the best possible form for correction of the aberrations of their
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 707
respective crown glass lens, one of the lenses is superior to the other
in the correction of the aberrations of higher order, because the
spherical aberration of the crown glass lens is less than that of the
other.
“ We now arrive at the question whether the spherical aberration
of the crown glass lens of the present achromatic objective can be
reduced by a mere change of proportion of curvature, and if so, what
is the theoretical law after which this proportion must be found ?
This law, which I have found by careful study, may be expressed as
follows :—The spherical aberration of a lens for rays of given direc-
tion will be a minimum if the proportion of the curvatures of the
refracting surfaces is such by which the angle of refraction of the
medium ray at the interior surface is equal to that at the emerging;
or, in other words, by which the angle of the perpendicular inclina-
tion of the medium ray at the entering surface is equal to that of the
emerging surface. If the rays entering a lens are parallel or nearly
so, as is the case with the telescope, then they will, after having
passed through the lens, be changed by refraction to a converging
direction toward the focal point of the lens, and to be equal in per-
pendicular inclination upon their respective surfaces. The entering
or first surface will certainly have to be of correspondingly shorter
curvature than the emerging or second surface. For a lens of a
relative focus and diameter, as the crown glass lens of the present
telescope, the radius of the curvature of the inner surface will have
to be about twice as long as that of the outer surface, to fulfil the
condition of minimum spherical aberration. But we are familiar
enough with the construction of our present objective to admit that
just the contrary is the case, that is, the curvature of the outer surface
of the crown glass lens is by far the longest. If the crown glass lens
is reversed, so that the inner or shorter curved surface is brought
outside, toward the parallel rays of the object, then the form of the
lens would much nearer fulfil the conditions of minimum spherical
aberration. But then, of course, the flint glass lens will no longer
have the proper form as a correcting lens ; it would now over-correct
the spherical aberration of the crown glass lens, and therefore a more
flat long curved form of the same would be required. If the exact form
or curvature of minimum aberration of the crown glass lens, as well
as that of the correcting flint glass lens, as found by calculation, is
compared with the present objective, it will be found that the
aberrations of higher order in the new objective are reduced to
about one-third of the old one, and a corresponding gain in the
definition and reduction of colour, or otherwise an extension of the
limit of aperture must be the result. Let me right here mention
another idea as a further step for improvement of the objective in
the same direction as described, that is, a further reduction of the
aberrations of higher order.
“T have in my foregoing description given the law after which
a lens of minimum spherical aberration for rays of a given direction
has to be constructed, and I will here complete this law by adding
that: The absolute minimum of spherical aberration of a lens is
708 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
obtained, if the refracting surfaces of the same are equal in curvature,
and the rays entering the lens are coming from a certain point of the
optical axis, being in distance from the lens a little over twice that
of its nominal focus, thus meeting at the other side at an equal
distance and forming a cone equal to that at the entering side.
Now there is a simple way to give the rays, coming from a distant
point or object, before entering the crown glass lens of the telescope,
a direction which will be nearly adequate to the first-mentioned
condition, namely, if the flint glass lens is placed in front of the
crown glass lens. The parallel direction of the rays will then, by
the negative flint glass lens, be changed into such diverging direction
as would correspond with a cone, being only a little shorter than
that required for an equal-sided crown glass lens, and the latter
will then for minimum spherical aberration have to be very near
equal-sided, thus allowing the aberration of higher order to be in
higher degree reduced than in the before described objective. But,
however, as an objection to this arrangement, it may be mentioned
that the flint glass lens will be directly exposed to the external air
and liable to oxidation.
“Tn my foregoing description I have, for the purpose of avoiding
complications and giving a clearer understanding, referred to the
telescope only; but as the construction of this instrument is sub-
mitted to the same theoretical laws as that of the Microscope, little
remains to be said about the application of the described new prin-
ciple to the Microscope. Our present Microscope objectives are all
achromatic in the common sense, but they differ widely in angular
aperture, and accordingly in definition and resolving power. But the
angular aperture is dependent on the correction of the aberrations of
higher order; the latter again on the spherical aberrations of the
crown glass lenses of the system. If the crown glass lenses are
transformed according to the described principle and law of minimum
spherical aberration, and then the flint glass lenses so changed as to
properly correct the aberrations of the crown glass lenses, the same
result will be obtained as with the telescope objective. ‘The extension
of the limit of angular aperture will admit of giving the low power
objective with long working distance a definition and quantity of
light which at present are united only in considerably higher powers
of short working distance.”
Care and Use of Objectives.*—Mr. W. Wales uses only an old, soft,
silk handkerchief, a small stick of soft wood, a phial of alcohol, anda
watchmaker’s glass of two powers. A camel’s-hair brush can neither
completely nor safely remove the film of dust with which the exposed
surface of the back combination of an objective is sometimes found
to be coated. Jt will make a series of rings on the surface of the
lens, and it may, if grit be present, scratch the glass. Nor should
the handkerchief, either wet or dry, be introduced into the tube of
any but a low-power objective. The cells must first be unscrewed
from their mountings, and then the cleaning can be done properly.
* Journ, N. York Micr. Soc., i. (1885) pp. 113-6.
ee |
’
q
|
q
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 709
Bat am objective ought never to be taken apart by any one but its
maker. He has the lathe upon which it was made, and he alone,
when the paris have been separated, can replace them in their original
adjustment to the optical centre. Any other person will be likely to
screw in the cells either too tightly or not tightly enough, and will thus
throw the combinations out of their necessarily delicate relations to
one another. Besides, unless skill and care be exercised in screwing
the paris together, the front and the middle combinations will some-
tames be brought im contact, and the flint glass, which is very thin at
the centre, will be broken. The screw-thread of the cells is very
delicate. Yet some persons, alter failing to catch it, apply force
enough to break it.
“A large angle oilimmersion lens gets out of order easily. If
you find the defimition of such objective to
have lost its sharpness, you may know that Fis. 147.
the front lens is out of centre. It has come in
contact with the slide. A very slight pressure
is sufficient to work the mischief. This sus-
weptibility to injury is unavoidable, as every
optician willitell you. It is imcident to the
The collar A (fig. 147) moves on a fine thread
and forces down the bristle-holder B. A slit in
prism
rays from the posterior silvered surface and from the frout unsilvered
surface prevent the light from being brought accurately to focus on
the object on the stage. This belief is founded on the following
710 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
in the diaphragm of the condenser, and in an iris diaphragm fitted
on to the lower portion of the condenser between it and the prism, a
most exquisite image of the tree was seen. The definition of this
was charming, every little twig and incipient bud being distinctly
visible. Then, nothing else being altered, a plane mirror was sub-
stituted for the prism. “ What achange! The larger branches were
there indeed, but the slender twigs were involved in hopeless ‘ fuzz,’
which no amount of manipulation
Herts. could eliminate.” The experi-
ment was varied by forming the
image of a net window-curtain
about three yards distant from
the Microscope. With the prism,
the picture of the network and
pattern was perfect, every detail
tN!
ZZ
CT .E :
pL ee being exquisitely shown. With
i
the plane mirror, the image was
very markedly inferior, though
less so than in the former ex-
periment.
Zentmayer’ss Abbe Con-
denser.*—A simple and inexpen-
sive mounting for the Abbe con-
denser (shown in fig. 148) has
been devised by Mr. Zentmayer, by means of which it can be used
with any substage. The milled head, seen below on the right, moves
the plate which carries the diaphragms.
Topler’s Illuminating Apparatus.j—In the interior of micro-
scopical objects many parts escape observation, not only on account of
their small size, but also because very frequently their density differs too
little from that of their surroundings, and consequently they influence
but slightly the path of the rays. Dr. A. Topler drew special atten-
tion to this subject in 1864, when he described an apparatus called
by him “ Schlieren” (streaks) apparatus, on account of its use for the
examination of streaks in glass. a (fig. 149) is a point of light sending
rays to the lens pq; these will be refracted to b. To an eyed f, which
receives all these rays, and is so accommodated that it clearly sees
the lens, the latter will appear brightly illuminated. If, however, a
diaphragm c h is moved towards the point b, then at the moment that
it passes the point the rays will be entirely shut off and the lens will
appear dark. If, however, there is a more strongly refracting point in
any part of the lens, e.g. in gi, the rays, passing through this point,
will not meet the axis at b, but nearer to or further from the lens, or
will not meet it at all; these rays will then pass by the side of b.
When the diaphragm is moved forward it will cut off part of the rays
before the normal rays are affected, and the spot in question will
* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) p. 84 (1 fig.).
+ Zeitschr. f, Instrumentenk., ii. (1882) pp. 92-6 (8 figs.).
{ ‘Beob. nach einer neuen optischen Methode,’ Bonn, 1864.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. (eal
appear somewhat darker than the other portions of the lens; the
difference, however, in the intensity of light is so slight, that it would
not generally be remarked. At the instant, however, that the dia-
phragm passes b and the lens becomes dark, only those rays remain
which in the figure are seen to pass below 6, and g 7 will appear
Fic. 149.
brightly illuminated on a dark ground, If gz is not in the lens but
in a medium before or behind it, as « y, the result is precisely similar,
The same effect is produced if g 7 has a lower refracting power than
the other part of the lens.
Professor Tépler recently drew Herr W. Seibert’s attention to
the fact that the same principle
might be employed for Micro- Fie. 150.
scopes, and the latter has accord-
ingly constructed an apparatus
which he says acts admirably with
low powers. The semicircular
diaphragm a, fig. 150 (the straight
edge perpendicular to the plane
of the paper), is so placed, that
its inverted image appears in b,
at which point a frame cc moves
in a lateral slit in the nose-piece
nn. This frame has at d a glass
plate, unpolished on the under
side, and at ea thin metal plate
with a bevelled edge. The space
between d and e is open, so that
in placing the frame in position,
as in the figure, all rays pro-
ceeding from the object pass
without hindrance. The screw g
holds the frame in position ; if it
be loosened, the latter can be
moved by the hand. The final
adjustment is effected (after g has been screwed up) by the fine screw h,
Fig. 151 is a front view of the frame. In ordinary vision through
the Microscope the field is brightly illuminated by the rays which,
3A 2
T12 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
passing the object f, reach the objective. All these rays must pass
the point at b within the diaphragm image. Therefore, by pushing
the frame from right to left, when the edge of the plate e approaches
the axis, only a narrow strip of light from the diaphragm-image will
remain, and this will also disappear by
Fic. 151. a further movement of the frame. At
the same instant, the field becomes dark,
but the rays remain which deviate in the
object towards the left—as in Fig. 150
the ray i—and the corresponding points
appear bright. Spots in the object are
thus easily recognized which would
otherwise pass unnoticed in consequence
of the brightncss of the field. Only those rays are effective which are
deflected at right angles to the edge of the frame. The apparatus
must therefore be so adjusted that the object can be turned round the
optic axis, while all else remains immovable.
The manipulation of the apparatus is as follows :—The frame c ¢
is placed in a central position so that the open space between d and
eis in the optic axis, and the Microscope is accurately focused on
the object. The latter is then pushed aside, so that there is now an
open space in the stage under the objective, and the glass plate d is
brought into the axis. The semicircular diaphragm is now so ad-
justed that its image appears clearly on the glass, and the straight
edge in this image exactly parallel with the edge of the plate e, but
turned away from it, so that on moving the frame the convex side is
first shut off, and finally only a narrow line of light remains. The
adjustment of the diaphragm is effected by sliding it up and down.
The position of the tube must not be altered, or else, if it is again
adjusted to the object, the image of the diaphragm will no longer lie
in a plane with e, which is an absolute necessity. The frame being
now so adjusted that the rays can pass through it unhindered, the in-
strument is ready for observation. The frame is moved slowly by
the screw h till the edge e meets the optic axis and the direct rays
are cut off. The field is now dark, but all points in the object which
have a greater or less refractive power are brightly illuminated on the
dark ground. If the frame be moved still more, these rays also dis-
appear. The proper moment for observation is, therefore, when all
direct light is shut off.
This apparatus is only suitable for low powers ; with high powers |
many inconveniences arise. The frame must of necessity be brought |
quite close to the lenses, for if the whole is to be obscured at once,
the frame must be exactly at the place where the image of the
diaphragm is formed; if it is further away, only half of the field is
effective. The nearer to the lens, however, the greater is the spherical
aberration, because the objectives are properly corrected only for an
image distance, equal to the length of the tube; the image of the
diaphragm will not be very sharp, and the rays diverted in the object
mingle with the indistinct margins of this image. A further incon-
venience arises from the fact that in objectives having a focus of
3 mm., the distance between the object and the diaphragm must be so
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. vale;
small, that an ordinary slide cannot be used ; and a cover-glass must
be used instead. With still higher powers, particularly those with
correction, where the frame cannot be brought so near to the lenses,
the apparatus is unsuitable. This inconvenience might be avoided
by causing a larger, brightly illuminated diaphragm to cast an image
and from this to produce a second at ¢ c; the first image could then
be brought nearer to the object if desired, and the action would be the
same as if a real diaphragm were in the place of the image. The
author, in order to use the apparatus for higher powers, also describes
a modification by which the frame is placed above the eye-piece,
where a second image of the diaphragm is formed ; but he adds that
“this arrangement also is capable of improvement.”
In observations with the apparatus, it was remarked that when
the field of view was obscured, there was greater penetration. With
a bright field, for instance, individual bacteria could only be seen
when exactly in the plane of the focus; those in an inclined or
perpendicular plane were only seen as points. When, however, the
field was darkened by means of the frame, each individual could be
followed in its movements.
Bausch and Lomb Optical Company’s “Universal Accessory.”
—This (fig. 152) is mainly intended as a remedy for the want of a
substage. It consists of a brass base-plate to be laid on the stage,
Fic. 152.
having a central opening surrounded by a countersunk bed, which
holds a polarizing prism shown in position in the figure. This can
be rotated by the milled edge of its broad circular top. On removing
the polariscope a hemispherical lens can be dropped into the opening
in the plate, and serves as a condenser or, with a stop
placed on it, as a paraboloid. An ingenious arrangement 16. 153.
has been adopted to enable the lens to be retained in <=
place. A disk of thin glass of slightly larger diameter
than the plane face of the lens is cemented to it (fig. 153)
so as to leave a projecting rim, This rim rests on the margin of the
opening, and prevents the hemisphere passing through.
Illumination.*—Mr. E. M. Nelson writes as follows:—The first
step in studying the principles of illumination for the Microscope is
to grasp thoroughly the various effects produced by a bull’s-eye.
* Engl. Mech., xl. (1884) p. 68 (2 figs.); pp. 157-8 (3 figs.); p. 263 (6 figs.) ;
p- 282 (6 figs.).
714 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
A (fig. 154) shows the effect produced by centering or placing the
edge of a flame (from 1/2-in. paraffin wick) in the exact focus of a
plano-convex bull’s-eye P.
It is necessary to explain the meaning of the word “ effect,” for if
a piece of card were held in
Fie. 154. the rays proceeding from P,
P the picture as shown at A
would not be seen; but, in-
a Stead of it, an enlarged and
inverted image of the edge
of the flame. Then, one will
naturally ask, How do you
get the picture A? By
simply putting your eye in
@): the rays and looking at the
D bull’s-eye.
As this is often disa-
greeable, by reason of the
strength of the light, a more
< pleasant way of examining
the picture is by placing in
the rays a condensing lens
(the field-glass of a 2-in. eye-piece) and focusing the image on a card.
It should be noticed particularly that the diameter of the disk A
depends on the diameter of the bull’s-eye P; but the intensity of the
light in A on its focal length. The shorter the focus the more
intense the light. In making these experiments the condensing lens
is presumed to be at a fixed distance from the bull’s-eye P.
B represents the picture when the edge of the flame E is centered,
but within the focus of P.
C the picture when E is centered, but without the focus of P.
D the picture when E is focused, but not centered.
Fig. 155 shows an error often perpetrated, viz. that of putting a
Fic. 155.
P
ae "sea
concave mirror C at the back of a bull’s-eye P, to increase its effect.
The rays are brought to a focus and then scattered.
The method of obtaining a critical image with transmitted light
by objectives of 1/2-in. focus and less is shown at fig. 156, where E
is the edge of the flame from a 1/2-in. paraffin wick, S substage
condenser, and P the object. S is centered to, and the image E
focused by S on, P. Fig. 157 shows the same thing with the addition
Cc
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ile
only of the plane mirror m. Fig. 157 gives results as critical as fig. 156,
it is, however, a little more troublesome to set up, and therefore
fig. 156 will be found preferable where the instrument is sufficiently
tucked up on its trunnions to permit of its being so used.
Fig. 158 A shows a
substage condenser S, and
an objective O, focused on
the same point; the con-
denser being of an aperture
equal to that of the objec-
tive. On removing the eye-
piece and looking at the
back lens of the objective,
it will be seen to be full of
light as at C.
Fig. 158 B shows the
same thing, but with the
aperture of the condenser
cut down bya stop. Now
only a portion of the back Frye. 157.
lens of the objective is filled
with light. (See D.)
It does not follow that
because the back lens of
the objective is full of light,
as at fig. 158 C, that there-
_ fore the field ought to be Fic, 158.
full of light. The field only c
shows a bright image of the
edge of the flame; but it
is in the plane of that
image where the picture is
critical.
If the condenser be
racked either within or
without the focus, the whole D
field will become illumi-
nated. At the same time,
however, a far smaller por-
tion of the objective will be
utilized. On removing the
eye-piece, and examining the back lens of the objective, a picture like
fig. 154 C, p. 714, will be seen.
Fig. 158 A shows the most severe test that can be applied to a
Microscope objective, viz. to fill the whole of the objective with light,
and so test the marginal and central portions at the same time. Few,
indeed, are the objectives that will stand this ordeal. Some fog
when half full of light; most when one-third full; and not one in one
hundred will bear three-quarter filling.
We now come to some very obvious points—so obvious, indeed,
Fig. 156.
0B
716 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
that one would hesitate to mention them, unless frequently confronted
with error.
Fig. 159 shows the correct method of illuminating with diffused
Fig, 159:
ee i:
Fic. 160.
Fic. 162.
a
day-light, no substage con-
denser being used. P the
plane of the object. C the
concave mirror. The mir-
ror is placed at the distance
of its principal focus from
the object.
Fig. 160 shows the
rough and ready and, I am
sorry to say, too often, the
usual style.
Fig. 161 shows the
correct method of illumi-
nating for dark ground,
with substage condenser
and stops. H, edge of
flame; B, bull’s-eye; m,
plane mirror; §, substage
condenser.
Fig. 162 is another_
correct method of doing the
same thing by using the ©
concave mirror and no
bull’s-eye. It is seldom
used, as it is very difficult
to set up.
Fig. 163 shows the
error of using the concave
mirror with the bull’s-eye.
Many do it, thinking that
they get more light.
Fig. 164 shows the
error of not having the edge
of the flame E in the prin-
cipal focus of the bull’s-eye
B. This teaches how im-
portant it is to have the
bull’s-eye fixed to the lamp,
so that both may be moved
together, and not indepen-
dently. The author’s own
bull’s-eye is so made that
when it is pushed home in
its slot, the lamp flame is in
its principal focus.
To set up fig. em
correctly, with a bull’s-eye
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. TLa
on a separate stand, would take an experienced microscopist a quarter
of an hour or more, an inexperienced one an evening.*
The following are a few hints on dark-ground illumination :—
Let us, by way of example, take a definite object, thresh that
out thoroughly, then after-
wards show what alterations
in the method will be re-
quired for other objects. The
necessary apparatus is an
achromatic condenser, and a See
= with a bull’s-eye fived ¢ a ;
Fig. 163. S
It is, in Mr. Nelson’s B
opinion, most important Fic. 164.
that the condenser should a
be achromatic. It will be
urged by many eminent
microscopists that an achro-
matic condenser is quite
unnecessary. Also there
are those who prefer a
paraboloid, spot-lens, &e. B
He does not, however, go
into this question for fear of making his paper too long; the
scope of it being a method of showing critical images on a dark
ground by means of an achromatic condenser; the test of criticalness
being the visibility of the dots in the hexagonal areolation of the
larger Triceratia with a 2/3 of 0°21 N.A.(= 323° air angle). Let
us, therefore, take this as our experimental object.
We must first adjust our lamp and bull’s-eye as described on
p- 714 and get the edge of the lamp expanded to a disk as in fig. 165.
Place a small aperture in the condenser, and a Triceratium on the
stage with the 2/3 in. objective on the nose-piece. The Microscope
having been put in the proper position, the lamp should be placed on
the left-hand side of it. The lamp should now be arranged as to
height, so that the rays from the bull’s-eye may fall fairly on the
plane mirror; the plane mirror being inclined to reflect the beam on
the back of the substage condenser.
Now, with any kind of light, focus and centre the Triceratium to
the field, fig. 166. Then rack the condenser until the small aperture
in its diaphragm comes in focus; centre this to the Triceratium, fig.
167. Rack the condenser closer up until the bull’s-eye is in focus,
fig. 168 Here it happens that the bull’s-eye is not in centre, and is
not uniformly filled with light as in fig. 165, but has instead two
crescents of light. This is a case which often occurs; but, of course,
it may be more or less filled with light, and may or may not be more
nearly centered.
Mm
* Mr. Nelson thinks it would be a good plan if microscopists would always
use the term “bull’s-eye” instead of “condenser,” to designate that piece of
apparatus; leaving the term condenser for the substage condenser only.
718 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
We next have to centre the bull’s-eye to the Triceratium by
moving the mirror, fig. 169. It will be noticed that centering the
bull’s-eye does not put the light right. This must be done by
moving the lamp with its attached bull’s-eye. This movement must be
a kind of rotation of the lamp in azimuth round the wick as an ideal
axis. The relative positions of the lamp and bull’s-eye must on no
account be altered. It is taken for granted that the bull’s-eye is
fixed to the lamp, and was adjusted at the first so that the picture,
fig. 165, was obtained by direct inspection without any Microscope.
Fic. 165. Fic. 166. Fig. 167,
x
Fig. 168. Fia. 169. Fic. 170.
This adjustment being satisfactorily carried out at first, is not dis-
turbed. By “moving the lamp round the wick as an axis,” is meant
the moving of the whole thing as a solid mass. This is a very
simple thing to demonstrate practically ; but it is not easy to describe
even such a simple movement so as to preclude the possibility of
error. A very slight movement in the right direction will produce
the picture fig. 170.
Any one having the necessary apparatus, by following out precisely
this plan, will arrive with very little trouble at fig. 170.
All that need now be done is to open the full aperture of the
condenser, and put in the smallest opaque central stop; if this does
not stop out all the light in the bull’s-eye, then a larger one must be
tried. It is of the greatest importance that the stop be as small as
possible; a very little difference in the size of the stop makes a great
difference in the quality of the picture. Condensers ought, therefore,
to be supplied with as many opaque central stops as open apertures.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 719
On account of some residual spherical aberration, the condenser
will probably have to be racked up a little to secure the greatest
amount of light.
In fig. 170 the expanded edge of the flame covers the Triceratium.
When the whole aperture of the condenser is opened the size of that
disk will not be altered. Its intensity only will be increased. When
the central stop is placed at the back of the condenser, only in that
part of the field represented by the disk of light will the objects be
illuminated on a dark ground. But some will say: Suppose the disk
does not cover the object; what is then to be done? Simply this:
bring the lamp nearer the mirror.
The size of the disk of light depends on three things.
1. The diameter of the bull’s-eye.
2. The length of the path of the rays from the bull’s-eye to the
substage condenser.
3. The magnifying power of the condenser.
If 1 and 3 are constant; the only way of varying the size of the
dark field is by 2, as already stated.
The intensity of the light in the disk depends also on three things.
1. The initial intensity of the illuminant.
2. The angular aperture of the bull’s-eye.
3. The angular aperture of the substage condenser.
Mr. Nelson has elsewhere insisted that the power and aperture of
the substage condenser should bear some proportion to the power and
aperture of the objective used, and does not enlarge upon this, but
merely alludes to it, as it does not legitimately come within the range
of his paper. Finally, he says he prefers to make the disk of light
no larger than necessary. If the whole field is required, he fills it;
but if only a portion is wanted, then he reduces the size of the disk
accordingly.
Mr. A. C. Malley* strongly disputes Mr. Nelson’s recommendation
of a bull’s-eye fixed to the lamp, and prefers one mounted on a sepa-
rate stand, which is easier reached and moved, and by which tremor
is avoided. The bull’s-eye should be placed about 34 in. from the
centre of the flame, the lamp being surrounded by a tin shade
haying a small plane mirror behind the flame, and an orifice the size
of the bull’s-eye in front. The bull’s-eye is formed of two plano-
convex lenses (34 in. focus) with their convex faces together. He
also uses a cell of ammonio-sulphate of copper in front of the mirror.
Hawkins’s Observatory Trough.{—Mr. R. Hawkins suggests an
improvement on Dr. Giles’s Live-cell,t which he thinks will make
the apparatus so simple, that any one can make half-a-dozen in an
hour or less without extraneous aid. The arrangement consists in
the use of clips, to keep the glass cover on, made of a piece of brass
wire bent to fit the slide, and so as to have sufficient power to hold
the cover well in position.
* Engl. Mech., xl. (1884) p. 299.
t mag eee 1885, p. 135 (1 fig.).
¢ See this Journal, ante, p. 135,
720 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Pringsheim’s Gas Chambers.*—In order to make experiments
with different gases, Professor N. Pringsheim had gas chambers con-
structed by Schmidt and Hinsch, for use with his Photo-chemical
Microscope, which differ from those hitherto used, and which combine
great firmness and durability with easy management. As those of
glass are very difficult to fix, besides having other disadvantages, the
new ones (Figs. 171 and 172) are of metal, and very firm and secure.
The base is of strong glass (or metal with an aperture closed with
glass), the sides and cover d of metal. The latter has a circular
Fig. 171.
aperture in the centre, beneath which a glass cover is cemented for
the reception of the hanging drops in which the object is placed.
It can be firmly pressed down by the arm & (movable at 7) and the
screw s. By a mixture of wax and vaseline at the joints and
tightening the screws, the chambers can be made completely air-
tight, and will even bear a considerable
Fie. 172. pressure of gas. This is conducted
through the tubes g. The base of the
chamber is kept covered with a thin
stratum of water. As the temperature
of the drop, particularly in white light,
may become higher than the object
can endure without injury, it may be
cooled by filling the chamber with ice,
and by placing on it, instead of d
(Fig. 171), the cover r (Fig. 172), which can then also be covered
with ice. In the latter case, a quick conductor of heat from the drop
to the ice can be obtained by means of the platinum cross p.
Test for the Hand-Lens.—Mr. J. Deby points out that “while
many tests exist for high- and medium-power objectives, none are on
record for that most useful instrument to the naturalist, the hand-
lens.” The best test he considers to be the elytron of Gyrinus
marinus, a2 not very rare water-beetle. The lens must not only show
the longitudinal rows of large dots, but also the fine intermediate
punctations. None but a first-rate lens will show them. The male
has finer punctations than the female, and is more difficult of
resolution.
* Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., i. (1881) pp. 332-3 (8 figs.).
+ See this Journal, ii. (1882) p. 395.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. bau
Aperture Puzzle.—A problem which much troubled the older
generations in regard to aperture, was this :—
“ Aperture” meaning essentially the “opening” of the objective,
or its capacity for transmitting a greater or less amount of light, the
following seemed to be paradoxical.
In fig. 173 a dry objective is used, and the object can receive light
from the whole hemisphere of 180°. If, for instance (as the matter
was put with the view of bringing it within reach of the meanest
capacity !), 180 candles were placed in a semicircle a b, light from
every one of the candles would reach the object.
Suppose now, that instead of a dry objective, whose aperture cannot
exceed 180° or 1-0 N.A., an immersion objective is used with an
aperture exceeding 1:0 N.A., a hemispherical lens being employed
for the illuminator, as in fig. 174.
It is suggested that in this case we have less light reaching the
object, for, continuing the example of the candles, only those between
Fic, 173. Fia. 174.
180?
a' and b’ (or say 100 out of the 180) are effective, none of those
between a and a’, or between b and 6’ illuminating the object, and
they might as well not be lighted.
The objective which has the smaller aperture, therefore, receives,
it is suggested, the light of eighty more candles than the objective
which has the larger aperture ! .
The explanation of the seeming paradox is simply that the effect of
the spherical surface in the second case has been disregarded, as was
so constantly the case in the old aperture discussions.
The action of the hemisphere in fig. 174 may be illustrated by
fig. 175, which shows the course of the rays from a luminous surface
OP to a definite surface element a b.
Take the inner lines of the fig. as representing the pencil which,
in air and without the interposition of the hemisphere, would reach
the surface a b. If the hemisphere is interposed, the pencil, instead
of continuing in a straight line as before, is compressed (refracted),
and is now thrown on the smaller surface a 8. It is obvious that
the two surfaces a b (in air) and a B (in glass) must each receive
the same amount of light, for the pencils which reach them are
identical in their origin. If now we take within the hemisphere a
surface a b, which is larger than a , the former (a b in glass), will
be illuminated, as the fig. shows, by a pencil which, in its origin, is
larger than that illuminating the latter (a B in glass) ; and as a £ in
glass is, as we have seen, identical in illumination with a b in air,
a b in glass will receive a larger pencil than ab in air, the excess
722 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
being represented by the shaded space in the fig. In other words,
the total quantity of light which in air is thrown upon the element a b,
is by means of the hemisphere condensed upon the smaller element a B,
so that the hemisphere will admit to the element ab, wider pencils
from the points O P than are admitted to it in air. Though the
Fig. 175.
angle Oc P is the same in both cases, the quantity of light con-
veyed within this angle to one and the same surface element is
greater in glass than in air.
As to the measure of the increase of light, it may be shown that
iF = =; ic, ifn = 1-5 (the refractive index of glass), a
or a b is half as large again as a 8. The increase of light is there-
fore as 9: 4, or 2} times (n?). This is in agreement with the expres-
sion for the numerical aperture in the cases of air and glass, which,
for the same angles, are always as 2 : 3.*
_ Discovery of Pseudoscopy.t— Under the title of the “ Discoverer of
a Singular Optical Illusion,” Prof. Govi says, “ Of all optical illusions,
that is certainly not one of the least remarkable by which, in looking
at objects in slight relief or slightly depressed (as coins, seals, &e.)
with a compound Microscope or a telescope which reverses the image,
* See also on this subject this Journal, i. (1881) p. 329.
' ft Atti R. Accad, Lincei—Transunti, vii. (1883) pp. 183-8.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. tae
the parts in relief appear hollow, and that which is hollow assumes
the appearance of perfect relief. It is indeed true that the illusion
is not always, nor with all persons, equally successful, and that some-
times the appearance is alternately that of hollow and of relief to the
same eye and with the same object; but, in general, the inversion of
form does not lead to deception, not being able to overcome either
the knowledge of the object which the observer possesses nor that of
the reversal of the image brought about by the instrument. Physicists
admit that in this case the illusion proceeds from the observer’s
knowing the direction from which the light comes, and seeing in the
image the lights and shades of the prominences or cavities on the
side opposite to that which, having regard to the direction of the light,
they ought to occupy; so that, in the absence of any final test of the
comparison to aid the judgment, one argues from the position of
the lights and shades that what is really hollow is in relief, and vice
versd. In fact, if every part of the object is illuminated, or if (as
Brewster has suggested) a pin is placed upright by the side of it, and
one observes the direction of the shadow which it throws on the
object, the illusion suddenly vanishes and the object is seen as it
really is, and not as one’s erroneous first impression had represented
it. Almost all who have written upon the subject of vision, or the
illusions of the senses, refer to this curious phenomenon, and attribute
its discovery now to one, now to another person, according to the
patience, erudition, and perhaps the nationality of the writer; for,
with regard to the priority of discoveries, the factors on which the
final judgment depends are numerous. Joblot, in 1718, believed
himself to have observed it for the first time, not referring to any one
who had preceded him. Gmelin does the same in 1745, in a paper
on a kindred subject, printed in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions.’
I do not know the purport of Rittenhouse’s communication of
1786, because I have not hitherto succeeded in procuring the ‘ Trans-
actions of the American Philosophical Society,’ which contains a
work by that author on some such subject, but it is probable that, like
Joblot and Gmelin, he too has believed himself to be the discoverer
of the phenomenon. Muncke, in 1828, in the article “Gesicht,” in
Gehler’s ‘ Dictionary of Natural Philosophy,’ attributed the discovery
to Joblot (written Jablot by him).
David Brewster, in publishing, in 1831, his ‘ Letters on Natural
Magic,’ dedicated to Sir Walter Scott, alludes to an observation of this
nature made by the members of the Royal Society of London in one
of the first and earlier meetings of that society, and perhaps mentions
it as well in an article in the ‘ Edinburgh Scientific Journal,’ which
I have been unable to consult. In 1838, Charles Wheatstone, in the
publication and description of his wonderful ‘ Stereoscope,’ alludes to
the Royal Society of London as having first called attention to the
strange phenomenon, without, however, giving the year or stating
the manner in which it happened. Helmholtz, in his ‘ Physiological
Optics, reproduces Muncke’s citations, and seems to adhere to Joblot
as the discoverer of the illusion. Schréder, writing on the subject in
1858, stops at Gmelin, and attributes the discovery to him.
724 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Although there is much disparity in the opinions, it is only the
older observers who are really in competition for the honour of the
discovery ; that is, Joblot and the Royal Society, but it does not appear
clearly from the known records which of the two preceded the other.
The ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ do not speak of any such obser-
vation, but, consulting the ‘ History of the Royal Society, written
by Birch, in which are found described with great care almost all
the experiments, letters, communications, and discussions which the
English savants did not think worthy to appear in the volumes of
their ‘ Transactions, we may read there in the second volume the
following passages :—
Under the date of the 11th of February (Thursday), 1668 (count-
ing ab incarnatione, and according to the Julian calendar): ‘The
operator was ordered to speak to Mr. Hooke, that the great Microscope
of Mr. Christopher Cock’s making be brought to the Society at the
next meeting. And the 18th of February 1668 (Thursday), ‘Mr.
Christopher Cock produced a Microscope which he said he had made
for the Society if they liked it, with five glasses, of which the four
eye-glasses were plano-convex, two and two so put together as to
touch one another in a point of the convex surface. Various observa-
tions being made therewith, it appeared to do very well, but there
being a guinea put in it and looked upon, some of the members saw
the image depressed, others embossed. The workman referred him-
self to the Society for the price of this Microscope, and the Society
referred it to the Council.’
Then the Council decides on the 22nd of February (Monday):
‘That the Treasurer pay to Mr. Christopher Cock 81. for a large
Microscope made by him for the Society.’ It does not appear that
the Society or any of its members made any further investigation
after this into the singular illusion discovered on the 18th (28th ac-
cording to Gregorian style) of February 1669, although the 202
Italian lire (8/.) paid for the Microscope which had demonstrated it
attest the importance attributed to Mr. Christopher Cock’s instrument.
The date of the first observation of the English academicians being
thus established, Joblot’s priority disappears, unless it is wished to
uphold it on the ground that the discovery remained unpublished
in the records of the Royal Society until the time of its publication
by Birch (1756).
In any case, even recognizing the priority of the English, we
are able justly to claim for an Italian countryman of ours the credit,
not only of having anticipated the Royal Society in the discovery
of the curious illusion, but of having forestalled those physicists
who subsequently endeavoured to explain it. EHustachio Divini,
of San Severino (the ancient Septempeda), on the frontier, was the
most skilled manufacturer of lenses and glasses of all kinds of his
time, and in the year 1649 had conceived the idea of placing in a
telescope which he possessed, some fine threads crossed, substituting
a convex ocular lens for the concave ocular used by Lippersheim and
Galileo, in order to see the network and thus sketch with ease the
image of the moon which, with all its markings, was depicted upon it,
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 725
thus anticipating the first micrometers of Gascoigne, Montanari, and
Huyghens.
Now this same Eustachio Divini, in a letter which has been printed,
addressed to Count Carlo Antonio Marozini on the 15th of July, 1663,
wrote thus :—‘ Now that we are upon the subject of telescopes fitted
with the single lens, I ought to tell you of a remarkable matter; I
have seen strange things. While looking at some object, such as a
bas-relief or those arms carved in stone which are commonly put upon
walls, their plane parts appeared depressed and level with the wall,
while all the rest of the arms were devoid of relief.
But the curious thing is, that the relievos which I have mentioned
are seen as if hollowed out, whereas they are really raised up. When
I discovered this, I showed it to other persons of enquiring disposition,
and by looking several times at the same place, finally convinced
myself that I had been deceived by the light which it received from
the sun, for in the morning it appeared hollow, in the evening in
relief, and in other parts in relief in the morning and hollow in the
evening. The Microscopes with two glasses, which also show the
objects to me reversed, usually do the same with a difference in the
glasses, which I do not as yet understand. They magnify a thousand
times, and by the conditions of this power cannot be applied to
objects which are rather large; therefore I have sometimes added
another lens with a curvature considerably greater than that of the
small lens, taking away the latter and inserting the former, which
does not magnify so much, but serves for rather large objects, and
with them produces a most beautiful effect with the greatest clearness.
With this apparatus I have looked at an old coin in order to see
letters which could not be read. Sometimes I have seen the places
in relief reversed and, changing their position (so to speak), stand on
the right-hand side of the Microscope, and if I place myself on the
left I see in relief that which when on the right I considered to be
hollow. But what seemed to me altogether strange, and has happened
to me more than once is, that when looking at another object in relief,
I see it hollow, and on changing my position I still see even the part
in relief hollow. However, I leave all this to distinguished intellects
to speculate upon, and return to our telescope.’
The 15th of July (Gregorian notation), 1663, is earlier by 5 years
7 months and 15 days than the 18th of February (Julian notation),
1669; by this period, therefore, does Divini have precedence of the
English academicians in the discovery of the pseudoscopy of reliefs,
and by a still greater time is he beforehand in the endeavour to
explain the phenomenon, for he attributes it to ‘deception of the
light, and as his microscopical observations left him somewhat
perplexed as to such a reason, he referred the matter to distinguished
intellects, which, however, have not known how to find a better one,
and repeat (only in a better form and somewhat aided by experi-
ments) the same explanation which Divini had proposed two centuries
ago,” *
* A Bibliography of eleven of the books and papers referred to is apponded.
Ser, 2.—Vow. VY. 3B
726 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
AxBBE, E.—UVeber optisches Glas. (On Optical Glass.)
[Title only, with demonstration of Microscopes with lenses made of the new
glass. |
SB. Jenaisch. Gesell. f. Med. u. Naturwiss. for 1884 (1885) p. 32.
Veber Object und Bild. (On Object and Image.) [Title only. ]-
Ibid., p. 34,
American Society of Microscopists.—Eichth Annual Meeting at Cleveland, O.
[Circular issued by the Society. Also note by E. H. Griffith.]
Amer, Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) p. 119.
The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 132-3, and 139.
BecKkwitH, HE. F.—Resolution of Amphipleura.
[‘‘On a slide prepared by H. H. Chase, with a refractive index of 2°42, I
have succeeded in clearly resolving A. pellucida with a dry 1/5 in. of 135°
air angle.’’]
” ”
The Microscope, VY. (1885) pp. 131-2.
Behrens, J. W.—The Microscope in Botany. A guide for the microscopical
investigation of vegetable substances. Transl. and edited by A. B. Hervey
and R. H. Ward. xvi. and 466 pp., 13 pls. and 152 figs., 8vo, Boston, 1885.
Observation by Artificial Illumination.
The Ocular Micrometer (and additions by R. H. Ward).
Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s) II. (1885) pp. 20-1,
from Zhe Microscope in Botany.
” 39
9 ”
CARPENTER, W. B.—Wallich Condenser.
[Remarks on the very great increase of focal depth withthe Binocular.
“There was one very curious thing about the Binocular Microscope, that
it did increase very greatly the focal depth. He had tried this under
every condition, and had always found itto be so. It was to be explained
to a certain extent by the binocular prism halving the aperture of the
objective. That, however, did not explain it altogether; because having
asked a friend to look through the binocular with one eye only, the prism
being in its place, and to focus the objective for what he considered to be
a medial distance, on then asking him to open the other eye, the differ-
ence in the depth of focus had been at once observed ; indeed, it was
considered that the increase amounted to at least five times. He had
talked the matter over with his friend Sir Charles Wheatstone, but they
could never come to any satisfactory conclusion.” ]
Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, II. (1885) pp. 145-6.
CHALON, J.—Note sur l’Objectif 1/16 de pouce de Powell et Lealand. (Note on
the 1/16 in. objective of Powell and Lealand.) '
[Description of details of construction. ]
Bull. Soc. Belg. de Micr., XI. (1885) pp. 196-8.
Cuaney, L, W., jun.—Microscopical Exhibits at the New Orleans Exposition.
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 102-4 (2 figs.).
Cuun, C.—Katechismus der Mikroskopie. (Catechism of Microscopy.)
[Part I. Theory of the Microscope, pp. 3-81. Part IL. Use of the
eee pp. 82-95. Part III. Methods of Investigation, pp.
96-138.
vill. and 138 pp. and 97 figs., 8vo, Leipzig, 1885.
ErEeRNOoD, A.—Des Illusions d’Optique dans les Observations au Microscope.
(Optical illusions in microscopical observations.) 8 pp., 8vo, Geneve, 1885.
FOULERTON, J.—Microphotography.
(Demonstration to the Western Microscopical Club.]
4ingl, Mech,, XL1. (1885) pp. 320-1.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSOOPY, ETC. 727
GARTNER, G.—Ueber den Nachweis des Warmetonus der Blutgefasse mittels
electrischer Beleuchtung. (On the detection of the influence of heat on the
tonicity of the blood-vessels by electric illumination.)
Allg. Wiener Med. Zty., 1884, p. 69.
GrirritH, E. H.—See American Society of Microscopists.
GuNDLACcH, E.—The Examination of Objectives. (Concld.)
Micr, Bulletin (Queen's) II. (1885) pp. 18-9,
from Amer, Journ, Micr. for 1867.
Harpy, J. D.—Microscopical Delineation.
[Abstract only.]
8th Ann. Report Hackney Micr. and Nat, Hist. Soc., 1885, pp. 28-9.
Hawkins, R.—Observatory Trough.
[Supra, p. 719.] Sct.-Gossip, 1885, p. 135 (1 fig.).
Hervey, A. B.—See Behrens, J. W.
{Hircucock, R.}]—Silvering Glass Reflectors.
(Formula of Mr. J. Browning for silvering glass specula. ]
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 118-9.
Houmes, E. A.—Polarized Light as applied to the Microscope.
[Paper read before the Hackney Microscopical Society. ] 8 pp., 6 figs.
Hunt, G.—The Right-angled Prism instead of a Plane Mirror in the Microscope.
[Supra, p. 709.] Engl. Mech,, XLI. (1885) p. 414,
Hunter’s (J. J.) New form of Graduating Iris Diaphragm.
[Exhibition only. ‘Made to go close up under the object.”
Journ. Quek. Micr, Club, IL. (1885) p. 161.
JADANZA, N.—Sui punti cardinali di un sistema diottrico centrato e sul
cannochiale anallattico. (On the cardinal points of a centered dioptric system,
&e.) Atti R. Accad. Sei. Torino, XX. (1885) pp. 917-33 (8 figs.).
Kuen, C.—Optische Studien am Leucit. (Optical studies on Leucite.)
[Containsa description of a new Microscope devised by the author for minera-
logical-petrological researches, pp. 436-43. Post.]
Nachr. K. Gesell. Wiss, Géttingen, 1884, pp. 421-72 (1 pl.).
Leprnay, M. pr.—Methode optique pour la mesure absolue des petites 1 ongueurs.
(Optic method for the absolute measurement of small lengths.) [Post.]
Comptes Rendus, C. (1885) pp. 1877-9.
Lommet, E.—Bermerkungen zu dem Aufsatz: Ueber einige optische Methoden
und Instrumente. (Remarks on the article “On some optical methods and
instruments.’’)
[Remarks as to the priority of Prof. Abbe and others in regard to the
original paper ante, p. 532.]
Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., V. (1885) p, 200.
M.—Amateur Lens-making.
(Directions for making lenses, with description and figures of tools. ]
Engl, Mech., XI. (1885) pp. 424-5 (10 figs.),
from Scientific American Supplement.
M‘A.LuistTeEeR.—Slide showing Path of Electric Spark.
[A slide, after being smoked over a small gas-jet, is placed centrally
between the terminals of an induction coil, and at right angles to their
direction. The terminals are held about 3/8 in. apart. A strong current
is required. }
Journ, N. York Micr. Soc., I. (1885) p. 104.
MAYALL, J., jun.—Nobert’s Ruling Machine. (Concld.)
Knowledge, VII. (1885) pp. 452-3, 504-5, 523-4,
from Journ, Soc. Arts.
Mituer, M. N.—Theory and Practice of Photomicrography. I., II.
{Paper read before the Photographic Section of the American Institute.
Describes apparatus and gives practical instructions. ]
Engl. Mech., XL. (1885) pp. 298, 359-61,
3B 2
728 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Monoyer, M. F—Zur Theorie der Fernrohre. Allgemeine Theorie centrirter
dioptrischer Systeme. (On the theory of the telescope. General theory of
centered dioptric systems.) (Jn part.)
Centr.-Ztg. f. Optik u. Mech., VI. (1885) pp. 121-3, 153-6, abstracted by
G. Fischer from Séances de la Soc. Frang. de Physique, 1883, pp. 148-75.
Moors, A. Y.—The Microspectroscope.
The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 101-6 (3 figs. and 1 pl.).
Neuson, E. M.
[Reply to inquiry as to a condenser. Also statement that “the amount of
flint in an object-glass depends entirely on the formula by which it is
made, i.e. the idiosynerasy of the maker.’’]
Engl. Mech., XUI. (1885) p. 283.
“5 » Stop for an Abbe Achromatic Condenser.
[Not described. ]
Journ. Quek. Micr. Club., II. (1885) p. 148.
5 » Rotating Nose-piece Condenser. [Ante, p. 324 and p. 327.]
Ibid., 11. (14885) pp. 153-4.
QuEEN, J. W.—Remarks on using Oil-immersion Objectives.
[General instructions sent out with his 1/15 in. objective. ]
Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s) II. (1885) p. 22.
Queen’s (J. W. & Co.) New Class Microscope. ([Post.]
Proc. San Francisco Micr. Soc., 22nd April, 1885.
“Ros. Crus.”—The Micro-objective. III., IV., V.
Engl. Mech., XI. (1885) pp. 302 (8 figs.), 327-8, 413-4.
ScHERRER, J.—Der Angehende Mikroskopiker, oder das Mikroskop im Dienste
der Hohern Volks- und Mittelschule. (The young Microscopist, or the Micro-
scope in the higher, primary and middle schools.)
xy. and 206 pp., 134 figs. 8vo, Speicher, 1885. .
Schoolroom, Microscope in the.
[No person who has not made the trial can form an adequate conception
of the mental quickening occasioned by an exhibition of selected micro-
scopic objects to classes in the schoolroom. The scales on the butterfly’s
wing, the hexagonal facets of the compound insect-eye, the transformation,
as it were, of seemingly shapeless grains of sand into structure of exquisite
beauty, the cyclosis of protoplasm in plant cells, and the movement of
blood-corpuscles in the foot of the frog—reaching the mind through the
eye, make and leave an impression, and give an understanding, which books
and diagrams are powerless to produce. The Microscope, frequently and
intelligently used, makes nature pellucid. There ought to be an excellent
one under skilful manipulation in every school.”]
Journ. N. York Mier. Soc., I. (1885) p. 110.
ScuoTt.—eber optisches Glas. (On optical glass.)
[Title only.]
SB. Jenaisch. Gesell. f. Med. u. Naturwiss. for 1884 (1885) p. 32.
Soutuas, W. J.—On the Physical Characters of Calcareous and Siliceous Sponge-
spicules and other Structures.
[Contains description of an arrangement for determining the density of
minute objects under the Microscope. Post.]
Scientif. Proc. R. Dublin Soc., 1885, pp. 374-92 (7 figs. and 1 pl.).
Stokes—Watson Spark Apparatus. [Vol. IV. (1884) p. 964.]
Nature, XXXII. (1885) p. 208.
[Stowe.t, C. H. and L. R.|]—Long Papers v. Short Papers.
[Advocates papers of not more than twenty minutes in length. ]
The Microscope, V. (1885) p. 136.
+6 53 See Walmsley, W. H.
Textile Microscopical Association.
[A National Textile Microscopical Association was formed last Saturday by
members of the Corresponding Societies of Boston and New York.” ]
Science, V. (1885) p. 472.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 729
Theiler and Son’s (M.) Demonstration Microscope.
[Same as Waechter’s or Engell’s, Vol. IT. (1882) p. 398.]
Knowledge, VI1. (1885) p. 491 (1 fig.),
Nature, XXXII. (1885) p. 112,
Universal Pocket Microscope. [Supra, p. 704.]
Lbid., p. 491. Ibid., p. 112.
Touman, H. L.—Eye-piece Micrometers. [Supra, p. 704.]
Amer. Mon. Micr, Jovrn., VI. (1885) pp. 115-6.
See also under “ Measurements of Blood-corpuscles,”
The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 113-4, from the Legal News,
Van Brunt, C.—Diatoms mounted in Prof. Smith’s newest medium—Photo-
graphs of same. Journ. N. York Micr. Soc., I. (1885) pp. 102-3.
WaALeEs, W.—The proper care and use of Microscope Lenses. [Supra, p. 708.]
Lbid., pp. 113-6 and 123.
Warp, R. H.—Recent progress in the Improvement of the Microscope.
from Annual Cyclopedia for 1884 (New York, 1885) pp. 499-522 (42 figs.).
“s + See Behrens, J. W.
Westien, H.—Apparat zur Vergleichung symmetrischer Stellen der Schwimm-
haut des rechten und linken Fusses vom Frosche. (Apparatus for the comparison
of symmetrical parts of the webs of the right and left feet of the frog.
[ Post.] Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., V. (1885) p- 198 (1 fig.).
” ”
8. Collecting, Mounting and Examining Objects, &c.
Preparing Embryos.*—The method of examination which Dr. L.
Léwe employs is as follows:—The embryos are placed, according to
their size, in a 1 per cent. to a saturated solution of bichromate of potash,
which is frequently changed. They remain in this for several months
orayear. After being thoroughly washed in water they are stained
in a 1 per cent. solution of carmine, which is renewed as soon as its
ammoniacal odour is lost, then again washed, soaked in glycerin-
jelly in an incubator (1-4 weeks), and hardened in alcohol. Sections
are then cut with a microtome.
Methods of Investigating Animal Cells.t—The methods of exa-
mining living animals, e. g. Amebe, Infusoria, &c., under the Micro-
scope, are first described by Dr. A. Brass. When they have been
studied in their natural state, various reagents are applied to the living
object; e.g. a mixture of chromic acid, 1; platinum chloride, 1; con-
centrated acetic acid, 1; water, 400-1000; hyperosmic acid, picro-
sulphuric acid, or concentrated solution of corrosive sublimate. Brass
believes, however, that better results are obtained by studying protozoa
without reagents or staining.
The free cells of the animal body are examined in the living state
on a warm stage in lymph fluid, vitreous humour, iodized serum, or
0°6-0°7 per cent. salt solution. The ova of mammalia are examined
on a warm stage in lymph, to which a trace of sodium carbonate has
been added.
Animal tissues are examined in the fresh state in 0°6-0:7 per
cent. salt solution, iodized serum, or lymph fluid. The application
of water is to be avoided, as it alters the cells. Tissues, of which the
internal structure is to be examined, are washed, after treatment with
* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., i, (1884) pp. 585-6.
+ Ibid., pp. 39-51.
730 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
reagents, in water, to which alcohol or a few drops of acid have been
added. Small animals, and embryos of higher animals, especially
those which have not a strong external skeleton, are put alive into a
1/8-1/2 per cent. solution of chromic acid till they are dead, then
treated with several drops of concentrated chromic acid, and finally
washed, first in 30 per cent. alcohol, and then in gradually increasing
strength up to absolute.
As staining reagents, borax-carmine, ammonia-carmine, and log-
wood are used.
By starving or exposing to a low temperature the lower animals,
insects, worms, &c., Brass has discovered that the granular substance
inside the cells is dissolved and reabsorbed, and that finally the
nuclear corpuscles disappear by degrees.
To study this process in the higher Vertebrata—parrots, mice,
rabbits, &c.—they were infected with tuberculosis. The chromatic
substance of the cells disappeared more or less, especially in those
of the ovum, in which the changes were very marked, as ascertained
from sections of the ovary.
Demonstrating the Nuclei in Blood-corpuscles.**— Herr M.
Ladowsky recommends for the demonstration of the nuclei in white
blood-corpuscles treatment with solutions of osmic acid (1 per cent.), or
weak solutions of picric or chromic acid, and subsequent staining with
rosanilin, safiranin, or better methylen-green. The latter is also
useful for demonstrating the stroma and nucleus of red corpuscles.
The author shows that the white corpuscles are not sticky by inject-
ing watery solutions of indigo-blue, eosin, or even distilled water
into the blood, which make the plasma cells aggregate in heaps,
whereas the white corpuscles circulate unchanged.
Demonstration of Karyokinesis in Epithelial Tissues.}—Signor
Tizzoni employs the method of fixing the tissue with Miiller’s fluid,
hardening, preserving in ordinary alcohol, and staining with alum-
carmine, which differentiates the chromatic figures of cell-nuclei ina
state of division with the same distinctness as logwood and safiranin ;
the resting nuclei assume a violet colour, those which are dividing a
ruby-red colour. This difference of staining points to a difference in
chemical composition. The alum-carmine which the author uses is
made by adding to Grenacher’s formula a trace of sodium sulphate,
which increases its staining power.
Investigating the Structure of the Central Nervous Organs.t—
Dr. J. Stilling recommends that pieces of brain hardened in
chromium salts should be placed, after washing, in red or rectified
pyroxylic acid or artificial pyroxylic acid (glac. acet. ac. 100 ¢.;
ordinary water 800 g.; kreasote 30 minims). The connective
‘tissue swells, and is quite macerated, so that the nerve-fibres, which
remain intact, can be prepared under water with needles and forceps.
The specimens can afterwards be stained with picro-carmine.
* Virchow’s Arch. f. Path. Anat., xevi. (1884) pp. 60-100.
+ Bull. Sci. Med. Bologna, 1884, p. 259.
t Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr.. i. (1884) pp. 586-7.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 731
Application of Borax-methylen-blue in the Examination of the
Central Nervous System.*—Dr. H. Sahli recommends the following
formula: Distilled water 40, saturated watery solution of methylen-
blue 24, borax solution (5 per cent.) 16. Mix, leave for 24 hours, and
then filter. Sections are stained in this solution for 10 minutes to several
hours, and then washed in water or alcohol, until the grey substance
is clearly distinguished from the deeply blue-stained white substance,
dehydrated, clarified in cedar oil, and mounted in balsam, either pure
or mixed with cedar oil. The ganglion cells appear pale greenish,
and are clearly differentiated from the blue-stained nuclei of the
neuroglia. The most delicate nerve-fibres are stained.
The author obtains better results with this solution than with the
ordinary alkaline methylen-blue in the examination of the central
nervous system for the presence of micro-organisms.
Preserving Sections of the Nervous System Treated with
Bichromate of Potash and Nitrate of Silver,t—To obviate the
difficulty of preserving preparations, Signor C. Golgi places a drop of
dammar varnish on the section, and allows it to dry in an even layer.
He uses slides which have a square hole in the centre, which is closed
below with a cover-glass. The section covered with dammar is
placed on this, and when the varnish is dry the specimen can be
examined on both sides.
Study of Fat Absorption in the Small Intestine.{—Herr Th.
Zawarykin makes use of the following method :—A piece of intestine
is treated with hyperosmice acid, washed in water, and placed in
spirit for 24 hours. A small portion is then cut between two pieces
of elder-pith, in which it is placed in such a way that the villi are
turned towards one half and the serous coat towards the other half of
the pith. The razor should be wetted with alcohol. The sections
can be stained with picro-carmine.
Preparing the Cloacal Epithelium of Scyllium Canicula.s—
To isolate the goblet-cells, Herr J. H. List uses Miiller’s fluid and
alcohol. The preparations are then imbedded in celloidin, cut, and
stained with eosin and methylen-green, The epithelial cells are in
this way stained rose-red, the goblet-cells green.
Preparing Embryos of Amarecium proliferum,||—MM. C.
Maurice and A. Schulgin employ the following methods:—The
whole, or better pieces, of the Ascidian are laid in water with an equal
quantity of picro-sulphuric acid. After half-an-hour they are placed
in alcohol, the strength of which is gradually increased. ‘They can
be stained whole with alum-carmine, or treated as follows:—The
isolated ova or embryos are stained with borax-carmine for 15-18
hours, treated with hydrochloric acid, washed in 70 per cent. alcohol,
and transferred to a very weak solution of Lyons blue for 15-20
* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 49-51.
+ Arch. per le Scienze Mediche, viii. (1884) p. 53.
t Arch. f. d. Gesammt. Physiol. (Pfliiger) xxxy. (1884) pp. 145-57.
§ SB. K. Akad, Wiss. Wien, xc. (1884).
|| Ann. Sei. Nat,—Zool., xvii. (1884).
Tw, SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
hours. They are then quickly imbedded in paraffin, to which ceresin
is added. They are cleared with oil of bergamot or cloves. A long
stay in alcohol abstracts the colour. By this method the nuclei are
stained red, the plasma blue. The three layers of the embryo are
clearly differentiated. 'The ectoderm is a darker blue than the endo-
derm. 'The mesoderm shows the least blue staining, as its cells
possess a large (red-stained) nucleus, against which the blue plasma
stands out in contrast.
Mounting Insects without Pressure.*—Mr. R. Gillo describes
the process which he uses for this object, and which is a selection
and combination of somewhat well-known methods.
“ Let us suppose that the object to be mounted is an ordinary
ground-beetle, perhaps 1/2 in. long. The first thing to be done is to
steep it in liquor potasse (full strength), and for this purpose I use
a test-tube. When the solution becomes dark-coloured, it must be
poured away and fresh added. After being in this for ten days or a
fortnight, the insect must be transferred to water in a tea-saucer (dis-
tilled or soft water should be used), and whilst holding it steady
with a camel’s-hair brush, gently squeeze the body with another,
giving the brush at the same time a kind of rolling motion, thus
driving the contents of the abdomen towards the anus, from which it
will presently be discharged. The beetle should now be removed
to clean water, and left for an hour or so, when the squeezing pro-
cess with the two brushes must be repeated as before, when more of
the abdominal contents will be ejected. Again place the insect in
clean water, and in this way, by several soakings and squeezings,
the whole of the contents of the viscera will be removed without the
least injury to any of the internal organs.
Throughout this process, however, the insect will be seen to be
as opaque as it was at first. It is, therefore, necessary to bleach it;
and to effect this it must be placed, until sufficiently transparent,
which may take a week or more, in the following solution :—A
saturated solution of chlorate of potash, to which is added ten or
twenty drops or more of strong hydrochloric acid to each ounce of
solution. A shallow but large-mouthed corked bottle is best for
this purpose. The chlorine, which is slowly liberated in the solu-
tion, attacks the chitine, and thus gradually bleaches it and renders
it transparent,
It is now necessary to wash all this solution out of the insect,
which is best accomplished by placing it in a small pomatum pot
filled with distilled water, and after an hour or so to change the water,
repeating the process four or five times.”
“For the next part of the process, a nest of china saucers or
alettes, such as are used by water-colour artists (these fit sufficiently
accurately one on the other to hold spirit for a day or two without its
evaporating), will be required. In an empty palette place the insect
on its back, and arrange its legs in the positions they are intended
to retain when finished. Now gently pour methylated spirit over it,
* Journ. of Microscopy, iv. (1885) pp. 151-4.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Too
so as completely to cover it, noticing that the legs are not displaced,
for if they are right during this part of the process, they will
naturally assume the same position in the final stage of the mounting.
After several hours, or next day, change the spirit for fresh, and
again, after several hours, pass the insect into ether, but as this is
such a volatile fluid, it should be used in a test-tube tightly corked.
There need be no anxiety about the position of the legs in this stage,
as they have been already stiffened by the spirit, and if displaced
now will spring back again into their original position. After soak-
ing some hours in ether, pass into turpentine, in which it may be
' allowed to remain any length of time.”
Directions for mounting in a cell with balsam in benzole follow,
and for cementing, and it is pointed out that among other advantages
insects thus mounted polarize brilliantly, probably owing to the action
of the bleaching solution on the different tissues.
Mounting the Proboscis of the Blow-fly in Biniodide of Mer-
eury.—Mr. H. Sharp describes his method as follows:—The appa-
ratus necessary consists of two pieces cut from a glass slip, 1 in. by
15 in., a weak spring clip, and a wide-mouthed bottle containing
methylated spirit.
Kill the fly by dropping it into boiling water, cut off the head,
place it on one of the pieces of glass, and squeeze it with the finger
until the tongue protrudes and the lobes expand. Then gently nip it
with the other piece of glass, and put on a weak clip to hold it in
position. Place the whole inthe methylated spirit, and leave it there
for an hour or more. On releasing the proboscis from the glasses the
lobes will remain expanded ; cut off the proboscis and place it in spirit
till all the air is removed. Then put it in water for half-an-hour,
and then in weak solution of biniodide of mercury (half water and half
saturated solution) for two or three hours; then in the full strength
solution for 12 hours.
When the proboscis is put in the weak mercury solution the
lobes will most likely curl up, to prevent which place it on a slide
when taken from the water, and put on a cover with a weak clip to
hold it in position, and then run the weak solution of mercury under
the cover. Do the same when transferring from the weak to the full
strength solution.
Mount in a shellac cell, and use shellac for securing the cover.
Mr. Sharp finds it safe to use for the final mounting a solution of
the biniodide of mercury slightly weaker than saturation, as if of
full strength crystals will develope in very cold weather.
Preparing Luciola italica.*—To investigate the seat of oxida-
tion which produces the light, Dr. C. Emery kills the living animal
in a solution of osmic acid, which stains the luminous plates of the
still living and light-developing animals brown. The parts which
are to be further examined are macerated for a long time in water,
the development of fungi in which is prevented by the addition of
* Zeitschr. f, Wiss. Zool., xl. (1884) pp. 338-54,
HO SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
erystals of thymol. The osmie acid is especially reduced at the
bifurcations of the blind ending tracheal capillaries within the
luminous plates, and in the tracheal branches before the bifurcation.
Another method of preservation consists in injecting corrosive
sublimate solution into the animal, and subsequent treatment with
alcohol.
Preparing Embryo of Peripatus Edwardsii and P. torquatus.*
—To obtain the embryos uninjured, Prof. J. v. Kennel removes
them with the uterus from the chloroformed mother-animal, and
places them, partly in concentrated solution of corrosive sublimate,
partly in 1 per cent. osmic acid solution, and subsequently hardens
them in alcohol. Alcohol alone, chromic, picric, or picro-sulphuric
acid cannot be used for hardening, as they alter the object. The uterus
is rendered transparent by turpentine, and cut with its contents, or
the embryo is taken out and cut alone.
Preparing Diatoms from the Stomachs of Mollusca and Crus-
tacea.{— Mr. H. S. Courroux recommends that in the case of mussels
and cockles, the stomach should be cut out and steeped, or even
boiled, in nitric acid until it is dissolved, and the resultant deposit
washed and cleaned after one of the methods recommended in the
text-books. A little special care, however, in the treatment of
shrimps’ stomachs will not be thrown away. On removing the shelly
skin at the back of the head, the stomach will be seen as a small,
dark-coloured body, the size of a small pea. Its position may gene-
rally be detected in the perfect shrimp from the dark appearance at
the back of the head. The stomachs may be detached with the
point of a knife, and when some 12 or 20 or more (as the deposit
obtained from them is small) have been collected, they should (taking
care that the skin of each stomach is cut or broken) be boiled for a
few seconds in a weak solution of washing-soda or ammonia, and
then immediately be thrown into a beaker of cold water. By these
means we get rid of grease, &c., and render the subsequent treatment
by acids more easy. The empty skins of the stomachs will float,
and may be picked out of the solution.
The residue which collects after the solution has stood for some
time should first be washed free from alkali, and then treated with
acids in the usual manner.
The method of separating deposits into different densities is very
useful here as with many other gatherings of diatoms, inasmuch as
the large forms are then more easily isolated. The often advised
whirling in a large evaporating dish in order to separate the diatoms
from sand and débris may be frequently practised with success. In
the washings of all diatoms, the author has found it of the utmost
advantage to perform the later rinsings in distilled water. The
diatoms are thus more effectually cleaned from salt, &c., and present
less attraction to moisture in the case of dry mounts.
* Arbeit. Zool.-Zoot. Inst. Wirzburg, vii. (1884) pp. 1-222.
+ Journ. of Microscopy, iv. (1885) pp. 19b-8.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. fop
The operator may be reminded that the material, even from a con-
siderable number of stomachs, is of course very small in quantity, and
must be handled carefully, and, as the most beautiful forms are often
the lightest, it is of the utmost importance to let the deposit settle
thoroughly in the washings of the lighter portions of the gatherings.
The water holding the diatoms in suspension should be allowed to
stand at least half-an-hour for every inch of its depth, and hence
time will be saved by using watch-glasses and shallow dishes for the
purpose.
Bayberry Tallow for Imbedding.*—This substance is obtained
from the ordinary bayberry-bush, and is used by furniture manu-
facturers for oiling the sliding surfaces of bureau-drawers, &c. It is
claimed for the bayberry-tallow that it is cheaper and better than
celloidin, and far superior to parafiin and other kinds of wax hereto-
fore used. A special feature claimed for it is non-solubility in
alcohol, except when warmed to about the temperature of the body or
a little above it, and hence the specimens may be kept indefinitely in
alcohol at ordinary temperatures. Another point to the credit of the
tallow is that tissues injected with it or imbedded in it can be shaved
in thinner sections than those allowed by other materials, and that
on account of its firmness it allows of amore even cut. After making
a section the tallow may be removed from the specimen by simply
placing it for a few minutes in a bath of warm alcohol.
Imbedding and Examining Trematodes. — Dr. P. M. Fischer +
recommends soap, fifteen parts dissolved in 17°5 parts of alcohol
(96 per cent.) as a good imbedding medium for Opisthotrema cochleare.
Glycerin is used in the examination of the sections. The whole
animal can be hardened in absolute alcohol, stained with picro-carmine,
logwood, or ammonia-carmine, clarified in oil of cloves, and mounted
in Canada balsam in chloroform.
For the investigation of the embryonic sheath of living Cercarie
in snails, Dr. J. Biehringer { employs the blood-fluid of the snail it-
self, Many facts, e.g. the origin of the accessory membrane of the
sporocyst, can only be brought to light in this way.
Hatfield’s Rotary Section-cutter.§— Rev. J. J. B. Hatfield’s
section-cutter is rotary in all its moving parts except the specimen-
carrier in its approach to the knife, and the horizontal frame Brice Ba.”
JOURNAL
OF THE
ROYAL
_ MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY:
CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,
AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
ZOOLVCGYT AND BOTAN YDT
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia),
MICROSCOPY, &£c.
Edited by
FRANK CRISP, LL.B., B. ee
One of the Secretaries of the Society
and a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Society of Liles ;
Ne ee: WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND
_ AW. BENNETT, M.A., B.8c., F.L.S., F, JEFFREY BELL, M.A, F.Z.8.,
| Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital, Professor of Comparative A natomy in King’s College,
_ JOHN MAYALL, Jox., F.Z8., FRANK E, BEDDARD, M.A., F.Z.8.,
AND
B. B. WOODWARD, F.GS.,
Librarian, British Museum (Natural History),
FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY,
WILLIAMS & NORGATE,
LONDON AND EDINBURGH. 3
1 BY WM. CLOWKS AMD SONS, LIMITED.) , ‘ (STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS,
CONTENTS.
TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SocireTY—
XIV.—New Barrish Micro-Funer. By G. Massee, FRMS.
(Plate XIII.) Pea et Was Pie MA teeta Nae a eae NS:
XV.—On Erosion or THE SuRFAOE OF GLASS, WHEN EXPOSED TO.
Tae Joint Action or CARBONATE oF Lime anp Contos.
By William M. Ord, M.D., F.R.MS., F.LS. 6 ee oe
XVI.—On a Septic Miorosz From A- Hien Atitupr. Tae
Nizsen Bactiius. By G. F. Dowdeswell, M.A., F.RMS.,
OS Bike ie g ci eee aa pei (haat Pom ti ee AC Ua Aaah eae
XVII.—On THE USE OF THE Asidouauiae MANDIBLE IN THE DETER- —
MINATION OF THE CuiLosTomatous Bryozoa. By Arthur =
Wm. Waters, F.R.MS., F.L.S. (Plate XIV.)..0 1.0 a
SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.
ZOOLOGY. .
A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology x
of the Vertebrata.
Doukn, A.— Primitive History of the Vertebrate Body =... se oo ewe
Minot, C. §.—Formative Force of Organisms». we se ae newt ww
Fou, H.—Tazl of Human Embryo en
Lavianre—Nature of the Placental Neoformation and ihe Unity of Composition of, ya
the Placenta ~°.. Ab ERE Ro re OO ai et Ce
DENIEER, J.—Letus of Gibbon "and “its Placenta HNC MDA ME Nr Rrh aucey een
Brown, H. H.—Spermatogenesis in the Rat .. Bi
Gerace, L.—Hatching of Birds’ Eggs after Resin of the Shell Sia: daa k Peete
Sprnozr, W. BaLpwin—Larly Development of Rana temporaria .. +» cc ve
Broox, G.—Development of Motella mustela ., +. +0 ee «6 ee os 90 ae
Ryper, J. A.—Development of the Salmon...” Sgr eG Lae la Raa
BWWART, CossaRr, & G. Brooxk—Spawning of the Cod eo oe ee oe ee oo oe
RertTERER— Development of Vascular Glands is Seti Hes ghige ni
MeEtiann, B.—Simplified View of Histology of Striped "“Muscle- fibre .. adits eon pat lana
Hows, G. B.—Atlas of Practical Elementary Biology .. «. os 08 20 we
B. INVERTEBRATA DN ae
Conn, H. W.—Marine Larve and their Relation to Adults... GAR eee i ae a
Ransom, W. B.—Cardiac Rhythm of Invertebrates .. da \ oa tele cre
| Wanieny, H. pe—Physiology of the Unstriated Muscles of Fnerterata db ar pei) Sse hicte
Prenzev, J.—Temperature Maxima for Marine Animals oo), we) lee, een) eal he
Mollusca, ae so ee ee
metaent J —Mid-gut Gland (Liver) of the Mollusca... o« c+ 0 cae Sioa eee
HALLER,- ’B. —Renal Organ of Prosobranchiata .. BEC RM BRE Pole meri
Bouvigr, E. L.—Nervous System of Buccinide and Purpuride Wldeeiy tees ‘ee
Bourne, A. G.—Communication of the Vascular System with’ the Exterior im
Plewrobranchus > .. Wah Pacis HUN S GTR Gua @: Beira a Se iene
Grrespach, H.—Inception of Water among Mollusca Ae
Scutiiur, P.—Relations of Cavernous Spaces in the Connective ' Tissue oF Anodonta je
to the Blood-vascular System...» to aie tee
Gairrirus, A. B., & H. FrnLows—Organs of Bojanus in Anodonta hha cfewes oF 7 5
Oszorn, H. L.—Mimicry among Marine Mollusca =. 4 a oe ee ee oe TOD
e3
z Molluscoida.
@, Tunicata.
Benepen, E. van, & O.\Jc0L1n—Postembryonal Sigh ca sneer ee 795
4 Jounpay, 8.—The Synascidian Diplosomide .. ..
B. Polyzoa.
= LANKESTER, E. Ray—Polyzoa oe ee * oe ae
Ostrovmorr, A.— Metamorphosis of Cyphonautes.. hee ae Sas
Arthropoda,
a. Insecta.
Beavrecarp, H.—Natural Development of Cantharis.. + «.
WIELOWIEFSEI, H. v.— Formation of Ova in Pyrrhocoris APs
_ Korornerr, A.—Development of Gryllotalpa «ss ss
VIALLANES, H.— Optic Ganglion of Aeschna .. ..
_ Povutoy. E, B.—Nature of the Colouring of Phytophagous "Larvz
3 Dewrrz, H.—How Insects adhere to flat vertical surfaces .. ..
= y. Prototracheata.
_ SEnewrcr, A— Development of Peripatus capensia .. «+ ve
= 3. Arachnida.
_ Dau, F.—Season Dimorphism in Spiders... ++ ee ae te
Trovessakt, E, L.—Sarcoptide se oe oe oe oe oe oe
2 «, Crustacea.
_ Oxavs, C.—Morphology of Crustacea 41 +0 nn te tee
Scum«ewirscu, W.—Development of Astacus ..
oe
z ‘Gairritus, A. se —Extraction of Urie Acid eetals from the Green Gland of Astacua
oe oe oe oe
- Sanvr-Lovp, B_-Pasisties ‘of Mena vulgaris Eon eee
PELSENEER,
a P.—Nervous System of Apus A Baa
_ Pacxarp, = 8. Fert hig Be 5 Limulus polyphemus a a fear
. ‘Dyzowss!, B —Crustacea of La Baikal lee oe oe oe ae
- errs, SIDNEY I—New SN toy or oe se oe oe a)
2 Vermes.
5 Samr-Love, & lg read acre as ne id bewesla See
4 in evelopment of t ead of Poly ae
, femme 9 of Nematodes... i ye hep. ee
- Tnvorasr, R —Dexelop mee Spherularia bombi
Lewy, J.—New Bothesooep
A. C.—Circulatory and Nephridial Apparatus of the Nemertea
~ Ovpemans,
_ Savensxy, "W.— Development evelopment of M VIVEPATA 20 40
~ Beppaxp, "¥. E—Nephridia of Acanthodrilus sp. ART cere
Zacuanias, O- ee ridia of Microstoma lVineare., «+ 1+ +
: BDour.essis-Govuret, G.—Fresh-water Monotide .. .. + «+
_ Perroncito, E.— Action of Sodium Chloride on cglens ee Sak
~ Grarr, L. v.—New Species Boole By yzostoma 4. Sige
_ ur, 0. E—Pdagic and resh-water Rotatoria 4. 5 ws
Echinodermata.
P. Henpent—Vaseular System of Echinoids .. ..
| Pesrier, E.—Ambulacra of Echinoderms.» +s un ts
_ Provno— Anatom matory o Dorocidaris * - - ad *
~ Dencan, 2 gh M. =, 2 0 Celopleurus ‘Maillardi “- “* ”
ee. P. H.—New of Metacrinus 4. ss) we os
be nll bee
Coelenterata.
4 Bavuot—Adamsia palliata * * aad * ” - - *
me Porifera.
ida
, A.— Development of Spongilla .. «
Sores E.—New Fresh-water Sponge .. +
a
y ee Se
a
Sd ae
‘
PAGE
796
797
798
( 4 )
Protozoa.
Lanxester, EH. Ray—Protozoa *
HAiBueron, W. D:— Chemical Composition of. Zoocytium. of Oplerydinm ‘versatile.
Mésrvs, K.—Freia Ampulla O. F. Mill., the Flask-animaleule .. oi sane ee
Basiant, H. G., & A. Scunemer—Anoplophrya CU CWLANE- . Angle of Aperture (= 2 w). Theoretical Ae
Back Lenses of various 3 Tilumi- | — “Resolving Pene-
Dry and Immersion . | Numerical Water- | Homogeneous-| nating Power, in. _| ‘tating
Objectives of the same | Aperture. ry Immersion| Immersion | Power. | Lines toan Inch,| POWe?
Power (3 in.) (msinu=a.)| Objectives. | Opiectives.| Objectives. | (a2) | (A=0°5269 u ()
from 0°50 to 1°52 N. A. @=1) {nm =1-33)) @=1"52.) =lineE.) | \a7
1°52 ee e- -} 180° 0’ | 2°310} 146,528 "658°
1°50 . a's af 161° 23’ | 2:250)} 144,600 “667
1-48 os oe 153° 39’ | 2190} 142,672 "676
1°46 ae “a 147° 42' |2-132| 140,744 | +685 —
p 1°44 = we 142° 40’ | 2:°074)| 138,816 “694
1:42 “6 oe 138° 12’: | 2°016} ~136,888 "704 -
- 1-40 oe fs 134°. 10’. | 1-960] ~ 134,960 |. °714 —
1:38 a be 130°-26’ | 1°904|- 133, 032 “725
1-36 x és 126° 57’ |1°850} 131,104 | *735 ~~
1:34 a 123° 40’ |1°796| 129,176 +746
1°33 xD 180° 0’; 122° 6’ |1°770|° 128,212 | *752" -
1°32 oe -1165° 56’| 120° 33 |1:742| -127,248 iy 5): ae
1:30 a 155° 38’| 117° 34’ |1°690| 125,320 Be (2 ons
1°28 es 148° 28’| 114° 44’ |1:°638} 123,392 | *781
; 1-26 ae 142°. 39'|- 111° 59’ | 1-588) 121,464 “794
1:24 Ze 187° 86'| 109° 20' | 1-538} 119,536 | +806 —
1-22 = 133° 4"| 106° 45’ |1°488} 117,608 { +820 —
1°20 ee | 128° 55’) 104° 15’ | 1°440) 115,680 | -833
1:18 a 125° 3’) 101° 50’ | 1°392} 113,752 |. *847—
: 1-16 SS 1° 111,824 - | >*
1°14 re zi 109,896 ~
1-12 as 1 107,968 | *893
1-10 a 1 106,040. | = :
2 1:08 os 1 104,112» 5
1:06 s 1 102,184 | +9
1:04 3 1 “100,256 =| >
: 1-02 oa 1 98,328 ]
1:00 180° 0! 1 96,400 “0
0-98 157° 2! 94,472: - | 1:
0:96 147° 29' 92,544 | 15
0°94 140° 6’ 90,616 |
0:92 133° 51’ 88,688 | 1
0-90 128° 19° 86,760 | 1°:
: 0-88 123° 17’ 84,832 |”
es 0:86 118° 38’ 82,904 |
0°84 114° 17’ - 80,976 | |
0°82 110° 10! 79,048 >
: 0:80 106° 16’ - 77,120. =| 1*28
0:78 102° 31’ 975,192 4
: 0:76 98° 56! 73,264 |
; 0:74 95° 28! 71,336 |
0:72 92° 6’ 69,408 |] :
a4. 379 0°70 88° 51’ 67,480 | 17429 —
0:68 85°. 41’ ~. 65,552. 4 1*47b
= 0:66 82° 36’ 63,624 | 1°515 ©
0°64 Oe 95" 61,696 | 1°562
0°62. 76° 38’ ‘59,768 | 1-613 |
0:60. 73° 44! 57,840 | 1°6
0°58 70° 54’ 55,912 | 1°72
Pas te 0°56 68° 6! 58,984 | 1-786
0:54 65° 22! » $2,056 ‘
0°52 62° 40’ “<§0,128 |.1°925 |
*90 0:50 60° 0’ 48,200. | 2-000 —
EXAMPLE.—The apertures of four objectives, two of which are dry, one water-immersion, and one oil-immers
© would be compared on the angular aperture view as follows;—106° (air), 157° (air), 142° (water), 130° (oil).
Their actual apertures are, however, as *30 "98 "1°26 1°38 ort
numerical apertures. ¢ Boyes
v
Pe II. Conversion of British and Metric Measures.
aa 1.) Linnat.
Seale showing Micromillimetres, §c., into Inches, §c. Inches, &c., into
Se “ ins. mm. ins. mm. ins, Mier eae: ’
¢,, to Inches. z p0ohey : -039370 ps ae ga
aun. *00007 “078741 047262 | __2
=. 8 -000118| 3 -118111|° 58. =. 2086683] 772°? Manes
cm. ins. 4 -000157| 4 157482 | 54 2°126003 | 2°2°" 4.693378
a! ' 5 -000197| 65 196852 | 55 2°165374 | =°3°" 9.539977
TIE 6 -000236| 6 ‘236223 | 56 2°204744 | 23°" 9.899107
7 -000276| 7 1275593 | 5'7 2-244115 | 2°P° - 3.474979
8 -000315| 8 +314963| 58 2283485 | 52°° 3.¢98539
9 -000354| 9 -354334 | 59 2392855 | 7° 4.933995
: 10 -000394| 10 (1em.) :393704| 60 (6cm.) 2°362226] “1 5-079954
11 -000433} 11 -4383075| 61 2°401596 | aoso 6°349943
12 +000472| 12 472445 | 62 2°440967 | sooo _8° 466591
| JE 18 :000512| 18 ‘511816 | 63 2:480337 | alsa 12°699886
SAL 14 +000551| 14 551186 | 64 2-519708 | iba 29°399772
| a 15 +000591| 15 590556 | 65 2+559078 : mm.
16 ~-000630| 16 “629927 | 66 2:598149| soo (028222
17 -000669| 17 “669297 | 67 2+637819 | soo (081750
18 -000709| 18 -*708668 | 68 2:677189 | ros — '036285
19 -000748 | 19 748038 | 69 2°716560] som *042333
20 -+000787| 20 (2cem.) *787409| 70 (7em.) 2°755930] B90 Seve
21 -000827| 21 "826779 | ‘71 2:795301 | 23° -963499
= 22 -000866| 22 *866150 | ‘72 2-834671! 23° 979571
E 23 -000906| 23 -905520| 73 2°874042| 23° — .oga666
= 24 -+000945 | 24 944890 | 74 2°913412| 38° .401599
[= 25 -000984 25 -984261| '75 2:952782| 23° —-ya6999
[= 26° +001024 | 26 1:023631| 76 2:992153} 23° 169332
= 27 -001063| 27 1:063002| "77 3°031523 | 23° «953998
is 28 -001102) 28 1°102372| 78 3070894} “2° «507995
E 29. -001142| 29 1°141743| '79 3-110264} 2’ 1-015991
= 30 -001181| 30 (Sem) 1:181113| 80(8em.) 3:149635] 2 1-269989
l= 81. -001220| 381 1°220483| 81 3°189005} va — 1°987486
I= 82 -001260| 32 1:259854 | 82 3:228375| ws 1°693318
33 -001299| 33 1°299224 | -88 3°267746 | “xs 2°116648
84 -001339| 34 1°338595 | 84 3°307116| vo 2°989977
85 :001378| 35 1°377965 | 85 8° 346487 % © 8174972
86 -001417| 86 1°417336 | 86 3° 385857 x £°233299
87 -001457| 37 1:456706| 87 3425298] vs #° 762457
88 -001496| 88 1:496076| 88 - ~ 8464598 % 5079954
89 °001535| 39 1°535447| 89 3503968 2 6349943
40 -001575| 40 (4em.)1-574817| 90 (9 em.) 3°543339| is 7987420
41 -001614| 41 1-614188| 91 g-5e270g | . 9'PeRNS
42 -001654| 42 1:653558| 92 3622080} - 2 1111240
43 +001693 | 43 1692929 | 938 3°661450 % -1:269989
44 -001782)| 44 1°732299 | 94 3*700820 |g: 17428787
45 -:001772| 45 1°771669 | 95 3740191 7 g 1 -587486
46 -:001811| 46 1°811040| 96 8°779561 | 3% 1+746234
47 -001850) 47 1°850410| 97 3°818932| 1:904983
48 *001890) 48 1°889781| 98 8° 858302 22 2063782
: 49 -001929 17929151} 99 3897678} 4% —-2+222480
= 50 -001969 | 50 (5 cm.) 1'968522 | 100 (10 em.=1 decim.)} 4% 2°381229
: 60 -002362 E 1. 2°539977
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700 «027559 9 35°483389 aK Se emeate
800 °031496 10 (1 metre) 39°370432 HEN Rag ot ont
; = 3°280869 ft. geapenee: 5
= 1-°098628 yds. lyd.= ‘914392
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CHARLES COPPOCK,
MANUFACTURER
OF
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JOURN.R.MICR.SOC.SER.ILVOL WIP IL, 200
West, Newman & Co lith,
G.Massee del.adnat.
New British Micro-fungi.
JOURNAL
OF THE
ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
OCTOBER 1885.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.
XIV.—New British Micro-Fungi. By G. Masszs, F.R.M.S.
(Read 10th June, 1885.)
Puate XIII.
Didymium hypnophilum n. sp. (Plate XIII. figs. 8-12). Spor-
angia sessile on a broad base, hemispherical or elongated, sub-
depressed, powdered with white amorphous granules of lime;
columella hemispherical, large, white ; capillitium of violet-coloured
threads which are attached to each other at intervals in a fascicu-
late manner, thus forming a loose irregular net, furnished sparingly
with slender fusiform thickenings, which sometimes contain a few
yellowish granules of lime; spores globose, large, spinulose, dull
violet. On moss, Scarborough.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII.
Fig. 1.—Stilbum flecuosum, nat. size.
» la—Same x 30.
» 2.—Same, section of head x 350.
; 8—Same, portion of head with conidia x 500.
» 4.—Helminthosporium pumilum, parasitic upon Stilbum fleruosum, x 30,
» 0—Same x 500.
, 6.—Arthrobotrys rosea, nat, size.
, 6a—Same x 350.
» 7-—Same, conidium x 500.
» 8.—Didymium hypnophilum, nat. size.
» 9.—Same x 30.
» 10.—Same, section of plant x 50.
», 11.—Same, portion of capillitium attached to wall of sporangium, x 500,
» 12.—Same, spores x 500.
», 13.—Corepthoris paradoxa, nat. size.
» 14.—Same x 350.
» 15.—Same, conidia x 500.
»» 16.—Corepthoris epimyces, nat. size.
» 17.—Same x 350.
,, 18.—Same, conidia x 500.
» 19.—Sporidesmium atrum, spore * 500,
Ser. 2,—Vo1, V. 3 D
758 Transactions of the Society.
This species agrees with D. confluens in the large spinulose
spores and fasciculate capillitium, but differs in the sporangia not
being confluent and the white columella.
The spores of Lycogala epidendrum Bux. are not smooth as |
described in Cooke’s ‘ Myxomycetes of Great Britain, but distinctly
warted ; the same remark is also true of Prototrichia flagellifer
B. and Br.
Sporidesmmum atrum Link. (fig. 19). “ Tufts scattered, black,
pulverulent, true stroma absent ; spores oblong, attenuated at both
ends, transversely 3-4 septate, 4-5 celled, slightly constricted at
the septa, epispore smooth, brown, pedicel white, diaphanous.”
While examining some sections of Hutypa scabrosa F'ckl., a few
spores were observed which resembled those of some Phragmidium,
but the habitat—on bark of sycamore—did not favour this idea;
and on further examination, they were found to agree in every
particular with Corda’s figure and description of Sporidesmiwm
atrum Link. as given in his ‘ Icones Fungorum,’ vol. vi. t.1.f 14.
As detached spores only were seen, Corda’s description of the
species is given. New to Britain.
Stilbum flecuosum n. sp. (figs. 1-3). Gregarious; black ; head
clavate, then globose, smooth ; stem long, filiform, often flexuous or
geniculate, a little thickened at the base; conidia colourless, sub-
globose.
On rotten wood, Scarborough. About a line high, head viscid,
so that when placed in water the conidia disperse very slowly.
Septate threads of stem bright brown by transmitted light. Allied
to S. rigidum P., but differmg in the flexuous stem and black head.
Helnvinthosporium pumilum n. sp. (figs. 4 and 5). Fasciculate
or scattered; stem simple, subulate, straight, with about four septa,
base dark brown, opaque, becoming paler and pellucid towards the
apex; conidia broadly obovate, at first pale, then pitch brown,
opaque, shining, without septa.
Parasitic on all parts of Stilbum flexuosum. Scarborough.
Very minute, head shining like a black glass bead. Ftelated to
H. obovatum Berk., but readily distinguished by its habitat and
eseptate conidia. I have seen what appears to be the same, or a
very closely allied species, parasitic on a new and very remarkable
Hepatic (Mytilopsis albifrons Spruce), collected by Dr. Spruce in
the Peruvian Andes.
Helnusporium stemphylioides Corda. ‘This species was found
some years ago near Scarborough and determined by Mr. Phillips,
but owing to some oversight, has not up to the present been
recorded as British.
Arthrobotrys rosea nu. sp. (figs. 6 and 7). Tufted; pale rose
colour ; fertile flocci erect, sparingly septate, with from three to
five swollen nodes at equal distances, each node bearing a globose
New British Micro-Fungi. By G. Massee. 759
head of conidia; conidia broadly obovate, uniseptate, slightly con-
stricted at the septum, apical segment largest, base apiculate.
On damp decaying branches, Scarborough. The nodes are
covered with minute spicules arranged in a spiral, to which
the conidia are attached. The conidia readily germinate within
a few hours when placed in water; usually one filament springs
from the apical segment close to the septum, this elongates
for some distance, when the contents of the conidium pass into it
and it developes into a much branched, septate, procumbent, floccose
tuft. At this stage growth was arrested owing to desiccation, but
from an examination of the fully developed plant, the fertile flocci
appear to originate as erect lateral branches from the procumbent
vegetative mycelium.
Very distinct from A. superba Corda, which is pure white with
oblong conidia divided into two equal parts by the septum.
Corda’s two genera Arthrobotrys and Gonatobotrys would
appear to be too closely related; the most important point of dis-
tinction consists in the latter having unilocular conidia, and in
Gonatobotrys simplex Corda, which is not uncommon in this dis-
trict, I have occasionally met with uniseptate conidia along with
the normal eseptate ones.
Corepthoris paradoaa Corda (figs. 13-15). Gregarious ; stem
erect, yellowish -olive, clavate, composed of numerous slender
flocci ; apical portion barren, the remainder with numerous septate
compound branches, some of which bear heads of simple elliptical
conidia ; branches and conidia brownish olive.
On an old shoe in a damp ditch, growing along with Ascobolus
saccharinus B, and C. Agreeing with Corda’s figure of this
species given in ‘ Prachtflora,’ except that the stem has a brighter
yellow tinge.
Corepthoris epimyces n. sp. (figs. 16-18). Gregarious; pure
white; stem conical, composed of a bundle of flocci; branches
simple or compound, springing from every part, except the expanded
base, septate, patent, some supporting subglobose heads of conidia ;
conidia colourless, hyaline, linear-oblong, obliquely apiculate.
On decaying Agaricus (Mycena) purus P. along with Mucor
Susiger Link. Scarborough.
This plant, on account of its conical stem and colourless conidia,
does not quite agree with Corda’s generic character, as given in
‘ Prachtflora,’ yet as the two plants in all important pints are so
closely allied, an emendation of the genus seems ieterabile to the
establishment of a new one. The following is Corda’s definition of
the genus, and if the bracketed portions are omitted, it would
include both species :—*“ Corepthoris. Stroma erectum, primum
simplex, [subclavatum|, dein supra multifidum, e fibris longissimis,
simplicibus, intricatis constipatum, infra ramulis fertilibus hetero-
3D 2
760 Transactions of the Society.
geneis obsitum. Ramulis fertiles septati, cornei ramosi, bi- vel trifidi,
apice ramuli subverticillatis, et sporis simplicibus heterogeneis in
capitula conglobatis ornati. Spore acrogenz, heterogene, simplices,
(uniloculares) ; | episporio simplici diaphano, intus nucleo et guttulis
oleos's repleto |.”
When young the stem is quite smooth ; soon the fibres of which -
it is composed separate more or less and become patent; some
remain short and simple, resembling hairs; others increase in
length, become branched, and bear at their apices the heads of
conidia.
CF WGESS)
XV.—On Erosion of the Surface of Glass, when exposed to the
Joint Action of Carbonate of Lime and Colloids.
By Wit M. Onp, M.D., F.R.MS, FLS.
(Read 11th March, 1885.)
More than a year ago there appeared in ‘ Nature’ a letter from
Surgeon-Major Bidie, now Sanitary Commissioner, Madras,
describing a sort of etching of some glass vessels at points on which
white-ant mud had been deposited.
There was much in this letter to arouse my interest. The
story made it probable that the deposit of ant-mud had somehow
eaten away the polish of the glass. The first explanation of the
erosion was found, plausibly, in the hypothesis of the presence in
the ant-mud of an acid capable of dissolving glass after the fashion
of hydrofluoric acid. But no organic acids are known to possess
such a property, and the presumable presence of some colloidal
organic matter in the ant-mud led me to seek an explanation of a
very different kind.
The observations and reasonings of my distinguished teacher,
the late Mr. George Rainey, had been always fresh in my mind. I
knew that in some of his experiments he had, incidentally, noted
an erosion of glass surfaces wherein no free acid or alkali was
concerned. At the risk of wearying the members of this Society
by the repetition of a story already well known to them, I will
briefly recapitulate the observations to which I refer. Mr. Rainey
was engaged in investigating the causes leading to the assumption
by carbonate of lime of a spherical form in various solutions. In
some of his experiments he allowed two solutions of gum, one
containing carbonate of potash, the other containing carbonate of
calcium, to mix slowly; the one being superimposed upon the
other. Next he introduced glass slides of the kind ordinarily used
for microscopic purposes, into the apposed solutions, with the:
expectation, confirmed by the result, that a deposit of carbonate
of lime would be presently formed on their surfaces. After pro-
longed immersion under conditions which precluded the occurrence
of evaporation, the glass slides were found to have become
covered with adherent spherules of carbonate of lime. The adhesion
was of considerable firmness. The spheres remained attached after
washing with water ; and where their complete removal was sought,
the use of diluted hydrochloric acid was necessary. It was then
observed that the surface of the glass was no longer smooth and
transparent. Mr. Rainey took casts of the surface with collodion,
and was able to show from examination of the casts that the loss of
transparency was brought about by the formation of shallow
7162 Transactions of the Society.
depressions of a rounded form, corresponding severally to the points
of contact of the spherules. Mr. Rainey had already shown the
great probability—I might perhaps indeed say the certainty—
that the exquisite spherules which he had produced by his ex-
perimental method were built up first by the agglomeration of
small granules into small spherules, next by the agglomeration
of small spherules into larger spherules.
More minutely considered, the actual process appeared to be not
a simple one of agglomeration of granules into spherules, and of
smaller spherules into larger spherules; but, throughout, of re-
adjustment of the molecules constituting the several contingent
spherules. In the process of deposit, the first-formed spherules
were surrounded by others till groups were formed, comprehending
several spherules in contact with each other. Presently, their con-
stituent molecules, hitherto held in each independent sphere around
its centre by virtue of their mutual attraction, were disturbed by
the attraction of surrounding spheres, and were impelled to arrange
themselves round a new centre of mutual attraction placed some-
where in the midst of the group of spheres. In the end the small
spheres and granules vanished, having been incorporated into one
large sphere.
Touching the erosion of the glass surface, Mr. Rainey argued
that when such a spherule was formed on a glass surface with the
surrounding colloid gum sticking to the glass surface, and actually
entering also into the composition of the sphere, the same attractive
power which had determined the incorporation into one sphere of a
number of spherules in contact with one another would determine
also the incorporation of adjoining molecules of the glass into the
incumbent sphere. The result would be the excavation of a pit
in the glass opposite each sphere in contact therewith.
With these things already in my mind, on reading Surgeon-
Major Bidie’s letter I wrote to him to suggest that the etching of
glass which he had observed, might be explained on the hypothesis
that “ white-ant mud” consisted of a mixture of some colloid with
earthy matter. Dr. Bidie wrote to me afterwards a very courteous
letter telling me that, to his great regret, he could not provide me
with white-ant mud, but that he had sent some of the earth in
which the white ants worked. This I duly received. I made
only two experiments with the earth, which were inconclusive, and
I regret to be obliged to confess that the misplaced zeal of a house-
maid put an end to my opportunities of making further experi-
ments.
It was, however, open to me to institute experiments bearing
upon the erosion of glass by carbonate and phosphate of lime
in the presence of colloids. So far, I have only used the carbonate.
The following experiments were set in action. In the first, strong
On Erosion of the Surface of Glass, &e. By Dr. W. M. Ord. 763
solutions of gum containing respectively carbonate of potash and
chloride of calcium were superimposed one upon the other after
Mr. Rainey’s plan. Glass slides were coated with solid paraffin ;
the letters of the word ANT were inscribed on them, with a piece
of matchwood which easily removed the paraffin without injuring
the surface of the glass. The slides were then placed in the gum
solution as in Rainey’s method. In a second experiment, albumen
was used in a similar way. In a third, glycerin was used in a
similar way. In a fourth, a slide coated with paraffin and subse-
quently marked with the letters A N T was laid horizontally. Over
the exposed surface a mixture of egg-albumen and glycerin was
smeared to the depth of 1/10 of an inch; then a few drops of a
strong solution of chloride of calcium were placed in contact with
one end of the islet of glycerin and albumen, and a few drops of a
solution of carbonate of potash in contact with the other end, so
that the two solutions would diffuse through the mixture of
glycerin and albumen, would meet therein, and produce, by
mutual decomposition, carbonate of lime. Glycerin was added to
diminish evaporation and to aid the contact of the colloid with the
exposed surface of the glass. Hvaporation was further opposed by
placing the preparation in a moist chamber. Lastly, a controlling
experiment was made by placing a glass slide, similarly coated and
inscribed, in a mixture of pure glycerin and carbonate of potash.
In parallel experiments, slides of mother-of-pearl, and of ivory,
coated with paraffin and marked like the others, took the place of
the glass slides. In all the experiments large stoppered bottles
were used, so that no evaporation was possible. It was not till the
end of a twelyemonth that the bottles were opened and the slides
examined, Inspection showed that the paraffin had not been an
effective insulating substance in the case of the glass slides. It had
peeled off from them in flakes, and had floated away, so that their
whole surface was encrusted, in all the experiments except the last,
with a deposit of carbonate of lime. The carbonate of lime was
found to have assumed the form of small spherules closely aggre-
gated in dense masses and much deformed by mutual reaction.
Mr. Rainey in his experiments had used exceedingly dilute solutions
in order to obtain his beautiful spherules. To imitate the ant-mud
I had used much stronger solutions. But the result was that I
obtained a very much more complete etching of the glass, and had,
as I suppose, fairly imitated what Surgeon-Major Bidie had seen.
The slides which I show to-night are, I think you will say, deeply
etched. ‘They pe oman the etching effected by carbonate of lime
in the presence of gum, of albumen, and of albumen and glycerin
together. I may note in passing, that pure glycerin in combina-
tion with carbonate of potash produced no etching.
Under the Microscope the etched surface of the glass shows
764 Transactions of the Society.
erosions of various kinds. In the first place there are a number of
scattered erosions of circular form varying in size from fine points
as seen under a 1/4 in. objective up to cavities three or four times
the diameter of a blood-corpuscle. Secondly, the surface of the
glass is marked by a number of Imes taking various directions,
which must correspond either to original scratches on the surface
of the glass, or to lines of detachment of the paraffin. Erosion has
occurred along these lines in a beaded fashion, the size of the beads
corresponding with the size of the spherules of carbonate of lime
deposited. Thirdly, over considerable areze the entire surface of the
glass has gone. ‘The floor of these depressed areze is marked with
closely approximated circular and dumbbell-shaped depressions, in
many of which an inner circle or concentric circles may be seen.
At first sight these inner circles appeared to indicate projections in
the centre of depressions ; but so far as I can make out by careful
focusing they are, in fact, deeper excavations marking a deeper
extension of the process of molecular disintegration of the glass.
It is hardly necessary to point out that the last experiment—
with glycerin and carbonate of potash—was made in order to
determine the possibility of a solution of glass by carbonate of
potash, the occurrence of which would have introduced a different
element of a chemical kind.
This, having evoked no response, enables us, I think, fairly to
fall back on Mr. Rainey’s explanation of the phenomena occurring
in his own observations. I have mentioned that in addition to
es slides I have used slips of mother-of-pearl and of ivory.
dere the paraffin kept the firm hold which I had hoped it would
maintain on the glass surface; and I am able to show slips of this
kind in which, after removal of the paraffin, the word ANT is
clearly seen etched on the surface. ‘The etching here occurred in
all the experiments, even in that where glycerin was used with the
carbonate of potash, a point of some interest when viewed in
certain aspects of these experiments.
I wish to draw the following inferences from the experiments I
have related. First, that without the use of the acids or the
alkalies which are known to be capable of dissolving glass, a glass
surface may be eroded almost to opacity when placed in contact
with carbonate of lime and a colloid. Secondly, that the erosion so
effected may be explained on the basis of Mr. Rainey’s observations
on molecular coalescence. Thirdly, that, in contact with glycerin
and carbonate of potash, ivory and mother-of-pearl may be eroded,
although as far as can be seen, no spherules of carbonate of lime
are deposited. The first part of these conclusions is applicable to
Dr. Bidie’s observations ; the third part has a different, and, as I
think, a wider application.
Mr. Rainey’s chapter on what he called “ Molecular Disintegra-
On Erosion of the Surface of Glass, dc. By Dr. W.M. Ord. 765
tion” has always seemed to me to have an importance as great as
that of his chapters on “ Molecular Coalescence.” The two together
presented a beautiful correlation, enabling one to follow the build-
ing up of skeletal formations in the first place, and their adapta-
tion to altered conditions of growth and repair in the second.
In bone, for example, we could see, in principle, how the struc-
ture of the first Haversian systems was determined by the law of
molecular coalescence ; how the earthy matters deposited in colloid
ground-substance ceased to show crystalline form and were moulded
into laminz wherein the organic and inorganic matters were
intimately mingled and distributed. We could see in it by the
light of the principle of molecular disintegration the formation of
Haversian spaces, as a part of remoulding and repair. May I for
a moment step aside to remind you of what Mr. Rainey meant by
this expression, “molecular disintegration”? He meant this—
that when spheres of carbonate of lime, or spheres of mixed
carbonate and phosphate, had been formed in a matrix of gum, and
were afterwards transferred to a fresh solution of gum of the same
kind as that first used, they lost their sharp outline, became visibly
fibrous in their structure, and gradually faded away. The advent
of a new colloid, differing ever so little from the first, determined a
complete disorganization of the attractions which held the molecules
together. They—the molecules—were reft asunder for a time, and
were afterwards gathered into new spherical combinations. In
applying the principle deducible from these observations to the
explanation of the formation of the tubular erosion-spaces in bone
which have been called Haversian spaces, a seeming difficulty
arises. We have indeed no reason to assume that the quality of
the circulating and acceding colloids varies in such a way as to bring
about such a difference between the sphere and the surrounding
matter as was present in the experiment. The seeming difficulty
rests upon the assumption that the colloid matter entering into the
herical combination remains unchanged. If we can be convinced
that the colloid is changed by reason of its prolonged contact with
the crystalloid matter, we can understand how the afflux of fresh
a of the original colloid may determine the breaking-up of
spherical combinations wherein the original colloid has undergone
chemical and physical change. It can be shown most clearly that
the colloid matrix of spheres, whether of collagenous or of albu-
minous nature, is altered after no very long time. It takes on
chemical reactions approaching those belonging to ripe epithelial
structures and chitine. Such a change, if occurring in bone, may
be conceived to be a part of senescence. The transformation of
an active into an inactive colloid must presently call for complete
reorganization. The altered balance of colloids will constitute an
enabling condition. Wach part of a bone as it grows old is swept
766 Transactions of the Society.
away by the dynamic influence of fresh nutritive matter, knowing,
so to speak, nothing of the past. The post is vacated by the
superannuated colloid, which first yields up its crystalloid associate
and then disappears, leaving the ground free for fresh organization.
It may be observed that the parts which are thus swept away
are in the outcome, though possibly not in the beginning, the
circumferential portions of Haversian systems; and that they are
removed in such a way as to include portions of two or three
adjacent systems. ‘These are, of course, the oldest or first-formed
parts, of the several systems. The form assumed by the nutritive
matter which is presumably active in determining the breaking-
down of the old tissue is most interesting. At the points where
the bone is being broken down we find lodged in cup-shaped
recesses of eroded bone little masses of protoplasmic matter with ill-
defined surface but well-marked nuclei, which, to all appearance,
are the agents of the change. These are the so-called osteoclasts.
Their surface ig ill-defined because, on the one hand, it merges into
the colloid of the vanishing bone, showing at the point of junction
a curious striate marking, suggestive of the existence of currents
running between the protoplasm and the old bone; and on the
other, it is connected by processes with the protoplasmic material
filling the gradually increasing cavity, of which protoplasm it is in
fact an extension. It appears to me that we have here, before our
eyes, the direct application of a new and active colloid to an old
product of molecular coalescence, with the sequence of molecular
disintegration.
I cannot resist the temptation of referring to one or two other
processes in which both molecular coalescence and molecular dis-
integration play a part.
Mr. Rainey has shown that the first—molecular coalescence—
is an essential part of the building-up of the shells of the Mollusca.
The second—molecular disintegration—appears to me to come into
action in the later stages of the growth of molluscous shells. For
instance, in the whorled shells of the Gasteropods, apical parts of the
interior which have been occupied by the young mollusc are
removed as the growth of the animal and its shell proceeds, so as to
economize the space available in the whole shell. I have no know-
ledge of the existence of anything like osteoclasts in this case ; but
the contact of the tissues of a rapidly-growing mollusc with the old
coalescence formation will, I think, be sufficient to account for the
solution of hard structures now superannuated.
Mr. George Busk, F.R.S., after seeing my letter in ‘ Nature’
on this subject, was good enough to tell me that he saw in the prin-
ciples which I sought to establish an explanation of a phenomenon
which had puzzled him, namely the excavation of shell surfaces
to which Polyzoa had been attached. He has lent me for ex-
On Erosion of the Surface of Glass,&c. By Dr. W. M. Ord. 767
amination a piece of smooth shell—the internal surface of a
pinna—ovyer which a colony of Lepralia punctata has been spread.
In this genus, as Mr. Busk has demonstrated to me, the ectocyst of
the under or attached surface of the ccencecium is not continuous,
but leaves oval spaces corresponding to the middle portions of
polypides, through which the soft tissues of the polypide come into
direct contact with the surface of the shell. When the ccencecium is
detached from the shell, its under surface is therefore seen to be
regularly fenestrated. And in the specimen of which I am speak-
ing, the surface of the shell from which the ccencecium has been
removed presents regular markings exactly corresponding to the
fenestre. These markings turn out, on microscopical examination,
to be depressions in the surface of the shell, produced by erosion.
It can be plainly seen that their floor is totally different from the
surface proper, both in colour and texture. The surface of the
shell is smooth, and reddish in colour; the excavations present a
granular white floor. In another specimen, stained while the
animal matter was yet in its place, the points which would after
removal of the ccencecium have been occupied by the shallow pits,
have attached to every one a strongly adherent piece of dried stained
animal matter. Mr. Busk’s observation is in fact an illustration of
my experiments, which shows what was sought better than did the
experiments themselves. Through the windows in the framework
of the coencecium the organic matter of the polypides has, so to
speak, stencilled the structure upon the surface of the shell, as I
had tried to engrave letters on the surface of the glass. I cannot
resist the temptation of expressing the gratitude which I feel to so
great an authority as Mr. Busk for his kindness in giving attention
to my letter in ‘ Nature, and in letting me have the opportunity of
seeing his specimens under his own demonstration.
Another illustration of this kind of action was, as I think,
adduced by Professor Charles Stewart in the admirable course of
lectures on the Hydrozoa delivered by him recently at the Royal
College of Surgeons. Professor Stewart showed dried specimens of
a species of Hydractinia investing shells of Gasteropods. The
shell had been completely covered by the fleshy expansion of the
Hydractinia, and had been deprived thereby of all its earthy
material.
I have long believed that the action of the little sponges which
bore into molluscous shells, particularly those of Lamellibranchs,
was molecular. It is of course conceivable that the action might be
chemical; that an acid might be excreted having the power of
dissolving carbonate oflime. It is also conceivable that the action
might be mechanical. The boring sponges contain siliceous spicules,
which, moved by the contractions of the protoplasmic material,
might grind away the softer shell matter. I have tested fresh sec-
768 Transactions of the Soccety.
tions without detecting the presence of an acid, and Professor Stewart
has given me the opportunity of examining, under the Microscope,
sections of the cavities produced by the boring sponge. The posi-
tion occupied in these sections by the siliceous spicules makes it
certain that they cannot be the agents of erosion, at least in a
mechanical way. In the sections we can see everywhere small
hemispherical excavations of the shell oceupied by extensions of the
protoplasm of the sponge. Yet, at many points, long attenuated
conical cavities are seen invading the substance of the shell ; always
filled with the protoplasm, often containing one or two siliceous
spicules, which from their length and position must have been
totally incapable of exerting any mechanical action. As it seems
to me, we have here a transposition of the conditions which in the
experiments related at the beginning of the paper brought about
the breaking-up of the glass surface. There we had a colloid con-
taining carbonate of lime applied to a glass surface ; here we havea
colloid containing silica applied to a surface of carbonate of lime
mixed with another colloid. I venture to believe that in the case of
the boring sponges, the action upon the shell is of compound nature ;
consisting partly in the contact of a new colloid, partly in the
addition of the presence of a different crystalloid. Examining
carefully the sections which Professor Stewart has lent me, I am able
to recognize in the substance of the protoplasm adjoining the excava-
tions, delicate spherules having all the appearance of carbonate of
lime re-arranged in a new matrix.
I have cited here but a few illustrations of the possible application
of Mr. Rainey’s observations to explain the formation, and still
more, the removal or absorption of shells and shell-like substances.
I venture to hope that the attention of this Society will be more
and more drawn to the contemplation of these subtle non-chemical
agencies as factors in the process of building and repair in the hard,
and, very probably, in the soft-structures of animal bodies. :
( 769 )
XVI.—On a Septie Microbe from a high altitude. The Niesen
Bacillus.
By G. F. Dowpsswett, M.A., F.R.MS., F.LS., &e.
(Read 8th April, 1885.)
Art the present time, when the functions of micro-organisms in
all the provinces of nature, more especially in relation to disease,
are exciting such general interest, their occurrence in the atmosphere
has engaged renewed attention.
The systematic study of the particulate constituents of the
atmosphere commenced with Ehrenberg, though in the previous
century Leeuwenhoek had made the first recorded observations
upon Bacteria, and shown their occurrence in rain-water. Ehren-
berg examined dust from various situations in extensive series of
observations, and particularly with reference to the outbreak of
cholera in 1848, though with negative results, but found that
numerous forms of organic life, both vegetable and animal, as he
regarded them, were present in dust of the most varied situations ;
he recognized the occurrence of bacteria, which he termed infusoria,
in rain-water that was allowed to stand, but could not detect any
in the fresh drops, in dew, or in the atmosphere.
After that time the subject was pursued by numerous observers,
till towards the year 1859 the promulgation of the vital, or “ germ,”
theory of fermentation and putrefaction by Pasteur, aroused the
controversy respecting spontaneous generation, so fertile in results,
in the French Academy, and this induced the first systematic
observations of Pouchet, the foremost of the Abiogenetists, and
those of Pasteur himself, upon atmospheric germs, followed by a
constant succession of observers, amongst whom, however, the most
diverse views as to the occurrence of organic germs in the air have
prevailed till quite recently, when the question has been finally set
at rest, firstly by the systematic observations of Dr. Miflet, of Kiew,
made in the Botanical Institute of Breslau in conjunction with
Professor F. Cohn,* with the object of determining whether the
microbes that produce fermentation and putrefaction are veritably
contained in the atmosphere, or whether they are not derived
exclusively from water or contact with contaminated surfaces, as
previous experiments, by Prof. Cohn himself and others, seemed to
indicate,
The result of these observations was to show clearly that by
aspirating the air of different localities through cultivating fluids of
suitable constitution, various species of bacteria or their germs were
introduced, and developed he placed in the incubator at the
* Beitr. Biol. Pflanz., i. (1879) p. 1438.
770 Transactions of the Society.
requisite temperature. Thus were explamed the previous failures
to recognize the presence of organisms in the atmosphere, by the
circumstance that the cultivating fluids then employed had generally
been solutions of mineral salts—the so-termed Pasteur’s or Cohn’s
fluids—and which are here shown to be unsuitable for the develop-
ment of most species of these organisms.
More recently has appeared “the remarkable work* carried out
during some years past by Dr. Miquel at the Observatory of
Montsouris, near Paris, some of the results of which have recently
been brought to the notice of this Society by one of our Fellows,
himself amongst the earliest investigators im this direction.
As a branch of this subject, the examination of the air at
different altitudes has not been neglected: the purity of the atmo-
sphere in these situations has ever been a matter of common
observation ; and the different experiments that have been made at
various heights, have all, with one exception, tended to show the
extreme rarity of organic germs in it.
Recently, M. Freudenreich, of Bern, a former pupil of Dr.
Miquel, under his auspices and following his exact methods, has
made several series of systematic observations upon this point, far
exceeding in scope anything previously attempted; this he has
done by aspirating large measured quantities of air on different
mountains at various elevations, with the general result that the
rarity of micro-organisms it contains is proportionate to the altitude,
for whilst at Bern, at an elevation of 1900 feet 300 to 400 of
these bodies occurred in a cubic metre of air, which is less than a
tenth part of their numbers in Paris, at higher elevations they
became proportionately rarer,{ and above 7000 feet were generally
altogether absent; but in one series of these observations on the
summit of Mount Niesen in the Bernese Alps, at an elevation of
7900 feet, close on the line of perpetual snow, together with three
bacteria and one of the moulds, a form of bacillus hitherto unde-
scribed occurred in 500 litres of air aspirated; preparations from
the cultivation of this organism which I lately received from
M. Freudenrich through Dr. Maddox, are here shown to-night.
This microbe, in Cohn’s drag Foihon a bacillus, in form is very
similar to the common hay bacillus, B. subtilis, but is readily dis-
tinguished from it by not forming a pellicle on the surface of the
* ¢Les Organismes vivants de l’Atmosphere,’ Paris, 1883.
+ As shown in the following table (‘ Annuaire de Observatoire de Mont-
souris, 1883, p. 538).
Number on bacteria contained in 10 cubic metres of air in different situa-
tions :—
1. At altitudes from 6000 to 12,000 ft. .. .. .. 0:0
2. On Lake Thun, 18,000 ft. eee tats 8:0
3. On land, in the vicinity ofthe samelake .. .. 25°0
4. In the park at Montsouris .. OOOO
5, In the streetsiotyearish: ue a eesiene a ee OOL000"0
On a Septic Microbe, de. By G. F. Dowdeswell. 771
cultivating fluid; it is, too, generally less active, whilst it differs
from the B. anthracis by the segments, of which the longer rods
and filaments are composed, being more rounded at the ends—less
rectangular—than the almost cubical cells which compose the latter ;
it is, too, a little larger in width than either of the two other
microbes; though somewhat variable in the same medium, it
_ averages fully 1 micromillimetre (0°001 mm.) in breadth. It fre-
quently forms spores at one or both ends of the short rods in an
early stage of development ; the cells themselves develop to long
sinuous leptothrix filaments, the segmentation of which is obscure,
unless demonstrated by special reagents. It forms, as already men-
tioned, no zoogloea nor pellicle on the surface of the nutrient fluid,
and this character again distinguishes it at once from the hay bacillus;
it grows diffusely through the liquid, rendering it uniformly turbid,
not forming the clouds or flecks which characterize the anthrax
bacillus. It forms numerous spores, as may be observed in the
preparation under the Microscope. These at maturity are set free,
the plasma of the segments which contain them degenerating and
disappearing, having been used up in the reproductive process—
sporulation—the other segments remaining unchanged for a time,
till ultimately their life cycle ends in the same manner. ‘This is
the significance of the numerous shadowy forms apparent in
preparations of this organism ; the wall of the cell alone remains,
the living plasma, or “protoplasm,” has died and disappeared.
This form of degeneration in the cell was first, 1 believe, figured
and described by Dr. Klein,* in the case of B. anthracis, the
appearances it offers, which are conspicuous in the preparation
here shown, having sometimes been misunderstood by previous
observers.
The spores when set free appear to germinate in the same
nutrient medium in which they were developed, as is not the case
with some other species; they develop regularly in the direction of
their longer axis, never, as far as I have observed in innumerable
instances, in the excentric manner described by Brefeld t in the
case of B. subtilis, and copied by so many subsequent observers
from him, in that case also, | may mention, quite contrary to my
own observations.t
There is a peculiarity in the spores of this organism at once
apparent in the preparation under the Microscope ; it is, that they
* Rep. Med. Off. Loc. Goyt. Bd., 1883, and Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., 1883.
+ Bot. Untersuch. iiber Schimmelpilze (Leipzig, 1872) p. 46, &e.
t As, however, there are at least three or four distinct species of hay bacilli,
all of which are more or Jess resistent to heat, and it is difficult accurately to
diagnose Colin’s species of 2. subtilis, it is possible that the spores of some one of
these species may germinate in the excentric manner described, though this has not
been the case with any of those that I have hitherto obtained, in very numerous
experiments, by the usual methods of boiling, &e.
772 Transactions of the Society.
are more circular—less elongated—than those of either of the other
organisms ; they stain, too, readily with the usual dyes, which the
others do not; and thus the microbe may generally be distinguished
at a glance from either of its prototypes.
Cultivated in nutrient gelatin it liquefies the medium regularly
from the point or line of inoculation, forming clouds or flecks in it,
but no pellicle; in aga-aga bouillon or pepton it forms a creamy-
white scum on the surface, but does not liquefy the jelly.
It might have been supposed that an organism, the habitat of
which is on the confines of perpetual snow, would have been more
at home at a low temperature; it, however, developes more readily
at about 100° F. than at 50° or 60°, though the difference pro-
duces no appreciable variation in its form or habit.
It does not develop in hay infusion, neutral or alkaline, this
character again at once distinguishing it from both the microbes
which it resembles in form; neither does it germinate in solutions
of mineral salts, It will not develop in cultivating fluids that are
slightly acid; 0°1 per cent. of free hydrochloric acid in solutions of
pepton, or bouillon and pepton, entirely prevents its germination.
It is not pathogenic when inoculated or injected in considerable
quantities into the tissues of rodents, and must be considered a
septic organism; it occasions, however, no very marked fetor in
the fluids in which it developes.
It bears a general resemblance to the widely diffused bacilli
that occur so generally in putrid matter. The characters of these,
which’ are probably of many different species and varieties, have
never been particularly described. They are sometimes termed
blood bacilli, from their occurrence in putrid blood, but have been
more appropriately named collectively by Klein * Bacillus septecus.
They, however, usually, or as far as 1 have yet observed, invariably,
form a pellicle in cultivating fluids, which the Niesen bacillus does
not.
The labour and difficulty of such observations as those here
referred to, in which the microbe now described was obtained, is
obvious, involving the transport of the requisite apparatus and instru-
ments to such inaccessible places, and the obstacles to be overcome
in making experiments with the requisite precautions in these
situations. This, however, does not apply to the examination of
air at more moderate and accessible elevations, such for instance as
the hills and mountains of our own country, or even on high
buildings, where, as far as I know, no observations whatever have
as yet been recorded, though one of our own countrymen, as is
well known, has examined the air of the Alps.
As an instance of how even comparatively slight elevations
* ¢Micro-organisms and Disease,’ 1884, p. 78.
On a Septic Microbe, de. By G. F. Dowdeswell. 773
affect the purity of the air, it may be mentioned that Dr. Miquel
(Op. cit., p. 240) found micro-organisms twenty times more
numerous in the streets of Paris four feet above the ground than at
the summit of the Pantheon at an elevation of 330 feet.
Important as is the microscopical examination of air, and
immeasurably as the subject has been advanced and illustrated
by the magnificent work of M. Miquel—certainly by far the
most extensive and important as yet made in any branch of
micrology—there is as yet one void in it, and that is the
want of a clear diagnosis of the specitic characters of the various
microbes that occur in different conditions, seasons, and localities.
In a general way no doubt the salubrity of any given portion of air
corresponds with the paucity of micro-organisms which it contains,
but in spite of the innumerable observations and the laborious
statistics that have been given, it has not yet been shown that
there is any direct connection between their number and the
prevalence of infectious or epidemic diseases. The reason of this
appears obviously to be that we are not as yet generally able, from
the mere inspection of the outward characters of any micro-
organisms, to say that such an one is fatally infective—the bacillus
of tubercle—the microcoecus of pneumonia or diphtheria—that
another is merely saprophytic or zymotic, harmless to the animal
organism.*
When we are able to do this, then will it be possible from the
mere microscopical examination of a sufficiently large sample of the
air of any locality to connect it certainly with the prevalence of
infectious diseases. The same considerations apply equally strongly
to the examination of drinking water, and now that the chemical
analysis of this has lately been shown to be practically useless,{ if
not even misleading, it appears that microscopical examination
must be relied on in future.
With this object the study of and familiarity with the specific
characters of these organisms is one of the most important subjects
that can occupy the microscopist. In this view I have brought to
notice to-night the diagnostic characters of the microbe now shown,
remarkable from the situation where it occurred. A comparison of
the preparations under the Microscopes will show that it is not
impossible to discriminate by their form alone two microbes
somewhat similar, and which to a cursory view might appear
identical.
* The habit of growth of the lower fungi in solid cultivations, which has been
so much dwelt upon of late, is very unreliable and much over-rated as a means
of specific diagnosis, being only ut most of very secondary utility, as I shall
endeavour to demonstrate shortly.
+ Rep. Med, Off. Loc. Govt. Bd., 1882-3.
Ser, 2.—Vox. Y. bE
774 Transactions of the Society.
XVII.—On the use of the Avicularian Mandible in the
determination of the Chilostomatous Bryozoa.
By Artour Wm. Waters, F.R.MS., F.LS.
(Read 10th June, 1885.)
Piate XIV.
In a paper “ On the Use of the Opercula in the Determination of
the Chilostomatous Bryozoa”* I pointed out the value of these
chitinous organs, and figured those of thirty-six species, of which
thirty-five were from the Mediterranean. This was really to be
looked upon as a supplement to my papers on the Bryozoa from
the Bay of Naples,} and in these latter I referred individually to
the figures of the opercula. It was almost self-evident that the
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV.
Fig. 1.—Avicularian mandible of Flustra truncata L., Naples.
ea: es 5 F, armata Busk, Cape of Good Hope.
Sy penee x 4 F. foliacea L., Brighton.
tee. e : Diachoris magellanica Busk, Naples.
5. D. hirtissima Hell., Naples.
” 29
6.—Operculum of Flustra truncata L., Naples.
Gf. 5s F. armata B., Cape.
8.—Avicularian mandible of Schizoporella linearis Hass., Naples.
9.—Lateral avicularian mandible of Caberea Boryi Aud., Rapallo, Italy.
x 250 & 85.
10.—Anterior 5 “0 3 5
11.—Avicularian mandible of Cellaria sinuosa Hass., Roscoft.
12.—Operculum of C. sinuwosa Hass., Roscoff.
5; Ls! 9 C. fistulosa L., Roscoff.
14.—Avicularian mandible of C. fistulosa L., Roscoff.
15.—Operculum of Caberea Boryi Aud., Rapallo.
16.—Avicularian mandible of Smittia Landsborovii Johnst. x 250 & 85.
99
Naples.
» 17.—Avicularian mandible of Retepora Couchii Hincks. x 250&85. Naples.
oneal lish * oe Porella cervicornis K. and Sol., Naples.
cos Umbonula verrucosa Wsp., Capri.
20.—Opereulum of Cellaria Joknsoni Busk, Naples.
21.—Avicularian mandible of Cellaria Johnsoni Busk., Naples.
wees ay 3s Schizoporella unicornis Johnst., Naples.
20s a5 A Smittia, Rapallo.
sy 24: is a Smittia nitida var. ophidiana W., Naples.
enzo: rf i Mucronelta coccinea Abild., Naples.
» 26. x 7 Schizoporella arrogata Waters, Naples.
5 as i * Diporula verrucosa Peach, Naples.
op eh 55 5 Cellepora pumicosa Busk. (non. L.). x 250 & 85.
Naples.
5 29.—Mandible of (small) avicularium of C. c:ronopus Wood, Naples.
OU: 5 large (onychocellaria) avicularium of C. coronopus Wood,
Naples.
* Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., xviii. (1878) p. 8.
“Bryozoa of the Bay of Naples,” Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, iii.
(1879) pp. 28, 114, 192, and 267.
JOURN.R.MICR.SOC.SER ILVOLYV. PL. XIV.
EX ¢-
Fig 41
ft \
r/\] Fig.42. *
a Whecers hth
Avicularian. Mandibles &, of Bryozoa.
er ut
inet '
On the Determination of Bryozoa. By A. W. Waters. 775
mandibles of the avicularia should also be taken into consideration,
but as I had only examined and made preparations of a limited
number I did not feel justified in publishing anything about them,
but called the attention of many of my friends who were working
at the Bryozoa to the use they were likely to be, and showed them
drawings.
Since then I have been engaged in the examination of fossil
Bryozoa, in which of course the chitinous organs are not preserved,
but the careful examination of the oral aperture, from which con-
clusions as to the shape of the operculum can be drawn, has been
the basis of my work with the Australian fossils, and I have pre-
pared the opercula of a large number of Catenicelle and other
genera represented by fossil allies, so that although we may never
find the chitinous organs fossil, yet the study of them may be of
the greatest value paleontologically.
Mr. Busk, when working at the ‘Challenger’ material, in
consequence of my short paper, took up the examination of the
chitinous organs, and to him we must give the credit of first
applying the form of the mandible in specific determination, the
results being especially valuable in the genus Cellepora; and
Professor MacGillivray has also shown their value in the genera
Cellaria and Retepora.*
The most important feature of Mr. Busk’s report on the
‘Challenger’ Bryozoa is undoubtedly the use he makes of the
chitinous organs, but as some of his generalizations are evidently
based upon incomplete series, I take the opportunity of adding to
Fig. 31.—Avicularian mandible of Cellepora costata MacG. = retusa var. caminata
Waters, Naples.
meee a re C. avicularis Hincks, Naples.
eros o “ C. sardonica Waters. x 250 & 85. Naples.
34. Cribrilina radiata var., Naples.
9 ”
35.—Spatulate avicularian mandible of Schizoporella auriculata Hass., Naples.
36.+—Oral ” ” ” »
87.—Avicularian mandible of Cellepora verruculata Sm., Naples.
Z 38. oe - C. digitata Waters, Capri.
Bs dae * fe C. sardonica Waters, Naples
» 40. a os Membranipora curvirostris Hincks, Naples.
g 41. es s, M. tenuirostris Hincks, Naples.
ec ae Be a M. angulosa Rss., Naples.
» 43. z 5 M. Flemingii Busk. x 250 & 85. Durham.
» 44. a ‘g Adeonella polystomella Rss. x 250 & 85. Naples.
b, operculum of ditto,
All are shown magnified 85 times, being the same as that adopted in my
paper “On the Use of the Opercula,” &¢., but as some avicularia are too small
to show detail this size, they are given as fig. a magnified 85 times, and also
figured increased to 250 times. All were examined with a power magnifying
500 times.
* “Description of New or Little Known Polyzoa,” Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria,
xx. (1883) pp. 103, pls. 1 and 2; also in vol. xxii. (from advance copies).
3 EE 2
716 Transactions of the Society.
the number of described mandibles by giving the figures of some
in my collection, and as these are mostly from Mediterranean
species, this must be considered as another supplement to the
description of species from the Bay of Naples.
In the communication referred to, I said, when speaking of the
Celleporidee, that “I believe the opercula may assist very much to
bring this family out of its present confusion,” and Mr. Busk has
now made a good start towards making this a fact. ‘There is,
however, one point connected with the Cellepora mandibles which
requires further notice, as Mr. Busk describes a slender process
rising from the middle of the base of the avicularian mandible in
the holostomatous division of the genus Cellepora, but finds it only
in this division, and further only in those from the southern hemi-
sphere. In a paper read before the Geological Society I have
shortly pointed out that this is by no means the case, but that it
can be found in species from the northern hemisphere, not only in
both divisions of this genus, but apparently in other genera. Mr.
Busk seems to have looked for it in vain in Cellepora sardonica
Waters, from the Mediterranean, but this species has two forms of
avicularia, one triangular and acute (fig. 39), in which I do not
find any process, whereas in the small round avicularium (fig. 33)
this process is very distinct, so that perhaps Mr. Busk only ex-
amined the one form. Besides occurring in this species of Cellepora
it is found in Cellepora coronopus Woods (fig. 29) and C. costata
MacG. (fig. 31).* Ina similar position there is in many species a
process arising from the calcareous bar which divides the aperture
of the avicularium. This I figured six years ago in C. sardonica
(loc. cit. plate XIV. fig. 5), also in Schizoporella biaperta (id.
plete XI. fig. 1). Smitt also figured it in the avicularia of Lepralia
edax (Floridan Bry., plate XI. fig. 222), and it is a character
which can frequently be distinguished in well-preserved fossils (see
fig. Retepora marsupiata var., Q. J. Geol.S., vol. xxxix. plate XII.
fig. 21). It occurs in Schizoporella auriculata, Porella cervi-
cornis, Retepora Couchii, a New Zealand Smitiia, &e.
The process in the chitinous mandible Mr. Busk calls a
columella, and says that it is covered with “short hairs,” but these
upon comparison with other mandibles turn out only to be the
remains of the attachment of the muscular threads.
In the ‘ Challenger’ report a genus Adeonella was made, and
includes species having a pore opening into the body of the zocecia
* The mandible of Diachoris magellanica B, (fig. 4) has a double “ columella,”
and since the paper was written the examination of D. bilaminata Hincks, shows
that the mandibles of both are identical in size and detail structure, and the
similarity of other specific minute characters is most close, proving that the two
species are most closely allied, although the mode of growth produces a very
different general appearance.
On the Determination of Bryozoa. By A. W. Waters. TIT
below the oral aperture, and having the proximal edge of the
aperture straight; while other species have a pore which is
peristomial and the aperture has a broad sinus, that is to say, the
two most important characters are different, and I think atten-
tion having been called to this, that it will be seen that they must
be kept distinct.
Mr. Busk, however, points out that “in the entire group”
(speaking of the family Adeonez) “ the avicularian mandibles, both
large and small, always exhibit a projecting point or articular
process at each end of the base.” This is certainly a curious fact,
but in order to see what value must be attached to it we must
examine whether it is only in this group that this process obtains,
and when we have found it in various genera it is only reasonable
to conclude that we must not attach generic importance to this
when other characters are widely divergent. In Cribrilina radiata
(fig. 34) this process is pronounced, and it is also seen in the
mandibles of Flustra armata (fig. 2) and F. foliacea (fig. 3), and
the structure of several Membraniporx where the basal portion is
thicker in the centre than at the corners, is only a modi-
fication of the more distinct process of the Adeonee. This is
shown in M. curvirostris (fig. 40) and M. Flemingii (fig. 48),
and oceurs very distinctly in mandibles of a Membranipora allied
to M. dentata d’Orb.*
These processes in the mandibles of Cellepora and Adeona lead
us to the consideration of the importance of such modifications.
They indicate differences in the muscular attachments, and both
here and in the opercula it is really the muscular system which
has the greatest classificatory value; but this is best studied by
means of the variations in the chitinous parts. This Mr. Busk
does not seem to have fully appreciated ; for the muscular attach-
ments or projections for the purpose are not figured by him, where
preparations in my possession show such characters very clearly.
‘The pattern of the mandibles, if we may thus call it, depends upon
there being either two chitinous layers in places, or upon a thicken-
ing of the chitin. In some cases this may be directly for the at-
tachment of the muscles, but more frequently it seems to be rather
a thickening to give support to the point of muscular attachment.
There are a few cases of very thin mandibles, some of which may
be stained, instead of showing up yellow against the coloured tissue.
As examples, see the mandibles of Mucronella coccinea (fig. 25),
es arrogata (fig. 26), and the large mandible of Letepora
ouchii.
* Under Adconella I should include A. polymorpha B., A. platalea B., A.
intricaria B., A. atlantica B., A. pectinata B. (?), A. polystomella Rss. (2schara
Pallasii Hell); but Microporella distoma B., M. coscinopora Kss., M. lichenoides M.
Ed., and M. fissa Hincks, I should not place in this genus.
178 Transactions of the Society.
Although it is convenient to commence this study with the
separated opercula and mandibles, this should only be considered as
an introduction to a complete investigation of the muscular systems
of both zocecia and avicularia. Our information with regard to
the avicularia is also not complete unless the shape of the openings
covered by the mandibles is given; and this can usually be seen
without preparation, but sometimes it is necessary to incinerate *
a specimen for the purpose. I would lay great stress upon the
examination of this character, as it may be of great value in the
determination of fossils, and is one which, a reference to my papers
on the Australian Bryozoa will show, can frequently be used ;
though fossils being as a rule less well preserved than recent
material, such work should be based upon the examination of recent
specimens.
Turning to the mandibles figured, those of three Membrani-
pore deserve especial attention. One of these is M. Plemingiu
(fig. 43), from Britain, and great variation having been assigned
to this species I was misled into calling a species from Naples
M. Flemingii, and another M. Flemingi var., but the former is
M. curvirostris of Hincks (fig. 40), and the latter M. tenwirostris
Hincks (fig. 41). The mandibles will be found characteristic in
each case, but upon examination the same structures are found
throughout, the only difference being in the shape.
The mandibles of Cellaria sinuosa (fig. 11), fistulosa (fig. 14),
and Johnsoni (fig. 21), though showing considerable characteristic
differences in shape and size, present great similarity in the different
parts; and this is the case with other Cellarie.
In Cellepora sardonica (the sub-oral avicularia) (fig. 39),
C. digitata (fig. 88), and C. verruculata (fig. 37), the avicularia
could scarcely be distinguished except by size.
The similarity of the small oral avicularia of Smittia Lands-
borovie (fig. 16), Porella cervicornis (fig. 18), and Umbonula
verrucosa (fig. 19) must at once strike any one.
On each side of the large mandible of Membranipora angulosa
(fig. 42) there is a separate thick lunate chitimous mass in the
front of the avicularian chamber, and to this the lower corners of
the mandible are attached in the position shown. It will be m-
teresting to know whether similar structures are the rule where
the mandible is very large and powerful.
In the whole of the Membraniporide the opercula are very
similar, having a considerable lateral projection for the muscular
attachments. Mr. Busk’s figures of the opercula of Vineularia
gothica (loc. cit., p. 72, fig. 2) and V. labiata (p. 78, fig. 3) may
* A convenient way of doing this is to plave the specimen upon a piece of
platinum foil and hold it in the flame ofa spirit-lamp until all the organic portion
is removed.
On the Determination of Bryozoa. By A. W. Waters. 779
be taken as typical Membraniporidan opereula. The opercula of
Selenaria are also of this form, and those of Cellaria approach to
this type, having a downward projection (figs. 12, 18, 20). The
opercula of a Lepralia from New Zealand, which I at present
think may be called a variety of L. adpressa, has a lateral
strengthening bar, and the same is the case in a Microporella
allied to M. decorata Rss.
The operculum of Monoporella crassatina Waters, from New
Zealand, has a somewhat similar projection, looking like that of
Flustra armata (fig. 7).
Although the small oral avicularia of Schizoporella auriculata
(fig. 36) is very different in size and shape from the larger spatulate
avicularia (fig. 35), yet the structure of the mandibles is almost
identical.
The chitinous organ (fig. 8) of Schizoporella linearis I call an
avicularian mandible. It closes a cell which Mr. Hincks (Brit.
Mar. Poly., p. 251) calls an ocecial cell, and if Mr. Hincks really
finds them containing ova, then there can be no doubt about their
function. My specimens are all dried ones, and do not enable me
to settle this point; but I have never found such a chamber con-
nected with a true ovicell, although there is usually an inflation
above it which might easily be mistaken for one. This is shown
in my plate IX. fig. Z, “ Bryozoa of Naples.” *
* Some of the species alluded to were not mentioned in my paper on the
Naples Bryozoa, but since that was written I have collected material from a
somewhat wider range, and have also found some fresh species among the
material collected in Naples, and as soon as I have finished work on hand hope
to be able to write a supplementary paper about doubling the number previously
given. The following is, however, a provisional list of some additions to be made
to the Bay of Naples fauna :—
Bicellaria ciliata L.; Notamia (Gemellaria) avicularis Pieper; Cellaria Johnsoni
Busk; Membranipora flustroides Hincks, Capri; UM. Dumerilii Aud. ; M. Lacroixit
Aud. ; Memraniporella nitid: Johnst., Capri; Mastigophora Dutertrei Aud., Capri;
Micropora coriacea Esper., Capri; M. hippocrepis Goldf., Capri; Cribrilina figularis
Johnst., Capri; Microporella distoma Busk., Capri; VII. Radiolaria. Zhalassicolla, Acanthometra.
Grade B. Corticata.
Lipostoma .. .. + I. Sporozoa. Gregarina, Coccidium.
5, IL. Flagellata. Monas, Euglena, Volvom.
» II. Dinoflagellata. Prorocentrum, Ceratium.
Stomatophora .. » LV. Rhynchoflagellata. Noctiluca,
» V. Ciliata. Vorticella, Stentor.
» WI. Acinetaria. Acineta, Dendrosoma.
Chemical Composition of Zoocytium of Ophrydium versatile.*
Dr W. D. Halliburton has investigated the chemical nature of the
jelly, mucilaginous investing matrix, or zoocytium which is exuded
by the colonial ciliated protozoon O. versatile. ‘The lumps of jelly
were about an inch in diameter, firm, colourless, and transparent. On
the surface were green patches due to chlorophyll.
The substance resembles vegetable celiulose in its general pro-
perties, and only differs by being less easily converted into sugar;
herein it resembles tunicin, or the substance of which the test of the
Tunicatais formed. Dr. Halliburton directs attention to the fact that
we have here an animal in which chlorophyll and cellulose coexist.
Freia Ampulla 0. F. Mull, the Flask-animalcule.{—Prof. K.
Mobius, after a description of the infusorian, says that in many capsules
there is, at the side of the hind-body of a perfectly developed in-
dividual, a young animal without funnel-lobes, nearly uniformly
rounded off anteriorly and posteriorly, and produced by fission from
the body of the parent animal. This, when it is still connected with
its parent only by a slender cord, stretches the fore part of the body
out of the capsule, tears itself free, and swims away, carried along by fine
cilia which cover the whole body in close longitudinal series. At the
anterior extremity rudiments of pectinelle already show themselves,
and a slight notch is the beginning of the formation of the funnel-
lobes. After the young animal has swum about freely for a time, it
attaches itself to some firm support and secretes the material of the
capsule as a transparent mass, thicker behind than before, where it is
not yet turned out as in mature individuals.
Anoplophrya circulans.;—A new parasitic infusorian allied
to Opalina is described under the above name, by Prof. E. G. Balbiani,
* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxv. (1885) pp. 445-7.
+ Schriften Naturw. Ver. Schleswig-Holstein, vi. (1885), See Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1885) pp. 154-5.
{ Recueil Zool. Suisse, ii. (1885) pp. 277-305 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 819
from the blood of Asellus aquaticus; it is the first example of
a ciliated infusorian living in the blood of its host, and circulating
with the blood. The parasite does not, however, spend its entire
existence within the body of its host; in the water containing Aselli
infected with the parasite, a number of infusoria were observed which
appeared to be identical with the individuals contained in the blood
of their host ; the liberation of these is certainly due on occasions to
the rupture of the terminal portion of the antenne, and possibly
always so; these organs being long and delicate are more liable to
such fractures than any other part of the body; it is interesting to
note that the parasites make use of an accidental lesion as a natural
way to leave the body of their host. The majority of the thus liberated
parasites die, but a good many survive; these become encysted on a
filament of Conferva or similar locality ; even the body of an Asellus is
occasionally fixed upon. It is not, however, certain how the parasites
regain the body of their host.
M. A. Schneider also describes* this infusorian, more especially
in regard to its method of reproduction.
Conjugation takes place between the small ovoid individuals
which, instead of simply coupling, unite by temporary fusion of the
protoplasm. Before this fusion or at the moment that it takes place,
the nucleus and nucleolus, with which each is provided, undergo
modifications. The nucleus of the one elongates and extends for half
its length into the protoplasm of the other, which in its turn also
sends a portion of its nucleus to its neighbour. The two nuclei form,
at this moment, two parallel transverse bands, proceeding without
solution of continuity from the centre of one individual to that of the
other. The nucleoli are divided, and each individual has four. The
author is unable to say whether any exchange of these nucleoli takes
place. At the close of the conjugation each individual hag six
globules, two large and four small: the former representing two
halves of the nucleus, of different origin; the latter are the nucleoli.
The two large globules amalgamate and constitute the new nucleus,
and one of the small ones persists as nucleolus; the other three are
reabsorbed.
New Vorticella.t—Dr. A. C. Stokes describes a new species of
Vorticella found in the cedar swamps of New Jersey. V. limnetis
n. sp. is remarkable for the peculiar twisted appearance of the sheath
of the pedicle, a characteristic which it has in common with V. octava
Stokes; but apart from its smooth. cuticular surface, it is easily dis-
tinguished from that species by the much smaller body, and the
greater abundance of the spirals and the consequent shortness of their
curves.
Difflugia cratera. {—Several species of animals belonging to
marine genera have lately been discovered in the deep waters of
certain fresh-water lakes in Switzerland. Among Infusoria, Tintin-
* Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 1552-3.
+ The Microscope, v. (1885) pp. 145-6 (1 fig.).
¢ Zool, Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 293-4,
820 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
nidium fluviatile and T. semiciliatum and Tintinnus subulatus are at
present the only examples known of such a change of habitat—no
doubt produced by geological changes. Dr. O. E. Imhof records a
fourth Tintinnodea from the lake of Zurich, which is apparently
identical with Leidy’s Difflugia cratera, and which ke names Codonella
cratera.
New Type of Sarcosporidia.*—-M. R. Blanchard has found in a
Macropus penicillatus small white spots in the large intestine; these
were seen to be cysts, each of which was bounded by a delicate
membrane, the rupture of which allowed the escape of reniform cor-
puscles, altogether similar to what are ordinarily called psorosperms ;
they are granular, and often have at their ends a bright spot, but no
nucleus could be detected. The author does not doubt that they are
the equivalents of the falciform corpuscles of coccidia, and like them
they exhibit amceboid movements. The numerous vesicles found in
the cysts of the Sarcosporidia correspond, therefore, to the spores or
pseudonavicellz of coccidia, and they appear to be most nearly like
those of Klossia, from which they differ only in secondary points, such
as size and habitat. The smallest spores were found in the centre,
and the largest at the periphery of the cyst, and the latter were found
to be the more mature ; they are from 9°8 to 12 » long and 4 to 5°5
p broad.
EE
BOTANY.
A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.
a Anatomy.t
Protoplasm in the Intercellular Spaces.t—From an examination
of over 100 different species of plants, Prof. E. Russow concludes
that air-containing intercellular spaces of schizogenous origin are
always closed by a thin layer of protoplasm which can be revealed by
treatment with iodine and sulphuric acid. He believes it must have
some important function, perhaps for the absorption and condensa-
tion of certain gases in the intercellular spaces. He shows also that
- Schaarschmidt’s statement § of the occasional presence of chlorophyll-
grains in the intercellular spaces rests on erroneous observation.
Forms of Cells.||—Prof. J.O. Hennum has made a series of ex-
periments on the forms resulting when balls of moist clay are rolled
* Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 1599-1601.
+ This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm (including the
Nucleus and Cell-division) ; (2) Other Cell-contents (including the Cell-sap and
Chlorophyll); (8) Secretions; (4) Structure of Tissues; and (5) Structure of
Organs.
*, SB. Dorpat. Naturf. Gesell., vii. (1884) 15 pp. See Bot. Centralbl., xxii.
(1885) p. 15. Cf. this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 404.
§ See this Journal, ante, p. 84.
|| Arch. Math. og Naturvid., Krigstiania, ix. (1884) pp. 301-404 (7 pls.). See
Biol. Centralbl., ix. (1885) p. 199.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 821
up in lycopodium-powder, either side by side or one over another, and
then subjected to pressure in various directions. The forms resulting
are described from a mathematical point of view in regard both to
their surfaces and to their contents, and the laws thus obtained are
then applied to account for the various forms of cells found in the
animal and vegetable kingdoms.
Structure of the Nucleolus.*— Dr. E. Zacharias has carefully
examined the structure, properties, and functions of the nucleolus,
taking as his chief illustration, on account of their size, the nucleoli
from the inner layers of the wall of the ovary of the snowdrop. In
uninjured cells in which the currents of protoplasm are still kept up,
the nucleolus appears under water perfectly homogeneous, in contrast
to the fine granulation of the rest of the nucleus. When, on the
contrary, the cells have been ruptured, the entire mass of the nucleus
except the nucleolus swells up, the latter forming a shining sharply
defined body, which is usually soon expelled from the ruptured
nucleus. In the nucleolus itself may be detected two substances of
different appearance, a central mass of stronger refringency and
vesicular character, surrounded by a homogeneous ground-substance.
The same differentiation is produced by absolute alcohol. Carmine
stains chiefly the central mass. Treated with ferrocyanide of potas-
sium and chloride of iron, the nucleolus is coloured blue, and contracts,
leaving a space between it and the ground-substance of the nucleus ;
the diameters of nucleolus, cavity, and nucleus, are about in the
proportion of 3,4,and 10. The nucleolus has the appearance under
these circumstances of a fine-meshed framework with coloured strands.
In artificially prepared gastric juice, the nucleolus becomes pale and
swells up, while brightly shining granules of nuclein appear in the
rest of the nucleus. Longer immersion causes the nucleus apparently
to disappear, but it is again coloured blue by ferrocyanide of potassium
and chloride of iron, though reduced to about one-third of its original
size. Carmine does not stain it in this condition, and even a 10 per
cent. solution of chloride of sodium causes no change.
Pieces of tissue heated for some days with 10 per cent. solution of
chloride of sodium and then examined in alcohol, rendered the
nuclei very pale, and showed that a large portion of their substance
was removed. A solution of carmine in very dilute ammonia stains
the nucleoli very rapidly and strongly; while in a strongly acid
solution of carmine in acetic acid the nuclein body is very strongly
stained, the nucleolus remaining quite uncoloured, pale, and swollen ;
after a time it takes some colour, but remains lighter than the rest of
the nucleus. All these reactions show that the nucleolus consists
mainly of albuminoids in addition to plastin, but that it contains no
nuclein. The same properties were found in the nucleoli of many
other plants, such as those of the bast-cells of Cucurbita Pepo, of the
filaments of Spirogyra, and of the nuclei in the asci of Peziza cinerea
and vesiculosa.
The nucleoli resemble the pyrenoids in consisting of albuminoids
* Bot. Zty., xliii. (1885) pp. 257-65, 273-83, 289-96.
Ser. 2.—Vo.. V. 3H
822 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
without any nuclein; but it is improbable that the latter contain
plastin. They have a still closer affinity with the starch-generators
in the epidermal cells of flowering plants, plastin being certainly
present in these also. But the albuminoids of the starch-generators
display different reactions from those of the nucleoli, deliquescing in
water.
The nucleoli always disappear when the nucleus is about to
divide ; their disappearance and reappearance in the daughter-cells can
be peculiarly well watched in living cells of Chara, especially in the
growing apices of the rhizoids. In one instance the whole process of
the division of a nucleus, and that of its daughter-nuclei was followed
in the course of twenty-four hours. The nucleolus of the living
nucleus is not homogeneous, but contains vacuoles varying in number
and size; and the different parts also display different degrees of
refringency, When the nucleus is about to divide, the nucleolus
loses its sharpness, and undergoes slow and finally amceboid changes
of form, at length entirely disappearing. Ata later period several
fresh nuclei are to be seen in the daughter-nuclei ; and these almost
immediately coalesce into one. During the coalescence these new
nucleoli lose their sharpness, which they again rapidly regain later.
The author has been unable definitely to determine what becomes of
the substance of the nucleolus after its disappearance, and its re-
lationship to the elements of the nuclear plate and to the spindle-
fibres. Possibly the albuminoid substance only disappears, the frame-
work of plastin remaining and passing into the daughter-nuclei,
where it again takes up albuminoids.
Zacharias regards the statements of Strasburger and others as to
the appearance of so-called “ paranucleoli,” and their expulsion from
the nucleus, as resting on error, resulting partly from the exclusive
use of hardened material.
The behaviour of the nucleoli is somewhat different in male and
female sexual cells. While they are invariably present in the latter,
they may disappear from the former before their complete develop-
ment. ‘This difference was displayed in Chara, Marchantia, and in
several ferns. ‘In the oosphere of flowering plants a nucleolus
appears never to be wanting; while in the nucleus of the pollen-cell
it is not to be detected immediately before impregnation. In the
nucleus of vegetative cells it is always present.
No general statement can be made with regard to changes in the
nucleolus as the cell becomes older; it seems sometimes to increase,
sometimes to decrease in size; in some cases it undergoes alteration
in form, while in other cases no change is apparent.
The author is unable to assign at present any physiological
function to the nucleolus. At the same time he dissents from the
view of Strasburger, Carnoy, and Pfitzner, that it is not the living
substance of the nucleus, and can only be regarded as a reserve-
substance.
Chlorophyll and its Combinations.* — Some investigations of
M. Guignet seem to show that chlorophyll is contained in envelopes
* Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 434-7.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 823
which are insoluble in petroleum ether, but soluble in alcohol. In
pouring a solution in concentrated alcohol upon water, the chloro-
phyll is gradually precipitated by diffusion, but it takes the form of
brown flakes, which appear completely changed. On replacing the
water by alcohol at 50° the chlorophyll is precipitated in deep green
flakes without any evidence of crystallization; but the product thus
obtained is very impure. Chlorophyll is very stable in the presence of
bases, behaving like a true acid and giving compounds which appear
to be very well defined. In order to obtain in the crystalline state
the combination of chlorophyll and soda, alcohol may be added to
the aqueous solution of that compound. On evaporating over lime
under a bell-glass, the lime absorbs aqueous vapour, and the alcohol
becomes more and more concentrated until it deposits needles of a
very deep green, which appear almost black; they are very soluble in
water, and present all the characters of a perfectly definite compound.
Crystals in the Leaves of Leguminose.*—Prof. J. P. Borodin
has examined the distribution of the crystals of calcium oxalate in
€60 species of Leguminose. In the Mimosez their occurrence is
very constant, in the form of solitary crystals disposed parallel to the
veins. In the Cesalpiniee the distribution is the same, but in
addition there are clusters of crystals scattered through the paren-
chyma of the leaf. These occur again in the Rosacex, but not in the
Papilionacew. In the Papilionacee there are three principal types :—
(1) Crystals altogether wanting :—the Genistee, many Galegee, as
Astragalus and Colutea, and some genera in other groups. (2) Clino-
rhombic crystals along the veins:—the Viciex and Trifoliee ; some
Phaseolew and Galegex have clinorhombic crystals scattered through
the parenchyma. (3) Clinorhombic crystals in groups in the epider-
mis :—Dioclea and Canavalia ; in Stylosanthes the crystals lie in the
membrane of the epidermis. When crystals are wanting in the leaves,
they are deficient also in the stem.
Secreting Canals of Plants.}—In pursuance of previous investi-
gations on the same subject,t M. P. van Tieghem gives details as to
the nature and arrangement of the secreting canals in a large number
of natural orders of Dicotyledons.
In the Labiatiflore (suborder of Composite), when secreting
canals occur, their structure and arrangement correspond to that in
the suborders Radiiflore and Tubuliflore. In the Composite taken
altogether, the secreting apparatus occupies two different regions
according to its nature ; when composed of oleiferous canals it belongs
to the endoderm ; when composed of laticiferous cells, whether isolated
or forming a network, it belongs to the liber in the root, to the
pericycle in the stem and leaves.
The Dipsacacesw resemble the Tubuliflorea in the presence and the
position of the lacticiferous cells, but differ from all Composite in
* SB. Internat. Congress f. Bot. u. Gartenbau, St. Petersburg, May 1884.
See Bot. Centralbl., xxi. (1885) pp. 222 and 351,
+ Ann. Sci. Nat.—Bot., i. (1885) pp. 5-96.
t See this Journal, iv. (1884) pp. 767, 770.
824 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
the nature of the pericycle of the stem and leaf, which is always
reduced to a single layer of thin-walled cells.
The Umbellifere and Araliacee are characterized by the invariable
presence of a secreting system of canals in the pericycle, frequently
superposed on a second system situated in the parenchyma. If this
character is adopted, the genera Mastixia, Helwingia, and Curtisia
must be excluded from Araliacee. These two orders, together with
the Pittosporex, constitute a group distinguished from the whole of
the rest of the vegetable kingdom by the arrangement of the secreting
canals in the root, and the displacement which this causes in the
insertion of the secondary roots; the Pittosporez differmg from the
other two orders in their superior ovary. In this respect, however,
Ancistrocladus furnishes a connecting link.
In the Clusiacez the embryo is abundantly provided with secret-
ing canals, affording a remarkable example of a secretion produced
abundantly in the embryonal condition. The Ternstrcemiacez are, as a
rule, destitute of these structures, though the rule is not without
exception. The Hypericacee are characterized by the presence of
narrow oleiferous canals in the pericycle, whenever this remains
parenchymatous, i.e. always in the root, as well as in the stem in the
typical herbaceous species. In other respects this order shows close
affinity to the Clusiacee. The resiniferous cavities of the Myrsinacez
are localized in the stem and leaf, never occurring in the roots. The
Dipterocarpez are distinguished by the presence of oleiferous canals,
and by the exclusive localization of these canals in the primary and
secondary wood.
Details are given with respect to the structure and arrangement
of the secreting canals in some other less important natural orders,
making 18 in all; and the results given in previous papers are again
included.
Peculiar Structures in the Flesh of the Date.*—Prof. W. A.
Tichomirow describes structures in the flesh of the date, the nature
of which he is not able to determine, similar to those found by
Flickiger in the fruit of Rhamnus cathartica. They are insoluble in
water, not doubly refractive, coloured yellow by iodine and sulphuric
acid, cobalt-blue by chloride of iron, green or olive-green by Millon’s
reagent, olive-green by ammoniacal cupric oxide, blue-violet or red-
violet by caustic potash. ;
Anatomy of Euphorbiacee.|—Herr F.. Pax discusses this subject
in relation to the classification of the genera in the order. Bicollateral
vascular bundles are found in all the Crotonezx ; occasionally in all
the rest of the groups except the Stenolobee, Phyllanther, and
Brideliee. The Euphorbiacee may be divided into four groups
according to the degree of development of the latex-vessels, viz.
(1) Latex-vessels entirely wanting; the secretion being distributed
* SB. Internat. Congress f. Bot. u. Gartenbau, St. Petersburg, May 1884. See
Bot. Centralbl., xxi. (1885) p. 222.
+ Engler’s Bot. Jahrb., v. pp. 384-421 (2 pls.). See Bot. Centralbl., xxi.
(1885) p. 326.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 825
through all the cells of the parenchymatous tissue; (2) Latex-tubes
segmented, and the segments of equal length; (3) Latex-tubes seg-
mented, with the segments of unequal length; and (4) Latex-tubes
unsegmented ; in the true Euphorbiex.
Anatomical Structure and Development of Ceratophyllum.* —
_ This is described in detail by Herr J. E. F. af Klercker, the point of
chief interest determined being that the dermatogen always divides
only by anticlinals, and, in young apices of stems, appears to possess
only a three or four-edged initial, in older apices apparently several.
Asarule the periblem and plerome have distinct initials, the latter in
young stages only one, in older stages several. In exceptional cases
a single group of initials gives birth to both periblem and plerome.
Lenticels.t—Dr. A. Zahlbruckner has examined the structure of
the lenticels in leaves, with the view especially of determining the
question whether they are completely closed in winter. For this pur-
~ pose Stahl’s apparatus was employed, and applied to the leaves of
Aisculus Hippocastanum and Ulmus effusa, and with the result of
showing that they are not completely closed, although their structure
in this respect may be different from what it isin summer. In Sam-
bucus, Gleditschia, and the lilac, the lenticels did not permit a greater
quantity of air to pass through them when they had just emerged
from the bud than in winter. Owing to the power of swelling of the
substance which fills up the cells of the lenticels, they allow less
water to pass through them when saturated with water than when dry.
The author was able to establish fully the connection between the
lenticels and the air-passages, not only of the bark, but of the wood,
in consequence of which a complete circulation of air is kept up
through the plant. In branches destitute of lenticels other means of
aeration are present.
The special anatomical construction is described of the lenticels
of Rhus Coriaria and Euonymus verrucosus, the former belonging to
the type in which the cells are all densely filled with a corky sub-
stance ; the latter to the type in which, in addition to the cells filled
with corky substance, are others of a sclerenchymatous character
with lignified walls, perforated by simple pores which connect them
with the adjacent cells.
Anatomy ofthe Wood of Conifers.t—Dr. P. Pfurtscheller describes
the appearance of certain tracheids in the wood of Abies eacelsa, Picea
vulgaris, Larix europea, Abies Douglasii, and other coniferous trees,
almost wanting in Abies pectinata. This was a projection in the
membrane in the form of a spiral thickening, erroneously described
by some observers as a striation, with which it has in fact nothing to
do. In some cases the author observed a striation on the same
tracheid, and satisfied himself that the two structures were entirely
unconnected with one another. This tendency to the formation of a
“ SB. Bot. Sallsk. Stockholm, May 12, 1884. See Bot. Centralbl., xxi. (1885)
p. 157.
+ Verh. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxiv. (1885) pp. 107-16.
t Ibid., pp. 535-42 (2 pls.).
826 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
spiral thickening of the wall is not confined to the tracheids, but ex-
tends also to the outer cells of the medullary rays of the first-formed
annual ring. Here they are especially conspicuous on the horizontal
walls, and therefore distinct on transverse section; and are found also
in the later annual rings where there is no trace of spirally thickened
tracheids. The spiral thickening was found most distinct in the
tracheids of the yew and of Abies Douglasit.
Comparative Anatomy of the Tissue of the Medullary Rays and -
Annual Zones of Growth in Conifers.*—Herr H. Fischer has made
a careful study of this subject in the stem, root, and branches of Pinus
Abies. Notwithstanding contrary statements of previous observers,
he states that no absolute universal character by which the wood of
the stem, root, and branch can be distinguished from one another is to
be obtained from the relationship between the mean number and
height of the medullary rays in the successive annual rings and the
age of the ring. The stem and branch can, however, be distinguished
by the different structure of their broad annual rings. In the stem
these consist, as a rule, chiefly of summer-wood, in the branch chiefly
of autumn-wood. In narrow annual rings in both stem and branch,
the autumn-wood constitutes at least half the breadth, in the branch
usually more. The stem, root, and branch are to be distinguished by
the anatomical structure of their annual rings, according as they are
wide or narrow. In narrow rings in the root, the summer-wood
usually prevails; wide rings contain as a rule more summer-wood
than rings in the stem of the same width. A prevalence of autumn-
wood is sometimes seen in very young and narrow rings of older roots.
There is only a gradual passage between the character of the wood in
primary and secondary roots. The annual rings are usually well
marked in the stem, root, and branches, the chief exceptions being
furnished by the root.
Behaviour of the Leaf-trace-bundles of Evergreen Plants as the
stem increases in thickness.t—Dr. O. Markfeldt has investigated the
question, What becomes of the leaf-trace—the common bundles of
vascular plants which, within the stem, represent the discernible trace
of the leaves to which they belong—when a new annual ring is formed
in each recurring vegetative period, in the case of those trees and
shrubs which retain their leaves through the winter? His observa
tions were chiefly directed to Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons, and
with the following general results :—
All the Gymnosperms examined have a portion of the leaf-trace
which runs through the cortex, parallel to the main axis of the stem or
branch, and surrounded on its lower side by cambium. The portion of
the leaf-trace which runs into the wood stands vertically to the axis,
or nearly so, and is closely inclosed on its upper and inner sides by
the wood. ‘The annual increase in thickness of the stem or branch
causes a rupture of the leaf-trace in the neighbourhood of the
cambium, while at the same time new vascular elements are formed
* Flora, Ixvili. (1885) pp. 263-294, 302-9, 313-24 (1 pl.).
+ Ibid., pp. 33-9, 81-90, 99-113 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 827
from the leaf-trace cambium, which again unite together the two
ruptured parts of the leaf-trace. This gives the appearance as if
the rupture took place on the upper side only of the leaf-trace, while
in fact it extends to the whole bundle formed during a period of
vegetation. The space left vacant by the rupture of the leaf-trace
is probably filled up by the cambium, perhaps with the assistance of
the woody parenchyma which surrounds the leaf-trace. The cells
thus formed, after their cell-walls have become thickened, constitute
the companion-cells (Begleitzellen) which arise at a greater depth in
the wood.
After the fall of the leaf the leaf-trace is completely ruptured,
except in the case of the Araucariew, where the leaf-trace does not
appear to be completely torn through, even in the oldest internodes
of the main stem.
All the evergreen Dicotyledons examined, with the exception of
Aralia quinquefolia and Prunus Laurocerasus, have a thin-walled
tissue above the leaf-trace which separates it from the upper woody
portion of the branch or stem. This tissue is in immediate connection
with the pith, and consists of similar cells, The leaf-trace is in all
eases curved outwards. In Ilea Aquifolium the leaf-trace is ruptured
in the third year. In this case the space left vacant by the rupture
is filled up by cells which resemble those of the pith-like tissue
lying above the leaf-trace.
In all Dicotyledons which have a long portion of the leaf-trace
running through the cortex, a rupture of the cambium takes place
after the fall of the leaf. In Camellia japonica the leaf-scar arises so
deep in the feebly developed cortex that there can hardly be said to
be a cortical portion of the leaf-trace. Hence the whole of it is in
this case concealed.
The same is true of the leaf-trace in deciduous as in evergreen
Dicotyledons; after the fall of the leaf a rupture of the leaf-trace
takes place at the cambium in those cases where it has a cortical
portion.
Gum-canals of the Sterculiacee.*—M. P. van Tieghem points
out that the more or less abundant production of gum or mucilage is
a@ common character of the Malvacex, Tiliacew, and Sterculiacea,
which ought, he considers, to be treated rather as three tribes of one
order than as distinct orders. But the mode of formation of the gum
differs in the three groups. In the Malvacee and Tiliaceew it is
secreted in large isolated cells which sometimes coalesce; in the
Sterculiacez in large schizogenous secreting canals. The cells
which border these canals do not usually differ in any respect from
the surrounding parenchyma, and may contain starch or calcium
oxalate; sometimes they are smaller than the ordinary parenchy-
matous cells. These canals occur in the stem and leaves only, being
entirely absent from the root. In the stem they are usually developed
simultancously in the cortex and in the pith; the rest of the stem
being as a rule destitute of them. In the cortex they are arranged in
* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii, (1885) pp. 11-14.
828 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
a single circle in the median zone, their number amounting to 20, 40, or
even 60; those of the pith are also most often in a single circle in the
peripheral zone, and are always separated by some rows of medullary
cells from the primary xylem of the vascular bundles; sometimes
they form two concentric circles. In some genera the cortical canals
are wanting. Those genera which have canals in both the cortex and
the pith possess them besides in the external and internal paren-
chyma of the leaf-stalk; but when the cortex of the stem is destitute
of these canals, so also is the external parenchyma of the leaf-stalk.
The large starchy cotyledons of Cola and Heritieria contain no gum-
canals; and in some genera of Sterculiacez they are entirely wanting
even in the leaves and stem.
Striated Woody Tissue.*—Herr F. v. Hohnel describes a pecu-
liarity of the wood of a certain number of exotic trees belonging
principally to the natural orders Leguminose, Bignoniaces, Sima-
rubex, and Ebenacex, a striated appearance on longitudinal section
due to the presence of horizontal rays. This results from the regular
disposition of the medullary rays, which form so many parallel hori-
zontal bands. In addition the tracheids, which constitute the
greater part of the wood, are swollen in their middle and taper off at
their two extremities ; the median swellings which alone are punctated,
are arranged in parallel lines, which further contributes to give the
wood its striated appearance.
Structure of Stem of Strychnos.;—M. J. Hérail has investi-
gated the peculiar structure of the stem of Strychnos, in the three
species S. triplinerve, brasiliense, and nua-vomica, in which the ring
of wood is traversed by light-coloured plates sometimes arranged
regularly in a circle, sometimes irregularly in the woody mass, com-
posed of sieve-tubes surrounded by parenchyma. M. Hérail shows
that this structure is not due, as has been supposed, to an abnormal
power of the cambium of producing both xylem and phloém on one
side; but that it, in the usual way, produces xylem only on one side
and phloém only on the other side. The peculiar appearance results
from the cambium ceasing to produce xylem at the points where it
produces phloém; and this peculiarity persisting for an indefinite
time, the result is that the xylem formed in all the other parts
advances more and more upon the phloém, which it appears ultimately
to surround.
Mechanical Tisssue-system.{— Dr. A. Tschirch proposes the
following terminology for the various developments of this system.
By the term sclereid he understands all thick-walled elements which
cannot be included under specific mechanical cells, viz. bast-fibres,
libriform, and collenchyma; hence all the célls formerly classed as
sclerenchyma, except the stereids, collenchyma, and libriform cells.
The sclereids must aiso be regarded as specifically mechanical cells,
* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Ixxxix. (1884) pp. 30-47. See Bull. Soc. Bot.
France, xxxii. (1885) Rev. Bibl., p. 9.
+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885) pp. 92-5.
{ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 73-5.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 829
and may be divided into Osteosclereids (bone-cells of Hakea, &c.),
Astrosclereids (ophiure-cells of Jénsson), and Brachysclereids (stone-
cells). Except in actual reserve-receptacles, as in seeds, the thickening
of the wall is never effected by the storing-up of reserve-cellulose.
Sclereids are often employed in constructions for producing radial
pressure, as the osteosclereids of the Proteacex, Restiacer, and Thea,
and the brachysclereids in the palisade-layer of the testa of seeds.
The mechanical contrivances in the bark of dicotyledonous trees are
very various ; and the sclereids here often perform a secondary func-
tion in protecting the sieve-structures. The “mixed ring ” of Quercus,
Cinnamomum, Betula, &c., is produced by thin- or thick-walled ele-
ments of the cortex becoming intercalated in cavities formed during
the early years in the mechanical ring of the primary group of
sclereids. The author is unable to explain the function of isolated
sclereids or groups of them not connected with bast-cells. In the
fruit of the Pomaces they may be the remains of walls previously
continuous, though this will not explain the isolated clusters of stone-
cells in older cortex, and the isolated sclereids in the pith of many
plants.
Structure and Function of the Aril in certain Leguminosxz.*—
Herr E. Bachmann describes the appendage to the seeds known as
the aril in Sarothamnus scoparius and some other Leguminose. Its
purpose appears to be to cause in the ripe seed a detachment from
the funicle, by means of a very large intercellular cavity, and thus to
promote the dissemination of the seeds. A similar purpose is served
by a totally different structure in the aril of species of Vicia and
Lathyrus ; the separation being caused here by a difference of tension
between the cells of the aril and those of the seed itself.
Leaves of Statice monopetala.t—Dr. M. Woronin describes the
structure of the leaves of this plant, in which the most noteworthy
points are the following :—Among the otherwise very regular layers
of palisade-cells immediately beneath the epidermis of the upper and
under surfaces, are large much-branched sclerenchymatous cells,
containing a colourless finely granular protoplasm, and sometimes a
distinct nucleus. The leaves display a strong calcareous incrustation
partly in the form of a thick and regular layer, partly in the form of
separate scales of roundish outline, which, when violently removed,
reveal beneath them remarkable glands consisting always of eight
cells, by which the calcium carbonate appears to be separated.
Absorbing Organs of Albuminous Seedg.{—Dr. M. Ebeling has
investigated the process by which, in germinating seeds which have
their food-material stored up in endosperm, the embryo obtains this
food-material from the embryo. He finds that the various modes may
be classified under the following types :—
In Cycadew and Monocotyledons the cotyledons remain perma-
nently in the seed, and are destined for no purpose except the absorp-
* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 25-9 (1 pl.).
+ Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 177-85 (1 pl.).
t Flora, Ixviii. (1885) pp. 179-202 (1 pl.).
830 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
tion of the endosperm, perishing after this is completed. In Liliaceae,
Juncaginee, Iridew, Amaryllidee, and doubtfully in Cycadex, the
cotyledon remains anatomically unchanged during germination,
absorbing the endosperm through the ordinary epidermal cells which
differ in no way from those of the young leaves.
In Graminex, Palme, Commelynaceex, Cyperacez, and Juncacee, the
cotyledon developes special organs or haustoria for the absorption of
the endosperm. In grasses this is the scutellum, a shield-like organ,
clothed with an epithelium composed of elongated thin-walled absorp-
_ tive cells at right angles to the surface, from four to ten times as long as
broad, and projecting into the endosperm like sacs. In Palms and
Commelynacez, on the other hand, the absorptive organ is of the same
shape as the seed, its periphery consisting of elongated thin-walled
cells placed vertically to the surface, and from two to six times as long
as broad. In Cyperacez and Luzula (Juncacez) the organ in question
is of a filiform-cylindrical shape, continually renewing itself at the
apex. The entire haustorium consists of elongated thin-walled cells,
from four to six times as long as broad, and having their longer.axis
parallel to that of the organ. In Juncus the haustorium is pear-
shaped ; both the inner and the epidermal cells are elongated in a
direction parallel to its longitudinal axis; the terminal cells at its
apex being elongated radially and club-shaped.
A second type occurs in Dicotyledons and Conifer. The coty-
ledons remain only for a time in the seed, consuming the endosperm,
after which they rupture the testa, emerge above the soil, and perform
the function of assimilating organs, with the characters of ordinary
leaves. Their epidermis consists of thin-walled cells, not specially
elongated, but with the ordinary forms of young epidermal cells.
The main point of difference is that in Monocotyledons the coty-
ledon serves only for the absorption of the endosperm, and may deve-
lope into a special haustorium; while in Dicotyledons and Conifers
the cotyledons serve in the first place for the absorption of the endo-
sperm and afterwards for assimilation, when they assume the form
of ordinary leaves.
Embryo-sac of Santalum and Daphne.*—Prof. E. Strasburger
has made further observations on the structure of the embryo-sac of
Santalum album from Madras. In contrast to previous statements, he
finds that the *‘ egg-apparatus ” follows the ordinary rule of possessing
only a single ovum-cell and two synergide. A fallacious appearance
is presented by the synergid-caps (or filiform apparatus) being
strongly separated from the synergide themselves, and a ridge
springing out from the wall of the embryo-sac between them. The
pollen-tube forces its way between the two synergid-caps to the point
of insertion of the ovum-cell, after which the egg-apparatus exhibits
its ordinary changes. The formation of endosperm is commenced by
the division of the secondary nucleus of the embryo-sac, and a
transverse division of the embryo-sac itself beneath the swollen spot.
With regard to the embryo-sac of Daphne, Strasburger admits the
* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 105-13 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 831
force of the objection taken by Prohaska to his previous interpreta-
tion of the peculiar structures found in it by this observer. He now
considers that they are neither disorganized cells of the nucellus,
endosperm-nuclei, nor cell-nuclei; and details observations made on
D. Blagayana, Mezereum, and Laureola, which establish that they are
yacuoles filled with a strongly refractive substance which is fixed by
alcohol, corresponding to similar structures found in the ovum-cells
of conifers.
Morphology of the Receptacle.*—Sig. F. Baccarini infers, from
an examination of the course of the fibrovascular bundles, that in the
case of the inferior ovary of perigynous flowers, of which the Rosez
may be taken as the type, the cup-shaped receptacle is an axial organ,
as is shown by the formation on its margin of the outer whorls of
floral organs. When, in an inferior ovary, the placentation is axile,
as in Pomacee and Myrtacex, the whole structure is of a compound
character, consisting of two parts closely united to one another in
growth, the outer of which is the widened receptacle, while the inner
part is formed of the carpids, formed at the bottom of the axial cup.
In the Cactacez the course of the fibrovascular bundles seems to show
that the carpids, like the other appendicular organs of the flower, are
inserted on the margin of the axial cup, but that the placentz are
formed in the hollow of this cup along the descending leaf-trace-
bundles.
Spur of Cucurbitacee.}— In many germinating Cucurbitacee a kind
of spur is formed on the tigellum which appears to have for its function
the freeing of the seedling from the testa of theseed. Sig. A. Baldini
has examined the structure of this organ, and finds that if its forma-
tion is prevented, the seeds germinate imperfectly and abnormally.
The spur itself varies in form, but is always seated at the spot where
the tigellum forms an angle with the root, on the side facing the sub-
stratum. In the course of its development it undergoes several
changes of position ; its apex finally bending and pressing against the
testa, so that the seedling is at length forced out from its confinement
within the latter.
In addition to its mechanical function, the author ascribes to this
organ another connected with the life of the seedling. On the side
of the spur which faces the root, when it is pressed closely against
the testa, are a number of hairs altogether resembling in their nature
root-hairs, which appear to absorb nutriment from the inner integu-
ment of the seed, and later from the soil; so that it may be regarded
as an organ of nutrition. Morphologically he regards the spur as
belonging to the tigellum rather than to the root.
_ Anatomy of the Fruit of Ranunculacee.{—Dr. E. Adlerz finds
in the fruit of Ranunculaces two kinds of mechanical and supporting
* Ann. R. Ist. Bot. Roma, i. (1884) pp. 66-85 (5 pls.). See Bot. Centralbl.,
Xxi. (1885) p. 229.
t Ann. R. Ist. Bot. Roma, i. (1884) pp. 49-65, See Bot. Centralbl., xxi.
(1885) p. 229.
Adlerz, E., ‘ Bid, till fruktvaggens anat. hos Ranunculaces,’ 42 pp. (4 pls.),
Orebro, 1884. See Bot. Centralbl., xxi. (1885) p. 330.
832 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
tissue :—(1) the sclerenchymatous strings which accompany the
vascular bundles; (2) tissues of various kinds distinct from the
vascular bundles. Some of these form the hardening layer, while
others do not. The venation or distribution of the finer vascular
bundles in the fruit of Ranunculacee also shows a number of varia-
tions.
Anatomy of the Female Inflorescence of Dioon edule.*—Sig. G.
Cugini furnishes a useful contribution to our knowledge of the repro-
ductive organs of Gymnosperms. The axis of the female inflorescence
of Dioon edule is composed of a nearly homogeneous parenchyma
through which run the numerous gum-canals characteristic of the
Cycadez, in a longitudinal direction, apparently without any order, and
branching and anastomosing abundantly. Like the vascular bundles
they curve to enter the ovuliferous leaves. They are full of a yellow
gum which dries on exposure to the air, and is completely soluble in
potash.
The fibrovascular bundles are arranged in a central cylinder sur-
rounded by a circle of smaller bundles; the xylem and phloém are
side by side; between them is a woody parenchyma.
The lamina of the ovuliferous leaves has an epidermis composed
of tabular cells, the lower surface alone being furnished with a few
stomata. Beneath the epidermis is a hypoderma composed of two or
three irregular layers of cells, and beneath this a thickish sclerenchy-
matous layer. ‘The mesophyll is composed of large cells containing
abundance’ of starch, and is penetrated by gum-canals and fibro-
vascular bundles.
Each leaf bears two horizontal or pendulous ovules, with a single
integument prolonged into a micropylar canal; the nucellus, con-
sisting of a single sac, was examined only in an unfertilized condition.
From the arrangement of the fibrovascular bundles, the author con-
cludes that the ovules are equivalents of lobes of leaves.
Influence of the Medium on the Structure of Roots.j—As the
result of a series of experiments, M. J. Costantin has arrived at the
conclusion that when a root developes in the air instead of the soil,
the cortex is diminished in mass, while the pith is increased ; the
fibrovascular system, both cortical and central, is increased, together
with the number of lignified vessels; and the endoderm-cells are
rendered harder and less permeable. When, on the contrary, a root
developes in water, the number of air-cavities is increased, both in the
cortex and the pith, the latter is diminished in quantity, while the
fibrovascular system is reduced. The changes effected by a change
of medium of the root are in fact similar to those produced in the
stem.
Structure and Dehiscence of Anthers.t—M. Leclere du Sablon
repeats in further detail, giving a large number of illustrations, the
* Nuoy. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xvii. (1885) pp. 29-48 (4 pls.).
+ Ann. Sci. Nat.—Bot., i. (1885) pp. 135-82 (4 pls.).
t Ibid., pp. 97-134 (4 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 833
results at which he has arrived * respecting the speciality in the
structure of anthers which causes their dehiscence in different ways
in different cases.
Vegetative Organs of Urtica dioica.t—Dr. A. Gravis takes the
anatomy of the vegetative organs of the common nettle as a basis for
a general and comparative study of the Urticacee. The minute
structure of the stem, root, and leaf is worked out and exemplified
under all modifications attendant upon age and biological conditions,
and the importance of recognizing these conditions and states is
insisted on. This treatise would be an excellent vade-mecum and
guide for any student who wished to undertake serious work in
vegetable histology. The style of exposition is as clear as are the
illustrative figures.
Anatomy of Peduncles compared with that of the Primary Axes
and of Petioles.§—M. EH. Laborie is led to conclude from numerous
researches that the organization of the floral axes differs very
frequently from that of other portions of the plant.
Of the differences observable, the ones that may be termed essential
are always found when the structure of the peduncles is not identical
with that of the stem; the others, accessory in some sort, vary with
the species. The former affect the constitution itself of the tissues or
systems of tissue occurring in all the axes, and their relative im-
portance. The latter are due to either the absence in the peduncle
of some tissue which exists in the stem, or the presence of some
elements which the stem does not possess. Thus as regards
A. Essential Characters.—There is generally observable in the
peduncles (1) a great development of the bark (Hibiscus syriacus,
Antirrhinum majus, &c.) ; (2) An organization of fibrovascular bundles,
characterized (a) in its external portion by a frequent augmentation
of the diameter of the fibres, independently of their number, which
may be diminished (Cornus sanguinea, Catalpa bignonioides); or
increased (Lathyrus sylvestris); (b) in its interior portion, by a very
marked reduction of the number and size of the large vessels (Dolichos
sinensis, Vitis vinifera, &c.). (3) Lastly the small size of the pith
(Aquilegia vulgaris, Gratiola officinalis, Quercus pedunculata, &c.).
B. Accessory Characters.—Various tissues, constant elements of
the stem, do not always recur in the peduncles. For instance, the
disappearance in it is noticed of cork (Lonicera alpigena, Ribes mal-
vaceum), of chlorophyll-cells (Aristolochia sipho), of the woody part of
the vascular bundles (Citrus Aurantium, Pastinaca pratensis Jord. ;
Maclura aurantiaca, &c.), of sclerenchymatous cells which are often
mixed with woody fibres (Styphnolobium japonicum). At times, lastly,
the number of certain supplementary parts is diminished (reversed
bundles of Calycanthus macrophyllus.) On the other hand, the
peduncles of various species possess tissues or elements which are
* See this Journal, ante, p. 91.
+ Gravis, A.,‘ Recherches Anatomiques sur les Organes Végétatifs de l’Urtica
dioica,’ 4to, Bruxelles, 1885, 256 pp. and 23 pls.
t See Amer. Journ. Sci., xxx. (1885) pp. 84-5.
§ Comptes Rendus, xcix. (1884) pp. 1086-8,
834 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
wanting in the stem; e.g. woody fibres (Thymus vulgaris) ; the special
reticulate cells (Acacia cultriformis). These modifications sometimes
correspond to the size of the floral organs, or to the size or con-
sistency of the fruit; but most frequently they can only be connected
with the function of those organs. In fact, on comparing the
peduncles with the petioles, it is seen that the most marked and
constant difference which distinguishes them is in the number and
size of the large vessels of the wood; few and small in the former,
numerous and large in the latter.
From the point of view of sexuality, the influence of the flower on
the organization of the peduncles sometimes expresses itself in well-
defined characters. Thus the peduncles of the female flowers of
certain moncecious species always possess a thicker bark, and a better
organized woody ring furnished with larger if not more numerous
vessels, than the peduncles of the male flowers (Castanea vulgaris,
Juglans regia, &c.) In short, the floral axes present modifications,
more or less marked, which express in some sort the influence which
the production of flowers exercises, and gives us, so to speak, the
measure of its value. This influence may be nothing or at least may
appear to be such. Often it does not extend beyond the immediate
supports of the flower, or at least of the various members of the inflo-
rescence (Pavia rubra, Vitis vinifera, &c.). And lastly, in some plants
it makes itself felt as far as the branches which give rise to the floral
axes, so as to provoke in them either a partial modification (Ribes
mulvaceum), or a complete differentiation (fruit-bearing branches of the
pear and apple, of Salisburia, &c.).
Wolffia microscopica.*—Herr F. Hegelmaier describes the struc-
ture and anatomy of this previously little-known species, the smallest
of flowering plants, from India. Its most striking external peculiarity
is the rhizoid or “radicula” of Griffith, a comparatively large conical
protuberance from the lower surface of the plant, somewhat nearer to
the base than the apex of the shoot, the purpose of which appears to
be to enable the plant to float in a horizontal position. The author
suggests that in the allied genus Wolffella we may have a true
example of apogamy, hitherto unknown in flowering plants, a con-
tinual non-sexual reproduction from generation to generation, with-
out seeds being ever produced.
8. Physiology.+
Fertilization of Asclepias Cornuti.;—Mr. T. H. Corry describes
in great detail the structure and development of the gynostemium and
the mode of fertilization in this plant. Pollination takes place
entirely by the agency of insects, and only in fine weather ; and the
author states that, as far as his observation goes, the flowers are
absolutely sterile when pollinated artificially from pollinia extracted
either from the same flower or from another of the sameage. This is
* Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 241-9.
+ This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction (including the formation of the
Embryo and accompanying processes) ; (2) Germination ; (3) Growth; (4) Respira-
tion; (5) Movement; and (6) Chemical processes (including Fermentation),
{ Trans. Linn. Soc, Lond.—Bot., ii. (1884) pp. 173-207 (3 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 835
the case even though the pollinium may produce a skein of pollen-
tubes which penetrate down into the interior of the style; and even
when the tubes enter the ovary this is insufficient to ensure the
production of an embryo.
Blooming of Arum italicum.*—Herr G. Kraus describes the struc-
ture of the club-shaped appendage to the inflorescence of Arum italicum,
and the remarkable changes which take place in its chemical constitu-
tion during blooming. In the course of a few hours this structure
loses, on an average, about 74 per cent. of its dry weight, chiefly by
the consumption of carbohydrates. Before blooming, about 66 per
cent. of its dry substance consists of starch, which entirely disappears,
as well as the sugar. These substances are not used up by the plant,
but oxidized and exhaled. In five inflorescences an average tempera-
ture of 51°3° C. was observed during blossoming, or 35° 9° above that
of the surrounding air. Arum maculatum displays a similar elevation
of temperature ; Calla ethiopica, on the other hand, none at all.
Influence of Electricity on the Growth of Plants.t—Dr. A.
Bronold finds that electricity has a threefold influence upon the
growth of plants—as an illuminant; as decomposing the constituents
of the soil; and as ozonizing the air. By the joint application of this
triple agency to certain ornamental plants and to strawberries, he
effected growth, strength, and health, exceeding by two or three times
that obtained under natural cultivation; larger size and better
development of flowers and fruits, without loss of flavour and odour ;
larger seeds, possessing greater germinative power; more complete
assimilation of the plant-food in the soil, and freedom from vermin.
Prof. Holdefleiss { has observed that beet seed, sown in a flower-
pot so placed that the soil was exposed to the electric light, germinated
two days earlier than similar seeds without the action of the electric
light.
i Herr Schdller § also testifies to the exceptional luxuriance of beets,
in a plot of about two square metres, which had been struck by
lightning.
Respiration of Plants.||-MM. G. Bonnier and L. Mangin point out
that hitherto the amount of oxygen given out by plants to the air has
been supposed to represent the total result of the fixation of carbon.
They show that this is not the case, but that at the same time that the
carbon is assimilated by the chlorophyll, the protoplasm absorbs
oxygen and emits carbonic acid. An analysis of the gas emitted by
a plant, therefore, only represents the difference between the amount
of oxygen disengaged by assimilation of carbon and the amount
absorbed by respiration, and on the other hand, between the carbonic
acid decomposed by assimilation and the carbonic acid produced by
respiration.
* Abh. Naturf. Gesell. Halle, xvi. (1884) 102 pp. (3 pls.). See Bot, Centralbl.,
xxii. (1885) p. 163.
+ Zeitschr. Land. Vereins in Bayern. See Journ. of Sci., vii. (1885) p. 248.
t ced Landwirth. See Journ. of Sci., vii. (1885) p. 248.
1d,
; Comptes Rendus, ec. (1885) p. 1303,
836 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Three methods are given for separating the result of the action of
chlorophyll from that of respiration. One is by calculating the
difference between the whole amount of gas emitted and absorbed by
plants exposed to light, and the volume which they emit by respira-
tion alone in the same light. A second method consists in suppress-
ing assimilation by the use of chloroform or ether without altering
the respiration. In the third method, two plants, of which the
physiological identity has previously been ascertained, are exposed,
the one to ordinary air, and the other under similar conditions except
that a concentrated solution of barium hydrate is placed in the con-
taining apparatus to absorb the carbonic acid formed. Under these
circumstances an excess of oxygen is found in the apparatus without
baryta, while in the apparatus containing it the carbonic acid when
set free by hydrochloric acid is found to be in excess of that in the
other vessel. The conclusion arrived at by the authors from these
experiments is that the volume of oxygen disengaged by assimilation
is greater than that contained in the carbonic acid decomposed.*
Respiration of Plants at different seasons.;— MM. G. Bonnier
and L. Mangin give the following experimental results on this
subject :—In any given stage of development, the proportion between
the volume of carbonic acid given out and that of oxygen absorbed, is
constant, whatever the temperature. This proportion remains also
constant if the pressure of oxygen is diminished, and that of carbonic
acid increased.
Galvanotropism of Roots.t—Herr J. Brunchorst describes under
this name the curvature in roots growing free in water caused by a
galvanic current. Weaker currents cause curvatures which are con-
cave on the side of the negative electrode; these he calls negative
curvatures; while stronger currents cause curvatures which are
concave on the side of the positive electrode; and these he calls
positive curvatures. The point of passage from negative to positive
curvatures varies greatly with different plants. Decapitated roots
exhibited only positive curvatures.
Movement of Water in Plants.§—In support of Godlewski’s view
as to the cause of the ascent of water in plants,|| Herr J. M. Janse
describes the following experiment. The central portions of long
branches with abundance of leaves at their summit were placed in a
water-bath without separating them from the plant. The portion im-
mersed in water, from 15 to 20 cm. long, was heated for an hour to a
temperature of 70°C. The result was that in Fuchsia globosa the
leaves above the heated part began to wither the next day, and after
five days were completely dried up. Syringa vulgaris held out some-
what longer, its leaves did not begin to wither till the fifth day, and
were all dead in seventeen days. He concludes that the co-operation
of the living elements of the wocd is essential for the ascent of water
* See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xii. (1885) pp. 63-4.
+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, vii. (1885) pp. 175-80. See this Journal, ante, p. 679.
t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Geseil., ii. (1884) pp. 204-19.
§ Maandbl. vy. Natuurwet., 1885, pp. 11-24. See Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) p. 302.
|| See this Journal, ante, p. 490. ©
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 837
in trees; and that the medullary rays are especially adapted for
driving up water to the highest branches.
“‘Bleeding’’ of Parenchymatous Tissues.*—Dr. C. Kraus states
that “bleeding” takes place from all parenchymatous tissues as the
result of osmotic forces when the turgidity is sufficiently high, when
there is no mechanical resistance, and when the parenchyma is in the
right condition. The composition of the sap thus excreted varies,
and is often different from that of the cell-sap. While the cell-sap
is usually decidedly acid, the excreted fluid may be neutral or very
slightly acid or even strongly alkaline; sometimes it is even more
acid than the cell-sap. The bleeding is not brought about by trans-
verse sections alone, but also by tangential and radial wounds.
Bleeding often takes place from the leaves of cut branches, but
usually only when the leaves are young; also from the surface of
the epidermis of young roots; and acid drops have been observed to
exude from the apex of root-hairs. The reaction of the parenchy-
matous sap appears to vary in the same plant.
Physiological and Pathological Effect of Camphor on Plants.t;—
Dr. A. Burgerstein has determined, from a large series of experi-
ments, that when cut and withered shoots of various plants are placed
in camphor-water, they recover more rapidly, and again become turgid
sooner, than if placed in distilled water. At the same time camphor-
water increases the transpiration from the shoot. If, however, the
absorption of camphor-water is continued for a longer period, from
two to five days, the plant is injured and at length killed. If made
to swell in camphor-water, seeds will absorb water more rapidly and
in greater quantity than if placed in distilled water.
Chemical and Physiological Action of Light on Chlorophyll.t{—
M. C. Timiriazeff, in order to avoid errors due to the unequal dis-
persion of a prism, adopted the method of decomposing portions of
the previously dispersed light. By means of the cylindrical lens and
prism of small angle used in experiments on complementary colours,
two images, complementary in colour, were thrown at the same time
either on two test-tubes containing a 30 per cent. solution of carbonic
anhydride in which was placed a small branch of Hlodea, or on a
plate coated with collodion containing a small quantity of chlorophyll.
When the spectrum was divided into two equal parts with respect to
the normal spectrum, the two images were of course respectively
yellow and blue. The maximum chemical and physiological effect
was exerted by the yellow, whilst the effect of the blue rays was
scarcely appreciable. The blue-violet portion of the spectrum being
cut off by a screen, the less refrangible portion was divided into two
equal parts, red and greenish yellow. The maximum chemical and
* Bot. Centralbl., xxi. (1885) pp. 212-7, 245-9, 274-8, and 373; also
Wollny’s Fortschr. a. d. Geb. d. Agriculturphys., vii. (1884) pp. 136-71. See
this Journal, iv. (1884) pp. 591, 777.
t Verh. K, K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxiv. (1885) pp. 543-62,
+ Comptes Rendus, ec. (1885) pp. 851-4.
Ser. 2—Von. V. i
838 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
physiological effect was exerted by the red. By placing the prism
in the greenish-yellow part of the spectrum, a greenish-yellow and a
violet image were obtained. The latter contained all the rays ab-
sorbed by chlorophyll, whilst the former contained only the green
which is reflected by vegetation. In this case the maximum effects
were exerted by the violet.
It follows from these results that chlorophyll acts as a true
sensitizer, undergoing decomposition itself, and promoting the de-
composition of carbonic anhydride in those parts of the spectrum
_ which it absorbs. The different rays absorbed by chlorophyll produce
decomposition in very different degrees, the maximum decomposition
coinciding in a remarkable manner with the maximum energy in the
normal spectrum as measured by Langley and Abney. It would
seem, therefore, that it is the amplitude rather than the period of the
vibrations which brings about that disturbance of the carbonic
anhydride molecule which finally results in its dissociation. The
chemical action of light on the photographic plate seems to be
strictly analogous to its physiological action on the living plant,
provided that, as in the case of chlorophyll, the absorption phenomena
are identical in both cases.
B. CRYPTOGAMIA.
Cell-wall-thickenings and Cellulin-grains in Chara and Vau-
cheria.*—Prof. G. Schaarschmidt has observed these structures in
Chara hispida and Vaucheria sessilis. They are especially abundant
on plants grown inaroom. ‘They are of various forms, cylindrical,
conical, or ribbon-shaped, occasionally branched or united in groups,
or of larger size and undulating, or very rarely empty and vesicular.
They make their first appearance as small elevations on the inside of
the cell-wall, often very closely packed; developing then into a
cylindrical-conical form, manifesting a distinct lamination, and with
either a “nucleus ” or crevice near the base. The undulating thick-
enings are found especially in the antheridia and oogonia, on septa
formed as the result of injury. The protoplasm collects in large
quantities at the spots where these thickenings are taking place; it
contains but a small number of chlorophyll-grains, and finally dis-
appears with the exception of a very thin layer, which shows very
beautifully the hyaloplasmatic membrane of the chlorophyll-grains.
In Vaucheria and many other fresh-water algz the cell-wall is im-
pregnated with various incrusting substances of unknown composition.
These thickenings are regarded by the author as pathological
products, and are often accompanied by abnormal structures such as,
in Vaucheria, the septation of the filaments. The portions of proto-
plasm separated by transverse thickenings develope into gemme, or
into a multicellular or branched septated form, the “conferva” and
“cladophora”’ condition respectively. These forms are in no way
connected with the Gongrosira-condition.
* Magy. Novén. Lapok., viii. pp. 1-13 (1 pl.). See Bot. Centralbl., xxii.
(1885) p. 1.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 839
Cellulin-grains were observed by the author in Vaucheria sessilis
and geminata, but not with certainty in the living cells; best in
preparations treated with hyperosmic acid, and then mounted in
glycerin, after the cells have lain for a long time in alcohol. They
vary in size from 4 to 14 p, and are of a compressed roundish form.
The inner spongy mass of the young grains takes up pigments
greedily, while the outer part is scarcely or not at all stained ;
nigrosin and rosanilin stain them most strongly. The inner portion
is, however, coloured by an aqueous solution of eosin. They are
remarkably insoluble in chlor-iodide of zinc, and in sulphuric acid
unless very concentrated.
Cryptogamia Vascularia.
Apical Growth of the Root of Todea.*—M. P. Lachmann finds
in the roots of Todea barbara a group of four initial cells, each with
the form of a prism or of a four-sided truncated pyramid. The
secondary roots proceed from a single cell of the endoderm of the
adventitious roots, but in these also there is formed at an early
period a group of four initials lying in a cross. The author regards
this as establishing an additional point of union between the
Osmundacea and Marattiacez.
Prothallium of Lycopodium.t—Dr. H. Bruchmann points out a
remarkable difference between the prothallium of Lycopodium anno-
tinum, observed by Fankhauser and himself, and that of LD. cernuum,
described by Treub. The latter is an erect cylindrical body growing
above the surface of the soil and containing chlorophyll, with a leaf-
like rim, beneath which are the archegonia and antheridia. The
former is a prostrate underground tuber, entirely destitute of chloro-
phyll, and bearing antheridia and archegonia on the surface of special
cushions inclosed by the margin of the prothallium. Neither form
appears to be in any way abnormal, and the explanation suggested is
that the European club-mosses have one type of prothallium, the
tropical species another.
Another peculiarity of the prothallium of Lycopodium, as observed
both by Treub and by Bruchmann, is the constant presence in its
cells of an endophytic fungus, apparently an undescribed species of
Pythium, resembling that described by Sadebeck in the prothallium
of Equisetum. It appears to exercise very little injurious influence
on the tissues. Bodies which were probably oogonia were detected
by Bruchmann in some of the cells.
Spores of Lycopodium.t— Mr. D. H. Galloway has made some
measurements of the spores of Lycopodium, with the following results :
He made careful measurements of 50 spores and found their average
diameters to be 7/6000 in., the largest having a diameter of 8/6000 in.,
and the smallest 6/6000 in. It would therefore take 857 of them
* Bull. Mens. Soc Bot. Lyons, 1884, pp. 42-4. See Bot. Centralbl., xxi.
(1885) p. 354.
+ Bot. Centralbl., xxi. (1885) pp. 309-13. See this Journal, ante, p, 277.
¢ Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xii. (1885) pp. 55-6, from ‘ Western Druggist.’
312
840 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
laid side by side to make an inch in length; to cover a square inch
734,449 would be required; and to fill the space of a cubic inch
629,422,793. Or in terms of the metric system, a row 1 em. in length
would contain 343 spores; a sq. cm. 117,649, and a c.cm. 40,353,607.
On measuring the capacity of one of Powers and Weightman’s dram
morphine bottles he found that it was almost exactly 40 c¢.cm., there-
fore one of the bottles would contain 1,614,144,280 of these spores.
The same bottle will hold 10,600 flax seeds, 350 cubeb berries,
250 grains of allspice, 66 Cocculus Indicus seeds, 20 nux vomica
seeds, 200 canary seeds, 8400 dill seeds, 2900 grains of paradise,
1250 hemp seeds, 500 black pepper berries, 661 white pepper berries,
8250 stramonium seeds, and 100 pumpkin seeds. It will thus be
seen that one hemp seed equals in size 1,291,315 lycopodium spores.
Node of Equisetum.*—Mr. A. A. Crozier describes the structure
of the node of Equisetum arvense. If a section is made lengthwise
through a node of a fertile stem, each vascular bundle is seen to
divide into two parts, each part uniting with a corresponding part of
an adjacent bundle to form one of the bundles of the next internode.
If the section be made radially through one of the teeth of the sheath
or rudimentary leaves, a bundle is seen to pass down and unite in the
node with one of the bundles of the stem. The bundle of the leaf is
derived not by a simple separation of a portion of the outer phloém,
part of the bundle in the stem, but originates where that bundle
begins to divide, and in such a manner that its vessels are continuous
with the xylem of the divided bundle.
Each bundle of the stem, therefore, divides at the node into three
parts—two lateral portions, each with xylem and phloém, which by
rearrangement continue the bundles of the stem, and a central part
which bends outward into the leaf.
Muscines.
Development of the Sporangium of Frullania. j— M. Leclere
du Sablon describes the development of this organ in the case of
F. dilatata. In an early stage the organ is composed of cells more
or less square and arranged regularly in two different directions.
The upper part consists of two layers of cells forming a somewhat
hemispherical surface, beneath which is the essential part of the
sporangium, viz. a somewhat fusiform row of eight cells, distin-
guished by larger nuclei, and by their protoplasm being denser and _
taking a darker stain from hematoxylin. These are the source
of both the spores and the elaters. Hach of these cells divides into
four by two vertical walls; the subsequent divisions being in a
transverse direction. Ata later period the nucleus is seen to divide
in some of these cells, but not in others; and in such a way thata cell of
each kind in one row alternates regularly with cells of the other kind in
the adjacent rows; both kinds at the same time increasing in length.
Those which do not divide are the mother-cells of the elaters; those
- * Amer. Naturalist, xix. (1885) pp. 502-3 (2 figs ).
+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, vil. (1885) pp. 187-91.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 841
which do divide give birth to the mother-cells of the spores. In the
formation of the latter no cell-wall is formed between the daughter-cells,
which are separated only by mucilage; and this process is repeated
many times; this gelatinous substance surrounding the mother-cells
like a true membrane. Finally the spores surround themselves by a
thick membrane. The elaters are also at an early stage surrounded
by a thin gelatinous membrane like that of the spores; their proto-
plasmic contents gradually diminish, and are at least partly con-
sumed in the formation of the spiral, the development of which
resembles that of spiral vessels as described by Strasburger. By the
time this spiral is completely developed, the protoplasm in the
interior of the elater has entirely disappeared.
Trochobryum, a new genus of Mosses.*—Herren J. Breidler and
G. Beck give the following diagnosis of this new genus of Seligeri-
acez :—Dwarf plants, with the nearest affinity to the genus Seligeria.
Leaves loosely areolated from a short base, subulate, with a long
projecting mid-rib. Capsule seated on a thick seta, sub-spherical,
thick-walled, with a short indistinct neck, depressed when dry ; sub-
disciform or of a shallow funnel-shape when the operculum is
removed. Peristome-teeth 16, equidistant, hygroscopic, rather broad,
without any dividing line. Operculum adnate to the columella,
apiculate. Calyptra hooded. The only species, T. carniolicum, is from
calcareous rocks in Carniola.
Alge.
Physiological Anatomy of Alge.j—Herr N. Wille has made
observations on the elasticity of the tissue of the larger marine alge,
by means of which they are able to resist the traction and other
distorting forces of large waves. The faculty of stretching he found
to be very considerable in the larger Floridew, and still greater in the
Laminariex, varying from 25 per cent. in Porphyra vulgaris to 48 per
cent. in Laminaria flexicaulis. 'The “leaves” of seaweeds are almost
invariably flexible ; while on the other hand, the “stem” may have
considerable firmness; and this firmness may be imparted in three
different ways, viz. :—(1) by the whole of the interior being occupied
by strongly thickened cells, as in Ahnfeltia plicata ; (2) by incrusta-
tion, as in Corallina officinalis; (3) by columnar haptera, as in the
Laminariew, where the walls of the outer cells are more strongly
thickened than those of the central cells.
Contrivances to prevent traction are very common. The cell-walls
towards the base of the stem are thicker in Chorda filum, while this
organ itself is stouter in Polysiphonia. Rhizines are formed for the
same purpose outside the membrane of the mother-plant, consisting
of single rows of cells in Cladophora ophiophila, of plates of cells in
Monostroma orbiculatum ; or within the mother-plant, of rows of cells
in Cladophora rupestris and Bangia, of plates of cells in Porphyra
* Verh. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxiv. (1885) pp. 105-6 (1 pl.).
+ SB. Bot. Sallsk. Stockholm, Nov. 19, 1884, Sce Bot, Centralbl., xxi, (1885)
pp. 282 and 315,
842 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
vulgaris. ‘‘ Hyphe” for a similar purpose occur in the stem and
mid-rib of the leaf in Fucacew. Strongly thickened mechanical cells
are found in the centre of the organ in Odonthalia dentata, or forming
a ring round the conducting tissue in Cystoclonium purpurascens.
The vegetative branches are matted together into a felt-like structure
in Ectocarpus tomentosus. Finally certain branches develope into a
kind of tendril embracing other alge, as in Cystoclonium purpurascens
var. cirrhosa.
The same purpose is served in other ways by the whole thallus
being expanded flat or united into a cushion, mucilaginous in
Calothrix scopulorum, incrustaceous in Melobesia, or enveloped in a
mucilaginous envelope in Nemaleon multifidum. The stem creeps
and is fixed by haptera in Polysiphonia rhizoides; or the alga grows
up among other more resistant species, by which it is protected, as
for example Ascophyllum bulbosum.
The assimilating cells are distributed over the surface of the
organ ; but are sometimes, as in Chordaria flagelliformis, arranged in
radial rows.
The conducting system consists largely of long and narrow
hyphe, the transverse walls of which are swollen quite after the
manner of sieve-tubes and perforated by extremely fine orifices; and
these conducting hyphs are in communication throughout the plant.
New Epiphytic Floridea.*— Herr M. Mobius describes a
minute epiphytic alga found on preserved specimens of Centroceras
clavulatum (Ag. MS.) from Western Australia. It occurs on speci-
mens from this locality only, and only on the tetrasporangia, in the
form of a large central cell enclosed in a small-celled tissue. In the
latter are found not only male and female organs, but also tetraspores,
all on different individuals, but closely packed together on the same
host. For this epiphyte the author proposes the name Episporium
Centroceratis. ‘The tetraspores are formed from simple swollen ter-
minal cells, and are dispersed in large numbers among the superficial
vegetative cells. They arise by tetrahedral division, and form a body
of about 0:016 mm. diameter. The female specimens put out nume-
rous trichogynes, but the development of the carpogenous cells and
cystocarps is difficult to follow. The trichogyne is often of con-
siderable length, and is seated on a trichophore composed of two or
three smaller cells, which appear to arise from some larger carpo-
genous cells. The male individuals are densely covered on their
surface by minute cells, about -003 mm. in diameter, the antheridia,
which spring singly or in pairs at the apex of a terminal cell of the
thallus. While the form of the male and female organs of Hpisporium
resembles in its general features that of other Floridex, the structure
of the thallus differs so widely from any hitherto known that it must
be regarded as the type of a new section.
Conjugation of Rhabdonema arcuatum.{—Mr. T. H. Buffham
describes the phenomena noticed in the process of conjugation of
* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., ili. (1885) pp. 77-80 (1 pl.).
+ Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, ii. (1885) pp. 131-7 (2 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 843
Rhabdonema arcuatum. The following are the salient features :—
(1) The male frustules are the smaller in size, have the more definite
arrangement of endochrome, and are the more readily detached.
(2) The female frustules have slightly longer valves, more numerous
annuli, and have always a wide band near the middle. (8) Conjuga-
tion is always polyandrous, and is effected by the male frustules
attaching themselves indifferently to any part of the annuli of the
female frustule. (4) The result of such conjugation is the production
of one sporangial or zygospore-frustule if only the basal half of a
female frustule persist; but if both halves persist, each will produce
a sporangium—the two sporangia being in close apposition. (5) The
sporangial or zygospore-frustule consists of two valves, without
annuli, which have a length about thrice that of the valves of the
female. With regard to the inducing causes of conjugation, it would
appear that self-division, which gradually reduces the size of the
bounding valves, has gone on so long that a new generation becomes
necessary to maintain the size.
Sections of Diatoms from the Jutland “ Cementstein.” *—M. W.
Prinz criticizes at some length the opinions expressed in recent papers
by MM. Grunow, Deby, Cox, and Fldégel, calling in question the
results of the researches undertaken by M. Van Ermengem and him-
self concerning the structure of the valves of diatoms. He also
describes from both a geological and a petrological point of view the
Jutland “‘ Cementstein,’ and the mode of occurrence in it of the
diatoms as well as their state of preservation, which he maintains is
one of absolutely perfect integrity. The question of illusory images
and the visibility of the perforations of diatoms in the sections is
discussed, with some observations on perforated and imperforated
diatoms found in the rock. He also draws attention to a singular
imperforate organism which, according to Dr. Van Heurck, is probably
not a diatom, though, like certain diatoms, it is composed of two
unequal valves fitting into each other.
Phytophagous Fishes as Disseminators of Algx.t—Sig. A. Piccone
finds in the digestive organs of Box Salpa, portions of as many as
eighteen species of seaweed, some of them in a fruiting condition, the
spores or conceptacles of which are evacuated with the feces ; and he
concludes that this is of great importance in the dissemination of the
species concerned.
Lichenes.
Formation of Thalli on the Apothecia of Peltidea aphthosa.t—
Dr. M. Finfstiick describes specimens of this lichen from various
localities in which the apothecia, when they had attained a certain
stage of development, were covered on their back by small, wrinkled
thallus-scales. A transverse section through an apothecium in which
these scales had not yet made their appearance, reveals, in the medul-
* Bull. Soc. Belge Mier., xi. (1885) pp. 147-93 (4 pls.).
+ Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xvii. (1885) pp. 150-8.
} Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., ii. (1884) pp. 447-52 (1 pl.).
_ B44 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
lary tissue beneath the fructification, scattered groups of gonidia
which are larger and of lighter colour than the normal gonidia of the
thallus, and which might easily be mistaken for cephalodia. They
are, in fact, derived from the normal gonidial layer, and, under favour-
able conditions, become gradually transformed into the scales in
question. They should strictly be regarded as a part of the fructi-
fication. In Peltidea aphthosa the apothecia have a different origin
from that in the nearly related genus Peltigera, viz. from immediately
beneath the gonidial layer. The endogenous origin of this peculiar
thallus-formation can be proved by following it out from the first
isolation of the gonidia to their complete differentiation into cortical,
gonidial, and medullary layers. No similar formation was observed
in Peltidea venosa.
Fungi,
Thermotropism of the Roots of Athalium septicum.* — Dr. J.
Wortmann has further investigated this phenomenon, first observed
by Stahl, and finds the optimum temperature for its manifestation to
lie between 35° and 40° C. With exposure to unequal temperature
above 86°, he finds the plasmodia to be negatively, while below this
limit they are positively thermotropic; both kinds being thus capable
of being induced on the same plasmodium. This phenomenon he com-
pares to that of Phycomyces, the fructification of which is negatively,
while the mycelium is positively geotropic. The thermotropic pheno-
mena of plasmodia are closely analogous to those of roots.
Plasmodiophora Alni.j—Dr. H. Moller has further investigated
the peculiar swellings caused by this parasitic fungus (Schinzia Alm
Wor.) on the roots of the alder, which he finds on almost every
specimen examined of both Alnus glutinosa and incana. The proto-
plasm of the parasite is imbedded in a sac of the protoplasm of the
host, and this protoplasmic envelope is connected by several strings
with the parietal protoplasm. The protoplasm of the host remains
comparatively unaffected; and hence the small amount of damage
done by the parasite. Both in this and other points, the physiological
processes present a great resemblance to those of Plasmodiophora
Brassice.
Nutrition of Trees by means of Underground Fungi.j—Herr
B. Frank has made the remarkable discovery that the roots of
certain trees are unable to derive nutriment directly from the soil,
but do this entirely by means of a mass of fungus-hyphe which
entirely invests the root, and to which he gives the name Mycorhiza.
If the absorbing organs of our native oaks, beeches, hornbeams, chest-
nuts, or hazels are examined, they are found to consist of a nucleus,
the true root, and a cortex organically associated with it in growth,
composed entirely of fungus-hyphz, completely enveloping the whole
* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 117-20.
+ Ibid., pp. 102-5 (4 figs.). See also pp. 177-8.
t Ibid., pp. 128-45 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 845
of the root, even the growing point. The structure of this latter is
that of a sclerotium ; it is composed of a dense mass of hyphe varying
in diameter from 0-0024 to 0-01 mm., usually in several layers, from
which other endophytic hyphe penetrate into the root between the
epidermal cells, which are still slenderer than those of the envelope.
By this structure the formation of root-hairs by the tree is entirely
prevented, and it is through it alone that it is able to absorb nutri-
ment out of the soil. It makes its appearance first on the lateral
roots of very young seedlings, and is constantly being replaced by
fresh formations on older roots.
Dr. Frank found this structure invariably on every root examined
on every tree belonging to the Cupulifere, also occasionally on
Salicacez and Conifers, but never on woody plants belonging to other
natural orders, or on any herbaceous plants. It is quite independent
of the nature of the soil, and its specific character has not been deter-
mined. He regards the phenomenon as an example of symbiosis
comparable in all essential points to that of lichens, the mycorhiza
corresponding to the fungal element in the lichen, the tree itself to
the algal gonidia.
Dr. M. Woronin * confirms these statements in relation to Conifera,
Salicinew, and some other trees. He regards the phenomenon rather
as an instance of parasitism than of symbiosis, and thinks it probable
that the parasitic fungus is a Boletus. He claims the priority of this
observation for F, Kamienski.
Composition and Spore-cultivation of Merulius lacrymans.j—
Prof. Poleck has investigated the mode of operation of the mycelium
of this fungus, which, known as dry-rot, is so destructive to timber,
especially that of Conifers. The proportion of water varies from
48 to 68-4 per cenit. The amount of ash is large, varying from
6°33 to 9°66 per cent. The composition of this ash varies within
rather wide limits; but there was always found a large proportion of
phosphates. As an average it may be stated that of the dry weight
about 4°9 per cent. is nitrogen, and 13 per cent. oil; there are also
several acids and traces of an alkaloid. The author states that the
action of the mycelium on the wood consists in removing its mineral
constituents, thus destroying its solidity, and rendering it liable to
the attacks of other agents. The richer the wood in phosphoric acid
and salts of potash, the more energetically is it liable to be attacked
by the fungus. When once desiccated the mycelium has no power of
resuscitation. Mycelial filaments have been measured from 5 to
6 metres in length.
Prof. Poleck has been the first to succeed in inducing the spores
of Merulius lacrymans to germinate on their natural substratum, and
to follow out their development, which is described in detail.
Germination of the Spores of Merulius lacrymans.t—Prof. R.
Hartig has been able to effect this in gelatin moistened with the
* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell, iii. (1885) pp. 205-6.
+ Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1885) pp. 151-6, 182-6, 213-7 (2 figs.).
_ Bot. Ver. Miinchen, Dec, 10, 1884. See Bot. Centralbl., xxi. (1885)
p. 155.
846 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
juice of fruit with addition of urine or of ammonia and potassium
carbonate. He notes also the absorption of the mineral constituents
of the walls of the wood-cells when in immediate contact with the
hyphee of the fungus, while the organic constituents are dissolved
only by the ferment excreted.
New Chytridiacese.*—Since publishing his monograph of the
Chytridiacez,} Dr. C. Fisch has observed two new forms, one of which
deviates in several particulars from the typical structure of Chytridium.
It was found as a parasite on Mesocarpus, in the form of small flask-
shaped brownish receptacles, in length about half the diameter of the
Mesocarpus-filament. 'These are zoosporangia, with brownish thick
wall, not coloured by iodine. From the point of attachment to the
host proceeds an extremely fine mycelial filament, which penetrates
the Mesocarpus-cell, usually only reaching about its centre. The
contents of the zoosporangium consist of rather coarse-grained proto-
plasm, in which no nucleus was detected. The formation of the zoo-
spores is preceded by various changes in this protoplasm. 'The zoo-
spores are rarely more than eight in number, and agree in their
structure with those of Reessia. They are rather large, composed of
finely granular protoplasm, imbedded in which is an evident nucleus
or nuclear structure. A single cilium springs from the somewhat
narrower anterior end. These zoospores move about rapidly in the
sporangium before the latter suddenly bursts by the separation of a
circular lid. After moving about rapidly for a considerable time in the
water, a pair of zoospores approach one another by their ciliated ends,
and coalesce completely. The resulting zygote contains at first two
nuclei, which soon coalesce into one. It then surrounds itsclf with a
cell-wall, and attuches itself to a Mesocarpus-filament. By means of
a small appendage which pierces the wall of the host-cell, the zygote
empties its contents into the latter, and rapidly grows to a large cell
with membrane in two layers, the typical resting-spore of Chytridium.
These germinate after a short period of repose, and again produce
ZOOSPores.
The second new species is a Reessia, near to R. ameboides, and
parasitic on a large Cladophora.
The three genera Reessia, Chytridium, Rhizidium, present a series
in which the first species here described, perhaps the type of a new
genus, presents a connecting link. It is a typical Huchytridium, in
which the sexual function has not been lost. In the form and be-
haviour of the zoospores it is closely allied to Reessia ; while in the
structure and germination of the resting-spores, and in the develop-
ment of the zoosporangium and of the mycelial appendage, it is a
typical Chytridiwm.
Nowakowskia, a new Genus of Chytridiacee.t —Sig. A. Borzi
finds a parasitic fungus on Hormotheca, a new genus of alge, in such
* SB. Phys.-med. Soc. Erlangen, xvi. (1884) p. 101 et seg. See Bot.
Centralbl., xxi. (1885) p. 167.
+ See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 938.
t Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1885) pp. 23-6 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 847
quantities as completely to destroy it, and proposes for it the name
Nowakowskia Hormothecee. It lives on the germinating zoospores of
its host, the contents of which it appropriates by means of very slender
rhizoid-like appendages, usually 3-5 in number, attached to its peri-
phery. It grows free in the surrounding medium in the form of a
small ball of greyish protoplasm, inclosed in a delicate membrane
which is coloured blue by tincture of iodine. The protoplasm is of a
very finely granular structure, is stained yellow by picric acid, and
contains minute strongly refractive corpuscles. ‘The size of these
bodies varies considerably, from 4 to 6. The rhizoid-like append-
ages are extremely delicate, and only visible under a high power, and
appear to be composed of dense, homogeneous, strongly refractive
protoplasm, extremely receptive to pigments, without, as far as could
be detected, any membrane.
The development of Nowakowskia is extremely simple, and closely
resembles that of Polyphagus Euglene. After absorbing a sufficient
amount of food-material by means of its appendages, and attaining its
full size, it transforms itself directly and completely into a zoospor-
angium ; the zoospores being formed by the appearance of a number
of shining spherical particles, round which the whole of the proto-
plasm collects and breaks up into as many minute portions. As soon
as the zoospores begin to be formed, the wall of the zoospor-
angium begins to be absorbed and become indistinguishable, finally
disappearing altogether, and the mass of zoospores then swarms in
the fluid, without the individuals at first separating from one another,
the motion resembling that of a colony of Volvox. The zoospores,
which do not exceed 1 » in their longest diameter, finally separate ;
their form is then somewhat hourglass-shaped, rounded at both ends
and somewhat constricted in the middle. In the anterior end, which
terminates in a single very long and extremely slender cilium, is a
drop of oil. After moving about very actively for a few minutes, the
zoospores come to rest. They germinate free in the water, and only
reach their host by putting out in its direction the very fine rhizoid-
like appendages. ‘The entire transformation into a zoosporangium
occupies from four to six hours. No sexual reproduction could be
detected with certainty.
Borzi considers Nowakowskia as most nearly related to Obelidium
and Rhizidiwm on the one hand, to Polyphagus on the other hand.
New Fungus-parasite on the Rose.*—Herr J. Eriksson describes
a disease to which Rosa rubrifolia is subject in the neighbourhood of
Stockholm, due to the ecidial form of Phragmidiwm subcorticum, which
attacks the leaves, leaf-stalks, and flower-stalks of both first and second
year's shoots, The mycelium appears to hibernate in the stem.
Mycological Monstrosities.t—M. E. Heckel describes two cases
of monstrosity in fungi. In the first case, a specimen of Lactarius
delicioeus, the margin of the pileus was non-adherent to the stem at
* SB. Bot. Sallsk. Stockholm, Sept. 27, 1884. See Bot. Oentralbl., xxi.
(1885) p. 221.
+ Comptes Rendus, xcix. (1884) pp. 1088-90.
848 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
only one point of the periphery ; throughout the rest of its circum-
ference it formed one substance with the stem.
The normal hymenial lamellz were entirely suppressed, while the
hyphe of the pileus bore the lamelle united into a compact mass
by their free margins and by several points of their parallel faces ;
thus leaving between them free spaces, few in number, in which the
terminations of the hyphz were crowned by perfectly normal spores.
The cavities being closed-in, dissemination of the spores was absolutely
impossible.
The second instance was Polyporus betulinus. Composed of two
parts dissimilar in appearance and specifically distinct, although juxta-
posed on the same plane and united at their margins, the monstrosity
is formed by a single pileus whose substance has been constricted at
one point. Whilst the second part is perfectly normal, the first
presents a singular teratological alteration. Both the surfaces are
covered with spores. On the upper surface the tubes are long and
inclined, with denticulated and torn edges. On the lower surface,
they are vertical and short; both bear normal spores. The former
disposition of the tubes evidently has for its object a more éfficacious
protection of the spores which are more exposed to exterior agencies.
This monstrosity is of double interest: first, it testifies to the experi-
mental value of researches into the abnormal formation of spores;
second, it shows that fungi, even of the higher orders, are endowed
with great plasticity of form, receiving promptly the impression of
the plexus of surrounding forces.
Some Remarkable Moulds.*— Dr. M. C. Cooke gives full de-
scriptions of some remarkable moulds, brief diagnoses of which have
been previously published,} viz.:—Basidiella sphxrocarpa Cooke;
Sterigmatocystis ferruginea Cooke, and Aspergillus nigricans Cooke.
He also describes Polyactis depredans Cooke MS8., that grows on
the leaves of Acer pseudo-platanus, and Polyactis truncata Cooke,{
likewise previously described.
Pneumonomycosis of Birds.§—Hearing that near Berlin many
geese were dying of a disease the duration of which was short and
the cause unknown, Dr. Schiitz requested the owner of the birds to
send a body for examination. This disclosed a pneumonomycosis.
Its specific nature was determined by breeding at temperature of 30° C.
on bread-paste. The usual precautions were taken, and in 24 hours
a layer of Aspergillus fumigatus was formed. In the subsequent
inoculation process it had to be borne in mind that at the post-mortem
examination the crop was found to be in direct communication with a
cavity in the right lung, hence the original infection focus could only
be determined by experiment. The fungi were bred in agar-agar and
in bread-paste at a temperature of 30°. The usual sterilizing pre-
cautions were taken, and in four days a luxuriant fungous growth
* Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, ii. (1885) pp. 138-43 (2 pls.).
+ Grevillea, vi. pp. 118 and 127, viii. p. 95.
+ Bommer’s ‘ Champignons de Bruxelles,’ p. 137.
§ MT. Reichsgesundheitsamte, ii. (1884) p. 208.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 849
appeared. The fungi thus obtained were mixed with (a) soft bread
and with (6) dry oats. The bread was given to pigeons, the oats to
geese. The pigeons were fed by stuffing a piece of the bread mixed
with fungus down their throats for six consecutive days. The geese
were allowed to dispose of as many infected oats as they pleased.
The first goose died on the sixteenth day, and as no result was evident
on post-mortem examination, recourse was had to infection by inhala-
tion. The Aspergillus fumigatus grown in the flasks was dried under
a bell-jar and then placed in a glass vessel inside which a pigeon
could stand easily. The glass jar was shaken several times in order
to raise a cloud of the fungi. The pigeon died on the third day.
From the diseased parts of the lungs of this pigeon bread-paste was
inoculated and Aspergillus fumigatus appeared. The remaining parts
of the lungs were hardened, and on microscopical examination an
extraordinary quantity of the fungus was found. In further experi-
ments only a few spores were introduced into the glass jar and the
pigeon was only allowed to remain five minutes. Under these con-
ditions the animal did not die so soon, and the fungi spread from the
lungs to other organs. Exactly the same results ensued when small
birds were used. Aspergillus niger gave similar results, A. glaucus
only acted as a foreign body in the lung.
Protophyta.
Ferments.*—Dr. E. C. Hansen publishes a few further observations
on the development of Saccharomyces.
Under certain conditions structures arise consisting of a gelatinous
network in the spaces of which the Saccharomyces-cells are found ;
but they are sometimes taken up into the network itself, which is not
coloured blue by iodine. This occurs not only in both forms of S.
cerevisiz, but also in species belonging to the groups Pastorianus and
ellipsoideus. 'The yeast used for the observation of this structure was
obtained from pure cultures in sterilized nutrient solutions, beer-wort,
ora mixture of saccharose and yeast-water; but it occurs also in
practice in breweries.
When the spores in a Saccharomyces-cell are preparing for ger-
mination, they swell up strongly. In certain species, when cultivated
on blocks of gypsum, structures arise which present the appearance of
septa. These are caused by the pressure which the swollen spores
exercise on one another ; the walls being brought into close combina-
tion with one another at the surfaces of contact.
S. apiculatus, although a ferment of alcoholic fermentation, is
destitute of invertin, and cannot therefore ferment saccharose. Its
ordinary habitat in summer is ripe fruits, and it is the only ferment
that ir found in nature. It appears to perish in less than twenty-four
hours vhen removed from its nutrient substratum.
Microphytes of Normal Human Epidermis.|—Prof. G. Bizzozero
describes various methods for observing the microphytes of the human
* Bot. Centralbl., xxi. (1885) pp. 181-4.
+ Arch, Ital. de Biol., vi, (1884) pp. 194-206 (1 pL).
850 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
- epidermis, and gives an illustrated account of such parasites as he has
observed. The parts of the body covered with hair are the most
favourable localities for the growth of these organisms, of which
three different kinds were noted. (1) Round cells, composed of a
thick membrane, enclosing a homogeneous non-nucleated mass, which
closely resembles a Saccharomyces, and may be termed S. sphezrica.
2) Oval cells, smaller and paler than the preceding, which are named
S. ovalis. (8) Micrococci and Bacteria ; these latter abound in all
parts of the body, and characteristic forms are found in different
regions, being associated with local pathological conditions.
Systematic Position of the Bacteria.*—In a review of recent
works on Bacteria, Dr. C. Fisch shows that the assignment of the
Schizomycetes to the Fungi does not rest on a sound morphological
basis, the physiological resemblance in the absence of chlorophyll not
being sufficient of itself to show a genetic affinity. The history of
development furnishes conclusive evidence against the Schizomycetes
being connected with the Fungi phylogenetically, either as an early
form of development or as the result of retrogression. The nearest
affinity of the Bacteria lies unquestionably with certain green
organisms, Nostoc, Oscillaria, &c., included under the Schizophyces
or Cyanophyceex ; and these form together a natural group of Schizo-
phyta, with no close affinity to any group of Fungi. According to
our present state of knowledge the Schizophyta must be regarded as
displaying the nearest genetic affinity with the Flagellata.
Influence of Oxygen on Fermentation by Schizomycetes.;—
Herr EH. Buchner has experimented on the effect produced by free
oxygen on the energy of the fermentation caused by the so-called
“ slycerin-ethyl-bacterium,” Bacterium Fitz, distinguished by its very
energetic fermentation of glycerin, chiefly into ethyl-alcohol, together
with volatile and stable acids, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. Three
cultures of this ferment were prepared, one of which was retained asa
control experiment, while through the other two streams of oxygen
and hydrogen respectively were passed. After twenty-nine hours the
fluid through which the oxygen had been passed was considerably
more turbid than the two others. Microscopical examination showed
the following results. The multiplication of Bacterium Fitz is pro-
moted to an extraordinary degree by the presence of free oxygen. In
cultures of the same extent and in the same time, the quantity of
glycerin fermented is increased. Whether oxygen or hydrogen is
passed through the culture, the formation of carbon dioxide given off
remains nearly the same in proportion to the amount of glycerin fer-
mented. The fermenting power of the individual Schizomycete is
diminished by the presence of free oxygen.
Cholera Bacillus——Mr. W. W. Cheyne gives{ the results of his
investigations at Paris during the epidemic of cholera, and afterwards
* Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) pp. 97-102.
+ SB. Bot. Ver. Miinchen, Jan. 14, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxi. (1885)
pp. 348 and 385. ;
+ Brit. Med, Journ., 1885, April 25-May 23.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 851
at his own laboratory. His conclusions are, that the comma bacillus
was present, and generally in large numbers, in all the cases of cholera
which were examined ; that he has never met with the comma bacillus
except in cholera, and that the other curved bacilli described (Finkler
and Prior’s, Lewis’s, and Denike’s or Fliigge’s), differ from it in
important particulars.
Mr. Cheyne also combats Klein’s arguments against the specific
nature of the comma bacillus.
Dr. E. Van Ermengem has also published an elaborate report * to
the Belgian Minister of the Interior, which is the most exhaustive
that has yet appeared. He supports Koch’s assertions.
Etiology of Tuberculosis.;—Dr. R. Koch sums up the results
on this subject obtained by himself and others, adding some new
observations.
The best mode of detecting the bacillus of tuberculosis is by the
staining reaction with anilin according to the methods of Ehrlich
and Rindfleisch. There is no other kind of bacterium with which it
agrees in this respect except the lepra-bacilli, and from them it is
distinguished by not taking up Weigert’s nuclear-staining. The
variability in the behaviour of this bacillus with staining reagents
Dr. Koch believes to result from its being surrounded by a very thin
envelope.
The separate individuals of the bacillus of tuberculosis are long
very narrow rods, with no segmentation of any kind, but often with
slight angles and curvings, and a tendency to spiral twisting, by
which they are distinguished from many other bacilli otherwise
resembling them in form, such as those of the septicemia of mice.
They occur within the cells of the tubercular nodules; only in
small numbers in the cheesy substance. The formation of spores is
very frequent. When spores are about to be formed, the bacillus
does not break up into separate segments, but from two to six ovate
spores are formed in each, distinguished by their high refractive
wer.
a Dr. Koch found the bacillus in the bodies after death of patients
who had suffered from every kind of tubercular disease; and in
especially large numbers in the sputum, where the formation of
spores is particularly abundant, and where it retains its vitality for
an extraordinary period. It occurs also in the excreta both of men
and animals suffering from tubercular disease.
The culture of the bacillus of tuberculosis was carried out success-
fully on the solidified serum of the blood of oxen at a temperature of
37° ©. The following are mentioned as special characters under
cultivation :—(1) It does not cause the serum to deliquesce; (2) it
spreads itself over the surface, lying loose upon it ; (3) the individuals
attach themselves to one another in large masses, which fall to the
* Ermengem, E. van, ‘ Recherches sur le Microbe du Choléra Asiatique,’
Mém. Soc. Belge Micr., x. (1884) pp. 1-342 (13 pls.).
t MT. K. Reichsgesundheitsamte, Berlin, ii, (1884) pp. 1-88 (10 pls.). See
aaa xxi, (1885) p. 235. Cf. this Journal, ii. (1882) p. 385; iv. (1884)
Pp. .
852 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
bottom; (4) the nutrient fluid always remains clear; (5) under low -
powers the young culture appears S-shaped and strongly swollen in
the middle. It grows on all kinds of serum, but not on the white
of egg.
Dr. Koch regards the bacillus of tuberculosis as a true parasite, in
contrast to other pathogenous bacteria. It goes through its whole
course of development, up to the production of spores within the body.
He believes it has no genetic connection with any other form of
bacterium.
Development and Pathogenous Properties of a Bacterium.*—
Herr G. Hauser describes a pathogenous bacterium obtained from the
putrefaction of a calf’s heart at 30° C. under ordinary conditions. An
infusion after eight days showed a great quantity of bacteria, which,
however, when cultivated in the ordinary way, did not exhibit any
great power of causing deliquescence of the substratum. After
exposure for another eight days to the ordinary temperature of a
room there appeared in the infusion a bacterium which grew with
extraordinary rapidity, causing rapid deliquescence of the gelatin on
which it was cultivated.
After cultivation on gelatin for twelve hours, a great quantity of
small oval bacteria were to be seen floating on the substratum, often
linked together in pairs; the whole of the rest of the surface being
completely covered by colonies of irregular form consisting of a single
layer of well-developed rods and short filaments. These colonies
were in continual rapid motion, some of the rods constantly leaving
them in the form of an elongated well-defined group, which glided
rapidly over the free surface of the gelatin, then joining with others
or with another colony. Hach of these groups consists of from three
to five parallel rows of spindle-shaped rods. Their movements are
very peculiar, resembling those of individual bacteria, and are in no
way due to motions in the substratum. Other groups again did not
become separated, but reunited themselves with the colony from which
they had partially detached themselves.
The deliquescence of the gelatin by these bacteria took place very
rapidly, being completed in from twelve to twenty-four hours, with
the formation of a whitish sediment. In this condition it contained a
number of minute bacteria endowed with a dancing movement, and
closely resembling Bacterium Termo. When cultivated on gelatin,
these developed gradually from shorter to longer rods and filaments,
which swarmed over the entire surface of the nutrient gelatin, causing
it to deliquesce. From these swarming colonies were developed longer
filaments endowed with rapid motion, which gradually divided into
shorter elements, and finally came to rest, passing then into an hour-
glass-like form, from which were developed the peculiar colonies
already described.
This peculiar bacterium causes very rapid decomposition in the
flesh of animals, accompanied by the development of stinking gases ;
the products of decomposition appearing to have poisonous properties.
* SB. Phys.-med. Soc. Erlangen, 1884, pp. 156-71. See Biol. Centralbl., v.
(1885) p. 36.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 853
Cornil and Babes’ “ Bacteria.’”’**— With the object of presenting all
the researches upon the bacteria in their proper light, the authors have
produced a profusely illustrated book, containing all that is known in
regard to Bacteria at the present time. The work begins with an
introduction to the study of the pathogenic Bacteria, and a rapid
summary of the beginning and progress of discovery in this direction
is given. This is of special value to the student because of the
copious references to original monographs that are made. The
development of the Microscope for work of this kind, the discussions
as to the specific nature of infectious disease, and the criticisms which
bacteriology has undergone, are reviewed, and this is followed by the
first part of the book proper. This is devoted to a consideration of
the Schizomycetes in general. The various forms of the organisms
are given and illustrated, and their methods of growth are treated at
length. A full account of all the instruments and materials necessary
for work in the observation of Bacteria, with the methods of employ-
ment, renders this part of the subject plain, while the discussion of
the anilin colours conveys information not easy for the student to
obtain elsewhere. The methods of culture are given in full.
. The classifications of Cohn, Van Tieghem, and Rabenhorst are
spoken of as the latest and best; and a complete list of all the patho-
genic Bacteria, with their main characteristics, follows. The bone of
contention, “‘ the attenuation of virus,” finds a place, and the various
organisms with which experiments approaching success have been
made are allowed to tell their story. Then the lesions occurring
with the presence of pathogenic Bacteria occupy the authors’ attention ;
and the modes of entrance, and disturbances of circulation and nutri-
tion produced by them, are all placed before the reader in the plainest
way. A discussion of the “ experimental maladies ” of Koch and others
closes the first part of the work, which is followed by a complete
bibliography of the important works upon Bacteria in general.
The second portion of the book is devoted to the special infectious
diseases. Beginning with chicken-cholera and ending with leprosy,
the results of all the investigations upon any disease suspected to be
due to a micro-organism are dealt with in the most impartial
manner. This includes not only the diseases of man, but also those
of animals concerning which any evidence of their bacterial origin
has been offered.
* Cornil, A. V., and Babes, V., “Les Bactéries et leur réle dans l’anatomie,
et Vhistologie pathologique des maladies infectieuses, viii. and 696 pp., 27 pls.
and figs., 8vo, Paris, 1885.
t Cf. Science, vi. (1885) pp. 77-8.
Ber. 2.—Vou. V. 3
854 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
MICROSCOPY.
a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*
Deby’s Twin Microscope.— Mr. J. Deby, C.E., sends us the
following description of a new selecting and mounting Microscope
devised by him :—
“ Being myself in the position of many other lovers of the Micro-
scope in regard to the few occasional hours I can find time to spare
for its enjoyable employment, I hope I may be rendering a service
to some of my fellow-workers by publishing the description of a
labour-saving selecting and mounting instrument which I recently
designed for the purpose of making the most of my time, and which
has been most carefully constructed for me by Messrs. Beck.
The Microscope, which I propose to call the “Twin Microscope,”
consists of the following parts (fig. 180) :—
1. Two independent parallel tubes attached to the same stage ;
the axis of each of the tubes corresponding to the centre of one of the
eyes of the observer. Hach tube has its independent rack motion by
a milled head.
2. Two mirrors, one for each tube, with swinging bars and usual
motions.
3. A fixed stage of large size, with necessary clamps for holding two
parallel glass slides, one under each of the tubes.
4, A movable substage, placed immediately below the upper stage,
having a considerable range of rectangular mechanical motions by
means of two milled heads.
5. A mechanical finger attached anteriorly to the movable sub-
stage. This finger is provided with universal motions by a ball-and-
socket arrangement. It is suited for carrying a bristle-holder,
needle-holder, or small scalpel. A small milled head permits of the
rotation of these holders independently of the ball and socket which
holds them.
6. Eye-pieces and objectives, either similar or dissimilar, for both
the tubes.
The directions for the use of the instrument may be summed up
as follows :—
a. Clamp a slide with the material to be operated upon under. one
of the tubes, and clamp another clean slide under the other tube.
b. Dissect or pick-up the desired object from slide No. 1 by using
one eye only, that over tube No. 1.
c. Close this eye and open the other, looking down the tube
No. 2.
d. Swing the object rapidly round by means of the mechanical
finger till it appears under the other eye.
* This subdivision is arranged in the following order :—(1) Stands; (2) Eye-
pieces and Objectives; (3) Illuminating Apparatus; (4) Other Accessories :
(5) Photo-micrography; (6) Manipulation; (7) Microscopical Optics, Books,
and Miscellaneous matters.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.
Fic. 180.
i
il
Degy’s Twin Microscorr.
a eo
855
856 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
e. Lower the object till it nearly touches the slide, and by means
of the mechanical motions of the substage place it exactly where it is
wanted, when a slight touch at the lever-end of the bristle-holder will
deposit it permanently.
d. Return the point of the bristle-holder to the first slide, and re-
commence the above operations as long as may be desired.
Objects may be searched for and selected under a low power, such
as a1 in., a 1/2 in., or a 2/3 in., and if very small may be deposited
under the other tube under a 4/10 in., a 1/4 in., ora 1/5 in. Those
who cannot use their eyes alternately, may shift one eye from one tube
to the other with insignificant loss of time.
The principal advantages of the instrument consist in the rapidity
with which it becomes possible to pick up and put down small objects,
and in the great precision of the manipulations. By employing
duplicate slides of a same material, one being placed under each of
the tubes, it becomes easy to use the Microscope for comparative
observations in polariscopy and spectroscopy by adapting the micro-
polariscope or the micro-spectroscope to one tube alone, leaving the
other to be used as an ordinary monocular Microscope. Many com-
parative and biological researches may also be conducted under the
Microscope without the need of the frequent changes of lenses and
shifting of the slides so irksome in many cases to the working
naturalist.
For the dissection of minute animals or plants, for histological
researches in general, in the hunt for nematodes or other minute forms
of life, for the picking-up of desmids, diatoms, protophytes, &c., and
for the grouping of these objects easily, rapidly, safely, and elegantly,
I believe that the twin Microscope remains as yet unrivalled.
I sincerely hope that others may derive as much satisfaction from
the use of the instrument as I have myself, and that it may lead to
increased results both in useful and in beautiful work.”
Klein’s Mineralogical and Petrological Microscopes.*—Prof.
C. Klein in the instrument shown in fig. 181, has combined all
the most valuable of the recent suggestions for this class of Micro-
scope.
The body-tube has the arrangement of M. Bertrand’s stand for
introducing above the objective a quartz plate, a quarter undulation
plate, a Nicol prism, Bertrand lens, &c. The objective can be centered
by two screws at the nose-piece. The stand can be inclined, and has
both coarse and fine adjustments, the latter reading to 1/500 mm.
The graduated stage can be moved in rectangular directions, and the
amount of movement read to 1/100 mm. It can be rotated by rack-
work or by the hand. The polarizer fits in a tube beneath the stage,
and can be adjusted by rack and pinion.
Two smaller forms are shown in figs. 182 and 183.
* Nachr. K. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen, 1884, pp. 436-43. The Microscopes
are made by Messrs. Voigt and Hochgesang, of Gottingen.
+ See this Journal, iii. (1883) p. 413,
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 857
Fie. 181.
KLEtw’s MINERALOGICAL AND PrrRoLoGIcAL Mioroscorn.
858 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Fie. 182. Fig. 183.
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Reichert's Mineralogical-Geological Microscope.—This, fig. 184,
in its general features resembles some of the forms already recorded,
especially that of Dr. Zeiss. It differs from the latter, however, in
the mode in which the quartz plate is inserted above the objective,
and in the two millimetre graduations of the stage intersecting in the
centre at right angles. The polarizer is on a movable arm so that it
can be rapidly turned away. Hach 90° of rotation of the analyser is
marked by a spring catch.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 859
Fic. 184.
Reicuentr’s MINEKALOGICAL-GEOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE,
860 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Watson-Wale Microscope.—Fig. 185 shows a modification of
G. Wale’s *“* Working Microscope,” * devised by Messrs. Watson and
Sons.
Instead of the limb sliding between jaws, as in the original form,
the new instrument has a slot cut through the limb, which slides on
Fig. 185.
the axis of inclination, a clamp-screw fixing it at the required position.
The limb may also revolve on the inclining axis without sliding
upward or downward, but in this case the instrument is less stable.
The “Zentmayer” system of fine adjustment is applied. The
stage rotates completely and has a glass surface on which Tighl-
* See this Journal, iii, (1880) p. 1045.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 861
mann’s friction-stage works, and a rotating disk of diaphragms is
fitted within the thickness of the stage. A substage-tube is applied
beneath by means of a horizontal bayonet-joint.
Schieck’s Microscope with Screw Stage-Micrometer.—The
micrometer attached to this instrument (fig. 186) differs somewhat
from English models in having a
rotating plate* for the object, and a Fig. 186.
second movement from back to front,
actuated by a screw at right angles to
the motion of the micrometer-screw.
The position of the object to be
measured can thus be readily centered
when the Microscope has no mecha-
nical movements to the stage. The |
micrometer-screw registers 1/5 mm.
to each revolution of the drum-head,
the whole turns being read on an
engraved scale on the edge of the
moving plate, whilst the drum-head is
graduated in 100 divisions, and by
means of a fixed vernier tenths of these
divisions can be read. (In the fig.
one of the clips is shown turned back
away from the stage.)
Microtome-Microscope. | — “ Mr.
“©, P. Hart described [to the Section \Y
“of Histology and Microscopy of the .
“ American Association for the Ad-
“vancement of Science] a clever
“manner of making a Microscope into
“a microtome, by using the tube to
“carry the imbedded object, and the
“movable stage to carry the razor; the object to be cut is moved by
“the fine adjustment.”
Duboscq’s Projection Microscope.{—MM. T. and A. Duboscq
describe their apparatus as follows : —
“This apparatus consists of a system of lenses, or condenser, to
converge the illuminating rays and cause them to pass through an
achromatic objective serving to project the images on a screen.
The novelty of our apparatus consists in the addition which we
have made to the condenser for the projection of microscopic objects.
There is a stage furnished with a lens which shortens the focus of the
condenser and concentrates the greatest amount of light on the object.
* Zeiss’s stage-micrometer (see this Journal, iii. (1883) p. 573) has a rotating
plate, and we have seen a similar arrangement to the above on a Microscope con-
structed forty years ago by Plossl; we are informed, however, that the plan was
originally devised by Schieck.
t Science, vi. (1885) p. 228.
t+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 476-7.
862 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Hitherto, projection Microscopes have given a relatively large
magnifying power, but with a definition insufficient for the wants of
science. This arises from the quality of the objectives which are
employed, and also from the way in which the illumination is obtained.
We have recognized that according to the dimensions of the micro-
scopic objects to be projected and the magnification desired, it is
necessary to vary the form of the convergent pencil which illuminates
the object, consequently the focus of the additional lens must be
modified. The apparatus is therefore provided with lenses of different
foci to be used with the condenser, according to circumstances.
We have, morever, arranged to employ the objectives used for
ordinary Microscopes. 'Thanks to these and to the perfection of our
condensing system we are able to project microscopic objects with
high powers and with a clearness as perfect as that obtained with the
ordinary Microscope.”
Polarizing prisms can be used, also a rotating stage, so that
sections of rocks and crystals can be projected.
“Twin” Simple Microscope.—Fig. 187 shows a peculiar arrange-
ment of two simple Microscopes mounted side by side on one plate.
One of them is fitted with a power of about 1 in., and
Fic.187. the other about 1/4 inch, and both have Lieberkiihns.
The object is held by forceps pivoted beneath the lens-
carrier, so that it can be readily examined by either
power without having to alter the lenses, as is ordinarily
the case.
The instrument must have been made a considerable
time, for we have seen an exactly similar one in the
“(Cabinet de Physique” of the University of Louvain,
where we were informed it had been for upwards of 30
years. The workmanship suggests a French origin.
Laurent’s Apparatus for registering the Curva-
ture and Refraction of Lenses.*—M. L. Laurent’s
apparatus consists of a vertical frame B (fig. 188), in
which slides a rectangular carrier S controlled by a
chain; the position of the carrier is shown by a vernier,
and the lenses to be tested are placed on a plate
rotating horizontally on the carrier. On the top of
the frame is an eye-piece having a diaphragm (shown
in front view at D, fig. 189) divided in two parts: the
right half is covered by an illuminating prism; its
horizontal face is silvered, and squares are ruled on the
silver, which are viewed either by refraction or re-
flection; the image of the squares is seen in the plane of the
diaphragm.
A plane plate of glass T is put on the carrier 8, and the vernier is
adjusted to zero at the point p where the plane is seen to touch the
squares. The lens L is placed on the plane; the light emerging
* Comptes Rendus, ec. (1885) pp. 902-5 (4 figs.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 863
from the squares traverses the lens, is reflected on the plane and
directed upwards again and focused in the plane of the diaphragm.
The carrier is moved until the image is seen
sharp in the eye-piece, and the focal plane Fic. 188.
of the lens L coincides with the plane of
the diaphragm; the reading of the vernier
is taken, allowance being made for the shape
of the lens, its thickness, &e.
The image, consisting of luminous lines
on a black ground, is easily seen ; the light
traverses the lens twice, and doubles its
defects. The focus is very precise, so that
by covering up portions with small screens,
the variations in the curves can be estimated
by the differences in their acuteness, and the
sharpness will indicate the quality of the
lens tested.
White or monochromatic light is used
for illumination. Reflected light enables
each surface to be tested separately, while
the estimation of the combination of surfaces Fic, 189,
and media is effected by means of the re-
fracted image.
Instructions are also given for using the
apparatus for concave mirrors, diverging
lenses, convex surfaces, spheres and cylin-
drical surfaces.
The author claims that the apparatus is an accurate focimeter, of
general application to all curved surfaces; the precision may be
carried to a high degree where necessary, and in ordinary cases it
provides ready means of seeing at a glance and without preparation
the quality of an optical system.
Gundlach’s Improved Objectives.* — The Gundlach Optical
Company are now making objectives “after the new principle dis-
covered by Mr. Gundlach.”f
“The water-immersion objectives have a very long working dis-
tance and the aberrations of higher order are corrected to a much higher
degree than was heretofore possible in a water-immersion objective ;
hence, these objectives have a definition and resolving power found in
oil-immersion objectives only. This series of objectives may there-
fore be regarded as a new improvement in the field of microscopic
apparatus, a water-immersion objective of highest optical quality
having also a long working distance.”
Series of Objectives.—Mr. J. C. Stodder sends us the following
note of the late R. B. Tolles’s views of the best series of four or five
objectives, to cover as far as possible the whole range of “ general
microscopy.”
“For four only—3 in., 1 in. (30°), 4/10 in. (110° dry), 1/10 in.
* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 130-1.
t See this Journal, ante, p. 705.
864 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
oil-glycerin-water immersion which will work through 1/100 in.
covers, and with a balsam angle of not much less than 120° for best
results. An excellent and useful lens to add to the above series
would be a 1/5 in. (110° or 120° dry).”
Right-angled Prism instead of a Plane Mirror.*—Mr. E. M.
Nelson replies to Mr. G. Hunt’s remarks { as follows:—“I can see
no possible advantage in going to the expense of a right-angled
prism, as in the commonest Microscopes I find the mirrors quite good
enough. One mirror I have gave me four or five images of the flame,
which would, of course, be fatal to good definition. This, however,
was corrected by turning the mirror round in its cell until a point
was found where all the images overlapped. Another mirror I have
is a concave, of about 10 ft. focus. I find no difference for ordinary
work. Any concavity in a plane mirror is bad, and ought to be
avoided, because it shortens the focus of the condenser, which will be
quite short enough, if it has any angle in it, without any further
shortening.
I cannot say I can mention any definite object or object-glass in
which I could perceive any difference with mirror or lamp direct. If
any one is doing very special work, and fancies some error due to the
mirror, then turn it aside, and use the lamp flame direct. I cannot
see any advantage in a prism, which cannot possibly be so good as
nothing at all. One special advantage in using the lamp flame direct
is that one is not so liable to get the light out of centre. Whena
mirror or prism is used, a slight touch, or shake of the table even, is
apt to throw it out of centre.”
Hélot-Trouvé apparatus for Electrical Illumination.t—Dr. H.
Van Heurck observes that the electric illumination of the Microscope,
hitherto little used, has just entered upon a new phase through the
new and thoroughly practical Trouvé apparatus, which realizes all
that can be desired for the most difficult investigations in microscopy
and photo-microscopy.
The battery consists of a small ebonite box, fig. 190, 15 em. x
10 cm. x 18 em., the inside of which is divided for two-thirds of its
height into six compartments, communicating at the bottom by a
small aperture between each. The elements, each consisting of two
rods of amalgamated zinc placed between three carbon rods, are
attached to the cover, being coupled in tension, and may be let down
into the liquid (potassium bichromate, sulphuric acid, and water) or
withdrawn therefrom, or more or less immersed according to the
power required at the time.
The illuminating apparatus (fig. 191 in section), attached to the
front of the battery (fig. 190), or made to slide with universal joint on
a standard (fig. 192), soas to throw its light in any direction desired,
is the Hélot-Trouvé photophore, originally devised for surgical
operations and the examination of the cavities of the body. The
* Engl. Mech., xli. (1885) p. 523.
+ See this Journal, ante, p. 709.
{ Heurck, H. Van, ‘Synopsis des Diatomées de Belgique,’ Texte, 1885,
pp. 219-22 (3 figs.). See also Journ. Soc. Arts, xxxiii. (1885) p. 1005,
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 865
photophore consists of a nickelized brass tube, in which the incan-
descent lamp, of special form with a straight filament, occupies the
Fic. 190. i Bree 1925
middle. At the back is a reflecting mirror, and at the front a con-
densing lens in an adjustable sliding tube, by which converging,
diverging, or parallel rays may be obtained. As the light from the
reflector might be objectionable in very delicate observations, a small
blackened disk is added for covering the reflector, and a diaphragm
may be placed on one or other side of the lens for intercepting the
light from its margin.
The battery is capable of maintaining the lamp for two hours,
producing a light which may be utilized in certain cases of photo-
micrography, but which is much too intense for ordinary microscopic
research. By a slight modification of the battery, however, suggested
by Dr. Van Heurck, by which only 4 or 5 of the elements are coupled,
and the rest added as the battery becomes exhausted, or by employing
a lamp of less power, the exact degree of light required may be
obtained. ‘The battery evolves no fumes, and the expense of mainten-
ance is very slight, that is to say 1d. per hour, including loss of zine,
or less than a halfpenny an hour if the small Stearn lamp be used.
Dr. Van Heurck concludes as follows :—“ It is seen then that the
866 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
electric light is really now brought to every one’s door, and we cannot
too strongly advise microscopists, especially diatomists, to whom the
electric light is indispensable, to provide themselves with one of these
apparatuses, the price of which is very moderate. An experience of
more than three years has shown us that when the electric light has
been once tried and the really marvellous facility noted with which it
resolves at the very outset the most difficult details of structure, it
cannot be given up again, and the expensive lamps with which we
were so recently content are thrown aside.”
Illumination for Projection Microscopes.*—M. d’Arsonval de-
scribes an improvement in the illumination of projection apparatus by
the employment of a petroleum lamp with three burners, of which
the middle one heated by the two lateral ones “allows of an enormous
intensity of light, augmented moreover by a reflector at the back.”
In addition to the fact that this apparatus gives an illumination
nearly equal to that of the largest projection apparatus, it is much
less costly. The use of napthalin increases still more the light and
favourably modifies its nature.
MM. Malassez and Hénocque lay stress on “the enormous
advantage to be obtained from naphthalin, which gives a white light,
very useful for microscopical or spectroscopical examinations.”
Lantern Transparencies.,—Mr. C. M. Vorce says that where a
considerable number of lantern slides are desired, as for distribution
among co-workers, they can be made considerably cheaper by the use
of the carbon process than by using dry plates. The process’ is very
cheap and not difficult of application; for the author’s description of
it the original must be referred to.
Lantern transparencies when prepared to show microscopic objects
very highly magnified are best made from camera enlargements of a
less highly magnified negative, as follows:—Prepare a negative
showing the desired points by means of an objective of as low power
as will clearly show all the desired details. This negative will be
smaller than is required, but will be a better one than one made of
the desired size by a higher power, because the penetration of the
objective will give sharper projection than if a higher power were
used, Place the negative in a copying camera and enlarge it to the
desired size if possible; if not, a second enlargement would be re-
quired, but is seldom if ever necessary. The second plate, that is,
the enlargement of the first negative, is a positive, and if well done
may be mounted as a lantern slide; but first a negative is made from
this by contact printing, and from this negative not only paper prints
but other lantern positives may be made at will. It should be noted
that if any retouching in the original negative is required it must be
done with care and skill, as any errors would be exaggerated by the
enlargement, but the enlarged positive may be freely retouched before
being used for contact printing, and thus letters, figures, names, &c.,
* Journ. Soc. Scientifiques, i. (1885) p. 140. (Soe. de Biologie, 1885, March
21st.)
+ Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 84-5.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 867
may be introduced into the lantern slides prepared from the last
negative, which also may be retouched if necessary like any other
negative. The superiority of such enlargements over negatives made
originally of the same size is often very marked.
Microscopical Electrical Apparatus.—It appears to be but very
rarely that in this country any use is made of the electric current in
microscopical examinations. We have never seen any apparatus for
the purpose in the hands of any English microscopist, and our text-
books on the Microscope make no reference to the subject. Nearly
all the standard German treatises, however, contain drawings of appa-
ratus intended specially for use with the Microscope for observations
on the influence of the electric current on blood, living tissues, micro-
scopical organisms, &c., and from these and from English text-books
on Physiology we have compiled the following summary of the
various forms that have been devised. In regard to the utility of
such investigations, Dr. Dippel says,* “The use of electric currents
is not less important for many microscopical objects than the appli-
cation of high temperatures. This physical reagent has in modern
times acquired a high (if here and there exaggerated) importance,
and scarcely any microscopist who concerns himself with the minute
anatomy of plants and animals can afford to neglect its use.”
The simplest apparatus} consists of two needles which can be
readily joined to the wires of a battery and with which any given
parts of the object can be touched. They can be hooked to be more
readily attached.
Pléssl’s Discharger t (fig. 193) is simply the ordinary discharger
reduced to microscopical dimensions. The conducting wires are con-
Fic. 193.
TOUT
ST
nected with the two platinum wires shown in the figure, the latter
being insulated by being inclosed in capillary glass tubes which slide
through sprung brass tubes attached to the upright supports by hinge
joints, which can be rotated or set at different inclinations. The
object is placed on the glass plate in the centre. The apparatus
cannot, however, be conveniently made available for covered objects
on account of the inclination at which the wires must be set, or for
* Dippel, L., ‘Das Mikroskop und seine Anwendung,’ 1882, p. 656.
+ Robin, C., ‘ Traité du Microscope,’ 1877, p. 679. See also Robin’s remarks
on the effect of electricity on the circulation of the blood, &c., ibid., pp. 680-1.
} Chevalier, A., ‘L’Etudiant Micrographe,’ 1865, pp. 141-2 (1 fig.). Dippel,
op. cit., p. 656 (1 fig.). Harting, P., ‘Das Mikroskop,’ 1866, ii. p. 145, iii. p. 404,
868 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
high powers, and its use is practically therefore limited to large
uncovered objects, such as the larger Infusoria, Rotatoria, &e.
Schacht’s * plan was simply to cement two platinum wires to the
slide extending beneath the cover-glass.
Jendrassik and Mezey’s + (fig. 194) is now used in the Buda-Pest
physiological laboratory. It consists of a slide which has two
Fig. 194.
z
=
parallel grooves about 3-5 mm. apart. At both ends of these small
holes are bored, through which thin platinum wire is passed, so as to
fill the grooves and be in contact beneath with two metal plates
attached to the stage of the Microscope; these plates are connected
with the poles of a battery. The designers used this apparatus for
the microscopical examination of the contraction of muscle-fibre.
Another plant} is to take a piece of silvered looking-glass and
remove the quicksilver in the centre, leaving two narrow strips.
Fig. 195.
Kiihne § attached to the slide pieces of platinum foil of the form
shown in fig. 195, placing upon them small leaden blocks which were
connected by wires with the battery.
* Dippel, op. cit., pp. 656-7.
+ Thanhoffer, L. v., ‘Das Mikroskop und seine Anwendung, 1880, pp. 91-2
(1 fig.). Dippel, op. cit., pp. 658-9 (1 fig.).
{ Dippel, op. cit., p. 657.
§ Ibid., p. 657 (1 fig.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 869
Thanhoffer’s * (fig. 196) was formerly much used in the laboratory
of the Buda-Pest University, and has been somewhat modified to
answer Prof. L. v. Thanhoffer’s purpose. Two T-shaped strips of
platinum are fixed to a small piece of glass by Canada balsam. To
prevent their coming off, they are bent back and fastened to the other
side of the glass. The slide thus prepared is placed in a wooden or
Fia. 196.
hard indiarubber frame. At one side of the frame two copper plates
with copper screws are fixed. These plates, which are somewhat
curved, lie upon the platinum strips. The poles of the battery are
connected with the screws.
Briicke’s + (fig. 197) consists of a plate of wood A with an opening
in the centre, on either side of which copper bands B Bare let in and
Fic. 197.
are connected with the poles of a battery. The slide C lies on these
bands, and is covered at both ends, above and below, with tin-foil.
* Thanhoffer, op. cit., p. 91 (1 fig.). The name of the original designer is
not given.
+ Thanhoffer, op. cit., pp. 90-1(1 fig.). Dippel, op. cit., p. 657 (1 fig.).
Stricker’s ‘Manual of Human and Comparative Histology.’ Transl. by Power,
1870, pp. xx.-xxii. (1 fig.).
Ser. 2.—Vou. V. 84
870 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
The tin-foil on the upper surface ends in blunt points above the
opening in the plate at a distance apart of about 5mm. The object
is laid on these points and covered with a cover-glass.
Strobelt’s * apparatus is described by him as follows:—Cut two
pieces of tin-foil, b b, fig. 198, of about 20 mm. in breadth and
35 mm. in length, and place them upon the ends of a slide A so that
their longest side is parallel with the shortest side of the slide, the
ends being doubled underneath. If the tin-foil is not too thin it will
adhere to the slide of itself; under these can be inserted other strips
Fic. 198.
of tin-foil with pointed ends aa, the distance of which from each
other can be varied according to desire. The slide is placed upon a
larger glass plate B, on which two strips of tin-foil c ¢ are cemented,
the latter being connected with the battery by the conducting wires
d d.
The advantage claimed for this apparatus over the older forms, in
which the strips of tin-foil 6 b and a a are formed of one piece cemented
upon the slide, consists in the fact that (1) the space between the
pointed ends a a—the positive and the negative poles—can be in-
creased or diminished at pleasure ; (2) tin-foil with blunter or sharper
ends can be easily inserted; (3) the apparatus can be fixed on the
same slide on which the object has been first examined, so that the
frequently tiresome work of transferring it is avoided ; and (4) when
the influence of the electricity has been observed, the further treat-
ment of the object and in many cases the mounting also can be dene
upon the same slide, after the tin-foil has been removed.
Stricker describes | his apparatus as follows:—“It is not prac-
ticable to carry out the examination of tissues under the influence
of electrical currents with the same elegance of detail as can be
accomplished when a simple slide only is employed. The single
circumstance that the tin-foil in adhering to the glass makes the
surface irregular and uneven renders it necessary that the sections
of the preparation should be thicker, and proportionately interferes
with the investigation by means of high powers. I endeavour
therefore to combine my researches with electrical currents with
those conducted in the gas-cell (made by forming a ring of putty
on a slide with two tubes passing through it). By this means I am
* Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., ii. (1882) pp. 274-5 (1 fig.). Dippel, op. cit.,
p- 660 (1 fiz.).
+ Op. cit., p. xxiii.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 87]
able to avoid the inconvenience alluded to; for it is quite possible to
place the electrodes in close proximity with the preparation which is
on the inner side of the cover, and to examine it in consequence with
high powers. I attach to each side of the slide a strip of tin-foill
which passes over the putty and reaches its inner side (s s, fig. 199).
Fie. 199.
Cemented to the cover are also two small strips of tin-foil s’ s’, which
running in the axis of the cover, leave between them a space of a few
millimetres in diameter. The object is placed at this spot, and the
cover is so disposed on the wall of putty that the metallic strips of
the cover lie on the strips covering the putty, and the cover is then
firmly pressed down on the soft putty. The cell being now complete,
the electric current is conducted by the strips of metal to the object,
through which it passes at the same time; this lies immediately
beneath the cover, and can therefore be examined with the highest
powers. It is, moreover, no small advantage to combine the appli-
cation of electricity with researches on the influence of gas, because
we can neutralize or aid the effects of the current by the introduction
of different gases.”
Harting’s * (fig. 200) is a glass slip a b ¢ d, about 100 or 120 mm.
long and 30 mm. wide, to which are attached by starch paste two
pieces of somewhat narrower tin-foil A and B, with a space between
them of about 25 or 30 mm. The tin-foil projects beyond the ends
of the slip as shown in the figure. Over the tin-foil two thick cover-
Fic. 200.
glasses d e fg and hiklare cemented by marine glue or a mixture
of pitch or rosin for the stage clips to rest upon. The platinum
wires n and p are loose, and are bent in the form shown at C. The
part mrs rests on the tin-foil and the other curved portion m tv
dips into the fluid in the cell D. They can be brought close together
if required. If they are to be used for covered objects they must
be bent so as to lie horizontally and be as thin as possible: the
* Harting, op. cit., ii, pp. 145-6 (1 fig.). Dippel, op. cit., pp. 657-8 (1 fig.).
Frey, H., ‘Das Mikroskop,’ &e. Transl. by Cutter, 1880, p. 102 s ig
L
872 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
projecting ends of the tin-foil are connected with the wires of a
battery.
For researches on blood-corpuscles Rollett * used a modification
of this apparatus made by bringing the strips of tin-foil nearly to
meet in the centre. The blood-corpuscles were placed between them
and spread out so as to touch the margins.
Dippel’s { (fig. 201) was devised to obviate the inconveniences of
Harting’s, attendant upon its length, and upon the fact that the
connection with the battery wires is very loose, and that the bent
wires are liable to be easily disturbed by the hands.
It consists of a not too thin glass plate a b c d, of the same size as
the stage, on each side of which is fixed a small coil of covered
copper wire (mand n), the wire being wound on glass tubes. The
inner end of this wire is (to obtain greater facility of movement) bent
at right angles in a horizontal plane, and the end either hammered
Fie, 201.
tify
Z
a b
flat or soldered to a piece of platinum so as to allow it to lie easily
under a cover-glass, and not to raise the latter so much that high
powers cannot be used. In order to prevent the ends of the wires
from shifting, and to enable them to be adjusted to the object, they
are carried under two small strips of glass so that they cannot be
easily moved. The free ends of the wires are attached to a holder
which also receives the wire from the battery, both wires being fixed
by screws.
The apparatus can either be held on the stage of the Microscope
by the stage clamps, in which case it will be more or less movable, or
it can be dropped into a brass frame having two pins beneath fitting
into the holes for the spring clamps.
Schafer’s { (figs. 202-4) does not differ essentially from some
of those already described. The glass slide (fig. 202) has two strips
* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 1. (1865) p. 178.
+ Dippel, op. cit., pp. 659-60 (1 fig.).
t Schafer, E. A., ‘A Course of Practical Histology,’ 1877, pp. 37-9 (2 figs.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 873
of gold-leaf or tin-foil attached to it by shellac varnish, with pointed
ends which almost meet in the middle of the slide. One strip passes
Fic, 202.
Fic. 203.
round to the under surface, where it rests on the brass stage of the
Microscope, and the other is isolated from the stage and may be con-
nected with the outer coating of a Leyden jar, the charge of
which is made to pass between the points by connecting the knob of
874 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
the jar with the brasswork of the Microscope. On the right a small
piece of the foil is fixed to the under surface of the slide, so that this
end shall be level with the other.
Fig. 203 shows a combination of the apparatus with a moist
chamber for the examination of blood. In this case the cover-glass
has two strips of tin-foil cemented to its under surface, and the drop
of blood being spread out in a thin layer between the points is
quickly inverted over the ring of the cell.
The tin-foil slips are kept isolated by the glass slide from the
brasswork of the Microscope, and their free ends are clamped to
isolated metal supports as shown in fig. 204, and can be connected with
a Leyden jar or an induction coil.
The ends of the wires or slips can also be made to dip into cups
of mercury placed on the table, into which the terminal battery wires
can also be led.
Engelmann* also devised an arrangement for electricity (figs.
205 and 206) in connection with his gas-chamber. The glass top is
Fic. 205.
pierced with two apertures at x a, through which is inserted clay
steeped in 1 per cent. salt solution, so as to fill the space between the
top and the glass plates gg and hh
Fie. 206. (which form a channel for it) and to
Le. extend to the sides of the drop sus-
if: ————7_ pended from the under surface of the
See 1S 5
75 cover-glass, which closes the aperture
in the chamber. The points of the Du
Bois non-polarizable electrodes are placed on @ a.
According to Rollett f it is advisable in using electrical discharges,
that the tin-foil points should be 6 mm. apart. The Leyden jar
should have a surface 500 sq. cm. and give a spark 1 mm. long.
Stricker also points out ¢ that the distance of the lamine of tin-foil
from one another is of importance in regard to the transmission of
the current. As a general rule, they should not be separated from
one another toa greater extent than a few millimetres. He prefers
to see the two electrodes at the sides of the field, because then the
position of the object in regard to them and to the middle line is simul-
taneously visible. It is a matter of very great moment to observe
and distinguish between the effects of the current in the immediate
neighbourhood of the poles and at some distance from them; for
the effects of electrolysis are produced on breaking the current in
the vicinity of the electrodes, and the tissues become altered, as
* Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., iv. (1868) pp 331-3, 385 et seq.
+ Klein, Burdon-Sanderson, Foster, and Brunton, ‘Handbook for the Physio-
Icgical Laboratory,’ 1873, p. 17.
+ Op. cit., p. XX1.
~
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 875
they would be were they subjected to the action of weak acids or
alkalies.
At parts more remote from the electrodes changes also occur
which, however, are not so remarkable as those which are induced by
the chemical processes above alluded to. The effects, which may be
trusted as being really due to electricity, should occur quickly after
the passage of the current, and not be limited to the part in the
immediate neighbourhood of the electrodes. If the current be allowed
to pass for some time, that is to say, for more than a few seconds,
through the tissue, the products of electrolysis first extend over the
whole surface lying between the electrodes, and then the intensity of
the current becomes extraordinarily reduced, frequently indeed to
zero, on account of the pole becoming covered with bubbles of gas.
On this account the employment of constant currents for microscopic
investigation is scarcely to be recommended, for with the closure of
even very weak currents so violent a development of gas occurs, that
but little confidence can be placed in the results that are observed to
follow their passage. The amount of electrolysis that occurs with
induction currents is much smallér, and they have therefore been
most generally employed. The arrangement in which there is a
single shock on opening and closing of the current is particularly
advantageous. The shocks obtained from a Leyden jar are infinitely
superior to the constant currents, because the instantaneity of the
shock causes the disturbing influence of the evolution of gas bubbles
to be altogether abolished.
With regard to induction currents, he also points out that on
breaking the current, heat is developed in the tissue. If an un-
covered drop of blood is under examination with strong ordinary
lenses, these become dimmed at the instant of the passage of the
current, but after a short period they again become clear. The
preparation, however, very soon dries up. It is requisite in such
cases to determine what are the effects of the sudden elevation of
temperature, and what are those of the electric current alone.
Stricker’s electrodes * are shown in fig. 207. The slide (covered with
tin-foil as previously described) is held in position by the electrodes,
each of which is insulated by being screwed into an ivory knob let
into the stage-plate of the Microscope. The electrodes are connected
(with the interposition of a key) with the secondary coil of a Du
Bois Reymond induction apparatus. In the woodcut the key is re-
presented open.
Mr. R. T. Lewis states} that when investigating the disruptive
effects of the electric spark—more especially with regard to the
peculiar shape of the perforations made by it through various materials
—many experiments were carried on upon the stage of the Microscope,
and he found that a very simple and convenient method of holding
and insulating the terminal wires was to pass each through a small
glass tube held by a brass spring-clip, mounted upon a jointed pillar
* Klein, Burdon-Sanderson, Foster, and Brunton, ‘Handbook for the Physio-
logical Laboratory, 1873, p. 17 (1 fig.). ¢ Engl. Mech., xlii, (1885) p. 19.
876 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
at the corner of the stage in the same manner as the stage forceps.
The pointed end of a glass dipping-tube answered the purpose
admirably. When it was desired to pass sparks vertically through
Fic. 207.
an object in focus, a glass stage-plate was used. This consisted
simply of two pieces of glass, about an inch longer than the brass
stage, cemented together with a wire between them, the point of which
turned up at right angles in the centre of a hole drilled through the
upper plate. The other terminal, mounted as above, could then be
adjusted over it in any required position. A small induction coil was
used for the purpose, giving about a 1/2 in. spark with a single
bichromate cell. If a Leyden jar was placed in the circuit, discharge
sparks of much greater size and brilliancy were obtained, giving
beautiful effects when viewed through the micro-spectroscope. “ Cau-
tion is desirable in conducting experiments of this kind, since
manipulation, duriug observations which engage the attention closely,
is apt occasionally to produce very startling results.”
Apparatus for watching the phenomena that animals subjected
to great pressure present.*—As previously recorded,{} Dr. P. Regnard
has experimented on the conditions of life at high pressure. With
apparatus designed by M. Cailletet, he has subjected aquatic animals
to enormous pressure, such as prevails in the depths of the ocean,
and has examined the results when those inhabiting the surface are
suddenly placed at great depths.
* Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 1243-4 (1 fig.). Nature, xxxii. (1885)
pp. 399-400 (2 figs.), from ‘ La Nature.’
t See this Journal, iv. 1884) p. 362.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 877
Since his first experiments Dr. Regnard has invented an inge-
nious method by which he can see, notwithstanding the great pressure,
what goes on inside the apparatus. Hitherto the operator simply
placed the animals on which he experimented in the iron block of the
Cailletet pump, and subjected them to the pressure corresponding to
a given depth; he then released them, sometimes very slowly (after
several days), sometimes rapidly and even instantly, and examined,
physiologically and microscopically, the effects produced. But all
the intermediate stages between the introduction of the animals and
the time they were taken out escaped the observer. Now, however,
the apparatus shown in figs. 208 and 209 allows him to follow each
minute the effects.
Two holes are pierced through the lower part of the Cailletet
block M (fig. 208). In these are inserted two tubes at r and 7’,
These are hollow, and in each of them is solidly fixed a cone of
quartz B, the end of which comes as far as the edges of the hole which
is pierced in the screw-nut. A ray of light thrown in at the orifice r
will thus traverse the apparatus and emerge at 7’. Experiments have
shown that the apparatus will resist easily a pressure of 650 atmo-
spheres, which represents that of the greatest depths that have been
dredged—about 6500 metres. Through one of the quartz cones are
sent the concentrated rays of an electric lamp. These rays cross the
block (full of water), and emerge on the opposite side, where they are
received by an achromatic object-glass which projects them on a
screen. The observer therefore works at a distance from the appa-
ratus, where he is sheltered from all
danger. The arrangement has an- Fic. 208.
other advantage. The orifice pierced
at r is hardly"half a centimetre in
diameter, and small organisms can
be experimented with in the vessel
immersed in the block M, which are
invisible to the naked eye. By pro-
jecting them with a lens they are
so enlarged, and appear with such
transparency, that we can follow on
the screen the movements of their
branchia, and even of their heart,
during the experiment. In the ex-
periment represented in fig. 209, one of the operators is occupied
in regulating the electric lamp and in setting the Projection Micro-
scope, while the other applies the pressure.
Dr. Regnard is pursuing his studies on life under high pressures.
He showed last year that the unequal compressibility of the liquids
and solids of the organisms caused the latter, after a long pressure, to
be soaked with water, become turgid, and consequently lose their
functions. But with the apparatus here described, he has been able
to follow the phenomena which precede this. At the pressure of 1000
metres (about 200 atmospheres) the object shows inquietude; at
2000 metres it falls to the bottom of the vessel struggling; towards
SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING LO
878
‘SQLVUVddY S.GUVNOTY ‘Yq FO MHIA IVYANAYH)—'60Z “YI
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 879
4000 it remains inert and benumbed. When its normal pressure
returns it recommences moving, unless the pressure has been pro-
longed and its tissues are soaked. This seems to show that the effect
is a compression of the nervous system.
Westien’s apparatus for comparing symmetrical parts of the
webs of the right and left feet of a frog.*—The apparatus of
Herr H. Westien (fig. 210) consists of a glass plate holder C, the
stand P, and the Microscope A (upper part omitted). The ring m,
movable on the upright n, is fastened by the screw w and carries the
bar o, to which the clampS is attached. The glass plate K is clamped
into this, and on it the frog is laid, and its extremities and toes fixed
with threads which are fastened in holes bored in the glass plate.
Fic. 210,
The plate K rests on the glass-plate G, on which it can be easily and
quickly pushed in a horizontal plane up to the clamps cc which are
fastened on the upper border of the glass plate G. By proper adjust-
ment of the glass plate K on a certain spot, e.g. a small artery of the
left foot, the corresponding spot of the right foot can be placed in the
field by pushing the plate up to the clamp c. The apparatus for pro-
ducing stimuli a is attached to the glass plate K by the clamp R.
Apparatus for Determining the Specific Gravity of Minute
Objects under the Microscope.t—Prof. W. J. Sollas found the diffi-
culty of determining the specific gravity of calcareous sponge spicules
by the method of weighing insuperable, as they are so small and
so difficult to free completely trom air, even with an air-pump.
Sonstadt’s solution appeared to offer the best chance of success ; but
here again the small size of the spicules was a difficulty. This,
however, was overcome by adapting the Sonstadt method for use with
the Microscope.
An ordinary collecting tube (fig. 211, T), about 2 in. long and
8/8 in. in diameter, was cemented with plenty of Canada balsam to
a glass slideG. The object of using excess of balsam was to destroy
* Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenkunde, v. (1885) p. 198 (1 fig.)
+ Scientif. Proc. R. Dublin Soc., 1885, pp. 374-92 (7 figs. and 1 pl.).
880 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
optically the curvature of the side of the bottle. As the refractive
indices of Sonstadt’s solution and balsam are not very different, this
plan succeeded admirably. A thin cover-glass was similarly cemented
to the opposite side (front face)
Fic, 211. of the bottle, which was thus
optically flattened front and
back. Some, Sonstadt’s solu-
tion (sp. gr. 2:77) being
introduced, a fragment of
aragonite (sp. gr. 2°9) was
dropped in; it at once, of
course, sank to the bottom.
Next a piece of calcite (sp.
gr. 2:7) was added ; it floated
on the surface. The spicules
lying in water, were freed as
far as possible from air by
boiling, and with the air-
pump. With a dipping-tube
the water and spicules to-
gether were taken up and
added to the top of the
Sonstadt’s solution, where they floated. The tube was then left to stand
in order that diffusion might take place. After some hours the water
and Sonstadt’s solution had become gradually mixed, giving a column
of fluid with a specific gravity of about 2°4 at the top and 2°77 at the
bottom. The calcite and the spicules floated at different levels (the
spicules being above) in layers of fluid having respectively the same
specific gravity as themselves. A fragment of pure quartz (sp. gr.
2°65), and another of adularia felspar (sp. gr. 2°58) were next added ;
the quartz sank to a level below the spicules, the felspar remained
above. As the contents of the tube could be easily examined under
the Microscope with a 1 in. or even a 1/2 in. lens (Zeiss’s C), one
could make certain of the absence of air-bubbles, vacuoles, or other
troubles; and as the spicules could be seen individually, it was
possible to determine the specific gravity of a single one. The
spicules did not all lie at exactly the same level, but formed a zone
thickest towards the middle, and thinning off above and below; a few
stragglers were seen at some distance on either side, but this was ~
owing either to adhesion to the side of the tube, or attached im-
purities.
The specific gravity could now be exactly determined. Two
rectangular axes are ruled, fig. 212; on one distances are taken to
represent the densities of the calcite, quartz, and felspar; on the
other the exact distances between the middle line of each fragment as
it floats in the tube are measured off.
These distances were obtained by gumming two scales divided
into millimetres on the stage of the Microscope at right angles to
the glass slide carrying the experimental tube, i.e. parallel to this
tube (fig. 211, Sc, and Sc,). The calcite was brought into focus, and
the position of one edge of the glass slide read off on the scales; the
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 881
slide was then moved down till the quartz came into view, and the
position of the slide again read off on the scales. The object of
Fia. 212.
Z-
Adularia . ee
‘An occasional spicule oe
Middle of zone of calcareous poll ss
Beginning of same zone cs
Quartz and perforate oe rn eo
Perforate foraminifera Ce. tae
examples) . .
Calcite and Milliola
Lowest lying Milliola ..--+“-----
2°72 2:7 2°67 2°65 2°63 2°62 2°58
a. Axis of distances, b. Axis of specific gravities.
having two scales is obviously to ensure parallelism in the movements
of the glass slide.
The specific gravities and distances being indicated on the rect-
angular axes, one constructs a curve which gives the change in
density from one mineral to another in the tube.
The height of the zone of spicules being now indicated on the axis
of distances, a line is drawn parallel to the other axis through it;
from the point where it cuts the curve a perpendicular is let fall on
the axis of specific gravities, and the point where it meets the axis
gives the specific gravity. In this way the specific gravity of the
spicules was determined to be from 2°61 to 2°63. They are plainly,
therefore, not aragonite, and, arguing from the specific gravity alone,
probably consist of calcite. The slight difference between it and
them in specific gravity is no doubt due to the presence of organic
matter ; for within, a minute canal, filled with some kind of organic
material, possibly spongin, occurs in the axis of the spicules; and
without they are surrounded by a thin sheath of a probably similar
material. Prof. Sollas finds by calculation that allowing for the
organic matter a specific gravity of 1°5, it would require to be
present to the extent of 62 per cent. to reduce the total specific
gravity of the spicules from 2°7 (supposing them to consist chiefly
‘of calcite) to 2°62, the density found.
Keeping both Eyes open in Observation.*—Mr. E. M. Nelson
considers that the unused eye should be shut when the weaker light
is in the Microscope, both eyes being kept open only when the object
is in the stronger light. ‘Thus by diffused daylight the light in the
instrument is the weaker, and the other eye must be shut. By
artificial light in a dark room both eyes can be kept open. “One
hour of steady hard work with the Microscope by diffused daylight
* Engl. Mech., xli. (1885) p. 523.
882 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
will tire you more than a whole day’s work in a dark room by lamp-
light.”
Aperture Puzzles.—Another puzzle turns on the statement some-
times made that it is not necessary to have an objective of 1:0 N.A.
(180° air) to resolve 96,000 lines to the inch as shown by the Aperture
Table; that it can be effected by a dry objective of say 0°50 N.A.
(60° air).
The way in which this feat is supposed to be accomplished is by
attaching a truncated cone A to the cover-glass as shown in fig. 213,
the connection being made by balsam, oil, &c. Here the first diffrac-
Fig. 213. Fig. 214.
‘C-gl.
Ap.
tion spectrum and the dioptric beam which leave the object (Amphi-
pleura pellucida) at an angle of 82° in glass emerge from the cone at
an angle of only say 60° in air, and are therefore collected by a dry
objective of approximately that aperture.
The explanation simply is that by connecting the cone with the
cover-glass we have an immersion objective, with the difference that
(1) instead of using a hemispherical piece of glass to cause a pencil
of 82° in the glass to emerge as one of moderate air angle, to be
taken up by a dry objective above it, a conical one has been substi-
tuted, and that (2) in place of attaching the extra piece of glass once
for all to the rest of the optical combination, as in an ordinary im-
mersion objective, it has to be attached to each slide examined, at a
great sacrifice of convenience! The cone has, moreover, the disad-
vantage, as compared with the hemisphere, that whilst the latter will
readily collect to a focus the whole pencil of 82°, and thus allows of
the real delineation of all kinds of objects, the cone will only collect
two very narrow partial pencils of equal and opposite obliquities and
will not bring these toa proper focus. ‘The problem is in fact only an-
other mode of stating the old mare’s-nest of the “ hemisphere puzzle,”
disguised by the substitution of a truncated cone for the hemisphere.
The same effect, though with more dispersion, can be obtained
by refraction (instead of reflection) through a truncated prism of
isosceles section and suitable inclination of the refracting faces
(fig. 214), and whatever form is employed the only essential conditions
are that two infinitely narrow beams (the incident beam and the first
diffraction pencil) shall have equal and opposite inclinations u to the
axis within the front medium, and that they should be deflected, by
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 883
refraction or reflection, in such a way that they emerge into air under
equal and opposite inclinations u’, smaller than the semi-angle of
aperture of the dry objective above, which is focused to the point o’
of vertical intersection of the two beams. Every device which con-
forms to these conditions will act as an immersion front-lens in regard
to the particular pair of beams in question.
The conical or prismatic front will, moreover, like the hemisphere,
increase the power of the optical combination. This power may be
determined by the formula N = a where n is the index of the
glass front, uw the internal angle of obliquity, and wu’ the angle of
obliquity after emergence into air. In the ratio of the quotient N to
unity the power of the objective will be increased (or its focal
length diminished) in regard to the delineation of the particular set
of lines from which the two opposite pencils originate. For any
other set, of different closeness, wu and wu’ will require different values,
and the power of the same cone or prism will be different.
The ‘Times’ on the Microscope.—The following leading article
appeared in the ‘Times’ of the 26th August :—
“We publish this morning an article descriptive of some of the
progress which has been made during late years in the construction
and cheapening of Microscopes and of their accessory apparatus—a
progress so marked that it has become time for all who are engaged
in the work of instruction to consider carefully to what extent the
improved instruments of the present day can be employed for the
furtherance of the general work of teaching. If we may adopt
Paley’s definition of education, as ‘comprising every preparation
that is made in our youth for the sequel of our lives,’ we shall be
prone to admit that few of these preparations can be of greater
importance, or of greater ultimate utility, than the training of the
eye to observe natural phenomena, and the training of the mind to
appreciate the meaning of these phenomena and their relations to
one another. It was a great day during the childhood of many who
have now passed the meridian of life when the lecturer with an oxy-
hydrogen Microscope was announced as being about to exhibit and
to discourse at the town hall; and the huge transparency in which
the insect life of a drop of water was displayed in full activity
became a wellspring of new thoughts and of increased mental activity
to nearly all of those who gazed in wonder at the presentment of
rapid movement, of abounding life, and of continual destruction.
The sight which was then to be seen only on rare occasions, and as
a sort of entertainment, is now at the daily command of every school-
master, or of every parent who can spare only a small amount of
money, and who possesses sufficient intelligence and manual dexterity
to learn the use of the instrument which, more than any other, has
led to increased knowledge of the structure of man and animals, and
to modern improvements in the healing art. The powers now at the
disposal of the savant far surpass any which were attainable only a
few years ago; but the use of these high powers requires the devotion
884 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
of much of a lifetime to the study of learning how to see, and how to
interpret what is seen. No persons are more certain to fall into
gross errors than the untrained possessors_of powerful Microscopes ;
and the conduct of actual research, of the business of carrying know-
ledge a step in advance of its former boundaries, must always be
limited to the few. When, in 1854, the late Dr. William Budd
announced that cholera was dependent upon the presence of a minute
intestinal fungus, there were probably not three observers in England
who were capable of pronouncing a trustworthy opinion as to whether
a given speck was a microscopic fungus or not; and there was little
doubt that the so-called ‘fungi’ of many persons were nothing more
than fine particles of chalk, derived from medicine which had been
administered to the patient. Since that time vast strides have been
made in the methods of conducting such investigations, together
with corresponding improvements in the instruments by which they
are conducted ; and almost every beginner now thinks himself qualified
to prattle about microbes. In the case, unfortunately, of those who
may be presumed to be the most skilled observers, talk and observa-
tion do not always seem to be conducive to agreement.
It is not, however, for the sake of prosecuting original inquiry,
but for the sake of making known to the young what has already
been established, that the Microscope should commend itself to edu-
cationists. It reveals and displays plainly to the sense of sight two
great facts—the fact of the wonderful complexity and beauty of the
structure of the smallest and apparently the most insignificant crea-
tures, and the fact that all living things of appreciable magnitude,
whether they be plants or animals, are built up by the aggregation of
myriads of minute organisms or cells, each of which possesses inde-
pendent life, and each of which fulfils a purpose in the corporate body
by its own inherent and independent activity. If a Microscope is
given to children as a toy, and if all that is done for them is to permit
them to look through it at something the nature of which they do
not understand, it will do them no more good than seeing a conjuring
trick, perhaps hardly so much; but if children are encouraged to
examine first the more simple vegetable structures, making their own
sections and proceeding gradually from low powers to higher ones,
from coarse to minute and complex structure, they can hardly fail, if
‘ capable of enlightenment at all, to obtain such new notions of the
universe in which they live as will never wholly cease to influence
their minds. The lore actually gained may perhaps be comparatively
small; but the true gain will be in the power to think about occur-
rences, to discover real resemblances between things which are
externally different, and to perform that wonderful work of ratiocina-
tion through which two ideas, similar or contrasted, become the
parents of a third. It is difficult to believe that a child who was not
only permitted to work with a Microscope, but who was assisted to
do so in a rational way, encouraged to collect his own objects, to
examine them in his own fashion, to try to overcome his own diffi-
culties and doubts, would ever grow up into an entirely stupid man
or woman. There are but few who are gifted with the infinite patience
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 885
and the love of truth for its own sake which form the raw material,
so to speak, of the philosopher; but the instances are at least equally
few in which the lessons in observation and reflection, which even a
small Microscope is calculated to afford, would not serve to raise the
mind of the user to a higher level, and to develop a higher degree of
intelligence than could have been obtained without such help.
In a few very good schools, chiefly for the children of the more
wealthy classes, natural history teaching by the aid of Microscopes is
systematically conducted, the classes collecting their own specimens,
and being expected to give the best account they can of them before
being assisted towards a better one by the teacher. Our argument is
that all this should be done much more widely and generally ; educa-
tion, in fact, being made to advance along a road which is rendered
comparatively smooth by the perfection of modern appliances. The
tasks of school, in too many cases, appeal to the memory rather than
to the understanding, and cultivate stupidity rather than intelligence.
Ii is impossible to doubt that much which is taught, say in Board
schools, might be relinquished without any appreciable loss to the
intellectual development of the scholars, and that by such relinquish-
ment time might be gained for instruction of a more fruitful kind.
As for the material, even in towns, it is present in immeasurable
abundance. There is a legend that an ardent naturalist once de-
termined to write a complete account of the plants and animals which
he found in the garden of Lincoln’s-inn-fields, but that the magnitude
of the task was such as to place insuperable obstacles in the way of
its accomplishment. An attempted history of the insect life alone
was abandoned for the same reason; and a second Gilbert White
might have found ample occupation in observing and recording the
habits of the various denizens of the narrow space. It is, perhaps,
too much to hope that the officials of a public department will ever
so far emancipate themselves from the trammels of routine as to take
the initiative in the promotion of better nature teaching; but it is
not impossible that they might learn to follow if they were clearly
shown the way. The parochial clergy in old times were the pioneers
of improvement on all educational questions; and there is no reason
why they should not seck to regain something of the leadership which
has to so great an extent slipped away from their grasp. Could they
not, especially in rural districts and in country towns, do something
towards the promotion of a reform which would render the younger
members of their congregations more observant, more thoughtful,
more careful of animal life, less ready to be over sure about problems
the solutions of which are not yet known to mankind, but on which
so many people are prone to be dogmatic in precise proportion to
their ignorance? The mcdern Microscope might form one of many
levers by which the minds of future generations might be guided
towards the attainment of knowledge and the cultivation of modesty
and charity.”
The article referred to was as follows (under the head of “ Recent
Microscopical Science”) :—
“A glance at the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society,
Ser. 2.—Vou. V. 3M
886 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
which is edited by Mr. Frank Crisp, with the assistance of several
Fellows of the Society, shows that activity in microscopic science is
incessant. Last year the Journal included 1008 pages of matter,
most of it consisting of summaries giving the essential features of
all important papers bearing on microscopical science published
throughout the world. This year 756 pages of the Journal have
already been issued, and students who use the Microscope are thus
better off than the devotees of most other departments of science. It
is to be noted as to the Microscope itself, that improvement is not
now rapid as regards fundamental principles and their application to
the less powerful lenses with which the average student is chiefly
concerned, but that considerable advances have been made in the last
few years in the theory and practice of the construction of lenses of
high powers. Thus under the eye of a skilled observer an excellent
objective of 1/10 in. focal length will now accomplish as much as or
more than an objective of 1/25 in. not many years ago; while those
now made of the very high power signified by 1/50 in. focal length,
and capable of magnifying from 2000 to 10,000 diameters, according
to the eye-piece used, greatly surpass in all important qualities lenses
of the same power sold by the best makers less than five years ago.
Moreover, for some kinds of work the adoption of the principle of
immersing the surface of the objective in distilled water or in very
pure oil has proved of great value. Thus many delicate points of
detailed structure, formerly discoverable only by the most persistent
efforts and careful manipulation, can now be demonstrated with
comparative readiness.
It is obvious that if the educative influence of microscopical study
is to be very widely diffused, much depends upon the cheapening of
good apparatus. This is especially the case if schools are to employ
to any considerable extent recent biological methods. Cheap forms
of Microscope have hitherto been more or less unsatisfactory. Hither
they were cumbrous to work, they readily got out of order, they
became unsteady, or they did not long continue to magnify clearly or
without introducing inopportune colours into the field of view. All
the leading makers, however, have recently brought out cheap in-
struments of improved construction. Among others, Messrs. Beck,
whose name stands high for finish and reliability of workmanship,
have recently brought out a so-called ‘Star’ Microscope, which
combines solidity and steadiness with good magnifying powers (1 in.
and 1/4 in. in focal length respectively), suitable for average students
and for research within limits. The tube can be inclined at any
angle, there is a fine adjustment, the stand is solid and firm, and a
diaphragm with apertures of various diameters under the stage can be
rotated so as to regulate the admission of light.
Marked improvements continue to be made in the lantern Micro-
scopes used for magnifying objects for public lectures and demonstra-
tions. Mr. Lewis Wright has brought to great perfection a lantern
Microscope which throws large-sized and exceedingly clear views of
minute objects on to a screen free from distortion or colour. Struc-
tures so complex as the minute anatomy of the human tongue, the
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 887
wood of an elm tree, and even the circulation of the blood in the web -
of a living frog can be exhibited with perfect sharpness of definition
up to the very margin of the illuminated field of view. The import-
ance of this for scientific lecturing is evident.
In no department of microscopic work has more ingenuity
recently been applied than in the construction of microtomes. These
are instruments for cutting numerous very thin sections of substances
parallel to one another, either for distribution to large classes or for
obtaining successive adjacent portions of a structure, so as fo secure
an exhaustive examination of it. The somewhat complex instrument
devised a couple of years ago by Messrs. Caldwell and Threlfall, of
Caius College, Cambridge, and manufactured by the Cambridge Scien-
tific Instrument Company, was made to deliver its thin sections in a
continuous riband at the rate of 100 per minute, or even twice as
many when a water motor was used. They were delivered in conse-
cutive order and with the same side upwards. Uniform thinness could
also be obtained by an ingenious screw. The great novelty of the
instrument consisted in the use of an endless band to receive the sec-
tions as they came from the razor. When imbedded in suitable
material the sections adhered to one another and came off the razor
in a continuous riband. As soon as a sufficient length was cut, the
end was picked up by a needle or scalpel and placed on the band,
which was adjusted so as to be moved forward, at each throw of the
object-carrier, through a distance equal to the breadth of the surface
which was being cut.
Many persons were soon at work to improve and simplify this
method and to reduce its cost. This object seems to have been best
accomplished by the Cambridge Instrument Company itself. Its
improved instrument is called the rocking microtome, a rotary instead
of a sliding motion of parts having been employed. Its cost is less
than one-sixth of that of the original instrument, and instead of being
lifted on to a continuous silk band, the riband of sections falls by its
own weight directly from the razor on to a sheet of paper, or on
to the glass slide on which the sections are to be finally mounted.
Sections as thin as the 1/40,000 of an inch are said to be obtained
by this plan. It is much easier to work, is less liable to get out of
order, easily packed, and very portable.
One result of the increased facility of instruction and study
in microscopical science appears to be the rapid multiplication of
memoirs and papers dealing with isolated portions of subjects. We
do not note in this country that the number of men of real power who
devote themselves to these studies and patiently elaborate systems
and build up sure edifices of enlightenment increases very greatly.
Rather there is a multiplication of men of the second or third rank,
who catch the jargon of the reigning school, make respectable re-
searches on a few points, and become absorbed in teaching or in other
money-carning pursuits. There is a fashion in microscopy as in
other things, and it is the fashion to study bacteria and bacilli, just
as it formerly was the thing to pore delightedly over test-slides of
diatoms. The bacteria will yield a more fruitful harvest, certainly,
3m 2
888 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
in the hands of scientific workers, but the path is toilsome and the
goal distant. There is reason in this devotion. When we know the
very little, how it lives and moves, and what it can do, we shall be
much more ready to comprehend how similarly minute elements com-
bined work in larger organisms.”
AGEN, F. D’.—Microscopical.
[As to air-bubbles in the back combinations of objectives. Also as to the
resolution of A. pellucida by a dry 1/5 in..of 135°. (Cf. ante, p. 726.)]
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 37.
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
[Remarks on the abolition of the Section of Histology and Microscopy.
“This anomalous Section finding its end near, proceeded with dignity to
request the Association to kill it: the request has been granted.” “This
change has been urged for some time by those who do not think a special
science of Microscopy exists, but that the Microscope is a tool used by
scientific men in various branches.” “It is to be hoped that Dr. Minot’s
suggestion of forming a Microscopical Club within the Association will
be carried out, to insure the cultivation of technique among the members
interested.””]
The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 181-2.
See also Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) p. 175.
American Society of Microscopists—Our Highth Annual Meeting.
[Urging that papers, speeches, and sessions should be short. “ We must
insist upon being relieved and upon relieving our fellow-sufferers from
the lengthy uninteresting papers read by parties who have become
monomaniacs on their pet subjects.”’]
The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 180 and 181.
See also Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) p. 157,
and Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), II. (1885) p. 25.
Report of Cleveland Meeting. (Jn part.)
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., V1. (1885) pp. 165-7, 175.
Amyot, T. E.—Direct Vision Microscopes. [Post.]
Sci.- Gossip, 1885, pp. 201-2 (1 fig.).
ARSONVAL, D’.—Simplification des Appareils a projection. (Simplification of
projection apparatus.) [Supra, p. 866.]
Journ. Soc. Scientifiques, I. (1885) p. 140.
(Soc. de Biologie, 21st March.)
Banks, C. W.—Electric spark under the Microscope.
[Mr. Banks showed, under the Microscope, the electric spark in its
passage between the terminals of a 1/4 in. spark induction-coil
attached to a Grenet bichromate solution battery. Two vulcanite
slides had been prepared, on which were fastened adjustable platinum
strips connected with the battery wires and terminating in brushes of
platinum wires of extreme tenuity. The electric fluid, in its passage
from one terminal to the other, formed a very attractive object under the
Microscope. One of the slides was used to show the effect on the electric
spark of interposing films of soot of different thicknesses. In its passage
through these the current was deflected into meandering lines, around
which scintillated showers of sparks. The particles of soot could be seen
arranging themselves in symmetrical groupings around the terminals. ]
Proc. San Francisco Micr. Soc., June 10th, 1885.
See Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), IT. (1885) p. 30.
Bavscu, H.—Manipulation of the Microscope.
[Contains chapters on Simple Microscopes, The Compound Microscope, Ob-
jectives and Eye-pieces, Requisites for work, How to work, Advanced
Manipulation, Substage Illumination, Care of a Microscope, and Con-
iderations in testing Objectives. ]
96 pp. and 27 figs., 8vo, Rochester, N.Y., 1885.
”? ” 7
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 889
BrEEcHING, S.—Amateur Lens-grinding.
Engl. Mech., XLI. (1885) pp. 498-9 (1 fig.).
Buss, E. J.—Opaque Illumination.
[Mainly an historical summary of the various appliances. ]
Trans. and Ann. Rep. Manchester Micr. Soc., 1884-5, pp. 23-6.
BurRRiv1, T. J.—Photographs of Amphipleura pellucida.—New Heliostat.
[Good photographs obtained by Dr. H. J. Detmers with a common coal-oil
lamp.—Note of the construction of a new Heliostat of simple mechanism
for photo-micrography. ]
Science, VI. (1885) p. 228.
C., L. P. pu.—Le Microscope grande modéle de Hartnack et Prazmowski. (The
large model Microscope of Hartnack and Prazmowski.)
[Description of it, with the modifications introduced by their successors
Bézu, Hausser & Co.—principally an excentric diaphragm in place of a
sliding one, and an adapter for changing objectives. ]
Journ. de Microgr., 1X. (1885) pp. 262-3,
CapLatzi, A.—See “ Orderic Vital” and “ Rector.”
Coorrr, W. A.—Daylight v. Lamplight for microscopical observation.
[Quotation of Dr. Carpenter’s views in favour of daylight as against Mr.
Nelson’s. ]
Engl. Mech., XU1. (1885) p. 564.
Dusosca, T. and A.—Nouvel appareil de grandissement pour la projection,
soit des tableaux de grandes dimensions, soit des objets microscopiques.
(New magnifying apparatus for the projection of large pictures or microscopic
objects.) [Supra, p. 861.] Comptes Rendus, Cl. (1885) pp. 476-7.
Dup.tey, P. H.—Triceratium Davyanum.
(3 photo-micrographs x 408, representing the diatom when viewed in 3
different focal planes. ]
Journ. N. York Micr. Soc., 1. (1885) pp. 145-6, and p. 157 (3 photographs).
DvRanp, W. F.—A practical method of finding the optical centre of an objective
and its focal length. [Post.]
Amer, Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 141-5 (1 fig.).
Dynamo-electric Machines.
(Exhibition of two small machines, one operated by the foot and the other
by hand. “For microscopical illustration fa dynamo} can be used with
great advantage, especially in photography.”]
Journ. N. York Micr. Soc., I. (1885) p. 156.
Fasoldt’s (C.) Detaching Nose-piece.
(See this Journal, IV. (1884) p. 959.]
Amer. Mon. Mier, Journ,, VI. (1885) pp. 149-50 (1 fig.),
Grant, F.—Microscopical.
[Whether daylight or lamplight is the better for illumination “can be
settled only by experience.””— Measuring amplifying power of the
Microscope and angle of aperture of objectives—Advantages and dis-
advantages of large apertures.—Explanation of numerical aperture. ]
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) pp. 57-8,
Gray’s (S.) Water Microscopes.
{Claim by “the ghost of Stephen Gray” that Hippisley’s Pocket Field -
Microscope infra is an inferior form of Gray’s Water Microscope.]
Ling!. Mech., XLI. (1885) p. 520.
Gundlach’s Improved Microscope Objectives. [Supra, p. 863.]
Amer, Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 130-1.
Han, OC. P.—Making a Microscope into a Microtome. [Supra, p. 861.]
Science, VI. (1885) p. 228,
Hastincs, C. S.—On the Colour Correction of double Objectives.
Lng!. Mech., XL. (1885) pp. 559-60; XLIT. (1885) pp. 8-9;
from Amer. Journ, Sci., XXIII. (1882).
Hinocgure.—Appareils destines 4 Vexamen du sang. (Apparatus for the
examination of blood.) [ Post.
Journ. Soc. Scientifiques, 1, (1885) p. 24, (Soc. de Biologic, 11th Jan.)
890 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Hevrck, H. Van.—Eclairage artificiel: Eclairage électrique par incandescence.
(Artificial illumination: Incandescent electrical illumination.) [Supra, p. 864.]
Synopsis des Diatomeées de Belgique. Texte. 1885, pp. 219-22 (8 figs.).
Cf. Jeurn. Soc. Arts, XX XIII. (1885) p. 1005.
HiIppisLey, J.—A pocket field Microscope.
[“ Magnifying 100 diameters, useful in the search for infusoria, &., and
which may be constructed, lens and all, in a few minutes.
Bend a slip of thin metal 5 in. or 6 in. long and 1/2 in. wide into the form
of the letter V, make two circular holes 1/10 in., one in each arm, opposite
each other, so that when the arms are sprung together by pressure the
holes shall meet exactly. Place a drop of water in one hole, taking care
not to wet more than its interior circumference. The water will assume
the form of a perfect double convex lens, of focal length varying from 1/8
to 1/10 in. according to the quantity of water introduced. Such lens,
though by evaporation its focal length is gradually increased, maintains
its efficiency for a time quite sufficient for the examination of a drop of
water or other substance in the opposite hole. The end of one arm of the
V is bent inward so as to form a “stop,” which when they are pressed
towards each other to effect the focal adjustment, prevents a contact which
would destroy the lenticular form. The definition of these water-lenses
is excellent, and their magnifying power is from 80 to 100 diameters,
according to the quantity of water in the lenticular drop.”
Engl. Mech., XL. (1885) p. 502.
» Microscopic.
It is very easy to make glass globules for microscopic use of ordinary
glass. The difficulty is in using them as Microscopes. Besides the
instrumental difficulty of focal adjustment for such small lenses, the
light of so small a pencil of rays is quite inadequate, except with
“violent” illumination. “But lenses by melting glass may be made to
much better purpose of more useful focal lengths—not globular—
but double-convex lenses, in the following manner, which, I believe, is
new, or was so when I first made them, say 30 or 40 years ago. Take a
bit of fine binding wire, iron (not brass or copper), make, by twisting it
round a taper wire for mandrel, a nicely circular loop; flatten it so that
the loop is all in one true plane. The loop may vary in diameter from
any desired smallness up to 1/4 in. (which is nearly the largest size my
glass-melting apparatus will conveniently manage). Place a square
piece of glass—thicker or thinner, according as it is desired to have a
lens of more or less convexity, but large enough to completely cover the
loop. Then, holding it in a suitable blowpipe flame (which should be a
vertical, not a horizontal one), the glass assumes in melting a doubly-
convex lenticular form. A form, moreover, in which the spherical
aberration of a globule tends to be corrected, and a larger proportion of
the field is flatter than it is with an ordinary double-convex lens.” “Such
lenses are made in a few minutes, and perform most admirably when a
suitable instrumental apparatus is used.” |
Engl. Mech., XLI. (1885) pp. 540-1.
Hitoxucockt, R.—Optical arrangements for Photo-micrography and remarks
on Magnification. [Post.] Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 168-70.
[Hircxucock, R.]|—The Postal Club.
[Comments on its position.] Amer. Mon, Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 1384-5.
—Testing Objectives.
[Recommendation of the Abbe test-plate.]
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 177-8.
International Inventions Exhibition. XII. Philosophical Instruments and
Apparatus.
[Includes Microscopes and Apparatus. ]
Engl. Mech., XLI. (1885) pp. 444-5.
James, IF’, L.—American v. Foreign Microscopes.
The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 164-5, from the National Druggist.
Kuz1n, C.—[Horizontales Erhitzungsmikroskop.] (Horizontal heating Micro-
scope.) [Posé.] Nachr. K. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen, 1884, pp. 133-4.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 891
Lacaze-Duruiers, H. pr.—Note accompagnant la presentation d’Appareils
d@éclairage électrique pour les travaux des naturalistes, chimistes, micro-
graphes, &c., construits par M. G. Trouvé. (Electrical illuminating apparatus
for naturalists, chemists, microscopists, &c., constructed by G. Trouvé.)
[1. Glass jar with a silvered glass bottom and a silvered parabolic reflector
over the mouth, having in the centre an incandescent lamp illuminating
the interior of the jar. 2. Modified apparatus for fermentations.
3. Modified Hélot and Trouvé electric photophore. }
Comptes Rendus, CI. (1885) pp. 405-7 (1 fig.).
Lewis, R. T.—Electricity in the Microscope. [Supra, p. 875.]
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 19.
Matcotm.—On Binocular Glasses adjustable to eyes having unequal focal
lengths. [ Post. ] Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond., VII. (1885) pp. 80-1.
M‘ConneEL, J. C.—Notes on the use of Nicol’s Prism.
[1. On the error in the measurement of a rotation of the plane of polarization
caused by the axis, about which the Nicol turns, not being parallel to the
incident light. 2. On a new method of obtaining the zero-reading of a
Nicol circle.]
Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond., VII. (1885) pp. 22-39 (7 figs.).
Netson, E. M.—Microscopical. [Supra, p. 864.]
Engl. Mech., XLI. (1885) p. 523.
Nicol Prism, repairing.
[Nicol prisms which have become scratched and dull may be restored by
cementing a thin cover-glass over the ends with clarified gum-damar.
The prisms should first be carefully cleaned with a very soft brush and
soap, to which may be added a little precipitated chalk. They should
then be rinsed with distilled water and carefully dried, pains being’
taken to remove every particle of dust and dirt from within the scratches.
The cover-glass, which should be thin and perfectly clean, should then
be applied in the usual way, exactly as in making a balsam mount.
When carefully done, not a vestige of the scratches can afterwards be
detected. ]
: The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 188-9.
“OrpDERIC VITAL.”—New Optical Glass.
[Feil’s “ extra dense flint, No. 1738.” Also remarks by A. Caplatzi.]
Engl. Mech., XI, (1885) p. 519; XLII. (1885) p. 15.
Perfect Laboratory Microscope.
[Four questions for “ Professors and others who have had large experience
in microscopical work ” to answer, as to the model of Microscope generally
preferred by educational institutions. ]
Micr, Bulletin (Queen’s), II. (1885) p. 25.
Queen’s (J. W. & Co.) Resistance Coil.
[Designed especially for use with micro-clectric lamps. |
Micr, Bulletin (Queen’s), II. (1885) p. 30 (1 fig.).
“Rector, F.R.A.S.”—The Optical Lantern.
(Queries as to improvements. (Four wick lamps burning best kerosene oil
give as much light as can possibly be obtained from that medium.) Also
facetious reply by A. Caplatzi, mainly as to the excessive heat of such
lamps.
: Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) pp. 62 and 84-5.
“Ros. Crvus.”—The Micro-objective.
[On mounting the lenses of eye-pieces and objectives. }
Engl. Mech., XLI. (1885) pp. 563-4 (2 figs.).
See also p. 526.
Rocuer, B. pv.—De la Mégaloscopie. (On Megaloscopy.) [ost. ]
Comptes Rendus, Cl. (1885) pp. 329-30.
Royal Society of South Australia, Postal Microscopical Section of.
(‘A box of microscopical objects has been received from Victoria and duly
circulated among the members of this section, and a box of South
Australian objects has been made up in this colony and forwarded to
Victoria and New South Wales.”}
Trans. and Proc. and Rep. R. Soc. 8. Australia, VII. (for 1883-4), 1885, p. 130.
892 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Stoxes, G. G.—On Light as a means of Investigation. Burnett Lectures.
Second Course. 114 pp., 8vo, London, 1885.
The “Times” on the Microscope. [Supra, p. 883.]
Times, 1885, August 26th. Cf. also February 16th.
VERRALL, G. H.—Micro-photography for illustrating the neuration of trans-
parent winged insects.
[Note of successful experiments. | Proc. Entomol. Soc. Lond., 1885, p. iv
Walmsley’s (W. H.) Photo-micrograph of Rinnbach’s arranged Diatoms.
[Cf. ante, p. 580.]
The Microscope, V. (1885) p. 181.
Warp, R. H.—The Binocular. [ Post.]
Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), II. (1885) pp. 28-9 (1 fig.)
from The Microscope in Botany (Behrens).
B. Collecting, Mounting and Examining Objects, &c,
Method for Observing Protoplasmic Continuity.*—M. L. Olivier
recalls that three years ago he pointed out that photography applied
to the study of minute objects revealed details of structure which
made no impression on the retina, and that in support of this he
instanced a photograph which showed on the walls of the cells
markings and perforations invisible under the Microscope. He now
further illustrates the matter by reference to the canals which
traverse the cell-walls of plants.
The existence of these canals escapes the ordinary processes of
investigation, but can be shown by the employment of photography.
Thin transverse sections are made of living tissues whose growth
is complete. A direct photograph is taken of the sections, with an
amplification of 300 to 700. On these negatives, examined with a
lens, the cell-membranes seem to be in a very surprising state of com-
plication: perforated in various ways, with canals, some transverse,
others longitudinal, that establish a communication between the
contents of the cells. It seems impossible to explain by a pheno-
menon of diffraction this appearance of canals on the photographic
lates.
After having made out this structure on the negatives, the author
endeayoured to see them by direct vision and examined the prepara-
tions under an amplification of 700-900, in a dark chamber into
which the Microscope was introduced, in such a way that the eye
received no other impression than that of the light coming from the
instrument. Under these conditions he succeeded in sen seeing
the interruptions of the cell-walls in many plants.
Direct observation is, however, in most cases quite insufficient,
and the author obtained a better result by staining, either the cell-
membranes of his preparations, or the protoplasmic elements after
fixing, turgescence or contraction by means of appropriate reagents.
In the first case the septa presented here and there colourless lacunz,
at least in certain species of plants. In the second case the walls
of the cells were white against the coloured ground; the canals
which traverse the septa are then visible, since they are coloured like
* Comptes Rendus, ec. (1885) pp. 1168-71.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 893
the protoplasm itself. M. Olivier also attempted to cause a fluid,
capable of colouring the protoplasm, to penetrate under gentle
pressure into the organs; transverse sections were then made. The
injection rarely succeeded ; but when it took place in a fairly regular
manner, this process led to a result identical with the preceding.
Eau de Javelle as a Medium for Clarifying and Dissolving
Plasma.*—Dr. F. Noll finds that eau de Javelle (an alkaline hypo-
chlorite solution) destroys and then dissolves the whole of the plasma
of the cells in preparations which have been preserved in alcohol. A
similar, but more or less imperfect solution of the plasma-contents
occurs in tissues which have been treated with glycerin, Miiller’s
fluid, picric or chromic acid. It is not necessary that alcohol should
be present during the operation of the reagent ; if a drop of the water
is placed on a section made through young cells rich in plasma, this is
soon dissolved, with development of small bubbles of gas. If the
action takes place in the open air, a soft pellicle quickly forms on the
drop, consisting of calcium carbonate, which can be readily dissolved
in acetic acid. The formation of this pellicle can be prevented by
placing a cover-glass over the drop, under which the process can be
studied step by step. In a very short time, usually 3-4 minutes, the
plasma is converted into a clear fluid. When the section is suf-
ficiently clear, it is washed in water, so as to remove the bubbles of
gas. The superfluous granules of calcium carbonate are removed by
acetic acid, and the section is then ready to be placed in glycerin.
The water acts on cuticular membranes in the same way as Schultze’s
macerating fluid, but only slightly and after some time (1 hour or
more). Calcified membranes should be first treated with acetic acid
to dissolve the mineral constituents, washed, and treated with the
water in the usual way. Starch-granules swell in the water, so as to
become invisible.
Cocaine for Mounting Small Animals.|—Prof. J. Richard de-
scribes a new way of fixing Hydroids, Bryozoa, &c., in an expanded
condition, which is as follows. A number of the animals are placed in
a watch-glass with 5 c.cm.of water when they are fully expanded. A
1/2 per cent. solution of chlorhydrate of cocaine is added drop by drop
till it forms a fifth part of the entire fluid. Half a c.cm. of the drug is
then added, and the animals become.so completely fixed that it is
necessary to touch them very roughly with a needle in order to induce
them to contract; ten minutes after, they are quite dead, and can be
mounted in the ordinary way. This reagent is superior to all others,
because it requires no delicate manipulation; it is not certain yet
whether its effect upon marine animals is equally strong in all cases.
Preparing Tissues to show Cell-division.t—Dr. C. Rabl objects to
Flemming’s chrom-osmic-acetic acid mixture, on the ground that the
preparations soon become darkened; and to the 1/2 or 1/3 per cent.
solution gold chloride, that in summer reduction takes place and the
* Bot. Centralbl., xxi. (1885) pp. 377-80.
+ Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 332-3.
t Morphol. Jahrb., x. (1884) pp. 214-330 (6 pls.). See this Journal, ante, p. 217.
894 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO
cell-substance is coloured violet. The best results are obtained from
solutions of chromo-formic acid and platinum chloride. Formula for
chromo-formic acid :—1/2 per cent. solution chromic acid, 200 grm.;
concentrated formic acid, 4-5 drops. The mixture is always to be
freshly prepared for use. Small pieces of fresh specimens are to be
used. After 12 to 24 hours, wash in water and then transfer to
60 or 70 per cent. alcohol, and after 24 or 36 hours more to absolute
alcohol. A 1/3 per cent. solution platinum chloride has the same
effect as gold chloride, and this without being reduced by light or
heat. Specimens should remain in this solution 24 hours, they are
then washed and treated as before. The one method supplements the
other, as chromo-formic acid causes certain fibres to swell, while
platinum chloride has a somewhat shrivelling effect.
Method for showing the Distribution and Termination of Nerves
in the Human Lungs.*—Dr. H. F. Beckwith, aware of the futility of
hoping to obtain good results from any known manner of preparation
and staining of the nerves of the lungs, sought a new method, and
the following modification of a process lately promulgated in Germany
for staining brain-tissues was found to answer.
Harden fresh lung for about ten days in the following solution :—
Bichromate of potash 2°5 per cent., to which is added sulphate of
copper C. P. to the amount of 0°5 per cent. The tissue is then
frozen and suitable sections made, which are treated with gold
chloride 0°5 per cent., 2-10 minutes in the dark. Washed with
distilled water. Sodium hydrate 1-5, until cleared up. Potassium
carbonate 10 per cent., 30-60 minutes. Dried with absorbent paper.
Potassium iodide 10 per cent., 15 minutes, when gold will be nicely
reduced.
The nerves and ganglia in sections thus prepared are of a deep
red or violet colour, occasionally shading off into a blueish green, the
other tissue being red. The differentiation in colour is sharp, so that
nerve-tissue may be recognized by its colour alone whenever seen.
The above method differs very little from the German process,
with the exception of the potassium carbonate, which the author
believes essential to success, as the unmodified process failed to give
good results, when used on lung tissue. A great advantage of the
method consists in the fact that the reduction of gold always takes
place in a uniformly even manner; and with little practice, perfect
staining can be accomplished with every section. Unfortunately, as
in other gold preparations, the specimens spoil in a short time unless
preserved in the dark in 40 per cent. alcohol, and when examined
should be temporarily mounted in glycerin.
Preparing Tail of Puppy.j—Mr. A. C. Cole’s method of prepara-
tion is to first harden the tail in methylated spirit for a week, then
soak in water, then place in a considerable quantity of a 1/6 per
cent. solution of chromic acid, to every ounce of which five drops of
nitric acid are added. This mixture should be frequently changed.
* The Microscope, v. (1885) pp. 148-52 (3 figs.).
+ Cole’s Studies in Micr. Sci., iii. (1885) Sec. 4, p. 24.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 895
When the bone is softened, the tail is to be soaked in water to
remove the acid and reharden in spirit.
Transverse sections are cut from the tail and stained in the
ordinary borax-carmine solution; when sufficiently stained they are
transferred to methylated spirit, and then placed in a mixture of five
parts spirit and one part hydrochloric acid ; from this they must be
removed as soon as they attain a brilliant scarlet tint, and be again
placed in spirit until no trace of acid remains. The sections are then
to be stained in sulph-indigotate of soda—two drops of a saturated
aqueous solution of which are added to one ounce of spirit—and in
this the sections should remain for from four to six hours. They
are then to be finally and carefully washed in spirit, cleared in oil of
cloves, and mounted in Canada balsam.
Demonstrating Spindle-shaped Bodies in the Yolk of Frog’s
Ova.*—Dr. O. Hertwig states the best method is to place the ovary
for two or three minutes in a mixture of 0°3 per cent. osmic acid and
0-1 per cent. acetic acid, and then in order to prevent over-blackening
transfer to iodized serum or bichromate. Osmic acid causes ova to
coagulate homogeneously, so that they are transparent. Very dilute
acetic acid on the other hand clearly shows up the contours of
germinal vesicle and nucleoli. Excessive blackening by osmic acid
may be removed by peroxide of hydrogen. Thus treated, ova retain
all their details after six months. Only teasing out is required.
Microscopical Technique of the Eye.t—Dr. R. Warlomont
describes the method of preparing specimens of eyes for microscopical
examination which is used at the Moorfields Ophthalmic Hospital.
The whole eye is placed in Miiller’s fluid for 3-4 weeks, and then cut
with a sharp knife into two symmetrical parts, which are washed in
water to remove the yellow colour. The decoloration is hastened
by placing them for several minutes in a 1 per cent. solution of
chloral. They are then placed for a day in ordinary alcohol, and
transferred to absolute alcohol for 24 hours. They are next
placed for 24 hours in celloidin dissolved in equal parts of sul-
phuriec ether and absolute alcohol, and laid in a paper box, which
is filled with the celloidin solution. When this has become
changed into a gelatinous elastic mass, it is placed in ordinary
alcohol (70-80), in which it acquires the necessary hardness, and in
which it can be preserved indefinitely. The sections are cut with
Katsch’s microtome beneath alcohol, stained with Ehrlich’s logwood
or other solution, washed in water and alcohol, clarified in oil of
bergamot, and mounted in balsam.
Preparing Eyes of Gasteropods.t—Concentrated solution of per-
chloride of mercury is found by Dr. C. Hilger to keep the rods in good
condition for hardening in Miiller’s fluid. Picric acid or alcohol may
be used. The best stain is hematoxylin. First overstain, then decolo-
* Morphol. Jahrb., x. (1884) pp. 837-43 (1 pl.).
+ Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., xi. (1885) pp. 201-8.
$+ Morphol. Jahrb., x. (1884) pp. 351-71 (2 pls.).
896 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
rize with weak alum solution for a period of several hours to some
days. Nucleiand cell boundaries are wellshown. Cutin paraffin. For
macerating, a 2 or 3 per cent. solution of chromate of potash, or it
may be concentrated and diluted with a weak oxalic acid solution or
Muller’s fluid.
Fresh material is ready in a few hours; hardened material in a
few weeks. It is recommended to dissociate the macerated and stained
specimen when in section, and to separate its elements by tapping
on the cover-glass.
Method of Softening Chitin.*—Dr. Looss describes a new method
of dissolving the chitinous skeletons of Arthropoda, &c. The reagents
used are hypochloride of potassium and sodium; the latter can be
purchased in chemists’ shops under the name of Eau de Laberraque.
The percentage of the solution has not been definitely settled. The
chitinous skeletons of insects are rendered completely transparent,
and the nerves and muscles uninjured by the use of the reagent
diluted 4—6 times with water.
Demonstrating Nerve-end Organs in the Antenne of Myrio-
pods.t—In order to demonstrate the origin and the articulation of the
olfactory bulb in the antenne of Chilognatha, Dr. B.Sazepin first washes
the antenne in alcohol, and then, in order to remove the pigment from
the chitinous tissues, immerses in chloroform to which one drop of
strong nitric acid has been added. After being placed in absolute
alcohol they are treated with 1/2 per cent. solution of osmic acid. The
nervous tissue becomes brown in about 20 hours. The processes
previous to cutting are to place the antenne in absolute alcohol and
next in picric acid for a day. After washing frequently in 75 per
cent. spirit, transfer to absolute alcohol and stain with Grenacher’s
alum-carmine. Wash for a whole day in water; for another in
75 per cent. spirit; then absolute alcohol, chloroform, paraftiin,
and cut.
Sources of Error in the Examination of Fresh Tissues.{—Dr.
Heller draws attention to two sources of error in the examination of
fresh tissues, each of which can, however, be obviated by adopting
proper precautions.
1st. The red blood-corpuscles are in a great many cases destroyed
by the cold temperature when the sections are cut with a freezing
microtome. This can, however, be prevented by placing the pieces
of tissue, before cutting, for a short time in a weak solution of
bichromate of potash.
2nd. When a large number of sections have to be examined, a
development of micro-organisms may occur before there is time to
carry out the examination. This, too, can be prevented by placing
the sections in salt solution (3/4 per cent.) to which 1 per cent.
chloral hydrate has been added. An addition of 1/2 per cent. chloral
* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 333-4.
+ Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourg, xxxii. (1884), 20 pp. and 3 pls.
{ Zeitschr. f, Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 47-8.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 897
prevents the development of the Schizomycetes, but not of the moulds.
A solution stronger than 2 per cent. acts unfavourably on many
tissues.
Mounting Media for Nematodes.*—The following is recom-
mended by Dr. M. Braun as a medium in which unstained prepara-
tions of small nematodes may be mounted :—Gelatin 20, glycerin
100, water 120, carbolic acid 2. The preparations are treated
beneath the cover-glass (after previous treatment with Miiller’s fluid
and distilled water) with weak alcohol (first 25 per cent. and then
40 per cent.). This is removed by placing at the edge of the cover-
glass glycerin diluted with an equal part of water; by the evapora-
tion of the water pure glycerin remains. The cover-glass is then
lifted up, and the gelatin, rendered fluid by warming, applied. A
sealing varnish is not necessary.
Preparing Myzostoma.j—As preserved specimens did not give
favourable results, their development was chiefly studied by Mr. J.
Beard on the living animal. If plenty of naturally impregnated
Comatula with adult Myzostoma glabrum can be obtained, the arms are
cut off by the calyx and placed in a vessel filled with sea water. On
the following day the Comatula are removed, and at the bottom of the
glass the ova or larva of Myzostoma will be found. They can be
kept alive from 4-5 days. But as only a few ova can be obtained,
and the Comatula die in a few days, ova artificially impregnated are
used. A number of adult Myzostoma are removed from their host
and placed in a watch-glass containing 2-3 teaspoonfuls of freshly
filtered sea water. They are then torn with needles and left for two
or three hours. The pieces of Myzostoma are then fished out; the
ova which remain at the bottom of the vessel are supplied with fresh
sea water every other day and also with air by means of Andres’
apparatus. Most larvae die in about six days. For the later stages
of development the Comatula are placed in a vessel containing a
mixture of sea water with 10 per cent. of alcohol. By this they are
slowly killed. On shaking the vessel Myzostoma glabrum and cirri-
ferwm fall to the bottom. Alcohol is then gradually added until it
reaches 90 per cent. In this they are preserved.
Sensitive Tests for Wood-fibre and Cellulose.{—Dr. A. Ihl finds
that besides the well-known reagent phloroglucin, other phenols stain
lignin in a characteristic way. An alcoholic solution of orcin acidulated
with hydrochloric acid stains woody fibre a beautiful dark red. Cellu-
lose remains unchanged. Resorcin with alcohol and hydrochloric acid
gives a blue violet stain. JResorcin with alcohol and sulphuric acid
(1 part C,H,O to 1/3 part H,SO,) gives a dark blue violet stain. To
cellulose a reddish hue. a-naphthol, alcohol, and hydrochloric acid
produce a greenish hue: a-naphthol, alcohol (1 part), sulphuric acid
(1 part), impart a dark-green colour to wood, to cellulose a red-violet
* Braun, M., ‘Die thierischen Parasiten des Menschen nebst einer Anlei-
» heigl praktischen Beschaftigung mit der Helminthologie, fiir Studirende und
erZte.
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) p. 231.
t Chem. Ztg., 1885, p. 266.
898 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
colour. Pyrogallic acid, alcohol, and hydrochloric acid give, with
heat, a blue-green stain. Carbolic acid, alcohol, and hydrochloric
acid a yellowish green.
Modification of Semper’s Method of making Dry Preparations.*
—Prof. O. P. Hay, finding that preparations made according to Sem-
per’s method often present a dingy, weatherbeaten aspect, recommends
that the method should be completed by saturating the preparation
with a solid that fills up the pores and binds the parts together. The
solid which he employs is a mixture of Canada balsam, paraffin, and
vaseline, but it is probable that a soft paraffin will in most cases do
quite well. It is necessary that the mixture shall melt at about
46° C.
Freeing Objects from Air.;—D. 8. W. recommends the follow-
ing plan for mounting objects containing a considerable quantity of
“Take, for example, a collection of Isthmia, or some other diatom.
The valves enclose so much air as to cause them to float upon water,
and it must be extracted, for until they sink it is impossible to wash
them. Drive from water all the air you can by a good boiling for
about five minutes, allow the water to cool so as to be in condition to
absorb air, and without delay drop in the diatoms. The water will
extract the air from them and they will go to the bottom. Then add
to the water a little dissolved chloride of soda, and with an occasional
shake up, you will find the material pretty well cleaned and bleached
in one hour. Wash thoroughly in several changes of water.
Take a drachm of redistilled alcohol and add thereto two drops
of dissolved gum arabic. With a sharpened stick place a small
quantity on the centre of a cleaned slide. It will spread out and
the alcohol will quickly evaporate, leaving a very thin film of the
gum. On this gummed spot place a drop of your cleaned diatoms,
and see that they are thoroughly dried by time or heat. Of course,
they are now filled with air, and are firmly enough attached to the
slide, and can be covered in a cell if a dry mount is desired.
To mount in balsam, however, the air must be again extracted,
and at this stage the boiled water prescription cannot be administered.
Have Canada balsam made quite tough by age or heat, and then
dissolved in benzole. Put around the objects which have been dried
on the slide a few fragments of cover-glass, and on them, as legs
to a stool, place a clean cover-glass. A drop of the pure benzole
will quickly run under the cover-glass, and very promptly take the
place of the air in the diatoms; anda drop of the balsam at one
edge of the cover, and a corner of blotting-paper at the other, will
quickly substitute the balsam for the benzole. Time or gentle heat
will harden the cement, and the specimen is safe.”
Cleaning and Preparing Diatom Material—Mounting Diatoms.—
Herr E. Debes, in an article of 17 pages, { describes the necessary
* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) p. 526.
+ Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., v. (1884) p. 18.
{ Hedwigia, xxiv. (1885) pp. 49-66.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 899
processes both in the case of recent and fossil forms. In a later
article of 16 pages * Herr Debes describes the various mounting
media, and gives directions for mounting diatoms. The articles cannot
be usefully abstracted.
Gowen’s Microtome.t—Mr. F. H. Gowen, considering that the
use of paraffin for imbedding is attended with difficulties on account
of its becoming loose in the microtome, has made a microtome in
which the difficulties are overcome.
A hole is turned about half-way through the table of a microtome,
and into this a tube is screwed, forming the well. The hole through
the remainder of the table, forming the mouth of the well, is turned
with sufficient “ gather,” or taper, to take up the shrinkage of the
parafiin. On the upper side of the piston a dovetailed groove is
turned. The column of paraffin receives no support from the tube,
but is securely held by the piston at one end and by the contracted
mouth of the well-hole at the other. (Diameter at the top, 0°9 in.,
tapering from diameter of 0°92 in. Length of taper, 0°15 in.)
Jacobs’s Freezing Microtome.{—Dr. F. O. Jacobs has devised the
freezing: microtome shown in figs, 215 and 216. It consists of a
copper rod A, 2 in. or more in diameter, and 6 in. high, inclosed by
Fia. 215. Fic. 216.
SONS
MOA SSS SSS
‘
an inner zinc and an outer brass tank. Above is the table D, work-
ing on a fine screw. Through the centre of the table passes a
narrower portion of the copper rod p.
When the inner tank is filled with a mixture of salt, ice, and water,
the temperature of the copper rod is so reduced as to freeze any
object F placed on its upper end. The size of the rod is such that
its temperature will remain very steady for from four to six hours,
without any further care on the part of the operator.
* Hedwigia, xxiv. (1885) pp. 151-66.
+ Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) p. 156.
¢ Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 734-6 (2 figs.).
900 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
By this arrangement objects can be easily frozen, and without any
slop.
The imbedding medium is composed of:—gum arabic, 5 parts;
gum tragacanth, 1 part; gelatin, 1 part. The mixture is dissolved in
enough warm water to give it the consistency of thin jelly when cold.
A little glycerin (1:6) is added to the water.
Eternod’s Microtome with Triple Pincers.*—The instrument of
Dr. A. Eternod consists of a brass cylinder terminating above in
a polished nickel-plated platform, on which the razor is directed.
The cylinder is composed of two drums screwed one over the other
so that the lower drum being fixed, if the upper drum is turned
round its axis it is gradually raised. The edges of the upper drum
are divided into 100 parts. Each entire revolution of the drum
raises or lowers the platform 1 mm.; if it is moved through only
one division, the platform is displaced to the extent of 1/100 mm.
The object is fixed in the axis of the microtome by a triple pincer
consisting of three pieces of brass set on the base-cylinder, which can
be separated or approximated by means of a screw beneath the in-
strument. If the screw is turned from right to left, the three pieces
are separated and the specimen can be interposed, imbedded in cork,
elder-pith, &c. If the screw is now turned from left to right, the
pieces are approximated, and the specimen can be firmly fixed. It is
easy With this microtome to cut sections 1/200-1/400 mm. thick.
Dr. A. Eternod, in writing ¢ to claim to be the originator of the
microtome, points out several advantages not noticed in the above
description. It can be filled with alcohol or
Fie, 217. other liquid, so that the object to be cut can be
preserved for some time. Objects 4 cm. long
can be cut.
Gannett’s Dripping Apparatus.t—Dr. C. 8.
Minot recommends Dr. W. W. Gannett’s drip-
ping apparatus for cutting under alcohol (fig.
217). A litre bottle is convenient in size, and
the height of the stand should be such as to
bring the end of the
i)
dripping-tube about lin.
above the blade of the
knife, on which the
alcohol is allowed to
fall continuously. To
regulate the flow an
1/8 in. globe-valve is
found to be the most
convenient. ;
Staining for Microscopical Purposes.$—In further continuation
of his excellent articles, Dr. H. Gierke deals with (1) the treatment
* Journ. de Microgr., ix. (1885) pp. 171-4. t+ Ibid., pp. 264-7,
+ Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) p. 916 (1 fig.). .
§ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., i. (1884) pp. 497-557, and ii. (1885) pp. 13-36.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 901
of specimens with various metal salts, such as chloride of palladium,
oxide of iron, &c. (2) Staining methods in which carmine is com-
bined with other reagents, e. g. picric acid, indigo-carmine, and metal
salts. (3) Methods in which logwood is used in combination with
various other reagents. (4) The combination of anilin dyes with
each other and with metal salts. (5) The combination of the gold
and silver methods. Not the least important and interesting part of
the articles is the historical description of the development of the
employment of anilin dyes in staining technique, commencing with
mauvein and fuchsin in 1856. The author well observes that those
who are engaged in histological research with the aid of staining
materials should be thoroughly acquainted with the chemistry of the
dyes with which they work, and a description is given of the source,
manufacture and properties of the anilin dyes as well as alizarin,
logwood, indigo, carmine, and others.
In his concluding article,* Dr. H. Gierke has drawn up elaborate
tables respecting the anilin pigments. The first table gives the
ordinary nomenclature, chemical formule, remarks on the solubility,
reactions, and preparation of the various anilin stains. The second
table, arranged according to colour, gives the solubility in water or
alcohol and the behaviour with acid and alkalis.
The rest of the paper is chiefly occupied with a discussion as to
whether, when a preparation becomes coloured, the colour is due to
imbibition of pigment, or is the result of chemical changes effected in
the tissue by the pigment. The author maintains that though histo-
logical staining depends for the most part on the physical processes
of diffusion and imbibition, the occurrence of chemical combination in
staining cannot be denied. On the contrary, such combinations are
of frequent occurrence and, as micro-chemical reactions, are of the
greatest importance. The histological stain, so far as it impartsa
permanent dye, depends on the physical process of surface attraction.
Chemical processes should be suspected when a pigment is discharged
or changes to a different shade. Wemay, therefore, speak of chemical
processes when one and the same pigment stains different tissue
elements of a preparation in different ways. Double staining by the
simultaneous or consecutive use of several dyes only in part depends
on chemical processes. In greater measure they are effected by the
unequally developed attraction-force of various tissues. It is also
shown by the fact that one pigment is able to remove another from
certain tissue elements, but not altogether from the same preparation.
Ifa section of any organ, rich in various tissues, be laid in a mixture of
several pigments, each histological element is stained by that for
which it possesses the greatest attraction. If a certain part have for
two or more dyes an exactly similar attraction, it then takes up both
or all, and a mixed colour is the result. Examples of staining by
chemical processes are, among others, the various reactions on amyloid
substance. When Curshmann employed methyl-green for staining
amyloid-degenerated nerves, all the normal parts were coloured
green, the hyaline cylinder light blue, and the amyloid substances
* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii, (1885) pp. 164-221.
Ser. 2.—Vou. V. 3.°N
902 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
violet. The latter, therefore, entered into chemical union with the
pigment, the new body only showing a colour differing from that of
the dye. Thus, too, the rose-orange staining of red blood-corpuscles
by eosin may be regarded as the result of a chemical reaction.
The author concludes by expressing the opinion that the staining
problem of the future will be solved by the aid of chemical reaction.
Staining Methods.*—Dr. J. H. List discusses some double stains
which he has used for a long time with excellent effect, especially on
gland and epithelium.
1. Bismarck-brown and methyl-green stain is prepared acoordine
to Weigert’s method, i.e. 5 grm. of pigment to 100 c.c. aq. destil.
The sections are left in the brown solution for from two to fifteen
minutes. They are then washed and removed to the green stain,
where they remain until they have assumed a dark-green colour.
They are again washed and placed in absolute alcohol. Experience
is the only guide as to when they should be taken out of alcohol, but
as soon as a sap-green hue appears the sections may be withdrawn
and placed in bergamot, xylol, &c., to clarify. The advantage of
this method is that Bismarck-brown gives with methyl-green a beauti-
fully distinct sap-green colour, while for goblet-cells and mucous
membrane it is especially valuable, because the intracellular network
is coloured brownish green or dark brown, and stands out with a
sharpness as in no other staining combination.
2. Bismarck-brown and anilin-green may be used in an exactly
similar manner.
3. Hosin and methyl-green were first used by Calberla, who dis-
solved a mixture of 1 part eosin and 60 parts methyl-green in 30 per
cent. warm alcohol. The author uses the stains separately. The
sections are first placed in an alcoholic solution of eosin made by
mixing 5 ¢.c. of a watery solution of eosin (0°5 grm. to 100 c.c. aq.
dest.) with about 15 c.c. absolute alcohol. Two to five minutes suffice
to stain deeply. Wash again and transfer to absolute alcohol, from
which it is usual to remove the sections when the eosin is perceptible.
They are then placed in the clarifying medium. This method of
staining may be recommended for epithelium, mucous membrane, and
cartilage.
4. Eosin and anilin-green. Schiefferdecker was the first to employ
this method of double staining. The following modification may be
employed with excellent results for cartilage and glands. An alcoholic
solution of eosin is prepared as in No. 3. After remaining in this ~
solution for fifteen minutes or so, the sections are washed in alcohol,
and are then transferred to an alcoholic solution of anilin-green.
After remaining in this for fifteen minutes, they are removed to absolute
alcohol, where they remain until the eosin stain begins to show itself.
5. Hematoxylin-glycerin and eosin. Renaut’s method { of double
staining, somewhat modified, produces splendid preparations. Three
or four drops of Renaut’s hematoxylin. glycerin are mixed with 1/4
* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 145-50.
+ Comptes Rendus, Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1039. See this Journal, ii. (1879)
p. 763.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 903
litre of aq. dest. In this the sections are left for 24 hours. Then
wash and transfer to an alcoholic solution of eosin (as in No. 4) for
several minutes. Wash in alcohol, and clarify. This method pro-
duces a beautiful nuclear stain, the nuclei are coloured deep violet,
the rest of the tissue a beautiful rose red.
6. Hematoxylin-glycerin and rosanilin nitrate. The sections are
placed in the dilute hematoxylin-glycerin (No. 5) for 24 hours;
then for ten minutes in a solution of rosanilin nitrate ; after washing
in water, dehydrate and clarify.
7. Methyl-green and rosanilin nitrate. The sections are left in
the No. 1 solution of methyl-green for ten minutes, then after washing
are placed in solution of rosanilin nitrate for fifteen minutes; wash
again, dehydrate, clarify.
The first three methods may be modified by using very dilute
solutions and staining for 24 hours. For hardening, the author
always employed absolute alcohol ; and Miiller’s fluid or chromic acid
for material to be imbedded in celloidin.
Staining Nerves in Muscle.*— To obtain good images of the
ramification of nerves in muscle, Dr. K. Mays gives the following
process. For small muscles, lay freshly prepared portions in a recently
made mixture of 1/2 per cent. alkaline solution of gold chloride,
1 grm.; 2 per cent. osmic acid, 1 grm.; water, 20 grm., until the arbo-
rescent nerve ramifications can be perceived; then in the following
mixture: glycerin, 40 grm.; water, 20 grm.; 25 per cent. hydro-
chloric acid solution, 1°0 grm., for about a day. This prevents them
from becoming too dark.
Thicker muscles are placed for 12 hours in a 2 per cent. solution
of acetic acid, then into a freshly made mixture of 1/2 per cent.
alkaline solution of gold chloride, 1 grm.; 2 per cent. osmic acid,
1 grm.; 2 per cent. acetic acid, 50 grm. In this they remain for two
or three hours and are then placed in the glycerin mixture. The
muscle becomes transparent and amber-coloured, the nerve black-
brown. By this method the nerve-end-plate is stained, but not the
hypolemmal parts of the nerve.
Anilin-green.t—Dr. J. H. List controverts Schiefferdecker’s
statement that anilin-green requires exposure to light before it is
fully capable of staining cell-structures. He finds that solutions of
methyl-green and anilin-green (0°5 grm.—100 c.c. distilled water)
always colour, even when freshly prepared, the reticulum of goblet
and other cells. He also recommends Bismarck-brown and rosanilin
nitrate, either in union or alone for the same object.
In reply to List, Dr. P. Schiefferdecker{ maintains that the
former has confused the reticulum which is perfectly apparent even
in unstained specimens, with the reticulum only demonstrable by
anilin-green solution which has undergone certain changes from lapse
of time and exposure to light. The latter reticulum is much thicker
than that which is described by List, but otherwise there does not
seem to be much difference between them.
* Zeitschr. f. Biol., xx. (1884) pp. 449-528 (5 pls.).
+ Zeitechr. f, Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 222-3. t has pp. te
N
904 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Perchloride of Mercury in the study of the Central Nervous
System.*—Golgi’s methods for staining nerve-elements black are
based on the action of nitrate of silver and perchloride of mercury
following the use of bichromate of potash. The mercurial salt, how-
ever, does not give a real black colour, but renders the elements
opaque and causes them to appear black under the Microseope. For
small pieces the method is to immerse in a 2 per cent. solution of
bichromate or in Miiller’s fluid for a month. They are then trans-
ferred to a 0°5 per cent. solution of perchloride, which is daily
renewed until all colour traces of bichromate have disappeared.
Dr. C. Mondino applies the foregoing method to whole brains by
injecting through a carotid (the other and the vertebrals being tied)
Miiller’s fluid by the pressure-bottle process. The excess fluid passes
out by the jugular veins, and when the stream has become very slow
or stopped, the brain may be transferred to Miiller’s fluid, where it
should remain for a couple of months, though a longer period is not
harmful. The carotid injection process is not absolutely necessary, as
the brain after removal from the body may be placed in Miiller’s fluid
at once. In this case the membranes must be stripped off. Directly
after removal from the fluid, the brain must be placed in a 1/2 per
cent. aqueous solution of perchloride and this must be continually
changed so long as the solution is stained by the bichromate. It is
proper to leave the brain in the perchloride solution for at least two
or three weeks after all trace of bichromate has disappeared.
Sections are best made by Gudden’s microtome. It is unnecessary
to soak these brains in paraffin; owing to their consistence, imbedding
alone is found to be sufficient. Out of a whole brain not more than
twenty sections will be lost.
While by other methods thin sections are a sine quad non for
observation, in this, thick slices are almost necessary, the chief
advantage of which is obviously that any fibre can be followed
throughout its course in the brain. When a section has been made
it is placed at once on a slide and then washed with water to remove
any bits of paraffin. It is then dried with blotting-paper. Next a
little pure creosote is placed on the centre of the section, which is
thereby rendered quite transparent in a few hours. After draining
away the excess of creosote, the specimen is covered with dammar..
No cover-glass is used.
The author claims the following advantages for this method. It
is the only one which shows the course of nerve-fibres throughout
the brain. It is extremely simple. In all other methods, the speci-
mens must be thin, require to be stained after section, and to go
through many processes; all this renders them liable to injury. It
is inexpensive, as the reagents used are very cheap when compared
with those required for other methods.
Macroscopically, in other methods there is diminution of volume,
disappearance of difference between white and grey matter, while
brains prepared in perchloride show the difference between the white
* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 157-63.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 905
and grey substances even more markedly than in the fresh state.
Moreover, if we wish to have them dry they are merely placed in
glycerin for a few days, and on removal the excess of glycerin is
allowed to drain off.
Decalcification and Staining of Osseous Tissue.*—After alluding
to methods for obtaining specimens by grinding and by section of
bone decalcified by acids, Dr. G. Pommer advocates the advantage to
be derived from using bone softened by osteo-malachic or rachitic
changes. He states that Miiller’s fluid possesses properties hitherto
unnoticed by previous writers; and that by an extensive series of
experiments on bones softened by disease, he has been enabled by the
use of certain anilin dyes to distinguish with precision between those
parts of bone out of which the salts have been removed artificially,
and those parts from which the salts are naturally wanting.
This important property of Miiller’s fluid apparently depends on
the fact that its acid salts decalcify less completely than pure acids.
Decalcification by acids produces many deceptive appearances from
shrinkage, &c., and these are altogether obviated by the use of
Miiller’s fluid, which while allowing the bone to be easily cut, does
not produce any of these deficiencies or dangers. These advantages
are in no way lost from long immersion or frequent change of fluid.
The author’s method of staining with anilin dyes depends on the
fact that those parts which have at one time contained lime salts
become coloured, while those which have never been impregnated
remain unaffected.
The dyes, six in number, are the blue and red methyl-violets,
dahlia, Parma violet, safranin, and methyl-green. The strength of
the solution is for the violets 02 per 1000; for dahlia -04 per cent. ;
for safranin -1 and ‘16 per cent.; and for methyl-green -3 per
cent. The sections are allowed to remain in solution from12 to
18 hours. The first five give a dark stain, the last only a pale green.
Staining the Nucleus of the Germinal Vesicle in Arthropoda.t{—
Though the methyl-green and acetic acid solution recommended by
Mayzel and Strasburger usually produces a good nuclear stain, Dr.
yv. Wielowiefski states that the nucleus of the germinal vesicle in
Arthropoda, and as he suspects in all animals, is absolutely, or
almost, unstainable even though the cell be completely isolated in
order that the staining fluid may have certain access to the nucleus.
Only a few cell nuclei, e.g. the nuclei of nerve-cells and of Gre-
garinz, show this peculiarity.
Double Injections for Dissecting Purposes.t—Professor H. F,
Osborn’s method for double injections § was to fill the whole vascular
system with a thin coloured injection-mass. When this has passed
through the capillaries and well filled the veins, there is forced into
the artery a differently coloured plaster mass which pushes the
* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 151-6.
t Biol. Centralbl., iv. (1884) pp. 360-70.
t Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 526-7.
§ See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 325,
906 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
previously injected thin mass before it until the plaster has reached
the capillaries, where its onward movement is arrested. Prof. O. P.
Hay uses the following method, based on the same principle.
A canula is fitted into the aorta of a cat, and a gelatin mass
coloured with carmine injected until it is seen to flow from the right
side of the heart ; then the tube conveying the red mass being detached,
a tube conveying a blue gelatin mass is slipped over the same canula,
and the pressure again applied. Into this blue mass had been mixed
thoroughly a quantity of starch, preferably from wheat. This starch-
bearing mass pushes the carmine mass before it until the starch-grains
enter the capillaries and effectually plug them up. The arteries are
thus left blue and the veins red, and so well is the work accomplished»
that a lens of considerable power must be used to discover any admix-
ture of the colours in the smallest vessels of thin membranes.
Double Injections for Histological Purposes.*—Prof. O. P. Hay
refers to the usual method of producing a double injection of the
blood-vessels preparatory to making sections for the Microscope, by
injecting first a gelatin mass of one colour into the artery until the
increasing pressure gives notice that the mass is entering the capil-
laries, and immediately after to inject a differently coloured mass into
the vein. The injection being thus accomplished, one of two things,
it seems to him, is likely to happen; either the vessels will not be
well filled, or the mass intended for one set of vessels will be driven
through into the other.
To avoid these accidents he’has practised the method of filling
both sets of vessels at the same moment and under exactly the same
pressure. This pressure is kept low at the beginning, so that all the
arteries and veins shall be thoroughly filled before either mass begins
to enter the capillaries. Then as the pressure is increased the
differently coloured masses meet each other in the capillaries; and
if the pressure on each is equal, the vessels may be filled as full
as compatible with safety, without danger of either colour being
driven from one set of vessels into the other. The desired pressure
is secured by allowing a stream of water from a hydrant or cistern to
flow into a tight vessel. As the water flows in, the air is forced out
through a rubber tube A (fig. 218) into the wide-mouthed bottle F,
whose tightly fitting cork gives passage to two other glass tubes.
These extend below just through the cork, and above connect respec-
tively with the rubber tubes C and D. Into the side of F near the
bottom is fitted another tube E, reaching to a height of ten inches or
more, open above, and graduated into inches. If preferred, this tube
may also pass through the cork, and extend down well into the mer-
eury with which F is partly filled. B is a bottle of suitable size in
which is contained a blue injection-mass for filling the veins, and R
a similar bottle containing a red mass for the arteries. The interiors
of these bottles are connected with the bottle F by the tubes D and C.
Each of the bottles B and R has a tube which, starting from near the
bottom, passes through the cork, and is, a little above this, bent at
* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 527-9 (1 fig.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 907
right angles. With these are connected the rubber tubes H and I.
When water is allowed to flow into the reservoir mentioned above,
the air is forced out through A into F, and thence along the tubes D
and C into B and R. As soon as the pressure in these bottles becomes
sufficiently great, the liquids which they contain will be driven out
Fia. 218.
through the tubes H and L. If there should be any obstacle to the
escape of these fluid masses, the pressure in all the vessels will rise
and be registered by the height of the mercury in E.
If now it is desired to inject, for instance, the kidney of a pig, a
canula made of a glass tube must be fitted securely into the renal
artery, and a similar one into the renal vein. The canule must be
of such a size that the rubber tubes H and I will fit them well. Heat
the gelatin-masses in the bottles B and R to the proper temperature,
and keep them so heated until the injection has been finished. Special
care must be taken with the tubes H and I, to prevent the gelatin
passing through them from becoming frozen. Having clamped the
tube H, have an assistant turn on a small stream of water until the
gelatin begins to flow slowly from I. If the diameter of the canula is
not too small it may be held with the free end directed upward and
filled with gelatin allowed to drop from the mouth of J. Then slip I
over the canula. Unclamp the tube H, and when the gelatin from B
has begun to flow, slip it ‘over the canula inserted in the vein. Then
increase the pressure gradually until it has reached as high a point
as experience has taught to be safe for the organ operated on.
By this apparatus double injections may easily be made of any
organs whose veins are not provided with valves. Triple injections
of the liver may be made by first injecting the hepatic artery with a
green mass until the whole liver assumes a green tint, and afterwards
injecting the portal vein and the hepatic vein with red and blue as
above directed.
908 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Double-sided Slide.—Dr. C. V. Zenger suggests that for viewing
both sides of an object the slide should be pierced through in the
centre, and the aperture surrounded on the upper and under side by
countersunk rings for the cover-glasses to rest on, level with the
surfaces of the slide.
It is to be feared that this plan, though theoretically very perfect,
would be too difficult of execution to be practical, though Dr. Zenger
writes that “the feat of turning out the slides in their centre without
breaking numbers of them is not so difficult as it may seem, if they
are well centered and cemented to a cork plate fastened centrally to
avoid lateral irregular pressure.’ He adds, “Such a slide will do
extremely good service to the microscopist as well as to the biologist,
and amply repays the amount of labour spent on its construction.’ *
Dr. W. Krause has also suggested what appears to be a similar
arrangement.T
Uses of Collodion.{—Mr. E. L. Mark gives an historical account
of the development of the use of collodion in histological technique.
The concentration of the collodion was rendered capable of varia-
tion by Merkel, through the use of celloidin dissolved in absolute
alcohol and ether in equal parts. Schiefferdecker has shown that by
dehydrating sections with 95 per cent. alcohol, and clarifying in oil
of origanum or bergamot, they can be mounted in balsam. In com-
bination with oil of cloves collodion can be used as a fixture for
sections in series, which can be stained after they have been arranged
and fixed on the slide.§ Gage || applies the collodion and oil of cloves
separately, first coating a number of slides with collodion, which is
poured on to one end of the slide and allowed to flow quickly over it
and back into the bottle, and then adding a wash of oil of cloves. In
order to remove any cloudiness that may arise in the collodion-film a
little oil of cloves is added to the balsam. The use of collodion to
prevent the crumbling of brittle sections originated with Mr. N. N.
Mason,{] who applied it by means of a fine brush, taking up a small
drop and placing it in the centre of the object, so as to allow it to
flow out on all sides. After being allowed to harden for a minute,
the section may be cut and placed on the slide with the film of
collodion underneath.
The following formule are given for the preparation of celloidin
injection-masses. .
A. Asphalt celloidin. 1. Pulverized asphalt placed in a well-closed
bottle of ether and allowed to remain 24 hours, with occasional
shaking.
2. The brown-coloured ether is turned off, and small pieces of
celloidin dissolved in it until the solution flows like a thick oil.
* See also this Journal, ante, p. 377.
+ Internat. Monatsschr. f. Anat. u. Histol., i. (1884) p. 353.
t Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 626-8.
§ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxii. (1883) p. 689.
|| Med. Student, Nov. 1883, p. 14.
4 Amer. Natural., 1880, p. 825.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 909
B. Vesuvin celloidin. 1. Make a saturated solution of vesuvin in
absolute alcohol.
2. Dissolve in this pieces of celloidin until the desired consistency
is reached.
C. Opaque celloidin. 1. Dissolve celloidin in absolute alcohol and
ether in equal parts.
2. Add vermilion or prussian blue.
Mounting in Cells with Canada Balsam.*—Mr. H. Sharp de-
scribes a method which obviates many of the difficulties usually
experienced.
A cell of paper or card of the requisite thickness is cemented on
the slide with gum, and a small piece cut away on opposite sides of
the ring.
The object (which has never been allowed to dry, but has been
transferred from the medium in which it was arranged, into strong
spirit and thence into oil of cajeput, into benzine and finally into tur-
pentine) is next placed in the centre of the cell with a single drop of
turpentine on it to keep it moist, and the cover-glass is put on the
gummed surface of the cell. When the gum has set and the cover is
quite firm a little benzine is taken up with a pipette and applied to
one of the openings cut in the card cell, when the benzine instantly
runs in and fills up the cell, and in a few minutes the card is thoroughly
soaked with it without any effect on the gum. The benzine is then
all drawn away with blotting-paper, and balsam applied to one of the
openings. When the slide is gently warmed, this soon fills the cell
and shows freely at both openings. When the balsam is sufficiently
hardened the slide is put on the turntable and trimmed up, leaving a
ring of balsam. ‘The final finishing touch is done by holding the
slide, cover side down, and giving it a circular sweep over a flame so
that the latter just touches the balsam ring all round for an instant,
leaving it as even and smooth as glass.
A great advantage of the method is claimed to be that when once
the cover is in its place and the gum has set there is not the least
danger of the cover shifting or the object being displaced when finish-
ing and cleaning the slide.
Monobromide of Naphthalin and Tribromide of Arsenic.—
Dr. C. V. Zenger finds that a concentrated solution of tribromide of
arsenic in monobromide of naphthalin has a mean refractive index
of 1°72, nearly approaching the index of the tribromide itself (1°78).f
The author says that the “aspect of Diatomacee mounted in
this substance is simply surprising both as regards the crispness of
the images and the amount of light received from the more minute
details of the valves.”
Mayer’s Carbolic Acid Shellac.t — Finding that clove oil and
creosote produce fine granulations when used in the ordinary shellac
method, Dr. P. Mayer has adopted a new method of dissolving the
* Journ. and Proce. Roy. Soc, N.S. Wales, xvi. (1883) pp. 286-8.
+ See also this Journal, ante, p. 377.
¢ Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) p. 733,
910 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
shellac, by which an excellent fixative is obtained that never shows
any traces of granulation. ‘The fixative is applied by a fine brush to
the cold slide.
Mayer prepares the solution in the following manner :—
1. Dissolve one part of bleached shellac in five parts of absolute
alcohol.
2. Filter the solution and evaporate the alcohol on a water-bath.
A yellowish residue quite stiff when cold is thus obtained. If any
cloudiness arises during evaporation, the solution must be filtered
again.
2 3. Dissolve the shellac residue in pure carbolic acid on a water-
bath. A concentrated solution of carbolic acid is obtained by ex-
posing the crystals to the air until they dissolve, or by adding a small
amount of water (about 5 per cent.).
The quantity of acid should be sufficient to give a thickish liquid
when cold.
This fixative is painted on to the cold slide with a brush, at the
time of using. The sections are then put in place, and the slide left
in the oven of a water-bath for some minutes (10-15 minutes is found
sufficient). The carbolic acid is thus evaporated, leaving a perfectly
transparent stratum of shellac on the slide. The sections are next
freed from paraffin in the ordinary way and mounted in balsam.
This method is considered to be the best and simplest for fixing
stained sections.
The shellac can be dissolved directly in carbolic acid, but then
the fluid must stand a long time in order to become clear, as it can-
not be filtered. For this reason it is preferable to dissolve first in
alcohol.
[According to a note just received, Mayer now prepares the shellac
as follows :—
The shellac is pulverized and heated with crystals of colourless
carbolic acid until it dissolves. In
Fia. 219. filtering, the funnel should be
heated over a flame. It will filter
slowly but quite well. If it is too
thick, crystals of carbolic acid may
be added until the desired consis-
tency is reached. |
Slide- Boxes. — Messrs. Beck
have supplied us with one of the
most convenient slide-boxes that we
have yet met with, and very econo-
mical in price (8s. 9d.). It consists
_ of a cloth-covered pasteboard box
= 15in. x 84in. x 35 in. which con-
= tains twelve trays of the form
—————— = shown in fig. 219, holding twenty-
i a four slides each (or 288 in all).
The bottom of the tray is divided into four parts by two cross-pieces,
and the slides are prevented from shifting by shutting down the two
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 911
hinged frames (also of cardboard) which cover the ends of the slides
and keep them in place.
’Chapman’s Mould for Cells.*—This mould is a convenient im-
plement for making cells out of such plastic material as shellac,
sealing-wax, or paraffin. It consists of a cylindrical core, and a
removable collar concentric with it—both of brass. A rounded or
bevelled shoulder inside the collar shapes the top of the cell, and a
small shoulder on the core moulds a countersink suitable for the
reception of the cover-glass. As a single mould is intended for one
size and one depth of cell, several are necessary to an outfit.
Selection and Preparation of Objects for Photographing.{—Dr.
G. M. Sternberg has found that success in making photo-micrographs
depends quite as much upon the selection of suitable objects and upon
their proper preparation with reference to photography, as upon the
optical apparatus used and the technical skill of the operator asa
microscopist and photographer, and he accordingly indicates the kind
of objects most suitable for making photo-micrographs, and the
methods of preparation which have given him the best results.
Micrococci require a high power for their detection. When
properly stained, they may be photographed with a good 1/10 in.
objective; but a higher power is better. The author has obtained his
best results by the use of the 1/18 in. homogeneous-immersion
objective of Zeiss.
It is well to adopt a standard amplification for each class of
objects, so that they may be readily compared as to dimensions by a
simple inspection of the photo-micrographs made at different times and
places. The standard adopted by the writer for bacterial organisms
is 1000 diameters. A less amplification than this will not show the
smallest micrococci in a satisfactory manner, and a greater is not
necessary for a majority of the Bacteria. The method of mounting
bacterial organisms in general, for the purpose of photographing
them, is essentially to spread out a drop of the fluid containing them
upon a very thin and perfectly clean glass cover. This is allowed to
dry, and the bacteria are thus attached to the cover in a very thin
and tolerably uniform layer.
The aim of the operator in preparing unicellular organisms or
vegetable and animal tissues for photography should always be to
secure a single layer of cells; for when the cells are piled upon each
other, those in the background are necessarily out of focus, and
interfere with the beauty of the picture.
Amebe.—Especial attention is called by the author to the photo-
micrograph of an Ameba from life, as it illustrates the fact that
transparent objects are the best suited for photography inasmuch as
they alone show interior details of structure in a satisfactory manner.
Transparent objects which have a different refractive index from
that of the medium in which they are placed, do not usually require
to be stained ; for the increased photographic contrast which is obtained
* Journ. N. York Mier. Soc., i. (1885) p. 188.
+ ‘ Photo-mierographs and how to make them,’ 1883, pp. 91-117,
912 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
by staining destroys the natural appearance, and the picture no longer
conveys the idea that the object is transparent. It is consequently
brought nearer to the level of a woodcut and to a certain extent loses
its value as a photo-micrograph.
Unicellular Alge.—These should be mounted for photography in
very shallow cells, made by turning a circle of white-zine cement
upon a slide. Their colour and natural appearance will be preserved
in an aqueous medium, such as weak carbolic-acid water or camphor
water. Unfortunately, photography cannot reproduce the rich ruby
colour of Protococcus nivalis, or the bright green of Protococcus viridis.
The deeply coloured protoplasm of the former arrests light entirely,
and we have in a positive print only a uniformly black mass with
circular outline, surrounded by another line representing the cell-wall,
to delineate the beautiful little ruby sphere with its more or less
granular contents. The green colour of P. viridis is better adapted
for photography.
Infusoria.—Many of the Infusoria may be successfully photo-
graphed, but it will be necessary to exercise great care in the
preparation of slides for this purpose. Generally but a single
individual should be in the field of view, and this should be a perfect
specimen ; for it is difficult to obtain fields containing several indi-
viduals all in the same plane, and in order to show cilia, flagella, and
interior details of structure, high powers and very careful focusing
will be required. ;
Occasionally a living Infusorian may be quiet long enough to
have its photograph taken ; but usually the Infusoria are in rapid
motion, and it will be necessary to arrest this motion by means of
some chemical agent fatal to their vitality. A weak solution of
iodine does this very effectually, and at the same time stains the
protoplasm a brownish colour. A ciliated Infusorian killed by adding
a drop of this solution (iodine 1 gr., potassic iodide 2 grs., water
100 grs.) to a drop of the fluid in which it is swimming, remains for
a time as if suddenly frozen, with its cilia rigid, and projecting like
rays, from the surface of the body. ‘This is a favourable time for
photographing the creature, as, later, it is liable to undergo changes
which destroy the internal structure. .
Another method is to place a drop of fluid containing the Infu-
soria in the centre of a clean glass slide, and to invert this over the
mouth of a bottle containing a 1 per cent solution of osmic acid. A
very brief time is sufficient to destroy the life of the Infusoria, which
may then be selected under a low power and transferred to a drop of
clean water. They must be mounted in the thinnest possible stratum
of fluid, otherwise they are likely to change position while the
exposure is being made.
As a general rule, transparent objects, like Amcbe and the Infu-
soria generally, should be mounted in an aqueous medium for photo-
graphy, as this gives better photographic contrast than does a medium
having a higher index of refraction, such as glycerin.
Spores of Fungi.—The spores of many of the fungi are suitable
microscopic objects to photograph, and a photographic method could
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 913
not fail to be of value to one especially interested in the study of the
fungi.
The deep brown colour of some of these spores, however, causes
them to arrest the actinic rays so completely that the photograph does
not show plainly the internal septa which are characteristic features
of certain species (Coniomycetes).
The spherical or oval spores of moulds and mildews (Penicillium,
Aspergillus, Botrytis, &c.,) are better adapted for photography than are
the more deeply coloured septate spores referred to. They may be
dusted upon the surface of a slide and photographed, dry, without the
use of a cover-glass, or they may be mounted in an aqueous medium,
or in glycerin, in a very shallow cell. The latter method gives the
best results.
To get rid of air-bubbles, which will give great trouble if the
attempt is made to introduce the spores at once into water or gly-
cerin, it is best first to wet them thoroughly with alcohol, and
before this has entirely evaporated, to place them in the medium
which has been selected.
A good plan is to place a drop of alcohol in the centre of a glass
slide, and to bring in contact with it a patch of mould in full fruit.
The spores will be detached upon contact with the alcohol, and will
sink to the bottom of the drop. By a little agitation of the slide they
will be distributed in a tolerably uniform layer upon the surface of the
glass. When they are nearly dry, in consequence of the evaporation
of the alcohol, this is replaced by a drop of distilled water, or of
glycerin, and the thin glass cover is applied. The superfluous fluid is
removed with blotting-paper (Swedish filtering-paper is the best), and
a circle of zinc cement may be turned around the edge of the glass to
prevent evaporation while the exposure is being made, or if the
intention is to preserve the preparation. A circle of cement is not
used to support the margin of the glass cover, as the aim should be to
have as thin a stratum of fluid as possible, in order to prevent the
spores from floating about. It may be that mounting in glycerin-
jelly would be a good plan for the spores having some colour, and
this method would have the advantage of retaining them in position.
Scales.—The scales of Lepidoptera—butterflies and moths—are
suitable objects for photography. They may be mounted dry, and
extemporaneous preparations are quickly made by applying the wing
or body of a lepidopterous insect to the surface of a clean glass slide. -
Blood-corpuscles.—The blood-corpuscles of man and the lower
animals are among the objects most suitable for photography. Com-
paratively high powers will be required; and, for purposes cf
comparison as to dimensions, it is well to adopt a standard of ampli-
fication, say 1000 diameters. The author’s best results have been
obtained with the 1/12 and 1/18 homogeneous-immersion objectives
of Zeiss.
The corpuscles are spread upon a thin glass cover in as uniform
& layer as possible, and are allowed to dry in situ. They do not
require staining, and are mounted, dry, over a circle of cement. The
simplest method of spreading them is to place a small drop of blood
914 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
on one edge of a glass cover resting upon a smooth surface, and to
draw the end of a glass slide, held obliquely, across the face of the
cover. No pressure must be used, or the delicate corpuscles will be
crushed and distorted.
In selecting a field for photography, the aim should be to obtain
one in which the circular form of the red corpuscles is preserved, in
which they do not overlie each other, and in which one or more white
corpuscles are to be seen. Unfortunately, an ideal field is hard to
find, and the patience of the operator will often be sorely tried in the
effort to find one.
The white corpuscles being larger than the red, and spherical in
form, are very commonly drawn to the edge of the stain in the opera-
tion of spreading. Care must be taken that the blood-stain is quite
dry and the circle of cement upon which the cover is to be mounted
quite hard, before it is placed in position on the slide; for moisture,
or chloroform from the cement, would injure the preparation.
A series of photo-micrographs of blood-corpuscles, made with a
standard amplification, would not only be interesting and instructive,
but might also be useful for reference, to those who are called upon
to examine blood-stains for the purpose of giving expert medico-legal
testimony.
The photographic method would also be useful for recording
differences in the form and appearance of blood-corpuscles due to
disease, if any constant peculiarities of this kind were associated with
particular diseases. But the Microscope does not reveal any such
peculiarities of a sufficiently definite character to justify the expecta-
tion, at one time extensively entertained, that its use, in the examina-
tion of the vital fluid, might prove of value in deciding questions of
diagnosis. Differences in the relative proportion of the white and
red corpuscles are, however, shown in a rough way, and the depth of —
colour of the red corpuscles is indicated, to a certain extent, by the
photographic contrast with the ground; or, better still, with white
corpuscles in the same field. The presence of foreign elements—
parasitic organisms—is shown very satisfactorily in photographs ;
and if a sufficient power is used, their absence is rendered apparent
when there are none.
The method is therefore especially useful for recording facts-of
this kind, as the observer is able to substantiate the truth of his state-
ments, positive or negative, by unimpeachable evidence, and at the
same time to show that his skill as a microscopist is sufficient to give
confidence in his ability to manipulate the higher powers with which
such observations are necessarily made.
For example, the photo-micrograph of yellow-fever blood given by
the author, in which the amplification is nearly 1500, and in which
the white and red corpuscles are well defined, may be taken as
evidence that there were no parasites in the blood of the patient from
whom this specimen was obtained ; and a sufficient number of similar
photo-micrographs of blood from different patients, and drawn at
different stages of the disease in question, would prove the absence of
any foreign elements, demonstrable with the power used, from the
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 915
blood of yellow fever. This has been demonstrated by the author
in the manner indicated for the disease in question.
Pollen-grains.—Not all of these objects which it would be most
desirable to photograph are suitable objects to be photographed by
transmitted light, for the reason that the bright yellow colour and
comparatively large size of some render them practically opaque.
Doubtless this difficulty in the case of pollen-grains, the deeply
coloured spores of fungi, &c., can be overcome by special methods of
preparation,—the use of decolorizing agents, mounting in media of
high refractive index, &c. The limits of the author’s volume do not,
however, permit him to go very extensively into details with reference
to the preparation of objects, even if the technique were completely
worked out, which is far from being the case. The general state-
ment may be made, however, that objects which, in water, are not
sufficiently transparent for photography, should be mounted in media
having a higher refractive index, of which the most useful are
glycerin and Canada balsam.
Some pollen-grains swell up and the membranous envelope is
ruptured when they are immersed in water. For this reason, as well
as for that already given, glycerin is commonly a more suitable fluid
in which to mount them. When first placed in glycerin, the cell-
wall becomes collapsed from exosmosis of the watery contents; but
after a time the natural form is recovered by endosmosis and the fluid
within and without is of the same density.
To prevent the trouble arising from the presence of air-bubbles,
which are apt to adhere tenaciously to the pollen-grains, it is best to
immerse them first in alcohol, as recommended for the spores of fungi.
A drop of alcohol is placed in the centre of a glass slide, and the ripe
anthers, held in slender forceps, are brought into contact with it; the
pollen is detached, and falls to the bottom of the drop. A little
agitation of the slide causes it to be distributed in a stratum consist-
ing of a single layer of cells. When the alcohol is nearly evaporated,
a drop of glycerin is put in its place, the thin cover is applied, and
the superfluous fluid removed with bibulous paper.
Plant Hairs.—Some ingenuity will have to be exercised in pre-
paring objects of this kind for photography. Hairs that are closely
applied to the surface of the leaf may be photographed in situ by
mounting the epidermis, or by reflected light. Others will require to
be detached, and may be shaved off with a razor, and mounted in a
very shallow cell in water or in glycerin. It is always desirable to
obtain a field in which the objects do not overlie or cross each other ;
and with long plant hairs, like cotton, this is not an easy matter
unless they are carefully arranged one by one. A good plan both
for long plant hairs and animal hairs is to place several side by side
on a dry glass slide, fixing the ends to the edges of the slide with
sealing-wax. When they are adjusted in position the central portion
is wet with alcohol, then with water, and finally with glycerin, if it
is to be used. A thin glass cover is then applied.
Animal Hairs.—A series of photo-micrographs of animal and
vegetable hairs would be extremely interesting and instructive.
916 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Reagents will often be required to show the structure of animal hairs,
which is not so simple as that of those from the vegetable kingdom.
The thickness of these hairs makes it desirable that photo-micro-
graphs should be made with low-power objectives, as these have the
greatest penetrating power. At the same time, good definition is
required to show the outlines of the imbricated cells in wool, for
example. Wool, ready dyed, of any shade required, is to be had
by picking out a little end of coloured worsted.
Sections of Vegetable Tissues.—Photo-micrographs are especially
well adapted as illustrations of vegetable histology; and the ease
with which sections of vegetable tissues are made and mounted for
the purpose, as well as the beauty of the result, cannot fail to make
this one of the most popular applications of the art.
Sections—transverse, oblique, or longitudinal—are quickly made
with a sharp razor from the petioles of leaves; from succulent stems,
like the new growth of asparagus, geranium, &c.; from bulbous roots
and tubers; from endogenous plants, such as canna, maize, &ec.; and
from recent sprouts on exogenous trees and shrubs. No section-cutter
is required for this purpose; and every one engaged in work of this
kind should make himself an expert in free-hand section-cutting, as
many of the best photographs are made from extemporaneous pre-
parations.
The proportion of mounted preparations in animal and vegetable
histology to be found in every collection which are not suited for
photographing, will surprise one who attempts to save himself the
trouble of mounting his own specimens for the purpose.
The first requisite is a very thin section ; the second, a very clean
specimen, free from dirt or air-bubbles. ‘To secure cleanliness, wash
the leaf or stem or tuber perfectly clean before commencing to make
sections, and place the sections in filtered water when they are made.
Use a very sharp instrument, and cover the face of the stem, or what-
ever it may be, with water or alcohol; the razor also should be wet
before making each cut.
“ Be extravagant in the number of sections cut, and select only
the best. The selected sections will often require soaking for a con-
siderable time in alcohol, to get rid of the air-bubbles. They are to be
mounted in water, solution of acetate of potash, glycerin, or Canada
balsam. » * “ea 4 5 ee
PAGE
++ 1035
+. L035
-. 1036
a» 1086
es 1036
«. 1036
<« 1087
.» 1038
.. 1038
.» 1039
.. 1039
.. 10389.
oe 1039
se 1040
.. 1041
-» 1041
- 4. 1042
oe
Lerixe, R., & G. Roux—Cystitis and Nephritis p produced by Miciocacain ureee ns
+» 1042
+» 1042
+» 1043
«+ 1044
» 1045
+» 1045
« 1045
+. 1046
oe 1046
1046
.. 1046
. 1047
1047
. 1047
1048
.. 1048
1049 |
.
‘s -An.orwe, §.—Influence of the Sun on the Growth and Actvty af Bacillus anthracis 1050
ie Freier & Prior, & Potoner—Cholera Bacillus... he em «» 1050.
homage —Morphology of the Comma Bacillus... .. bn os epee hak tc aon
~ Nicatt, W., & Riersci—Attenuation of the Choleraie Virus A hry an Pe RE 4
Fk oveascorr—Passage of Pathogenic Microbes from the Mother to the ‘Fetus ooo veh AOE
. ys ~ 3 assage of Microbes by means of Milk o oo ee oe oe oe “-* 1052
+ “4 sox” Aer of of SE ach Fever in Man .... aoe Ose roe
_ SALMON, D.E mitH—New eh alae. itacliue~D. luteus etude Sa ARs LOD BES
“ae. at Boo Of Malaria’ 14a eis os Sige 4 aes Tine) Liatensay be OO
u > eta nat of Fi BS. * of. oe - oe oe es. oe of we ae 1053
. Col vO, A.—Bacillus of t. Vine... RE TEN MR Sa Da mee as, eM Sum Te Pp gn orags 0) 75
is) Aurnon, J. C.— Pear Blight “* pis, ae oe o oe 10538
4 > Coumman, J. J., & M‘Kenpricx—Action f Ozonized Air upon Micro-organisins and 4
Be i plbuaes, wpition Pa 4 ve oe os oe oe oe o* oe oe ae - 1053.
, Mar V4
Y ai? i MICROSCOPY.
RE a, Instruments, Accessories, &c, ;
+ goes Water Microscope (Figs. 229-281)... al eC NY i By A ot ag
; de E.—Direct Vision Microscopes... Per sas.) LODGE |,
with Catgut Focusing Adjustment (Fig. 282). AY. Seen LOSE
zuRe's Di Microscope . PRPS ite 1 Meh yn CMe A te aE Sir bb)
with Accessory Stages (Fig. 238). Dein eas foe, AOS
opELL’s Binoewlar C nd Microscope (Figs 284 and 985) ml sap ven) ade ead UDB
at, Bowsexav pu—J i iE “ ai) eh, dae ad ap rtniiggls., ght, ahr ae
{62}
ayidnwcn’s Bobiatnd Substaide Microscope (Fig. pa WE NG te eae Ep Bee eS OOS:
‘ Camera or Lantern Microscope (Fig. LBD, past irae Mad ay bee amare ee
Leckensy § Microscope Pencil-case . . 1065
Matcotm—
Cox, J. D.— Actinic and Visual Foci in. Photo- micrography ‘with High Powers -» 1070
Nexson, E. M.—Images in the Binocular Microscope (Figs. ee dia" ale 90 (es Wet ALON MER
» Position of Objects with the Binocular .. waaay ea ata cH (ee
Microscorxs at the Inventions Exhibition — «. Dei A eat gD iat pe Re ome
Swirt, Manseun J.—Photo-micrograph of Tongue of Blow- fly Rua Mamma one Ne estar ered BL? lie i
Connor, RocuEerort—Pen-and-Ink Drawings of Microscopic Objects. By 107%."
SuPPosED increase of the Aperture of an Objective by using highly refractive Media OGL 33
Bangs, C. W.—Electricity under the Microscope... .. . «« ial eae Mage ee OTS a
Bacuixe Brass Diaphragms, &e. .. EUR APRON AT MN? wee ceseses Cie ke NEES
Hyon, H. C.—The Electric Light in ‘Microscopy See ede Wie eit odd aM Wee pan Pee LS cama
Surrx, H. L.—The Influence of Science Studies .. ee he OBE
W., E. D.— Measurement of Power and Aperture of Microscopic jie g2os OBA: eam
Warp, R. H.—Choice of Objectives and Oculars .. .. eae te MO BQ AS
B. Collecting, Mounting and Examining Objects, &c.
Hoye, W. E.—Preserving Eggs of Cephalopoda and preparing pacib tas et Spee
Locy, W. A—Treatment of the Eggs of the Spider... 2. oe ws ae POSE
BALEWILL's Foraminifera Slides (Figs. 249 and 250) pai \aelh Stems Pag eeigemennee Lees 4
Sacus, J.—Preparing Leaves to show Starch- wae be Qe ep ee a pee HOB eee
Barnes, C. R.—Studying Pollen-grains,. .. Bae ee See MO Ret ae
SuLEnKA, E.—Imbedding in Parafin (Fig, 951) .. beeen Re Oe OR ee ea
Anprews & Nacatries’s Water-Bath (Figs. 252-254) | Wiener era SELIM Kips
Barrerr’s New Microtome aS
Bavscu & Loup Optical Co.'s Laboratory and Student’ Microtome (Figs. 259-257)
Srmer’s Microtome Attachment st Soins taleity watemele
Wairman, C. O.— Cambridge Rocking Microtome ..
-Waicut, R. Ramsey—Suggestions as to the Preparation ‘and Use of Series of Sections Naa
in Zootomical Instruction «. Min cs fe AO)
LENDENFELD, R. v.—Series of Sections. “Thickness of Sections Fee i Sees
Fou’s Injection Table (Fig. 258) . ; 10
Oszorn; H. F.—Simple Method of Injecting the Arteries and Veins t in el Animate
Fig. 259 . oo, @e 1
eauinoene G. sae Methods of Preparing Carmine Staining Fluide Peace aes
Kunrscumky, N.—Staining Salivary Glands»... Sule enemas eas
HasweELh, W. A.—Staining with Hematoxylin .. a FR: vob ia aa (a ae ale Rta Na
a Imbedding in Paraffin 12° se ee oe ne ee ae ae
STRASBCRGER, Ei—Bau de Janelle:for Clearing’: 00 oy 6550 hoe; ge. hwo ge
Brunt, C. Van—Fizxiny Objects to the Cover-glass. Aine evap nee dl
Smirn’s Mounting Media of High Harantee Index (Fig. 260) .. Si gh AUIS
Smrrn’s New Cement . : ee Renae neat
Miss, J. L, W., T. W. Lorruovss, &E. Wanp—Dry Mounting we Sea
JAmEs, F. L.—White Zine Cement .. .. Bae A sia fis - Peet eo:
BE eRe ay Leakage of Cells : eh int
SrraspurceR, E.—Coloured Crayons for Marking Preparations Finder ene
HatsHorer, K.— Filtering Minute Quantities (Fig. 261). 2.0 ee. ee ee
-Raxeu, T. S—Ezamining Blood in Typhoid Fever’ 4... ie ae : Pg
Ewe., M. D.—Measurement of Blood-corpuscles.. .. :
Bussey, C. E.—Styles of Indian Corn for Examining ioveient of Protoplasm ick
Havsnorer’s Microscopical Reactions .- bl oes eaters
James, F. L.—Hzamining Diamonds and Cut Gems Nacue ant ol ar ot nt ay eiole Naan
. Grazer, V.—Preparing Hyes of Annelids. <2.) 6. ing su a ene ee
Jamus, F, L.—Cement SaaC Toa Sues Sane nn
Ryper, J. A.—A Cheap Bell-glass for the ‘Laboratory Table I sess diol’ Vag a tae
‘Procerpines or THE Society — Tpit gs ian Aw Lear aus tat Reber ab ae pd
Inpux.. ROPES I SOP La as Caen ries TO
ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
SOUNGIL,
ELECTED lith FEBRUARY, 18858.
PRESIDENT. Twelve other MEMBERS of COUNCIL.
Rey. W. H. Dauurwerr, LL-D., F.R.S. JoserH Brox, Esq., F.R.A.S.
A. W. Bennett, Esq., M.A., B.Se., F.L.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
Joun Awrnony, Faq, MD., F-R.OP.L, | “HOBRRT Buatrawaire, Esq, M-D.,
G.F. Downswet, Esq., M.A. JAmeEs GLAISHER, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
: _ Pror. P. Martin Duncan, MB. F-RS. | ay qipriam Groves, Bq,
Apert D. Micwazt, Esq., F.L.S. Joun Marruews, Esq., M.D.
2 Joun Mayau., Esq., Jun.
“s TREASURER, ? ’
-_ Liovet S. Braue, Esq., M.B., F.R.CP., *Joun Minuar, Esq., L.R.C.P., F.LS.
is F.B.S. Ursan PritcHarD, Esq., M.D.
ae SECRETARIES, Sroart O. Rintey, Esq., M.A., F.LS.
“*Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B. B.A. V.P.& | *Pror. Caarues Stewart, M.R.CS.,
a: ‘Treas, L.S. F.LS.
Por. F, Jerrrey Bet, M.A., F.Z.S. Wiiu1am Tomas Surrork, Esq.
LIBRARIAN and ASSISTANT SECRETARY.—Mnr. James WEst.
ale > ~~
Peta;
wy, ,
* Members of the Publication Committee.
NS
MEETINGS FOR 1885, at 8 p.m.
Wednesday, Janvany .. .. 14 | Wednesday, May . so eeree 1B
3 Frpruary ... .. 11 o DUNE dint cae aU
_ (Annual Meeting for Election of Z OcropeR ..... 14
Ppiern oe, Conve) November 1d
”?
vot ve o n DecumBenR .. .. 9
ENG
a
>
yeas
~.
é is
.
Sa eS
eae
=<
- ADVERTISEMENTS FOR THE JOURNAL.
R. CHARLES BLENCOWE, of 9, Brince Srreet, Westminster, §.W., is the
authorized Agent and Collector for Advertising Accounts on behalf of the Society.
reset «i
Teale
it
ae THE BRITISH MOSS FLORA.
iy By R, BRAITHWAITE, M.D.
5 ee Par IX., Torrvracy, is now ready, price 4s. Subseriptions to Sect. 3 (10s. 6d.)
) , may be seut to the Author.
be , , he prion Parts may be had from the Author, at 303, Clapham Road, London,
(x. ¥
Coe)
I. Numerical Aperture Table.
The * APERTURE” of an optical instrument indicates its greater or less capacity for receiving rays from the object und
fransmitting, them. to the image, and the aperture cf a Microscope objective is therefore determined by the ratio
between. its focal length and the diameter of the emergent pencil at. the’plane of its emergence—that is, the utilized
diameter of a single-lens objective or of the back léns of acompound objective.
This ratio is expressed for all media and in all cases by ~ sin 2, ».being the refractive index of the medium and u the
semi-angle of aperture. The value of n sin w for any particular case is the ‘‘numerical aperture” of the objective,
Diameters of the
Back Lenses of various
Dry and Immersion
Objectives of the same
Power ( in.)
from 0°50 to 1:52 N A.
a eR a ee)
Angle of Aperture (=2 2).
Numerical
Aperture.
{n sin w= a.)
Homogeneous
: Dry
Objectives.
a= 1) (m =1°33,)| (= 1°62.)
es
1°52 : 180°. 0’
1°50 é 161° 23'
_ 1°48 oe 153°. 39’
1°46 ae 147° 42’
1°44 ie 142° 40’
; 1:42 ue 138° 12'-}
1-40 Se 134° 10’
1°38 $6 130°. 26’
1°36 a 126°. 57’
1:34 a 123° 40’
: 1:33 ae T2206!
1°32 > ae 120° 33°
1°30 aS 117° 34’
1-28 He 114° 44’
; “1°26. ae 111° 59’
: 1 24 ua 109° 20’
1°22 Ge 106° »45'
1°20 3 104° 15'
: 1:18 101° 50’
1:16 me 99° 29’
: 1°14 ike 97°. 11"
: 1:12 Be 94° 56”
: : 1:10 . Pe 92°..43'
. 1:08 a 90°°33"| 1:
1-06 © Ne 88° 26!
: “1-04 - Ae 86° 21’
1:02 sis 84° 18’
: 1:00. 180°. 0° 82° 17’
3 ; 0:98 157° 2 80°. 17’
a se 0:96 147° 29/ 78° 20°
ra 0:94 -|°140° 6 76° 24!
ond 0:92. 133° 51’ 74°30’
’ 0:90 128°. 19’ 72° 36’
0:88 123°. 17’ 70° 44’
rs : 0:86 118° 38’ 68° 54!
Fee “0°84 114° 17! 67° 6’
0:82 110°. 10’ 65° 18°
0°80 106° 16° 63° 31’
RES ft 0:78 102° 31’ 61° 45!
0:76 98° 56! 60°. 0!
A Nal 0:74 95° 28/ 58° -16/
. fae) 0°72 922 65 56° 32’
70). 070 88° 51’ 54° 50’
Pe oh 1° °0*68 85° 41’ . 58° 9!
Be oe ; } 0:66 82° 36’ D1° 28"
Mase ; 0°64 . T9235! 49° 48"
; .-0:62° 76° 38" | 48° 9’
ae 0°60 ~ | 73°44.) 46° 30!
kG \ iS Wee OOS. 70° 54’ 44° 51!
BRED ~0'56. 68°. 6! 43° 14?
3 -0°54 65° 22" |. 41°. 37'
f oo 0°52 | 62° 40’| 4 - 40° 0!
“50 0:50 60° 0’ - Bg° 24"
Examprr.—The apertures of four objectives, two of which are ary, one water-immersion, and one oil-
- would be compared on the angular aperture view as follows:—106° (air), 157° (air), 142 i
t , $805) A298: 1°26 Xk ok
Their actual Apertures are, however, as’ -
numerical apertures,
ver, | Lines to an Inch. |
“186,888
F183, 082
193/392
o-Cwater), 130°
nul
SO my 2 Rae ae ey
Theoretical
Resolving —)
. Power, in ©
(A=0"5269 1
=line KE.)
146,528.
144,600
142,672 | =
140,744 |
138,816 | +
_ 134,960
131,104
- 129,176
“198,212 -
“127,248
125,320
121,464 —
119,536}
117,608 | |
1155680. ©
113,752
y
Seale showing
the relation of
- Millimetres,
&e., to Inches.
& ary
12
A ATS ES ES EE LS TS
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PTTTTTITI LOTT”
SOFT EN
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®
€
nm
. POPE OEE
II.
G90)
Conversion of British and Metric Measures.
(1.) Linea.
Micromillimetres, §c., into Inches, $c,
B ins,
1 -000039
2 000079
8 -000118
4 -000157
5 -000197
6 -000236
7 *000276
8 -0003815
9 °000354
10 -000394
11 +000433
12 +000472
13 -000512
14 -000551
15 +000591
16 -000630
17 -000669
18 -000709
19 -000748
£0 -000787
21 -000827
22 000866
23 -000906
24. +000945
25 -000984
£6 -001024
27 +001063
28 -001102
29 +001142
80 -001181
31 -001220
82 -001260
83 -°001299
34 -001339
35 -001378
86 -001417
87 -001457
38 -001496
89 +001535
40 °001575
41 -001614
42. -001654
43 -+001693
44 -001732
45 -001772
46 -001811
_ 47 -001850
48 -001890
49 -001929
50 *-001969
60 +002362
70 002756
80 +003150
90 +003543-
100 *0039387
200 +007874
800 011811
400 +015748
500 -019685
600 -023622
700 *027559
800 = *081496 |
900° *035133
1000 (=1 mm.)
mm. ins. mm. ins,
1 *039870| ~51 2°007892
2 ‘078741 | 52 2°047262
3 “118111 53 2°086633
4 °157482| 54 2°126003
5 *196852 | 55 2:165374
6 *236223| 56 2°204744
7 *275593 | 57 2°244115
8 -314963 | 58 2°283485
9 +354334| 59 2°322855
10 (lem.) °398704 60 (6cm.) 2°362226
11 *433075 | 61 2°401596
12 *472445 | 62 2°440967
13 *511816| 63 2°480337
14 551186 | 64 2°519708
15 »590556 |. 65 2°559078
16 “629927 | 66 2°598449
17 *669297 | 67 2°637819
18 -708668 | 68 2°677189
19 -748038 | 69 2°716560
20 (2cm.). *787409| 70 (7em.) 2°755930
21 *826779 | ‘71 2°795301
22 *866150| 72 2°834671
23 #905520: "73 2°874042
24 *944890'|. 74 2°913412
25 *984261 | 75 2°952782
26 1°023631 |. 76 2-992153
27 1°063002 | 77 3°031523
28 1°102372 | 78 8070894
29 1°141743) 79° 8°110264
30 (3.cm.) 17181113 80 (8 cm.) 8-149635
sl 1°220483 81 8°189005
32 1°259854 | 82 8° 228375
33 1:299224| 88 8*267746
34 1°338595.| 84° 8°307116 |.
385 1°377965 |} 85 8° 346487
386 1°417336 |. 86 8*385857
37 1-456706 | 87 .B:425228
38 1°496076 | 88 3*464598
39 1°535447 9 3°503968
40 (4cm.)1°574817 | 90 (9 em.) 3-543339
4l 1°614188} 91 8°582709
42 1°653558 | 92 8622080
438 1‘692929 | 98 8° 661450
44 1°732299 | 94 8700820
45 1°771669 | 95 ~ 8°740191
46 °7-811040)} 96 -8°779561
47 1°850410 | 97 3*818932 | >
48 1°889781 | 98 8858302 |
49 1°929151! 99 3°897673
50 (5 om.) 1°968522 | 100 (10 em.,=1 decim.)
decim. ins,
1 8°937043
2 7: 874086 |
3 311°811130
4 15°748173
5 19*685216
6 23622259
7 27° 559302
8 31°496346
9 35°438389
10 (1 metre) 39°370482
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1°093623 yds.
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( 10 )
CHARLES COPPOCK,
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JOURN .R.MICR. SOC. SERJ: VOL. V, PL. XV,
W.B T,ddladuak . WestNewman & Colt.
New & rare Desmids. : ,
:
JOURN. R.MICR. SOC. SERII. VOLV. PU. XVL
WestjNewman & @®° lith.
aT Te
W.B T.deladnat.
New & rare Desmids.
JOURNAL
OF THE
ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
DECEMBER 1885.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.
Ot
XVIII.—On some new and rare Desmids.
By W. Barwett Torver, F.R.MS., F.CS.
(Read 11th November, 1885.)
Prates XV. anp XVI.
Tue forms which I am herein describing are all more or lesg
beautiful, beauty being an especial attribute of this charming
family of micro-algze—so exquisite and curious are they that it is
a marvel that a larger number of observers do not take up their
study. The field is ample, and the life-histories of all but a very
small number are as yet unknown, the latter remark applying to
very common forms.
In the following observations I have not taken the genera in
strict sequence, such sequence itself being a guestio veaata.
GxntcuLARIA De Bary.
1. G. Americana nov. sp. Cells or joints comparatively short
and stout, covered with tiny granules spvrally arranged in close
lines. Joints three and a half to six times as long as broad.
Chlorophyll! radiate, but inclined to spiral form; the moribund
and effete cell-contents (b) showing this inclination to spirals more
strongly ; two or more amylum corpuscles in each joint. Zygo-
spores not observed. Minnesota, U.S.A. Fig. 1a, d, «.
Cells, long. 71°5-143 » = 0028-56 in.; lat. 23-25°4 p=
*0009--001 in.
This form differs considerably from the only species of the
genus hitherto described, G. spirotania De Bary (‘ Conjugate,’ 1858,
t. iv. figs. 1-22), which is much longer and a little narrower in the
Ser, 2.—Von, V. : 3 P
934 Transactions of the Society.
cells, and the little prominent granules are scattered, not arranged
spirally on the cytioderm. De Bary’s figures give :—
Cells, long. 222-383 w = :0089--015 in.; lat. 20-25 » =
-00079-98 in. [The measure given by Dr. Rabenhorst in Flora
Europ. Alg. iii. p. 156 is not quite correct. |
LEPTOZOSMA nov. gen.*
Filamentous, long, cateniform ; not twisted or but slightly so.
Joints united by a strongly marked suture; cells attenuate at the
ends towards the suture. Near to Bambusina Kiitz., but differing
therefrom in the suture.
2. Leptozosma catenula nov. sp. Cells irregularly annular,
inclining to quadrate, slightly hollowed or incurved at the sides,
tapering rapidly towards the suture, which is thickened and projects
considerably. Cell-wall very thick. Chlorophyll parietal or con-
fluent. Malaga, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Cells, long. (central portion) 26-30 w= :001-:0012 in;
long. total 36-38 w = °0014—-15in.; lat. max. 26-28 w = -001-
‘O0llin. Fig. 2.
OnyoHonemMaA Wallich.
3. O. Nordstedtiana noy. sp. Cells forming filaments of fifty
to sixty cells or more, connected by the curious subcapitate
“claspers” peculiar to this genus. Without these processes the
cells resemble smooth Cosmaria, as they do not possess the hooklets
(at the ends of the segments) which pertain to O. wneinatwm
Wallich and O.lzve Nordst. Chlorophyll confluent. India, U.S.A.,
and recently found by me at Strensall Common, near York.
Syn. O. inermis Turner in lit. ¢. ic.
Cells, long. (sin. proc.) 14 w~ = ‘00055 in.; lat. 18 uw =
‘0007 in.; breadth of gelatinous sheath 36-40 w = ‘0014—
-00157 in. ; lat. isthmi 83-4 «» = °00012-16 in. Figs. 3a, 6.
This is a very cosmopolitan and distinct species. My friend
Dr. O. Nordstedt, of Lund, at first deemed it to be a young form
of his O. leve, but as that is so much larger, and, moreover, as
this has been found where O. deve was not present, I certainly
think it separate therefrom.
Cosmarium Corda.
4. C. Cordanum Bréb., in Pritch. Infusoria, 1861 (= Colpo-
pelta viridis Corda, Alm. de Carlsbad, 1835, p. 206, t. ii f. 28).
Diameter about half the length ; gently and slightly constricted in
* Bix Aeros, slender, (woya, a band.
On some new and rare Desnids. By W. B. Turner. 935
the middle; ends round or a little truncate; cell-coat lightly
granular or punctate. End view circular. Germany, France,
Nova Scotia. The specimens figured are from the latter.
Long. 47-50 w = -00185-197 in.; lat. 26-27 w» = -001-
°00106 in. ; lat. isthmi 17-19 w -00067-75 in.
I cannot find any published dimensions of this rare species,
which I give as above, and I think that the specimens may safely
be hereto referred. Fig. 4.
5. C. gemmatum nov. sp. Of medium size, subquadrate ;
upper angles gently rounded, the lower ones rather more acute;
smooth, except at margins, which are provided with 3 concentric
series of large gemmules, the 2 inner series 12 and the marginal
one 14 in number. Sinus linear, rapidly expanding outwards.
Minnesota, U.S.A.
Hong. 47°5 »w = -00187 in.; lat. 39 » = -00154 in; Jak
isthmi 15 w = °00059 in. Fig. 5.
6. C. rostratum nov. sp. Small, rather broader than long
(excl. spin.), upper margin rounded, slightly truncate at apex, and
ornate with four small triangular spines; lower margins prolonged
into convergent rostra, which meet, dr nearly so. Cytioderm
smooth. Sinus open, quadrangular in appearance, with blunt
angles. Isthmus wide. Minnesota, U.S.A.
Long. (excl. spin.), 29 » = °00114 im; lat. max. 34n=
00134 in. ; lat. isthmi 20 « = -00079 in. Fig. 6.
Evastrum Ehr. (mut. char.).
7. E. Floridanum noy. sp. Of medium size, diameter = about
half the length ; punctate, partly granular; segments three-lobed,
with sinuate sides; having but two principal frontal prominences,
which are well marked ; end protuberances not so strongly defined
except in side view; end lobe tumid, the terminal incision a linear
notch ; sinus linear ; segments closely adpressed. Numerous in the
gathering. Maitland, Florida.
Long. 96 w = ‘00378 in. ; lat. max. 54 w = ‘00213 in; lat.
isthmi 14 ~ = °00055 in. Figs. 7a, b.
This may possibly be a small form of EH. crassum Bréb., but
the difference in size and disposition of the prominences seems to
separate it clearly.
8. E. pseudelegans nov. sp. General outline of frond in-
clining to oval shape ; ends protruding, rounded ; terminal incisions
SE ; segments sinuate, with 5 central and 4 marginal markings.
B.A
Long. 40 » = ‘00157 in.; lat. max. 25°5 w = ‘001 in: lat,
isthmi 7 ~» = ‘00027 in. Fig. 8.
9. E. coronatum noy. sp. Of medium size, about one-third
3P 2
936 Transactions of the Society.
longer than broad ; lobes well defined, each with a coronet of large
protuberant gemmules, some of which are rather spiniform ; smooth
or obscurely punctate; on the front of segments, at the base of
polar lobes, two series of four granules arcuately arranged. ‘The
side view shows the “corone” well. Minneapolis, Minnesota,
USA. Figs. 9a, 6.
Long. 70-78 » = ‘00276-3807 in.; lat. max. 52-58 pp =
00205—-228 in.; lat. isthmi 13 w = °0005 in.
Mrorasterias Agdh. (in part.) Mengh.
10. M. furcata Ralfs (mon Agdh.) nov. var. decuria. A
strange and apparently abnormal form. Only two semi-cells seen,
of which one possessed a curious double lobelet. Water Town,
New York, U.S.A.
Long. (semi-cell) 72 w = *00283 in.; lat. 166 ~ = 0065 in. ;
lat. isthmi 24 w» = °00094 in. Fig. 10.
11. M. Crue-Melitensis (Ehr.) Ralfs nov. var. superflua. In
this the superior side lobelets are trifid, end lobe with curved
points. Several specimens seen, having one or both segments as
figured. Near Bowness, Windermere.
Long. 116 w = -00457 in.; lat. L024 = -004in.; lat. isthmi
ge OU OG Keines BR ies IME
‘ [Norz.—I find that the American forms of this species are
large, with broad end lobes. They measure long. 145-152 uw =
-0057-599 in. ; lat. 118-130 w = -0046-51 in.; lat. isthmi 23-
28 w= ‘0009-0011 in. The Rev. F. Wolle, Amer. Desm.
p. 111, t. xxxv. f 3, gives an abnormal form as his example of the
species, and says “diam. 100-125 w.” The form Mr. Wolle gives
is near that given by Ralfs, Br. Desm. t. ix. f 3b, which is not
common, f. 3 a being the typical one. Ralfs, p. 74, notes the
dimensions of English specimens as long. 123 «4 =-00485 in. ; lat.
aie -00402)|
12. M. mamillata nov. sp. A very interesting and well-
marked form. Segments papilionaceous, five-lobed; end lobe
broad ; its ends and those of the other lobes divided into palmate
shapes, with the points broadly rounded ; surface. adorned with
mamilliform processes radially arranged ; provided with a process at
isthmus, the purpose of which is apparently (?) to strengthen the
segmental union. Only one specimen (semi-cell) seen. Seemingly
related to M. apiculata Khr. Harvey Lake, U.S.A. Fig. 12.
Long. (semi-cell) 114 ~ = :00449 in; lat. base 198 w=
-0078 in.; lat. isthmi 23 w = +0009 in.
13. M. Americana Khy. nov. var. spinosa. A small “com-
pressed” form. About one-eighth less in length and breadth than
the type. Central portion of segments smooth ; lobes ornamented
On some new and rare Desmids. By W. B. Turner. 9837
with short stout spines; the end lobe bearing near its extremity a
species of annular rugoso-spinous coronet. Picton, Nova Scotia.
Fig. 13.
~ Long. (semi-cell) 112 ~ = 00441 in.; lat. 68 uw = -00268 in. ;
lat. isthmi 22 « = -00086 in.
14, M. denticulata Bréb. nov. var. Minnesotensis. A large
and handsome variety; in general contour closely following the
type, except the polar lobe, which has pointed extremities, and
bears a central terminal inflation ornate with a single series of
pearly dots or granules. Minnesota, U.S.A.
Long. 266 w = 0105 in.; lat. 252 ~ = *0099 in.; lat. end
lobes apic. 68 w = °00268 in.; lat. isthmi 39 w = -00154 in.
Fig. 14.
"15. M brachyptera Lundell nov. var. bispinata. This beautiful
species was first observed by Lundell in Sweden (Desm. Suec.
p. 12, t.1. f 4, 1871), and was added to the British flora last year,
by Mr. John Bisset from the Windermere district.* Of the form
shown I obtained several from near Bowness, in August last. ‘The
marginal contour in this species is very erratic. The variety figured
is not of such “spreading” form as the type, and has two, in lieu
of three, spines at the apices of the lobules.
Long. sin. acul. 191 « = -0075 in.; lat. 181 » = -0041 in;
lat. max. lob. pol. 54 4 = 00213 in.; lat. isthmi 37 » = -00146 in.
Fig. 15.
"16. M. papillifera Bréb. nov. var. Nove-Scotice. In length
and breadth about one-sixth larger than the type. General contour
following type pretty closely, but the end lobe is very different, the
two normal digitiform appendages being replaced by broad, pointed
elevations ; moreover, in the type the apices of the end lobe are
rounded off, in this form they are sharply pointed. Picton, Nova
Scotia.
Long. 152 » = °00599 in.; lat. 183 w= :0052 in. Fig. 16.
ARTHRODESMUS Ebr.
17. A. incus (Bréb.) Hassall nov. var. Americanus. Frond
swollen at base, and differing from the European type by having
yramidal segments, not oblong-quadrangular as in the familiar
Dein. Harvey Lake, U.S.A. Fig. 17.
Long. (s. spin.) 30 ~ = °00118 in.; lat. 25 w = *00098 in. ;
long. spin. 16 ~« = *00063 in. The measure agrees closely with
that of Dr. Rabenhorst in Fl. Eur. Alg. iti. p. 226, and it may
possibly bea variety of Dr. K.’s “b. forma-semicellulis basi gibbosis,
aculeis rectis vel convergentibus,” Rabh. 1. cit.
* See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 192.
938 Transactions of the Society.
XANTHIDIUM Ehr.
18, 19. X. armatum Bréb. In a slide from the United States
I have found two widely different forms of this fine species :—
: a. Nov. var. Wolleanum. This form greatly exceeds the limit
of size of European type, being nearly as broad as they are long.
Rather finely punctate. The average measure of several specimens
is long. (s. spin.) 168 ~ = °0066 in.; lat. (8. spin.) 104 =
0041 in.; lat. isthmi 42 ~ = °00165 in. Fig. 18.
B. Nov. var. Americanum. This smaller form varies much in
size. Scrobiculi well defined. On several specimens I could not
(under careful illumination) perceive any puncta. Fig. 19. Measure,
without spines, long. 70-123 w = -0027—-00484 in. ; lat. 38-73
= ‘0014929 in. : lat. isthmi 31-37 » = °00122-146 in. The
Rev. EF’. Wolle gives (Amer. Desm., p. 92) lat. 62-140 pw. Ralfs
gives lat. as 94 mw, with long. 139 w; and Rabenhorst gives lat.
as 95-115 uw. The specimens figured were from New Jersey; and
it is noteworthy that they approach in contour the European type,
rather than the “angular” forms figured by Wolle, loc. cit.
20. X. hastiferum nov. sp. This form approaches one de-
scribed by Dr. Nordstedt from Java, as “X. antilopeum f.
javanica” (Alg. Mus. Lugd. Batav. p. 12, t. i. f. 21, 1880) but is
smaller by about one-sixth, and the central spines are comparatively
minute. Southern India. Fig. 20.
Long. sin. acul. 38°5 w = °00152 in.; lat. sin. acul. 40 w =
‘00157 in.; lat. isthmi 11 ~ = °00048 in.; long. acul. 21 w =
-0008 in. I cannot but think that this and forms allied to it
would be wrongly placed as varieties of X. antilopewm, as the
contour of cell, inclination of spines, isthmus and sinus so widely
differ.
Stavrastrum Meyen.
21. S. gladiosum nov. sp.—Species with reniform segments ;
spines strong, arrayed in series, a few smaller ones scattered; end
view triangular, with gently concave sides; ends broadly rounded
with six to eight large spines at each ; sinus open, expanding rapidly.
Malaga, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Long. 49 w = ‘0019 in.; lat. = long.; lat. isthmi 11-12 pv
= °00043-47 in. Fig. 21. This forms a unit in a series com-
prising Saxonicwm, Brébissonit, echinatum, aculeatwm, pecten,
tridentiferum, &c. It is near to the small form of S. Sawontcum
Bulnheim, but is just as broad as long, and the segments are not
“densely aculeate,” as in that species.
22. S. spongiosum Bréb. The form figured as “the more
frequent” one in Amer. Desm. t. xlvii. f. 5, 6, by the Rev. F.
Wolle is so different from the type that it would perhaps be better
On some new and rare Desmids. By W. B. Turner. 939
to name it “ var. Americanum.” Mr. Wolle states that the sides
are convex, but they are frequently concave in the type; and the
typical form bears larger and fewer spines, and is not so regular in
outline as the above. I find that the typical form is found in
America, and give figures of specimens from Minnesota and Nova
Scotia. Their dimensions are long. 52-62 w = *00205—: 00244 in.;
lat. 52 w = ‘00205 in.; lat. isthmi 17-18 » = °00067-7 in.
Ralfs gives lat. isthmi as 30°5-34°5 w! Mr. Wolle, loc. cit.
p- 148, remarks on the variability of this species, and gives the
diameter as 45-50 w. Figs. 22a, b.
23. S. dejectum Bréb. var. Sudeticwm Kirchner (Krypt. Flor.
vy. Schlesien, p. 169). This rare and curious form has only before
been noted by Kirchner from Germany. So far as I am aware it
has not been figured. Minnesota, U.S.A.
Long. 26 » = -00102 in.; lat. 40 » = -00158 im; lat.
isthmi 5 w = ‘0002 in. Fig. 23. Iam indebted to Dr. Nordstedt
for a copy of Dr. Kirchner’s drawing.
24. 8. Pringsheimit Reinsch nov. var. duplo-major. A very
large and handsome form of this species. Rather over double the
size of the type. Picton, Nova Scotia.
Long. 75-80 w = °00295-315 in.; lat. 56-62 ~ = *0022-
244 in.; lat. isthmi 22 ~ = ‘00087 in. Fig. 24.
Docrpium Bréb.
25. D. occidentale nov. sp. Near to D. gracile Bailey, but
only about half the size of that species. Segments straight, with
tumid portions at regular intervals; apex trifid, each subdivision
bearing a long stout spine; the tumid processes each having a
double series of smaller spines, the superior pointing apically and
the inferior directed to the base of segment. One semi-cell only
seen. U.S.A. |
Long. (spin. excl.) semi-cell 150 w = °0059 in.; lat. corp.
max. 17 w = ‘00067 in.; lat. spin. incl. 20°4 ~ = ‘00079 in;
lat. apicis (spin. excl.) 19 w = °00075 in. Fig. 25.
The peculiarity in the setting of the spines and the simple (not
bifid) ends render this species very distinct from its near allies
gracile and verticillatum Bail., and bidentatum Nordst. It is a
member of Bailey’s sub-genus T'riploceras.
Pentium Bréb.
26. P. spirostriolatum Barker. “ Large, elongated, somewhat
attenuated in the centre, and tapering slightly towards the rotundo-
truncate ends; the cell-wall possessing a number of superficial,
conspicuous, rather coarse strive, running in a spiral direction ;
940 . Transactions of the Society.
these somewhat interrupted at a number of annular rib-like pro-
jections varying in number; these projections most numerous
towards the upper third of each segment.’—Barker, in Proc. Dub.
Micr. Club, Q.J.M.S., 1869, p. 194. As I do not know of the
publication of any measurements or authentic figure of this inter-
esting and unique species, I may possibly be in error in referring
these American forms to it; the figures therefore must speak for
themselves, though, owing to the dense dark endochrome, drawing
was difficult. Frond, fig. 26a; fragment, showing apex more
clearly, fig. 260.
Long. 227-260 mw = -0089-:0102 in.; lat. max. 23-31 pw
= °0009--00122 in. Specimens from near Minneapolis, Min-
nesota, U.S.A. Not previously reported from America.
GonatozyGon De Bary.
27. G. sea-spiniferum nov. sp. Joints variable in length, ten
to thirty times the breadth; base swollen, apex either rotundo-
truncate or quite rounded ; spines (or rather sete) very short, and
arranged longitudinally in six linear series. Forming long fila-
ments. Minnesota, U.S.A.
Long. 88-191 mw = -00346--0075 in.; lat. 6-8°5 p =
°000236-33 in. Fig. 27.
The figures which illustrate these remarks are all drawn by
myself from nature, and to a uniform scale of x 500.
(gaat)
XIX.—Further Experiments on Feeding Insects with the Curved
or “ Comma” Bacillus,
By R. L. Mappox, M.D., Hon. F.R.MS.
(Read 14th October, 1885.)
Tue following details are but an extension of the former paper on
the same subject which I had the honour of bringing before the
Fellows on the 13th of May last.* It is more incomplete than
I desire, but I think it will be found to extend the views previously
announced, that the comma bacillus from cultures can pass in a
living state through the digestive tracts of the insects experimented
upon, and that under these conditions the insects become possible
carriers of contagion, and may infect food by their dejections. Of
course I am only supposing, not affirming, that Koch’s views in
reference to this particular microbe, and the part it plays in cholera,
are correct.
Dr. Grassi, of Rovellasca, in the summer of 1883 published the
results of some interesting observations he had made, and contended
that insects, especially flies, may be considered as veritable authors
of epidemics and agents in infectious maladies. He put on a plate
in his laboratory some ova of the Trichocephalus, and found they
had been deposited with the excreta on bits of white paper placed
in the kitchen, some little distance away. He captured some of
the flies, and discovered the digestive tube full of masses of feculent
matter abounding with the ova. Then he remarks on the danger the
entire family were exposed to, if the ova could be afterwards
developed. He also put segments of tape-worm, Tenia soliwm,
that had been for some time preserved in alcohol, into water, some
of the ova remained suspended, the flies drank of the fluid, and in
less than one hour he found the ova in their intestines and also
emitted in their dejections, and says, had they been living the family
might have been infected. Flies, he states, can also transmit the
ova of the small thread-worm, Oxyuris. He moistened sugar with
Lycopodium, and allowed flies to feed on this, and also off the blood
of frogs and toads, and then found the spores and the blood-cor-
puscles in their intestines. He therefore thinks, as the buccal
passages permit of the transit of these large bodies, they could the
more easily transmit the Schizomycetes. He let flies feed off some
mildewed cream, and then found the Ozdiwm lactis within them,
and flies feeding off silk-worms dead of muscardine, after a short
time, passed in their dejections the spores of the Botrytis, the cause
* See this Journal, ante, p. 602
+ Arch. Ital. Biol., iv. (1883) pp. 205-8. Bull, Soc. Entomol. Ital., xv. (1883)
pp. 348-9. Sce this Journal, iy. (1884) p, 556,
942 Transactions of the Society.
of the disease. Dr. Grassi says it would be imprudent to suppose
that the ingestion in the fly caused the death of the organism, for
it does not suffice to kill the germs of mildews and schizomycetes,
and that flies eat more than their gastric juice can destroy. He
points out that they are likely to carry about the various organisms
by their feet and proboscis. He remarks on the difficulty to arrive
at positive proofs, on account of the numerous causes of error, and
concludes by declaring that the agency of the earth, air, and water
does not suffice for the diffusion of disease. Finally, he proposes
that flies should be exterminated by trying to give them the malady
in the spring of which they often die in the autumn.
These remarks stand in strong contrast with those of the late
Frank Buckland, who in speaking of the acclimatization of rats and
bluebottle flies without the aid of human agency, says, “ when we
come to consider the matter philosophically, rats and bluebottle
flies are, in reality, among the most useful of created things to the
human race. ‘True it is, indeed, that we cannot eat them; but
everything in this world was not made to be eaten, and these
despised creatures really do great service to us by getting rid of
decaying substances which would otherwise breed fever.” *
My friend Mr. G. F. Dowdeswell has reminded me that M.
Davaine found that flies by feeding off infected blood could convey
the infection; while Dr. Manson, of China, has shown that mos-
quitoes are carriers of the ova of the Filaria sanguinis hominis,
and that it is possible the dreadful tsetse fly of Central Africa may
transmit infection to the animals it attacks.
Grassi seeing the many difficulties in establishing his views,
intended to further prosecute his studies. How far I may have by
patience and trouble contended against these difficulties, the results
of the following experiments will determine :—
Having examined very many slides prepared from the natural
excreta of sundry insects, Hristalis tenax, of the family of the
Syrphide, was selected as one to experiment with (as this fly was
found to support captivity fairly well, and 1 had discovered no
curved bacillus in the dejections), and the common blowfly, Musca
vomitoria, as the other, There was another reason that prompted
me to choose Hristalis ; part of its early career is passed in sewers
or dirty waters, and it struck me that, although changed into a gay
or flower-haunting fly, it might still have some predilection for im-
pure food, or other than pollen and honey ; also it was abundant in
the garden during a part of July and August, in the sunny hours of
the day.
ee the culture material I am greatly indebted to the kindness
of my friend, Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S., who purposely inoculated four
of his sterilized tubes for me, two in gelatin and two in agar-agar,
* ¢Tife of Frank Buckland,’ by Mr. G. C. Bompas. 4th ed., 1885, p. 150. —
Further Experiments, &c. By Dr. R. L. Maddox. 948
that I might have at hand a supply of the pure comma bacillus,
and afterwards also furnished me with other uninoculated tubes, in
order, if required, I might be able to complete my experiments.
Having for several days satisfied myself, by microscopical ex-
amination, of the non-existence of any comma or curved bacillus in
the natural excreta of Hristalis, two of the insects, by way of con-
trol experiment, were put into captivity on the plan described in my
former paper, and fed on a small freshly-cut lump of sugar,
moistened with a recent watery solution of methyl-violet. On the
19th of July, that is twenty-four hours after, the first of the
coloured dejections were examined, and found to contain numerous
pollen-grains, small, straight, non-motile rods with blunt ends,
bacteria and micrococci amongst much débris, but no curved rods.
On the 20th four similar insects were placed together in like
captivity, and the dejections passed upon the square of glass before
they were fed witha gelatin culture of the comma bacillus on sugar,
were examined with a result agreeing with that of the control insects.
Half an hour after being fed several dejections were noticed of a
pale yellowish colour; on examination no curved bacilli could be
found. On the 21st, about eighteen hours after being fed with
the gelatin culture, nine dejections that had been settled on the
glass were by a sterilized needle mixed in a droplet of freshly-boiled
distilled water. Amongst the other organisms in the quantity ex-
amined only five motionless curved bacilli could be found in many
fields. The plan adopted was to examine the excreta moistened,
also dried, unstained and stained, and the stained counted for the
numbers described, though the unstained wet and dry often fur-
nished, as far as could be judged, higher figures; movement in the
wet unstained slides was accepted as evidence of life. This plan
was adopted throughout the experiments. On the 22nd, twenty-
seven spots were mingled and examined; the curved bacilli were
rather more numerous, but none seen in motion. There were only
seven dejections on the 23rd, they afforded still a few commas, and
one of these had a perceptible though slight motion, and in the
excreta were very great numbers of minute oily-looking globules.
Nineteen spots were examined on the 24th, the curved bacilli were
very few, and only one seen to be active. A little alteration was now
made. ‘To the sugar, after damping with the gelatin culture, was
added a droplet of freshly boiled distilled water, as the original
culture appeared to dry up too soon. On the 25th there were
seventeen dejections, these were passed on two squares of glass, as
the insects by continually treading over the dejections seemed to
weaken the number of microbes. ‘The commas were still very rare,
and it was doubtful if they were living. The pollen-graing had
disappeared, the small straight bacilli were much less numerous,
but the oily globules and micrococci had increased. The insects
944 Transactions of the Society.
appeared vigorous, and not to have suffered in any perceptible way
by this unnatural food under their captivity, nor did the culture, as
far as could be judged, have any temporary ill effect upon them,
save the increased amount of oily globules, which I had learned to
regard as indications of progressive debility. All the insects fed
often off the moistened sugar, and only a few of the pollen-grains -
had been partially digested. The insects were killed by the vapour
of chloroform, and were not examined. Pari passu with these ex-
aminations, the dejections of those fed with the anilin dyed sugar
were daily examined, but no curved bacilli were noticed in their
excreta. The two insects seemed perfectly well, and on the 25th
were allowed their liberty. Ne attempt was made to cultivate the
curved bacillus from any of the dejections.
On the 35rd of August, a large female blow-fly was put in captivity
under a similar arrangement. It was at once fed with sugar
moistened with a watery solution of methyl-violet. This was
damped daily until the 9th with a drop of freshly boiled distilled
water. The first dejections had a few long non-motile rods of
medium size with blunt ends, a few thick short rods, and here and
there a small fine straight rod, averaging in length the 1/10,000 in.,
abundant micrococci, and a few conidia probably of Penzedlliwm,
faintly stained. All the organisms diminished rapidly in number,
and an abundance of narrow acicular crystals and minute oily-
looking globules were noticed, the former closely resembling a
bacillus, but unstained. On the 9th the fly appeared to be very
weak, if it fell on its back it could scarcely rise. This was attri-
buted to some detrimental action of the anilin dye, and it was feared
the attempt to destroy all the organisms by it had been carried too
far, and nearly killed the insect itself. When the vessels were
changed it was fed off sugar damped with the gelatin culture of
the comma bacillus, the same as was used for the other insects.
The culture was much broken down, but contained plenty of the
commas. .he fly was watched to feed for more than ten minutes
without cessation. ‘The last dejection before the change of food
was quite liquid, and the few organisms present only faintly stained,
the oily globules being very abundant. Fearing the culture might
not be well suited for the condition of the fly, 1t was changed for a
fresh lump of sugar moistened with the culture from one of the
agar-agar tubes, which abounded in the curved bacillus, and was
not broken down like the other. ‘The culture was diluted on the
sugar, as it seemed scarcely fluid enough to carry the organisms
into the interstices. The same forenoon, a male blow-fly was
captured and put with the female fly, both were watched to feed off
the sugar frequently but not for long periods. A few hours, about
six, after feeding on the gelatin culture, there were six dejections
found on the square of glass. ‘They had fairly dried before ex-
Further Experiments, &c. By Dr. R. L. Maddow. 945
amination; they furnished a large amount of scaly granular matter,
some extremely fine motionless rods and a few well-marked curved
bacilli, some in the double or S-shape, but without distinct move-
ment, and the acicular crystals were very rare.
Early in the morning of the 10th, the flies were found in coitus,
and at 1.30 pm. the female was found dead. Before the fly
was remoyed, the male made repeated attempts at coitus with
his dead mate. It was not until five hours later that I could
attend to the examination of the fly. Upon making a section of
the posterior end of the abdomen and placing it in diluted potassic
acetate solution, numerous spermatozoa, in bundles and free, were
noticed. In the perivisceral: fluid there was much fine granular
matter, a very few short and stout, and also some thin motionless
rods, and scarcely a curved bacillus to be found. When the contents
of the cavity were removed with a mass of the ova capsules, the fine
eranular matter, possibly from their rupture, even when much
diluted, was so abundant that nothing satisfactory could be deter-
mined. ‘The death of this fly appeared to be due to the feeding for
six days upon the anilin stained sugar, which it ill supported com-
pared with Eristalis. The male fly was now detained by itself,
and fed from the original agar-agar culture diluted on the sugar.
The daily dejections when examined showed some short, straight,
thick non-motile rods, some bright oval spores, a few germinating,
and abundant micrococci. The comma bacilli present were few,
and none seen to be motile; no acicular crystals. On the 15th,
nine dejections found on the square were mingled, they were in
whitish patches and quite dry; the micrococci were very numerous,
with scarcely a straight rod present, and a few motionless commas,
some double with the curvature on the same side. Five dejections
of the 16th furnished a rather large number of the curved bacillus,
more than in any previous dejections, and some of them had a rather
sluggish motion, many appeared to be somewhat short and dumpy
in shape or immature, a few were double; the straight rods were
fewer, but the micrococci were numerous. It was found exceedingly
difficult to so apportion the moisture that the sugar should remain
just damp for some hours. The fly would often turn the small
lump over, seeking for the moistest spot.
On the 17th eighteen dejections had been passed by the fly in
less than twenty-four hours, they were dry, but when mingled
together in a droplet of freshly boiled distilled water furnished
several little colonies or clusters, containing from five to seven
curved bacilli, also single and double ones. They varied a little in
size and curvature; scarcely any of the short, thick, and straight
rods were visible, and only a few fine small straight rods. As the
fly had now been under observation for some days, and seemed
lively, it was killed by chloroform vapour, in order to examine the
946 Transactions of the Society.
perivisceral fluid. This viscous secretion was abundant, but offered
nothing of moment, save some small pale corpuscles of various sizes,
which on the application of alcohol became finely granular, the
fluid remaining transparent. ‘The size of the corpuscles (lymph ?)
varied from the smallest up to the 1/7000 in. When made
to roll over they were seen to be doubly convex. Only four curved
bacilli were seen in over fifty fields.
On the 11th of August, a second experiment was made with
two fresh Hristalis put together, and fed from the agar-agar culture,
diluted on the sugar. They were watched feeding several times.
Two dejections passed about four hours later contained in the
granular débris many pollen-grains, some small, short, non-motile
blunt rods, a few bacteria of different sizes, and numberless
micrococci. No curved rods to be seen. Between seventeen and
eighteen hours after feeding on the culture, many micrococci
in chains of four, and a few dumpy curved bacilli, single and in
minute clusters, were noticed. Six other dejections were passed
the same day, and only fourteen curved bacilli were counted in
thirty-five fields on the stained slide. On the 13th, the pollen-
grains were few in number, the straight rods pretty numerous.
Many of the micrococci were surrounded by a pale hyaline outline ;
the curved bacilli were more abundant—none motile. The commas
were still pretty plentiful on the 14th, but motionless among an
abundance of minute fatty-looking granules, soluble in chloroform,
and some partly broken pollen-grains, and on one of these was a
tiny cluster of fine commas.
On the 15th seven dejections, small and very adherent, when
examined, showed the commas and straight rods to be rare. There
were numerous irregular lumps of a brownish semi-transparent
resinous-looking substance, not soluble in dilute acetic acid or
alcohol. They had the appearance of some forms of uric acid, and
as if built up of imperfect crystals with rounded edges. Four
dejections were examined on the 16th without any special dif-
ference being noted. On the 17th thirteen dejections were examined,
the two most recent-looking separately ; they furnished numbers of
pale flat crystals with rounded corners. ‘The commas were rare. The
twelve other excreta contained the same semi-transparent resinous-
looking little masses, and the curved bacilli were few and motion-
less, some double with one tiny mass. The dejections of the 18th
differed scarcely at all from the last. The two insects were now
killed by chloroform vapour, and the perivisceral fluid examined
within three-quarters of an hour afterwards. ‘This viscous fluid,
unstained, showed various pale corpuscles which alcohol rendered
slightly granular, and were little influenced by the methyl stain,
but this rendered evident numerous pale motionless rod bacilli,
consisting of four or five joints, and found in both insects; these
Further Experiments, &c. By Dr. R. L. Maddow. 947
were difficult to be seen in the unstained state. There were a few
large rods common to both, and one had some very small thin
motionless rods, scarcely a curved bacillus could be found. The
fluid remained tacky for many hours, and was easily dissolved away
on washing the covers after staining. All attempts to cultivate
the curved bacilli from the excreta of these two insects had failed,
the micrococci supplanted everything in a few hours.
On the 19th a second experiment was made with a large female
blow-fly. Before feeding with any culture, some dejections, passed
within an hour after being placed in captivity, furnished a large
number of motionless short straight rods, many micrococci, a few
conidia, but no curved bacillus. It was now fed from sugar,
damped with a recent culture inoculated from agar-agar into a
neutral sterilized meat infusion. This contained large numbers of the
commas. It fed freely, and twenty-four hours after, in six dejections
which were dry, only a few motionless curved bacilli were present.
Four hours after placing the culture on the sugar on the 21st, one
liquid and three dry dejections were examined, the former alone.
It contained a sensible number of curved bacilli, a few motile, the
straight rods were rather abundant with an enormous number
of micrococci. An inoculation was attempted with this into a ready
prepared, sterilized, neutral meat infusion, and kept at 90° F., and
further re-inoculated by another liquid dejection passed an hour
later, and not examined microscopically. ‘The dry excreta had a
few commas, aud some minute thin rhomboidal crystals. On the
22nd four dejecta were mixed and examined; upwards of thirty
curved bacilli were counted on the stained slide, some with their
concayities facing, forming a kind of open circle. The dejections
were now unavoidably left over for examination until the 25th.
They differed as regards the organisms in no essential particular
from the previous days, save that the commas appeared proportion-
ally fewer, and the oily-looking granules began to be abundant. On
the 25th there were only four dejections, and these had scarcely a
curved bacillus in them.
The fly was now fed from another four days old culture
similar to the last. It fed freely, and three hours after passed
a large, pale, slightly dirty-looking liquid dejection. It con-
tained much fine débris, a scanty number of curved bacilli, and a
few fine straight rods, besides the micrococci. This was used to
inoculate a fresh sterilized meat infusion, as the former one had
unknowingly been upset and rendered useless. This accident
caused much disappointment, as the fly, although active on the
wing, could scarcely crawl to the top of the tumbler, possibly
getting weak from imperfect nourishment. 'The freshly inoculated
tube was kept at a temperature averaging 90° F. On the 26th
the fly, after again feeding from the freshly inoculated meat infusion,
948 Transactions of the Society.
passed a nearly clear fluid dejection, one hour later another, two
hours later a similar one, and again within half an hour another
liquid dejection with a little solid matter. As each of these had
been found, microscopically, to contain a few curved bacilli, part of
each dejection was used, under every precaution, to further inoculate
the tube, which up to that time had remained perfectly clear. The
fly was exceedingly restless. ‘The clear meat infusion after thirty-two
hours showed marked but not excessive turbidity, and was found to
contain numbers of long and short motile rods, some exceedingly
pale and fine in various stages of growth, also a few coarse, stout,
short, motionless rods, and many long and short spiral or narrow
undulating filaments or spirilla forms, similar to those found by the
extension of the commas in filamentary union, common in some
cultivations, also a few single curved commas and numberless
micrococci. Only two of the spiral filaments were noticed in
movement. ‘They were not very readily seen in the unstained fluid,
but a weak solution of rose anilin acetate showed them up beauti-
fully, and enabled me to sketch them. For comparison another
sketch was made of similar organisms from the agar-agar culture,
diluted with a droplet of distilled water. From the 27th to the
29th, as the fly seemed somewhat revived. yet did not succeed in
crawling to the top of the tumbler, it was fed from the pure agar-
agar culture, with the addition of distilled water on the sugar.
Further experiments were still necessary, as I had not yet suc-
ceeded in inoculating a solid gelatin culture from the fly dejections.
On the 31st, part of thirty-one semi-solid excreta passed in little
over thirty-six hours, and containing only a few curved bacilli,
were mingled in a droplet of distilled water, with a flattened
sterilized platinum wire, and used to inoculate a solid gelatin
culture, left at the ordinary temperature of the room, 65° F.
On September Ist, the examination of ten mixed dejections gave
only a few commas and small rods beside the micrococci. On the
2nd there were fourteen excreta with one fluid one, seven were mixed
with part of the fluid dejection and the minutest portion of freshly
boiled distilled water, and used to inoculate another gelatin tube; the
other seven were mixed in the same way and added to a similar gelatin
culture rendered just fluid enough for plate cultivation, mixed and
poured out on to four of the ordinary 3 x 1 in. slides, sterilized by over
heating, and under the usual precautions set aside at the temperature
of the room, 65° F. ‘These slides on the third day were crowded
with minute growths of micrococci, a few patches with the straight
rods, but on one slide there were three distinct characteristic growths
of the curved bacillus, none were found on the others. The gelatin
tube which had been inoculated from the other seven dry dejections
on the 2nd, and kept at the ordinary temperature of the room,
about 65° F., had on the third day on its surface a whitish raised
Further Experiments, &e. By Dr. R. L. Maddox. 949
warty-looking growth, with no appearance of the track of the wire
beneath, and the gelatin only slightly softened. This contained
rather large crooked rods in all degrees of curvature, from the
straight rod to a complete ring, but not a single genuine Spirdllum
was detected, all were motionless, part of the specimen on the slide
was crowded with minute micrococci, mingled with larger and
brighter corpuscles, some apparently in the first stage of germina-
tion. This appearance led me to examine carefully an inoculation
into a meat infusion that had been made from the same agar-agar
culture on the 29th August, and which had been kept at the
temperature of the room. It was turbid, had a fadnt stale odour,
and abounded with similar organisms near the upper surface ; lower
down the organisms were smaller, still larger than the ordinary
curved bacillus, no spores were visible. Whether this was a large
yariety of the comma bacillus or a contamination, I am uncertain,
as in this case it appeared to have been derived from the agar-agar
culture, which had been used to feed the fly and make the inocula-
tion; later on this was transmitted through the fly retaining the
same characters. The tube inoculated from the thirty-one dejections
was soon turbid and broken down, abounding chiefly in micrococci,
a few thin, non-motile, long rods, scarcely a short stout rod to be
found, and no curved bacilli, which may perhaps be due to the dry-
ness of the dejections. The excreta of the 3rd and 4th afforded a
fair number of the commas. On the 5th and 6th the fly was fed
from the nu.d meat culture with the large crooked rods, and on the
7th the excreta, twenty-two in number, which contained some of
the crooked rods, were inoculated, after being mingled with a
droplet of freshly boiled distilled water, into a neutral sterilized
meat infusion, and kept at the temperature of the room. In three
days this was turbid and furnished an abundance of bacilli from
straight to all stages of curvature, some of the free ones had motion,
others in a zoogleea-mass appeared to be in a resting stage; there
were also straight rods of two or three joints and a few short, stout
rods with blunt ends, each motile, and scarcely any micrococci. In
fluid media warmth appeared to greatly encourage the growth of
the latter.
As the fly was seen to be very weak in crawling up the sides
of the tumbler, and it seemed doubtful if I should keep it alive
much longer upon the same food, the experiments were stopped,
and the fly was fed from meat, meat infusion on sugar, fruit-jelly,
&c., and quickly regained strength enough to continually crawl to
the top of the tumbler. It was allowed its liberty on the 29th,
having been in captivity forty days.
The results of these and the previous investigations point, I
think, to the conclusion, that the comma bacillus from cultures can
pass through the digestive tube of some insects in a living state,
Ser. 2.—Vou. V. 3 Q
950 Transactions of the Society.
and although I, unfortunately, omitted to inoculate a gelatin tube
from the three patches of growths found on one of the slides, in
the so-called plate culture, the growths and organisms were so
distinct and characteristic of the comma bacillus, that the result
was deemed sufficient to establish identity.
In conclusion it may perhaps be as well to offer some remarks
upon sundry points connected with these investigations. From the
appearance of the dejections and from watching the insects feeding,
the gelatin and agar-agar cultures seemed less suited for the ex-
periments than the more fluid media, as the meat infusion. The
flies seldom remained for any time sucking the sugar when the
agar-agar culture was used, and they would often turn the morsel
of sugar over in search of the moistest portions. The gelatin
cultures seemed to furnish very tenacious dejections, and possibly
these drying so hard, the bacilli had less chance for rejuvenescence.
In any future experiments I should suggest the use of fluid cul-
tivations. Care had to be used in damping the sugar or it sank
down into syrup; if not moist enough there was a chance of the
material drying on it in a short time; there was also the risk of
the organisms being left dry on the surface, the sugar acting as a
kind of filter. The number of the comma bacilli passed did not
appear to have any definite ratio to the number of dejections passed
in the twenty-four hours. The same diet after a few days seemed to
largely augment the number of oily granules, and these to precede
a period of debility. The watery evacuations, and the rapidity with
which they occurred, I could not distinctly refer to a large increase
in the numbers of the bacilli, though I cannot say they were not in
some way related. How far the action of the digestive juices may
have been detrimental to the microbes, or how far they may have
encouraged their growth, are uncertain points. I am rather in-
clined to believe they did to a certain extent hinder the rejuve-
nescence, and that they did not encourage the growth of the
organisms, though I have no absolute proof to offer. The shortest
period in which the curved bacilli were found in the dejections of
the fly, after feeding on the culture, was six hours, though they
may have been passed earlier. There was no reason in this in-
stance, in which the male fly was placed in the same tumbler as
the female, to suppose they existed in the natural excretion of the
male fiy, as they had not been found in any of the numerous
examinations made of the ordinary dejections of the other flies.
The non-suecess in the inoculations was a great source of trouble,
and I feel pretty confident in the successful experiment; had I
trusted to the single inoculation it would most likely have resulted,
like so many others, in failure.
If it be true, and these experiments seem to me conclusive, that
the curved bacilli can retain life in the intestines of the fly, we can
Further Experiments, &c. By Dr. R. L. Maddox. 951
at once see, supposing it to be in any way pathogenic, how it may
perhaps become a serious source of injury to animals, birds, and
perhaps fishes. I am not aware of any remarks having been made
upon the diminution of the domesticated feathered tribe during
severe cholera epidemics. It would, if possible, be a point well
worth ascertaining.
The Hristalis, though so hardy, did not seem as fit an insect
for the experiments as the blow-fly. Investigations were made on
some other insects, as young wasps, house-flies, and what I believe
were mason bees, but they all too readily succumbed to captivity,
and offered nothing satisfactory. I am well aware of the weak
points in these investigations, and of the various sources of error
in furnishing other bacteria than the curved bacilli. The sugar
was not sterilized ; the body of the insect under the constant toilet
attentions might provide a variety of bacteria, which falling on, or
being carried into the dejections, or deposited on the square of
glass, might easily contaminate the rest, and vitiate the conclusions
on some points, but not, I believe, in any serious way disturbing
those relating to the curved bacilli.
Some may object to so much reliance being placed on the use
of the Microscope. It was the readiest, if not the most perfect
means of distinguishing the commas, and afforded much guidance
in the many hundred examinations made, and would in any case of
suspected infection from such a source be probably the first if not
the only aid used. The micrococci from their abundance were a
great source of trouble in these examinations, and in the cultures.
Staining the sugar offered the chance of the dye proving hurtful
to the microbes, but I fear it was also detrimental to the female fly
that died. The mode of capture of the insects was by bringing
suddenly a short wide-mouthed bottle, held in the right hand, over
the insect at rest, and closing the mouth of the bottle with a folded
handkerchief held in the left, the fly being turned out afterwards
under the tumbler, its opening facing from the window. If the
insect escaped it generally flew at once to the window, when the
tumbler was placed over it and a clean piece of stout note-paper
passed beneath it, and then carried to the saucer. Thus the
insects were not touched by the hands. The used squares of glass
and vessels were flushed with or placed in methylated alcohol,
allowed to dry, and then cleansed with scalding water and washing
soda. The waste cultures were burnt. The general magnifica-
tion used was from 450 to 650 diameters, and all doubtful points
further elucidated by the use of a 1/16 water immersion or 1/12
homogeneous immersion objective. ‘The fine granular débris often
needed considerable dilution. ‘The examinations were long and
tedious. ‘The insects were generally watched to be sure that they
had fed off any particular culture, which was blown on to the sugar
3Q 2
952 Transactions of the Society.
from a fine pipette. Great care was taken for cleanliness of all the
vessels. The gelatin preparations, generally used for the rejuve-
nescence of the microbes, contained 10 per cent. Liebig’s extract of
meat neutralized by soda and potash or soda alone, with 10 per
cent. hard gelatin, and no peptone. ‘The fluid cultures had 12 per
cent. of meat extract. These probably were not the best formule
for the object in view, but I had rather to hinder than encourage
growth, on account of the micrococci.
The beetle alluded to in the former paper died a few days
afterwards; the excretions were of the same character as those
described. The body was not examined. It will be readily seen
that such investigations demand considerable time, and the diffi-
culties to convert a simple supposition into a demonstration have
been both tiresome and numerous.
( 953 )
XX.—On the Cholera “ Comma” Bacillus.
By G. F. Dowprswett, M.A., F.R.MS., F.LS., &e.
(Read 14th October, 1885.)
THE circumstances of the discovery of the so-termed cholera
“comma” bacillus, by Dr. Koch, with the question of its relation
to the disease in which it occurs, are so generally known that it
is not necessary to recapitulate them here.
Since I first showed preparations of the microbe to this Society,
some months ago, it has been the subject of increased attention
and interest from the account of the investigations of Dr. Klein
and the English Cholera Commission in India, whose conclusions
on the point which in this subject is of paramount importance—viz.
the etiological relations of the microbe to disease—are directly
subversive of the view which was somewhat generally accepted
previously, on the authority of Dr. Koch. This interest too has
been still further increased by the terrible devastation that is being
worked by this disease on the continent of Europe, and immediately
threatening our own country. I now offer to your notice what [
have myself observed of the characters of this organism, and which
from a purely mycological and microscopical point of view, render
it one of the most interesting and remarkable yet described.
In the classification of Cohn this microbe is a Spirdllum, the
mature cells showing the character of that by no means well-
known genus; the ordinary singly-curved, or so-termed comma-
form, being evidently an early stage of development of the species.
It is here somewhat variable in form and size in different con-
ditions of nutrition, the composition of the cultivating medium, and
other circumstances.
In a certain stage of development the cells are frequently so
strongly curved as to form the distinct segment of a circle; in the
earlier stages less so; it never, however, forms perfectly straight
rods of any size, nor can be mistaken for a true Bacillus, though
in any preparation a few cells may, to a superficial view, appear
straight, as when a disc or circle is viewed edgewise. From the
typical so-termed “comma” shape it assumes a sigmoid or sinuous
form; some of these at first were rather difficult to understand ; in
many cases no doubt the somewhat frequent V-shaped form may be
due to incipient fission of the cell which occurs largely at this
stage ; in others it is but the first coil or turn of the spiral, which
is its mature form, but which is by no means attained by every
individual cell or in every cultivation. These mature Spirilla, in
natural or undried preparations, are very beautiful objects, the coils
of the helix which, when dried, are generally flattened and distorted,
954 Transactions of the Society.
are remarkably regular, their height being usually nearly equal to
their breadth ; they attain a considerable length, often comprising
20 or 80 spirals or more.
I must here remark that the term “comma bacillus,” though
so well known that it would be superfinous to object to its use, is
not even in a popular sense correct, the microbe is not a Bacillus
in Cohn’s definition of that genus,* which is one consisting of
“straight filaments,” nor is it in the usual acceptance of the term
comma-shaped, the cells being uniformly cylindrical throughout.
It las, however, been overlooked hitherto, that the term ‘comma, ”
as applied to Sprrdlla, was first employed by Dr. Cossar Ewart and
Mr. Patrick Geddes, in their account of the life-history of Sperdllum ;f
the forms, however, which they figure are much more comma-like
than any I have observed the cholera microbe to assume. This
arises from the circumstance, that in their figures the first coil or
turn of the spiral seems to commence near one extremity of the
cell, whereas in Koch’s microbe it occurs, to my observation, almost
invariably about the centre.
In all stages of development it is motile, more actively so in
the later than the earlier forms. It possesses a large and very
distinct flagellum, as first stated by Mr. Nelson; this appendage
or organ is relatively larger and more conspicuous than in any other
schizophyte I have hitherto seen. It often occurs at both ends of
the cell, and frequently forms a loop, which may be readily mistaken
for a corpuscle or vesicle attached to the cell; this appearance is
seen in some of Koch’s photographs of septic bacteriat How
conspicuous the flagellum here is may be judged of by the fact that
I have in some cases been able to draw it without difficulty through
the camera lucida, as in the sketch here shown. On a future
occasion I hope I may be able to demonstrate these flagella under
the Microscope ; to do so requires some care and deliberation, but it
is a subject of interest from more points of view than one, to the
microscopist.
The plasma of the unstained cell, in all stages of development,
is usually homogeneous, but in preparations stained not too deeply,
the ends are often seen to be more coloured than the central portion,
as originally described by Koch.
Its methods of multiplication are in some respects obscure;
usually this occurs by transverse fission, as is characteristic of this
group of the lower fungi, and takes place largely in an early stage
of development long before the mature Spzillwm-form is attained.
Dr. Klein, however, has observed and described another method of
development, by longitudinal fission, in which the short curved
* Beitr. Biol. Pflanzen, Bd. i. H. ii. p. 173.
+ Proc. Roy. Soc., xxvii. (1878) p. 484.
{ Beitr, Biol. Pflanzen, Bd. ii. Pl. xi. fig. 5.
The Cholera “ Comma” Bacillus. By G. F. Dowdeswell. 955
cell swells up, thickens, assumes a vacuolated form, remaining
active, which shows that the appearance is not due to degeneration ;
then the corpuscle thus formed divides into two new curved cells,
This occurs in cultivations of nutrient agar-agar at the tem-
perature of the laboratory (15°-20° C.). The preparation under
the Microscope (one of Dr. Klein’s) shows these phases very
beautifully. ‘Chis observation is of the highest interest and quite
unparalleled in the biology of the lower fungi, justifying the state-
ment made, that this organism from a mycological point of view is
the most remarkable yet noticed.
It does not form resting-spores, and thus its method of per-
petuation is quite obscure, as in the case of Bacteriwm termo, and
requires further careful investigation. There are appearances in
some of the cells at different stages of growth, which simulate
spores (or properly speaking conidia) very closely, and also in effete
cultivations, aggregations of minute spore-like or coccoid bodies,
which do not stain nearly as readily as the growing cells; but
that they are not true spores or viable, is proved by the circum-
stance that the cultivations containing them, whether in gelatin
or liquid bouillon, are sterile when inoculated into fresh nutrient
media.
Beyond the occurrence of longitudinal fission no form-variations
or involution phases have been established, the cells, however,
ultimately split up into short “ primitive segments.” This is the
origin of the beaded appearance sometimes observed in this and
other microbes. It has, however, been stated* that the large “ worm-
like” bodies found in the intestines of guinea-pigs that have
been injected with cultivations of Koch’s commas, are a morpho-
logical variety of the same species ; this appears clearly an error,
for as I have before stated, in the large intestine of these animals
such organisms occur normally and commonly ; fungi they may be,
but they are very greatly larger than the cholera comma tacilli,
and no grounds have been adduced for supposing that there is any
genetic connection between them ; were there any, it would merely
further prove that the microbe is not pathogenic, as these forms
occur normally in healthy animals.
As regards the habits of growth and behaviour of the organism
in different cultivating media, I may point out that in plain
bouillon it developes uniformly through the fluid, rendering it
turbid ; it forms no pellicle, but if pepton be added a slight scum
appears for a time, which may be mistaken for the occurrence of
contaminations. In nutrient gelatin, the macroscopical appearances
have been often described and are well known; when inoculated
into the substance of the medium with a needle or a pipette, there
* Brit. Med. Journ., 1885, p, 878. t Ibid., p. 588.
956 Transactions of the Society.
is the funnel-shaped depression of the liquefied gelatin, surmounted
by an air-vesicle. Cultivated in nutrient agar-agar at whatever
temperature, it grows as a light scum on the surface, it does not
liquefy the material, and there is nothing at all characteristic in its
usual habit of growth, though it is in this medium, as above stated,
that the remarkable method of multiplication by longitudinal fission
occurs.
It developes equally well in neutral and faintly alkaline media,
but it will also develope in distinctly acid infusions, as in 1 per
mille of free hydrochloric acid, though here uncertainly and slowly.
It grows equally well, too, though not with the same rapidity, at
different temperatures between 10° and 35° C., and is, as emphasized
by Koch, rapidly killed by desiccation.
The cultivations which I originally obtained from Dr. Roux
of Paris, through the kindness of Dr. Maddox, show both by their
characters in nutrient gelatin, and by direct comparison of dried
and stained specimens of Dr. Koch, identically the same characters ;
they are also the same as those of Dr. Klein.
The habits of growth of micro-organisms in solid cultivating
media, have lately received much attention, and it was thought
that here we had a ready and sure means of specific diagnosis,
more sure and more distinctive as has been asserted, than the
microscopical characters of these organisms. To my observation
this is entirely erroneous ; there are scarcely two species of the lower
fungi, excluding perhaps micrococci, which may not be distinguished
by competent microscopical examination, with adequate. means.
When a similarity of form and minute characters does occur, then
observation of their growth may come in, but only as an auxiliary
and secondary means of diagnosis; it cannot be of primary im-
portance, because, firstly, the characters or appearances are not
constant under slightly different conditions, and secondly, because
different species of totally different form, as readily recognized
under the Microscope, grow in identically the same manner in these
cultivations, one instance of which I showed to this Society on a
former occasion, and hope to illustrate the subject further on a future
opportunity. The same thing applies equally to the characters of
the colonies on the surface of gelatin on glass plates, or in cells,
go that this means of diagnosis has only a very limited application
and utility. As a method, however, of separating different species,
and thus originating “pure” cultivations—the necessary basis for
all exact observations on this subject—it is absolutely invaluable,
and is in most cases far more -reliable and less laborious than
“ fractional dilution.”
Tt is, however, to its relations to Asiatic cholera that is due the
interest which this microbe has excited and continues to excite
throughout this country, the Continent, and indeed a large portion
The Cholera “Comma” Bacillus. By G. F. Dowdeswell. 957
of the civilized world, far exceeding that of any other micro-
organism, or indeed almost of all those previously described com-
bined. ‘This is primarily a pathological or medical question, but
as it cannot be excluded from a description of the organism, I
shall now state what seems to me its present position, in as few
words as possible, and the more readily because the subject, which
has been warmly contested, appears to me to be now on its main
point conclusively settled by the result of recent experiments.
As a result of his investigations in Egypt and the East
Indies, Dr. Koch expressed the opinion that the comma bacillus
which he had discovered was specific to, i.e. occurred only in, and
was diagnostic of, Asiatic cholera; he also stated his belief that
if not the true cause, it probably stood in some relation to the
disease.* This opinion was based upon the fact, as he stated, that
the microbe which occurred invariably and in vast numbers in cer-
tain situations in cholera cases, was specifically distinct from all other
organisms of similar form which occurred elsewhere, and also by
the circumstances of its distribution in the tissues of the intestine.
Thus the hope was general that we had obtained knowledge of the
utmost value on which to base the treatment for mitigating one of
the greatest scourges to which mankind is subject.
As will be remembered Drs. 'T. Lewis and Klein were amongst
the first who stated their conviction that the microbe found by
Koch was not specific to cholera, but occurred elsewhere, and
notably in the saliva of some healthy persons. ‘This opinion has
been fully justified, as Dr. Klein has since succeeded in obtaining
pure cultivations of this microbe from the saliva of his own mouth,
which both in their microscopical characters, and by the test in-
sisted on by Koch, their habit of growth in solid cultivations, are
in every respect identical with the so-termed cholera comma
bacilli.
The views of Koch were also roughly shaken by the results of
the English Cholera Commission with Dr. Klein in India, with
respect particularly to the occurrence of this microbe in the tissues
in cholera cases, examined immediately upon death, on which point
the English was perfectly in accord with the French Cholera Com-
mission, viz. that this organism does not by any means invariably
occur in any great numbers in this situation.
With respect to the crucial test of the relations of any microbe
to disease, the one so often effectively employed by Koch himself,
viz. inoculating animals with pure cultivations of it, although it has
been asserted in some instances on the Continent that choleraic
symptoms have been experimentally induced in animals by this
means, I think these may one and all be finally dismissed as incon-
clusive or erroneous, and we might have abided by the original and
* Deutsch. Med. Woch., 1883, No, 42, p. 616.
958 Transactions of the Society.
explicit statement of Koch himself in his address before the Berlin
Congress, that such injections or inoculations made upon various
animals, including monkeys, in whatever manner, were without
result; and further, as he had satisfied himself by careful in-
quiry in India, and as indeed is notorious, that domestic animals
generally are not susceptible to cholera.
More recently Dr. Klein has further confirmed and established
his own conclusions on this point by a brilliant series of experiments,
admirably conceived and carried out in conjunction with the Brown
Professor of Pathology, by which he has produced a condition in
monkeys, by ligaturing a loop of the intestine and injecting a small
quantity of sulphate of magnesia, which induced a large develop-
ment in this situation of Koch’s cholera comma bacilli. A more
conclusive solution of the question at issue, and proof of the harm-
less character of the microbe, it is difficult to conceive; and it is a
brilliant termination to a most important scientific investigation, the
value of which all will recognize, finally proving that the microbe
is the result and not the cause of the disease in which it appears.*
In conclusion, I must say that, disappointing though it is that
our knowledge of the etiology of this disease is not advanced by
recent investigations, we may yet hope that the microbe may be in
some measure diagnostic of Asiatic cholera, as it has not yet been
shown to occur in any numbers in the same situations in other
diseases; though the recent demonstrations of its ubiquitous cha-
racter necessitate further careful search for it. Should its diag-
nostic value be finally established, Dr. Koch will have conferred
a benefit of the highest practical importance to every nation in
Europe and Asia, as the result of his work, and will have greatly
enhanced his previous pre-eminently high reputation as a micro-
biologist.
* Tf authority were wanting for this opinion, I might quote that of one of the
most competent in this country, viz. Dr. Burdon Sanderson, in his address at
the Royal Institution in May last, and in the July No. of the ‘Contemporary
Review.’
( 959 )
XXI.—Improved Form of Stephenson’s Binocular Prisms.
By ©. D. Anrens.
(Read 14th October, 1885.)
THE arrangement of prisms for the Binocular Microscope devised
by Mr. Stephenson has several advantages which make it, in my
opinion, the best for microscopic purposes ; for instance, the equal
illumination of both fields, the equal size of the two images, and
the fact that both images are always in focus together. It is also
readily capable of being combined with an erecting arrangement ; a
combination which constitutes by far the most satisfactory mode of
viewing objects under the Microscope. But the difficulty of keeping
the prisms in adjustment is considerable, and is, I think, the reason
why they have not come into more general use.
This difficulty I hope I have overcome by permanently ce-
menting together the pair of prisms which divide the rays imme-
diately on emergence from the objective. I construct the prisms
of ordinary crown glass, and silver the reflecting surfaces by any
of the usual methods which give a firm deposit. I then make a
very acute glass wedge, of such an angle as to give precisely the
proper inclination of the two main prisms to one another, and
cement the whole firmly together, as shown in fig. 220.
Thus the combination can never get out of adjustment, and no
cleaning of the reflecting surfaces is required; moreover, owing to
the great angle of incidence and the brilliancy of the silver deposit
on a well polished surface, there is very little loss of light.
Fic, 220. Fie. 221.
UG
Z
Z
y
I also devised some years ago an improvement in the upper
erecting prism, of which there is no published account. Instead
of making the prism of one piece of glass only, and mounting it:
thus, I cut it in two and separate the two halves by a black glass
wedge of suitable angle, cementing the whole together (see fig. 221).
Then the central rays coming from the lower binocular prisms
fall perpendicularly upon the surfaces of the upper prisms, and,
emerging also at right angles to the upper surfaces, continue their
course to the eye-pieces without sensible deviation or distortion.
960 Transactions of the Society.
XXIL—Remarks on Prof. Abbe’s ‘ Note on the proper Definition
of the Ainplifying Power of a Lens or Lens-system.’*
By E. Ginray, Ph.D., Teacher of Botany at the State Agri-
cultural School at Wageningen (Netherlands).}
(Read 11th November, 1885.)
Berrore dealing with the more immediate subject of this paper, I
beg to reproduce in translation a portion of my recently issued book
‘Introduction to the study of the Microscope,’t which deals with
the meaning to be attached to the expression “ linear amplification,”
and with the manner in which its value is to be ascertained.
“If a person is seen working with a Microscope, the first
question asked him is, very often, ‘How many times does that
instrument magnify ?’ However simple this question may appear,
it is not in fact so very easy to obtain a good idea of the meaning
to be attached to the answer that should be given.
Let us simplify the matter by taking an object of very little
complexity, namely, a line at right angles to the axis of the optical
system.
It is easily seen that if an image of this line is formed by a lens or
by a lens-system, it is impossible to say how many times the image
will be larger or smaller than the object, of no more be given. For,
according to well-known formule, the proportion between image
and object is not only dependent upon the optical system, but also
upon the distance at which the object is placed or at which the
image is formed. But if the optical system is used as a Microscope,
are not then those distances determined? Properly considered, no
more so than in the former case; at the utmost they are limited,
for the image must of course fall at such a distance, that the eye
may be able to accommodate for it. But still in this case the
distances may be very different. Let us consider for instance an
emmetropic or normal-sighted eye with a normal power of accommo-
dation ;§ here it might appear that to every lens-system any power
might be attributed. For, using the equation A = 1 — ie (Ue
amplification, 8 = distance of the image, ¢ = focal distance of the
system), it is at once clear that A will be arbitrarily large, if only
_ 8 is large enough, i.e. if only the observing eye accommodates for a
long enough distance. Hence it might appear useful, when using a
* See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 348.
+ The original paper is written by Dr. Giltay in English.
{ ‘Inleiding tot het gebruik van den Microscoop, door Dr. EH. Giltay,’ Leiden,
E. J. Brill, 1885, § 44, pp. 76-80.
§ Ie. an eye which, when not accommodating, unites on its retina parallel
incident rays (and therefore can see at a long distance), and which, if strongly
accommodating, can see at a few inches distance.
Remarks on Prof. Abbe’s Note, &c. By Dr. E. Giltay. 961
magnifying glass or a Microscope, not to accommodate at all. We
must, however, take into consideration, that the image, as it enlarges,
is at the same time formed at a larger distance; if in A=1 —
B has once acquired such a high value that 1 may be neglected,
then A increases even in the same ratio as 8. And if an image,
which I observe grows twice as large, I shall see no more detail if
at the same time the image is formed at twice the distance, for then
the image on the retina, and the number of nerve-ends which are
used for its examination, remain the same.
We clearly see from this, that all depends on the dimensions of
the retinal images; the dimensions of the image formed by eye +
magnifying glass will have to be compared with those of the image
formed by the eye alone. But where must then the object and the
virtual image formed by the lens-system be placed in order that
retinal images shall be obtained that are fit for the determination
of amplifying power ?
The determination of the amplifying power of an optical
instrument is of course chiefly useful for the comparison of the
value of such an instrument when used with the eye, with the value
of the eye alone. ‘To make this comparison correct, the eye, and
eye + optical instrument, should be compared as much as possible
under analogous circumstances, which for instance might be realized
by comparing them while working as favourably as possible, i.e.
giving the largest possible images on the retina. As to seeing by
the eye alone, it would be sufficient to bring the object as near as
possible to the eye, and then to divide the dimensions of the largest
image that might be obtained while using the instrument. by the
dimensions of the retinal image. This would be a very good mode
of determining the absolute value of an amplifying instrument
for a single person. But the position of the nearest point which
can be accommodated for, differs very much with the person; and
the distance for which during a long time one can easily ac-
commodate, will also be subject to much variation. Moreover, the
meaning of determining the amplifying power is not so much to
know the absolute value of a Microscope for a particular per-
son, as to find an expression which is appropriate for the com-
parison of Microscopes in general, and which at the same time
gives a direct notion of the power of enlarging the images on
the retina for the eye in general; for a simple comparison of the
power of microscope-systems their focal distances would suffice. In
order to satisfy both conditions, it has been agreed to place the
object at a distance conventionally fixed, a distance which is not
too great for the retinal images to be near their maximum dimensions,
and which is yet large enough for the great majority of eyes to
962 Transactions of the Society.
remain accommodated for it during rather a long time. This
distance has been chosen as 10 in. (25 em.), and it is generally
called the ‘distance of distinct vision.’ This term often gives rise
to erroneous notions, and was not chosen very happily ; for at every
distance, for which an eye can accommodate, it sees equally dis-
tinctly. ‘The term may, therefore, be regarded as an abbreviation
for the shortest distance (suitable for the discrimination of minute
details) for which a normal eye can accommodate for a consider-
able length of time, and which has been chosen arbitrarily for
the comparison of amplification. But what distance must then be
given to the virtual image formed by the optical system? From
the formula A = 1 — — it is clear that if ¢ is small in comparison
with 8, A may be taken as proportional to 8. When the virtual
image enlarges in the same ratio as the distance at which it is
formed, then the image on the retina of the eye, by which it is re-
garded, may be considered as remaining the same. ‘Therefore
what distance is given to the virtual image might be quite in-
different. It is only from a practical point of view that it is also
placed at 10 in. from the eye, for then the number representing
the value of the linear amplification is not only represented
by the ratio of the two retinal images, but also by the ratio
of the virtual image and of the object itself, which is of great
importance in the practical determination. That this is really
the case may be easily deduced from fig. 222. C is the cornea,
R the retina, Aka the axis of the observing eye; A B represents
the dimensions of the object, A B' the dimensions of the virtual
image when this lies in A, A& being supposed to be the
distance of distinct vision; a0 indicates the dimensions of the
retinal image of the object, when seen by the eye only, ab’ when
seen through the optical instrument which forms the virtual image
AB’. If we now unite B and 0b, B’ and VU’, it may be shown
that these two lines cross the axis at very nearly the same point,
a x
say &. And now we have
Gb Roker
* Tn the last part the translation slightly differs from the original, which was
necessary on account of the fact that the original made use of laws which were
explained in a previous chapter.
Remarks on Prof. Abbe’s Note, &e. By Dr. E. Giltay. 963
The linear amplification as it is here defined is exclusively a
measure for the amplifying power of the system; and the com-
parison of the different linear amplification values of different
systems gives a direct comparison between the value of the different
systems with regard to their power of enlarging the images on the
retina.
My definition of the “linear amplification” is not new; it is
in complete accordance with the meaning which is commonly
attached to the term ; I only tried to treat the subject more amply
than is generally the case in physical or Microscopical text-books,
and to give a fuller account of the meaning that must be attached,
according to my opinion, to the “ distance of distinct vision” than
has hitherto been done as far as I know of.*
Very often false notions have been attached to the amplification
values of optical systems. I do not believe, however, that these
false notions originated in any unfitness of the usual definition of
amplification, but I think that the chief cause lay in the awkward
ideas which are still too commonly found on even the simplest facts
of theoretical microscopy.
These erroneous ideas with regard to the meaning of “linear
amplification” are chiefly the following :—
1. The “linear amplification” is taken as identical with the
actual amplification that the virtual image, which is observed
when using the instrument, undergoes in each particular case.
2. These two kinds of amplification, the properly so-called
linear and the actual amplification for a particular case, are again
confused with the amplification which the image, which the
observer “sees” before him, has undergone, and which is of a
purely subjective nature.
Both points still need perhaps some explanation.
1. When any object is observed through an optical system, as
for instance a Microscope, this instrument so alters the course of
the rays emanating from the different points of the object, that
an enlarged image is substituted for the latter. The place of this
(virtual) image depends upon the relative position of the optical
system and the object, and the latter is so regulated by the ob-
server that the image in question falls at a distance which is in
accordance with the refractive condition of the eye, in order that
a well-defined image may be formed on the retina. As the refrac-
tive conditions of different eyes vary very much, the distance of the
image is also very different; it may be a few inches, and it may be
several yards. And as the quotient of the diameter of that image
* I must here add that the reasoning which I used to explain the term
“ distance of distinct vision,” was not followed in the same wav (as far as I know,
at least) when the term was first brought into use. I only used the above line of
argument because it seemed to me the fittest way to make the matter quite clear.
964 Transactions of the Society.
and of the object itself produces what I called the “actual ampli-
fication,” this amplification is necessarily no fixed number for any
given system, but varies with the distance of the image and
depends upon the conditions of the observing eye.
The case is quite different with the “linear amplification.”
This value is constant for any given optical system and inde-
pendent of the actual amplification in a particular case. That in
general the “linear” and the “actual” amplification do not coimcide
is of no consequence whatever, for a change in the position of the
virtual image formed by the instrument does not produce any real
change for the observer's eye; for the image varies very nearly in
the same proportion as the distance at which it is formed, so that
(at least very nearly again) the diameter of the retinal image may
be regarded as remaining the same.
2. Our idea of the diameter of objects with which we are not
acquainted by experience, the diameter in which we “see” them,
depends upon the dimensions of the image on the retina, and on
the distance at which we estimate the object in question to be
laced.
r Now the idea is somewhat frequently met with that the linear
amplification ig in accordance with the dimensions in which we
“see” the image, whilst these again are regarded as agreeing with
the actual amplification.
It is not necessary to explain any further that these factors
are quite independent of one another. The linear amplification
will only agree with the subjective dimensions of the image, if
we “see” the object at a distance for which the linear amplifica-
tion is determined ; whilst concordance with the actual amplification
will only exist, if the virtual image lies exactly at the distance at
which it is seen, which in microscopy will not very often be the case.
For the image is seen in general at about the distance at which we
know the object to be placed, independent of the refractive con-
ditions of the eye, whereas its real place entirely depends upon the
latter.
Prof. Abbe, in the above-named article, calls the generally
adopted notion of “linear amplification at a certain distance” a
“very awkward and irrational way of defining the amplifying
power of a lens or-a lens-system,” and wishes to change it for
another one. Accordingly he defines the amplifying power as the
tangent of the visual angle, under which the unit of length is
shown through the optical system.
As far as I can see, however, there is no great advantage in
this way of defining the “power” in question, or rather, I think,
the old way is preferable.
First, | must point out that according to my view the definition
Remarks on Prof. Abbe’s Note, &e. By Dr. E. Giltay. 965
of Prof. Abbe does not essentially differ from the older one. For it
is clear that (fig. 223) :
substituting this in the equation of Prof. Abbe:
tau 1
TT ree
we get
ete Ls
(ol Oy ae Fa
or,
ey
ae
Now, ee is nothing else than the actual amplification of the
object of the length K F = h, placed at E; if, therefore, C D = the
Fic. 223.
usual distance for which the “ linear amplification” is determined,
then Bo is the “linear amplification” itself. And as in this
h
case C D is a constant value, say C, we get,
BC I
cy gp tar ehh
wherefrom it is directly concluded, that the amplification numbers
of Prof. Abbe (expressed by 5) and those obtained by the old mode
(by -) are in a constant relation. If, therefore, Prof. Abbe
Ser. 2.—Vou. V. - 3R
966 Transactions of the Society.
says that his expression is ‘‘the rational expression of the magnifi-
cation or ‘ power’ of an optical system, because every observer will
see every object enlarged through different systems in the exact
proportion of the value of that quotient,” it must be remarked
that exactly the same service is done by the amplification numbers
determined by the old method.
But I cannot see either that the form in which Prof. Abbe
wishes to define the notion of “linear amplification” is dis-
tinguished advantageously from the commonly adopted way of
defining that notion. At first sight it might appear that Prof,
Abbe’s definition is free from such an arbitrary factor as the value
chosen for the distance of distinct vision, for which the “linear
amplification” is determined ; in reality this is not the case. For
bay E depends, of course,
Be ig
upon the value of the unit which is chosen. The value of li.
the numerical value of the ratio
different if f is expressed in millimetres, than if f is expressed in
centimetres, or in inches. In fact it is clear that the angle under
which the unit of length is seen depends upon the dimensions of
that unit. With any change in the choice of the unit, the numbers
which indicate the amplifying power will therefore vary. The
values, however, which are obtained for different systems, will always
be in the same relation, independent of the exact value of the unit.
But does, in reality, such a difference exist between this and
the old mode of determining the amplification, in which the numbers
depend upon the value which is chosen for the “ distance of distinct
vision,” whilst the amplification numbers of different systems are
always in the same ratio, independent of the exact value of that
distance ?
Both methods, I think, are in so far identical, as they give for
different systems numbers which represent the ratio of the dimen-
sions of images on the retina, which are obtained when one and the
same object is seen through these systems.
Yet it appears to me there is a practical difference between
them.
Prof. Abbe himself has little hope that his expression for
amplifying power will be generally adopted, as it will seem “too
abstract.” In fact I think it 2s too abstract.
The old method suggests to the mind to a certain extent a
direct idea of the practical value of the lens-system. If I know,
for instance, that the linear amplification of a system is 600, I can
immediately recognize the effect of the system, if I consider that an
object of 10 w will be seen at 25cm. as of the length of 6 mm.
But I think the idea is at first sight less clear, if I only know that
Remarks on Prof. Abbe’s Note, &e. By Dr. E. Giltay. 967
an object of 1 mm. will appear under a visual angle whose tangent
is 2°4.
I have had the opportunity of observing in another way that
the expression of Prof. Abbe is not so well adapted to give a
practical idea of the power of lenses.
For some time I have been accustomed to distinguish lenses in
the way proposed by Prof. Abbe. In ophthalmology, lenses are, at
least on the Continent, somewhat generally denominated by a
decimal fraction, equal to a vulgar fraction whose numerator is 1
and whose denominator is the focal distance expressed in metres.
It is not difficult to see that this manner of denoting lenses
exactly coincides with Prof. Abbe’s way of expressing the power of
optical systems (for tan uw’ = 7 Abbe, 1. ¢.).
Although this denomination is very convenient for finding, by
the simple addition or subtraction of two lens-numbers, the value of
the lens, which is equivalent to the added or subtracted action of
the component lenses ; and although, therefore, this method is in
ophthalmology very practical, yet 1 never could see that the num-
bers of spectacle-glasses give so good an idea of the lenses in
themselves as the amplification numbers, or even as the values of
the focal distances. Perhaps this is a subjective peculiarity of
mine, but in that case my other remarks remain unaltered. I think,
therefore, that if we have to choose between the old and the new
mode of expressing power, we may give the preference to the
former, if only the proper ideas which can be attached to its
meaning are actually attached to it.
o Bo
968 Transactions of the Socvety.
XXIII.—On the limits of Resolution in the Microscope.
By Frank Crisp, LL.B., B.A., V.P. & Treas. Linn. Soc., Sec. R.M.S.
(Read 11th November, 1885.)
THE claim is frequently made that lines have been resolved with a
particular aperture in excess of the maximum number per inch
given in the table at p. 325 of Vol. I. (1881) of the Journal.
Very few of these claims are supported by any definite data. If
it is Amphipleura pellucida that has served as the object, the lines
have not been counted, though itis known that different specimens
of the diatom vary in the closeness of the lines. The aperture of
the objective has been only roughly estimated, and there has been
a general deficiency of any kind of precision as to the essential
data, that has rendered it unnecessary to consider the claim seriously.
When a case is brought forward in which the lines have been
counted, the aperture measured, the obliquity of the incident beam
determined by observing its position within the clear aperture by
means of the auxiliary Microscope, and the predominant colour of
the effective light indicated, it will then, and not till then, be time
to re-examine the diffraction theory.
There are, however, some features in connection with the claims
in question, which show that misapprehension exists as to the
limit of resolving power in the Microscope which it will be desirable
to clear away.
There are three cases in which, as it is supposed, lines in excess
of the theoretical maximum have been resclved, and these are
(1) with monochromatic light, (2) with photography, and (3) with
sunlight. The case of sunlight is distinct from the other two,
which have a common explanation and which had better, therefore,
be dealt with first.
The formula which gives the number of lines to the inch that
can be resolved by a given aperture, with the maximum obliquity of
illumination, is 6= pm where 6 is the distance apart of the lines,
» the wave-length of the image-forming rays, and a the aperture
of the objective. It will be seen that to solve this equation a value
must be given to X or the wave-length. This of course varies
according to the portion of the spectrum made use of, the wave-
length of the red end being longer than that of the blue end.
The heading of the column of resolving power in the table ex-
pressly states that the figures apply to a value of ) = 0°52689 pu;
that is to the line E. The figures therefore represent the resolving
power with ordinary white light.
Now consider what takes place when for white light is sub-
stituted monochromatic (blue) light obtained by shutting off, or at
least considerably reducing, the red, yellow, and green rays by
an ammonio-sulphate of copper cell or other appropriate agent.
The Limits of Resolution in the Microscope By F. Crisp. 969
Almost the only rays by which the object is now delineated are those
near the line F. The wave-length is here shortened from 0°52689
uz to 048606 w, and the formula therefore gives a smaller value to
6, i.e. the lines resolved are closer together, so that with mono-
chromatic light a greater number of lines to the inch can be resolved,
The line F is at about the limit of this resolution, for although
theoretically the resolving power would be increased if we utilized
the darker blue rays to the exclusion of the brighter, this is practi-
cally impossible at present, as no means are known by which the
bright blue rays can be stopped off, while the darker ones are
admitted.
On a precisely analogous principle photography allows of a
still more considerable increase in resolving power.
In the ordinary photographic process the chemical action is
confined to the interval between the lines G and H, and has its
maximum near the line h. This is the same thing as if we had
stopped out from white light all the rest of the spectrum, and were
working with monochromatic light of no greater wave-length.
Taking for a point near the line h, X = 0:40000 y,* the
resolving power in the case of photography as compared with white
light is shown to be increased in the inverse ratio of 0°52689 to
040000.
As before stated, the table itself gives the particular line for
which the column of resolving power was calculated, and the
possible increase with shorter wave-lengths was duly noted with
the first publication of the table,f but it will perhaps tend to prevent
in future any misapprehension if two further columns are added,
giving the figures of resolving power in the case of monochromatic
light and photography as well as white light. Mr. J. W. Stephen-
son, who calculated the original table, has kindly prepared these
additional columns, and the table will in future be printed as
appended to this paper.
The case of sunlight still remains to be considered. It is un-
doubted that with sunlight greater resolving power can be obtained
than with lamplight, but the explanation is entirely different from
that which applies to monochromatic light and photography.
It seems to have been supposed that by using sunlight instead
of lamplight we should virtually get the benefit of reduced wave-
length, as although the difference of relative intensity of the various
colours is very slight in the lower portion of the spectrum, it is
large in the case of the upper portion, so that the intensity of the
dark blue is greater with sunlight than with lamplight. This
supposition, however, overlooks the fact that in the case of white
light (whether lamplight or sunlight), the dark blue and violet
have practically no action in the presence of the bright blue, green,
and yellow. While, therefore, these colours form part of those in the
* For H,, A = 0°39680 pu t Sce this Journal, ii. (1879) p, 839.
aud for 4, A = 0°41012 p.
970 Transactions of the Society.
field, the greater or less intensity of the dark blue and violet has no
appreciable effect on the image, being drowned by the bright back-
ground produced by the other rays, and lamplight, containing as it
does a sufficient quantity of those blue rays which are predominant,
will not be inferior to sunlight as regards the effective wave-length.
Eyen with sunlight, however, no greater number of lines can
be resolved than are shown in the original table for the line E. The
superiority of sunlight is based, not upon a different limit of the active
wave-length, but upon the fact that in consequence of the absolute
intensity of the light it is possible to utilize the full aperture of
the objective, which cannot be done with light of less intensity.
When lamplight or daylight is used the relatively lower in-
tensity of the illumination renders it necessary to employ pencils
of perceptible breadth. The axes of the pencils will therefore
necessarily be at some distance from the margin of the objective’s
aperture as shown in fig. 224 (A, direct light and A’, diffraction
Fic. 224. Fic. 225.
pencil). The extent to which the axes are within the margin
represents so much lost aperture just as if it were reduced to the
dotted line.
With sunlight, however, the intensity of the illumination is such
that an image may be obtained by using only a very narrow incident
pencil. The axis of such a pencil is practically at the margin of the
aperture, and the full aperture is therefore utilized (see fig. 225).
This also shows that the figures given in the new table,
whether for white light, monochromatic light, or photography, will
only be attainable when the source of light is of great intensity ;
otherwise there will be a loss of aperture.
Although sunlight only has been referred to, it may be pointed
out that the electric (arc) light is little, if at all, inferior to sunlight
in regard to the utilization of the full aperture of the objective.
Note by Professor Abbe.
Prof. Abbe, to whom I sent a proof of the preceding paper for
his views as to continuing columns 3 and 4 to the lower numbers,
writes :—
“There is one point as to which you may think that an ex-
planation is advisable. As you say, in the case of fig. 224 the
The Limits of Resolution in the Microscope. By F. Crisp. 971
effective aperture is necessarily reduced to the diameter of the
dotted circle, i.e. the distance of the axes of the two pencils A, A’,
but I doubt if everybody will at once see, without explanation, why
this must be so. At first sight it would appear that the marginal
zone, outside the dotted line, would at least add something to the
resolving power. It might be thought that if with a given
aperture (the direct pencil being assumed in the position A in
fig. 226) the diffraction-pencil does not enter the aperture, but
Fic. 226. Fig. 227.
remains outside in the position A’, we could increase the obliquity of
the incident pencil in order to obtain the position fig. 227, and that
then we might expect an image of the lines from which the pencil
A’ originates, because one-half of that pencil enters the aperture
together with one-half of the incident pencil.
This is of course a fallacy: because those two halves (or semi-
pencils) no longer contain conjugate rays, i.e. no pairs of rays
which originate from one and the same incident ray. Pairs of
conjugate rays are: a a, ce, bU, but not ba’. Therefore, in
the case of fig. 227, the two semi-pencils
which are admitted are not image- Beer
forming rays, cacept by an infinitely
small portion, cc’. Though we have
within the aperture direct rays on one
side, and diffracted rays on the other
side, we have merely dead rays, not
capable of interfering, because they do
not originate from the same primary
rays. ‘These rays will afford a useless
illumination of the field only.
In regard to fig. 224, the same
considerations will show that in order
to obtain the image-forming rays corre-
sponding to an incident pencil of a given diameer ab, the
maximum distance of a diffracted ray from the direct ray must not
exceed the length cc’ (see fig. 228), i.e. the diameter of the dotted
circle ; and that, 7f the diameter a b is necessary, in order to have
sufficient light, the limit of resolution is given by that reduced
aperture.”
972 Transactions of the Society.
Corresponding Angle (2 w) for Limit of Resolving Power, in Lines to an Inch. Pees
Numerical Monochvomuatic Illuminating} trating
Aperture. Air Water |#omogencous | white Light. Light. Photography. P Pe Power,
P : Eee Immersion | (, — 05269 w, | (A=0°4861 ys, | (A = 0° 4000 pu, (a) 1
(msinu=a.)|| (m=1-00). | (2 = 1°33). | (w= 1:52). Line E.) Line F.) | near Line h.) (;)
1°52 180° 0’ 146,543 158,845 193,037 2°310 658
1:51 166° 51’ 145,579 157,800 191,767 2:°280 * 662
1:50 161° 23’ 144,615 156,755 190,497 2-250 * 667
1:49 157° 12’ 143,651 155,710 189 , 227 2-220 671
1:48 153° 39’ 142,687 154, 665 187,957 2°190 *676
1:47 150° 32’ 141,723 153 , 620 186,687 2°161 -680
1:46 147° 42’ 140,759 152,575 185,417 2°132 *685
1-45 145° 6’ 139,795 151,530 184, 147 2°103 “690
1:44 142° 39’ 138, 830 150,485 182,877 2°074 694
1:48 140° 22’ 137,866 149,440 181,607 2°045 “699
1:42 188° 12’ 136,902 148,395 180,337 2-016 704
1:41 136° 8’ 135,938 147,350 179,067 1°988 “709
1:40 134° 10’ 134,974 146,305 177,797 1-960 “714
1:39 132° 16’ 134,010 145,260 176,527 1-932 ‘719
1:38 130° 26’ 133, 046 144,215 175, 257 1-904 725
1:37 128° 40’ 132,082 143,170 173, 987 1:877 *730
1:36 126° 58’ 131,118 142,125 172,717 1-850 “735
1:35 a0 125° 18’ 130, 154 141,080 171,447 1°823 “741
1:34 50 123° 40’ 129,189 140,035 170,177 1:796 “746
1:33 180° 0’| 122° 6’ 128,225 138,989 168 , 907 1:769 “752
1:32 165° 56’ | 120° 33’ 127,261 137,944 167,637 1-742 758
1°31 160° 6’| 119° 3’ 126, 297 136,899 166,367 1°716 *763
1:30 155° 38’ | 117° 35’ 125,333 135, 854 165, 097 1°690 “769
1:29 151° 50’ | 116° 8’ 124,369 134,809 163,827 1:664 778
1°28 148° 42’ | 114° 44’ 123,405 133,764 162,557 1-638 “781
1:27 145° 27’; 118° 21’ 122,441 132,719 161,287 1:613 *787
1:26 142° 39’ | 111° 59’ 121,477 131,674 160,017 1°588 "794
1:25 140° 3’) 110° 39’ 120,513 130,629 158,747 1°563 “800
1:24 137° 36’ | 109° 20’ 119,548 129,584 157,477 1-538 “806
1:23 135° 17’ | 108° 2’ 118,584 128,539 156,207 1-513 *813
1:22 133° 4'| 106° 45’ | 117,620 | 127,494 | 154,937 | 1-488 | -820
1°21 130° 57’ | 105° 30’ 116,656 126,449 153,668 1°464 826
1:20 128° 55’ | 104° 15’ 115, 692 125,404 152,397 1°440 833
1:19 126° 58’ | 108° 2’ 114,728 124,359 151,128 1°416 840
1:18 125° 3’} 101° 50’ 113,764 123,314 149,857 1°392 847
1:17 123° 13’ | 100° 38’ 112,799 122,269 148,588 1°369 *855
1:16 IBS BX" || IV BS) 111,835 121,224 147,317 1°346 *862
1:15 119° 41'| 98° 20’ 110,872 120,179 146,048 1°323 *870
1:14 118° Sigel 109,907 119,134 144,777 1-300 *877
1:13 116° 20’| 96° 2’ 108,943 118,089 143,508 1-277 885
1:12 114° 44’| 94° 55’ 107,979 117,044 142, 237 1°254 893
1-11 IB? BY | GR aly? 107,015 115,999 140,968 1°232 “901
1:10 111° 36’ 92° 43’ 106,051 114,954 139,698 1:210 “909
1:09 IO? Gy BIS Bays 105,087 113,909 138 , 428 1-188 “917
1:08 108° 36’| 90° 34’ 104,123 112, 864 137,158 1-166 “926
1:07 107° 8'}| 89° 80’ 103,159 111,819 135,888 1:145 985,
1:06 105° 42’ | 88° 27’ 102,195 110,774 134,618 1-124 943
1:05 104° 16’}| 87° 24’ 101,231 109,729 133,348 1-103 952
1:04 102° 53’| 86° 21’ 100,266 108, 684 132,078 1:082 962
1:03 101° 30’| 85° 19’ 99,302 107,639 130,808 1-061 ‘971
1:02 100° 10’| 84° 18’ 98,338 | 106,593 | 129,538 | 1:040 | -980
1:01 20 98° 50’| 83° 17’ 97,374 105,548 128, 268 1-020 -990
1:00 180° 0’ Sieeoilual ee 2oe lie 96,410 104,503 126,998 1:000 | 1:000
0:99 163° 48’ 96° 12’| 81° 17’ 95,446 103,458 125,728 “980 | 1:°010
0:98 asf? 94° 56’| 80° 17’ 94,482 102,413 124,458 960 | 1 020
0:97 151° 52’ 93° 40’ | 79° 18’ 93,518 101,368 123,188 . “941 1:0381
0:96 147° 29’ 92° 247) 78° 20! 92,554 100,323 121,918 °922 | 1°042
0:95 143° 36’ 91° 10’ | 77° 227 91,590 99,278 120,648 *903 | 1-053
0:94 140° 6’ 89° 56’| 76° 24’ 90,625 98 , 233 119,378 "884 | 1°064
0:93 136° 52’ 88° 44’| 75° 27’ 89,661 97,188 118,108 “869 1:°075
0:92 133° 51’ 87° 82'| 74° 30’ 88, 697 96,143 116,838 *846 | 1 087
0:91 131° 0’ 86° 20'| 73° 33’ 87,733 95,098 115,568 *828 1°099
SD
The Limits of Resolution in the Microscope. By F. Crisp. 973
Limit of Resolving Power, in Lines to an Inch.
Corresponding Angle (2 w) for Pens
| ; Nluminating} trating
Monochromatic
Air Water OUI CHEDIES White Light. Light. Photography. Hower: Powers
Immersion } (, — 9-5269 w, | (A = 074861 px, | (A= 0°4000 yp, oS ( )
Gy—2-00). | G—=1-33). | (2 =1°52). Line E.) Line F.) near Line h.)
0°50
2O00000000000000000000
CET STs
KSASSRASSSSRKSSSSERSS
128°
125°
LPR
120°
118°
116°
114°
112°
110°
108°
106°
104°
102°
100°
98°
a
95°
93°
92°
90°
8s°
87°
85
84°
82°
“2 lose
79°
78°
iso? 3
Wor.
Fie
TE
ip?
69°
68°
66°
65°
64°
62°
61°
19’
45’
1G’
Nay
38’
2
iy fg
2!
10’
10’
16’
85°
g4°
82°
81°
80°
79°
78°
Wie
76°
won
73°
72°
Fake
70°
69°
68°
S75
66°
65°
64°
63°
62°
61°
60°
59°
58°
SY
56°
55°
54°
FA
cee
De
50°
49°
49°
47°
46°
46°
45°
44°
fae
pfs
70°
69°
68°
68°
67°
66°
65
64°
63°
62°
61°
60°
60°
5g°
58°
a7°
BGO
55°
54°
53°
Dae
92°
31°
50°
94,053
93,008
91,963
90,918
89,873
88,828
87,783
86,738
85,693
84,648
83,603
82,558
81,513
80,468
79,423
78,378
Tanase
76,288
75 ,242
74,197
73,152
72,107
71,062
70,017
68,972
67,927
66,882
65,837
64,792
63,747
62,702
61,657
60,612
59,567
58,522
57,477
56,432
55,387
54,342
53,297
§2,,252
50,162
48,072
47 ,026
45,981
43,891
41,801
89,711
37,621
36,576
35,531
33,441
81,351
29,261
27,174
26,126
25,081
114,298
113,028
111,758
110,488
109,218
107,948
106,678
105,408
104,138
102,868
101,598
100,328
99,058
97,788
96,518
95,248
93,979
92,709
91,4389
90,169
88,899
87,629
86,359
85,089
83,819
82,549
81,279
80,009
78,739
77,469
76,199
74,929
73,659
72,389
71,119
69,849
68,579
67,309
66,039
64,769
63,499
60,959
58,419
57,149
55,879
53,339
50,799
48,259
45,719
44,449
43,179
40,639
38,099
85,559
33,019
31,749
80,479
27,940
25,400
19,050
12,700
6,350
974 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
SUMMARY
OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY
(principally Invertebrata and Oryptogamia),
MICROSCOPY, &c.,
INCLUDING ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.*
ZOOLOGY.
A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology
of the Vertebrata.
Development of Sexuality.;—As the result of observations on
the development of the sex-glands in the higher vertebrates, and
especially in birds, M. F. Laulanié seeks to establish a strict paral-
lelism between the ontogenetic and phylogenetic history. In the
chick he distinguishes three great stages in the development—
(1) a period of germiparity, (2) hermaphroditism, (8) differentiated
unisexuality, which he regards as recapitulating the great steps in
the historic evolution.
1. For the first period of germiparity from the fourth to the sixth
day the designation “sexual neutrality or indifference ” is inappro-
priate, since the “cortical ovules” of the germinal epithelium have
from the first the precise morphological significance of germs or
female elements, and in the female proceed by proliferation to form
the ovary, while in the male they degenerate.
2. In the period of hermaphroditism, beginning with the seventh
day, in the male the male elements appear in the form of reticulated
cellular strands—the future seminal tubules—arising in the medullary
or mesodermal, and not in the cortical layer: with them are associated
primordial male ovules, morphologically like the above cortical
ovules, but originating in the mesoderm, whence they are designated
‘‘ ovules medullaires.”’ At the same time, but yet distinct, there are
seen certain “ cortical ” (i. e. female) ovules persisting in the germinal
epithelium. Similarly in the ovary of the female the medullary
layer, strictly separated by a partition of connective tissue from the
oviparous layer, contains a large number of medullary (i.e. male or
* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers
noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of
this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published,
and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new
or have not been previously described in this country.
+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 393-9.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 975
mesodermal ovules) imbedded in the stroma, and particularly abundant
at the level of the hilum.
3. The above hermaphroditism is of but short duration, the cortical
or female ovules disappear from the testes by the eighth or ninth
day, and the medullary or male ovules have by the tenth day dis-
appeared from the ovary. In regard to mammals he affirms, with
some peculiarities, the same three stages of germiparity, hermaphro-
ditism, and unisexuality, alike for ontogeny and phylogeny.
Formation of Spindles in Mammalian Ova during the Dege-
neration of the Graafian Follicle.*—Dr. W. Flemming commences
his paper by a short description of the methods employed in hardening
the ovaries for histological investigation. It appears that in ova from
normal follicles there are never any caryokinetic figures in place of
the nucleus, and that, since these latter do occur in the ova of dege-
nerating follicles, the few instances where they have been described
in normal mammalian ova are probably due to some pathological
condition. It seems probable that the ova with caryokinetic figures
were in no case living ova, since they were flattened and abnormal in
shape, and the follicle itself was evidently undergoing a process of
retrogression. It is by far the most natural hypothesis that the
degeneration of the follicular epithelium is the primary process, and
that by reason of this abnormal vital processes were caused in the
ova ; the result being a premature and perhaps not typical formation
of directive-spindles.
Significance of Cell-nuclei in the Processes of Heredity.+ —
Prof. A. Kélliker reminds the reader that in his Text-book of Embryo-
logy (2nd edition, 1882) he insisted on the fact that the first nucleus
of the embryo, arising by the conjugation of a male and female
nucleus, is the sole means by which we can explain the processes of
inheritance.
The spermatozoa are first discussed, and it is pointed out that the
filament gradually grows out from the nuclei of the cells, that it is not
comparable to a cilium, inasmuch as it may be found rolled up within
its formative cells; and in many cases a number of the filaments arise
within one cell.
The author propounds the following questions, and considers the
answers to them: What portion of the spermatozoon is the fertilizer ?
What share is taken in fertilization by the germinal vesicle and the
modes of union of the spermatic and ovarian nuclei? After discussing
the opinions of various authors, the writer suggests that the removal
of certain constituents of the germinal vesicle diminishes the dis-
proportionate size of the female nucleus, so that the idioplasm of tho
two nuclei is more evenly balanced.
K6lliker is of opinion that the processes of heredity are to be
understood solely by a reference to the phenomena of reproduction :
the fertilizing organisms hand over to the fertilized a morphologically
definite substance of typical composition, the activities of which
* Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys., 1885, pp. 321-4 (2 pls.).
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss, Zool., xlii. (1885) pp. 1-46,
976 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
affect the whole form of the produce; this inheritance-substance
(idioplasm) is contained in the germinal vesicle of the ovum and in the
spermatozoon, both of which have the significance of nuclei; the first
nucleus formed by them is to be regarded as hermaphrodite ; from it
there arise all the nuclei of the complete creature in unbroken series,
and they are, therefore, representatives of both the producing organ-
isms. The special activities of the smallest particles of which they
are composed are the conditions of the multiplication-phenomena of
the cells and of their growth. The typical forms of organs and of
organisms are the consequence of definite combinations of cell-divisions
and cell-growths and these are ruled by the nuclei.
The writer discusses the chemical constitution of the nuclei, and
concludes with the aphorism that there are many cells in the organism
which are either embryonic in character, or may be regarded as
such.
Development of the Opossum.*—Having succeeded in keeping a
large number of North American opossums alive for a lengthened
period, Prof. E. Selenka obtained material for a detailed study of their
development. Reserving the main embryological results, which will
doubtless throw much light on the development of the placental
mammals, he communicates a few preliminary notes of which the
following seem the most important.
1. Spermatozoa. There are in each sperm-cell two spermatozoa
remaining long united, even within the vagina, where they at length
violently separate in consequence of the increased rapidity of their
tail-vibrations.
2. Fertilization occurs in the lower end of the oviduct five days
after copulation. Gestation lasts eight days, and then the young are
transferred to the pouch.
3. Segmentation is intermediate between partial and total. While
division is proceeding a nutritive yolk collects at the aplastic pole
of the ovum, and this, at first quite outside the ectoderm, is in three
days covered in by the adjacent ectoderm and mesoderm cells, though
never coming within the umbilical vesicle. Remains of this yolk
persist till three days before birth.
4, The ova, which exhibit a most rapid growth and development,
are at first scattered in the uterus, and on the fourth day when
fertilization has begun, they become loosely fixed to the uterine
epithelium.
5. The number of embryos varies from nine to twenty-seven, but
in the marsupium there were never more than six young opossums.
Karyokinesis in Segmentation of Axolotl Ovum. | —Prof. J.
Bellonci describes the nuclear changes in the segmentation of the
ovum of axolotl, The nucleus is at first ellipsoidal with a notch at one
side, and with a relatively small quantity of chromatin. As karyo-
kinesis begins, chromatin filaments form the familiar ball of coils ;
some achromatin threads appear within, the star-shape is then
* Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) pp. 294-5.
+ Arch. Ital. de Biol., vi. (1885) pp. 52-7 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 977
exhibited, and the looped chromatin filaments dispose themselves
parallel to the achromatin threads of the spindle and recede towards
the poles where some of them bend in a bow-shaped fashion. There
small spheroidal vesicles are formed from the chromatin, which is
not, however, spread regularly over their surface, but in minute ac-
cumulations here and there, the interspaces being probably occupied
by achromatin. These little vesicles unite and fuse to form the new
nuclei, and the active protoplasm of the cell gathers round each in a
star-like form, round which again the pigment-granules are radiately
disposed. The active protoplasm thus collected colours readily on
being treated with Schweigger-Seidel’s acid-carmine in chromo-acetic
acid preparations, the forming nuclear substance colours intensely,
the spindle only very slightly, so that Bellonci would infer some
chemical change of the nuclear substance during karyokinesis.
As the spindle is about to divide the pigment covers it, hiding and
then replacing the connecting filaments, across which a cellular plate
with an abundant deposit of pigment eventually appears. The
peculiarity of the process consists in the formation of the small
vesicles of chromatin, and probably also of achromatin, which unite
to form the two new nuclei, but this is only a slight modification of
the ordinary karyokinesis observed in the somatic cells.
Epidermic Cells of Tadpoles.*—Dr. A. Kélliker has discovered
in the tail of young frog larve, numerous epidermic cells, each with
a stiff process projecting on the exterior; the superficial flat cells of
the epidermis are so arranged as to leave a series of small holes,
through which the tips of these processes protrude. These cells
appear to be peculiar to the Anura, and were not found in any Urodeles ;
they are chiefly aggregated in the lateral line, but are found else-
where ; these cells are undoubtedly sensory and have been proved to
be connected with nerve-fibres.
Early Developmental Stages of Torpedo.t—Dr. A. Swaen finds
that in Torpedo ocellata the mesoblast arises from the front end of the
embryo from a layer of cells termed the secondary hypoblast; the
secondary hypoblast forms the upper wall of the archenteric cavity,
its lower wall consisting of the primitive hypoblast, which appears to
correspond to the “ lower layer cells ” of Balfour. The formation of the
chorda and of the mesoblast, derived as they are from the walls of the
archenteron, is similar to the mode of formation of the same structures
in Amphioxus, except that they are not hollow, and are not therefore
precisely diverticula of the archenteron.
The first traces of the vascular system are to be found in the
peripheral portion of the extra embryonal zone; they arise as
“blood-islets” in the cells of the hypoblast, but afterwards grow into
the mesoblast and become shut off from all connection with the hypo-
blast ; the hypoblastic cells form the blood-corpuscles, but the walls
of the tubes are at least partly mesoblastic.
The portion of the secondary hypoblast which remains over after
* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 439-41.
+ Bull. Acad, R. Sci. Belg., ix. (1885) pp. 385-416 (16 figs.).
978 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
the segregation of the chorda dorsalis, and of the mesoblast plates,
together with the primitive hypoblast, form the cells of the gut, and
may be termed the endoblast.
With reference to the formation of the mesoblast, it is to be noticed
that the secondary hypoblast from which it arises is composed of cells
partly hypoblastic and partly epiblastic.
Position of the Yolk-Blastopore as determined by the Size of
the Vitellus.*—Mr. J. A. Ryder, who has already shown that in the
Teleostei the portion of the point of closure of the blastoderm in
relation to the original position of the germinal disc is largely
determined by the size of the vitellus, now considers other vertebrates.
In two large yolked types—the Hlasmobranchs and the Sauroids—the
embryo is displaced in position in reference to the margin of the
blastoderm. In them the embryo is partially folded off, whereas in
other fishes and in Amphibians the embryonic axis extends back to the
point where the yolk-blastopore closes; the difference is due to the
great difference in the bulk of the yolk.
The germinal disc of Sauroids is relatively much larger than that
of Teleosteans, so that proportionally it probably does not spread
over a much larger vitelline surface in the one than in the other case ;
the two forms of closure may be distinguished as teleporous and
ateleporous. “The ova of the two extremes of the vertebrate series—
Branchiostoma and Mammalia—are yolkless, except those of the
Monotremata, which are probably ateleporous”—the band of tissue
from the vitelline end of the umbilical stalk to the edge of the
blastoderm-rim in Elasmobranchs, and the primitive streak in Sauroids
and mammals are probably homologous structures. The Sauroids
present other differences in the fact that the germinal wall is not
carried quite to the border of the blastoderm all round, as in the
Ichthyopsida, and this again appears to be due to the quantity of
olk.
The blastopore observed by Van Beneden in mammalian ova is
not a true blastopore; the degenerate condition of the yolk of these
eggs may probably be due to the development of the so-called uterine
milk, by which the egg is nourished before the foetal vessels are
developed.
On the other hand, viviparity has not affected the development
of the yolk in Teleosteans, and it seems to be quite conceivable that
the mammalian vitellus, like the ambulatory or prehensile organs of
parasitic organisms, may have been atrophied in consequence of the
perfectly parasitic connection which obtains temporarily between the
maternal organism and the embryo.
Development of Viviparous Osseous Fishes.t—Mr. J. A. Ryder
gives a lengthy summary of our knowledge respecting the best known
of the truly viviparous osseous fishes characterized by an intrafollicular
or intra-ovarian development. New observations are recorded on the
changes undergone by the embryos of the Embiotocoids during gesta-
* Amer. Naturalist, xix. (1885) pp. 411-5.
+ Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, viii. (1885) pp. 128-55 (4 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 979
tion, which relate to the development of the intestine and the vascular
supply of the median fins.
The paper is subdivided as follows:—I. Development of Anableps.
IL. Development of the Embiotocide of the Pacific coast. III. Hyper-
trophied hind-gut of Embiotocoid embryos and its subsequent dimi-
nution in relative size. IV. Intra-ovarian respiratory function of
the vertical fins of Embiotocoid fish embryos. V. Development and
intrafollicular gestation of Gambusia patruelis, concerning which a
number of points that had been left undecided have been deter-
mined :—(1) Fertilization of the egg of Gambusia occurs within the
ovarian follicle, the spermatic fluid being apparently introduced into
the ovary or abdominal cavity by the male, which is provided with
an intromittent organ consisting of the anal fin much modified, and
the spermatozoa find access to the egg through a wide opening in the
follicle which answers to a micropyle, but which may be called the
follicular pore. (2) There is no evidence, as in the case of Anableps
and the Embiotocide, that the ovarian follicles are ruptured until the
development of the young embryos is approximately completed, since
the most advanced foetuses of Gambusia studied have the scales, fins,
fin-rays, and cranium remarkably well developed, even before the
yolk is all absorbed. (38) Little or no nutriment is derived from the
parent, as in Anableps and the Embiotocide ; or, in other words, the
embryo of Gambusia grows entirely at the expense of the material
contained in the yolk-sac, and does not form villi upon the latter nor
enlarge after the yolk has been absorbed, as in Anableps; neither
does the rectum or hind-gut hypertrophy, nor do the fins expand and
develop prolongations of the interradial membranes as in the Embio-
tocide. (4) As is the case with all viviparous forms, the number of
embryos produced seems to be diminished in correlation with the
protection which the young receive in consequence of their peculiarly
complete development within the body of the parent. VI. Habits of
Gambusia during the breeding season. VII. Viviparity of Fundulus.
Origin of the Spermatozoids in the Seminiferous Canals.*—Dr.
D. Biondi has carried out some investigations with the view of throw-
ing some light on the origin of the spermatozoids in the seminiferous
canals, a question on which the views of physiologists have been
widely divergent. By appropriate use of processes of hardening,
fixing, and colouring (among which the advantages of Flemming’s
fluid are specially mentioned) Dr. Biondi arrived at results which
corroborated none of the views formerly put forth, but which ex-
plained the earlier observed facts.
In accordance with these results the author endeavoured to dis-
tribute diagrammatically the contents of the seminiferous canals into
columns, which, proceeding from the wall towards the central cavity,
might be grouped into three layers. In the first stage of develop-
ment, a stage always met with, in particular, in animals not yet
mature, the extreme layer lying on the wall of the canal consisted of
round primitive cells, which were very rich in karyokinetic figures,
* Berlin Physiol. Soc., 1885, July 31. See Nature, xxxii. (1885) p. 544.
980 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
and the third innermost layer consisted of a large number of small
round daughter-cells. Ina second stage of development observable
in mature glands, the nuclei of the daughter-cells were seen con-
verted into spermatozoids, the exterior half of the nucleus becoming
the head and the other interior half the middle part and tail of the
spermatozoon. The protoplasm of the daughter-cells took no part in
this transformation, and enveloped the bodies of the spermatozoa,
making them cohere into bundles, from which the tails of the
spermatozoa projected towards the central canal. These masses of
protoplasm enveloping the bodies of the spermatozoa resembled the
figures described by the earlier observers as “spermatoblasten.” In
this stage the above diagrammatic column consisted, from the outside
inwards, of the primitive cell, the mother-cell, and the bundle of
spermatozoa. In the next stage of development the formation of the
spermatozoa, arising always in the same manner from the nucleus of
the daughter-cells, was pushed farther outwards, so that the column
now consisted of but one large round cell on the outside and bundles
of spermatozoa on the inside. The formation of the seminal cor-
puscles advanced still farther, and at last the whole column, as far as
the wall of the canal, consisted of spermatozoa, the bodies of which
were agglutinated into bundles by masses of protoplasm, their tails
being directed inwards. Primitive cells out of neighbouring columns
now intercalated themselves between the wall of the canal and the
spermatozoa, pushing the latter towards the middle. By the develop-
ment of the mother- and daughter-cells the spermatozoa were pressed
and discharged into the central canal. The process thus described
then began anew.
Dr. Biondi examined this structure of the seminiferous canals,
and development of the spermatozoids in the bull, the swine, the cat,
the rabbit, the guinea-pig, the rat, and other mammalia; and in all
these cases he had found the same results.
Wandering Cells in Epithelium.*—The presence of wandering:
leucocytes in epithelium, shown by Stdhr to be normal in the case of
the follicular glands and tonsils, and also observed by Bockendahl in
the trachea, has been noted by Dr. J. H. List in three instances where
it is apparently constant and normal. (1) In the epithelium of the
barbules and upper lip of Cobitis fossilis he observed the abundant
occurrence of leucocytes in all the layers from the connective tissue
of the corium outwards, even to the surface. They lay sometimes in
numbers in small dilated cavities, but were found usually between the
epithelial cells, and the thin extended nucleus observed in many of
them would seem to be the result of the migration outwards between
the cells. (2) In the epithelial layers of the ordinary epidermis of
Cobitis fossilis the leucocytes occurred abundantly between the epi-
thelial cells or between them and the frequent club-shaped cells.
(3) In the cloacal epithelium of Elasmobranchs (Torpedo marmorata,
Raja miraletus, Squatina vulgaris, &c.) List observed the migratory
corpuscles from the mucosa, where they were heaped up, through the
* Arch, f. Mikr. Anat., xxv. (1885) pp. 264-8 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 981
lower epithelial layers, where they were most abundant, even to the
surface, where they seem to form mucous corpuscles. In shape, both
of leucocyte and nucleus, there was evidence of the influence of the
pressure to which they were subjected in their migration between the
epithelial cells, and the quaint shapes of the nuclei may possibly, he
suggests, in some cases betoken direct division.
Comparative Histochemical Observations on Glycogen.*—Dr.
D. Barfurth believes that the origination of glycogen from breaking-
down albuminoids or from still more complicated substances is
rendered probable not only by the feeding experiments of various
physiologists, but also by the following facts :—
1. Glycogen is found in all classes of animals and in all kinds of
tissues; this shows that it is a normal product of the metabolism of
the cell.
2. It is widely distributed and largely stored up in feetal tissues.
3. Hairs of a tuft may differ in size and growth, and those that
are best grown are richest in glycogen.
4 & 5. The presence of glycogen in cartilage and in secreting
glands is animadverted on.
6. It appears to have some relation to muscular force.
B. INVERTEBRATA.
Phosphorescence of Marine Animals.;—Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh
deals with this subject in his address to the Section of Biology of
the British Association, and gives an historical and descriptive
summary of the various animals in which phosphorescence occurs,
followed by some general remarks.
The causation of phosphorescence is complex. In one group it
is due to the production of a substance which can be left behind as a
luminous trail, clearly pointing to other causes than nervous agency ;
in certain Annelids, on the other hand, it is purely a nervous action,
probably resembling that which gives rise to heat.
As to the purposes of this provision, which by some has been
connected with the special economy of the deep sea, it is to be noted
that phosphorescent animals do not appear to be more abundant in
the depths of the sea than between tide-marks or on the surface,
the latter perhaps presenting the maximum development of those
exhibiting this phenomenon. Very many of the young that have
been indicated as so brilliantly luminous become surface-forms soon
after leaving the egg, and thus at their several stages more or less
affect the three regions of surface, mid-water, and bottom.
A survey of the life-histories of the several phosphorescent groups
affords at present no reliable data for the foundation of a theory as to
the functions of luminosity, especially in relation to food. No phos-
phorescent form is more generally devoured by fishes and other
animals than that which is not, and, on the other hand, the possessor
* Arch. f. Mikr. Anaés., xxv. (1885) pp. 261-404 (4 pls.).
+ Nature, xxxii. (1885) pp. 476-81.
Ser. 2.—Vo.. V. 38
982 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
of luminosity, if otherwise palatable, does not seem to escape capture.
An examination of the stomachs of fishes makes this clear, except
perhaps in the case of the herring, which, however, is chiefly a surface
fish. Further, it is not evident that such animals are luminous at
all times, for it is only under stimulation that many exhibit the
phenomenon.
Moreover, the irregularity of its occurrence in animals possessing
the same structure and habits in every respect strengthens the view
just expressed. Thus, while Pholas dactylus has been known from
the days of Pliny to be iuminous, the common Pholas crispata is not
so endowed. ‘Two Annelids abound between tide-marks (Harmothoé
imbricata and Polynoé floccosa), and closely resemble each other in
habits and appearance; yet one is brightly luminous, while the other
shows no trace. Instead of luring animals for prey, or affording
facilities for being easily preyed upon, the possessors of phospho-
rescence in the Annelids are often the inhabitants of tubes, or are
commensalistic on star-fishes. Indeed, every variety of condition
accompanies the presence of phosphorescence in the several groups,
so that the greatest care is necessary in making deductions, especially
if these are to have a wide application.
“Latent period”’ of unstriped Muscle in Invertebrates.*—By a
series of experiments on a large number of animals, M. H. de Varigny
has shown that a very short “latent period” is not uncommon. The
length of the period varies (1) with the intensity of the current, (2) with
the mode of excitation, neural, direct, or ganglionic, (3) with the weight
lifted by the muscle, and (4) with a number of conditions of tempera-
ture, degree of fatigue, lapse of time since isolation, &c., which are
familiarly known to affect the length of the “latent period ” of striped
muscle. In the more perfect unstriped muscle of the higher groups,
e.g. Cephalopoda, the length of the “latent period” is shorter, the
duration of contraction also decreases, and the number of excitations
required to produce tetanus is of course greater. His interesting
research goes to show that there are among the invertebrates un-
striped muscles, comparable to the unstriped muscles of vertebrate
intestine, stomach, lung, ureter, &c., in length of “latent period,”
“duration of contraction,” and production of tetanus; and further
that in Cephalopoda and Vermes there are unstriped muscles similarly
comparable to vertebrate striped muscle. All degrees of efficiency
may be observed in the invertebrate unstriped muscle from the very
lowest to an equality with striped muscle, so that to explain the
physiological differences between them, as due to their diverse histo-
logical structure, is inadmissible, simply because the former may
altogether disappear.
Symbiosis of Worms and Sea-Anemones.{—Mr. W. A. Haswell
last year described a new and remarkable species of Phoronis which
inhabited channels in the substance of a wide tube about 6 in. long,
formed of felted threads, and having a smooth interior, the heads of
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 570-2.
+ Proc, Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, ix. (1885) pp. 1019-21.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 983
the Gephyreans projecting externally. The tube when first discovered
was quite empty, and the object of it was unexplained. Recently, how-
ever, it has been found that the inhabitant of the cavity of the tube
in the substance of which the Phoronis grows is a large sea-anemone,
of the genus Cerianthus. The tube in which the anemone dwells is
not formed by it alone, but partly by the Phoronis, as is proved by
an examination of the texture of the tube.
We have thus a very remarkable instance of mutual co-operation
in two animals belonging to widely different classes. ‘lhe advantage
derived by the Gephyreans from association with one of the Actinida
is dependent on the power of the Jatter of killing small organisms by
its thread-cells, a plentiful supply of food being thus provided both
for the anemone itself and the colony of Phoronis, common enemies
being at the same time warded off. In return for this the Phoronis
helps to build and to strengthen the protecting case in which the
Cerianthus lives.
Thompson's Bibliography of Protozoa, Sponges, Coelenterata,
Worms, and Molluscoida.*—Carus and Engelmann’s ‘ Bibliotheca
Zoologica’ ends with the year 1860, since which time no attempt has
been made to provide a list of the books and papers on Invertebrates,
and workers have been obliged to search through the yearly volumes
of the ‘ Zoological Record.’ Prof. D’Arey W. Thompson has therefore
collected the titles of the books and papers published from 1861 to
the end of 1883, relating to the above classes of Invertebrates.
The book will be very useful to naturalists, and it is to be regretted
that there appears to be no prospect of extending it to the remain-
ing classes or to Vertebrates.
Mollusca.
Fecundation in Cephalopoda.tj—M. L. Vialleton has observed
that in the female Sepia the spermatophores are not identical with
those that are found in the male, but have the form of elongated flasks,
the contents of which escape by the open necks; they are chiefly to
be found in the ventral half of the buccal membrane, and especially
near the two ventral lobes. A little below the top of each of these
there is a pit, which is the opening of an elongated gland, formed by
a longitudinal canal round which are inserted acini, filled with a
whitish fluid. This fluid is composed of spermatozoa in a colourless
fluid. The glands are to be regarded as copulatory pouches.
In Loligo subulata the author has been able to observe the
spermatozoa being guided by the folds of mucous membrane and
making their own way into the pouch; in L. vulgaris, females have
been often seen, after having expelled their ova by the funnel, to
retain them between their two ventral arms in front of the mouth, and
it is possible that they then voluntarily fertilize them with the
* Thompson, D’A, W.,‘A Bibliography of Protozoa, Sponges, Coelenterata,
and Worms, including also the Polyzoa, Brachiopoda, and Tunicata, for the years
1861-83,’ viii. and 284 pp., 8vo, Cambridge, 1885.
+ Comptes Rendus, ci, (1885) pp. 619-21.
3.8 2
984 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
spermatozoa from their copulatory pouch. Fecundation, in fact, is
effected by a special adaptation of a lobe of the buccal membrane,
which is nothing else than a rudimentary arm.
Loligopsis and Allied Genera.*—Mr. W. E. Hoyle comes to the
conclusion that the genus Loligopsis admits of no adequate diagnosis,
and must therefore be used for the type species only—L. peronii of
Lamarck. Synonymous with the generic name Taonius given by
Steenstrup are Desmoteuthis of Verrill, Procalistes of Lankester, and
Phasmotopsis of de Rochebrune, and in it are to be placed T. pavo and
T. hyperboreus which some naturalists have assigned to Loligopsis. A
definition of this genus, as of Leachia, is given in terms which will
satisfy the requirements of modern zoologists.
The term “ Verrill’s organ” is applied to an apparatus found in
all but one species of Taonius; it consists of two pads lying within
the funnel, near its base, and a little posterior to them in the middle
line there are one or two tubercles. Loligopsis chrysophthalmes and
L. zygzena are two small Cephalopods of uncertain generic position,
and it seems to be doubtful whether we shall ever know enough about
them to give them a definite allocation.
Distribution of Chitin.f —Dr. C.F. W. Krukenberg has investigated
the presence of chitin in the Cephalopoda, &e. In Sepiola rondeleti, as
in Octopus, Eledone, Sepia, and Loligo, it is only present in the jaws.
In Spirula the septa of the shell and the siphon are chitinous, while the
general covering of the shell contains but little of this substance.
No chitin could be found in the shell of Argonauta, while that of
Nautilus contained plenty, though there was no such specialization in
chemical structure of the different regions of the shell as in Spirula.
The Brachiopoda contain abundant chitin; in Lingula anatina, not
merely the shell but the stalk are largely composed of chitin.
Among the Lamellibranchiata the shell of Mytilus edulis appears to
contain no chitin, and indeed this order, as well as the Gastropoda,
are characterized by the absence of chitin.
New Cephalopoda.t—Mr. W. E. Hoyle continues his diagnosis
of the new species of Cephalopods collected by the ‘ Challenger,’ some
of which are represented by one example only, and have not always
been completely dissected. The two new genera Promachoteuthis and
Histiopsis have been already indicated in the ‘Narrative’ of the
‘Challenger’ Expedition; there is a new subgenus of Sepia—
Metasepia.
Anatomy of Dentalium.§—Prof. H. de Lacaze-Duthiers referring
to Prof. Fol’s inability to find the efferent canal for the genital products
which the former had described, describes the method of preparation
by which this canal, which is very difficult to detect, can be made out.
He fully understands that the apparatus is one which may be very
easily overlooked. Prof. Fol had employed the method of sections,
* Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edin., 1885, pp. 313-33.
+ Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 412-5.
{ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1885) pp. 181-203
§ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 296-300.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 985
“Ts it, therefore, necessary to admit that that which a section does not
show does not exist? is this not exaggeration? for often, very often,
it is very difficult, if not impossible, to light on certain special points
of an organ which one is cutting, and consequently to see arrange-
ments which may escape the razor, but which do not the less exist.”
Prof. de Lacaze-Duthiers justifies the term of Solenoconchs which
he has proposed for the group of which Dentalium is the representative,
and objects to those of Scaphopoda and Cirribranchiata which are
based on erroneous views.
Anatomy of Fissurella.*—M. L. Boutan communicates the results
of an anatomical investigation of the alimentary canal, the organ of
Bojanus, and the reproductive organs of this Gastropod.
(a) The alimentary canal agrees with that of Haliotis in having an
anterior mouth with two “jaws” and a radula, an cesophagus with
voluminous lateral diverticula, a stomach with three distinct regions,
a lining of cilia throughout, except on the stomach walls, and a rectum
traversing the heart and opening on the dorsal surface between the
gills. There are, however, only two radular cartilages instead of
fuur, the two first cesophageal diverticula are absent, and the other
two, which were always empty and provided with well-developed
double valves and with internal ramified glands of great delicacy,
seem to be purely digestive in function, and incapable of affording
lodgment for the food. The anus lies on the median line on a level
with the opening of the organ of Bojanus; the liver has two lobes
united on the ventral surface of the stomach and discharges its pro-
ducts by several orifices into the first stomachie region; the salivary
glands are arborescent tubes, and there are two other organs in the
mouth also with ciliated cells and probably representing an anterior
pair of salivary glands.
(b) The organ of Bojanus is median in position, with a larger
right lobe. Anteriorly and dorsally it adheres to the floor of the
branchial cavity and extends almost to the cesophageal diverticula.
In its median portion it divides into two lobes, following the contour
of the pericardium, covering the dorsal surface of the liver, while its
inferior right portion extends to the level of the genital gland. It
opens along with the generative organs to the right of the anus. A
single layer of large cubical cells, with very large nuclei and with
yellowish granules, lines the various cavities of the gland.
(c) The reproductive organs.—The crescentic sac of the ovary lies
inferiorly, with a superior surface intimately embracing the liver, and
resting laterally on the foot and epipodium. ‘The essential portion
consists of stalked cells, each forming an ovum, and originating on the
wall of the gland not in contact with the liver. From the right side
of the ovary a loose delicate duct leads to the common excretory and
generative aperture. On the wall of this oviduct a whitish albumen
gland with large ciliated cells is readily distinguished. In the mature
state the two sides of the ovary have increased greatly in size,
ascending each side of the body, compressing the liver and ali-
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 388-91.
986 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
mentary canal, and reaching up to the level of the esophagus. The
male organs exhibit the same plan.
(d) The ova are small and black, issuing at the anterior end of the .
branchial cavity, and deposited (in Fiss. reticulata at least) by aid of
undulatory movements of the foot, in a single layer on flat stones, &c.,
to which the enveloping glairy substance causes them to adhere.
There is no copulation, the spermatozoa issue in whitish jets from
the apical aperture, and the ova are fertilized after they are laid. An
account of their development is reserved.
Respiration of Truncatella.*—In order to settle the disputed
question of the mode of respiration in this minute mollusc, M. A.
Vayssiére examined a number of specimens of Truncatella truncatula,
and discovered a distinct gill with twelve to fifteen triangular ciliated
lamella, lying attached to the roof of a dorsal respiratory cavity.
The gill lies transversely to the longitudinal body-axis, the lamelle
admit of separate movement, and as the water stored within the
respiratory sac can only evaporate slightly in the moist environment
of Truncatella, the animal may remain for a considerable time without
renewing its supply. M. Vayssiére has also investigated the complete
anatomy of this mollusc, of which the largest specimens hardly attain
the size of 4mm., but his research has not discovered any notable
peculiarity of organization.
Spawning of Fulgur perversus.{—Mr. J. Willcox describes the
spawning of Fulgur perversus, which takes place in the month of
March. When the mollusc is about to spawn, it first descends into
the sand deeply, and attaches the egg-case to a bivalve shell. As the
process of extrusion permits, it ascends until its siphon reaches the
surface of the sand. In this position it remains until the spawning is
complete. During the process of formation the egg-case is forced
upward, appearing in the form of a loop above the sand, though no
portion of the parent is then visible. When completed, one end of
the string of egg-cases floats freely in the water. As only four or five
of the egg-cells are found in the body of the parent at one time, in
the process of formation, it is presumed that the whole series of cases
requires a long time in its development.
Glycogen in “ Vesicular Cells” of Molluscs.{—One of the results
of Mr. E. R. Blundstone’s investigation of the connective-tissue and
vascular system of Mollusca is the demonstration of glycogen in those
cells of the connective tissue which Lankester described as “vesicular.”
The connective tissue is either composed of irregular cells joined by
the tips of their processes, or of still more irregular cells formed into
lamellae by being imbedded in a thin film of intercellular ectoplasm,
from which, however, some (“vesicular”) cells of enormous size
project into the blood. In these cells as obtained from the simplest
regions of the mantle of Anodon, or as readily observed by -spreading
out the “mesentery ” of Helix, glycogen was not only extracted, but
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 575-7.
+ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1885, pp. 119-20.
¢ Proc. Roy. Suc., xxxviii. (1885) pp. 442-9.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 987
was localized in the individual cells by staining with iodine solution.
The vesicles are very large, round or oval cells, and it is the meta-
plasm, and not the protoplasm or nucleus which is stained. They are
especially associated with the arteries of Molluscs, and the author
maintains the probability of their wide Invertebrate distribution.
As to their theoretic import, Mr. Blundstone points out (1) that
if the lacunar system of molluscs is partly enteroccelous, the presence
on the lacunar walls of the vesicular glycogenous cells is interesting,
since glandular surfaces seem specially characteristic of ectoderm
and endoderm; (2) that since the specific gravity and nutritive quality
of the blood could be maintained by the discharge of the glycogenous
vesicles, a great objection against water inception by molluscs is
removed ; (3) that here one of the characteristic functions of the
vertebrate liver is readily discharged by widely distributed individual
cells.
Molluscoida.
a. Tunicata.
Eggs of Ascidians.*—M. A. Sabatier finds that the ovary of
Ascidians is primitively composed of an agglomeration of mesodermal
nuclei united by a small quantity of clear intermediate substance ; it
has, therefore, the constitution and characters of an embryonic con-
nective tissue in which the “ protoplasmic atmospheres” are not dis-
tinctly limited. In adults this structure is found in those portions of
the ovary in which there is a fresh formation of ova. The ova arise
from corpuscles of this embryonic connective tissue; and these, in
which are developed one or two granulations which become nucleoli,
form the nuclei of the ova. Around the nucleus a transparent colour-
less layer of protoplasm becomes set, and the egg is completed.
Around the egg there is formed a very delicate primary membrane
which appears to belong to the intermediate substance of the con-
nective tissue of the ovary; it forms the amorphous capsular mem-
brane. Below this membrane, and on the surface of the yolk, there
appear follicular elements which become the follicular cells. They
are not of foreign origin, but are formed in the yolk itself and elimi-
nated by it; they become individual cells by each acquiring nucleus,
granulations, and limiting membrane; as they multiply they form
a continuous layer round the egg; they may remain stationary or
grow considerably, when they project from the surface of the egg.
Below them, and at their expense, a second membrane is formed ;
this subcapsular membrane becomes more or less thick; in some
cases the follicular cells remain flattened, become hardened, and so
form a thick structureless envelope. The so-called testa-cells, or
granular cells, represent an eliminated element; they are imperfectly
developed, and may be called celluloid globules. ‘I'he intravitelline
corpuscles are masses of clear finely granular protoplasm which are
formed by concentration within the yolk, and, by passing towards
the surface, are at first follicular and afterwards granular cells.
* Mem, Acad. Sci. Montpellier, x. (1885) pp. 429-80 (4 pls.).
988 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.
Influence of Magnetism upon Insect Development.*—Mr. J. W.
Slater in view of the experiments | showing that the eggs of fowls are
not normally developed if subjected to magnetic currents during
incubation, tried the effect of magnetic action upon the development
of caterpillars. Having found six caterpillars of the common large
cabbage white, all evidently of the same brood, three of them were
put in a box, 5 in. in length, between the opposite poles of two bar-
magnets. The other three were placed in a similar box at such a
distance that they could not be affected by the magnets. Both boxes
were placed under exactly identical conditions as regards light, heat,
and supply of food. Two of those between the magnets shrivelled
up and died without passing into the pupa-state. Thinking they
might have been attacked by some parasite, the author removed them
into another box and kept them for some time. As no ichneumons
or other parasites made their appearance he dissected the bodies
carefully under the Microscope, and found no traces of parasitic
injury.
: The remaining caterpillar, and all the three which were not
exposed to the magnets, became pup in due course and came out in
May. The non-magnetized ones were perfectly normal and healthy,
and when released after examination flew away ; but the survivor of
the magnetized set was a cripple. It had merely rudimentary stumps
in place of antenne, the wings on the left side were expanded, and
the legs on the same side were smaller than those on the right side.
Flight of Insects.t—Dr. R. v. Lendenfeld some years ago opposed §
the theory of Marey that the changes in the shape of the wing during
flight were caused by the mechanical action of the resisting air
without any muscular action of the insect itself coming into play.
This view having been recently contested by some physiologists, the
author has made some observations which are well adapted, he thinks,
to prove the fallacy of the mechanical theory.
When at rest the wings of Diptera are more or less askew. When
a fly is immersed in turpentine it is immediately made insensible, and
lies motionless. Tetanic movements, after a short time, cause slight
movements of the legs; and then the wings, although remaining in the
same position relative to the body, turn their face round in such a
manner that they firstly become quite flat and then askew in the
opposite direction to the original position. This movement is slow,
and can easily be observed. When the fly is dead the wings collapse
again, and return to their ordinary shape.
The same movement for which a mechanical action of the resist-
ance of the air is considered the sole cause, is here executed in a
manner which precludes the possibility of such a cause.
* Trans. Entomol. Soc. Lond., 1885.—Proc., p. xy.
+ See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 861.
t Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, ix. (1885) pp. 986-7.
§ See this Journal, ii. (1882) p. 184.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 989
Foot-glands of Insects.*—In a careful research Herr J. Dahl
discusses the interesting problem of the climbing of insects on smooth
surfaces, and reports the varied arrangement of foot-glands, hairs, &c.,
in different groups. Among beetles (e.g. Saperda) the attaching
hairs are seen to be but slightly modified chitinous hairs expanded at
the lower end. Interiorly the hollow hair-tube is filled with a very
spongy chitinous mass, which is limited at the expanded end by an
extremely fine membrane. The upper surface of the terminal expansion
is very generally beset with small hairs or warts, and the occurrence
of a single wart is apt to be mistaken for an opening. Even the
much modified sexual suckers of male Carabide, Dytiscidzx, &c., are
shown by transitional series and even by the minute homologies of
their structure to be nothing more than ordinary chitinous hairs,
variously modified and strengthened by the occurrence of internal
rods and external folds or knobs.
In connection with the attaching hairs there are marked cells
productive of a secretion different from the blood; these cells form
the foot-glands. Between each hair and the gland which supplies it,
there runs a canal which enlarges slightly just at the root of the hair
and divides into as many (2—4) branches as there are supplying cells.
Besides the cells furnishing the attaching secretion of the hairs, there
are in the Coleoptera abundant skin-glands present all over the body
as well as on the feet. They are probably analogous to sebaceous
glands, and unlike the former open directly to the exterior between
the hairs. The attaching glands originate from connective tissue
cells with the exception of the copulatory suckers of some Coleoptera,
which seem to arise from the matrix. Besides the (1) glands or
foot- glands proper and the (2) skin-glands, a third kind of glandular
cell is frequently present, e.g. in Feronia. These occur towards the
upper surface of the foot imbedded in the matrix, and have no canal.
In the other orders of insects the foot-glands are all formed from
the modified matrix. The whole of the modified portion forms to a
certain extent a single gland instead of each cell acting independently.
In the Orthoptera the gland lies on the sole of the foot, which thus
acts as attaching organ; in the Diptera it lies in two special attaching
lappets; in the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera it lies above the claw-
bending sinew in the last joint of the foot, while the attaching organ
has the form of a lappet between the claws.
As regards the actual physical process, Dahl maintains (1) that
an adhesive fluid is exuded from the glands; (2) that this is
different from the blood, containing probably a larger proportion of
fatty stuff; (3) that the attaching hairs have delicate, soft-skinned
ends ; (4) that the quantity of fluid between the end of the hair and
the smooth surface to be climbed on is generally very slight; (5) that
while there is also adhesion and cohesion the chief process may be
best described as capillary attraction.
Morphology of the Mouth-organs of Hymenoptera.t — M. J.
Chatin comes to the conclusion that, even if the gnathites of the
* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxv. (1885) pp. 236-63 (2 pls.).
+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 259-61.
990 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Hymenoptera sometimes differ very markedly from those of other
mandibulate insects, there are many points of close affinity. The
changes undergone by the organ ought to be principally regarded as
due to the more and more close union which is to be observed between
the galea and the intermaxillary.
Homing Faculty of Hymenoptera.—Sir J. Lubbock, in an article*
on the habits of ants, bees, and wasps, discusses the question whether
they find their way home merely by their knowledge of land-marks,
or by means of some mysterious faculty usually termed a “ sense of
direction.” The ordinary impression appears to be that they do so in
virtue of some such sense, and are therefore independent of any
special knowledge of the district in which they may be suddenly
liberated; a view apparently corroborated by the experiments of
M. Fabre. The conclusions drawn from these experiments, however,
appear to Sir John unwarranted by the facts.
Dr. G. J. Romanes{ has repeated the experiments with certain
variations, and in the result is satisfied that the bees depend entirely
upon their special knowledge of district or land-marks, thus fully
corroborating those which were made by Sir John. JBees from
a hive kept at a house some hundred yards from the coast were
liberated at sea, on the shore, and on the lawn between the shore and
the house, but none returned. Those liberated in different parts
of the garden did return, though many of them had to fly a greater
distance to reach the hive than was the case with those liberated on
the lawn.
Insects as Fertilizers.t—Herr E. Low publishes the result of a
long series of observations on the visits of bees and humble-bees to
flowers in the botanic garden at Berlin ; classifying them, according
to their constancy or otherwise in the species they visit, as monotropic,
oligotropic, and polytropic. He considers that H. Miiller lays too
exclusive stress on the length of the proboscis as determining the
species visited by bees ; several other factors also come into play.
Unusual number of Legs in the Caterpillar of Lagoa.§—Dr. A.
S. Packard calls attention to the unusual number of legs in the cater-
pillar of Lagoa. The first abdominal s gment is footless ; the second
bears rudimentary feet; segments three to six bear normal “prop
legs”; the seventh bears a pair of rudimentary legs; segments
eight and nine are footless, while the tenth bears the fully developed
anal or fifth pair of genuine prop legs. While the two pairs of
rudimentary legs, which form soft tubercles, differ from the normal
legs in being much smaller and without a crown of curved spines,
they are protruded and actively engaged in locomotion, and in situ-
ation as well as the presence of basal tufts are truly homologous with
the normal abdominal legs.
In the embryo of Sphinx there are ten abdominal legs, of which
one-half disappear before hatching, leaving the five pairs usually
* Contemporary Review, 1885, November, 14 pp.
+ Nature, xxxii. (1885) p. 630.
+ Jahrb. K. Bot. Gart. Berlin, iii. (1884). See Journal of Science, vii. (1885)
p. 543. § Amer. Naturalist, xix. (1885) pp. 714-5 (1 fig.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 991
present, and it seems that the two pairs of rudimentary legs in Lagoa
are survivals of these embryonic temporary feet. Although the
prop legs are not popularly regarded as true legs, they are un-
doubtedly so, as embryology proves. In the lower Noctuide, such
as Catocala, Aletia, &c., the larve are at first geometriform, having
but three pairs of prop legs; in the Geometrids there are but two
pairs, while in the Cochlidie there are not even any rudimentary
feet, thoracic or abdominal. The primitive lepidopterous larva must
have had a pair of feet on each abdominal segment, and may have
descended from Neuroptera-like forms allied to the Pano-pide as
well as Trichoptera.
Orientation of the Embryo and Formation of the Cocoon of Peri-
planeta orientalis.*—M. P. Hallez understands by the “ orientation
of the embryo ” the exact determination of the relations which exist
between the organic axis of the egg, the principal axis of the embryo,
and that of the maternal organism. He finds that the egg falls into
the genital armature with its caudal pole inferior; this pole is that
which is opposite to the line of dehiscence in the cocoon. From this
it follows that the organic axis of the egg is the same as the principal
axis of the embryo, and that it has the same orientation as the mother,
for its anterior pole corresponds to the head of the embryo, and the
opposite pole to its caudal extremity. The author thinks that we
may agree to his general conclusion that every histological element
possesses the two polarities of the animal, polarities which would
persist in the egg-cell after it has ceased to be part of the maternal
tissues.
Physiology of the Alimentary Canal of Blatta periplaneta.t—
Dr. A. B. Griffiths finds that the secretion of the salivary glands is
alkaline to test-paper, and has the power of transforming starch into
dextrose sugar but has not the power of dissolving albumen. Further,
the secretion gave indications of sulphocyanates and calcium, showing
that it resembles to a certain extent that of the salivary glands of the
Vertebrata.
The secretion of the chylific ventriculus is slightly acid, due to
the presence of hydrochloric acid. It also contains a substance which
has the power of dissolving albuminous substances, such as white of
egg, casein, fibrin, &c., producing turbid solutions which are like the
peptones produced by the secretions of the stomachs of the higher
animals. This substance, from its various reactions, is similar to
pepsin. The investigation proves that the chilific ventriculus is a
true stomach.
The secretions of the Malpighian glands contain uric acid and
urea, as crystals of both substances were extracted from the glinds,
as from Astacus and Anodonta.
Uses and Construction of the Gizzard of Larve of Corethra
plumicornis.{—Mr. T. B. Rossiter describes the structure of the
anterior part of the enteric tract of the larve of Oorethra plumicornis,
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 444-6.
+ Chemical News, lii. (1885) p, 195. } Puper read 14th Oct. 1885.
992 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
and compares his accounts with those of Leydig and Weismann,
which he partly criticizes. He denies that the larva inverts its
pharynx, and cites experiments in defence of his view; he finds the
brush-like processes of the pharynx to be of use in cleansing the
oral orifice from undigested food. He makes some additions to Weis-
mann’s account of the anatomy of the stomach in describing the
leaflets, which are covered internally with minute spicules ; the action
of these organs remains to be detected; like the gizzard, they dis-
appear during the change from the larval to the pupal stage.
Structure of the Wings of Vesicating Insects.*—M. Beauregard
remarks that vesicating insects present a remarkable softness of the
elytra and of the integument in general. The explanation of this
fact is not to be found in the chemical but in the histological cha-
racters of the wings. Between the two layers, which are connected
at their edges by chitin, there is a somewhat considerable space, and
the two layers are connected by chitinous pillars, which are thin and
delicate, and merely form supports, whereas in other insects the
chitinous layers are thick, the pillars large and numerous, and the
spaces almost nil.
Larve and Larva-cases of some Australian Aphrophoride.}—
Mr. F. Ratte describes the larval state of some small species of
Rhynchota, belonging to the genus Ptyelus, nearly allied to Aphro-
phora. An examination of their larva-cases and of some of the larvee
discloses a feature probably quite new.
The cases of these insects, unlike those of insects generally, are
true shells, containing at least three-fourths of carbonate of lime,
some being helicoidal and others conical, resembling some fossil and
recent Serpulz. The conical shells are fixed on the branches (gene-
rally a little above the insertion of a leaf) of some species of
Eucalyptus, the opening turned upwards and the larva being placed
in it with the head downwards. In the helicoidal shells the insect
lies horizontally for the greater part of its larval life. In both
instances it follows that the larva instead of presenting its head at
the entrance of its shell, like a mollusc, presents its hind region.
It introduces its suctorial apparatus into the bark of the stem
and sucks the sap. For this purpose the shell is provided with a
longitudinal slit. It emits from time to time by its anus a drop of
clear water at the entrance of the shell. The lime which enters into
the composition of the shell is evidently provided from the sap of the
tree.
6. Arachnida.
Muscular and Endoskeletal Systems of Limulus and Scorpio.;—
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, with the assistance of Mr. W. B. 8. Benham
and Miss E. J. Beck, has another contribution to our knowledge of
Limulus, especially as compared with Scorpio. It was to be expected
* Journ. Soc. Scientifique, i. (1885) p. 209.
+ Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, ix. (1885) pp. 1164-9 (2 pls.).
+ Trans. Zool. Soe. Lond., xi. (1885) pp. 311-84 (12 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 993
that the muscles of the appendages of the mesosoma, which are large
in Limulus, would be almost or altogether suppressed in Scorpio. The
most remarkable agreements are to be found in the large number of
muscles attached to the prosomatic entochondrite, in certain of the
muscles attached to the pectines in Scorpio and the first gill-bearing
appendages of Limulus, and in the muscles arising from the peri-
cardium and inserted into the investment of the great venous sac,
which in the one case lies at the base of a gill-book, and in the other
case forms the investment of the in-sunken lung-book.
In a comparison of these two forms it is to be recollected that in
both cases we have to do with highly specialized conditions; the
common features of the less modified ancestor are sketched, and the
lines of development pointed out; some of the muscles must be
looked upon as new developments in Limulus, where they appear to
be more largely represented than in Scorpio; in the former there has
been a peculiar consolidation of the merosomatic region and the com-
bination of natatory with branchial functions in its appendages; in
the scorpion development and modification are most apparent in the
limbs of the prosoma.
In conclusion, Prof. Lankester has some observations on those
characters of the group which are useful in classification; here
account must be taken not only of Peter’s characters—form of the
sternum and dentition of the cheliceree—but also of the disposition
of the segmental ganglia with their great nerves, and the sculpturing
of the lamella of the lung-books. The class Arachnida is regarded
as consisting of two grades: A. Delobranchia (Limulus and Kuryp-
terines), and B. Embolobranchia (Orders 1. Scorpionidea; 2. Pedi-
palpi; 3. Araneidea). The Scorpionidea consist of a single family,
divisible into the Scorpionini and Androctonini. Fifteen points are
mentioned which are regarded as of Snporianee: in the systematic
descriptions of these arthropods.
Sense-organ of Spiders. — Prof. W. gate e describes*
briefly a sense-organ on the limbs of certain spiders, which was first
noticed by Dahl. These structures are found on most of the joints of
the limbs both in males and females ; they consist of a thin chitinous
plate with a thick border, the opposite sides of which are connected
by parallel thickenings. A transverse section shows round these
organs a layer of remarkably tall pigmented cells, between these are
ganglion cells with prolongations directed towards the chitinous layer.
These organs appear to be comparable to the “ chordotonal organs” of
insects described by Graber.
Dr. P. Bertkau claims priority tf in the discovery of the sensory
organs on the limbs of spiders referred to by Schimkewitsch. A brief
recapitulation of his results is given.
Seasonal Dimorphism in Spiders.—Dr. P. Bertkau states ¢ that it
is not a new discovery of Dahl’s that Meta segmentata and M. mengei
are two broods of the same species, § but it has been known and recorded
* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 264-6. + Ibid., pp. 537-8.
t Ibid., pp. 459-64. § See this Journal, ante, p. 830,
994 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
by several observers. Dahl also pointed out that Micrommata virescens
and M. ornata are dimorphic varieties of the same species; the fact
that both species are sexually mature at the same time, and that
specimens of each, the same age in both species, have been found at
the same time at once negatives this view.
Dr. F. Karsch calls attention * to the writings of O. Herman, who
has stated, and has priority in the statement, that Meta segmentata
has two generations; other species are mentioned by the same writer
which have two generations, without, however, exhibiting a marked
seasonal dimorphism; some of them are Epeira umbratica, Cyrtophora
conica, Tetragnatha extensa. Micrommata ornata is, on the contrary,
stated by Herman to be undoubtedly the young male of M. virescens.
Australian Pycnogonida.j—Mr. W. A. Haswell describes one
new genus (Nymphopsis) and eight new species of Australian Pycno-
gonida, bringing up the list to eighteen species.
e. Crustacea.
Alimentary Canal of Crustacea.t — Herr J. Frenzel reviews in a
lengthy memoir the histological structure of the alimentary canal of
Crustacea, and especially of the mid- and hind-gut, which have not
yet been studied in such detail as the other portions. He discusses
the general anatomy of the tract, noting the extreme shortness of the
mid-gut with its two associated glands, the large double liver with
two ducts, and the much smaller variously-shaped diverticula, which
open somewhat dorsally just where the hind-gut begins. A section
of the hind-gut reveals a number (six or so) of thick bands, which
run spirally within, narrowing the lumen of the gut. A cross section
of the hind-gut exhibits from within outwards (1) a chitinous cuticle,
(2) the epithelial layer of the matrix or hypodermis, with cylindrical
cells, (3) interspersed sinewy strands, probably of connective tissue
origin, and in association with (4) muscle-bands, some of which run
obliquely, and are not therefore seen continuously in a single section,
while others sometimes occur running longitudinally; (5) glandular
structures; (6) abundant fibro-cellular connective tissue, usually with
lacune containing blood; (7) a sheath of circular muscles ; and (8) an
external layer of connective tissue, firmer and more fibrous than the
internal one, and penetrated by vessels which supply the lacune of
the former.
The ridges do not extend into the mid-gut, though the transition
is not abrupt. A cross section of the mid-gut exhibits (1) the
cylindrical epithelium, of endodermic origin, with a covering of small
bristles; (2) a thick, strongly refracting, double-contoured mem-
brane, the basement membrane, or tunica propria; (3) a circular
muscle-sheath of several layers, not well developed, or even absent
on the appendages of the mid-gut; (4) a connective tissue layer,
sometimes exclusively fibrous. The details of the complicated passage
* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 532-3.
+ Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, ix. (1885) pp. 1021-34 (4 pls.).
t Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxv. (1885) pp. 137-90 (2 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 995
from mid-gut to fore-gut, where the epithelium of the former is re-
placed by a chitinous coat, and other changes occur, do not admit of
summary, while the structure of the fore-gut has been thoroughly
studied by previous investigators.
Frenzel proceeds to review the various tissues—connective, mus-
cular, and epithelial.
1. The connective tissue. Since the chitin serves to a large extent
the same function as is elsewhere discharged by connective tissue,
the development of the latter in the Crustacea is relatively small, and
its character as supporting tissue is not well marked. Frenzel dis-
tinguishes three kinds: (a) fibro-cellular, where from the cells fibres
originate, becoming more or less predominant, remaining loosely
connected or girt together into a firm network, with interspaces or
blood-lacune ; (b) fibrous, where the lacune have disappeared and
the fibres, which alone remain, have been drawn close to one another ;
(c) membranous or elastic, forming a completely closed membrane,
probably permeable only by fluids.
2. The muscular tissue, of cross-striped fibrils, is in no way
peculiar.
3. The epithelial tissue. (a) The intestinal (salivary) glands of
the fore- and hind-gut, which were discovered by Braun, resemble
ordinary salivary glands both in structure and secretion. A number
of cells form a round acinus with a central canal. The cells are
sometimes markedly more granular towards the lumen, and the
nucleus lies always at the broad basal end.
(b) The hypodermis (matrix, chitinogenous membrane). This
epithelium, which secretes the chitin, is noteworthy on account of its
extreme variability, exhibiting sometimes most beautiful cylindrical
cells, and in other species a hardly recognizable cellular character.
The cells never exhibit any contents which could be regarded as
absorbed food, so that the theory of their possible efficiency in this
direction does not seem to receive corroboration.
(c) The epithelium of the mid-gut consists of well-developed cylin-
drical cells, whose regularity is disturbed only by the occurrence of
smal] villi, &c., and by mutual compression. The cells are markedly
granular, sometimes extremely fine at the top, but decreasingly so in
the middle and lower third of the cell, and becoming very coarse at
the base under the nucleus. The very varied shapes and the frequently
enormous size of the nuclei are remarkable. The cell-border is in
some cases resolvable into rows of small bristle-like rods, expanded
at their bases, and uniting so as to form a membrane.
From this detailed histological investigation Frenzel goes on to
discuss the problem of the regeneration of the epithelial cells of the
mid-gut. Though the secretion of digestive fluid in the mid-gut has
been mainly transferred to the liver, there are epithelial m‘d-gut cells
which yield up their whole mass as a secretion, and are in turn
replaced by others. The simplest mode of replacement is exhibited
when one of the small cells lying next the tunica propria simply
divides ; sometimes, however, the cells grow up first for some distance
among the epithelial cells and then divide, but frequently the division
996 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
of the nucleus is so unequal that it is difficult to know whether to
call it “direct” nuclear division or nuclear budding. The apparent
absence of marked changes in the nuclear structure leads Frenzel to
regard it as direct.
In a brief physiological review he notes that since the function
of the mid-gut gland is rather pancreatic than hepatic, the name of
liver is too definite. He disputes the probability of the absorption
of food taking place altogether within the short mid-gut, and, though
positive facts are not in his favour, thinks it probable that this is also
effected by the fore- and hind-gut.
Development of Atyephira compressa.*—Mr. Chiyomatsu Ishi-
kawa has investigated the development of this fresh-water Macrurous
Crustacean, which is abundant near Tokio.
The female generative organ has the form of two elongated sacs,
the ducts of which arise at about the middle of their length, and open
to the exterior on the internal face of the basal joint of the third
thoracic leg. It is possible to distinguish in the ovary a germogen,
which has the form of a narrow transparent band, from a vitellogen
in which the yolk-elements are firmest. The wall of the tube consists
of two sets of layers, more or less separated from each other; blood
passes into these spaces and into the vitellogen, but no trace is to be
found in the germogen. The distribution of the blood-vessels has
been made out in the ovary of Panulirus.
The youngest eggs are perfectly transparent, and measure about
0-01 mm. in diameter: all, or at any rate the majority of cells in the
pouch are destined to become eggs. The germinal vesicle is at
first more than one-half, but later it comes to be only one-fifth of
the diameter of the egg; it never has more than three germinal
dots.
When the eggs are 1 mm. in diameter they pass into the vitellogen
to be charged with nutritive elements, and here they grow very
rapidly and take on a dark-green colour, The deposition of yolk
takes place endogenously. The protoplasm of the egg collects at two
points, one around the nucleus and the other at the periphery; the
former spreads out like rays towards the latter and unites with it,
The germinal vesicle disappears rapidly when the egg attains a
certain size. There are two covering membranes, one formed by the
hardening of the peripheral protoplasm of the egg, and the other by
the epithelial cells of the oviduct. he freshly laid egg has no
nucleus and is therefore a cytod.
After describing the mode of oviposition, the author proceeds to
give an account of the process of segmentation; this begins by a
slight notch on one side of the egg transverse to the long axis; it
gradually elongates in both directions until the egg is divided into
two equal parts. The two halves next approach one another; after
three or four hours the line becomes again uppermost, and imme-
diately a second line, at right angles to it, divides the egg into four
equal parts. When there are 256 segments, the segments at one pole
* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxv. (1885) pp. 391-428 (4 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 997
divide faster than the rest, and that area becomes a little depressed.
When the cells multiply most rapidly, invagination occurs, and
a gastrula is formed, the cavity of which soon becomes comparatively
deep. Later on, the blastopore closes; somewhat in front of it, a
fresh invagination gives rise to the permanent anus. On the opposite
side we get the first indications of the cephalic lobes which gradually
travel upwards (or, morphologically, backwards). The order of
formation of the parts of the embryo is—abdomen, mandible,
cephalic lobes, carapace, antenne.
The stomodceum is, like the proctodeum, a formation apparently
independent of the blastopore, and is at first a narrow blind tube ;
later on, other appendages appear ; the heart seems to be mesodermic
in origin.
The embryo, when just hatched, measures about 3} mm. in length ;
the broad carapace is produced anteriorly into a rostrum, at the base
of which is the simple eye; the compound eyes are large, and sup-
ported on very short stalks, the telson is still united with the last
segment. Four pairs of thoracic appendages are already formed,
but no trace of abdominal appendages is to be detected. In its later
changes the embryo agrees largely with Palzmonites, as described
by Faxon.
Sense-organs of Calanide.*—Dr. O. E. Imhof has some notes
upon the antennary olfactory organs of the genera Heterocope and
Diaptomus.
‘These appear to have been discovered in Heterocope by Gruber ;
in Diaptomus they exist in all the species examined, and have a
characteristic distribution which is the same in all the species, and
may, perhaps, serve as additional definition of the genus. The form of
the organs in Diaptomus is a little less complicated than in Heterocope ;
they resemble very closely the corresponding organs of Pontella
described by Claus,
Polymorphism in the Amphipoda.t—Mr. C. Chilton states that
the Amphipod Microdeuteropus maculatus of Thomson, which is the
same as Aora typica of Kroyer, has three forms of the male and only
one of the female. The males all differ from the female in having
the meros of the first gnathopod produced into a long spine reaching
to the end of the carpus; in the first form of male (Aora typica K.)
the carpus is longer but no broader than the propodos, and the basos
has a tooth projecting forwards on the anterior margin; in the second
(Microdeuteropus maculatus g Chilton) the carpus is larger and
broader than the propodos, and the meros has a small tuft of sete on
the posterior margin ; in the third (M. mortoni Haswell) the carpus is
longer and broader than the propodos; the meros is hollowed
anteriorly, and has each lateral margin densely fringed with sete,
while the dactylos is as long as the propodos, and has two or three
tufts of sete on its concave border.
* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 353-6.
+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1885) pp. 368-76 (1 pl.).
Ser. 2.—Vow. V. 3 T
998 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Australian Crustacea,—In a revision of the Australian Lemo-
dipoda * Mr. W. A. Haswell gives a list of ten species as being well
ascertained Australian forms, and describes in full two new species of
Proto (P. condylata and P. spinosa), as well as Protella australis, with
notes on other species.
Mr. Haswell also gives} a revised Hst of the seventy known
Australian species of Isopoda (including two varieties), with descrip-
tions of new species of Anceus, Paratanais, and Paranthura, and of
a remarkable new Spheromid, Bregmocerella tricornis n. gen. and
sp., having the head armed with three prominent horn-like pro-
cesses, the two lateral ones being about one-fifth the length of the
mesial.
In a further paper on the Australian Amphipoda t Mr. Haswell
deals with the genera Talitrus, Allorchestes, Neobule, Aspidophoreia,
Stegocephalus, Ampelisca, Lysianassa and Anonyx, Eusirus, Leucothoe,
Atylus, Dexamine, Megamoera, Moera, Xenocheira, Haplocheira, Har-
monia, and Cyrtophiuwm ; several new forms are also described, in-
cluding a genus allied to Cyrtophium (Desiocerella), but distinguished
by the presence of an appendage on the superior antenne, and the
multi-articulate character of the flagellum.
Mr. C. Chilton has a short paper§ on some Australian Hdri-
ophthalmata, with descriptions of three new species, Glycerina affinis,
Moera festiva, and Paratanais ignotus.
Vermes.
Pelagic Annelids.||—M. C. Viguier reports the principal results
of his study of Annelid species in the Bay of Algiers. Before
defining an Annelid as pelagic, it has to be noted that (1) some, such
as the Heteronereide, and Syllide without alternation of generations,
are surface forms only during the period of reproductive activity ;
that (2) others, viz. the sexual stolons of Syllide with alternation of
generation (the Polybostrice and Sacconereide), are indeed pelagic,
but that the short period of their life is really the equivalent only of
the reproductive period of the former; and that (3) there are others
apparently true surface forms throughout their whole life. This
third group contains only Alciopee and Phyllodoces, including with
the latter Tomopteris and Sagittella. The list of known pelagic
Phyllodocez M. Viguier has increased from one to six, which exhibit a
beautiful gradation in the concentration of their postcephalic rings
and in the disposition of their appendages. He has discovered two
new Alciopes. There are some forms, such as Ophryotrocha puerilis
and a species of Polynoe, about which it is difficult as yet to decide
whether they are truly pelagic or whether they migrate in adult life
to greater depths. He gives a catalogue of the observed species.
* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, ix. (1885) pp. 993-1000 (2 pls.).
+ Ibid., pp. 1001-14 (4 pls.).
t Ibid., x. (1885) pp. 95-114 (9 pls.).
§ Ibid., ix. (1885) pp. 1035-44 (2 pls.).
|| Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 578-9.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 999
Coloration of the Anterior Segments of the Maldanide.*— Prof.
A. Harker, while studying the circulation and respiration of Annelids at
Naples, was especially interested in the Maldanids, from their partially
tubicolous habit, and the brilliant coloration of their anterior segments.
The bands of colour usually ornament the anterior segments, beginning
with the second or third, and continuing to the ninth; but the dis-
tribution of the coloured bands differs widely in the different species.
The colour in living or freshly killed specimens is of a rich rose-
madder colour, shading off in each segment to a brighter rose-pink
hue. Quatrefages attributed a physiological value to these coloured
bands, describing them as being connected with the respiratory
function. In connection with the whole subject of cutaneous re-
spiration in Annelids, it appeared important to settle this question,
and the author made sections of the anterior segments in the Mal-
danide, and found the colour to be due to a special pigment, whose
behaviour under various reagents he described. On the other hand,
the author had studied the blood-vessels and their distribution in the
living Chetopod, and is satisfied that it extends equally in those
portions of the cuticle which are uncoloured as in those which are.
The coloured bands do not appear, therefore, to be in any way
connected with the function of respiration.
Nephridia of a new species of Earthworm.t—Mr. F. E. Beddard
describes the peculiar disposition of the “segmental organs” in a
new species of earthworm belonging to Perrier’s genus Acanthodrilus.
The eight sete of each segment form eight longitudinal rows,
separated by nearly equal intervals, and with each seta a nephridium
is associated. The dorsal nephridia are quite distinct, those belonging
to the ventral pair of sete adhere continuously to the intersegmental
septum. A nephridium passes up close to each seta, imbedded in the
surrounding loose connective tissue ; the tube passes out between the
longitudinal and circular muscular coat, and opens by a minute
orifice readily detected by the alteration in the character of the
epidermis, by the disappearance of the large, oval, glandular cells, and
by the close packing and inbending of the narrow, columnar cells.
The coiled tubule of the nephridium is lined by uniform rows of
cells; only the extreme distal end differs from the rest in being
surrounded by a flattened epithelium of very small cells and is in
all probability lined by a continuation of the external cuticle. Hisig’s
discovery in certain Capitellide of numerous pairs of nephridia in
each segment, has thus been extended to the Oligocheeta.
The homology between nephridial and genital ducts maintained
in some cases by Claparéde, and applied, in spite of Claparéde’s
denial, by Lankester to the earthworms, in regard to which he suggested
that the copulatory and genital ducts were derived from a second
dorsal series of nephridia which had disappeared except in the genital
segments, has been criticized by Perrier though apparently corrobo-
rated by the anatomical facts revealed by his own investigation of
* Nature, xxxii. (1885) p. 564. (Paper read before the British Association.)
{ Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxviii. (1885) pp. 459-64.
372
1000 sUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
various genera. Supporting Lankester’s position, Mr. Beddard re-
views the difficulties suggested by Perrier, that nephridia and
copulatory pouches occasionally coincide at the same seta, and that
the vasa deferentia pass through several segments each with distinct
nephridia. But Mr. Beddard extends Lankester’s statement by
affirming the probability, suggested by the present and other in-
stances, that to each seta, and not to each pair of sete, there corre-
sponds a separate nephridium.
In regard to the question whether a quadri-serial arrangement of
setee comparable with the Polychetous parapodia, or a complete ring
of sete as in Pericheta, is the more primitive state, Beddard inclines,
against Perrier, to the latter supposition. While, on the one hand,
the two pairs of setz in the earthworm certainly resemble the dorsal
and ventral parapodia of a Polychete, and while the young Pericheta
have not a complete ring of sete as in adults, he points out, that in
the Urocheeta the setz, anteriorly in eight rows, are posteriorly
quincuncial, and have between them small glandular bodies, which
from their analogy with similar structures in the Anacheta evidently
replace sete, previously therefore more abundant, and that further
since from the above results there seems to be no connection between
the pair of sete and the nephridium, as there is in the Polycheta
between parapodium and nephridium, the resemblance is more pro-
bably adaptive than genetic, and the more generalized condition is
probably the more primitive.
Organization of Pachydrilus enchytreoides.*—M. Remy Saint-
Loup describes this small Annelid, which is found abundantly on
algz at Marseilles, as having four rows of sete, two to eight in each
group; these sete are not hooked at their ends. There are about
thirty-five segments ; the anus opens at the base of a funnel-shaped
cavity. There is a dorsal and a ventral blood-vessel, united at either
end, and there are three pairs of anastomosing canals. The cesophageal
is the only differentiated portion of the digestive tract, but the
hinder has a smaller number of ‘hepatic cells” than the median
portion. The ccelom is divided into compartments by incomplete
septa. The nerve-chain has the ganglia in the segments behind the
first three reduced to mere swellings of the cord. In the fifth, sixth,
and seventh segments there are large glands which occupy the whole
of the body-cavity, and appear to be analogous to the septal glands of
Véjdovsky.
Parasite of the Rock Oyster.t—Mr. W. A. Haswell, on examin-
ing some samples of oysters which were dying in large numbers,
found that most of them, when opened, presented on the inner surface
of the shell one or moxe discoloured blisters. In some these were
of small extent with a narrow sinuous form, while in many instances
a large part of the valve was affected. In some cases, where the
extent of the shell invaded was not large, the oysters did not seem
at all affected by it; in other cases the animal was found to be dead,
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 482-5.
+ Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, x. (1885) pp. 273-5.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSOOPY, ETC. 1001
and in a few cases the shell was completely empty. In the interior
of the blisters were found one or more specimens of a very small
Annelid, by which the mischief had been effected—Polydora ciliata.
One specimen of a second species was also obtained, P. polybranchia
n. sp. which the author describes.
Anatomy and Histology of Aulophorus vagus.*—Mr. J. Reighard
gives an account of the structure of this American worm, the first
description of which we owe to Prof. Leidy; the animals are either
found single, or composed of two to four zooids joined by “ bud-zones ” ;
no other mode of reproduction than that by budding has yet been
observed.
Unicellular dermal glands are found in the region of the head, and
the other dermal appendages are stylets, bristles, hairs, and cilia; the
muscular system consists of layers of annular and longitudinal fibres,
together with special muscles for moving the bristles, the pharynx,
and the supra-cesophageal ganglia. The pharynx is described as
forming a highly specialized organ, used both for seizing the food
and in locomotion, and also as a sucking-disc ; in the cesophagus the
cilia are so long as almost to fill its lumen. The “liver-cells” are
lens-shaped and have a large nucleus; they contain numerous golden-
brown drops in a part of the intestine.
The vascular system consists of a dorsal and ventral vessel, united
by a plexus in the head, and one in the region of the pavilion, and by
numerous vessels surrounding the alimentary canal. The dorsal
vessel is contracted, as are the lateral branches, in the eighth, ninth,
and tenth segments; when one of these vessels is distended its walls
are seen to contain large, prominent nuclei, evidently belonging to
the muscular elements; when contracted the walls of the vessels show
longitudinal and transverse strize. Respiration is principally effected
by the pavilion, or posterior expansion, which is thickly covered with
cilia, and contains numerous muscular elements; its digitiform
appendages are hollow, and their cavities are continuous with the
celom; as the walls of the intestine are richly covered by a network
of blood-vessels, and bathed by a strong stream of water, they are
doubtless also respiratory in function. The ventral nerve-cord has on
its upper surface three giant fibres ; these are, for most of their course,
simple, empty tubes. The author was unable to trace a connection
between the lateral lines and the cesophageal commissures, as has
been done by Semper for Nais.
As in various other parts of its organization, so, too, in its
segmental organs Aulophorus recalls the description of Dero obtusa as
given by Prof. Perrier. It is possible that the cells covering part of
the walls of the nephridial tubes form the basis of the tubes in which
the animal lives; but it is to be borne in mind that similar cells are
found in forms that are not tube-formers.
Angiostomum.t—Dr. O. von Linstow gives an account of the
species of the genus Angiostomum, which appears to stand midway
* Proc. Amer. Acad., xx. (1885) pp. 88-106 (3 pls.).
+ Arch, f. Naturgesch., li. (1885) pp. 1-18 (2 pls.).
1002 sUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
between the parasitic and the free-living Nematoids, having affinities
on the one hand with Dochmius, and on the other with Rhabditis.
Gordius verrucosus.*—Prof. F. J. Bell has a short note on a
specimen of this species collected by Mr. H. H. Johnston on Kili-
mandjaro, in which he indicates its very wide distribution, and
compares it with the Tzenia of the rhinoceroses.
Experimental Breeding of Tenia Echinococcus.{— Dr. J. D.
Thomas reports the results of several successful experiments in which
the Hchinococcus scolices of man were bred in dogs. He discusses
the specific character of the different forms of Hchinococcus, and
recapitulates the history of experimental researches on the subject,
pointing out their relative indecisiveness. The careful experiments
of the author on four dogs yielded successful results with three.
The dogs were examined at intervals of 20, 32, and 42 days after
feeding, and the Tzniz found corresponded in development to the time
elapsed.
Frequent occurrence of Tenia Echinococcus in Domestic Dogs
(Australia).{—Dr. J. D. Thomas reports the results of examinations
of dogs at four places in South Australia, three of which were in the
district most highly infected with hydatid disease. Out of 30 vagrant
dogs 40 per cent. were infested with Tcenia Echinococcus. Out of
another series of nine which had been better cared for, only one case
was found, while five out of ten stray dogs in Melbourne were infested.
This great prevalence fully explains the frequency of the cystic form
in man and the domestic Herbivora in these localities.
Trematoda.s—M. J. Poirier finds, from a study of the muscular
system of Distomum clavatum, that the dorso-ventral muscles are
broken up at their ends, and are fixed to internal projections of the
cuticle, which serve as fulcra; these muscles contract in such a way
as to produce a series of nodes along the muscular fibre. The suckers
have a muscular system which is much better developed than has
been hitherto supposed; they are always, or nearly always, completely
enveloped by one or two elastic membranes, to which are attached
the various muscular bundles of the organ. He describes in detail
the extrusive muscles which act on the suckers, and which have
hitherto been almost entirely neglected by zoologists.
The glandular cells which are found in the external layer of the
parenchyma are not to be confounded with those which sometimes
(as in the fluke) form a continuous layer beneath the muscular coat.
The digestive apparatus is always lined by long cells which are
united only at their base, and which have excessively delicate walls
which allow of the easy absorption of nutrient fluids. The cesophagus,
which is constantly found behind the pharynx, has very muscular
walls which are lined internally by a cuticle. An exaggerated value
has been ascribed to the so-called cirrus-pouch, which is often
* Proce. Zool. Soe. Lond., 1885, p. 236.
+ Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxviii. (1885) pp. 449-87. t Ibid., pp. 457-8.
§ Arch. Zool..Expér. et Gén., iii. (1885) pp. 465-624 (12 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1003
wanting; its chief function is to contain and separate from the rest
of the parenchyma a more or less large part of the unpaired efferent
canal; this last, from the nature of its walls, ought to be divided into
three, not two divisions. The uterus, near its cloacal end, is always
surrounded by a delicate layer of glandular cells, and its extremity
has the function of a seminal vesicle. The canal of Laurer is not a
vagina, and it may contain spermatozoa, yolk-globules, or even ova;
it may be regarded as a kind of safety-duct which allows of the
passage to the exterior of a superabundance of genital products. The
only possible mode of fecundation is an external “ autofecundation.”
The excretory system is disposed in similar manner in all the
members of the group. The spongy cords which have been the sub-
ject of so much discussion, are definitely regarded as being nerve-
fibres. The large multipolar cells which are so abundant in some
parts of the body are evidently nervous in nature, and cannot by any
means be allowed to be gland-cells, or annexes of the vascular
system.
M. Poirier discusses in a note* the recent observations of Dr.
Gufiron, and expresses his belief that the German naturalist has
been a little hasty in his generalization that the nervous system of
Trematodes consists of six posterior longitudinal trunks; in various
Distomes the lateral nerves appear to be wanting, and the dorsal
nerves only extend over the anterior half of the body; while the
dorsal and ventral nerves have a distinct origin in the cerebral
ganglia. ,
Anatomy of Bilharzia hematobia.|—Dr. G. Fritsch describes
briefly the structure of this parasite, which, as is well known, has
the male and female sexual organs in different individuals.
The surface of the body of the female is beset with fine hairs;
the alimentary canal commences with the mouth-sucker which leads
into the pharynx; the intestine is narrow and soon divides into two
branches which afterwards reunite and terminate blindly. The
excretory apparatus opens through a large cavity at the hinder end
of the body; from this arise two lateral and median trunks. With
regard to the generative organs, they are not widely different from
those of other Distoma.
The male has a simpler structure on the whole than the female,
the alimentary canal is, however, identical in form with that of the
other sex. The sexual organs are extraordinarily simplified; they
consist of about five testicular sacs which unite into a short vas
deferens provided with a vesicle; there is no penis; the male
generative aperture is in common with the excretory pore.
Small Rod-like Cell-contents of certain Cercarie.t—Dr. P.
Sonsino in investigating the histology of some Cercaria-forms has
discovered a probable function for the cells containing small rod-like
structures (“cellules 4 batonnets”), which have been noted by several
* Arch. Zool. Expér. et Gén., iii, (1885) pp. xxvii.—ix.
+ Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 407-11.
+ Arch. Ital. de Biol., vi. (1885) pp. 57-61.
1004 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
observers. Finding that these bodies were present before the encyst-
ment of the larva, but had disappeared when the Cercaria was liberated
from its cyst, he concludes that these cells function in the encystment,
that the rods give the cysts greater solidity and power of resistance,
and that they are probably most characteristic of those Cercariz
which encyst exteriorly like those of Fasciola hepatica and me
subclavatum.
Deep-water Turbellarians of Lakes.*—Dr. O. E. Thirho records
the fact that a particular species of Turbellarian apparently agreeing
very closely with Mesostomum rostratum Dugés was found in deep
water in numerous lakes in Switzerland. The same species occurs
also in several of the Austrian lakes. Another dendroccel Turbellarian,
greyish black in colour, was found in very deep water in Lej Sgrischus
and Lej Carloccio ; it is briefly described.
Development of Nemertines.;—Dr. A. W. Hiibrecht Shesciies
briefly the development of Lineus obscurus. After the formation of the
gastrula a number of free cells are given off by epi- and hypoblast,
which wander through the blastoccel and are the commencement of the
mesoblast. The cubical epiblast cells become in several regions
palisade-like through multiplication, and form the rudiments of the
four larval discs which subsequently are covered by a continuous
layer of the original epiblast. The brain and lateral cords are de-
veloped entirely from mesoblast cells. The proboscis grows back
above the intestine into the blastoccel; its sheath is formed of
mesoblast cells. The blood-cavities arise in the blastoccel. The
sexual organs arise from a mass of tissue below the nerve-cords and
in contact with the spine; they probably arise from the epiblast.
The body of the Nemertine has no body-cavity except the cavities
already mentioned, which arise from the blastoccel.
Nervous System of Acclomate Planarians and new Sensory
Organ of Convoluta Schultzii.{[—M. Y. Delage describes the nervous
system of Convoluta Schultzii in the following terms. Around the
otocyst there is a bilobate ganglionic mass which forms the chief
portion of the central system ; attached are two smaller masses which
lie about it connected with it by a pair of large connectives, and with
one another by a transverse commissure. The fibres found in the
centre of these masses are extremely fine, the cells, which are peri-
pheral, are best developed at the postero-inferior part of the chief
mass, and form a continuous layer around the otocyst.
The peripheral system is formed by six parallel longitudinal
nerves and their branches; they are situated immediately below the
layer of zoochlorelle, and are arranged by pairs; the trunks are
connected by transverse anastomoses, which are ordinarily more
numerous at a greater distance from the head; at the lower end the
cords converge and form a plexus.
In addition to the otocyst and the two pigment or eye-spots,
there is another sensory organ which its discoverer calls the frontal
* Zool. Auzeig., vill. (1885) pp. 434-5. + Ibid., pp. 470-2.
t Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 256-8.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 1005
organ ; it has the form of an ovoid mass, and is clear and refractive ;
it is bounded at the sides by a double layer of ganglionic cells, and a
few are to be found in its interior. The whole apparatus is very
mobile, and the animal seems to be incessantly testing by means of the
papille which terminate it. It is best developed in young specimens
which have just escaped.
The nerves are everywhere surrounded by an endothelial sheath,
the cells of which are continuous with those of the reticulum;
between the nerve and its sheath there is a cavity which is continuous
with a system of lacune that occupy the whole layer of zoochlorelle.
Each of these alg is contained in a free cavity, the spaces between
which are formed by the lacune.
Phenicurus.* — In studying Tethys leporina Prof. de Lacaze-
Duthiers found a number of the incompletely known parasite which has
been named Phenicurus. After a short description of the external
form of the animal, and an account of the incessant changes to which
it subjects it, he describes the nervous system as consisting of two
ganglia united by a long transverse commissure; each gives off two
primary nerves, one of which goes to the region of the mouth, and the
other (lower) to the tail. The ganglia are small, and contain a small
number of large nerve-cells. There are a number of secondary
nerves which arise from the ganglia and pass to all parts of the body ;
they are ordinarily very delicate, very long, and generally wavy, a
condition which is to be correlated with the changes in dimension
which are undergone by the body. The two superior primary nerves
give off, on their course, delicate branches which pass into the sub-
cutaneous tissue of the buccal fossa; as they get to some distance
from their centre they are seen to have ganglionic swellings, which
vary considerably in size, and are composed of one, two, or three
cells which are elongated along their great axis, which lies parallel
to the direction taken by the nerves. It is very remarkable that no
two individuals are entirely alike in the composition of their nervous
centres; sometimes there is one median ganglion, sometimes a kind
of chain of three or four, and in one case there were as many as seven
ganglia, united by a plexus. It is not rare to find only one buccal
nerve, which is then of large size. In fact, the position of the
nervous system is constant, but its forms vary infinitely.
Pheenicurus is acewlomate, and a fibrillar cellular tissue containing
a number of nuclei takes the place of the body-cavity. Under the
skin and a layer of connective tissue there are longitudinal muscular
bands, which form a dorsal and an abdominal layer, and extend from
one end of the body to the other. In addition there are transversely
set external bands, which form a complete network. On either side
there are aggregations of muscular fibres which run perpendicularly
to the surface, and aid in limiting the central space.
In this space lies the digestive tube, the central nervous system,
and a special gland. The tube commences with an orifice placed in
the buccal fossa, and extends to the tail; its arrangement is dendro-
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 30-5,
1006 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
ceelous. Its walls are exceedingly delicate, and there appears to be
no anus. There is appended to it what may be a salivary gland.
The animal fixes itself to the papilla of the venous system of the
Tethys, and so obtains its nourishment.
Prof. de Lacaze-Duthiers considers that Phanicurus is a dendro-
ceelous worm, but it is not yet possible to definitely fix its zoological
position, as he has not been able to study the history of its develop-
ment. He sought for generative organs in the month of May, but
was unable to discover them. It is possible that Phenicurus is only
a period or stage in the whole life-history of the animal, and that its
development is accomplished under different conditions to any yet
observed. Next year the author hopes to be able to fill up the
present lacune.
Relationship of Rotifers and Nematodes.*—Dr. O. Zacharias
emphasizes the parallelism in the development of these two groups.
In comparing the segmentation of the ovum of Anguillula aceti with
that exhibited in the Philodinez, he noted the same unequal division
and epibolic gastrulation, and probably too, the same origin of the
mesoblast in the form of two small rounded cells near the blastopore.
The larva or the “ palm-form” stage, with its expanded head portion
and narrowed trunk, is equally characteristic of both groups. The
affinity thus hinted at is corroborated by anatomical resemblances,
e.g. in the arrangement of the muscles and of the excretory canals.
The absence of cilia in the Nematodes is explained as a degenerative
change which finds its counterpart in the unciliated rotifer, Apsilus
lentiformis.
In the embryos of Anguillula aceti Dr. Zacharias observed on
the trunk portion a superficial segmentation, which disappears as the
trunk or abdominal region proceeded to grow out at the expense of
the head. This process seems to him exactly comparable with the
development of, e.g. Pelygordius from the free-living Trochophora. The
expanded head-portion of the nematode and rotifer larva is, according
to Zacharias, the homologue of the head of the free-living Polygordius
larva ; on both rotifer-larva and Trochophora the cilia appear on that
head-portion. He opposes the possible suggestion that the head-
portion of the rotifer and Nematode larva is purely trophic, of physio-
logical and not of morphological import; and maintains the common
origin of the two groups from an ancestral type resembling the “ palm-
form ” stage, with ciliated head-portion and long narrow tail or trunk.
Development of Rotifers.;—Miss C. Pereyaslavtseff, the Director
of the Sebastopol Zoological Station, publishes an interesting paper
on this subject, which has been rather neglected, M. Zaleski’s paper
on the history of the development of Brachionus urceolaris not being
a complete solution of the question.
Miss Pereyaslavtseff’s method differs from most of those hitherto
recorded ; she does not select one or another phase of development as
* Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) pp. 228-33.
+ Mem. Novorossian Soc. Naturalists, ix. (1884) 19 pp. (1 pl.). Cf. Nature,
xXxXxii. (1885) pp. 579-80.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1007
being the most important, but placing several rotifers and Lepadellz
under the object-glass she waited until one of them would lay an egg ;
and the development taking about three days from the beginning of
the segmentation until the issue of the new animal from the egg,
she observed it continually throughout the first thirty to thirty-five
hours, with only short interruptions of two to three hours in the
observation of subsequent phases. This method has of course its
inconveniences by preventing sleep for two nights. It cannot be
applied also to those rotifers which live an errant life. These last
do not survive confinement, and must be kept in watch-glasses until
they lay their eggs, which last are then brought under microscopic
investigation.
Ten different species were studied in this way, and proved to
undergo the same development, so that fotifer inflatus has been given
as a type of the development of the egg. The stages are all figured
in forty-eight drawings on the plate accompanying the memoir.
New Rotifer.*—Mr. W. Milne describes a new rotifer, which he
places in the genus Pleurotrocha, though the jaws are each three-
toothed, and names P. mustela. It is exceedingly vigorous and active
in its movements, as well as most ferocious, striking out with trap-
like jaws at everything that comes in its way. When the jaws are
shot out they open as they leave the oral opening and close with a
snap before the recoil ; but when irritated so swift is the stroke that
nothing of this can be seen. If the object struck is not too large or
hard the teeth fix and the head sucks into the victim “in the most
weasel-like way imaginable,” holding on even when whirled round
and round. A case of lockjaw was observed by the author. In the
ovary may be seen only one perfect egg at a time, as large as one-
third of the body, and it is extruded before segmentation takes
place.
The male is much smaller than the female, and has no mastax or
digestive apparatus.
Echinodermata.
Variation in Holothurians.j— Dr. K. Lampert in announcing
the preparation of a systematic monograph of Holothurians, discusses
the variability of some of their organs. He points out how the
arrangement of the ambulacral suckers varies with age; he finds
that the calcareous deposits are much more constant, and mentions
only two cases of variation, to which Cucumaria frondosa at any rate
might have been added. He is dissatisfied with the earlier classifica-
tions, but accepts completely Bell’s proposed arrangement of the
Dendrochirote by the aid of their tentacles, and carries it further by
proposing to form two divisions to be called Monocyclia and Hetero-
cyclia, according as the tentacles are in one or two circlets. He
takes the hint of Semper, to which Bell had directed attention, as to
the necessity of forming a fresh genus for some of the Cucumariv,
* Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, xvi. (1885) pp. 188-93 (1 pl.).
¢ Biol. Centralbl., vy. (1885) pp. 102-9.
1008 sUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
and proposes the name Semperia for those in which two tentacles are
smaller than the rest, and sucking feet are found in the interam-
bulacra as well as the ambulacra.
Morphology of Echinoids.*—Dr. W. Haacke thinks it is not yet
certain whether the “regular” sea-urchins are bilaterally or radially
symmetrical. The matter will probably be decided by the examina-
tion of as many abnormalities as possible, and with this end in view
Dr. Haacke has collected over 1000 examples of the Australian genus
Amblypneustes. The questions to be answered are stated in full, but
until the answers are forthcoming it will be useless to state the
questions here.
Larval Form of Dorocidaris papillata.;—In his study of the
development of this Echinoid M. H. Prouho sheds light on the
hitherto little known larval form of the Cidaride. The ova, which
were laid in February, are of a whitish-yellow colour and slightly
transparent. The complete and regular segmentation results in an
ellipsoidal gastrula, with the blastopore at one flattened pole and a
group of very long cells at the other. The Pluteus form is perfected
three months after fertilization. The endoderm lining the alimentary
tract is ciliated throughout. Three different elements are distinguish-
able in the mesoderm: (1) colourless cells, with irregular prolonga-
tions ; (2) colourless globular cells, from which the spicules originate;
(3) ameeboid mahogany-coloured cells, like those of the blood, pro-
bably originating from the ectoderm, where colour appears on the fifth
day. The ectodermic cells are large and flat, with polygonal contour.
Cilia are not abundant except on the long straight cells of the ciliated
band. '
The vaso-peritoneal vesicles originate as usual as two diverticula
from the enteric canal; each divides at an early stage into two lobes,
one of which is applied to the cesophagus, while the other descends
along the stomach and intestine. The left vesicle is in communica-
tion with the exterior by the dorsal pore. The lining cells resemble
the colourless cells of the mesoderm.
There are four pairs of arms—(1) posterior, (2) anterior, (3) an-
tero-lateral, (4) antero-internal. There are also independent cal-
careous structures, of which the most remarkable are the arched and
branched spicules supporting the “cupola,” and in association with
contractile cross fibres. It is interesting also to note the presence of
an unpaired, median irregular spicule in the same position as the
unpaired arm of the Spatangoid larve.
There are no ciliated epaulettes, but the lobes along which the
ciliated band extends are very well developed. He distinguishes
(1) three lobes in the angle of the posterior arms, of which the
middle one is specially large; (2) two pairs of dorso-lateral
lobes; (83) one pair of lateral lobes between the posterior and
antero-lateral arms. These lobes, along with the reticulated spicules
and the much flattened cupola, give the larva a very characteristic
appearance.
* Zool. Anzeig., vill. (1885) pp. 490-3. + Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 386-8.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1009
Structure and Function of the Spheridia of the Echinoidea.*—
Mr. H. Ayers supplements the observations of Lovén by a large
number of structural facts, which, besides allowing of greater accuracy
in determining the function of these peculiar organs, furnish an ex-
ample of a highly specialized organ in this group that is comparable
to the otolith sacs of Synapta.
Japanese Echinoidea.t—Dr. L. Déderlein enumerates and gives
an account of the forty-seven species collected in the Japanese seas,
an extraordinarily large proportion of which are described as new ;
some of these will no doubt be found to be varieties of some of the
very variable members of this class.
Brisingide of the ‘Talisman’ Expedition.t—Prof. E. Perrier
finds that the new forms of Brisingide collected by the ‘Talisman’
fill up some of the lacune which separated this group from the rest
of the Asteroidea; a new genus Freyella contains a species F.
sexradiata, which leads directly to Pedicellaster, with its five or six
arms; Coronella recalls exactly the appearance of Asterias tenuispina
and its allies, and has, like them, a reticulated dorsal skeleton; the
ambulacral tubes are, however, disposed in two rows. In the de-
velopment of the dorsal skeleton we have the following ascending
series :—Hymenodiscus Agassizii, Brisinga mediterranea, B. elegans,
B. endecacnemos, B. coronata, B. semicoronata, B. robusta, Labidiaster
radiosus, Brisingaster robillardi, Pedicellaster typicus, Coronaster
Parfaiti, and Asterias tenuispina. The Freyelle form an aberrant
series.
Asteroidea of Mauritius.s—M. P. de Loriol has published the
second part of his ‘Catalogue Raisonné’ of the Echinoderms of
Mauritius, in which old as well as new species are described and
figured.
Ccelenterata.
Development of Agalma.||—Mr. J. W. Fewkes states that, in
the course of its development, the egg of Agalma passes through
three very distinct stages: the primitive larva, the Athorybia-stage,
and the larva like the adult but still retaining certain provisional
structures. The first stage is alone here considered, and it is regarded
by the author as giving us the key to the phylogeny of the Oceanic
Hydrozoa. The observations on impregnation and cleavage are de-
seribed in detail; towards the end of the segmentation period extra-
ordinary protoplasmic elevations are to be observed from the surface
of the egg.
When the development of the primitive or larval hydrophyllium
is at its maximum the yolk of the egg is still spherical and little
reduced ; the egg is almost completely invested by the helmet-shaped
* Bcience, vi. (1885) p. 226. Since published in Quart. Journ, Micr. Sci.,
xxvi. (1885) pp. 39-52 (1 pl.) post.
¢ Arch. f. Naturgesch., li. (1885) pp. 73 -112.
~ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 441-4.
§ Mem. Soc. Phys. et d’Hist. Nat. Geneve, xxix. (1885) 83 pp. (16 pls.).
|| Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Camb., xi. (1885) pp. 239-75 (4 pls.).
1010 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
hydrophyllium, which is free on either side; near the end of the
primitive cavity there is a spherical organ, which is the future float ;
it is inclosed by a layer of hypoblastic cells. The primitive hydro-
phyllium is supposed to pass, “ by a few modifications in its external
contour, into some other organ, probably a differently formed covering
scale.”
Cyclical Development of Siphonophora.*—Prof. C. Claus eriti-
cizes the results of Chun on the development of certain Siphonophora.
In a recent work Dr. Chun has stated that in Monophyes irregularis
and M. gracilis the primary swimming-bell falls off and is replaced
by a second, and that this fact is against Claus’s view that Muggiza
Kochii is not a Monophyid but a Diphyid. If the swimming-bell of
Monophyes irregularis and M. gracilis, both undoubtedly Monophyids,
corresponds to a second heteromorphic bell, the young form of
Muggiza with a primary bell cannot be a Monophyid. The question
is gone into in considerable detail, and Claus points out that an
animal without mouth or alimentary canal could hardly conceivably
be the “nurse” of a future generation, but is evidently merely an
immature form.
Structure of Velella.;—M. Bedot has already contributed a short
- paper upon this subject, which has been noticed in this journal.{ The
present communication is an extension of some of the results formerly
obtained. The “central organ” in the adult Velella is surrounded
by a vascular zone, on which are attached the gasterozoids; this zone
is absent in the young, where the central organ is present as a small
mamilla; its lower surface is almost entirely occupied by the
central gasterozoid; above it, as in the adult, is a layer of epi-
thelium which lines the pneumatophore. The canals have a regular
symmetrical disposition, and communicate with the central gastero-
zoid by five secondary canals. ‘The greater portion of the central
organ is formed by a mass of cnidoblasts. The pneumatocyst is
divided up into a number of chambers, which send off diverticula into
the central organ.
New Minyas.§—Prof. F. J. Bell explains that a justification is
to be found for describing a single new species of Minyas, M. torpedo,
in the rarity of members of this interesting group of floating Anthozoa,
very few being found by the ‘ Challenger’ (or, it may be added, by
the German corvette ‘Gazelle’). The morphological interest of the
species lies in the fact that it makes yet another exception to the rule
that the Actiniaria in their adult state present a hexamerous arrange-
ment of their parts.
Metamorphosis of Bolina Chuni.||—Dr. R. v. Lendenfeld describes
the postembryonal development of this new species of Ctenophora,
one of the few species of Ctenophora found in Australian waters.
* Zool. Anzeig., vill. (1885) pp. 443-8.
+ Recueil Zool. Suisse, ii. (1885) pp. 237-51 (1 pl.).
t See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 576.
§ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xix. (1885) pp. 114-6.
|| Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, ix. (1885) pp. 929-31 (2 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1011
The most striking feature of the adult is the great bulk of the lobes,
which are thicker than the body and nearly circular.
Beroid of Port Jackson.*—Dr. R. v. Lendenfeld redescribes
Neis cordigera Lesson, first described in 1824 by the naturalists of
the ‘ Coquille, and not since found.
He considers that Nets represents a genus quite distinct from
Berce. Its sexual cells are matured in the vascular reticulation
exclusively, to which place the ova migrate from the meridional
canals. The style-cells, described as sensitive elements by R.
Hertwig and Chun, he considers to be “ poison-thorns,’ and the
glands surrounding these cells to be poison-glands.
Australian Hydromeduse.{—Dr. R. v. Lendenfeld describes and
figures eight new species and a few previously insufficiently known
ones, the paper forming an addendum to the monograph of Australian
Hydromeduse previously published. It brings the total number of
Australian species up to 240, distributed amongst seventy-four genera.
A second addendum { contains some alterations in the author’s classi-
fication.
Porifera.
Histology and Nervous System of Calcareous Sponges.§—Dr.
R. von Lendenfeld describes the three layers of calcareous sponges.
The mesoderm is stated to consist of “ gallert of a pretty high degree
of density,” and is never fibrillar, as in some other sponges; it contains
stellate or rarely bipolar cells, which perhaps represent the muscular
element. The structures of the spicules are best studied after treatment
with “chloride of gold-potassium” for twelve hours, which reveals
the presence of small parallel radially-arranged prisms. Spiral
muscle-cells form contractile sphincters by which the pores can be
more or less closed. Ameeboid cells are to be found in all Calcarea ;
the ova are transformed ameeboid cells, which, when mature, are
inclosed by endothelium ; the first stages of development are passed
through in the body of the parent. The gland-cells are either single,
or arranged in small branches; highly refractive granules are to be
found in their interior. Spindle-shaped mesodermal cells, which
protrude beyond the outer coating of ectoderm, are to be found in the
Heteroceela, and are regarded as sensory. Multipolar ganglion-cells
have been observed in several species.
Reproduction of Spongilla lacustris.|| Dr. W. Marshall com-
municates a preliminary note as to the reproductive processes in this
fresh-water sponge.
(a) Formation of gemmule.—The gemmule or winter embryos are
formed in the neuter autumn Spongille from wandering nutritive
amceboid cells (“trophophores”) which accumulate in the inhalent
canals or in the ciliated chambers, whence they pass into mesoderm,
* Proc, Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, ix. (1885) pp. 968-76.
+ Ibid., pp, 908-24 (4 pls.). t Ibid., pp. 984-5.
§ Ibid., pp. 977-83. || SB. Naturf, Gesell. Leipzig, 1884, pp. 22-9,
1012 suUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
becoming grouped round one or more mesoderm cells as centres.
Round each clump or pseudomorula of nutritive cells a thin cuticle
is differentiated, outside which the mesoderm forms an endothelium
in which the horny and flinty materials of the capsule appear. After
the formation of the gemmule the mesoderm degenerates, and by the
end of autumn the whole Spongille usually breaks up.
(b) Structure and escape of the embryo.—The embryo within the
capsule is at first a morula-like mass of round uniform cells, with
abundant food-granules. With inception of water the cells become
polyhedral through the mutual pressure of growth, and gradually
come to form a mass with indistinguishable cell-boundaries. The
further growth of this syncytium is marked by the protrusion of a
large pseudopodium from the “microdiode,” “omphaloporus,’ or
capsule aperture. This process probably increases in size till it
draws the rest of the embryo out with it. The sponge embryo
escapes from the capsule in April or the beginning of May, and has
the form of a flattened sphere, in which it is possible to distinguish
the cells both of the clear ectoderm and of the granular inner sub-
stance, the endoderm. In most cases the young sponge remains
seated for twenty-four hours or so on the forsaken but still intact
capsule, over which the clear outer sheath sends out pseudopodia,
which are probably effective in abstracting from the gemmula the
rudiments of the flinty skeleton of the embryo.
(c) Further growth of the liberated embryo.—After leaving the
capsule the embryo increases in size at the expense of the store of
nutritive granules in the inner mass. I+ exhibits no demonstrable
power of active locomotion, and after floating about, in some cases for
two days, it settles down and exhibits a series of further changes, of
which the details seem to be somewhat variable, the characteristic
processes of other sponges being here united in the one form. In the
internal mass or ccenoblast an enteric cavity is developed either with
or without, and either before or after osculum and inhalent apertures.
By the end of May or first half of June the young Spongille are
sexually mature, and that unisexually. It seems probable that the
males are destitute of enteric cavity and mouth, with both of which
the more abundant and more spheroidal female forms are usually
provided. From these spring sexual forms the summer Spongillz
are developed in a manner closely resembling that previously de-
scribed in the case of Reniera filigrana. After fertilization the males
seem to perish, while the females after bearing the neuter forms
increase greatly in size till about the beginning of August, during
which growth the enteric cavities and mouth-openings are reduced in
size and not unfrequently disappear. There is thus in Spongilla.
lacustris a seasonal alternation of generations; the winter gemmule
form spring sexual Spongille, which produce asexual forms in which
arise the winter gemmule.
The Phoriospongie.*—Dr. R. v. Lendenfeld has obtained in
Australia the two sponges described by W. Marshall as repre-
* Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, x. (1885) pp. 81-4.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1013
sentatives of the new genus Phoriospongia, which is characterized as
sponges containing a large amount of foreign particles, sand, &c., and
also possessing siliceous spicules of the monactinellid type. Marshall
was inclined to consider all these sponges, described by himself and
others, as boring sponges, which, however, do not live in rocks or
shells as the true Vioa, but which live in sand. They perforate the
sand in all directions, and so produce a mass similar to a sponge, and
containing both the spicule of the sponge and the sand in which the
sponge took up its abode.
Dr. Lendenfeld, however, considers the two sponges (as well as
others which he found) as Ceraospongie, belonging to the group with
arenaceous irregular fibres. There are many Australian sponges with
a skeleton consisting of arenaceous fibres forming an irregular net-
work, thus connecting the Phoriospongize with the ordinary horny
sponges.
The author discusses the hypothesis put forward by Vosmaer,*
that the horny sponges are the descendants of the siliceous Monac-
tinellida, and upholds his previous view,t deriving the latter from
the former.
Sponges of the ‘Willem Barents’ Expedition.t—Dr. G. O. J.
Vosmaer describes and enumerates the thirty-eight sponges collected
by the ‘ Willem Barents’ Arctic expedition in 1880 and 1881. They
were not, unfortunately, so well preserved as to enable the writer to
make many anatomical or histological observations ; at the same time
the carefully prepared plates offer numerous points of interest.
Weberella bursa is the representative of a new genus, in which the
connective tissue is highly developed, and so makes the sponge com-
pact and resistent. Another new genus is Artemisina (A. suberitoides
n. sp.), Which has much of the appearance of a Suberites, but possesses
the anchors which are characteristic of the Desmacidine. The author
makes use of the stenographic system of describing the spicules which
he has done so much to bring into use, and the whole essay is
characterized by a desire to add to our knowledge of incompletely
known forms, and to refrain as much as possible from the establish-
ment of new genera or species.
New Sponges from South Australia.s—Dr. R. v. Lendenfeld in
reference to Mr. H. J. Carter’s description of sponges from the neigh-
bourhood of Port Phillip Heads, 8. Australia,|| contends that Halisarca
australiensis is not a sponge at all, but that the crusts described
are the ova of Boltenias surrounded by their follicula.{ The rest of
the paper is mainly a criticism on the new species established by
Carter, many of which are claimed to be identical with previously
recognized forms. Of the new genera, Holopsamma is the same as
Marshall’s Psammapemma, and Sarcocornea not properly established.
* See this Journal, ante, p, 75. t Ibid., iv. (1884) p. 394,
} Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde, xii. (1885) 47 pp. (5 pls.).
§ Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, x. (1885) pp. 151-6. 7
|| See this Journal, ante, p. 465. q Ibid., p. 233.
Ser. 2.— Vo. Y. 3 uU
1014 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Fresh-water Sponge from Mexico.* — Mr. E. Potts describes
Meyenia mexicana n. sp. collected by Prof. E. D. Cope in Lake
Xochimilco, about seventeen miles south of the City of Mexico. It
differs from the familiar M. fluviatilis chiefly in the far greater length
of the shafts of the birotulate spicules. It is further interesting as
being only the second species of fresh-water sponge to reach the hand
of specialists from that region of N. America.
Australian Sponges.j—Dr. R. von Lendenfeld’s third part of
his monograph contains a preliminary description and classification
of the Calcispongiz ; he accepts with some modifications Poléjaeft’s
sub-orders Homoccela and Heteroccela, which depend on the facts that
the endoderm in the one is, and in the other is not, differentiated
histologically. Grantessa is a new genus of Uteine, and a new sub-
family Vosmaerine is instituted for the new genus Vosmaeria, which,
with the appearance of a Syconid, does not form colonies; the new
genus Polejna appears as the type of the Polejne. Various new species
are described, and some of what others have regarded as varieties are
elevated to species.
In his fourth part t the author deals with the Myxospongie, which
he divides into the Myxinz (identical with the Halisarcine of O.
Schmidt) and the Gummine, in which the Chondroside are alone
found. The structure of Bajulus (B. laxus) n. gen. is fully described,
and there are descriptions of Chondrosia ramsayi and three new species
of Chondrilla.
Protozoa.
Experiments on Formation of Pseudopodia.s—Dr. O. Zacharias
reports a number of interesting results obtained by modifying the
environment of certain cells.
a. The cylindrical spermatozoa of Polyphemus pediculus, subjected
to a 5 per cent. solution of sodic phosphate in distilled water, lengthen
out, acquire pseudopodia at both ends, slowly contract again with
vigorous motion of the pseudopodia, become spherical and clad with
vibratile processes only describable as cilia. There was thus a
passage from a more or less quiescent to a pseudopodic and thence to
a ciliated phase, and Zacharias notes its interest as showing how
little essential difference there is between pseudopodia and cilia.
b. The ameeboid cells of the intestinal epithelium of Stenostomum
leucops, which have a spherical form and are provided with a bunch
of long cilia, were similarly treated with the result that they became
like flagellate infusorians, each with a long, thick, rapidly moving
process, beside which two or three cilia were sometimes seen beating
at the original much slower rate. In some Flagellata a similar
formation of pseudopodia sometimes occurs, as in Cercomonas ramulosa
St., and (c) the intermediate form Hzematococcus pluvialis Fltw. assumes
* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 810-11.
+ Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, ix. (1885) pp. 1083-1150 (9 pls.).
t Ibid., x. (1885) pp. 3-22 (5 pls.).
§ Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) pp. 259-62.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 1015
under certain conditions, e. g.in the stagnant water of old cultures,
an amceboid form. Zacharias notes the interesting corroboration thus
obtained of the phylogenetic origin of the Flagellata from amceboid
forms.
d. Schneider has shown how the spermatozoa of Nematodes
become ameceboid in albumen, and covered with little undulating
projections in salt solution.
e. Brass has shown how the formation of long thin pseudopodia
results from the treatment of Amebe with weak solution of alum.
f. Kiihne was also able to stimulate the formation of pseudopodia
in the plasmodia of Mycetozoa with dilute sugar solution, 0°1 per
cent. solution of common salt.
These experiments of Zacharias and others are interesting as
illustrations of the readiness with which cells may pass from one
phase to another in response to environmental influences, and are
thus full of suggestion in relation to normal and pathological cell-
variation, affording additional experimental proof of the theory of a
primitive cell-cycle, advanced by Geddes.
Coleps hirtus.*—-M. E. Maupas gives a careful account of this
infusorian ; he has been unable to come to any conclusion as to the
chemical characters of its carapace, so as to be certain whether there
is a true integument or cytoderm ; he doubts the presence of the fine
membrane connecting the large modified oral cilia which has been
mentioned by Entz. Coleps is sometimes carnivorous, and sometimes
herbivorous. To study the structure of the nuclein it is best to kill
the animal with the vapour of osmic acid, wash with 1 per cent.
chloride of gold solution, and clear up with glycerin ; to kill directly
with chloride of gold; or to replace the wash with gold by one with
2 per cent. chromic acid.
After reviewing the opinions of various authors as to the zoological
position of Coleps, M. Maupas ranges himself with Ehrenberg, who
formed a famiiy Colepide, based on the presence of the solid carapace,
which is a special and dominant structure. The only known method
of multiplication is by transverse fission, and in this division the
carapace takes an important part.
Supposed new Infusorian.t—Mr. G. J. Burch, in March 1884,
found in a ditch at Oxford an animalcule apparently undescribed,
and belonging to the Flagellata Kustomata.
Each colony consisted of a compound stem, no portion of which
was contractile, bearing from 10 to 50 heads upon branchlets somewhat
thinner than the mainstem. These heads appeared in most positions
of an irregular pear-shape, the broad end projecting on one side into
a blunt proboscis from which arose a single stout flagellum. About
the centre of the creature was a very strongly refracting oval spot
with a somewhat corrugated surface. Between this and the mouth,
which lies in a cup-shaped depression close under the proboscis, was
a passage the walls of which could be distinctly seen even when there
* Arch. Zool. Wxpér. et Gén., iii. (1885) pp. 337-67 (1 pl.).
¢ Journ, Quekett Mier. Club, ii. (1885) pp, 163-4,
3u 2
ae
1016 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
was no food in it. The creature was remarkably active and snatched
its prey in a peculiar manner. If found to belong to an old genus
the specific name raptor is suggested for it, or if a new genus,
Harpakier socialis.
Erythropsis agilis.*—Dr. E. Metschnikow remarks that a Pro-
tozoon described by himself under the same name is probably not
identical with Hertwig’s Hrythropsis agilis; it is a scarce species
belonging to the Acinetz, and only occurred in one instance out of a
daily examination of the surface water lasting for six months. The
species, like H. agilis, has a conspicuous eye, which differs in pos-
sessing a conical body beneath the pigment sheath, which is perhaps
the first differentiation of a nervous apparatus. The species occurred
near Funchal, in Madeira.
Flagellata and allied Organisms.;—Dr. C. Fisch has studied
eleven forms, among which are Chromulina woroniniana nu. sp., Chilo-
monas paramecium, Bodo jaculans, Monas guttula, and Amba diffluens.
Although the form of the body differs considerably in details, yet it
is possible to “ orient ” them all in the same way, and to distinguish
the following constituent parts ; cytoplasm, tegumentary layer, nucleus,
one or more contractile vacuoles, cilia, and, generally also, nutrient
vacuoles.
The cytoplasm is ordinarily homogeneous and generally finely
granular; no special structure can be made out in it; it is ordinarily
pretty firm, and may be markedly so. The cilia seem to have the
same chemical constitution as the integumentary layer, but are not so
intensely coloured by iodine; they are not, as is ordinarily repre-
sented, more delicate at the tip than elsewhere; they are the most
sensitive organs of the Flagellata and are destroyed by the removal
of oxygen. The nucleus has a definite position, and is most often
vesicular in form. As a rule there is but one contractile vacuole,
and it, like the nucleus, has a definite position in the body.
The author describes the chromatophores, but denies the presence
of eye-spots. He is of opinion that the green alge are allied to the
Flagellata.
Dr. Fisch enters with great detail into the special history
of a number of species, among which there are, in addition to those
already mentioned Cyathomonas truncata, Codosiga botrytis, Paranema
trichophorum, Arhabdomonas vulgaris, Grassia ranarum, and Proto-
chytrium spirogyre. As to the last it seems to be most closely allied
to “ Monas amyli.” It is not to be denied that the zoosporous
Monadina are low Flagellata, but they have no relation to Vampy-
rella.
Marine Rhizopoda.{ — Prof. O. Biitschli commences with an
account of some observations on the nuclei; the first subjects are
Peneroplis pertusus and P. planatus ; in one case several nuclei were
seen in one organism, and a finely plexiform arrangement of the
* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 433-4.
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlii. (1885) pp. 47-125 (4 pls.).
$ Morphol. Jahrb., xi. (1885) pp. 78-101 (2 pls.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 1017
nuclear substance could be made out. The author’s observations on
Orbitolites complanata were made before the publication of Dr.
Carpenter’s recent work ; he met with great difficulties in his investi-
gations, but was able to detect in all the forms he examined a number
of small nuclei in the protoplasm ; by the aid of sections and staining
with hematoxylin or saffranin he saw that the nuclei were rounded
or oval, or occasionally elongated; in structure they were plexiform
and the only difference between those of different sizes were that the
meshes were more numerous in those that were larger. No definite
evidence as to the presence of nucleoli was obtained. The peripheral
chambers were, as a rule, found to be best provided with nuclei. In
one of Biitschli’s preparations of Lagena elegans a large number of
rounded bodies were found in the protoplasm, but he cannot definitely
assert that they were nuclei.
A species of Textularia from Villefranche afforded evidence that
the primitively simple nucleus underwent multiplication. Spirillina
vivipara was observed in a living condition; the protoplasm, like the
shell, was completely colourless, and contained a number of small
colourless highly refractive granules; the protoplasm exhibited
evidence of a centrifugal and a centripetal stream; there were a
number of nuclei, which were often elongated in form, and had more
or less highly coloured contents; the nuclei were so exceedingly small
as to make it very difficult to get a’clear idea as to their structure.
The large and fine Rotaline Calcarina splengeri, from Kerguelen and
Fiji, contained only one nucleus, and that not especially large, though
generally easy to see; it appears to gradually wander from the central
into the successively younger chambers, just as in forms already
studied ; it is oval in shape, and has a distinct plexiform basis; the
central part may be seen to be formed of a much finer meshwork.
With regard to the structure of the protoplasm in marine
Rhizopods, the author insists on its plexiform character ; although he
has not been able to examine their pseudopodia, yet in Actinospherium
he has been able to see that, at any rate, the thicker proximal parts
of the pseudopodia exhibit a plexiform structure ; in the finer terminal
parts he sometimes distinctly saw a row of very small vacuoles in the
middle of a pseudopodium.
Parasitic cells are to be found in the protoplasm, and in the
Orbitolites there were a number of small spherical structures, very
regularly distributed; often, indeed, the proper protoplasm of a
chamber is quite pushed into the background. As his specimens
were preserved in alcohol, he cannot speak absolutely as to their
original colouring matter, but he has no doubt that it corresponds to
that of the so-called zooxanthellw. In a living Peneroplis he has
been able to observe a deep brownish-red coloration. The colouring
matter found in marine Rhizopods is ordinarily converted into green
under the action of alcohol.
New Condition of Reticular Rhizopods.*—M. de Folin has
noticed among the naked Rhizopods forms provided with ramified
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 327-8.
1018 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
tubes which so intercross as to give the appearance of an irregular
plexus. These he calls Pseudarkys. They are frequently to be found
in the cavities which are afforded by old perforated tests. One and
the same species was found in various retreats in a number of the
‘Travailleur’ dredgings; among those of the ‘Talisman’ there was
an example which showed a remarkable alteration in its mode of
hiding itself; instead of penetrating into a retreat already made, it
surrounded itself with corpuscles, and especially with Globigerine,
In another case the covering was made of grains of sand, and of small
tests of Mollusca or their débris. In yet other cases the organism
covers itself with a composition of secretion and sarcode, quite
analogous to that which forms the tests of the porcellanous Forami-
nifera. For such forms the author proposes to establish the
genus Lithozoa, which will, he expects, be found to contain several
species.
Ameba infesting Sheep.*—Sheep in New South Wales are affected
by a disease which appears to be very similar to epithelial cancer, and
is met with on the feet behind the hoofs and also on the lips and
nostrils and the gums of lambs. The epithelium in these places
grows with pathological rapidity, the horny layer produced soon
attains a thickness of 3-5 mm., the wool drops out in the diseased
parts and below the thick outer layer a festering process sets in.
After some time a new epithelium makes its appearance below the
festering layer. Then, provided the lamb does not die, the thick
horny layer is thrown off like scurf, and the epithelium below attains
new wool and replaces the old skin.
In studying the circumstances in which these sheep live, Dr. R. v.
Lendenfeld found that they were invariably exposed to being wounded
in those places which eventually developed the disease, blistered by
standing on rocks heated by the sun after they had been standing in
water for several hours, or pricked by the spines of the variegated
thistle, and it was found by a process of artificial breeding in an
aquarium that the disease is produced by an Amceba (A. parasitica
n.sp.), which enters the wounds and multiplies rapidly in the epi-
thelium, causing very strong irritation. The organism is found
between the layers of horny substance. It does not differ morpho-
logically from the well-known A. princeps of Ehrenberg.
Dr. Lendenfeld adds, “It is well known that several fungi in
certain stages of their life appear very similar to Amebe, and so it is
not impossible that my Amcba is in some connection with them. I
do not consider this probable, however, as I made no observation
which might lead one to suppose that the Amba ever divided into a
multitude of swarming spores.”
Critical Notes on Amcebe.t—Dr. G. C. Wallich, after some critical
notes on the recent contributions to our knowledge of the Amebe
made by Dr. Gruber and quotations from his own and other papers,
observes that, in his experience the number of nuclei may vary almost
* Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, x. (1885) pp. 35-8 (1 pl.). ©
+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1885) pp. 215-27.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1019
to any moderate extent, and that it is not a legitimate conclusion to
regard as distinct species forms which differ only by having multiple
nuclei. As to the effects of pressure, it seems certain that “no pressure
of any ordinary kind could actually compress a fluid or semifluid sub-
stance like sarcode, even in the slightest degree.’ Even if pressure
acts, as Gruber thinks, by extracting water, the explanation would not
account for the collapse as well as the inflation with fluid of the con-
tractile vesicle; further, the pressure referred to by Dr. Gruber is
exercised at the posterior aspect of the Ameba, and as the contractile
vesicle almost always discharges itself in that region, it would be
doing so in the teeth of the force which is, at the very same time,
exerting itself in projecting pseudopodia in the opposite direction.
Pseudocyclosis in Ameba.*—Dr. G.C. Wallich calls attention
to the fact that in 1863+ he explained the quasi-circulatory move-
ment of particles in the body-substance of Amba on the same basis
as that recently advanced by Mr. 8. Lockwood, { and which he con-
siders to be the only rational explanation of the phenomena which is
compatible with the readily observable facts of the case.
BOTANY.
A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogainia.
a. Anatomy.§
Various Degrees of Resistance in Protoplasm.||— Dr. O. Loew
distinguishes between sensitive and resisting protoplasm, all inter-
mediate grades occurring, however, between the extremes. A remark-
able sensitiveness is shown, for example, by Spheroplea, the cell-
protoplasm dying with the slightest mechanical impact; while in
Vaucheria the protoplasm which has been pressed out remains long in
a living state. A similar difference is exhibited in the effect of
chewical reagents. Whilea 1 percent. solution of ammonium chloride
kills Spirogyra in a very short time, it is completely unchanged in a
solution of 0°01 per cent. until the sixth or eighth day, when a
separation of granules takes place in the colourless protoplasm which
reduces neutral silver-solutions. In contrast to Spirogyra, Torula is
very resistent to a 1 per cent. solution of ammonium chloride, and
will even live in a 10 per cent. solution at 40°C. for some time.
* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 190-3.
¢ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xi. (1863) p. 365, xii. (1863) pp. 111, 329, and
448. Also Mon. Micr. Journ., i, (1869) p. 233.
~ Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 46-7.
§ This -ubdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm (including the
Nucleus and Cell-division); (2) Other Cell-contents (including the Cell-sap and
Chlorophyll); (3) Seeretions; (4) Structure of Tissues; and (5) Structure of
Organs.
|| Pfliiger’s Arch. f. Gesammt. Physiol., xxxv. (1885) pp. 509-16,
1020 sUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Torula is even but very slightly sensitive to hydrocyanic acid ; and the
alcoholic fermentation of grape-sugar goes on unaffected even by a
2 per cent. solution of chinolin.
Even in the same organism, the resistance to external agents often
varies greatly. Both the Saccharomycetes and Schizomycetes endure
a higher temperature than most alge, but die more quickly in an
alkaline silver-solution. As a general rule, the resistance decreases
with a rise of temperature; while a lower temperature retards the
vital movements, and thus increases the power of resistance.
Peculiar Structure of Protoplasm in the Paratracheal Paren-
chyma.*— Dr. E. Giltay describes a peculiar structure of the proto-
plasm in the layer of small, often very irregular and lignified,
parenchymatous cells which surround the large vessels with bordered
pits in the stem of Bryonia dioica. It consists in a differentiation of
the outer layer of the protoplasm of these cells into closely packed
rods, very difficult to detect without staining, but rendered very
evident by the deep staining from hematoxylin. Other reagents
produce no effect on them. The author suggests that their function
may be connected with the conduction of water.
Tannin and Lignin in Galls.;—According to Herr C. Hartwich,
the starch which is found in abundance in the nutritive layer of
Infectoria-galls is not used directly for the nutrition of the larva, but
undergoes in the first place transformation into other substances.
Among these are round or irregular bright brown-red balls of tannin,
not exceeding 30 w in diameter; and among them, but not so common,
peculiar colourless or yellowish bodies, usually of an ovoid form,
which he has determined to consist chiefly of lignin.
Conditions of the Development and of the Activity of Chloro-
phyll.t—Dr. J. H. Gilbert gives an account of some experiments made
in conjunction with Dr. W. J. Russell, which show a close connection to
exist between the formation of chlorophyll and the amount of nitrogen
assimilated by plants; the amount of carbon assimilated is not, how-
ever, in proportion to the chlorophyll formed, unless a sufficiency of
mineral substances, required by the plants, is available. In cases
where both nitrogenous and mineral manures were applied, a lower
proportion was observed of nitrogen assimilated and chlorophyll
formed over a given area, which is no doubt due to the greater assimi-
lation of carbon and consequent greater formation of non-nitrogenous
substances, although the amounts of nitrogen assimilated and chloro-
phyll formed were as great, if not greater.
Sieve-tubes in the Leaves of Dicotyledons.§—Dr. A. Fischer
gives the following as the results ofa number of observations.
The width of the sieve-tubes, and of their accompanying cells,
decreases with the diameter of the veins of the leaves; but the sieve-
tubes decrease in width much more rapidly than the accompanying
* Nederl. Kruidk. Arch., 1884, p. 187. See Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1885) p. 199.
t+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 146-50 (1 pl.).
t Nature, xxxii. (1885) p. 539. (Paper read before the British Association,
Section B.)
§ Ber. Verhandl. K. Sachs. Gesell. Wiss., 1885, pp. 245-90 (2 ple.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1021
cells. In the finest ramifications the latter are at least as wide as,
and in most cases wider than, the sieve-tubes. In many dicotyledons,
especially those with bicollateral vascular bundles, the accompanying
cells of the finest ramifications of the veins have even a larger diameter
than in the leaf-stalk and stem. Koch’s peripheral cells—the tran-
sitional cells of Fischer—are these broad accompanying cells. In all
collateral and bicollateral dicotyledons, with the sole exception of the
Cucurbitacez, the finest ramifications of the bundles have a collateral
structure. In the sieve-portion which lies beneath the vascular
portion, imperfect sieve-tubes always occur along with the broad
accompanying cells, and the cambiform which is sometimes scarcely
distinguishable from them. These imperfect sieve-tubes are very
narrow, and have no distinct sieve-discs; they contain little or
no protoplasm, and no nucleus, but sometimes mucilage; frequently
they are filled only with a watery fluid.
The blind ends of the veins in the lamina of the leaf are of two
kinds, principal and secondary. The secondary ends never contain
sieve-tubes, and in all collateral dicotyledons consist only of tracheids.
Among bicollateral dicotyledons, only the Cucurbitacez have bicol-
lateral secondary ends to the veins; the lower sieve-portion is in these
represented by a row of broad accompanying cells, the upper sieve-
portion by elongated cells containing but little protoplasm and no
nucleus. All other bicollateral dicotyledons agree with the collateral
in the structure of the secondary ends of the veins. The principal
ends of all collateral and bicollateral dictyledons have always a lower
complete sieve-portion, of the same composition as in the finest rami-
fications ; and this always ceases before or along with the tracheids,
never after them. In all the principal ends are also the blind ends
of imperfect sieve-tubes.
The author disputes the statement of Areschoug that in TIlez,
Tilia, and Buzus, the blind ends of sieve-tubes penetrate between the
cells of the loose parenchyma, independently of the veins; the ob-
servation arises from a confusion with sclerenchymatous fibres. In
Buzus the blind ends consist only of sclerenchymatous fibres, which
have here assumed the function of tracheids, and must apparently be
regarded as elements for the conduction of water. In Buwus, Quercus,
Juglans, and Aristolochia, there are no blind ends of sieve-tubes in the
lamina of the leaf, and no principal ends.
The sieve-portions of all dicotyledons examined always contain
sieve-tubes, accompanying cells, and cambiform. The cambiform, in
which the accompanying cells were formerly included, takes no part,
or only a subsidiary one, in the conduction of albuminoids; its chief
function is probably to furnish the materials for the production of
albuminoids, The accompanying cells are the special seat of the
formation of albuminoids, as is shown by their increase in size in the
ultimate ramifications of the veins in the leaf. Fully formed sieve-
tubes take no part in the production of albuminoids, but are the
special organs for their conduction.
A list of sixty-two species is appended, to all of which these remarks
apply, with the limitations named.
1022 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
‘Sclerotioids” of Potato.*—Mr. A. S. Wilson finds in the leaves
of diseased potatoes sclerotium-like bodies composed partly of proto-
plasm and partly of calcium oxalate, which he believes to be connected
with the disease, the protoplasm not being found within the cells,
but in the intercellular spaces through which the mycelium of the
Phytophthora passes, consisting, therefore, probably of the remains of
thefungus. Mr. G. Murray, on the contrary, maintains that they are
merely mechanical concretions of the protoplasm of the cells of the
leaf with calcium oxalate.
Laticiferous Vessels.;—Prof. 8. Schwendener has investigated
the laticiferous vessels of a number of plants, with the view specially
of determining the following points:—the special conditions which
cause the occasional very considerable thickening of their walls; the
physical properties of their walls; and the cause of the movements
in the latex.
The thickness of the walls was not found to be proportional to the
age of the vessels; nor is there any simple arithmetical relationship
between the thickness of the walls and the diameter of the tubes.
The thick-walled tubes frequently bound intercellular spaces full of
air, while those with thin walls permeate the parenchyma which is
without interstices. The object of the thickness appears to be to
present a resistance to the pressure of the contents, which may
amount to several atmospheres. This is shown by the fact that if
drops of desiccated latex, which are frequently found in the tubes,
are dissolved in ether, the diameter of the tubes diminishes 4 or 5 per
cent., while their walls increase 50 per cent. or more in thickness.
It follows also from this observation that the inner lamelle of the
walls undergo greater tension from the contents than the outer
lamelle ; the former show remarkable tenacity and elasticity, and
can be stretched at least 10 or 15 per cent. in the direction of their
length.
This elastic tension of the walls may obviously occasion move-
ments in the contents of the tubes; such a movement towards the
points of least pressure can be observed in the latex of seedlings of
Chelidonium majus ; for example, in the apex of the tap-root. Varia-
tions of pressure are brought about in the living plant by the elonga-
tion of the laticiferous tubes in the apical growth of the organ, and
by changes in the composition of the latex. The author was able
also to demonstrate a mass-movement of the latex by observation of
the form and distribution of the solid substances found in it, especially
starch-grains. Even unseptated laticiferous tubes may become closed
by the pressure of the adjacent parenchyma, or by the formation of
walls within the tubes.
With regard to substances excreted in the latex, it was found to be
considerably more watery in withered or half-withered fig-leayes, in
mulberry-shoots in the hibernating state, in roots of Tragopogon
from which the leaves had been removed, in specimens of Lactuca
* Proc. R. Hort. Soc., 1885, March 10. See Journ. of Bot., xxiii. (1885) p. 74.
+ SB. K. Preuss. Akad, Wiss., 1885, pp. 323-36 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 1023
and Chelidonium grown in the dark, than under normal conditions.
Whether this is caused by the resorption of the solid particles contained
in the latex, the author was unable to determine. These solid particles,
consisting of resin, caoutchouc, &c., he believes to be actual products
of excretion, of no further use to the plant. They probably perform
a purely mechanical function.
Spiral Cells of Nepenthes.*—Herren L. Kny and A. Zimmermann
have investigated the structure and functions of the elongated spiral
cells which are found in the pith and cortex of the stem and in all
parts of the leaves of Nepenthes phyllamphora. With regard to function,
they conclude that the purpose of these structures is the storing up,
and possibly the uniform distribution, of water through the as-
similating tissue. They appear to have no mechanical function of
supporting the tissues in which they are found.
Fibrovascular Bundles of Cycadex.;|—MM. J. Costantin and L.
Morot have determined the previously unsolved question of the origin
of the supernumerary fibrovascular bundles in Cycadex, taking as
their example Cycas siamensis. They find their origin to be in the
pericycle, like those of Draczna and of the Chenopodiacew. The
successive layers formed by these bundles are not independent of one
another; the first is connected with the normal fibrovascular circle by
a certain number of anastomoses; and the following layers are united
in the same way with one another, so as to present a network of larger
or smaller meshes. ‘These bundles, like those of Monocotyledons,
appear at a very early period at the base of the stem, in connection
with the adventitious roots. This was observed also in Encephalartos
Altensteinii and Ceratozamia mexicana.
Relation of Annual Rings of Exogens to Age.t—Prof. D. P.
Penhallow, while hardly feeling justified in drawing decisive con-
clusions from his observations on this subject, considers that they
furnish certain indications which it may be well to state as a guide
to future and confirmatory observations. They are as follows :—
1. The formation of rings of growth is chiefly determined by
whatever operates to produce alternating periods of physiological
activity. In temperate climates, where the seasons are sharply
defined, these periods are determined by the seasons themselves, but
in tropical and sub-tropical latitudes other influences, recurring at less
regular periods, operate to determine them ;—therefore
2. In cold climates, rings of growth are an approximately correct
index of age, but in warm climates they are of little or no value in
this respect.
3. Even in cold climates there is not an absolute correspondence
between number of rings formed and years of growth.
4. In warm climates the tendency is to obliteration of rings and
homogeneity of structure.
5. The distinction of rings is essentially due to structural modifi-
* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 123-8 (1 fig.).
+ Bull. Soc. Bot, France, vii. (1885) pp. 173-5.
} Canadian Recurd of Science, i, (1885) pp. 162-75.
1024 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
cations sometimes aided by local deposit of pigment or resin, and this
modification of structure is due in part to pressure of the external
structure upon the formative tissues, and in part to physiological
peculiarities of the plant itself independently of such pressure.
These indications are thus seen to be essentially in accord with
the views generally held at the present time.
6. The influence of meteorological conditions in determining the
growth of each season is most important, particularly with reference
to rainfall.
7. Periodicity in rainfall corresponds with periodicity in growth.
Anatomy of Pitcher-plants.*—MM. E. Heckel and J. Chareyre
report the results of an anatomical investigation of various pitcher-
plants belonging to the genera Sarracenia, Darlingtonia, and Nepenthes.
In the pitcher of Sarracenia they distinguish (1) the lid region, of
which the upper (exterior) epidermis presents the ordinary leaf sur-
face, while the lower surface is formed from cells with sinuous walls,
and is furnished with very long, rigid, transparent, downward directed
hairs. (2) The cells of the very short throat region are rectangular,
elongated in the direction of the greatest dimension of the leaf. The
cell-walls are thick, and on the external wall there is developed an
extremely short, shining, downward directed hair-process. (3) The
median region occupies two-thirds or the upper half of the pitcher.
It has an epidermis of large cells with sinuous walls and abundant
protoplasmic contents, and between its cells there occur numerous
glands of eight cells, four triangular central, and four much larger
peripheral. (4) The foot of the pitcher is alone assimilative; it is
lined by small epidermic cells with rectilinear walls, some inclosing
colouring matter, and all provided with abundant protoplasm. The
hairs are very numerous, rigid, coloured, and directed downwards.
The cavities of Darlingtonia californica, the only species of that
genus examined, are anatomically wholly comparable with this fourth
region.
In Nepenthes (1) the epidermis of both surfaces of the lid has
sinuous cells with almost sessile glands, of which the base is formed of
a single short cell, and the head of four or five reddish cells, forming
a rosette. Delicate multicellular reddish hairs also occur. The
other characters are those of the leaf. (2) The throat region forms
the upper half of the pitcher below the collar, and is provided with an
epidermis of sinuous cells, with abundant protoplasm and distinct
nucleus. Many of the cells exhibit a swallow’s-nest-shaped cavity,
with greyish granular contents, and downward directed opening.
The mesophyll layer of this and of the next region exhibits nnmerous
cells with crystals of oxalate of lime, while others more numerous
possess a very large nucleus and abundant colourless granules, with
active Brownian movement. (8) The epidermal cells of the foot of
the pitcher have very thick walls, and the glands are formed from a
mass of small somewhat thick-walled cells, with abundant protoplasm
and bright red colour. The glands are contained in a nest formed
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 579-82.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1025
of several cells, and the opening is directed downwards. The base
of the pitcher always contains fewer animal remains than Sarracenia.
Vegetative Organs of Monotropa.*—M. F. Kamienski describes
in detail the structure of Monotropa hypopitys. The most important
point of his observations refers to the root, which he finds to be
covered externally by the mycelium of a fungus, which branches
abundantly and forms a pseudo-parenchymatous envelope, often two
or three times the thickness of the epidermis itself, being especially
well developed at the apex of the root. It is entirely superficial, not
penetrating into the living cells, though occasionally between the
epidermal cells. The species of this fungus M. Kamienski was unable
to determine, but considers it to be probably identical with that found
on the roots of conifers and other trees.
With regard to the mode of nutrition of Monotropa, M. Kamienski
decides that it is not a parasite; the most careful examination failed
in detecting any haustoria or other parasitic union with the root of any
“host.” He regards it as deriving its nutriment from the soil through
the medium of the fungus-mycelium by which the roots are invested ;
the only parts of the root which are in actual contact with the soil
are composed of lifeless cells with no power of deriving nutriment
from it. The connection of the fungus with the roots of the Monotropa
is not one of parasitism, but of true symbiosis, each of the two
organisms deriving support and nutriment from the other.
Protection of Leaves from excessive Transpiration.{—Herr E.
Fleischer describes the various modes in which plants are protected
against too great a loss of water through their leaves in respect of
(1) the size, form, and position of the leaves; (2) the number, size,
and structure of the stomata; (3) the size and form of the intercel-
lular spaces; (4) the thickness of the outer epidermal walls, including
formation of cuticle, coating of wax, or covering of hairs; (5) nature
of the cell-contents; and (6) vital functions of the protoplasm.
Those plants which are best protected against desiccation have a
feeble energy of growth from the small quantity of carbonic acid
which they absorb, and also from their small absorption of water in
consequence of the diminished transpiration. Such plants are unable
to maintain themselves in moist situations, and confine themselves to
dry localities, while their leaves usually persist through two periods
of vegetation ; in the temperate zone they are mostly evergreen trees
and shrubs.
Heterophylly of Eucalyptus globulus.§—Sig. G. Briozi suggests
the following history of the dimorphism of the leaves of this tree.
He supposes the original form and position of the leaves to have been
broad and horizontal, and that the tree is probably descended from
ancestors adapted to totally different climatic conditions. The vertical
* Mem. Soc. Nation. Sci. Nat. Cherbourg, xxiv. (1884) pp. 5-40 (3 pls.).
+ See this Journal, ante, p. 844.
t Fleischer, E., ‘Die Schutzeinrichtungen der Pflanzenblatter gegen Ver-
trocknung’ (1 pl.), Dobeln, 1885. See Bot, Centralbl., xxii. (1885) p. 356.
§ Mem. Accad. Lincei, xiv. (1883) pp. 136-42. See Naturforscher, xviii.
(1885) p. 296.
1026 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
position and various form of the leaves in the upper part of older
trees is an attempt to adapt themselves to new conditions, when the
intensity of the sun’s rays is above the optimum for the species, by
greatly diminishing the surface of leaf exposed to the direct action of
sunlight.
Cecidomyia-galls on Poa.*—Herr W. Beyerinck has examined
the structure of the remarkable galls produced on the internodes of
the stem of Poa nemoralis by the attacks of Cecidomyia Poe. While,
under normal conditions, grasses are able to produce roots only from
the nodes, these galls are clothed with a thick matting of roots pro-
duced from the pericambial layer of the internodes. When first
formed these roots differ in no respect from ordinary underground
roots, being provided with a root-cap, and a central vascular cylinder
with a few pitted vessels, but with no root-hairs. In the course of
development they assume more and more the character of aerial roots,
and lose their root-cap.
Opening of the Flowers of Desmodium sessilifolium.t —Prof.
C. E. Bessey describes the opening of the flowers of Desmodium
sessilifolium; the principal phenomenon connected with this being
that the resistance offered by the sepals is such as to cause the wings
and keel, with their inclosed stamens and pistil, to be strongly de-
flexed. The stamens and pistil are thus drawn downward as one
might draw down the end of a stiff spring. On pushing the standard
gently back by a touch with a pencil point near the vicinity of the
two bright yellowish-white eye-like spots on its dark-coloured base,
the stamens and pistil are freed with a violent jerk. The object of
this mechanism is obviously to cause the pollen to be thrown forcibly
against the body of any insect hovering over the flower or resting
upon its wings and keel.
Inflorescence of Cuscuta glomerata.{—In his studies of this
degraded member of the Convolvulacez, Prof. C. E. Bessey has found
that the dodder produces its flowers upon short, adventitious branches,
which themselves repeatedly branch, and are closely covered with
scales. A further examination shows that this is the universal rule
with the species, no normal inflorescence developing. The adventitious
inflorescence always bears a definite relation to the position of the
parasitic roots; that portion of the stem which produces roots always
produces flowers; and the greater the number of the former, the larger
is the number of the latter. The stem proper dies away soon, not
only between the inflorescences, but also in the flower-clusters them-
selves. The flowering branches establish direct structural connection
with the host-plant. When this is accomplished, the scales upon the
branches often contain considerable quantities of chlorophyll.
Relation of Ovary and Perianth in the development of Dicoty-
ledons.§—Prof. J. M. Coulter describes a simple and important
* Bot. Ztg., xliii, (1885) pp. 305-15, 321-32 (1 pl.).
+ Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 711-3 (4 figs.).
t Science, vi. (1885) pp. 225-6. Pros! Sect. of Biology, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci.)
§ Bot. Gazette, x, (1885) pp. 360-3.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1027
character of systematic value observed in the study of the embryology
of the dandelion. On comparing the same rudimentary stages of a
large number of families, it was found that the character of superior
or inferior ovary was the first to manifest itself. In the case of an
inferior ovary, the protuberance which is to develope into the flower is
arrested in its axial development, grows into a collar (the nascent
floral envelopes); and there soon appears an external constriction
separating the floral envelopes above from the ovary below. In the
case of a superior ovary, the axial development is continued, and there
is no external constriction. On such a basis the Composite stand at
the head of the list, then Umbeilifere, Rubiacew, &e. The second
group, that with a superior ovary, includes Leguminose, Scrophu-
lariacex, Labiate, &e.
Elasticity in the Fruit of Cactacee.*—Mr. T. Meehan remarks
on the elastic characters exhibited by the fruit of Mamillaria Heyderi
and other species. This Mamillaria, under cultivation, flowers in April
or May, and, after flowering, there is no sign of any development
in the fruit. The ovary is, indeed, buried between the closely
appressed walls of the bases of the mamma. Here the fruits, which
are two inches in length, remain undiscernible till just before the
next flowering season, when they suddenly emerge, and in a single
night apparently stretch out to their full length. The same sudden
appearance of the fruit has been noticed in Mamillaria Nuttalliana and
some allied Mexican species. That the sudden development is the
result of an elastic projection and not of a proper growth, is manifest
from the fact that the fruit is mature from its first appearance.
Use of Spinesin Cactuses.t—Mr. T. Meehan considers that one of
the uses of these spines is to break the full force of the sun on the
plant. Plant-lovers set out their treasures in summer under “ arbors ”
of fish-netting or galvanized wire, and those who have no experience
- would be surprised to find how the moving shadows of the twine or
wire lower the temperature. A mass of spines on a cactus must
certainly have the same effect. A cactus does not need much light on
its epidermis to keep it healthy. Mr. Meehan adds, “I do not suppose
I have yet reached the final purpose of spines in a cactus any more
than we have the final purpose in the existence of the cactus itself,
but that one use of cactus spines is to furnish a partial shade I feel to
be beyond a doubt.”
8. Physiology.{
Theory of Descent.§—Prof. E. Strasburger regards the act of re-
production in flowering plants as consisting in the union of the
* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1885, pp. 117-9.
+ Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xii. (1885) pp. 60-1.
t This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction (including the formation of the
Embryo and accompanying processes); (2) Germination ; (3) Nutrition; (4) Growth;
(5) Respiration ; (6) Movement; and (7) Chemical processes (including Fermen-
tation).
§ Strasburger, E., ‘ Neue Unters. iib. den Befructungsvorgang fiir eine
Theorie der Zeugung,’ Jena, 1884. See Naturforscher, xviii. (1885) p. 326.
1028 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
nucleus of the sperm-cell with the nucleus of the germ-cell, and as
being therefore of the nature of a process of nutrition. The course
of this union and the part taken in it by each constituent portion of
the nucleus is described in detail. The elements of the nuclei which
are not morphologically differentiated actually coalesce ; the nuclear
threads, on the contrary, of the two nuclei, do not coalesce, but simply
lay themselves in apposition one to another, and actually coalesce in
the daughter-nucleus only after the complete division of the germinal
nucleus. The segments then unite by their ends into a single thread,
which consists, therefore, half of segments derived from the father
and half of segments derived from the mother, and hence, in inverse
ratio, of portions derived from their more remote ancestors. This is,
according to Strasburger, the morphological explanation of the
inheritance of characters by descent, No morphological facts support
the hypothesis of a difference in function of the two portions of the
nucleus in conjugation ; there are no special male or female elements
which unite in the process. The influences of the male or female
parent on the offspring are the result of special characteristics
inherited by them from their ancestors.
Hybridization and Cross-breeding of Plants.*—Dr. E. L. Sturt-
evant details his observations on crossed beans, maize, barley, peppers,
tomatoes, squash, lettuce, and peas, from the results of which he
concludes that in our domesticated vegetables cross-fertilization shows
its effects at once in the reproduction of the form-species and
varieties which are involved in the parentage of the crossed seed,
and that when “pure seed” is crossed, intermediate forms rarely
occur, but the original parents in variable proportions.
Fertilization of the Wild Onion. }—Mr. A. E. Foerste describes
the fertilization of the (American) wild onion (Allium cernuum), The
flowers are arranged in dense umbels, and there are six stamens, which
arrive at maturity one after the other, the outer row developing first.
The style remains short, maturing after the anthers have burst. The
last stamen has shed its pollen before the stigma matures. The sta-
mens composing the outer row are partly enfolded by the inner
perianth-whorl, to which they are attached at their base. This tube
serves as a guide to the nectary, which lies just in front of the base
of the inner perianth-whorl. The nectary itself consists of three
organs placed so as to cover the ovary, being adnate to it, and bilobed
above in such a manner that the contiguous lobes approach each other,
and serve as a cover to the three nectary glands just beneath their
place of meeting. The lobes afterwards appear as six teeth cresting
the maturing ovary. Cross-fertilization is necessary in these plants,
and is effected by bees of various sizes. Self-fertilization is apparently
impossible.
Fertilization in Campanula americana.{—Prof. Charles R. Barnes
finds that in this strongly proterandrous species, the pollen is scraped
* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 1040-4. See also p, 995.
+ Ibid., pp. 601-2 ¢4 figs.).
t Bot. Gazette, x. (1885) pp. 349-54 (1 pl.). See also infra, p. 1088.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1029
out of the anthers by the hairy style at a period anterior to the
maturation of the stigmas; before the occurrence of which the
pollen has disappeared from the style. In this manner cross-fertiliza-
tion is rendered certain. The pollen developes normally. The
stigmas are held together until mature by interlocking papille.
The hairs on the style become partially introverted, and thus free the
pollen.
The pollen-grain contains two nuclei, the larger of which, the
vegetative nucleus, becomes disorganized shortly after entering the
pollen-tube, while the smaller spindle-shaped generative nucleus per-
sists. The embryo-sac is cylindrical, with a gradual enlargement
near the micropylar end, where is located the egg-apparatus, and an
abrupt enlargement at the chalazal end, in which lie the antipodal
cells. The embryo-sac has usually two nuclei. The pollen-tubes
enter the style between the bases of the papille of the stigma, pass
down in the strands of the conducting tissue, and not through the
central canal around which this tissue is arranged.
Influence of Want of Moisture on the Growth of the Chinese
Yam.*—M. P. Duchartre has made a series of experiments on the
effects of different degrees of moisture on the growth and structure of
Dioscorea Batatas. The results are given in considerable detail, with
the general. conclusion that, at all events as regards this particular
species, water, as an alimentary substance, promotes essentially the
formation of parenchyma, without, in an appreciable degree, affecting
the strengthening anatomical elements.
Mechanical Injury to Trees by Cold.t—Prof. T. J. Burrill
deals with two mechanical effects of cold upon trees: the radial
splitting of wood and bark, and the separation of bark or wood layers
in a concentric way.
The first is explained by water freezing in plates parallel to the
surface of an organ, and then, additions being made to the base,
crystals perpendicular to the surface will be formed. Thus the wood
contracting, and the ice expanding tangentially and longitudinally
(chiefly the former), radial bursting is the result. The south side of
a tree is the weakest, as more water exists there, aud ice is first
formed. Direct observation shows that the specific gravity of sap is
greater on the north side of a tree.
Concentric splitting is explained by minute ice-crystals forming
with their axes perpendicular to the wood-cylinder, thus causing
radial tension. Want of ripeness of tissue, in the sense of the
relation of water to other constituents, is the chief predisposing
cause,
Essential Food of Plants.t— Whilst no doubt exists as to the
essential character of the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen as constituents of the food of plants, the evidence in support
* Bull. Soe. Bot. France, vii. (1885) pp. 156-67.
+ Bot. Gazette, x. (1885) pp 334-5.
t Nature, xxxii. (1885) p. 538. (Payer read before the British Association,
Section BL.)
Ser. 2.—VoL. V. ox
1030 suUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
of the elements phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, sul-
phur, iron, and chlorine to be regarded in this light cannot, Mr.
T. Jamieson thinks, be considered conclusive.
A little consideration shows that the two elements iron and chlorine
have but little claim to be considered as essential to the food of
plants ; and the experiments, of which an account is given, were made
by the author with the view of vindicating the right of the five re-
maining elements to be so considered. These investigations were
conducted at an experimental station in Sussex and also at one in
Aberdeenshire, the nature of the soil in both cases being specially
favourable. The method adopted consisted in observing the effect on
plants grown in similar soil and under similar conditions when sup-
plied with manures containing all these elements, and comparing the
results with those obtained when one or other of these elements was
withheld. The experiments seem to provide proof that sulphur must
be discarded from the list of essentials, while some doubt is thrown
on even lime and magnesia. At the same time striking confirmation
is afforded of the essential characters of both phosphorus and
potassium.
Digestion of Proteids in Plants.*—Of proteolytic ferments oc-
curring in plants two kinds have been described—one acting like
animal pepsin, and occurring in carnivorous plants, in the seeds of
vetches, hemp, flax, barley, and malt, and the fruit of the fig, Ficus
carica ; the other acting like animal trypsin (pancreatin), and occurring
in the juice of the green fruit of Carica Papaya (the papaw tree). The
use of these ferments in the plant economy has also been surmised by
testing their action on animal proteids, from which they form pep-
tones. It is a question whether they form peptones from the proteid
occurring in the individual, and from two considerations. It is
doubtful whether a true peptone exists in plants, i.e. a proteid
soluble in water, and not precipitated by boiling, nitric acid, or
acetic acid and potassic ferrocyanide. Vines concludes that the body
called vegetable peptone is hemialbumose (Meissner’s a-peptone). It
is also evident that the action of these ferments on the proteids will
be slow in comparison to the action of animal proteolytic ferments ;
thus there might appear the proteids intermediate between albumen
and peptone, which Kiihne and Chittenden call albumoses.
These questions Dr. 8. Martin attempted to settle in the case of
the papaw juice. He first of all extracted the proteids, which con-
sisted of a globulin, corresponding to animal paraglobulin; two
albumoses, which he proposes to call a- and B-phytalbumose. 'The B
form is precipitated; the a form is not thrown down by boiling; a
vegetable albumen corresponding to egg-albumen. The effect of pure
papain (the proteolytic ferment of the papaw juice) was tested on
each of these bodies, but from none of them was a true peptone
formed; only a body corresponding to Meissner’s b-peptone. The
very slow proteolysis explains the limitation of the formation of the
final products of proteid change. lLeucin and tyroin were formed.
* Nature, xxxii. (1885) p. 563. (Paper read before the British Associaticn.)
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1031
Ferments and Enzyma.*—Dr. A. Hansen has experimented on
the products of digestion resulting from the action on fibrin of the
secretion of the pitchers of Nepenthes. The fibrin was first heated
with hydrochloric acid, and then subjected to the action of the
Nepenthes-secretion, neutralized by soda-lye, and boiled with a 5 per
cent. solution of sodium chloride. The solution gave the reaction of
hemialbumose, while the filtrate separated from the albumoses con-
tains the peptone. The ferment of the Nepenthes-secretion may
therefore be termed a vegetable pepsin, though its definite properties
as regards resistance to acids and to temperature have not yet been
determined.
The latex of the fig, Ficus carica, contains a substance with
enzymatic properties, causing a peptone-reaction in both acid and
alkaline solutions, coagulation of milk, an inverting diastatic action
on starch and glycogen, and a precipitation of casein.
The latex of Carica Papaya was found also to contain a pepton-
izing enzyma, while substances of this kind appeared to be entirely
wanting in a large number of laticiferous plants, e.g. Euphorbia
Myrsinites and other Euphorbiacez, Ficus elastica, Papaver somniferum,
Chelidonium majus, Scorzonera, and Taraxacum.
The author confirms the observation of Krukenberg with regard to
the presence of a peptonizing ferment in Athalium septicum, but not
those of Gorup-Besanez and Will with regard to a similar phenomenon
in the seeds of barley, vetches, and flax.
Ascent of Sap.t—M. J. Vesque further explains his theory of
the cause and the course of the movements of water through the solid
parts of plants. The vessels he regards, from this point of view, as
elements for the purpose of carrying large quantities of water to
great distances, and also as reservoirs of water when the fluid which
they contain is rendered immobile by Jamin’s chains, and to convey
the small pressure of the inclosed air to a distance. The ascent of
sap takes place in the following way.
The transpiring cells remove water from the fibres in the upper
part of the plant, and the pressure of the air contained in these fibres
consequently decreases, and they absorb water from fibres below
them. The distribution of the air and water in each fibre depends on
capillary attraction ; each change in the volume of water corresponds
to a new arrangement of the gaseous and liquid fluids, causing water
to be carried to the upper part of the cell along its walls, the cell
itself having previously contained water in its lower part only. This
is brought about by capillarity only ; the layer of water which covers
the inside of the wall of the fibre and separates it from the air-bubble
does not press by its weight on the fluid column, but on the skeleton
of the tree; in consequence of which the pressure of water on the
base of the tree is not greater than that of the sum of the indices of
water which vary in the body of the tree; and these cannot exceed
* Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, iii. (1885) pp. 253-88.
+ Ann. Agronomiques, xi. (1885) p. 214. See Naturforscher, xviii, (1885)
p- 300. Of, this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 85.
oe 2
1032 suMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
10 m., at least when the pressure of the air which surrounds the wood
of the roots is not greater than the atmospheric pressure. It is pos-
sible that columns of water may be formed which are interrupted
only by saturated walls; but these, if they are long enough, will soon
become immobile, and will play the part of the columns found in the
vessels. ‘They are besides of small constancy, because the active
absorption of water by the surrounding elements breaks them up, or
because they are themselves displaced by sinking.
Galvanotropism.*—Herr L. Rischawi gives a résumé of all the
previous observations on this subject; and has repeated the experi-
ments on seedlings of Vicia Faba by means of Du Bois Reymond’s
apparatus. A positive curvature is easily obtained, which he explains
in this way, that, under the influence of a galvanic current, the water
in the root moves in the direction of the current. In consequence of
this the turgidity of the cells increases on the side facing the cathode,
which therefore elongates and causes a positive curvature. Negative
and S-shaped curvatures stated to occur with a very weak current,
the author found it very difficult to obtain; and, when obtained, they
very soon became obliterated, and gave place to positive curvatures.
They may be explained by assuming that with a weak current a slight
diffusion is at first caused of the external fluid into the cells, espe-
cially on the side facing the anode, in consequence of which this side
elongates, causing a negative curvature.
Transpiration-currents.t—Dr. A. Hansen describes experiments
on living plants which tend to confirm his previous theory that
transpiration-currents are due to imbibition. All the experiments
negative the possibility of root-pressure taking any part in the pheno-
menon; the plants experimented on remained fresh for days, and
absorbed considerable quantities of water through dead roots. They
are equally opposed to Godlewski’s hypothesis that osmose performs
an essential part in causing the transpiration-currents.
Absorption by the Plant of Non-nutrient Substances.{—Herr W.
Knop describes a series of experiments for the purpose of determining
the effect on plants of supplying to the soil in which they grow dilute
solutions of various mineral salts. The degree is stated in which each
ingredient was absorbed, and in which it produced a poisonous effect
on the plant.
B. CRYPTOGAMIA. :
Cryptogamia Vascularia.
Bursting of the Sporangium of Ferns and the Anther of Flower-
ing Plant:.s—Herr J. Schrodt reviews the existing literature of this
subject, and gives the results of his own observations made with the
assistance of the camera. In the case of Scolopendrium vulgare, the
movements of the annulus, resulting from alternations of dryness and
* Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1885) pp. 121-6.
t Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, iii. (1885) pp. 305-14.
t Ber. Verhandl. K. Sachs. Gesell. Wiss., 1885, pp. 39-54.
§ Flora, lxviii. (1885) pp. 455-67, 471-99 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 1033
moisture, are best explained by the assumption of unequal contrac-
tions of the unequally thickened parts of the cell-walls; a thin semi-
cylindrical cell-wall contracting more strongly than the thickened
inner wall of the same cells. The thickened radial walls act as arms
of a lever.
The bursting of anthers was investigated chiefly in Berberidee
(Mahonia intermedia and Epimedium alpinum), Laurinee (Laurus
canariensis), Hamamelidez (Trichocladus crinitus), and Ranunculacee
(Adonis autuinnalis). No contraction was shown in any direction by
the epidermis. The cause of the unrolling of the wall of the anther
must be sought in tensions of the inner fibrous layer of cells, of such
a nature that the wall of the loculi, which is nearly uniform in thick-
ness, exhibits considerably less power of contraction than the radial
walls, the contraction of which causes the rupture of the anther, the
thickenings contained in them acting as arms of a lever.
Root-organs of Nephrolepis.*—In pursuing his examination of
the underground stems and roots of ferns,f M. P. Lachmann has
paid special attention to organs produced from the stem of Nephrolepis,
below the base of the leaves, which have been regarded by some
authors as cauline, by others as radicular. He finds that when the
main stem has produced a dense rosette of leaves, it puts out from
beneath each leaf a stolon, which sometimes developes into an aerial
flagelliform organ, which branches only slightly or not at all, and some-
times buries itself in the soil, and branches like a root. Sometimes
both these organs are found beneath a leaf, and each has then its
characteristic fibro-vascular structure. The diameter of the stolons is
usually about 2 mm., while that of the roots rarely exceeds 0°5 mm.
Apex of the Root in Osmunda and Todea.{—Prof. F. O. Bower
regards the leaf of Osmundaceze as exhibiting an intermediate condi-
tion between that of the leptosporangiate ferns and the Marattiacee ;
the structure of the meristem of the root showing also a similar
transition; this is best shown in transverse sections. In this way
three distinct types may be determined, viz. (1) a single three-sided
apical cell; in the Equisetacee and Polypodiacee ; (2) a single four-
sided apical cell; (3) a group of three equivalent initial cells. In-
termediate conditions are found; but not the group of four initial
cells, which Strasburger describes in the Marattiacee. The three-
sided apical cell is always pyramidal, and the group of three have also
always a truncate-pyramidal form. There does not appear to be the
same regularity in the succession and position of the dividing-walls
as in the Equisetacee and in many ferns. A similar variety is
apparent in the development of the lateral roots.
In Todea barbara the author observed as a rule a group of four
initial cells, which are either pyramidal or truncate-pyramidal ; but
with irregularities both in the origin of the lateral roots and in the
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 603-5.
+ See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 592; ante, p. 839.
t Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xxv. (1885) pp. 75-103 (2 pls.). See this Journal,
iv. (1884) p. 923.
1034 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
apex of the mature root. In Angiopteris evecta the lateral roots also
originate in a group of four initial cells.
The transition from the growing point of true ferns to that of the
Marattiacew and flowering plants is accompanied by a lowering of the
centre of formation. Both in this respect and in the partial filling
up of the apical cell-cavity by radial walls, the Osmundacee occupy
an intermediate position between typical Filices and Marattiacez.
The co-axial structure, which first makes its appearance in the Os-
mundacez, is strongly developed in the Marattiacez, and indicates
an approach to the structure of Gymnosperms.
In the development of the sporangium Todea also exhibits a
transition to the Husporangiate.
Structure and Classification of Ophioglossacee.*—Following up
his division of Ophioglossum into the three subgenera Euophioglossum,
Ophioderma, and Cheiroglossa, Dr. K. Prantl uses, for further
diagnosis of the species belonging to the first subgenus, the venation
of the sterile branch, the length of the leaf-stalk, and the structure of
the exospore.
The venation Dr. Prantl classes under two types, paraneural and
ptiloneural. In the first, the median vein does not branch, while the
lateral nerves which spring directly from the leaf-stalk dichotomize ;
the result being an arrangement similar to that of the leaves of °
monocotyledons. In the second type the median vein, which reaches
the apex of the leaf, sends off alternately secondary branches on each
side; and the lateral nerves which spring from the leaf-stalk are very
subordinate. The leaf-stalk is either hypogean or epigzean. The
exospore is always thickened in a reticulate manner, but exhibits
differences in the width of the meshes and the height of the ridges.
Of less importance from a systematic point of view are the form of
the epidermal cells of the stomata, the consistence of the leaf, the
number of leaves developed at the same time, the structure of the
stem and roots, and the presence or absence of adventitious shoots.
Under the subgenus Euophioglossum are arranged twenty-seven species;
Ophioderma and Cheiroglossa contain only one each, viz. O. pendulum
and palmatum.
The fifteen species of Botrychium are arranged under the two sub-
genera Hubotrychium and Phyllotrichium already described.
Morphology of Phylloglossum Drummondii.t|—Prof. F. O. Bower
reports some of the results of a successful cultivation of this little
known Cryptogam. From the smaller tubers, only vegetative organs
arise, in the form of a successive whorl of rounded leaves springing as
outgrowths from the broad apex. ‘The apex of the axis, which is at
first central, becomes depressed and overarched, and forms the apex of
the new tuber. By peculiar localization of growth this is inverted, and
comes to project laterally from the parent plant, while on the oppo-
site side of the axis below the insertion of the oldest leaf the first root
* Jahrb. K. Bot. Gart. Berlin, iii. (1884) 2 pls.). See Bot. Centralbl., xxii.
(1885) p. 185. Cf. this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 92.
t Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxviii. (1885) pp. 445-7.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1035
arises exogenously, as in the embryo of Isoetes. Where the tuber is
relatively large, sporangia are borne on the elongated axis of the
parent tuber, and in such cases the new tuber originates adventitiously
as a depression at the base of the sporangium stalk.
From the striking resemblance between Phylloglossum and the
young plants of Lycopodium cernuum, recently described by Treub,*
Bower proposes to regard Phylloglossum as a permanently embryonic
form of a lycopodiaceous plant; but this awaits verification from the
study of the as yet unobserved oophore generation.
Muscines.
Exudation of Water from the Female Receptacle of Corsinia.;—
Dr. H. Leitgeb points out the great importance to the Archegoniats
(Vascular Cryptogams and Muscinee) of the mouth of the arche-
gonium being kept perfectly moist during the period of impregnation ;
otherwise air-bubbles enter the neck and prevent the passage of the
antherozoids down the canal. This is in most cases insured by
contrivances for conducting drops of rain or dew to the archegonium
and retaining them there; as, for example, the dorsal furrows in
Riccia, the lobes and appendages of the archegonial receptacle in the
Marchantiex, &c, In Corsinia marchantioides the same end is attained
in a totally different way. The female receptacles here stand in the
central line of the foliar organ, in depressions from which the necks
of the archegonia project free into the air, each pit containing
usually several receptacles in different stages of development. These
are kept moist by a drop of water exuded from the tissue of the
Corsinia itself into the depression, and found only in those near the
apex of the shoot where the archegonia are in a receptive condition.
The drop of water is found during the three or four days over which
the impregnation of the various receptacles extends, and then dis-
appears. The author was unable to detect the nature of the tissue
by which it is exuded. He observed also in these depressions a
funnel-shaped mass of protoplasm somewhat similar to that in the
macrospores of Marsilea,
Peristome of Bryacee.{ — M. Philibert considers that in the
Diplolepidee the internal row of teeth is formed by the detachment
of a second thin membrane, of more complicated network, separated
from the ordinary thick double membrane by empty cell-cavities.
By such a separation would be formed a series of sixteen free processes
such as are found in Funaria. That this is the true origin of the
internal peristome is confirmed by the fact that in some species of
Bryum it remains attached for a certain portion of its extent to the
outer teeth. In Funaria this adherence is less common, but occurs
in the rare F’. xequidens.
This interpretation becomes clearer when compared with analogous
structures in the Bryacew, especially in Brywm (Ptychostomum)
* See this Journal, ante, p. 277. t Flora, lxviii. (1885) pp. 327-30.
¢ Rey. Bryologique, xii. (1885) pp. 67-77. See this Journal, ante, p. 100.
1036 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
pendulum, belonging to the section Cladodium, and its allies. The
peristome here is of a very beautiful appearance and structure. We
find a multiplication of cells in the layer which separates the two
peristomes, explained, no doubt, by the influence of the internal
peristome, the network of which is always more complicated, while
the external peristome exhibits a tendency to be reduced, on its
ventral side, to five rows of simple plates.
The structure of the peristome is described in detail in several
other species of Bryum.
Spores of Pottia.* —Dr. G. Venturi insists on the importance of the
characters of the spores, hitherto too much neglected, in determining
the species and genera of Musci and Hepatic ; the important cha-
racters relating chiefly to the form of the spores, and to the nature of
their outer coat.
By using these characters, the moss hitherto described as Pottia
minutula var. conica is clearly seen to be a totally distinct species ;
the spores being strongly tuberculated, instead of covered with minute
hairs or spines, as in P. minutula, in addition to other differences in
the capsule. The spores of P. minutula var. conica are those of P.
Starkei, a species distinguished by the peculiarity that it presents every
possible gradation between a perfect peristome and the complete
absence of a peristome. Using the same test, P. minutula var. oblonga
remains as a variety of the typical species; while P. minutula var.
mutica and P. lanceolata var. leucodonta display an unquestionable
affinity with P. Starket.
Stomata of Marchantia.{—Prof. C. R. Barnes calls attention to
the erroneous figures of the stomata of Marchantia in all English
works on botany. They are shown with six cells in circumference,
whereas they have only four. The shapes of the innermost cells,
the true guard-cells, and of the outermost cells of the chimney-like
stoma, are not correctly drawn.
Pleuroweisia, a new genus of Mosses.{—Herr K. Schliephacke
describes under this name a new genus of Musci from Switzerland
with the following characters:—Perennial slender rooting densely
cespitose mosses. Stem erect, slender, usually dichotomous above,
uniformly leafy. Network of the leaves oblong-rectangular below
pellucid, minutely quadrate above, very minutely papillose. Inflor-
escence dicecious ; reproductive organs of both kinds lateral. Capsule
gymnostomous, seated on a slender seta, exannulate; operculum with
an oblique and very long beak. Calyptra cylindrical, slit on the side,
covering the operculum, often falling off along with it. The type-
species P. Schliephackei was found in a glacier-stream near Pontresina.
Mosses of Terra-del-Fuego.§—Herr C. Miller has examined a
large collection of mosses from this district, including a considerable
number of new species, which he describes. The total number of
species now known from Terra-del-Fuego is 152, and the moss-flora
* Rev. Bryologique, xii. (1885) pp. 51-5. + Bot. Gazette, x. (1885) p. 340,
{ Flora, Ixviii. (1885) pp. 359-64 (1 pl.). § Ibid., pp. 391-429.
9
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1037
presents several interesting peculiarities. Although reaching to over
50° S. lat., it includes tropical types belonging to the genera Hypo-
pterygium, Mniadelphus, and Hookeria. The flora which presents the
nearest relationship to that of Terra-del-Fuego is that of Kerguelen’s
Land ; but here the tropical types are entirely wanting.
Alge.
Polymorphism of Alge.*—Dr. A. Hansgirg gives an historical
résumé of the facts known with regard to the polymorphism of alge,
and then lays down the following propositions :—
1. Most, if not all, of the Schizophycez or Cyanophycex are
polymorphic alge, which occur in nature in different stages of their
development, whether unicellular or multicellular, and may, under
certain conditions, maintain themselves through many generations at
any particular stage; their genetic connection can be proved by
observation of the history of their development.
2. Most, if not all, of the alge hitherto included in the family
Chroococcacee, belonging to the genera Chroococcus, Giloocapsa,
Aphanocapsa, Synechococcus, Gleothece. Aphanothece, Chroodactylon,
Glaucocystis, Clathrocystis, Polycystis, Coelospherium, Gomphospheria,
Merismopedium, Chroothece, and Rhodococcus, are connected genetically
with other more highly developed alg; that is, they are descended,
by retrogressive metamorphosis, from various filamentous Schizo-
phycez, which pass into the unicellular condition by their filaments
breaking up into separate cells.
3. In the genera Leptothrix, Hypheothrix, Spirulina, Oscillaria,
Phormidium, Chthonoblastus, Lyngbya, Hydrocoleum, Symploca, and
Schizothrix, belonging to the family Oscillariacee, are numerous
forms most, if not all, of which are connected genetically, not only
with one another as younger and older stages, and with various
Nostochaceze and Chroococcacex, by retrogressive metamorphosis,
but also with others belonging to the families Rivulariacee, Scytone-
mace, and Sirosiphonace, as higher developments.
4. The genera Nostoc, Anabeena, Cylindrospermum, and Spherozyga,
belonging to the family Nostochacee, include many heterogenous
forms, which, like the Chroococcacee, must be regarded as stages
of development, analogous to certain zoogloea-conditions of the
Schizomycetes, of different species belonging to the groups Oscil-
lariacez, Rivulariacesw, and Scytonemacez.
5. In the genera Calothrix, Masticothrix, Mastigonema, Schizosiphon,
belonging to Rivulariacez, and in Diplocolon, Scytonema, Arthrosiphon,
Tolypothrix, Plectonema, and Glaucothrix, belonging to the Scytone-
maces, are included the highest developments of various alge
hitherto mostly placed among Oscillariacee.
6. Just as the more highly developed Rivulariacew and Scy-
tonemacer may develope from various Oscillariaces, so also from Glau-
cothrix, Tolypothria, aud Scytonema may arise the corresponding forms
* Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1885) pp. 246-51, 277-85, 308-10, 348-52, 373-83,
385-406; xxiii. (1885) pp. 229-33 (2 pls.).
1038 suMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
in the genera Hapalosiphon, Mastigocladus, Sirosiphon, Stigonema,
Fischera, and Phragmonema, placed under Sirosiphonacee.
7. Some Chlorophycacee are, like most Schizophycce, also poly-
morphic alge. Most of the filamentous chlorophyll-green alge
which are placed in the genera Gleotila, Microspora, Conferva,
Psichohormium, Rhizoclonium, Hormiscia, Ulcthrix, Hormidium, Schi-
zomeris, and Schizogonium, are connected genetically with other more
highly developed alge belonging to the families Chetophoracer,
Siphonocladacez, and Ulvacez. By the swelling and separation of
the cell-walls, and by continuous division, there arise from the last-
named and other families of the higher alge, various unicellular alge
in the broader sense of the term, which are placed under the genera
Protococcus, Palmella, Pleurococcus, Chlorococcus, Gloeocystis, Inoderma,
Stichococcus, Dactylothece, Palmoglea, Schizochlamys, Oocystis, Nephro-
cytium, Palmodactylon, Dictyospherium, Geminella, Hormospora, Apio-
cystis, Acanthococcus, Polyedrium, Characium, and Hydrianum.
The author describes the mode in which the various forms of algz
here named may develope one out of another; and regards also the
Schizophycez and Schizomycetes as connected with one another by
insensible gradations. Thus we may have one and the same alga
occurring in its fully developed form, and in its Stigonema, Lyngbya,
unicellular, Nostoc, Ulothriz, and a variety of other forms. Of this a
number of examples are given.
The various species of Euglena, hitherto included under Flagellata,
especially EH. viridis, have been discovered by Dr. Hansgirg to be
genetically connected with the Phycochromacez or Oscillariacee.
Finally, a further analogy between the Schizomycetes and Schizo-
phyces is established by the discovery in the latter of a hitherto
unobserved swarming condition. This condition would appear to be
extremely rare; but under the name Chroomonas Nordstedtii, Dr. Hans-
girg describes a unicellular biciliated organism with blue-green
endochrome, which he regards as the swarm-cell condition of a
phycochromaceous alga which occurs normally in the filamentous
form, probably Oscillaria tenuis or Frélichit.
Chlorophyll-green of Fucacee.* — Dr. A. Hansen details the
method by which he extracts pure chlorophyll from Fucus vesiculosus,
and describes the peculiarities of its spectrum, showing that it differs
in no essential point from that of the higher plants. The spectrum
of living Fucus shows four absorption-bands of the chlorophyll, one of
the brown pigment, while the bands of the chlorophyll-yellow are
not seen, being concealed by the strong absorption in the blue.
Bisexuality of the Zygnemacee.|—Prof. C. EH. Bessey considers
that these organisms do not possess true bisexuality. All the ob-
served facts of the conjugation of these alge tend to prove that
sexuality is in its beginning, but as yet there is no differentiation
into male and female elements; so that we cannot speak of a bisexuality,
* Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wurzburg, iii. (1885) pp. 289-304 (1 pl.).
+ Science, vi. (1885) pp. 224-5. (Proc. Sect. of Biology, Amer. Assoc. Adv.
Sci.)
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 1039
although there is a union of two distinct bodies of protoplasm. One
fact not sufficiently taken account of by Bennett* is that of the forma-
tion of a resting spore by union of the protoplasm of two adjacent
cells of the same filament. The position of the Zygnemacee he puts
as being among the lower Thallophytes, but little above the Proto-
phytes.
Problematic Organisms of the Ancient Sea.t—Count G. de
Saporta enters into an elaborate reply to the theory of Nathorst that
the supposed organic remains of a very early geological period are in
reality the petrified impressions of the footsteps of animals. He
maintains that a minute examination of their structure entirely con-
tradicts this view ; and that even those about which Nathorst expresses
the greatest doubt may be petrifications of alge in half-relief.
Algal-flora of the Arctic Ocean.t—Dr. F. R. Kjellman describes
in great detail the alge collected by the ‘ Vega’ expedition in different
parts of the Arctic Sea, and discusses the causes which have brought
about its special characteristics. The total number of species de-
scribed is 174, viz. 135 in the Spitzbergen, 27 in the Siberian, 117 in
the American region. These include a considerable number of new
Species, and two new genera, Hemescharia and Diploderma, both
belonging to the Lithodermatiex. 63 of the species (belonging to
34 genera and 22 families) are not found south of the Arctic Sea;
while one-third belong exclusively to the portion not filled with ice.
The families to which the greater part of the alge belong are the
Laminariaceex, Fucaceew, and Corallinex, all the others being but
sparsely represented. The Fucacee give the prevalent character
only to the sub-arctic region, being very scarce or altogether absent
elsewhere. The Corallinez occupy large extents of the sub-littoral
region ; cushions of Lithothamnion glaciale cover in places areas of
four to five square miles. By far the largest portion of the algal
vegetation of the Arctic Sea is composed of Laminariacezx, extending,
on the west coast of Norway and Greenland, from low-water mark to
a depth of ten fathoms ; in other parts they are found only at a depth
of three to ten fathoms.
Laminariacee of Norway.§—In describing the Laminariacex of
the Norwegian coast, Herr M. Foslie points out a frequent source of
error in the description of species from the use of dried instead of
fresh specimens. He further describes three different forms of haptera
or attachment-organs found in the Norwegian species.
Morphology and Classification of Black Sea Algz.||—Prof. L.
Reinhardt contributes an elaborate paper, the first of a series, on this
* See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 434.
“ ' + Bull. Soc. Geol. France, xiii. p.179. See Naturforscher, xviii. (1885) p. 267.
¢ Vega-Expeditionens Vetens. Jakttagelser, iii. pp. 1-430 (31 pls.), Stock-
holm, 1883, See Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1885) p. 65.
§ Christiania Videns.-Selks, Forhandl., 1884, 112 pp. (10 pls.). See Bot.
Ceutralbl , xxii. (1885) p. 193.
| Mem. Novorossian Soc, Naturalists, ix. (1885) pp. 201-512 (11 pls.). Cf.
Nature, xxxii. (1885) p. 579.
1040 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
subject. Following the example of Bornet and Thuret in their
‘Notes Algologiques,’ the author publishes his observations on sepa-
rate species without awaiting the time when he will be enabled to
publish a more complete work. ;
In the morphological part of his paper Prof. Reinhardt discusses
the development of a few Chlorophycez, and enters into more details
with regard to some of the Cyanophycez, and especially the Pheo-
spore (the conjugation of Ectocarpus siliculosus and the growth of
Sphacelaria). As to the Rhodophycee, only short remarks are given,
more particularly as to pores in their external covering. The chief
attention has been devoted to the Bacillariacez, and the paper con-
tains a good deal of new observations on the structure of gelatinous
colonies, the structure of the cell and its protoplasmic parts, and the
auxospores. The systematic parts will appear in a subsequent issue.
Movement and Formation of Mucilage by the Desmidiex.*—
Herr G. Klebs describes four kinds of movement in the desmids, viz.
(1) A forward motion on the surface, one end of the cell touching
the bottom, while the other end is more or less elevated, and oscillates
backwards and forwards during the movement; this is especially well
seen in Closterium acerosum. (2) An elevation in a vertical direction
from the substratum, the free end making wide circular movements ;
well seen in Closterium didymotocum. (8) A similar motion followed
by a sinking of the free end, and an elevation of the other end, and
so on alternately, characteristic of Closterium moniliferum. (4) An
oblique elevation, so that both ends touch the bottom, lateral move-
ments in this position, then an elevation and circular motion of one
end, and a sinking again to an oblique or horizontal position, seen
best in strongly curved species of Closterium, as C. Diane and
Archerianum. These movements are none of them peculiar to par-
ticular species; several of them are often combined in one. A free
swimming on the surface was never observed.
The two first of these kinds of movement depend on the formation,
during the motion, of a filament of mucilage by which the desmid is
attached to the bottom, and by the gradual lengthening of which,
from the formation of fresh mucilage, it rises. This filament is best
detected (e.g. in C. didymotocum) by tinging by a weak solution of
methyl-violet, which does not kill the desmid; fuchsin also answers,
and cyanin, though not so well; other pigments fail in staining it.
Many species of Huastrum, Cosmarium, Pleuroteenium, and Staurastrum
exhibit the same phenomenon. The rapidity of the movement and of
the formation of the filament vary with the conditions and with the
species, many species exhibiting no trace of the former; the most
rapid motion observed in C. acerosum was 112 » in thirty seconds. It
is subject also to periodic variations, with alternations of complete
rest. The greatest length of filament measured was 3 mm.
Light exercises an influence on the direction of the movement of
desmids similar to that of zoospores; but the power of motion itself
appears to be very little affected by light. The elevation above the
substratum appears to be independent of the direction of gravitation.
* Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) pp. 353-67.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1041
The author regards the cause of the motion to be the exudation of
mucilage, which does not take place uniformly and simultaneously
from the whole surface of the desmid. This is not, however, here, as
it is elsewhere, a result of the disintegration of the cell-wall itself; it
is derived directly from the cytoplasm, and passes through the cell-
wall without the latter undergoing any change. Many species are
completely surrounded by a gelatinous envelope, while others are
comparatively free.
Internal Spore-formation in Diatoms.*—Count Ab. F. Castracane
describes a remarkable appearance in a deposit of marine diatoms of
pliocene date from the Apennines. In a specimen of Coscinodiscus
punctulatus he observed that the lower part of the valve, minutely
punctuated in a radial disposition, showed small round uniform
stalked bodies; the drawing under the camera lucida exhibiting
clearly the circular figure. No other interpretation seems possible
of these minute round bodies, always found in the interior of the
frustule, except that they constitute a nest of embryonal diatoms on
the point of escaping from the mother-cell. This is in accord with
previous observations of the author on similar round bodies seen on
the point of escaping from a Podosphenia, and with observations of
Rabenhorst and O'Meara. The fact that the diatoms in which these
bodies were observed had previously been treated with boiling sul-
phuriec acid with addition of potassium chlorate, shows conclusively
that the round corpuscles seen to escape from living diatoms are not
Infusoria or other organisms fortuitously collected round them, and
demonstrates at the same time that, from the first moment of their
existence, diatoms must be provided with a siliceous coating, though
it may be of extreme tenuity.
It would seem then that a diatom may assume the function of a
sporangium, producing in its interior embryonal forms by which the
species is reproduced, and which ultimately acquire the form and
approximately the size of the mother-frustule.
Mysterious Appearance of a Diatom.,—Mr. F. Kitton finding
on carafes of water a film composed entirely of frustules of Achnanthes
linearis, and having never found it on the filter papers used in filter-
ing the water, filtered 8 oz. of the water into a glass-stoppered bottle,
using a filter paper 1 in. in diameter and a very small glass funnel.
When the bottle was filled the paper was boiled in sulphuric acid and
decarbonized, the residuum giving no indications of diatomaceous
remains. In the course of a few days the film began to appear on
the bottle, and was found to consist of the above-named diatom un-
mixed with any other form. As this is a very minute species
(0-0004 in. in length and less than 0°0002 in. in breadth), he thought
it just possible that some of the frustules might have passed through
the paper, but.on filtering some emery-powder which had remained
in suspension six or seven hours, and the particles of which were less
than 0°00005 in, in size, these were found not to pass through the
* Accad, Pontif. de’ Nuoy. Line., xxxviii. (1885) Sess. May 17, pp. 7-8.
+ Journ. Quek. Mier, Club, ii. (1885) pp. 178-9 and 206.
1042 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO
filter. The microspores must therefore be sufficiently minute to pass
through the paper.
Navicula Durrandii n. sp. F. K.— Mr. F. Kitton gives the
following specific description of this new diatom. ‘“‘ Valve elliptical-
lanceolate, apices produced, median blank space linear-elliptical
with two narrow lines of puncita one each side of the raphe, markings
composed of longitudinal lines (about 8 in ‘001 in.) of puncta
24-28 in ‘001 in. Length, :0116--0200 in.; breadth, :0038-
‘0040 in. Habitat, Island of Rea, near Singapore. I am indebted
te Mr. A. Durrand for this beautiful species; it occurs sparingly in
a dredging recently made by him in the above-mentioned locality,
and from which he has permitted me to make some preparations.
Although apparently a robust species, it is really not so, as the some-
what numerous fragments of valves unfortunately testify. In almost
every case the fracture occurs between the longitudinal lines. An
examination with a power of 750 diameters shows that these lines are
dentate elevations, and the spaces between them concave grooves.
Under a lower power (40 diameters) the valve is slightly iridescent,
but the lines are visible. I have named this fine form after Mr.
Durrand.”
Fossil Marine Diatoms.*-—Prof. P. T. Cleve describes the fossil
diatoms found recently in the marine deposits of Moravia, known as
Tegel (marl or clay) belonging to the miocene and pliocene divisions
of the tertiary formation.
The new species are Campylodiscus obsoletus, Triceratium turgidum,
Aulacodiscus Grunowti, Auliscus pulvinatus, Podosira antediluviana,
Syringidium sp., Melosira Omma, Coscinodiscus Thumit, and Aulaco-
discus sp. (found by Mr. F. Kitton). A new family, Thaumatodisci,
is established to include some very remarkable forms, the valves of
which have prominent central processes. Prof. Cleve places in this
family Thaumatonema Greville, Strangulonema Greville, and Pyrgo-
discus n. gen., P. armatus un. sp.
Some eighty species have been found in the Tegel, with two
exceptions all marine. Only a comparatively few appear to be extinct,
and of these a remarkable number have been detected in the Moron
deposit said to be found near Seville. Of the recent specics many
forms are now living in the seas of Japan, California, West Indies, &c.,
proving that the Tegel was a deposit in a tropical or subtropical sea.
It is of interest to compare these fossil forms with recent specimens,
and to note how little their characteristics have been altered during
the long period since the later tertiary.
Lichenes.
Miuller’s ‘Contributions to Lichenology.’t —Dr. J. Miiller con-
cludes his ‘ Lichenologische Beitrage,’ which have been going through
twenty-one numbers of ‘ Flora,’ with some general remarks.
* Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, ii. (1885) pp. 165-77 (2 pls.).
+ Flora, lxviii. (1885) pp. 345-56.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1043
In two species of Strigula from Cuba and Caracas, Dr. Miller
found stylospores of a very peculiar form, with a number of transverse
divisions, amounting to even eight, instead of the ordinary bicellular
condition, with a power of growing to more than ten times their original
length. These facts lead to the hypothesis that spermogonia and
spermatia are possibly connected genetically with pycnidia and
stylospores; that spermatia are, in fact, nothing but young stylo-
spores, and spermogonia nothing but young conditions of pycnidia.
The ordinary view that the spermatia of lichens are male sexual
organs which have lost their function, is combated on the following
grounds :—T'he spermatia spring from basidia, and have therefore a
totally different origin from antherozoids. They are not naked nucleated
masses of protoplasm, but are provided with a cell-wall, like spores
and ordinary vegetative cells. They are not organs of special nature,
but have the structure of an ordinary unicellular spore. There is no
organ in lichens which can be regarded as an oogonium. The sexual
reproduction observed by Stahl is not essential to lichens, for Fiinf-
stiick has shown * that in Peltigera fructification and ascospores are
produced without the agency of spermatia; the swelling of the
ascogonium taking place vegetatively without the co-operation of a
trichogyne. The author contends that in lichens no true process of
sexual reproduction has been observed, but at the most a doubtful
“copulation” in the older sense of the term.
Dr. Miller supports the older view of the autonomy of lichens,
against the newer theory of “symbiosis.” He complains of de Bary’s
recently published ‘Anatomie u. Physiologie der Pilze, that in
summing up the arguments in favour of Schwendener’s hypothesis, he
omits all reference to Minks’s and his own work on Microgonidia,
and incorrectly uses the terms “conidia” and ‘“gonidia” as convertible.
Dr. Miiller considers this theory as completely demolished by the
discovery of Minks f that the gonidia of lichens exist from the first in
the hyphe or hypha-like organs, in the form of minute very light-
green microgonidia, some of which develope, when the hyphal mem-
brane becomes converted into mucilage, into gonidia. These facts he
claims to have confirmed by independent observation.
Anatomy and Development of Lecanora granatina.{—Dr. K. B.
J. Forssell has carefully studied the structure and development of
this lichen, the peculiarities of which have caused it to be placed by
different authorities in several different groups. The crustaceous
thallus contains both yellow-green (palmella) and blue-green (glovo-
capsa) gonidia, inclosed in a reddish gelatinous envelope; and these
different parts of the thallus may be either quite dissociated or closely
united together; the two kinds of gonidium becoming sometimes
completely intermingled in the course of development of the lichen.
Between the different parts of the thallus are also free gloeocapsa-
colonies, and others into which the hyphe are beginning to penetrate.
Those parts of the thallus which contain these colonies are especially
* See this Journal, ante, p. 499.
+ See this Journal), ii. (1879) p. 311.
¢ Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1885) pp. 54-8, 85-9.
1044 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
strongly developed; while those parts which contain the palmella-
gonidia are much less luxuriant; they usually have gonidia in their
middle, but no distinctly differentiated cortical layer. It is, however,
only these portions of the thallus which produce apothecia; but no
Spermogonia were detected in them. In the parts which contain the
gloeocapsa-gonidia, spermogonia were occasionally observed of the
same structure as those of Pyrenopsis. In the same crustaceous grain,
and sometimes at the same time, may be found an apothecium in the
part which contains palmella-gonidia, and a spermogonium in the part
which contains gloeocapsa-gonidia.
From analogy with the development of L. hypnorum, the author
concludes that the portions of the thallus which contain glceocapsa-
cells, and which are united in growth with grains which contain
palmella-gonidia, are true cephalodia, while those parts which are
somewhat more free develope into pseudo-cephalodia. In both these
species of Lecanora the thallus consists of two different parts, one
containing normal gonidia, the other a foreign alga; in both parts the
foreign alga comes into contact with hyphz which envelope it, branch
in the algal colony, and form a hyphal system inclosing gonidia, in
other words a cephalodium. As compared with LL. hypnorum the
gloeocapsa-gonidia have, in L. granatina, attained a much fuller
development in comparison with the normal gonidia. The disc of the
apothecia is even sometimes to a great extent covered by gloeocapsa-
colonies.
Lecanora granatina may therefore be regarded as a lichen which
developes from a form with yellow-green gonidia (archilichen) to one
with blue-green gonidia (glceolichen), or rather to a species of Pyre-
nopsis, the only distinction from P. pulvinata consisting in the presence
of an excipulum thallodes containing yellow-green gonidia.
No previous instance has been observed of spermogonia occurring
in cephalodia; but trichogynes and ascogenous hyphe have not yet
been detected in them. It is, however, clearly demonstrated that from
hyphz which come into contact with free algal colonies, a hyphal
system containing spermogonia may be developed.
Fungi.
Hydrocarbon Reserve-products of Mushrooms.*—Dr. L. Errera
has demonstrated the similarity of the reserve nutritive products in
Phanerogams and Fungi. M. Errera has shown that just as in the
Phanerogams the reserve food-material is found in starchy, oily, or
cellulose form, so it is in the mushrooms, where, however, glycogen
replaces starch. The sclerotia of the fungi were especially examined,
and during germination the glycogen of the sclerotium of e. g. Coprinus
niveus was seen to diminish and to migrate into the young fungus.
In the oily sclerotia (e.g. Claviceps purpurea) he has proved the
passage of oily material into glycogen. Just as Sachs long since
demonstrated the change of oily material into starch in the germinating
seed, so M. Errera has shown in oily sclerotia (e. g. Claviceps purpurea)
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 391-3.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1045
a similar passage into glycogen. It is interesting to note that in the
young Claviceps there is a special accumulation of glycogen at the
points where the organs of fructification afterwards appear, especially
in the cells which occupy the central region of the cavity of each
future perithecium, whence it disappears as the spores reach maturity.
Many spores inclose oil formed at the expense of the glycogen, and
during germination this changes into the transitory glycogen found
in the germinating filaments. An interesting physiological parallel
between phanerogamic and cryptogamic germination is thus indicated.
Helicobasidium, a new Genus of Hymenomycetes.* —M. N.
Patouillard describes a fungus parasitic on Asarum ewropzeum under the
name Helicobasidium purpureum, which he regards as the type of a
new genus. It is characterized by a peculiar twisting of the basidia,
each of which is surmounted by two sterigmata. The basidia are
arranged like those of Corticium; the spores are colourless, and
kidney-shaped.
Puccinia Thlaspidis.j|— M. P. Vuillemin finds this fungus
parasitic on Thlaspi alpestre, at various altitudes in the southern
Vosges. It is characterized by the absence of the heteromorphy which
is so characteristic of the genus, occurring only as teleutospores
without any uredo- or excidio-form. The germination of the spores
is preceded by a gelatinization of the membrane. The teleutospores
appear to have lost their ordinary property of hibernating, and the
fungus persists through the winter by means of its mycelium.
Mould-fungi as Ferments.t—Prof. F. Cohn describes the mode
of fermentation of the Japanese saké or rice-wine. The material used
is grains of “Tane Kosi,” i.e. of rice coated with the mycelium,
conidiophores, and greenish-yellow chains of conidia of Aspergillus
Oryze. The fermentation is caused by the mycelium of this fungus
before the development of the fructification. The rice is first exposed
to moist air so as to change the starch into paste, and then mixed with
grains of ‘'Tane Kosi.” The whole mass of rice is shortly permeated
by the soft white shining mycelium, which imparts to it an odour of
apple or pine-apple. To prevent the production of fructification,
freshly moistened rice is constantly added for two or three days, and
then exposed to alcoholic fermentation from the Saccharomyces which
is always present in the rice, but which has nothing to do with the
Aspergillus. After two or three weeks the fermentation is completed,
and the golden-yellow sherry-like saké poured off. A sample manu-
factured in the laboratory contained 13°9 per cent. of alcohol.
Chemical investigation showed that the Aspergillus-mycelium trans-
forms the starch into glucose, and thus plays the part of a diastase.
Another substance produced from the Aspergillus-rice is the soja~
sauce. The soja-beans, which contain little starch but « great deal of
oil and casein, are boiled, mixed with roasted barley, and then with the
greenish-yellow conidia-powder of the Aspergillus. After the myce-
* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, vii. (1885) pp. 171-3. + Ibid., pp. 184-5.
¢ JB. Schles. Gesell. Vaterl. Cultur, Ixi. (1884). See Biol. Centralbl., v.
(1885) p. 417.
Ser. 2.—Vou. V. 38 Y
1046 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
lium has fructified the mass is treated with a solution of sodium
chloride, which kills the Aspergillus; another fungus, a Chalara,
appearing in its place, similar to that produced in the fermentation
of “ sauerkraut.” The dark-brown soja-sauce then separates.
Penicillium-Ferment in Pharmaceutical Extracts.* — M. EH.
Cocardas describes and figures the forms of Penicillium-ferment grown
on various pharmaceutical extracts, and arrives at the conclusion that
the ferment causes in the extract changes comparable to those effected
by heat, viz. the absorption of oxygen and disengagement of carbonic
acid, with formation of water, causing in consequence dilution of the
extract. The exact changes are, however, complex, and vary with
each special extract. The Penicillium itself is subject to a series of
variations, but these are all varieties in the evolution of a single form.
Rhodomyces, a new Human Parasite.|—Dr. R. v. Wettstein
has found a fungus in the gastric juice of patients suffering from
pyrosis, which he describes as a new species and genus under the
name Rhodomyces Kochii. It was always observed outside the organism,
but appears to be connected with the saliva, but only in certain
individuals. It then shows itself as a dense delicate pink mould, the
structure of which is obscured by the enormous quantity of conidia.
Its morphological character can, therefore, only be determined by
culture. The author considers Rhodomyces to have the closest affinity
to several forms of Oidium, but is distinguished by the appearance of
the conidiophores, by the mode of formation of the conidia, and
especially by its unseptated hyphal branches. Its habit resembles
that of Trichothectum roseum and several other moulds.
Fungus-disease in Daphnia.{—Under the name Monospoza bicus-
pidata Professor A. Guillebeau describes a parasitic fungus which
attacks the great water-flea, Daphnia magna. It appears in the form
of chains of conidia which reproduce themselves by budding in such
quantities that the cavity of the body is completely filled by them.
Under certain conditions a needle-shaped spore is formed within the
interior of the cells, surrounded by a sac derived from the cell itself,
which sac is not soluble either in water or various nutrient fluids, but
very soluble in the gastric juice of the Daphnia. As soon as these
spores lose their envelope, they penetrate into the cavity of the body
of the host, and there develope fresh conidia. The increase of the
parasite is impeded, and sometimes entirely prevented, by the blood-
cells which surround the spores, and which exercise a digestive effect
upon them.
Protophyta.
Beggiatoa alba.S—Prof. J. B. Schnetzler has observed this organism
forming gelatinous greyish floating masses in the effluent water from
* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, vii. (1885) pp. 146-9 (1 pl.).
+ SB. K. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xci. (1885) pp. 33-58 (1 pl.). See Oester.
Bot. Zeitschr., xxxv. (1885) p. 287.
+ SB. Naturf. Gesell. Bern, 1884, pp. 9-11.
§ Bull. Soe. Vaud. Sci. Nat., xxi. (1885) pp. 68-70.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1047
a brewery. He confirms the statement of previous observers,* of
its power of separating free sulphur from the sulphates contained in
the water in which it is found, in the form of refringent globules
found within its cells. M. Schnetzler has observed the segments
divide themselves into little discs, and these again divide into zoo-
glea-masses. Sometimes the cells elongate into a bacillus-form, or
twist into a vibrio-form, and it is from these cells that the filaments
of Beggiatoa are developed. He regards the organism as a degraded
Oseillaria, which has retained its power of oscillation, but has lost its
capacity for forming chlorophyll, and also the mucilaginous sheath
which originally surrounded it.
Alge of Thermal Waters.{—M. J. Thore has published a mono-
graph of the alge found in the warm springs of Dax, at a temperature
of 64° C., which form a green, brown, or greenish-brown deposit on
any object brought into contact with the waters or their vapour.
These alge are of very simple organization and minute size, and do
not resemble those of fresh or salt water. He divides them into five
groups, viz:—(1) Globular forms containing protoplasm which is .
first yellow and then green, and which gives birth to organisms
resembling the Palmellacew, Merismopedia, &c., or dividing in one
direction only and passing into moniliform alge of group (2), pre-
senting the appearance of Nostochinex, with here and there larger
cells or heterocysts. (3) Tubular alge, with forms intermediate
between these and group (2). (4) Filamentous cylindrical alge, of a
blue-green colour and endowed with rotatory and oscillatory motions,
Oscillariex, including Oscillaria niger. (5) Minute organisms be-
longing to the Bacteriacew. The author states that these organisms
are formed directly from the glarous protoplasm by condensation and
inclosure within an envelope. He distinguishes two modes of genesis
from this glarous protoplasm, spherical and tubular. The forms
included in the second and third groups belong exclusively to the
thermal flora, and M. Thore suggests that they may possibly be the
last surviving representatives of the ancient flora of the warm seas of
the Laurentian and Silurian epochs.
Cystitis and Nephritis produced by Micrococcus urex. {—
MM. R. Lépine and G. Roux find that cystitis and nephritis may be
produced in the healthy animal by the introduction of Micrococcus
uree into the ureter. Experiments made on guinea-pigs showed that
the mucous membrane of the bladder was inflamed, and that if the
animal was killed soon after the experiment the kidneys were con-
gested. Sections revealed the presence of micrococci in the epithe-
lial cells, and a fragment of the central portion of the kidney gave a
pure cultivation of Micrococcus ures. Corresponding results were
obtained with dogs, even though the urine is there acid.
Effect of Sunlight on Micrococcus.§s—M. E. Duclaux follows up
his researches on the influences of the environment on microbes by an
* See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 937.
+ Bull. Soc. de Borda, 1885. See Journ. de Microgr., ix. (1885) p. 320.
} Journ. des Soc. Scientifiques, i. (1885) p. 369.
§ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 395-8.
oye
1048 sUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
interesting study as to the effect of sunlight on the vitality of micro-
cocci. He experimented on six species, more or less distinct, dis-
eovered in various cases of disease (clou de Biskra, pemphigus,
rheumatic nodosities, impetigo eontagiosa, &e.). The influence of
the sunlight varied with the age of the microbes, with the absence or
presence of cultivating fluid, and with the season. He did not dis-
criminate between the influence of the light and of the heat of the sun,
except in so far that he did not subject the micrococci to temperatures
exceeding those most suitable to their development (i.e. between
30° and 40° C.). In ordinary circumstances, where the sun’s heat is
frequently much greater, the vitality of the microbes will be con-
sequently much less. (1) Young micrococci in decoction of veal, living
on an average more than a year when not subjected to sunlight, were
killed by forty days’ exposure to the feeble and intermittent light of
the spring sun of May and June, while in July a few days sufficed
to render them innocuous, and fifteen days to kill them. (2) When
the micrococci were allowed to dry, protected only by the thin residue
of the evaporation of a drop of the cultivating fluid, they were killed
by eight days’ exposure, between May 26th and June 3rd, while in July,
two or three days were enough, even in a window with only four hours’
sun, and with a temperature never above 39°. ‘The apparent absence
of spores is probably largely the explanation why the limits of
vitality are more restricted than in the case of bacilli. Since a few
hours’ exposure is enough to kill the micrococci, we have an interesting
explanation of the abundant dead germs in the air, of the restricted
area of their fatal potency, except when conveyed by media where
they are protected from sunlight. In a word, as he says, sunlight
is the most universal, potent, and economic antagonist of these our
most subtle enemies.
Decomposition and Fermentation of Milk.*—Zin continuation of
previous investigations on this subject, Dr. F. Hiippe describes distinct
organisms which he finds to be invariable accompaniments of lactie
fermentation. One of these he isolated on nutrient gelatin, in
the form of white shining flat minute beads. This organism transforms
milk-sugar and other saccharoses into lactic acid, with evolution of
carbonic acid gas. It is rarely found in the saliva or dental mucilage.
In them are two micrococci, which cause the production of lactic acid,
which manifest differences in their development on cultivation. There
were also two pigment-forming bacteria, the Micrococcus prodigiosus,
which produces intense red spots, and the yellow micrococcus of
osteomyelitis. These five bacteria are so different and so constant in
their properties, that they must be regarded as distinct species. In
addition to these, there is in milk an organism resembling WM yooderma
aceti which transforms milk-sugar into gluconie acid.
Systematic Position of the Bacteriacee.{—M. J. Kiinstler dis-
cusses this subject in detail, and argues that the Schizomycetes
* Deutsch. Medicin. Wochenschrift, 1884. See Bot. Centralbl., xxii. (1885)
p: 237-
+ See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 786.
{ Journ. de Microgr., ix. (1885) pp. 248-58, 295-307 (1 pl.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1049
occupy an intermediate position between the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, partaking of the character of both. He believes them to
be of animal origin, but to have acquired, in certain instances, cha-
racters which are purely vegetable. They show no indication, as
some have believed, of degradation from a higher type; their cha-
racters are those of evolution. They are organisms altogether devoid
of differentiation ; they have no nucleus, and their protoplasm pre-
sents everywhere a homogeneous structure.
The author has observed in the intestines of a Nepa an organism
which he describes under the name Trypanosoma Berti. It is a
cylindrical filiform body, sometimes somewhat curved, about 18
long, slightiy swollen in the middle, and bearing at its anterior end
a flagellum of nearly uniform thickness. The adult individuals are
usually twisted in a spiral manner, and then closely resemble a
Spirillum. He regards it as a monadiform organism in a permanent
spirillum-condition, and endowed with motility throughout its exist-
ence. Between Spirodomonas and Spirillum there is scarcely any
appreciable difference, the latter differing from the former only in
the body being more or less cylindrical. The genera Spirodomonas,
Trypanosoma, and Hzmatomonas are included in the family Protero-
monadex, intermediate between the animal Bacteria and the Flagellata,
characterized by their elongated or spiral form, the absence of nucleus,
and the great density of their protoplasm.
Bacterioidomonas can scarcely be separated from the Bacteriaces
except by its larger size, its continuous motion, and the presence of a
nucleus, and yet is unquestionably of animal nature. The nucleus is
but slightly differentiated, and resembles the nucleoli of ordinary
nuclei. The group of Bacterioidomonader may be regarded as
exhibiting an approach to the nucleated Protozoa.
On the whole the Bacteriacca2 must be regarded as presenting the
closest affinity to the astomous Flagellata.
Pleomorphy of Pathogenic Bacteria.*—Herr G. Hauser has
extended the observations on the pleomorphy of other bacteria to those
which are active in causing disease, especially septicemia. He states
that the three species of Proteus, P. vulgaris, mirabilis, and Zenkeri,
go through in the course of their life-history a wide cycle of develop-
ment, resulting in the formation of coccus-like organisms, as well as
bacterium-, bacillus-, leptothrix-, vibrio-, spirillum-, spirulina-, and
spirochete-forms. This variation is greatly influenced by changes in
the constitution of the nutrient substance; when this, for example, is
acid, only the coccus- and bacterium-forms are developed. The diffe-
rent species of the genus Proteus enter, under favourable conditions
of nutrition, a swarming condition, in which they display great
motility both on the surface and in the interior of stiffened gelatin.
They belong, among bacteria, to the active anaerobes. All the species
are pathogenous, P. vulgaris and mirabilis being especially active in
this way. The putrefaction caused by species of Proteus does not
* Haueer, G.,‘ Ueb.Faulnissbacterien u. deren Beziehungen zur Septicaemie’
(15 pls.), Leipzig, 1885. See Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) p. 321.
1050 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
result in the production of any unorganized ferment; the decom-
position of albuminoids which they bring about must, therefore, be
regarded as the direct work of the bacteria.
Influence of the Sun on the Growth and Activity of Bacillus
anthracis.*—M. S. Arloing finds that the “ vegetability ” or power
possessed by the sporulated mycelium or the free spores to give rise
to a fresh mycelium of Bacillus anthracis is rapidly suppressed by the
rays of a July sun, when the culture is fresh; if the sun’s rays exert
their influence for less than two hours vegetability is simply sus-
pended; the rays of influence seem to be those that are luminous, and
these are effective in proportion to their intensity. These results cor-
roborate generally those that were gained by experiments with arti-
ficial light. The author points out that the sun is destructive to
pathogenic germs, and suggests that the spores are not as resistant as
we have been lately led to believe.
In a second communication ¢ the author reports that the solar rays
are not as destructive of cultivations already set in progress; at the
same time he believes himself warranted in concluding that solar
light can attenuate the virulence of cultivations of this bacillus, and
convert them, as surely as heat, into a series of vaccine-cultures. It
still remains to be discovered whether the attenuation is or is not
inherited. At least, it is certain that light is a very potent biolegical
agent with minute organisms.
Cholera Bacillus.t—Drs. Finkler and Prior have recently pub-
lished the results of some further investigations made by them on
the comma bacilli of cholera asiatica and of cholera nostras, and
while no longer maintaining their identity, they refute the notion that
gelatin cultivations of these two bacilli at the same age show marked
differences in appearance. They consider that both these comma
bacilli are vibrios which form genuine spirilla. The two vibrios are
similar in all stages, and their behaviour under cultivation almost
identical ; the difference chiefly consisting in the greater energy of
growth and vitality of the vibrio of cholera nostras. The vibrios show
marked resistance to drying and variation of temperature, and very
probably have a resting-stage similar to that of other micro-organ-
isms. Both vibrios are pathogenic, but this property is greater for
the vibrio of Koch than for that of Finkler and Prior.: All animals
are not affected by these bacilli, which are pathogenic only under
certain conditions. The susceptible animals and the conditions for
producing positive results are the same for both vibrios. Though the
symptoms have a great similarity to those of Asiatic cholera in man,
they cannot be said to be specific, as other infectious materials and
chemical poisons produce the same symptoms.
The causal connection between these two bacilli and the two
diseases in which they occur is rendered probable by their constant
presence, but is not made certain by inoculation experiments. Both
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 511-3. y Ibid., pp. 535-7.
J Erganzungshefte z. Centralbl. f. Allgemein. Gesundheitspflege, 1885.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1051
vibrios may pass into the blood after infection into the intestine, and
may be excreted in the urine.
M. A. G. Pouchet reports* that from the bouillon used in the
culture of the cholera-bacillus he has extracted an alkaloid which has
all the external characters (smell, chemical instability, toxic effect on
animals) of a substance found in choleraic dejections.
Morphology of the Comma Bacillus.t—Herr J. Ferran records
some remarkable observations on the morphology of Spirillum Cholerze
asiatice. When cultivated in a particular way there are formed, he
states, within the spirillum-like filaments one or more globular bodies,
composed of undifferentiated protoplasm of the same refractive power
as the rest of the plant. They surround themselves with a periplasm
or hyaline envelope, within which the protoplasm contracts, the
largest attaining the size of 6-12 p. These bodies the author regards
as antheridia. He has also observed true spores proceeding from the
filiform or curved thallus. Under special conditions of culture they
grow to a considerable size, 6-12 » in diameter, and when they have
attained the size of a blood-corpuscle, they assume a spiny character ;
and in this condition, described as tte “mulberry-condition,” the author
regards them as ova or oospheres. At a certain period they put out
a long slender thread of protoplasm, about 0°25-0°5 » in thickness,
and extremely transparent. The end of this filament rapidly assumes
a spiral character, and then reproduces itself by division, then going
through the same cycle again. Actual conjugation or sexual union is
not stated to have been observed; but in consequence of these phe-
nomena, Herr Ferran removes the cholera-fungus from the Schizomy-
cetes, and places it among the Peronosporeex, with the name Perono-
spora Barcinone.
Attenuation of the Choleraic Virus. t— MM. W. Nicati and
Rietsch find that cultivations, which, being inoculated last October into
the digestive tract of guinea-pigs, produced diarrhoea and death, did
not in the succeeding May produce either diarrhoea or death. Similar
facts recorded by other observers tend to the belief that the choleraic
virus is attenuated by cultivation in nutrient gelatin at a temperature
of from 20°-25°C. Large quantities of the poison, even when quite
fresh, may be subcutaneously injected into small animals, and
especially guinea-pigs, without producing any ill effects.
Passage of Pathogenic Microbes from the Mother to the Foetus.
—M. Koubassoff has put to himself the following questions § :—
1. What is the influence of the time which elapses between the
inoculation of the gravid female and its death on the passage of the
microbes of anthrax from the mother to the foetus? He finds that
the longer the time, the larger the number of microbes in the foetus.
2. Is there any difference between the passage of the bacilli of
the vaccine of anthrax and those of the virulent culture? There are
fewer microbes when the mother is inoculated with the attenuated
* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 510-1.
+ Zeitechr. f. Klin, Medicin, ix, (1885). See Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) p. 323.
¢ Conptes Rendus, ci, (1885) pp. 186-7. § Ibid., pp. 101-4.
1052 suMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
virus, and that, though there is a longer time between inoculation
and death.
3. When the foetus and placenta are unhealthy, there is a very much
more extensive passage of microbes than under healthy conditions.
4, The author has made experiments to test the views of some
who object that the passage is a post-mortem effect, and he believes
that there is no basis for this objection. When the inoculation is
too strong the foetus nearly always dies; the foetus cannot be
completely vaccinated through its mother.
M. Koubassoff has also examined * the passages of the microbes of
septicemia, pig-cholera, and tuberculosis, and he comes to the con-
clusion that the bacilli of these maladies do pass from the mother
to the foetus.
Passage of Microbes by means of Milk.;—M. Koubassoff also
finds that splenic fever, pig-cholera, and tubercular bacilli pass by the
milk of the mother; that when they once appear in the milk they
remain till the end of lactation or the death of the female, but the
young are not infected. During foetal life poisoning is probably
effected by the direct communications between the vessels of the
mother and child in the placenta.
Microbe of Typhoid Fever in Man.{—M. Tayon by experiments
made on himself, finds that subcutaneous inoculation of the typhic
microbe is not mortal, but he is unable to solve the question as to
whether an organism which has been subjected to two injections is
refractory to the typhic microbe.
New Chromogenous Bacillus—B. luteus suis.§—Drs. D. E.
Salmon and T. Smith describe this non-pathogenic form which was
found in the pericardial and peritoneal fluids in swine killed for the
purpose of studying the swine fever. When grown in a meat
infusion, the liquid becomes pale straw colour, then orange with a
greenish tint, soon changing to a wine red. The pigment when
obtained pure is insoluble in alcohol or ether. An aqueous solution is
decolorized by adding an excess of strong nitric or hydrochloric acid,
but reappears on neutralizing with potassium hydrate or ammonia.
Bacilli of Malaria.||—Herr v. Schlen found in the blood of a
malaria patient in an early stage of the fever, both in the red cor-
puscles and lying free in the blood among them, round blue granules
from 0:5 to 1 w in size, and ring-shaped bodies of about double this
size, with intermediate stages between them, but no bacilli. From
the blood of chronic malaria patients there was obtained by culture
on the third day a whitish bacterial growth consisting entirely of
micrococci about 1 » in diameter.
In the soil and water of malarial regions there were found,
besides various moulds and micrococci, the following three forms of
“ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 451-3. Tbid., pp. 508-10.
t Ibid., pp. 450-1. Cee ‘ ee
§ Science, vi. (1885) p. 226. (Proc. Sect. of Biology, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci.)
|| Fortschritte der Medicin, ii. (1884) pp. 585-91. See Bot. Centralbl., xxii.
(1885) p. 234.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1053
bacillus :—(1) A delicate bacillus, 3 » long by 0°75 yw broad, the
cells sometimes united into short threads, but usually single and
motile. (2) Thicker bacilli, 4 » by 1°5 », growing into gelatinous
colonies and without motility. (8) A very delicate bacillus, 2 pu
long and 0°25 w broad, which takes only a slight stain with anilin
dyes. In addition to these there were invariably found micrococci
from 0:5 to 1 » in diameter; and the author regards it as probable,
though not yet demonstrable, that these micrococci are the cause of
malaria.
Gummosis of Figs.*—Sig. C. Comes attributes an epidemic dis-
ease of the fig-tree, which consists in the suppression and death of the
young shoots and the final drying up of the older branches, to a
“oummosis” or transformation of starch and of the young tissues
through the action of a specifically distinct organism which he calls
Bacterium gummis. Sig. Comes identifies this organism with that
which causes gummosis in the Amygdalez and Aurantiacee, and the
“mal nero” of the vine, and even with the “Cornalia’s corpuscles”
in the blood of silkworms.
Bacillus of the Vine.j—M. L. A. Corvo contends that the destruc-
tion of vines ascribed to the Phyllowera is really due to a tubercular
disease occasioned by a special bacillus. This disease can be com-
municated to other plants by inoculation in the entire absence of the
Phylloxera. The insect merely spreads the evil of inoculation.
Pear Blight.{—In proof that bacteria are the direct cause of the
disease known as pear blight, Mr. J. C. Arthur shows by the results
of his experiments that, (1) sap from an infected tree when inoculated
into a healthy tree invariably produced the blight. (2) When
cultures to the sixth generation of organisms were made with all pre-
caution to prevent error, and healthy trees were inoculated with the
pure culture of this sixth generation, the tree is stricken with blight,
starting from the point of inoculation, and gradually extending over
the whole plant. (3) That wherever there is a blight not produced
by freezing, bacteria of this species are invariably present. The
crucial experiment was made by filtering a watery solution containing
the bacteria, and then inoculating with the bacteria on the one hand
and the filtration on the other, resulting in blight in the former and
none at all in the latter case.
Action of Ozonized Air upon Micro-organisms and Albumen in
Solution.§—Mr. J. J. Coleman describes a number of experiments
conducted by him in conjunction with Prof. M‘Kendrick, being
supplementary to their joint investigation upon the influence of cold
on microphytes.||
Air artificially impregnated with ozone by means of a Ruhmkorff
* Atti R. Ist. d’Incoraggiamento di Napoli, iii. (1884). See Bot. Centralbl.
xxii. (1885) p. 270. ,
+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 528-30.
t Bot. Gazette, x. (1885) pp. 343-5.
§ Nature, xxxii. (1885) pp. 561-2. (Paper read before British Association.)
|| See this Journal, ante, p. 619.
1054 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
coil, so as to contain a much larger percentage of ozone than any
natural atmospheric air, was passed continuously through a 1 per
cent. solution of white of egg placed in a glass flask, the inlet and
outlet tubes of which were carefully plugged with cotton-wool
previously to commencing the experiment. It was found that a
stream of air, containing an amount of ozone equal in weight to the
albumen in solution, passed through 100 e.c. of the liquid for thirty
hours, failed in producing the slightest trace of oxidation, and that
the ozonized air passed through the liquid quite unaltered. During
the course of the experiment and for six days following, the develop-
ment of micro-organisms ceased, but at the end of that time, and not-
withstanding the cotton-wool plugs, the liquid became slightly turbid
from the presence of organisms. As dilute hydrogen peroxide is
without action upon albumen, the conclusion seems inevitable that
albumen is practically indestructible by any atmospheric agency
without previous splitting up by micro-organisms, and further, that
whilst micro-organisms cannot develope and are probably killed in an
ozonized atmosphere, their spores are not easily destroyed by its
agency. These results confirm the surmise of the late Dr. Angus
Smith, that putrefaction is a necessary preliminary to oxidation in all ~
cases of natural river purification.
MICROSCOPY.
a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*
D’Arsonval’s Water Microscope.—Our justification for noticing
this instrument (fig. 229) is that it has been suggested by a leading
member of the Société de Biologie of Paris, M. D’Arsonval, who
presided at a meeting of the Société in May last. The suggestion is,
moreover, evidently a serious one, as the Société devoted two pages of
their Proceedings } to a description of it. :
The principle of the instrument depends upon the fact that if an
object is viewed through a parallel plate of glass it will appear the
nearer as the plate is thicker. The interposition between the ob-
jective and the eye-piece of a greater or less quantity of water will
act in the same way, and thus (in theory) a very sensitive method of
focusing is obtained, the focus varying according to the thickness of
the stratum of water.
The construction of the instrument is as follows:—A glass
cylinder (fig. 230), open at the top and closed at the bottom by a
plane glass disc, is inserted into the body-tube, which is split to allow
the contents of the cylinder to be observed without removing it. An
orifice at the lower end communicates by an indiarubber tube with a
* This subdivision is arranged in the following order:—() Stands; (2) Hye-
pieces and Objectives; (3) [uminating Apparatus; (4) Other Accessories ;
(5) Photo-micrography; (6) Manipulation; (7) Microscopical Optics, Books,
and Miscellaneous matters.
+ See this Journal, ii. (1879) p. 767.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1055
Fic. 229.
ars
14
a
=
syringe (the Lacaze-Duthiers vertical injecting syringe is the most
convenient for this purpose). By working the syringe water can be
forced into the tube or withdrawn from it,
and, as before stated, the focus of the F1¢. 230.
Microscope is varied. A cover (fig. 231) @e@s
can be used to exclude the light from
entering the body-tube through the slit.
We will assume that by this means the
variation in the focus can be made with
much more sensitiveness than with the
best mechanical means, though the latter
has now reached a great pitch of perfec-
tion. Is this (assumed) increased sensi-
tiveness obtained at the sacrifice of other
indispensable qualities? There can be no
doubt that it is. The arrangement is of
course of no use except with high powers—for low powers the existing
focusing arrangements leave nothing to be desired as a practical
Fic. 231.
qi
1056 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
question. With high powers, however, the interposed water would
seriously interfere with the corrections. The objectives are con-
structed to work with air, and if the rays have to pass through water
there is a considerable disturbance of their action both as regards
aplanatism and achromatism. The same result follows from capil-
larity, by the action of which the upper surface of the water is
distinctly curved.
We are obliged therefore to come to the conclusion that M.
D’Arsonval’s idea, though a not uninteresting contribution to the
history of suggestions on the construction of the Microscope, cannot
be realized in practice.
Another advantage claimed by the inventor was the power of
using thick cover-glasses; also coloured solutions for monochromatic
light for photography.
In this connection it may be interesting to note an idea which oc-
curred to Hooke,* in regard to the use of water between the lenses.
“T provided me a Tube of Brass. . .; into the smaller end of this
I fixt with Wax a good plano convex Object Glass, with the convex
side towards the Object, and into the bigger end I fixt also with wax
a pretty large plano Convex Glass, with the convex side towards my
eye, then by means of the small hole by the side, I fill’d the inter-
mediate space between these two Glasses with very clear water, and
with a Screw stopped it in ; then putting on a Cell for the Hye, I could
perceive an Object more bright than I could when the intermediate
space was only fill’d with Air, but this, for other inconveniences, I
made but little use of.”
Direct Vision Microscopes.;—Mr. T. E. Amyot, observing that
many of the old faults and deficiencies of these instruments remain
uncorrected and unsupplied, describes the alterations which he has
made in one, which have rendered it “ perfectly available for many
purposes for which it was previously inapplicable, and in fact,” as far
as his own requirements go, “ a very useful instead of a nearly
useless instrument.”
The faults of all the instruments of this class with which he is
acquainted are the following :—
1. The object examined is rendered indistinct by the amount of
side light which falls upon it in its exposed position.
2. The stage arrangements are so imperfect that it is impossible
to examine any but the central portion of the slide, or at best such a
portion as has been previously arranged for examination.
To correct the first fault nothing more is required than 1/3 in. of
metal tube blackened internally, the size of, and projecting beyond,
the stage aperture; this too would easily carry a polarizing prism or
a spot-lens if desired.
To remedy the second fault (the instrument operated on being
Dr. Beale’s Class Microscope) the bell-shaped end is removed and in
its place is fixed a brass cylinder, with a gap in front for the use of
* Hooke, R., ‘ Micrographia,’ 1€67, preface.
+ Sci.-Gossip, 1885, pp. 201-2 (1 fig.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1057
reflected light when required, as in the original arrangement. It is
3/4 in. long and 2 in. wide, and to it is attached by a strong bar a
stout brass dise or stage, with a central aperture of 3/4 in. diameter,
the interval between it and the cylinder being 1/4 in. A thinner
brass disc of rather smaller circumference and similar central aper-
ture, but having its edge bordered by a projecting rim both above and
below, is kept in close apposition to the first by a coil of wire-spring
soldered to it and to the base of the internal circumference of the
brass cylinder. It is between these two discs that the slide is lightly
but firmly held, it being easy to move it without jerk or unevenness
in any direction. The shallower projecting rim, which is deficient in
front, should be about the depth of the thickness of an ordinary slide,
and is intended to prevent the possible pressure of cemented objects
between the discs when searching far from their centre. The de-
ficiency of the rim in front secures the cover-glasses from injury.
The other rim should be much deeper, its use being to keep the disc
central, and working within the cylinder when drawn down. Its
border is arched, and the points between the arches are bent out-
wards; the centre one forming a convenient catch for the thumb of
the left hand when depressing the disc to introduce the object, and
the others steadying the movement in the
inside of the cylinder. There is also a small Fig. 232.
pin attached to this rim, which works ina SR
tube fixed to the cylinder, securing perfect
steadiness.
Microscope with Catgut Focusing
Adjustment.— In 1881* Herr J. Ulmer
suggested the use of a silk thread for
obtaining a simple adjustment of the focus
of a Microscope, working very easily and
without “loss of time.’ The principle
was apparently adopted several years earlier
in the form shown in fig. 232.
A piece of catgut is attached by its
two ends to the top and bottom of the fixed
sheath in which the body-tube moves, and
is wound once round a spindle with milled
head, which is screwed to the body-tube
and passes through a slot in the sheath.
On rotating the milled head the catgut
winds on the spindle, thus carrying the
body-tube up or down as desired. The
spindle travelling in the slot prevents any
rotation of the body-tube. For the purpose
of tightening the catgut the upper end
is passed through a hollow screw working
in a fixed socket. The axle of the spindle is milled to prevent the
catgut slipping.
* Sce this Journal, ii, (1882) p. 406.
1058 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Inostranzeff's Double Microscope.*—M. Inostranzeff “ proposes
to use the tint and lustre of non-transparent minerals as a means of
comparison, by adapting a double Microscope, so that the objectives
receive separately the rays proceeding from the minerals studied.
The rays are inflected by prisms, so that they reach a single eye-
piece, and form two halves of the field of view divided by a fine line.
With identical minerals a uniform image is obtained, but the slightest
change of shade in any one object causes the line of division and two
distinct parts to appear.”
Microscopes with Accessory Stages.—The cutting of series of
sections now so much in use necessitates, as mentioned ante p. 153, a
considerable increase in the size of the slides on which they are to be
mounted, some of those in use at Cambridge being 6 in. x 2 in. with
cover-glasses 5 in. X 14 in., and containing it may be 500 sections.
This of course renders it desirable that the stage of the Microscope
should be much wider than ordinarily made, so as to support the slides
when the sections at either end are examined. For broad as well as
long sections such as brain, the arrangements devised by Schieck and
Giacomini and shown ante, p. 515, are very suitable. The extensible
Fig. 233.
arms of Schieck’s form will not however accommodate the narrow
slides used for series of sections, and the supports of Giacomini’s are
more especially intended for broad and not for long and narrow slides.
The increase in the size of the fixed stage is moreover undesirable, what
is wanted being some simple and readily adapted addition to a stage
which will allow it to be again restored to its normal size when required.
This want may be supplied by an adaptation of the device used
many years since by Andrew Pritchard and Powell, and applied in
more modern times for the attachment of the hand-rests used with
German dissecting Microscopes.
* Tilus. Sci. Monthly, iv. (1885) p. 27.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1059
Tt consists of a brass angle-plate with slots, which slide on suitably
arranged milled-head screws beneath the stage. When the plate is in
position the screws are tightened, and it is firmly clamped to the stage,
forming a continuation on either or both sides at the same level.
Riddell’s Binocular Compound Microscope.—Prof. J. L. Riddell,
of New Orleans, Louisiana, was the original inventor of the Bino-
cular Compound Microscope with one objective. A description of his
form of prisms was published in 1854,* but the instrument itself has
not been figured complete, either here or abroad. Prof. Riddell’s own
instrument is the property of the United States Government, but by
the courtesy of the Surgeon-General of the United States Army
(acting through Dr. John S. Billings, Curator of the Army Medical
Museum, Washington) it was placed in the hands of Mr. J. Grunow,
of New York (brother of the original constructor), by whom a dupli-
cate was made and sent to this country, and is reproduced in fig. 234.
The arrangement of the binocular prisms is shown in section in
fig. 255, as drawn in the original paper.
The pencil of rays emerging from the objective / is divided in two,
each half passing respectively into the right and left prisms. The
path of the rays is a, b, c, d (the object is at 0). In the prisms
figured Prof. Riddell remarked that the equal angles at the long face
are 45°, consequently the rays suffer a slight chromatic dispersion at
ec, but he found no attendant practical disadvantage, unless eye-pieces
of unusually high power were used. By making the equal angles of
the prisms 85° or 86°, so that the immergence and emergence would
be at right angles to the glass planes, the dispersion would be avoided ;
but then another difficulty would arise by the transmission of direct
rays (without reflection from the binocular prisms) from the object,
which would destroy the binocular image.
To facilitate the perfect coalescence of the images in the field of
view for every width of eyes, Prof. Riddell provided (1) a means of
regulating the inclination of the prisms by mounting them in hinged
frames, so that while their lower terminal edges remain always in
parallel contact the inclination of the internal reflecting faces can be
varied by the action of a milled head in front of the prism box;
(2) the lower ends of the binocular tubes are connected by travelling
sockets, moving on one and the same axis on which are cut corre-
sponding right- and left-handed screws, so that the width of the tubes
may correspond with that of the prisms; and (3) the upper ends of
the tubes are connected by racks, one acting above and the other
below the same pinion, so that right- and left-handed movements are
communicated by turning the pinion.
Prof. Riddell found that in many cases it was advantageous to
employ two small concave mirrors rather than one large one, so as to
equalize the illumination in both fields,
To obviate the inconvenience of using the instrument always in
the vertical position, small rectangular equilateral prisms are so
mounted in brass caps as to be slipped at pleasure over the eye-pieces.
* Quart. Journ, Mier. Sci, ii, (1854) pp. 18-24 (4 figs.).
1060 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Fig. 234.
Wi
&
Rippetu’s BryoctuLar Microscore.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1061
These prisms are adjustable so that the image may be viewed at any
inclination between the vertical and the horizontal. The combination
of the binocular prisms with the eye-piece
prisms inverts the image in both planes,
so that the movement upon the stage is
seen through the instrument to be natural
or erect—‘“‘a condition essential to the
convenient manipulation or dissection of a
microscopic object.”
In the original description Professor
Riddell states that the instrument, with
its firm stand, broad stage [6 by 4 in.],
and erect images, is pre-eminently adapted
for use in prosecuting minute dissections,
or the onravelling of minute structures
of any kind. Opaque objects may be
illuminated by the bnll’s-eye condenser,
and transparent objects by one or two
concave mirrors, aided perhaps by two
diaphragms or screens. At night two
candles may be used conveniently with
one mirror. To illuminate for the higher powers a single achromatic
condenser suffices.
Fic. 235.
Megaloscopy.*—Under this heading M. Boisseau du Rocher writes
as follows :—
“JT will first indicate the optical principle that has guided me in
the construction of aseries of instruments for the inspection of cavities,
notably the stomach, bladder, and rectum (péyas, large, ]
” 33
OLDFIELD, W.—The Construction of Object-glasses.
[Criticism of Orderic Vital’s comments on his articles.)
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 205.
PELLETAN, J.—Les Objectifs 4 immersion homezéne de MM. Bézu, Hausser et
Cie. (The homogeneous immersion objectives of MM. Bézu, Hausser & Co.)
{Commendation of their Microscopes and objectives. |
Journ. de Microgr., 1X. (1885) pp. 313-6 (1 fig.).
“ PROCELLA.”—Microscopical.
[1. Correcting some errors in F. Grant’s communication, ante, p. 889.
2. Strongly recommending B Kellner eye-pieces. ]
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 100.
QveEEN, J. W.—Table of Colour-corrections. [Spra, p. 1068.]
Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, II. (1885) p. 38.
ReGNARD, P.—Sur un dispositif permettant de suivre par la vue les phéno-
ménes que presentent des animaux soumis a une pression de 600 atm. (On
an apparatus allowing the phenomena to be followed which are presented by
animals subjected to a pressure of 600 atmospheres. [Ante, p. 876.]
Comptes Rendus, C. (1885) pp. 1243-4 (1 fig.).
Nature, XXXII. (1885) pp. 399-400 (2 figs.), from Za Nature.
Journ. Soc. Scientifiques, 1. (1885) pp. 358-9. (Soc. de Biol., 25th July.)
Robin (C.) Death of. Nature, XXXII. (1885) p. 578,
Royston-Picort, G. [W.]}—Microscopical Advances—Ancient and Modern. I.
Engl. Mech., XLIL. (1885) pp. 231-2.
Smitu, H. L.—The influence of Science Studies.
(Presidential Address to the Cleveland Meeting of the American Society of
Microscopists.
‘*Happily we, in the study of microscopy, are untrammelled by meta-
physical thoughts. We microscopists do not trouble ourselves with
cause and effect, but leave the leaven in the lump, feeling assured that
it will in time leaven the whole. The old word has passed away. The
age of the hero has passed away. ‘The people have arrived. Science has
arrived, and theology, law, and all are on trial. Those who devote their
lives to scientific research develope a love for truth.”
“ Professor Smith said that he could remember when physicians were shy
of the Microscope. To-day, while there are a few old practitioners who
shrug their shoulders distrustfully when the younger physicians use the
Microscope, even the older ones are unconsciously affected in their prac-
tice by advancement in microscopical investigations. ‘The President spoke
of biology, which owed its existence to microscopy, and which has worked
a revolution in medicine. Anything that can claim to aid us in coping
with contagious diseases, with blights upon our crops and diseases in our
flocks, is of intense interest to the public, and it is with these that biology
deals. It is in its infaney yet, but it is destined to become more and
more important. The speaker said that it had been shown that a two-
hundred millionth part of a drop contains enough bacteria to be deadly
infectious. He said that when it is shown that ventilation and sewage
have been greatly benefited by microscopic investigations, it may be
considered fortunate that some men have microbes on the brain, as has
been said in jest. He said that biology may yet prove that the in-
finitesimal organisms with which it deals are not alone concerned with
1082
SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
disease, but with health as well, and that they, acting in the pores of the
human system as workers, carry off the sewage of the system, and thus
overcome the effects of violations of nature’s laws, and thus work to the
end of aiding man in working out in himself the theory of the survival of
the fittest. He said that microscopy has a great work to do in geology,
and thus in affecting the commerce of the world.” ]
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., V1. (1885) pp. 166-7.
Smitu, H. L.—Device for Testing Refractive Index. [ Supra, p. 1066.]
Ibid., pp. 181-2 (1 fig.).
Cf. Queen’s Micr. Bull., II. (1885) p. 40.
Sorsy, H. C.—See Wedding, H.
W., E. D.—Measurement of Power and Aperture of Microscopic Objectives.
[1. Describes the following method :—Remove the eye-piece; adjust the
length of the tube by means of the draw-tube to exactly 10 in. from the
back lens of the objective (this may conveniently be done by dropping a
straw cut to 10 in. in length into the tube, allowing the lower end of it to
rest on the back lens). Place a stage-micrometer divided into hundredths
and thousandths of an inch on the stage. Hold a finely ground slip of
glass on the top of the draw-tube. Focus until the divisions of the stage-
micrometer are clearly visible on the ground-glass slip, when they can be
marked on the slip with a pencil. The extent to which the divisions of
the micrometer are magnified on the glass slip indicates the power of the
objective.
2. Also gives a method for ascertaining the angular aperture of an
objective :—Place the Microscope with its tube in a vertical position on
a table having a dark-coloured cover. Take out the eye-piece. Rack
down the tube until the front of the objective is level with or below the
under side of the stage. All substage fittings must be removed. Take
two pieces of white card and place them on the table right and left of the
Microscope. Look down the tube, and move the pieces of card until you
can just see the extreme edge of each piece of card mirrored on each side
of the field of the objective on the extreme edge of the circle of the field.
Now measure the distance apart of the two pieces of card (their inside
edges) and the distance from the table of the front lens of the objective.
Draw the first-mentioned distance on a sheet of paper as a horizontal
line, and set up the latter distance from the middle of this line, and per-
pendicular to it. Draw two lines from the ends of the horizontal distance
to the top of the perpendicular one—when the angle formed by these two
lines will be the angular aperture of the objective, or a close approxima-
tion to it.]
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) pp. 100-1.
Warp, R. H.—Choice of Objectives and Oculars.
>
(“It is probably quite safe to say that objectives anywhere from 1/8 in. to
1/12 in., if not lower, can now be obtained, which will show as well as
has ever been done anything that has yet been seen by the Microscope.
The question as to the choice of moderate or extreme apertures for ob-
jectives is still open, and somewhat evenly disputed.” “In the com-
bining of oculars with objectives it is still undecided whether it is
preferable to secure a sufficient variety of powers by means of a large
number of objectives, or by the high and low eye-piecing of a few.”]
Journ. N. York Micr. Soc., I. (1885) p. 164,
from article “ Microscopy,” in ‘ Appleton’s Annual Cyclopedia’ for 1884.
The Binocular. (Concluded.)
, [Wenham’s, Nachet’s, and Abbe’s, and general remarks. ]
Queen’s Micr. Bull., 11. (1885) p. 38,
from The Microscope in Botany (Behrens).
WeEpDp1ING, H.—The properties of malleable Iron deduced from its microscopic
structure.
[Includes a letter from Dr. H. C. Sorby, on a “ Direct illuminative” con-
trived by him. Post.]
Colliery Guardian, 1885, June 5, p. 908.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 1083
Wricut, L.—The Optical Lantern.
[Reply to “ Rector,” ante, p. 891. Waste heat cannot be utilized. As to
Newton’s new improved 6 in. and 43 in. objectives for the oil-lantern. ]
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) pp. 121-2.
Wytue, J. H.—The Microscopist; a Compendium of Microscopie Science ;
including the use of the Microscope; mounting and preserving microscopic
objects; the Microscope in Chemistry, Biology, Histology, Botany, Geology,
Pathology, &c.
4th ed., pp. i-xii. 17-434, 240 figs. and 27 pls., 8vo, Philadelphia, 1883.
8. Collecting, Mounting and Examining Objects, &c,
Preserving Eggs of Cephalopoda and preparing Blastoderms.*
—Mr. W. E. Hoyle finds that when the young Cephalopods have reached
a stage at which the rudiments of the arms are clearly visible it is
moderately easy, after a little practice, to extricate them by making
an incision into the egg-membrane with a fine scalpel ; but previously
to this period they so nearly occupy the whole interior of the egg that
it is almost impossible to obtain them uninjured. A quantity of such
eggs he preserved whole by a method suggested by Dr. Jatta. The
strings of eggs are placed whole in a weak solution of chromic acid
(about 0°25 per cent.) for a few hours, and then in distilled water
for twenty-four hours, after which they are preserved in alcohol. The
embryos can then be extracted much more readily than when fresh.
A number of blastoderms in process of segmentation were pre-
served according to a method proposed by Ussow. The egg, without
removal of the membranes, is placed in a 2 per cent. solution of
chromic acid for two minutes, and then in distilled water to which a
little acetic acid (one drop to a watch-glassful) has been added, for
two minutes longer. If an incision be now made into the egg-
membrane the yolk flows away and the blastoderm remains; if any
yolk still clings to it, it may be removed by pouring away the water
and adding more. The blastoderms thus prepared show, when ap-
propriately stained, fine karyokinetic figures.
Treatment of the Eggs of the Spider.j—The eggs of the grass
spider (Agalena noevia) are deposited in cocoons attached to the
under side of loosened bark and other sheltered places. During the
entire winter cocoons may be found with eggs in early stages of
development. The species thrives well in captivity, so that there is
no difficulty in obtaining eggs freshly laid.
For studying the egg in a living condition the long-used method
of immersion in oil is, Mr. W. A. Locy thinks, excellent. The oil
should be perfectly clear and odourless. The external features can
be studied to better advantage by mounting the eggs in alcohol after
they have been freed from the chorion and stained. Another valuable
method for surface study consists in clearing the already stained egg
in clove oil. The thickness of the blastoderm is most easily deter-
mined in this way.
The best method of hardening preparatory to sectioning is that
* Nature, xxxii. (1885) p. 506 (Report to British Association),
+ Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 102-22.
1084 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
of heating in water to about 80° C., and then after cooling slowly,
treating with the usual grades of alcohol. Good results are obtained
with Perenyi’s fluid, which renders the yolk less brittle. Osmic acid
does not penetrate the chorion, and chromic acid or acid alcohol are
not easily soaked out on account of the thickness of the chorion.
Borax-carmine is, on the whole, the best staining fluid. It is
difficult to make the dye penetrate the chorion, and, after hatching,
the cuticula forms a similar obstacle. This difficulty may be over-
come by prolonged immersion in the staining fluid. In some cases
seventy-two hours were required to obtain a sufficient depth of colour.
In order to avoid maceration, which would result from so long con-
tinued immersion in a weak alcoholic dye, the staining process may
be interrupted at the end of every twenty-four hours by transferring
to 70 per cent. alcohol for an hour or more.
After most methods of hardening the yolk becomes very brittle,
and the sections crumble. This difficulty may be overcome by col-
lodionizing the cut surface before making each section, in the manner
described by Dr. Mark.*
Balkwill’s Foraminifera Slides.—Various “triumphs of mount-
ing” have been issued from time to time, including the well-known
arrangements of the scales of butterflies, but Mr. F. P. Balkwill must
be considered to have carried off the palm by his slides of Fora-
minifera which he commenced to issue now some years ago. Ona
Fig. 249. Fic. 250.
one
|52. LAGENA. *
| -SULCATA
a
plate only 21 in. by 1) in. no less than 220 different collections of
species of Foraminifera are arranged and named. Fig. 249 shows the
slide in natural size, with the 220 divisions. It has not been possible
to reproduce the photographed names, but fig. 250 enlarged 4 times
shows how they are placed.
Preparing Leaves to show Starch-grains.{|—A very interesting
experiment, showing the influence of light upon the formation of
* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) p. 628. See this Journal, ante, p. 737.
+ Cf. Amer. Mon. Micr, Journ., vi. (1885) p. 178.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1085
starch in leaves, can be readily performed according to a method re-
cently described by Prof. J. Sachs. To show the starch-grains a leaf
must be bleached and made transparent in this way: The fresh leaf
is placed in boiling water for ten minutes, after which the chloro-
phyll is extracted by placing it in alcohol. The colour is thus re-
moved without rupturing the cells, which retain the starch. The
latter is then made visible by treatment with iodine. The cellular
tissues become stained dark blue or lighter, according to the quantity
of starch present. Comparative experiments may be made by ex-
posing half of a leaf to sunshine while the other half is protected.
A leaf collected in the evening contains much more starch than in
the morning.
Studying Pollen-grains.*—Yor the study of the development of
the pollen-grains of Campanula Americana, Prof. C. R. Barnes used
alcohol-fixed buds, which had been twenty-four hours in equal parts
of 95 per cent. alcohol and glycerin, commencing with those 2 mm. in
length. The sections of the entire bud were stained with an aqueous
solution of methyl-blue. The plant is an admirable one for the use of
students in this respect.
For the study of the pollen-grains themselves fresh material is re-
quisite. The best results were obtained by staining with Grenacher’s
borax-carmine. The grains are placed in a drop of 2 per cent. acetic
acid, and after afew minutes a drop of borax-carmine added. This is
allowed to remain an hour, the slide being protected from evaporation
meanwhile. The stain is then washed out with acidulated alcohol
(70 per cent. alcohol 100 ce., HCl. 5 ce.), and a drop of dilute glycerin
placed on the specimens. The demonstration of the nuclei is ex-
tremely difficult.
The grains were germinated in a hanging drop of 3-12 per cent.
sugar solution in the usual moist chamber. After three hours they
were examined, the cover-glass with the drop being lifted off and
allowed to fall on (1) a drop of acetic-iodine-green,{ or (2) a drop of
picro-carmine. After a few minutes dilute glycerin is run under the
cover. Both yield excellent results. The nuclei in the tubes are
thus more deeply stained than the cytoplasm.
Longitudinal sections of the stigmas serve for the study of the
entrance of the pollen-tubes. The author used alcoholic material,
without any staining, mounted in glycerin.
The pollen-tubes in the conducting tissue may be studied either
in longitudinal sections of the style, or by laying open the style, and
drawing a needle through the canal, thus dragging out the conducting
tissue. In the latter case care must be taken to tangle the strands as
little as possible, and methyl-blue should be used as a stain, other-
wise the transparency of the pollen-tubes renders them very difficult
to follow. The very greatly clongated cells of the conducting tissue
are almost exactly the diameter of the pollen-tubes, and are liable to
* Bot. Gazette, x. (1885) pp. 353-4. + See this Journal. supra, p. 1028.
t A drop of 1 per cent. acetic acid, to which a small drop of iodine-green is
aided. (Strasburger, ‘ Neue Untersuchungen,’ p. 6.)
1086 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
mislead, were it not for the abundant cellulose plugs which occur
only in the tubes.
In the study of the ovules material fixed in strong alcohol, in a
saturated aqueous solution of picric acid and in chrom-acetic acid,*
was used. ‘The contraction of the contents of the embryo-sac is un-
avoidable. Prof. Barnes thinks the alcoholic material is quite equal
to the others and less troublesome. He found it necessary to depend
on getting chance sections of the ovules by cutting the whole ovary
longitudinally and laying the sections in glycerin. Previous to the
cutting, the material is placed in alcohol glycerin for twenty-four
hours or more. After being mounted in glycerin the sections become
clearer and clearer. He also tried cutting sections in various known
directions, by imbedding the ovules in coloured pith to render them
more easilyseen. The results, on the whole, are not better than by
depending on chance sections, and they are much more troublesome.
Imbedding in Paraffin.;—Dr. E. Selenka has devised a method
for fixing minute objects in a definite position in paraffin.
In a thin-walled glass tube (fig. 251) a central depression of
limited extent is formed by heating this portion, closing one end of
the tube with the finger, and sucking at the other end. One open
end of the tube is then connected with a T-piece, one arm of which
is in communication with a vessel of warm water, the other with a
= |
Nei... Oe
vessel of cold water; the other end of the glass tube permits the
water to flow out into another vessel. The paraffin is poured in a
melted condition into the depression A on the glass tube, which is
previously warmed by passing hot water through it, and the object to
be imbedded is arranged under a lens; cold water is then admitted,
and the object is fixed in the desired position.
Andrews and Nachtrieb’s Water-bath.t—The following is a
description of a water-bath planned by Mr. E. A. Andrews and
Mr. H. F. Nachtrieb, which has been in use for some time in the
biological laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University.
The bath proper consists of a closed copper cylinder 28 in. in
diameter and 8 in. deep. ‘To the borders of holes cut in the top are
soldered four round, flat-bottomed basins, 8 in. in diameter and 4 in.
deep, with a distance of 2 in. between the nearest points of any two
basins; and nearer the edge of the top, at the angles between the
* Chromic acid 0°7, acetic acid 0°38, distilled water 99. Strasburger, loc. cit.,
p. 328.
+ Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 419-20 (2 figs.).
t~ Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 917-9 (8 figs.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 1087
round basins, are four rectangular basins each 5 in. long, 34 in. wide
and 2 in. deep. In each of the large basins is placed, on movable
Fie. 252.
A
i
{
t
|
1
i}
1
\
'
1
1
!
!
i]
ay
S
s
1
|
i
{
i
1
‘
i]
!
1
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Nv
Surface view of the bath in the table. 1, basin with lid on; 2, shelf with holes
for dishes in basin; 3, open basins; 4, rectangular basins for slides; 5, tube
for gas-pipe; 6, hole for regulator ; 7, hole for thermometer.
Fig.7253.
—=—-———— /§/N-——-—--__>
——=----------3FT, 8IN —------------>
Diagrammatic section to show the depth of the bath and its basins, and
its relation to the table. The legs of the table, of course, extend from the top
of the box, not from the lower shelf of the table, as indicated above, and they are
at the corners of the table.
supports, a shelf for the paraffin cups. This shelf is made from the
circular piece of copper which was cut out of the top for the insertion
1088 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO
of the basin. For each basin there is also a copper lid with a button
handle in the centre and a hole, 1/2 in. in diameter, near this for a
thermometer. When the bath is once regulated this thermometer can
of course be dispensed with and the hole in the lid can be plugged
up with a cork. By this arrangement the parafiin dishes are always
kept dry and at a uniform temperature all over. The four rectangular
basins are used for warming the slides. In each of them is a movable
rack made of two tin slips, each about
1/2 in. wide, and folded as shown in
fig. 254. Hach of these basins also
has a copper lid with a button handle
in the middle.
Near the centre of the bath a tube
saans 1 in. in diameter passes from the to
ace Ts ey down to and Her the botteal
This tube is the passage way for the
glass tube that connects the burner under the bath with the gas-
jet above the centre of the bath, and it should be soldered to the
upper side as well as to the under side of the bottom of the bath.
Near this tube are two others, each 1 in. in diameter, that project
about 14 in. above the upper surface of the bath, but are soldered
with their lower ends flush with the under side of the top of the bath. |
One of these tubes is for the automatic regulator, and the other is for
the thermometer. Through them the water is put in or taken out
of the bath. The thermometer and regulator are each in a test-tube
with holes blown in the sides, about 14 in. from the bottom, and with
a good flange on the upper edge by which it is supported on the
copper tube. A bit of cotton in the bottom of the test-tube protects
the mercury bulb of the regulator or thermometer from any jars
against the hard test-tube. The holes in the sides of the test-tube
allow the water of the bath to come in direct contact with the
mercury bulbs and at the same time they are up high enough to keep
the mercury from running into the bath should either of the mercury
bulbs break while in the tube. The copper bath is supported in a
square box-table, the top of the bath being flush with that of the table.
This table is essentially a box on four legs, with a hole in the
top slightly more than 28 in. in diameter, and with a door at one
end. The bath is supported on four props that rest on the lower
shelf of the table, and around the inside of the table is a lining of
common tin to protect against possible accident. By this means a
steady flame is obtained and the loss of heat is reduced to a minimum ;
and by grouping the regulator, thermometer and gas-pipe near the
centre of the bath, hindrances are practically done away with. There
is also connected with the gas-jet a small home-made glass Bunsen
burner that is attached to the glass gas-tube a little above the bath.
It is very convenient for warming dip-tubes, lifters, &c. In so large
a bath as this two flames are required, but both are burned very low.
The one burner is connected directly with the gas-jet and the other
by way of the regulator. After the bath has, so to speak, been once
set it runs on uniformly and requires no attention. It is regulated
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1089
by putting a thermometer through the hole in one of the lids into the
dry chamber and shutting off the regulator burner when the chamber
is warm enough. The temperature, as indicated by the thermometer
that dips into the water, is always a few degrees higher than that of
the dry chambers. When the thermometer in the water indicates a
temperature of 60° C., the basins are warm enough to keep the hardest
grade of paraffin melted. The whole stands at a convenient working
height, about 3 ft. 8 in.
Barrett's New Microtome—Mr. James W. Barrett exhibited at
the last meeting of the Society a microtome which he had devised
(with the assistance of Messrs Swift & Son) for the purpose of pre-
paring large sections of tissues imbedded in celloidin, gum, paraffin,
or similar material, cutting under spirit, or (if necessary) under water.
The machine is adapted to allow of the preparation of sections up
to 12-5 cm. diameter, or even more, but Mr. Barrett has used it
chiefly to prepare sections of the whole eye, in which the parts are
maintained in situ. Fairly serviceable machines for these purposes
have hitherto been made by (amongst others) Katsch,* but the object
of the present construction has been to obviate the results of faults in
those previously devised. The chief improvements are (1) general
solidity and large size, (2) accurate raising mechanism which gives a
definite minimum movement corresponding to a rise of ‘01 mm., and
(3) the support given to the knife at both ends.
In using the instrument the imbedding mass is fixed to a plate or
tube carried inside the bath by the raising mechanism. If celloidin
is to be used, the mass is fixed to the cork-covered plate by simply
moistening both the cork and a flat surface of celloidin with ether, and
then firmly pressing the two surfaces together in the air until the ether
has evaporated. The mass then becomes most firmly adherent to the
plate. The plate is then placed in the bath, which is filled with spirit,
and sections may be at once cut.
If paraffin or gum be used, the plate is replaced by an adjustable
metal tube which holds the imbedding mass. The size of the plate
or tube can be made to vary almost indefinitely, so that if the manu-
facturer is informed beforehand, the machine can be adapted for the
preparation of sections of very great size.
Bausch and Lomb Optical Co’s. Laboratory and Student’s
Microtome. — This company have issued a modification of the
Schanze microtome, under the name of the “ Laboratory Microtome.”
A second form, which they call the “Student’s,” is shown in
fig. 255. It retains the main features of the first form, but is limited
in its adjustments. The base, curved arm, upright and V-shaped beds
for the object-holder and knife, are made of one casting, thus insuring
rigidity. I'he vertical bed has a grooved slot its full length. An
adjustable carriage to which the object-holder is attached, slides
along the groove and can be fastened at any point. The knife-slide
rests on five points upon Prof. Thoma’s plan. It has a spring
* See this Journal, ii. (1882) p, 126,
1090 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
which bears against a projecting flange on the upper end of the
V-bed, so that no matter how hard the material may be, the knife-
moves steadily through it without deviating from its plane or re-
Fic. 255.
quiring any extra pressure. The upper surface has a grooved slot to
which is fitted a sliding thumb-screw so that the knife may be fastened
at any point. The object-holder has a clamp for holding hard
specimens, and a cup which is quickly attached for imbedding soft
ones.
Fic. 256.
PL ELMO THANE
P’ For ether freezing anickcl-plated cylinder with atomizer (fig. 256)
is fastened in the clamp.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 1091
An attachment (fig. 257) is also supplied for holding other knives
than those specially made for the microtome. It is provided with a
slot so that it may be ad-
justed upon the block, and Fic, 257.
with set-screws so that the
angle of the cutting edge
of the knife may be varied.
The knife is fixed by the
thumb-screw. It will hold
a razor as well as a large
knife with handle.
Seiler’s Microtome
Attachment.—At the sug-
gestion of Dr. C. Seiler
the Bausch and Lomb
Optical Co. have devised a
special attachment which may be fastened to either of the preceding
microtomes. It consists of a circular V-shaped way which is firmly
fixed on the vertical bed. A circular block is fitted to it in a manner
similar to that used in the straight movement, and is provided with
a grooved slot for the attachment and adjustment of the knife.
When the block is made to traverse in the circle the knife moves
through the specimen in a circular as well as transverse direction,
thus bringing each point of the cutting edge in a continually varying
position in contact with the specimen. Dr. Seiler is able to cut
large and thin sections in a very satisfactory manner.
Cambridge Rocking Microtome.*—Dr. C. O. Whitman considers
that the chief objection to this microtome is, that it is adapted to
only one mode of section-cutting, namely, that of producing ribbons
of sections imbedded in paraffin. It could not be used for cutting
collodion sections, nor can it be conveniently employed in the Duval-
Mason method, where the block of paraffin is collodionized before
making each section. The position of the object is such that it can-
not be conveniently watched during the process of cutting ; and this
appears to him to form another serious objection to the instrument.
Suggestions as to the Preparation and Use of Series of Sections
in Zootomical Instruction.t— Prof. R. Ramsay Wright writes on
this subject as follows:—It is convenient to have in the laboratory
prepared series of certain types, so that the student may supplement
the information he has acquired from dissection by the study of these.
Thus entire series of Limax and Cyclas and partial series of the
earthworm and leech are almost indispensible for an accurate know-
ledge of the anatomy of these forms.
Slides 2 x 3 in. (i. e. double the ordinary width instead of double
the ordinary length) are most convenient for small stages, and fit into
many forms of slide-cabinets. Mica covers may be cut for these, and
have the advantage of cheapness.
* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 1022-5. t Lbid., pp. 919-20,
1092 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
Czokor’s alum-cochineal * is an exceedingly convenient stain for
such purposes, as it penetrates an object of considerable size readily,
and differentiates admirably. Thus a Limax may be left in the fluid
twenty-four hours, afterwards washed in water and the excess of
colouring matter removed by 70 per cent. alcohol before it is trans-
ferred to stronger alcohol. Sections of tissues stain in the fluid in
from two to three minutes to two to three hours, according to the .
method of hardening that has been adopted. The fluid is prepared
as follows:—Rub up 7 erm. of cochineal with an equal quantity of
burnt alum in a mortar, add 700 ¢.c. of water, and boil down to
400 cc. Add a trace of carbolic acid, and filter.
Bismarck brown in concentrated solution in water or 70 per cent.
alcohol also stains well in toto; there is no danger of over-staining,
as the excess of colour is removed by alcohol. It is particularly to
be recommended where cartilaginous parts are to be studied, or where
the sections are to be photographed.
Schallibaum’s collodion and clove-oil mixture (one volume of the
former to three of the latter) is excellent for sticking the sections to
the slide. Although it is possible by this method to stain the sections
on the slide in either watery or alcoholic media, much time is saved,
and on the whole more satisfactory results obtained by staining the
objects previously in toto. The collodion medium stains slightly in
anilin colours, if staining on the slide be resorted to.
The study of a slide containing a large number of sections may,
in certain cases, be much facilitated by having a photograph of the
slide enlarged two or three times by means of an ordinary view-lens.
Such an enlargement is frequently sufficient to indicate where an
organ appears or disappears jn a series, and thus to save time in the
study of the individual sections.
Series of Sections. Thickness of Sections.t—Dr. R. v. Lenden-
feld considers that there should always be continuous series of sections
cut and mounted, one after the other. For certain things, however,
and particularly for a preliminary investigation, this is not necessary
to such an extent as in others, and it will save time, trouble, and
material, if in such a case every second section is cut thick and thrown
away, and every other cut to the required fineness and mounted.
As to the thickness of sections—a point on which a great deal
depends —the mutual position of whole organs or groups of cells can
generally be ascertained much better by means of thick sections and
low powers, than by means of very fine sections. For histological
details, however, a section is rarely too fine.
For an investigation into the structure of a rare and valuable
specimen, a continuous series of sections may be recommended, which
are alternately as thin as they can be made, and of medium thickness,
say 0°005-0°02 mm.
Fol’s Injection-table.{—Dr. H. Fol describes the table (fig. 258)
for injecting devised by him. (The fig. is a cliché of the original,
* See this Journal, ii. (1882) p. 426.
+ Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S. Wales, x. (1885) p. 32.
t Fol’s Lehrbuch d, Vergl. Mikr. Anat., 1884, p. 25 (1 fig.).
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1093
and shows more of the table than of the apparatus which it
supports.)
The two indiarubber balls Dfl underneath the table are raised or
lowered by means of a pulley arrangement R. The tap H allows
the apparatus to be brought into connection with one or other of the
Fic. 258.
balls, the upper one then communicating with the air. The object O
and the vessel with the injecting fluid Jf are both placed in a metal
pan sunk in the table and filled with water, and can be kept warm
by a gas-jet (tap at G). The table is free, and everything is close at
hand for almost instantaneously altering either heat or pressure.
The original explanation is a little meagre as to the action of the
apparatus.
Simple Method of Injecting the Arteries and Veins in small
Animals.*—The principle involved in Prof. H. F. Osborn’s method
is that by the use of two injecting fluids, of different densities, one
passing through the capillaries, the other arrested at the capillaries,
the whole vascular system may be injected from the aortic arch.
The application of the principle is as follows:—(1) The animal
is immersed in tepid water and the heart is uncovered. (2) The apex
of the single ventricle, in the case of an amphibian, or of the left
ventricle in the case of higher animals, is then laid widely open and
the blood allowed to flow freely from the auriculo-ventricular
aperture (see P in fig. 259). (3) A cannula is then inserted a short
distance into the arterial bulb and the first ligature is fastened around
the nozzle. The second ligature is then made ready around the base
of the ventricle, thus surrounding the auriculo-ventricular apertures,
4) An ordinary gelatin injecting mass, stained deep red or purple,
is in the meantime prepared. When the body is thoroughly warmed,
this mass is slowly injected. As the second ligature is still loose, a
* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 920-1,
Ser. 2.—Vo1, V. 4B
1094 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
quantity of blood, gradually followed by the gelatin, issues from the
auriculo-ventricular opening. (5) When the gelatin begins to run
pretty clear, the second ligature is
fastened and the syringe contain-
ing gelatin is replaced by another
containing a red plaster of Paris
injecting mass. The latter drives
the gelatin contained in the
arteries before it as far as the
capillaries, thus completely filling
the venous system. When the
gelatin is thoroughly cooled the
animal is ready for dissection.
This method can be applied
with considerable ease to all the
smaller animals, such as frogs,
lizards, and pigeons, in prepara-
tion for class-work or investiga-
tion. Its advantages are nume-
rous. Among its disadvantages
may be mentioned the fact that
Fig. 259.
Illustrating method of preparing the
frog’s heart. V, ventricle; LA, left
auricle; P, auriculo-ventricular open-
ing; Ist L and 2nd L, first and second
ligatures; C, cannula.
alcohol cannot well be used as a
preservative, because it dehy-
drates the gelatin, causing it to
shrink and break up the veins.
This difficulty is entirely obviated,
however, by the use of Wickersheimer’s fluid, in which the injection
remains perfect for an indefinite time.
New Methods of Preparing Carmine Staining Fluids.*—Sig. G.
Arcangeli states that the unsatisfactory results and the instability of
the ordinary carmine stains, induced him to try other methods, and
he has obtained excellent results by the following modifications.
1. Boil together 100 grms. distilled water, 4 grms. boric acid, and
50 centigrms. carmine for about 10 minutes. Filter when tepid. The
fluid gives a beautiful cochineal-red stain, much resembling that of
eosin. The nuclei of vegetable tissues attain their maximum of
coloration in about twenty-four hours. The cutaneous epithelium
and muscular fibres of Rana esculenta stain well. It is necessary to
be aware that the sections should not be washed more than twice or
thrice in water, and should be then transferred to alcohol, which
seems to set the stain.
2. Another carmine stain, which gave the best results, was obtained
by boiling for about ten minutes 100 c.c. of a saturated solution
of alum, 2 grms. of boric acid, and 25 centigms. of carmine. The
fluid so obtained is of a fine violet-red colour, and stains the nuclei of
animal and vegetable tissues in about twenty-four hours, and accord-
ing as the sections are placed in an alcoholic or aqueous solution of
the stain, so is the greater or less rapidity of its action. When used.
in an alcoholic solution the staining is rapid, and the whole of the cell
* Atti Soc. Toscana Sci. Nat., Proc. Verb., iv. (1885) pp. 233-7.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1095
participates in the process. When in combination with water only,
the action is slower, and the nucleus alone affected.
3. A third stain was made by substituting salicylic for boric
acid. 100 grms. of a saturated solution of alum, 25 centigrms.
carmine, and 25 centigrms. salicylic acid, are boiled together for ten
minutes. The fluid thus obtained has a redder hue, and its stain a
more vivid red than that of the preceding fluid. Vegetable and animal
tissues stain in about twenty-four hours,
4. Satisfactory results were obtained by boiling 25 centigrms.
carmine with 50 c.c. saturated solution of picric acid for ten minutes,
and filtering when cold. The fluid thus obtained much resembles in
its action and appearance picrocarmine.
Staining Salivary Glands.*—Dr. N. Kultschizky points out that
the secreting cells of the serous salivary glands of the hedgehog
(corresponding to the parotid of other mammals) stain badly by the
rapid process ; slow staining for twenty-four hours or so is better. He
specially recommends Prof. Kutschin’s method, which consists in
immersing thin sections of the organs, previously hardened in chromic
acid salts or alcohol, in a 4 per cent. solution of chloral hydrate
slightly tinged with picrocarmine. The plasma is differentiated
into an outer granular nucleated zone deeply stained with carmine or
logwood, and an inner zone, finely granular and less coloured. The
epithelial cells lining the small ducts show three zones after staining
with logwood or carmine.
2. The mucous glands (corresponding to sublingual of most
mammals ; the orbital of dogs) contain, in the fresh condition, cloudy
cells, which clear up with alcohol or chrome salts. The nuclei and
plasma stain equally well with carmine and logwood ; the epithelial
cells of finer ducts stain well with logwood.
3. The mixed glands (corresponding to submaxillary of man,
mouse, and guinea-pig) contain two kinds of cells. (a) Muconoid,
distinguished from ordinary mucous cells and from serous cells by the
fact that their protoplasm is stained deeply with carmine ; logwood
only stains their nuclei. (b) Serous cells, which stain slightly with
carmine, strongly with logwood.
Staining with Hematoxylin.t|—Mr. W. A. Haswell, in an account
of his experience of histological methods in connection with class-
work, says he finds objects which have been hardened by any of the
usual methods, after having been at least a fortnight in alcohol, are
best stained en bloc by an aqueous solution of crystallized hematoxylin,
followed by bichromate of potash as recommended by Heidenhain.t
For most organs and tissues, pieces 1/2 in. square are most success-
fully and uniformly stained through by means of a 1/2 per cent.
solution of hematoxylin, allowed to act for ten to twenty-four hours ;
the staining agent is followed by a 1 per cent. solution of bichromate
of potash, which should be allowed to act for two or three hours. It
* Zeitechr. f. Wiss. Zool., xli. (1884) pp. 99-106 (1 pl.).
+ Proc. Linn, Soc. N. 8. Wales, x. (1885) pp. 276-7.
t Pfliiger’s Arch, Gesammt. Physiol., xxiv. (1884) p. 468.
4B2
1096 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
is quite impossible, of course, to lay down any precise rule as to
the time required for staining satisfactorily portions of any given
organ; though twenty-four hours’ immersion in a 1/2 per cent. solu-
tion of hematoxylin will, in the majority of cases, give satisfactory
results, in some instances the object will be rendered too black, and
in others will be found not to be stained throughout. The tissues
which require the most prolonged staining, when hardened by one
method, may become much more rapidly coloured when treated in
another way. It will, therefore, be found necessary, in order to
insure good specimens of all the organs, to take several pieces of each,
prepared in different ways, and subject them all to the same process
of staining; or else, taking several pieces of each specimen, to subject
each of them to the action of the staining fluid for a different interval.
The results obtained by this method excel, in Mr. Haswell’s opinion,
in the definiteness of the cell-outlines, and the distinctness of the
differentiation of the tissues, any that can be obtained ,by any of the
ordinary processes of staining capable of being carried out in a class.
Imbedding in Paraffin.*—Specimens of animals or of organs
stained as above described en bloc, and afterwards treated with bichro-
mate of potash, require, after soaking for a few minutes in distilled
water, to be treated with strong alcohol for several days—absolute
alcohol being used for at least the last two days—in order completely
to remove the water with which they have become saturated. As in
staining so also in the imbedding, both time and material are saved
by preparing a large number of specimens —say twenty or more—at
one time. The alcohol is then replaced by chloroform. If the objects
are delicate and complicated, this will be very conveniently and
thoroughly effected by using some such contrivance as the chloroform-
box which Mr. Haswell employs. This is an oblong brass box,
divided internally into two compartments by a vertical partition,
which does not reach the bottom, but leaves an opening of 3/4 in.
Chloroform, with a slight admixture of sulphuric ether, is poured into
the box until it rises a little above the lower border of the vertical
partition. Absolute alcohol is gently poured by means of a pipette
on the surface of the chloroform in one of the compartments; the
objects are placed in this, and, as they become saturated with the
chloroform, they sink down until they drift through below the parti-
tion into the other compartment, which contains only the mixture of
chloroform and ether. From this they can be taken out without dis-
turbing the equilibrium of the alcohol and chloroform. Ordinary
objects may simply be transferred from absolute alcohol to chloroform,
and kept’in the latter for twenty-four hours, or until saturated.
Saturation with parafiin is then effected by the well-known method of
Giesbrecht. Mr. Haswell uses a special water-bath, with trough
divided into a number of compartments. ‘To ensure a good result,
equal parts, by volume, of chloroform and paraffin (of low melting-
point) should be used, and the objects should be left in the bath at the
temperature of the melting-point of the soft paraffin for about twenty-
four hours.
* Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, x. (1885) pp. 277-8,
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 1097
Eau de Javelle for Clearing.*—Prof. E. Strasburger calls atten-
tion to Eau de Javelle t as a medium for rendering vegetation-points
clear.
Eau de Javelle (hypochlorite of potash) is decidedly superior
to Eau de Labarraque (hypochlorite of soda). It is made by mixing
20 parts of the officinal (25 per cent.) calcium chloride with 100 parts
water: after standing some time, a solution of 15 parts potash in 100
water is added, and after standing some days longer it is filtered.
Should the solution be found to contain too much lime, add a few
drops of potash and filter off precipitate.
Fixing Objects to the Cover-glass.t{— Mr. C. Van Brunt gives one
of many methods of fixing objects to the cover-glass which has been
used very successfully in glycerin mounts—the albumen method.
Mix filtered or strained albumen and glycerin in equal parts, and with
a needle apply a thin film of the mixture to the surface of the cover-
glass. On this film place the object. If now the albumen is coagu-
lated by a gentle heat it will hold the object so fast that it can be
mounted in glycerin, and will always keep its place. The albumen
is transparent, except when too much is used.
Smith’s Mounting Media of High Refractive Index.s—At the
Meeting of the American Society of Microscopists at Cleveland,
Prof. H. L. Smith described his process of mounting in media of
high refractive index, and gave the formule for preparing the same.
The white medium, which has a refractive index of about 1:7, is very
easily prepared, and is proncunced by Prof. Smith and those who
have used it, as unchangeable, provided moisture is kept out. The
following is the formula as given for this :—
A stiff glycerin-jelly is first made, about the consistency of honey,
by dissolving clear gelatin (Cox’s) in pure glycerin, by aid of heat,
and in two fluid drams of this, 40 gr. of pure stannous chloride are
dissolved. The solution is easily affected by a little heat. When
this solution is made it will probably be somewhat milky, but by
boiling it in a test-tube it will become beautifully clear and about
the colour of balsam. This boiling must be done in a test-tube not
over one-fourth full, as the bubbles are, towards the last, very large
and thrown violently up and liable to eject the fluid from the tube ;
but with care the whole may in a short time be made not only clear,
but when cold about as stiff as thick balsam, and, if in a small vial, it is
not readily poured out. This medium should be used in making mounts
precisely as balsam is when the mounts are to be finished by heating.
The bubbles escape very rapidly and easily, but towards the end of
the boiling, as the medium becomes viscid, they are inclined to persist,
but by carefully heating, using a small flame, they will disappear,
and indeed, as they are mostly steam, they will frequently disappear
* Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 157.
¢ See this Journal, ante, p, 893.
t Journ. N. York Mier. Soc.,, i. (1885) pp. 158-9.
§ Amer. Mon. Mier, Jonrn., yi. (1885) pp. 161-3 (1 fig.)
1098 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
wholly in cooling, when a balsam mount under the same circumstances
would be full of bubbles.
If the boiling has been sufficiently prolonged, the cover will be
found, on cooling, to be pretty firmly attached, and will allow the
excess of material to be cleaned off without danger to the mount—
indeed this excess should be hard, requiring a knife or a sharp edge to
remove it. It is advisable to put on only so much as is necessary to
fill in under the cover, and have no cleaning to do afterwards; or put
on a minute drop, and if that should not be enough feed in a little
more from the end of the small glass rod used for dipping. The
best thing to clean off the excess is hydrochloric acid, a bit of tissue
paper rolled up and moistened with this, not too wet, serves the
purpose admirably, but water may also be used, and is nearly as
good.
As the medium is deliquescent it is ne_essary to use a protecting
ring. For this purpose, after the slide is well cleaned around the
cover-glass, and warmed to dry it, apply a good coat of zine white
cement * or shellac coloured to suit the fancy. If the sealing is
perfect there will be no change by time. It is recommended, how-
ever, to use a wax ring. These rings punched out of sheet wax, of such
size as to cover the edge of the thin glass, are put on the mount when
it is finished, and, by cautious application of a small flame, just
melted but not so as to run. If any bubbles form under the ring
they may be removed by touching with a hot needle or pin-point before
the wax cools. A mount made in this way will stand indefinitely and
can at any time receive a supplemental coloured ring of shellac or
other varnish for a finish.
Amphipleura pellucida is very beautifully shown in this medium,
and the various Pleurosigmas, indeed all diatoms except the very coarse
ones, which appear almost black in the medium. A very little ex-
perimenting will enable one to use the medium successfully.
The use of the gelatin is only to give such a hold upon the cover
as will permit the necessary pressure in cleaning. Many mounts
were made in the earlier experiments with this medium, without the
gelatin, but in all these cases the cover was less firmly attached to
the slide. If the protecting ring keeps out moisture from immersion
media, or the atmosphere, the mounts will remain unchanged. As
the medium dissolves gelatin, albumen, &c., arranged diatoms must
be fastened to the cover by heating the latter, supported on a bit of
thin sheet iron or platinum, nearly to a melting or softening point.
A larger proportion of the stannous chloride can be dissolved than
that mentioned above, even as much as 60 gr., but then on heating to
harden the mass, crystals will appear ; the crystals never give any
trouble when 40 gr. are used.
In a subsequent note t Prof. Smith says, the refractive index may
be raised considerably by making a saturated solution t in the glycerin
jelly—about 60 gr. to the fluid dram—and mixing this with the
* See the next note. t Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) p. 182.
{ By a saturated solution the author means one which, when thorouyhly cooled,
will show signs of crystallization.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1099
normal solution of 40 gr. The refractive index in this case becomes
nearly 2.
The second medium is realgar, the transparent sulphide of arsenic
dissolved in bromide of arsenic by aid of heat. Both of these sub-
stances should be pure and the mount should be boiled as long as
bubbles are readily given off with considerable heat, and when cold
the cover should be more firmly attached than with balsam. These
mounts are of a deep lemon-yellow colour, and the compound has a
refractive index of 2-4.
Excellent and even better mounts, as to permanence, may be
made by using realgar only by sublimation. A bit of the realgar is
put on a plate of mica about 1 in. square, and thick as a penny.
This is melted by strong heat of a spirit-lamp. On this mica plate
is placed another, with a hole 5/8 in. in diameter, and above this a
thin glass plate with a hole slightly
less than the glass cover on which the Fic. 260.
diatoms are mounted. In fig. 260 a 5 z
i ates TELA, MTL:
Sane piso ad f he coke, with to ARAM
diatoms facing the realgar. The whole
is now supported on a metal ring. A strong heat will volatilize the
realgar without change, and often a clear deposit is made all over
the diatoms and under side of the cover, and the latter can now be
mounted in balsam; but if bubbles are formed in the operation, as
probably will be the case, the heat must be continued till these
disappear and, as the deposit will now be thickest at the centre
just over the realgar, the mount may be finished by putting the
cover, realgar side down, on a clean slide and on the top of it to
prevent breaking, a piece of thick glass, and then, grasping tightly
with forceps to give pressure, heating strongly over a spirit-lamp.
The realgar will soften (it must not be melted else bubbles will form
which cannot be removed) and spread out, more or less, between the
cover and slide making a nice clear mount. The colour of the heated
realgar is very much deeper than when cold. Instead of the solid
realgar a drop of the solution in bromide of arsenic may be used ;
but in this case it must be boiled to expel the most of the bromide,
before the cover is placed above it; the solid compound now melts at
a much lower temperature than the realgar alone. These mounts
will not change, but those made from the solution directly will, if
the ingredients are not entirely pure, containing no excess of either
sulphur or arsenic. As bromide of arsenic will dissolve both sulphur
and arsenic there is always danger, if the realgar is not pure, that
there will be an excess of one of these, and if so the mount will either
crystallize or granulate.
Prof. Smith also writes * that he is now testing still another medium
of somewhat higher index than the stannous chloride, a full account
of which will appear in due time.
Smith’s New Cement.{—Prof. H. L. Smith has communicated
the results of some recent experiments he has made with a new cement,
* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ,, vi. (1885) p. 182. ¢ [bid.
1100 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
especially adapted for protecting mounts in his new stannous chloride
mounting medium.* It is made by diluting a somewhat thick shellac
cement with benzole, and adding sufficient litharge to give a con-
sistency about the same as that of white zinc cement. It dries very
quickly, forms a much harder ring than does the white zinc cement,
and is not unpleasant in appearance, as it becomes quite brown or
dark on exposure. A thin coat should first be applied, and when this
is well dried it should be followed by another. So far as tried this
seems to promise better than any other for preservation of the stannous
chloride mounts. The white zinc often fails, and while the wax
rings appear to answer admirably, the cement is more readily applied,
and if the future use of it confirms the present promise it will be more
acceptable.
Dry Mounting.—The ordinary method of fastening on the cover-
glass is, in Mr. J. L. W. Miles’s opinion,} the cause of a serious defect
in most dry mounts, viz. imprisoned moisture on the under side of
the cover. With very low powers it is not always noticeable, but
with 1 in., 1/2 in., or 4/10 in. objectives definition is seriously impaired.
It is usual to put the slide on the turntable and apply brown or other
cement freely to the rim of the cell, to which the cover-glass adheres
when placed thereon. The cement drying from the outside, the im-
prisoned portion upon which the cover rests hardens by evaporation
within the cell, hence the result mentioned. This difficulty can be
minimized, and in many cases, with care, entirely overcome by pro-
ceeding as follows:—Select a cover-glass much less in diameter than
the cell is, measured across its outer edges; place and hold in posi-
tion with a wire clip, and unite the edge of the glass to the rim of the
cell by means of “tacky”? gum, which should not run under, or but
slightly, inasmuch as the cover-glass will not overlap the cell rim,
_but will barely rest upon its inner edge. There is yet another pre-
caution to be taken, namely, file out a small portion of the cell, which
will form an orifice or opening after the cover is put on. This is a
capital plan when you are in doubt about the dryness of your object,
as the minute opening can be plugged or bridged over by cement at
any convenient time afterwards. Having got so far, all difficulties
would appear to be overcome, but this is not so. It is necessary to
carefully finish the slide with varnish or cement of a damp-resisting
nature. Use brown cement in the first place, and finish with white
zine, which clings tenaciously to clean glass, and makes a secure and
neat finish.
Mr. T. W. Lofthouse,t in regard to moisture getting into card-
board cells, considered that if the cell was not entirely coated with
cement the moisture would be able to escape at the sides, and tested
this by mounting two slides with a drop of water on the under surface
of the cover before cementing it down. On warming the slide the
cell was soon completely filled with moisture. After being held over
* See the preceding note.
+ Trans. and Ann. Rep. Manchester Micr. Soc., 1884-5, pp. 26-9.
+ Ibid., pp. 32-3.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1101
the lamp for a short time, the slides were put on a warm kitchen
mantel-piece for two or three hours, and on examining them a week
afterwards they were found to be quite free from moisture.
Mr. E. Ward thinks * that if the moisture could get out of a paper
cell it could also get in, unless it is sealed up at precisely the right
moment with protective cement, and the difficulty is as to when is the
right moment. He prefers to use a metal cell, to be careful to have
dry objects, and having got rid of the moisture from the gum, &c., to
seal up the cell. In this way he has mounted thousands, few of which
have shown even a trace of moisture or fungi.
His plan is this. Having mounted an object in the cell and
allowed if to become thoroughly dry, spin a ring of brown cement
upon the cell and let it dry till it can be indented with the finger-nail
without sticking. Then warm a cover-glass, and place it on the cell.
Choosing then a strong glass slip, make it hot in the centre by means
of a spirit-lamp, and press it down on the top of the cover-glass ;
the warmth melts the cement, and the cover is fixed firmly without
evaporation inside the cells.
The slide should now be put away for a day or two for the cement
to harden, and then, if another layer is applied, we may be sure of a
dry mount.
White Zinc Cement.t}—Dr. F. L. James briefly recapitulates the
objections which have been made to this cement, and his answers
thereto.
It is objected (1) that it does not attach itself firmly and evenly
to glass at all points; (2) that it is brittle when dry, and easily cracks
and scales off; (3) that it is peculiarly liable to “run in” under the
cover-glass ; and (4) that it is unreliable.
To these he replies:—(1) That if the cement works well at one
time it certainly will do so at any and every other time, if the same
conditions exist. A cement that attaches itself to glass at one point
will do so at all points, if the surface is equally ready to receive it;
but if one part of the surface is clean and dry, and another is dirty
or moist, or both, no cement can be expected to act upon it with
uniformity. (2) A cement made as hereafter described will neither
scale nor crack, as a proof of which he can exhibit mounts made with
it twelve or thirteen years ago, and which have been carried many
thousands of miles with no especial precautions against breakage, and
which are yet perfect. (3) As to the liability of the cement to run
when used with balsam mounts, the fact is admitted ; but it will do
s0 only when the proper precautions against such an accident have
been neglected. (4) “It is the very height of folly and absurdity to
charge an inanimate substance with caprice and unreliability. If it acts
well at one time and fails to do so at another, the fault lies not with
the substance, but with its manipulator.”
White zinc cement made as follows, has, Dr. James considers, no
superior for general microscopical purposes :—Dissolye gum damar
in pure benzol sufficient to make a solution of the consistency of
* Trans, and Ann. Rep. Manchester Micr. Soe., 1884-5, pp. 33-6.
+ St. Louis National Druggist, vii. (1885) p. 181.
1102 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
a thin syrup, and filter through absorbent cotton. Into a small
porcelain capsule put a small quantity of chemically pure zinc oxide,
free from moisture (a precaution which is very important and which
is best secured by heating the oxide in a muffle for a short time prior
to making use of it), and having previously wet it with a small
quantity of benzol, add sufficient of the damar solution to make a
paste the consistency of cream, or of thick paint. Rub with the
muller or pestle until perfectly smooth, and then pour into a stock
bottle. Repeat the operation until a sufficient amount of the cement
is obtained. The material should now be allowed to stand until the
zinc has separated and sunk to the bottom, and when this has occurred,
enough of the damar solution should be added to make the fluid about
equal the bulk of the precipitated zinc. Shake up again until the
zinc is thoroughly mixed with the damar solution, and filter through
a thin layer of absorbent cotton, to get rid of the grosser particles of
zinc which escaped the action of the muller. The operation is
finished by the addition of a small amount of some drying oil, to give
the cement a proper toughness. Some persons use boiled or clarified
linseed-oil for this purpose, but it is apt to make the cement “ stringy,”
and hence good nut or poppy-oil is preferable. The amount added
should not be over 12 or 15 minims to the ounce of cement. If too
much of the damar solution has been added, it is easily got rid of by
decantation, after allowing the zinc to separate by standing a few
days in a quiet place. If the cement becomes thick after using
a while, cut it with pure benzol—not benzin under any circumstances,
nor impure benzol.
Dr. James also writes :—“ Since writing and printing the foregoing,
T have had occasion to make up quite a large amount of the cement, and
have improved the processes somewhat. The principal point in which
I have made a change is in doing away with the filtering process, as
it is troublesome, slow, and wasteful. I now obtain better results by
decantation. After mixing the cement as directed, I give it a vigorous
shaking and set the vessel containing it in a quiet place. In the
course of a few hours the grosser particles will have sunk to the
bottom, and the cement, thus freed from them, may be decanted into
other bottles. By repeating this process two or three times, a cement
of the most exquisite fineness and finish may be obtained.”
Leakage of Cells.*—On the cause of the leakage of cells, Dr.
F. L. James writes as follows :—
“Many microscopists are in the habit of making their cells only —
when they are needed, allowing the rings to dry just so much that
the cover-glass will not stick when applied. Some do this from
thoughtlessness, or rather from never having experimented or inves-
tigated the relative merits of a fresh and thoroughly dried and sea-
goned cell. Others claim actual advantages for this procedure.
They say that when the cover-glass is applied while the cell rings
are yet plastic, a more accurate coaptation, or fit, is obtained. It is
also claimed that a more homogeneous mass is made with the cement
which is subsequently applied to seal the cell.
* St. Louis National Druggist, vii. (1885) p. 181.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1103
These advantages, if indeed they be such, in all except dry mounts,
are more than counterbalanced by a radical defect, which all such
hastily prepared mounts must have, whether the cement be zinc
white or Brunswick black, or the mounting medium be glycerin or
balsam. And in this defect lies the secret of most of the failures and
disappointments which produce the bitter complaints against this or
that cement or mounting medium in the technical journals.
All the cements described in the preceding chapters, with the
exception of gold size, consist of some solid material or materials dis-
solved or held in suspension in a medium more or less volatile, the
evaporation of which again leaves a solid mass. The exception, gold
size, hardens partly, though very slightly, by evaporation, its solidi-
fication depending principally upon oxidation. In the process of
hardening or setting, the bulk or mass of the cement is very materially
altered, a decrease in volume occurring which is proportionate to the
amount of volatile matter lost in drying. The cement shrinks.
Now, when a cell is properly finished it must be entirely filled
with the mounting medium. If it is not so filled we are bound to
have air-bubbles, the béte noir of microscopists, which are not only
unsightly, but will, in process of time, ruin the mount. If the cell
walls were not entirely dry when the cell was closed it is plain that
the process of shrinkage had not yet been completed, and that it is yet
to occur to a greater or less extent. What is the inevitable result ?
The fluid within the cell is practically incompressible, yet pressure
is brought upon it. It has no space within its container into which it
can retreat, and consequently it must force its way out of it. This it
does slowly and gradually. It may be some time before it is noticed,
but it is bound to come. The cement gives way at its weakest point,
and the fluid exudes—-‘ creeps’ out. It is discovered, washed off,
and a fresh ring of cement applied. This puts off the evil day a while,
but in a few months the process has to be repeated. Meanwhile the
pressure is continuously exerted, and minute quantities of the mount-
ing medium gradually infiltrate the walls at fresh points; the cement
disintegrates, scales and splits off.”
It should therefore be an axiom “never to use a cell until the
cement walls are thoroughly dry and hard.”
Coloured Crayons for Marking Preparations—Finder. *—Prof.
E. Strasburger recommends Faber’s coloured crayons for writing on
glass or porcelain for marking preparations provisionally. The
yellow crayons are most suitable for this object.
In order to find given places in a specimen, circles should be
made with some sharp instrument on both sides of the aperture in the
stage of the Microscope, similar circles being drawn with the crayon
in corresponding positions on the slide.
Filtering Minute Quantities.t—The ordinary method of filtering
by means of paper funnels is not practicable for quantities less than
* Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) pp. 156-7.
+ Haushofer, K., ‘ Mikroskopische Reactionen,’ vii. and 162 pp., 137 figs., 8yo,
Liaunschweig, 1885,
1104 sUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
300cmm. If itis desired to obtain a sediment without loss Beudant’s
method should be adopted. In this, two watch-glasses, one placed at
a higher level than the other, are made use of. The upper one con-
tains the fluid to be filtered, and the two are connected by means of
a moistened strip of filter-paper. This auto-
Fie, 261. matic action may be further increased if it be
\ desirable to wash the filtrate. This is effected
by a third watch-glass, filled with distilled
water, and placed above that which contains the
substance to be washed.
For filtering very small quantities Dr. K.
Haushofer recommends two glass tubes, a, b,
fig. 261, placed in vertical apposition, and con-
nected by a screw-clamp E which allows the
upper tube to be approximated to or removed
from the lower one. From the lower tube
another, c, projects upwards at an angle. Be-
tween the two tubes at d, a sheet of moistened
filter-paper is inserted, and the tubes are then
closely adjusted by means of the screw. The
bottom of the tube 6b is closed by a stopper &. The fluid is then
poured in, and suction made at the side tube. The filtrate is always
perfectly clear, and the residue is collected in a small space.
Examining Blood in Typhoid Fever.*—Mr. T. 8S. Ralph states
the results of his experiments on blood with phloroglucen, phosphoric
acid, ozonic ether, and hydrocyanic acid.
With normal blood, phloroglucen causes the corpuscles to separate
into a larger greyish solid portion and a smaller fluid residuum, pre-
senting one or more spots of a reddish hue. A similar but less
decided effect is produced by the action of phosphoric acid. Ozonic
ether causes an active effervescence, followed on its cessation by the
appearance of numerous large cells varying in size from 1/2000 to
1/1000 of an inch. Each of these cells contains a small vesicle or
gas-bubble of a reddish or orange hue. By the action of hydrocyanice
acid on dry films of blood, the presence of minute reddish or orange-
coloured spots may be detected. These increase in size, vary in
number, may be arranged in circles, or may be replaced by larger ones.
Similar changes can be brought about in typhoid blood by the
use of these reagents, but typhoid blood examined without the aid of
chemical agents presents under ordinary circumstances orange and
red vesicular forms imbedded in the plasma. These vary in size from
1/10,000 to 1/7000 of an inch in diameter, are mobile, and surrounded
by a white halo-like appearance. The action of ozonic ether and
other reagents appears to release orange-coloured vesicular forms in
a more permanent condition and in larger numbers than in healthy
blood. Hydrocyanic acid is stated to produce certain appearances
* Ralph, T. S., ‘Microchemical Observations on the Blood in Health and in
Typhoid Fever,’ 12 pp. (1 pl.), 8vo, Sydney, 1885.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1105
which present on the one hand crystalline resemblances, and on the
other more nearly approach in their appearance and character the low
and obscure forms of vegetable life.
The author also records the fact that, after chloroform, the
blood plasma exhibits escaped vesicular forms, and perhaps more
abundantly than in typhoid and other febrile conditions.
Measurement of Blood-corpuscles.*—Dr. M. D. Ewell has en-
deayoured to determine whether there is a constant average size of
‘the human red blood-corpuscles, so as to render it possible by means
of micrometric measurements to distinguish human blood from that of
domestic animals.
He used two accurate standards, one consisting of lines ruled on
speculum metal 1/2000 in. apart, by Prof. W. A. Rogers, a Bulloch
cobweb eye-piece micrometer and a 1/10 in. Spencer hom. imm. 1°35
N. A., with a Bausch and Lomb achromatic amplifier giving an ampli-
fication of about 1500; also Prof. H. L. Smith’s immersion fluid.
An examination of the tabular statement of results shows that the
difference between the greatest and smallest averages of 25 corpuscles
is 0-000028 or 1/35714 in., a magnitude that may be easily measured
by any person having the requisite skill and apparatus,
The difference between the highest and lowest averages of 50
corpuscles is 0°000015, or 1/66666 in., which approaches more
nearly the limit of micrometric measurement, though probably not
beyond it.
"The difference between the highest and lowest averages of 75
corpuscles is 0*000012, or 1/83333 in., which approximates the limit
of micrometric measurement.
The difference between the highest and lowest averages of 100
corpuscles is 0:000009, or 1/111111 in., which is within the limits
of personal and instrumental error, “ according to the highest living
authority upon this subject,” who writes, in substance, that it is easy to
measure 1/50,000 in., but to be sure of 1/100,000 in. is not possible.
The conclusion to be deduced from the above figures is obviously,
Dr. Ewell says, “that, when a sufficient number of corpuscles are
measured, there appears to be an average size which varies within very
narrow limits, which may possibly be accounted for, or, at least, is
consistent with personal and instrumental errors; for, though I have
carried out the figures to the sixth decimal place, 1 have not the pre-
sumption to declare that the results can be relied upon further than
the fifth place, and have carried out the figures to the sixth only to
insure accuracy in the fifth so far as possible. Another conclusion
is, that granting for the moment that it is possible to identify blood
by measurement of the red corpuscles, of which I am by no means
satisfied, it is reckless in the last degree, if not criminal, to express
an opinion upon the measurement of less than 100 corpuscles. ‘To
express an opinion upon the measurement of only 10 corpuscles,
* The Microseope, v. (1885) pp. 183-6. Amer. Mon, Mier. Journ., yi, (1885)
p- 150-1, from ‘ Chicago Legal News,’
1106 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
as I am informed has been done within the last year or two, to
take the most charitable view of the subject, betrays such culpable
ignorance of a subject involving such momentous consequences as
ought for ever to invalidate the testimony of one who should swear so
recklessly. Ina case involving the issue of life and death it would
be better to measure several hundred corpuscles.”
An examination of the unabridged table of measurements, from
which the above summary is tabulated, discloses the further fact
that by selecting the corpuscles it would be possible for a dishonest
observer to make the average much larger or smaller than that above
given without the possibility of detection ; a fact the bearing of which
upon the value of expert testimony upon this subject is so obvious as
to need no comment.
Styles of Indian Corn for Examining Movement of Protoplasm.*
—Prof. C. E. Bessey recommends the long styles of Indian corn
for the study of the movement of the protoplasm. By taking a
young style from an ear which has been kept in a warm place for an
hour or so, clipping off a piece a couple of inches in length and
carefully mounting it in water under a large cover-glass, there will
be no difficulty in seeing a great deal of activity in the protoplasm.
Care must of course be taken to have the style lie flat, remembering
that it is not cylindrical in shape, but somewhat ribbon-shaped. The
cells are much elongated, and the walls are so transparent that with
careful focusing their contents may be seen, even in the interior parts
of the style.
The protoplasm is sufficiently granular to be easily seen. It
moves along the side of the cell in a strong steady stream, occa-
sionally heaping up a great mass, which is eventually pushed onward
by the current. As an easily obtained and instructive example of
protoplasmic activity, Prof. Bessey knows of nothing which is superior
to such a specimen.
Haushofer’s Microscopical Reactions.j—Dr. K. Haushofer’s work
is intended as an introduction to the recognition of various elements
and compounds by the aid of the Microscope, and deals with the
application of the Microscope to petrographical research.
The author’s method depends for its raison d’étre on the constancy
of crystalline forms and combinations of elements, crystallization
being considered a constant property, just as colour, solubility, melt-
ing point, &c. The methods which, by the aid of the Microscope,
aim at demonstrating the presence of different substances through
these crystallizable compounds, for the most part possess the advan-
tage, not only of being applicable to extremely small quantities, but
of requiring very little apparatus and only very simple operations.
Hence they are of great practical importance if we desire to analyse
very minute quantities and do not possess other sufficiently sensitive
tests. But for bodies which are demonstrable in very minute quan-
* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) p. 888.
+ Haushofer, K., ‘Mikroskopische Reactionen,’ vii. and 162 pp., 137 figs. 8vo,
Braunschweig, 1885.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1107
tities, such as iodine, iron, and manganese. microscopic tests depending
on crystal formation will only be occasionally employed. The like
holds good for substances which may he distinguished by spectro-
scopic appearances, as iridium, thallium, lithium, &c. This branch of
petrology, though of comparatively recent date, has lately received
greater attention, so that now quite a series of petrographic re-
searches are known, and which may compare in exactitude with the
most accurate analytical methods. The microscopic crystals which
serve for proof of the existence of certain substances are formed
either as precipitates after definite reactions or on evaporation of
solutions. In practice the former method is usually found.to be the
more speedy in the end, for the slower the process the more perfect
is the crystal. When, however, crystallization is defective from any
cause, the crystals become skeletal, malformed, or jumbled together in
masses. These aggregate malformed or skeletal forms are for many
substances very characteristic, and certain combinations can only be
obtained in such forms as, for example, copper nitrate, thorium nitrate,
thallium chloride, &c. The formation of normal crystals is favoured
by the employment of very dilute solutions. Very insoluble sub-
stances, such as barium sulphate, lead sulphate, silver chloride, are
little suitable for the microscopic test applied directly.
The general method of examination when only small quantities
are available, is to place a drop of the solution to be tested on a slide
on the stage of the Microscope, and then add a drop of the precipi-
tation-reagent. Cover-glasses are not needed unless any development
of gas occurs, or when observations are made on fluorine and its com-
pounds. In the latter case it is necessary to protect the objective by
fixing a cover-glass in front of the face of the anterior lens. It is
also necessary when hydrofluoric acid is given off during the reactions
to cover the slides with a thin layer of Canada balsam, and to con-
duct preliminary operations in platinum vessels.
In the majority of the examinations carried out by these methods
perfectly trustworthy results are obtained with 1-2 mgrm. of sub-
stance. Thus in a drop of gypsum solution which weighs only
10 mgrm. is contained merely ‘03 mgrm. gypsum or *01 mgrm. calcium
oxide, and they can be recognized with certainty under the Micrv-
scope as sulphate or oxalate.
For the examination of the compesite silicates the methods of
Boricky and Behrens are recommended. Boricky’s method is
founded on the property of hydrofluosilicic acid to develope hydro-
fluoric acid on evaporation, and thereby to set free silicates even
without the aid of heat. A minute fragment of the size of a pin’s
head is placed on a slide protected by a layer of Canada balsam and
a drop of a 3-4 per cent. hydrofluosilicic acid is added. After acting
from two to six hours, the decomposition is sv far advanced that the
crystallized double salts of fluorine permit the recognition of the basic
constituents of silicates. This method, although simple, is not free
from defects.
Behrens proceeds by completely decomposing the mineral to be
tested with hydrofluoric acid, and by removing any fluorosilicons by
1108 sUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
the aid of sulphuric acid. The powdered mineral, of which 1 mgrm,
is sufficient, is heated to dryness with sulphuric acid in a platinum
dish. The residue is treated with water, and a drop of the solution
placed on a slide. Certain tests demonstrate the presence of basic
constituents in solution. In the residue are found gypsum, the in-
soluble sulphates of barium and strontium; these are dissolved in
strong sulphuric acid, and crystallize out on cooling.
The characteristics of microcrystals would be unsatisfactory and
imperfect if their optical properties were left out of consideration.
Therefore, with the study of crystal forms which aid the analysis of
any substance, examination of crystals by polarized light must be
associated. The optical characteristics of microcrystals gain in im-
portance because, while their angular measurement does not attain
the same distinctness as in the larger crystals, yet the optical
anomalies of microcrystals are more rare than those of the large.
Dr. Haushofer’s arrangement of the subject matter of his work is
alphabetical. This, if not strictly scientific, at least saves all trouble
of hunting for a given subject, and any compound can be found at
once. The text is copiously illustrated by woodcuts of crystal forms
of almost infinite variety.
In this connection it may be noted that Dr. J. L. W. Thudichum,
in a discussion * on “ Medico-legal and Chemical Microscopy,” con-
siders that in all cases chemical tests should be relied upon, erystal-
line form not being trustworthy evidence, for it frequently happens
that these forms are determined by impurities present, so that often.
the substance in its pure form cannot be made to crystallize at all.
Even when substances form definite crystals, these vary in appearance
according to the mass of the substance used, the heat, and other circum-
stances. The microscopical detection of octahedral crystals is merely
a confirmation of the presence of arsenic, but not diagnostic, since
other substances produce similar crystals. Dr. Thudichum also con-
siders that the micro-spectroscope has no advantage over the ordinary
spectroscope, since both require the same amount of material to pro-
duce definite results. The Microscope is especially useful in the
preliminary stages of an inquiry; thus, in dealing with 1500 ox
brains, he had found it invaluable in preparing phrenosine from these.
Examining Diamonds and Cut Gems.j—In the microscopical
examination of diamonds and cut gems the best results are obtained
when they are submerged in glycerin or balsam. A temporary cell,
large enough to contain the gem, is easily made by cutting or punch-
ing a hole in a cake of ordinary white wax, and it is firmly attached
by heating the slide slightly. Small gems may thus be examined
without removing them from their settings. The cell should be
entirely filled with the mounting fluid and a cover-glass applied.
Canada balsam gives better effects with most gems than glycerin does,
but the difficulty of cleaning it off makes the latter preferable.
* Engl. Mech., xlii. (1885) pp. 219-20.
+ St. Louis National Druggist, vii. (1885) p. 197. (Microscopy, by Dr.
F. L. James.)
ZOOLOGY AND. BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1109
Many stones which do not show flaws when examined in the
ordinary manner, will be found to contain cavities filled with fluid
when examined as above.
ARCANGELI, G.—Sopra alcune dissoluzioni carminiche destinate alla coloritura
degli elementi istologici. (On some carmine solutions for staining the histo-
logical elements.) [Supra, p. 1094.]
Atti Soc. Tose, Sci. Nat.—Proc. Verb., IV. (1885) pp. 233-7.
Barnes, C. R.—The Process of Fertilization in Campanula Americana L.
{Methods. Supra, p. 1085.] hot. Gazette, X. (1885) pp. 353-4 (1 pl.).
BseLovussow, A. K.—Eine neue Methode von Injection anatomischer Pra-
parate vermittelst kalter Masse. (A new method of injecting anatomical
preparations by cold masses.) [Post.]
Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol., 1885, pp. 379-84.
BucuHNER, H.—Ueber d. Verhalten d. Spaltpilzsporen zu den Anilinfarbstoffen.
(On the behaviour of the spores of Schizomycetes with anilin dyes.)
SB. Gesell. f. Morphol. u. Physiol., 1885.
CAMPBELL, D. H.—On growing the spores of Botrychium ternatum.
[“‘ The spores are devoid of chlorophyll, both before and after germination,
which suggests that they should be grown in rich earth or humus. When
prothallia of similir plants have been found they have been below the
surface of the ground, and he devised a plan [not described] for sowing
the spores under the soil yet so far as to be kept under constant
observation.” ]
Bot. Gazette, X. (1885) p. 340.
Coxe, A C.—Studies in Microscopical Science. (Parts IX. and X., pp. 33-6,
37-40.)
Sect. I. (Botanical Histology). (IX.) Non-sexual organs of reproduction in
Vascular Cryptogams. Type II. Cone of Selaginella. Plate 1X. S. inequali-
foliz. Lon. Sect. Fertile spitu x 13. (X.) Structure of Macrosporangia
(Anthers) in Tazus, Plate X. Vert. Sect. of Ovule of Tucus.
Sect. II. (Animal Histology). Respiratory organs. Plate IX. Lung of
Frog. Plate X. Lung of Duck. Tr. Sec. x 270.
Sect. 1[f. (Pathological Histology). (IX.) Brown Induration of the Lung.
Emphysema. Plate IX. Lung, Emphysema x 18. (X.) Pleurisy.
Plate X. Pleurisy x 68.
Sect. IV. (Popular Studies). (IX.) The Tracheal System of Insects.
(Methods, post.) Stem of Bignonia. Plate IX. Tr. Sec. x 75. (KX)
Insectivorous and Carnivorous Plants. Plate X. Carnivorous Plants,
Dermers, H. J.—{Importance of reliable Microscopical Evidence. ]
[ Post.] Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) p. 199.
Remarks at Cleveland Meeting of American Society of Microscopists.
Draper, E. I.—Graphic Microscopy. XXII. Transparent section of tooth of
Ant-eater. XXIII. Polysiphonia fastigiata.
Sci.-Gossip, 1885, pp. 217-8 (1 pl.), p. 241 (1 pl.).
Fesicer, C.—See James, F. L.
Farrincer, A.—Renseignements Techniques. (Technical Information.)
{1. Chiloral hydrate for the study and preservation of the lower animals.
2. Collodion for fixing on the glass objects to be preserved in alcohol.
3. Process for purifying and hardening the paraffin of commerce. ost.
Arch. de Biol., VI. (1885) pp. 115-25.
Garrison, F. L.—The microscopic structure of Iron and Steel.
[ Post.) Journ, Franklin Inst., CXX. (1885) pp. 300-6 (5 pls.),
from Trans. Amer, Inst. of Min'ng Engineers,
Ginges, H.—Practical Histology and Pathology.
3rd ed., xii. and 196 pp., 8vo, London, 1885,
GierKke, H.—Farberei zu mikroskopischen Zwecken. Nebst Nachtrag.
(Staining for microscopical purposes. With Appendix.)
[Separate reprint of articles in Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr. Cr. ante, p. 900.)
243 pp., 8vo, Braunschweig, 1585.
Ser. 2.—Vo.. V. 40
1110 sUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO
GoopaLe, G. L.—Physiological Botany. I. Outlines of the Histology of
Phenogamous Plants.
[Vol. IL. of Gray’s Botanical Text-book, 6th ed. An important feature of
this volume is the concise introduction in which the histological appliances
and methods most frequently used are brought together for discussion. |
8vo, New York and Chicago, 1885.
GRABER, V.—[Preparing Eyes of Annelids. |
[From Arch. f. Mikr. Anat. xvii. (1879) p. 250.—Decolor by soaking in
glycerin with a little 35 per cent. caustic potash added—check by
neutralizing with dilute hydrochloric acid—carefully wash before trans- -
ferring to a hardening or mounting fluid—preserve in glycerin.
Amer. Nat., XIX. (1885) p. 1137.
Hart, C. P.—A new, cheap, and quickly constructed adjustable Microtome.
[Title only of paper read at Ann Arbor Meeting of Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
1885. Cf. ante, p. 861.]
Amer. Journ. Sci, XXX. (1885) p. 327.
HasweELu, W. A—New Microtome.
[‘‘Mr. Haswell described his new microtome based upon Mr. Caldwell’s
pattern, but with a new ribbon take-off of a very ingenious construction. ”]
Journ. and Proc. Roy. Soc. N. 8. Wales, XVIII. (1885) p. 178.
5 On some recent Histological Methods, and their adaptation
to the teaching of practical Histology. [Supra, p. 1095.]
Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, X. (1885) pp. 276-8.
HAvsHoFrer, K.—Mikroskopische Reactionen. Eine Anleitung zur Hrken-
nung verschiedener Elemente und Verbindungen unter dem Mikroskop als
Supplement zu den Methoden der qualitativen Analyse. (Microscopical
Reactions. A guide to the recognition of different elements and compounds
under the Microscope, as a supplement to the methods of qualitative analysis.)
[ Supra, p. 1106.]
vii. and 162 pp. and 137 figs., 8vo, Braunschweig, 1885.
Henking, H—Neue Construction des Objecthalters an Schlittenmikrotomen.
(New construction of the object-holder of the slide microtome.)
[Abstract of article in Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr. I. p. 491, with criticism.
Post. |
Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., V. (1885) pp. 314-5 (1 fig.).
Horner, J.—Work for the Microscope. ILI. Instruments for dissection. IV.
Solutions and Mounting Media. Our Corner, VI. (1885) pp. 75-9, 137-42.
James, F. L.—Microscopical Technology.—IX. Mounting Diatoms arranged in
series. The Mechanical Finger. Preparing the Slide. [C. Febiger’s method.
Post.| X., XI. Mounting Diatoms in series. Selecting and placing the
Diatoms. XII. Mounting Diatoms im situ. Fixing anilin colours,
St. Louis National Druggist, VIL. (1885) pp. 196, 208, 219, 233-4, 234.
AS Cement.
oc In pulverized gum arabic, with an equal bulk of powdered burnt alum, we
have the material for a cement of great adhesiveness and brilliancy. The
mixture should be kept dry, and wet up only when required for use, just
enough being prepared for the work in hand.”]
St. Louis National Druggist, VII. (1885) pp. 196-7.
i - Examination of Diamonds and Cut Gems. [Post.]
St. Louis National Druggist, VII. (1885) p. 197.
LatHam, V. A.—The Microscope, and how to use it.
[IV. Practical Histology. Stains.]
Journ. of Microscopy, ITV. (1885) pp. 231-45.
Lr, A. B.—Cedernholzél fiir Paraffineinbettung. (Cedar-oil for paraffin im-
bedding.) [Post.] Zool. Anzeig., VIII. (1885) p. 563-4.
Lerone, T.—Sui microorganismi delle acque potabili: loro vita nelle acque
carboniche. (On the micro-organisms of potable water: their life in carbonic
acid water.)
(Contains methods. Post.]
Atti R. Accad. Lincei.—Rendic., I. (1885) pp. 726-32.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. Pent
Locy, W. A.—Treatment of the Eggs of the Spider. [Swvra, p. 1083.]
Amer, Natural., XTX. (1885) pp. 1021-2.
Mark, EH. L.—Repairing Balsam Preparations. [ Post.
Amer. Natural., XIX. (1885) p. 1137.
Morris, W.—New Mounting Medium. [Supra, p. 1077.]
Journ. and Proc. Royal Soc. N. 8S. Wales, XVIII. (1884) pp. 178-9.
Naples Zoological Station, Third Catalogue of Marine Animals supplied by the.
(List of different objects, with prices. ]
Issued with MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, VI. (1885) Part 2.
Ocnew, J.—Zur Frage von der Morphologischen Bedeutung des fibrillaren
Bindgewebes. (On the morphological significance of the fibrillar connective
tissue.) [Methods post.] Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol., 1885, pp. 437-50 (1 pl.).
Queen & Co.’s (J. W.) Slide Case.
[Four trays holding 6 slides—falling front—3/4 in. thick—-cover with
flanged sides aud front. ]
Queen’s Micr, Bull., U1. (1885) p. 39 (1 fig.).
Rawpu, T. S.—Microchemical Observations on the Blood in Health and in
Typhoid Fever. [Supra, p. 1104.] 12 pp. and 1 pl., 8vo, Sydney, 1885.
Ryper, J. A.—A Cheap Bell-glass for the Laboratory Table.
(“Taking a plain glass finger-bowl 4 or 5 in. wide and about 2 in. deep,
a handle may be prepared by gluing a 1/4 in. cork to the bottom. Cut
off the smaller end of the cork smoothly and cover it with marine glue.
If the end of the cork is now heated over a spirit-lamp until the glue
takes fire, and the cork is quickly pressed with its glue-covered end upon
the centre of the bottom of the dish, you have a cork handle by which
you can lift the dish.” ]
Amer. Natural., XTX. (1885) p. 920.
Smita, H. L.—New Cement and new Mounting Medium. [Supra, pp. 1097-9.]
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., V1. (1885) p. 182.
Soxuas, W. J.—On Velulina stalactites (O. S.) and the Skeleton of the Anomo-
cladina.
(Contains a description of his method of examination. ]
Proc. R. Irish Acad.—Science, IV. (1885) pp. 486-92 (2 pls.).
STRAsSBURGER, E.—Zur Mikroskopischen Technik. (Microscopical Technique.)
[Supra, pp. 1097 and 1103.) Bot. Centralbl., XXIV. (1885) pp. 156-7.
STUHLMANN, F.—Ueber Nachbehandlung der Schnittserien mit Osmiumsaure.
(On treating series of sections with osmic acid.) [/ost. ]
Zool. Anzeig., VIII. (1885) pp. 643-4.
TRACHSEL-CROZzET.—[Le Microtome a triple pince.] (The wicrotome with
triple pincers.)
[Reply to A. Eternod, ante, p. 925.]
Journ. de Microgr., LX. (1885) pp. 317-8.
Vaw Bront, C.—Prof. H. L. Smith’s new Mounting Medium.
{Remarks on the composition and use of the medium. Cf. also supra, p. 1097.
Also on fixing objects to the cover-glass. Supra, p. 1097.)
Journ. N. York Micr. Soc., I. (1885) pp. 158-9.
Wuitman, C. O.—Methods of Research in Microscopical Anatomy and Em-
bryology. ix. and 255 pp., 37 figs., 8vo, Boston, 1885.
o a The Cambridge Rocking Microtome. | Supra, p. 1091.]
Amer, Natural., X1X. (1885) pp. 1022-5 (1 fig.).
9 ne A means of differentiating Embryonic Tissues. [Post.]
Lbid., pp. 1134-7.
PP 3 A new solvent of Chitin. [Post.] Ibid., pp. 1137-8.
402
Ce,
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.
Mertine or 147TH Octosrr, 1885, at Kine’s Cotircr, Stranp, W.C.,
THE Presipent (tHE Rey. Dr. Datiinerr, F.R.S.) IN THE
Carr.
The Minutes of the meeting of 10th June last were read and con-
firmed, and were signed by the President.
The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) re-
ceived since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the
Society given to the donors.
Bausch, E., Manipulation of the Microscope. 96 pp. and From
27 figs. (8vo, Rochester, N.Y.,1885) .. .. .. .. The Author.
Braithwaite, R., The British Moss Flora. Part IX., Tortu-
lace. pp. 213-44, 4 pls. (8vo, London, 1885) .. .. The Author.
Bell, F. Jeffrey, Comparative Anatomy and Physiology.
55d pp. and 229 figs. (8vo, London, 1885) .. The Author.
Klein, E., Microbes et Maladies. Guide pratique pour Vétude
des Microorganismes traduit par Fabre-Domergue. iii.
_ and 291 pp., 116 figs. (8vo, Paris, 1885) ee en ee lr Onis ps
Mantou, W. P., Beginnings with the Microscope. 73 pp.
and 6 figs. (8vo, Boston and New York, 1884) .. .. The Author.
Retzius, G., Das Gehororgan der Wirbelthiere. II. Das
Geh6rorgan der Reptilien, der Vogel und der Sauge-
thiere. viii. and 368 pp., 39 pls. (4to, Stockholm, 1884) The Author.
Transactions of the Sei-I-Kwai, or Society fur the Advance-
ment of Medical Science in Japan. Nos. 41, 42,and 43 The Society.
Six Slides of Material taken from the intestines of one of the { Mr, C. E, Alling and
victims of the Greeley Arctic eben Dr. F. A. Mandeville.
Slide of Navicula Durrandiin. sp. .. tog ERS JOS Minor
Mr. Crisp called special attention among the donations to the
second part of Prof. Retzius’ magnificent work on the organ of hear-
ing of the vertebrates; also to the Japanese publications, mostly
printed in the Chinese character.
Mr. Crisp exhibited D’Arsonval’s Water Microscope. He said he
did not know that they were bound to notice every instrument which
any one chose to devise; but the one before them had been designed
by an eminent Frenchman, and had been recorded in their Proceed-
ings by high authorities in France, and he thought, therefore, they
were entitled to criticize it (supra, p. 1054).
Dr. Anthony, in commenting upon the instrument, said that the
simplest method of giving a last touch to the adjustment of the focus
was by gently pulling out the eye-piece, by which means a very
delicate focusing was obtained.
Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said that the plan of focusing by the eye-
piece by means of a specially-devised rack was applied by Prof.
Amici some 50 years ago, and consequently long before Prof. Ran-
vier’s suggestion, which was noted and figured in the Journal two or -
three years ago. He also remembered some time ago seeing a plan
adopted by M. Prazmowski for obtaining a cover-glass correction,
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. Lis
which he said answered the purpose very well. The plan was to
place behind the objective a piece of cover glass of the same thickness
as the one upon the slide, and if the one corresponded pfecisely to
the other the aberration would be corrected approximately as by the
screw-collar.
Dr. Anthony thought this might be of some use where a person
always used cover-glasses of a uniform thickness; he adopted this
course himself, always using those of a thickness of *005. Butif they
had a number of objects by various mounters, how were they to deal
with the matter, not knowing what thickness was used? He should
be glad to hear what the President thought of the idea.
The President said he thought the idea was excellent in principle,
but open to great difficulty in practice, as the correcting glass must
continually be altered according to the thickness of the cover. He
was afraid that it could not be regarded as a practical method except
for very special cases.
Dr. Matthews also considered that the plan would be unsuitable
for general use as they were now-a-days called upon to deal with
covers of unknown thickness.
Mr. J. Mayall said that the cover-glasses at one time were marked
according to their thickness 005, -006, &e
Mr. J. Mayall, jun., described Riddell’s Binocular Microscope,
which was exhibited by Mr. Crisp, and was of considerable interest as
being a duplicate of Prof. Riddell’s original Microscope, which now
belonged to the Army Medical Museum at Washington (supra, p. 1059).
He pointed out as a noteworthy feature that it was provided with a
means of separating the prisms so as to give to each eye-piece a full
field of view. There was also a screw with a right- and left-handed
thread for separating the tubes to suit the width of the observer’s
eyes. An ingenious application of reflectors at the top of the eye-
pieces effected a perfect inversion of the image, so that the instrument
could be used for dissecting purposes. He had tried a few experi-
ments with it, and had found its performance to be very fair. There
were some inconveniences which might be improved upon with ad-
vantage, such as the rotation of the prisms above the eye-pieces, so
that it was not easy to prevent them from getting shifted and causing
a confusion of the images. There was also too little room for the
nose between the tubes, and during a protracted observation the
breath condensed upon them to a great extent. There was no fine
adjustment, but he believed the Microscope was only intended to be
used with low powers. It was, he thought, an instrument of great
interest as having been made so early as 1853. He hoped that
English makers would take up the point of providing some means of
separating the prisms, which offered such advantages that he won-
dered a similar method had not been adopted hitherto. Prior to this
instrument being made Prof. Riddell had devised another, also
described in the Society’s Journal—the form afterwards adopted by M.
Nachet. It was, he thought, a point of special interest in the history
of the development of the modern Binocular Microscope, that so early
1114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.
as the invention of this Microscope Prof. Riddell had applied two
mirrors for the purpose of equalizing the illumination in both fields.
Mr. J. Beck said that the form of Binocular Microscope made by
Prof. Riddell was an extremely ingenious failure. He believed he
was quite correct in saying so, because it never came into practical
use at all; whilst the merit of bringing the binocular into practical
use was undoubtedly dueto Mr. Wenham. He saw the instrument at
New Orleans in the year 1871, but with the exception of that, and
the one on the table before them, there was never another made, be-
cause, though it was ingenious, it was not useful. Whenever a thing
was made which was useful, it would be sure to come into use, as was
shown in the case of Mr. Wenham’s arrangement, for which the de-
mand had been enormous. Though he thought the instrument was
not of any great practical use, it was very useful to have these suc-
cessive stages in the history of the Binocular Microscope brought
before them.
Mr. Crisp exhibited a “twin” simple Microscope having two
lenses of different powers (ante, p. 862), also two forms of magnifiers
sent by Mr. Hippisley as examples of the capabilities of lenses made
out of spherules of glass, and of a simple method of holding them.
Mr. Badcock called attention to the fact of the re-discovery of
Cordylophora lacustris at the Victoria Docks, by Mr. C. Mitchell of
the East London Natural History Society. Some years ago it was
very abundant there, but since then it had entirely vanished until a
few weeks ago. Some further interest attached to it on account of
there being a quantity of Freia elegans parasitic upon it. The same
gathering also contained some Bacillaria paradoxa.
The President regarded this as a highly interesting gathering,
especially that of the Bacillaria.
Dr. Maddox read his paper, “ Further Experiments on Feeding
Insects with the curved or ‘ comma’ Bacillus” (supra, p. 941).
The President thought the Society would be very pleased to have
before it the further results of Dr. Maddox’s researches in this
direction, which was one in which there was not merely very much
of interest, but also much of practical importance yet to be learned.
The fact that no practical result had yet been arrived at was no doubt
disappointing, but it was, after all, only an incitement to still patiently
pursue the subject until it was overcome. ;
Mr. Cheshire said that perhaps some of the difficulty experienced
by Dr. Maddox might be got over by using invert sugar instead of
the ordinary kind. By using barley sugar, or boiled sugar, they
would get it in a form which would not give up its moisture so soon.
Dr. Maddox said he should prefer to feed the insects entirely on
fluid food, if it were possible to do so, but evaporation was the draw-
back there.
Mr. Cheshire had some experience in feeding bees, and would
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. LIS
suggest that the difficulty met with as to the feet might be got over
by feeding the insects through a grating.
Mr. Michael thought it would be much more difficult to feed flies
in this way than bees, on account of the very different structure and
length of their tongues.
Mr. Groves suggested that it might be useful to place a cover-glass
over the preparation, having a small hole in the middle.
Mr. Crisp exhibited one of Messrs. Beck’s new pasteboard boxes
to hold 300 slides (ante, p. 910). He had found them very convenient
for storing long series of slides, such as diatoms, micro-fungi,
minerals, &e.
Mr. Groves said that though not a very new suggestion it was
a very useful one. He had had some half dozen of them in use for
years.
Dr. Anthony feared the material of which the case was made was
too slight for the purpose, so that if pressure was exerted the flexure
would give space enough for the slides to override each other and
knock the cover-glass off.
Mr. Groves said he had never found this to occur in practice;
indeed, he often used two of the trays—without the box—to carry
slides about in, and he put them under his arm without ever finding
they got displaced.
Mr. Crisp said they had received six slides of material taken from
the intestines of Lieut. Kisslingbury, U.S.N., one of the victims of
the unfortunate Greeley Arctic Expedition. When the question of
cannibalism was being discussed, his body was exhumed, and a good
deal of the flesh was found to have been cut off the bones. In order
to ascertain if possible what was the last food of which the deceased
had partaken, and to establish whether the officers had joined in the
cannibalism of the men, the contents of the stomach were submitted
for examination. The letter of Mr. C. E. Alling accompanying the
slides (which were sent by Dr. Mandeville and himself) was read to
the meeting.
Mr. Groves said that although it might be possible to say from an
examination of these slides whether the material consisted of the
flesh of a mammal, a bird, or a fish, it would be quite impossible to
say if it was human flesh or not, unless it happened that a large
quantity of hair had been taken with it.
Mr. Crisp said that he had submitted the matter to Prof. Stewart,
the Conservator of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,
who had given him the same opinion as Mr. Groves, adding only
that a means of identification might be found in the small hairs of
the general surface of the body. He (Mr. Crisp) had examined the
slides, but could find no trace of hairs.
Mr. D. P. Penhallow’s note was read as to a handle for cover-
glasses, as follows :—
“In the August number of the Journal (p. 753) Mr. Cheshire
mentions the use of a semicircular disc of wax, somewhat smaller
1116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.
than the cover, for lifting the latter and adjusting it in mounting.
Several difficulties appear in the use of the wax as recommended,
and I now use what seems to me a more convenient form. An or-
dinary penholder, with a ferrule which is not split, is employed.
The ferrule is cut off to such length as to leave a short tube 1/4 in.
long on the handle. This tube is filled with wax in such manner as
to leave a well-rounded end; this is easily done, by simple dipping.
A permanent handle is now ready for use at all times. In use, the
wax only requires to be applied very lightly to the centre of the cover,
when the latter may be lifted and placed in position without the least
difficulty. The advantages of this handle are; (1) Minimum contact
of wax and glass: (2) the specimen can be seen and its proper position
secured as the cover goes on; (3) very slight pressure with a needle
seems to release the cover from the handle; (4) there is the least
quantity of wax to clean off.”
Mr. Cheshire said he was not in the least disposed to criticize the
method suggested, though it appeared to him to have its disadvantages,
for if they had a contact on one side only the pressure would be so
unequally distributed as to be very likely to unsettle the object or to
displace it, particularly when working at the end of a penholder.
Mr. C. Beck exhibited a compact form of Mr. Stephenson’s Cata-
dioptric illuminator.
The President said that those who saw Mr, Stephenson’s original
apparatus would notice how very much more compact the one now
before them was. He had tried the former, and found it to work
exccedingly well.
Mr. Kitton’s and Mr. Kain’s notes on Balsam of Tolu were read.
Mr. Kitton wrote :—
“ Since the publication of my note on Balsam of Tolu, I obtained
another sample of the gum. This was very different from the first,
which was darker in colour, not brittle, and dissolved freely in benzole
without residue. The second sample was brittle, and capable of being
pounded in a mortar. It was also soluble in hot benzole, which, on
cooling, deposited a very dark viscid mass, leaving a pale golden
brown liquid above. This is said to contain all the cinnamic acid,
the denser gum being Tolu, and which is only soluble in absolute
alcohol or chloroform. I tried it in the latter, but its very dark colour
made it very objectionable, excepting in the very thinnest film.
“The lighter fluid was apparently about the same refractive index,
and I mounted several diatoms in it, which, in the course of a week or
two, showed a plentiful crop of crystals. It afterwards occurred to
me that heat would volatilize the cinnamic acid. I therefore prepared
a slide on which I placed a drop of the medium and boiled it, and
when cool covered it. By the side of this I placed a second drop,
warming it to drive off the benzole; this I also covered. After the
lapse of a fortnight, I found this contained plenty of crystals, whilst
the adjoining drop was entirely free from them.
“T afterwards ascertained that the second sample had been boiled
in water in order to extract some of its medicinal properties.”
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. HBL 7
Mr. Kain’s note (in reply to a letter from Mr. Crisp) was as
follows :—
* As you remark in your letter, there is considerable confusion in
regard to the matter of Tolu. Iam unable to account for the differ-
ences, unless upon the supposition that different samples of the gum
behave differently. By reference to the ‘U.S. Dispensatory’ (15th
edition, 1883, Wood and Bache), I notice that there is a factitious
Balsam of Tolu containing about 60 per cent. of styrax. Now styrax
is soluble in benzole, and it is just possible that some experimenters
may have got hold of this factitious balsam. The following extract
from the same work may be of interest to you :—
“<«Jt (Tolu) is entirely soluble in alcohol, and the solution shows
an acid reaction with test paper. It is almost insoluble in water and
benzine. Warm disulphide of carbon removes from the balsam
scarcely anything but cinnamic and benzoic acids. On evaporating
the disulphide, no substance having the properties of resin should be
left behind. Boiling water extracts its acid.’
“From the above, it would appear that the easiest way to get rid
of the acids, whose crystals are so objectionable, is to use disulphide
of carbon, water being objectionable on account of the difficulty in
getting rid of it by evaporation. I ought, perhaps, to add that my
use of benzole for that purpose was the result of an accident, I having
attempted to make a solution of the gum in benzole. After digesting
several days, none of the gum was dissolved, but the benzole yielded
beautiful crystals of cinnamic and benzoic acids upon evaporation.”
Mr. Kitton’s note on a new diatom, Navicula Durrandii, was read
(ante, p. 1042).
Mr. J. C. Stodder’s note was read as follows :—
“Ynasmuch as I have noticed in your Journal occasional expres-
sions of the opinions of different microscopists as regards the formation
of a small battery of objectives which should cover reasonably well
all the requirements of the general Microscopist, and inasmuch as I
have never seen any published statement of the views held upon this
subject by the late Mr. R. B. Tolles, I venture to send you a copy of
a memorandum which I have just found among my loose microscopical
papers.
‘Boston, May 26th, 1882.
Meeting Mr. R. B. Tolles to-day at the office of Mr. Charles
Stodder, I asked him what he thought was the best series of, say,
four or five objectives to cover as well as possible the whole range of
‘general microscopy. He answered, after some reflection :—
‘For four only—3 in., 1 in. 80°, 4/10 in. 110° dry, 1/10 in.—
oil-glycerin-water immersion, which will work through 1/100 in.
covers, and should have a balsam angle of not much less than 120°
for best results.’ He added: ‘ An excellent and useful lens to add to
the above series would be a 1/5 in. 110° or 120° dry’” (ante, p. 863).
Mr. C. D, Ahrens’ paper on “An improved Form of Stephenson’s
Erecting and Binocular Prisms” was read, in which he proposed to
1118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.
unite the lower prisms by a wedge of glass. He also proposed an
alteration in the upper prisms (when they are used in place of a plate
of glass (supra, p. 959).
Mr. Michael said he thought Mr. Ahrens’ plan provided the one
thing wanting to perfect the Stephenson form of binocular, as the
prisms, as at present arranged with cork to separate them, not un-
frequently got displaced.
Mr. T. B. Rosseter’s paper on “‘ The Uses and Construction of the
Gizzard of the Larva of Corethra plumicornis” was read by Professor
Bell, and prepared specimens in illustration were exhibited under
Microscopes (supra, p. 991).
Mr. Dowdeswell’s paper on “ The Cholera Comma Bacillus” was
read (supra, p. 958).
Mr. Crisp stated that a communication had been received from the
American Society of Microscopists on the subject of the Society Screw-
gauge, which had been referred to a committee, and its consideration
had better, therefore, be adjourned until the committee had reported.
The President called the attention of the meeting to the death of
Prof. Robin, the eminent histologist, and one of the Honorary Fellows
of the Society. He might be termed the creator in France of histology,
for which a special chair was instituted. He had been Professor at
the Faculty of Medicine in 1832. In 1871 he worked with Littré in
founding the Society of Sociology “for the application of the positive
and scientific methods to the study of social doctrines.” By his death
(in his 65th year) the French Senate had lost all but the last of its
scientific men. He was the author of the two well-known text-books,
‘Du Microscope et des Injections,’ published in 1849, and the
‘Traité du Microscope, the first edition of which was published in
1871, and the second in 1877, and contributed largely to the current
scientific publications. In conjunction with Littré, he recast the
‘Dictionnaire de Nysten, and developed it into the now popular
‘Dictionnaire de Médecine,’ published by Bailliére et Fils.
The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :-—
Mr. C. E. Alling and Dr. Mandeville :—Slides illustrating Mr.
Alling’s note.
Mr. Badcock :—Cordylophora lacustris.
Mr. C. Beck :—New form of Stephenson’s Catadioptric Illuminator.
Mr. Bolton :—Anurea stipitata.
Mr. Cheshire :—Salivary glands and sac of Cockroach.
Mr. Crisp:—(1) D’Arsonval’s Water Microscope; (2) Riddell’s
Binocular Microscope; (8) “Twin” Single Microscope ; (4) Beck’s
slide boxes.
Mr. Dowdeswell :—Slides illustrating his paper.
Mr. Kitton :—New Diatom, Navicula Durrandii, n, sp.
Mr. Rosseter :—Slides illustrating his paper.
New Fellow :—Mr. Edward Y. Weston was elected an Ordinary
Fellow.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 1119
Meetine or 111TH Novemper, 1885, ar K1ne’s Cottecs, Stranp, W.C.,
THE PrestipeNt (THE Rev. Dr. Dauuinerr, F.R.S.) IN THE
CHaIR.
The Minutes of the meeting of 14th October last were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.
The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints)
received since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the
Society given to the donors.
Candolle, A. de, Lois de la Nomenclature Eoemane: 2me ed., From
64 pp. 8vo, Geneve, SG ele Mr. Crisp.
Dodel-Port, A., Biologische Fragmente. Beitrage zur Entwick-
lungsgeschichte der Pflanzen. 104 pp., 24 figs., and 10 pls.
4to, Cassel and Berlin, 1885 .. The Author.
Fischer, H., Kritische Mikroskopisch-Mineralogische Studien.
Part gis 69 pp., Part 2, 64 PP» Part 3, 96 pp. and 2 pls.
8yvo, Freiburg, 1869-73 .. Mr. Crisp.
Nageli, C., and Schwendener, S., Das Mikroskop : Theorie
‘und Anwendung desselben. 2te Aufl., xii. and 679 PP. and
302 figs. 8vo, Leipzig, UWE esc 5
Power, H., Experimental Philosophy. xx. and 193 pp. and
2 figs. and 1 plate. 4to, London, 1664 . a
Reinicke, F., Beitrage zur Neuern Mikroskopie. “Heft 5 57 pp.
and 1 pl., Heft 2, vi. and 85 pp. and 6 figs., Heft 3, iv. and
74 pp. and 2 figs. 8vo, Dresden, 1858-62 _ .. As
Schacht, H., Die Priifung der im Handel vorkommenden
Gewebe durch das Mikroskop und durch Chemische Re-
agentien. viii. and 64 pp. and 8 pls. 8vo, Berlin, 1853 .. RA
Willkomm, M., Die Wunder des Mikroskops, oder die Welt
im Kleinsten Raume. 4te Aufl., x. and 400 ) PP 285 io Hlaes
and 1 pl. 8vo, Leipzig, 1878... i
The President said that before proceeding to the ordinary busi-
ness of the meeting, it fell to him to take notice of what was to all
present a personal sorrow, and to their Society a sorrow in a pre-
eminent degree—he referred to the lamented death of Dr. W. B.
Carpenter. For his own part he could only speak of him with the
utmost reverence ; he had been in correspondence with him for some
years upon subjects in which they were mutually interested, and in
course of which he had found him ever ready with advice, and not
less so with his constant urbanity, ready to place all that he pos-
sessed mentally and physically—the stores from his brain or from his
cabinet—at the disposal of those who needed such help to enable
them to accomplish work which they had taken in hand. The
Fellows of the Society knew—so far as had been made public—the
circumstances of the unhappy incident which had deprived them of a
man who had occupied so high a position in biological science, and
they could not but lament that he had thus been taken from them, as
they might almost say, before his time. Those who had followed his
labours and had been acquainted with his work from its earliest time,
would remember that he was one of the first of those who gave a
true foundation to the science of physiology ; they would know how
his works had become a power in themselves in the days immediately
1120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.
touching those in which they lived; they knew how his energies
had been directed towards the promotion of the interests of medical
science, and how his efforts had been successful in giving to the
interests of science generally a meaning and an influence which they
had not previously possessed. 'To them it was his work as it related
to the Microscope that claimed their special notice, and they were
well aware that he had made this instrument specially his own and
they knew how he had at his fingers’ ends all that was known in con-
nection with it—at least up to a certain time—and not only so, but
he was also well acquainted with all that workers in this field of
science were doing around him, and to whom his ready sympathy was
at all times extended. His deep and untiring interest in all the
work which the Microscope could do had no small share in enabling
it pre-eminently to preserve its position as an instrument of research
in the study of pathology and histology. They knew also how, in
addition to subjects such as these, he had taken up such subjects as
that of the Foraminifera, and that he had worked them out, not
merely as regarded tabulating or classification, but as to thoroughly
investigating the structure and development of the organisms them-
selves. Throughout the greater part of his life he had been carefully
familiarizing himself with the structure and the advances made in
the instrument itself, and although he might not have been associated
so closely with it of late as was formerly the case, yet he had looked
on with the greatest interest at the wonderful advances it had made,
perhaps with considerable conservatism, but yet with a mind wide
enough to follow and to recognize the real progress which was taking
place. Asa Society they could not but feel that they had in his de-
parture sustained a heavy loss; he had been one of their most honoured
Presidents, and in many ways he had brought honour to their Society,
whilst his versatility and his genial temper in debate would be
features clear in the recollection of all who had known him.
Personally, he for one felt that he had lost an honoured friend
and valued scientific helper; he had lost a thread in his scientific life,
and should ever regard the memory of their departed friend with an
affection which would endure as long as memory remained. It was
therefore with the deepest feelings of personal regret at the cireum-
stances of the occasion that on behalf of the Council he beggen to
move the following resolution :—
“That this meeting has heard with the deepest concern of the
death of Dr. W. B. Carpenter, C.B., F.R.S., a past President of the
Society, one of the most eminent of microscopists, and desire to record
their sense of the great loss which science in general and micro-
scopy in particular have sustained by his decease, as well as their
deep sympathy with his family under their bereavement.”
Dr. Millar seconded the motion and it was carried unanimously.
Mr. J. Beck said he should like, knowing the prominent position
which Dr. Carpenter had occupied amongst them, to propose that the
Society should be represented at the funeral by one of the Fellows.
It was agreed that Prof. Stewart should attend on behalf of the
Society.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. AT
» Mr. Crisp reminded the meeting that it was arranged some time
ago that they should give, in the Journal, photographic portraits
of all the Presidents of the Society; a full-page plate of Sir R.
Owen, as the first President of the Microscopical Society, and another
of Mr. Glaisher, as the first President of the Royal Microscopical
Society after its charter had been granted, the other Presidents being
given in two groups of eight. Proofs of the portraits were upon the
table for the inspection of the Fellows. In view of criticism as to
the general effect of the groups, he might mention that the trouble
which had been required to get them into order was beyond anything
that could have been supposed, arising from the very various charac-
ter of the originals and otherwise, and their thanks were largely due
to Mr. J. Mayall, jun., for the pains he had taken in the matter. As
to the style of the particular portraits, he might say that nearly all
the photographs had been selected either by the persons themselves
or by their families, as being those which they considered the best.
The President said that the death of Prof. Robin, announced at
the previous meeting, created a vacancy in their list of Honorary
Fellows which it was proposed to fill up by the election of Prof. H.
de Lacaze-Duthiers, whose nomination would be suspended in the
usual way, and brought forward for ballot at their next meeting.
Mr. C. Beck exhibited a modification of the “Star” Microscope,
which could be folded up into a small compass as a portable Micro-
scope.
Mr. Crisp exhibited a Microscope in which the adjustment was
made by winding a piece of catgut on an axle.
Mr. John Mayall, jun., exhibited and described the Trouvé-
Helot electric lamp for microscopic use, worked by a portable battery
of six cells, each containing two zincs and three carbons. When
not in use the elements were lifted out of the bichromate solution
and retained in position at the top of the vulcanite case, whilst by a
simple arrangement they could be lowered into the exciting liquid
when needed, and any number of the cells could be connected up as
required. The photophore consisted of a small incandescence lamp,
fitted in a cylinder, with a condensing-lens in front. The best way
to use it was to commence with three cells, and then, as the light
got weak (which would occur in about an hour), to increase the num-
ber in circuit until the whole six were in use, each additional cell
enabling the light to be kept up for about twenty minutes, or about
two hours in all, with fairly continuous amount of light. He thought
that M. Trouvé had, to some extent, sacrificed efficiency to portability.
The ebonite case for the cells appeared far too slight for the purpose,
considering that it contained sulphuric acid. He had the promise of
one of the Jablochkoff dry batteries for exhibition at the Soirée,
1122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.
and he was told that this would maintain a light efficiently for ten or
twelve hours consecutively. He had seen the working of the Trouve
lamp at Antwerp, when it was successfully used by Dr. Van Heurck,
who made a number of difficult observations with it. He used it with
some care, only employing a very little battery-power to begin with ;
but the light was so perfectly under command, especially for purposes
of oblique illumination, that he certainly saw some of the most
brilliant effects produced by it. He thought a more powerful battery
than Trouvé’s was needed. Dr. Van Heurck had a dynamo in his
house, and could therefore employ incandescent lamps of any
desirable power, and with such advantages he had certainly shown
him (Mr. Mayall) the strongest and finest resolution that he had
ever seen by artificial light.
Mr. Michael said that the practical difficulty in the use of electric
lamps of this kind was not only as to the quantity of light obtainable,
but also as to its quality; because it was only when burnt at its
full strength that they got a white light; at other times it was either
red or yellow. Jf any means could be devised by which they could
get even a very small point of constant bright light it would be very
much better ; under present circumstances, if they reduced the quantity
of the current, they at once reduced the quality of the light.
The President said he quite agreed with Mr. Michael in his
remarks as to the desirability of getting a constant quality of light
as well as a sufficient quantity. | He could see that the advantage of
a lamp like this was the exceeding ease with which it could be applied
to any point they wished, and he had long felt that if anything of
this kind could be well and easily applied, it would be a very efficient
aid to research.
Dr. Matthews believed that in point of economy it would be very
much better to obtain more or less light by immersing the whole of
the plates more or less in the liquid than to immerse the whole
of them and then only to use one or two at a time, because the others
would meanwhile only be wasting by chemical action.
Mr. J. W. Groves exhibited a very large microtome, made under
the directions of Mr. J. W. Barrett, M.B., for the purpose of cutting
sections of large substances. One particular advantage was that both
the razor and the object were immersed in spirit, so that the sections
when cut floated off without any danger of adhering to the blade
(supra, p. 1089).
Mr. J. Beck said he had not yet had an opportunity of examining
this apparatus, but it occurred to his mind very vividly that he saw
one very much like it in 1865, which was used for cutting sections
8in. across. He believed he saw it at Utica, where it was being used
to cut sections of an entire human brain.
Mr. Badcock described an unrecognized specimen of Actinophrys,
which he submitted to the meeting for identification. The central
bodies were described as being very bright when seen under the
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 1123
Microscope ; they were of a sarcodic character and apparently of an
amceboid nature, and were furnished with long and very fine sete.
The President remarked that the organism had a very Actinophrys-
like appearance ; but he had seen so many variations in form, that he
thought this might very likely prove to be only a variation, though if
there were many specimens found under similar conditions, it might
be regarded as a new species. It would hardly be safe to conclude
much from a single specimen.
Mr. W. B. Turner’s paper, “On some new and rare Desmids,” was
read (supra, p. 933).
Dr. E. Giltay’s paper “On the Amplifying Power of a Lens or
Objective” was read, in which he criticized a note on the same subject
by Prof. Abbe (supra, p. 960).
Mr. Crisp gave a résumé of his paper “On the Limits of Resolu-
tion in the Microscope,” in which he pointed out that when mono-
chromatic light and photography were used in place of white light
(line E), the limit of resolution rose from 146,543 lines to the
inch to 158,845 and 193,037 respectively (supra, p. 968).
Dr. Maddox asked if it was likely that photography would depict
details which the eye could not see. Theoretically it had been
shown by what Mr. Crisp had stated that this might be possible, and
in practice he had always thought he could detect in a good negative
details which he was unable to make out by direct vision.
The President said that there appeared to be reason for supposing
that such would be the case. Prof. Koch, some six years ago, men-
tioned the case of a bacterium, in which he could not see the flagella
with the Microscope, but had photographed them.
Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said that some years ago he had been in
correspondence with Dr. Woodward on that very point, and he had
stated that in his experience nothing whatever could be seen by the
aid of photography which the eye could not see with the Microscope,
using monochromatic light.
The President said that Prof. Koch published his results at the
time and sent them to him; and he remembered that he stated that,
though the flagella were suspected, he was unable to detect them with
the eye, but that he had done it with the camera.
Mr. Mayall said that the point to which he referred related simply
to Nobert’s lines. He had himself taken the same view of the matter
as that now mentioned, but Dr. Woodward took the opposite side.
He thought he could count the lines more readily in the photographs,
but Dr. Woodward said it was not so in his experience. The cor-
respondence was commenced in consequence of a criticism published
by Dr. Woodward in a paper in the Monthly Microscopical Journal
in 1870.
Dr. Lavis’s paper “On the Preparation of Sections of Pumice and
other Vesicular Rocks” was read.
1124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.
Prof. Stewart said that sections were made in this way by Prof.
Moseley, in which the hard and soft tissues were shown together.
Copal was the medium employed in mounting.
Mr. Crisp called attention to the fact that amongst the Cantor
Lectures to be delivered at the Society of Arts this session, there was
a course on “The Microscope,’ by Mr. J. Mayall, jun., commencing
on Monday, the 23rd November, and continued on the four following
Mondays. For the purpose of illustrating these lectures, Mr. Mayall
would exhibit several of the instruments belonging to the Society,
and also many from his (Mr. Crisp’s) collection. The first lecture
would be on “The Origin of the Microscope, and its construction to
the date of the application of achromatism,” a limited number of
tickets for which would be placed at the disposal of the Fellows of
the Society.
It was announced that the Council had resolved to close the
Library on Wednesday evenings at 9.30 instead of at 10 o'clock as
formerly. The Fellows who attended on Wednesday evenings had
always left by 9.30, and it was unnecessary to keep the Library open
later.
The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :—
Mr. Badcock :—Drawing of an unrecognized organism.
Mr. C. Beck :—Portable “Star ” Microscope.
Mr. Bolton :—Lucernaria Auricula.
Mr. Crisp :—Microscope with Catgut Focusing Adjustment.
Mr. Dowdeswell :—Drawings of the Cholera Microbe from an un-
dried stained preparation mounted in acetate of potash; x 2400, in
an early stage of development showing the first turn of the spiral ;
x 1950, the mature Spirillum-form showing the straight and coiled
flagella at either end. (Cf. supra, p. 954.)
Mr. Groves :—Barrett’s large Microtome.
Mr. J. Mayall, jun. :—Helot-Trouvé Electric Photophore.
Mr. E. M. Nelson :—Triceratium septangulatum showing small
markings in the areolation, with a 2/3 in. objective of 0°29 N.A.
New Fellows :—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :—
Lord Edward 8. Churchill, Messrs. R. Aberdein, M.D., J. Bud-
gell, J. Clark, E. Crookshank, M.B., W. Godden, R. G. Hebb, M.D.,
J. Johnson, J. A. Kay, M.D., W. P. Manton, M.D., G. Meek, A. D.
Y. Shelley, Lieut. R.E., T. 5. Taylor, J. A. Thomson, W. C. Walker,
and G. E. Western.
( 1125 )
IN DEX.
Oe
*.* The Index includes the names of the Authors of all Papers, &c., printed in
the Transactions, or noted in the Summary or Bibliography, as well as
those of the Designers of any Instruments or Apparatus described under
the head of Microscopy. Where the author’s name stands alone, ee
reference is to the Bibliography only.
A.
ABBE, E., 530, 726.
— Condenser, 123, 530, 1065.
— —, Modification of, 124, 125.
, Zentmayer’s, 710.
, Note on Limits of Resolution,
970.
—, Testing the Different Sectors of
Objectives, 324.
Abbe’s ‘ Note on the proper Definition
of the Amplifying Power of a Lens
or Lens-system,’ Remarks on, 960.
Absorbing Organs of Albuminous
Seeds, 829.
Absorption by the Plant of Non-
nutrient Substances, 1032.
Acanthodrilus sp., Nephridia of, 813.
Acari inhabiting the Quill of Feathers,
236.
Acarina, Descriptions of New, 449.
Accessories, Instruments, &c. See
Contents, xxxiii.
Acids, Periodical Formation of, in
Succulent Plants, 97.
Acineta grandis, Peculiar Variety of,
167.
Actiniz, Chromatology of, 464, 656.
Actinic and Visual Foci, 331.
Actinomyces, Cultivation of, 534.
— in Swine’s-flesh, 290.
Adamkiewicz, A., 745.
—, New Method of Staining the
Spinal Cord, 742.
—, Parietal Cells in Nerve-fibres,
428
Adamsia palliata, 816
Adlerz, E., Anatomy of the Fruit
of Ranunculacesx, 831.
— E., Wings of Hymenoptera,
2
Adrianowsky, A., Influence of Light
on the Germination of Seeds, 93
Adriatic, Copepoda of, 454.
Adults, Relation of Marine Larva to,
8
788.
Ady, J. E., 161, 363, 562, 74
Ser. 2.—Vo.. V.
5, 924.
£pophilus Bonnairei, Marine Hemip-
terous Insect, 448.
AXschna, Optic Ganglion of, 800.
AXthalium septicum, Thermotropism
of the Roots of, 844.
Agalma, Development of, 1009.
Agaricini, Fries’ Nomenclature of
Colours in, 105,
Agen, F. D., 888.
Ahrens, C. D., On an Improved Form
of Stephenson’s Erecting and Bino-
cular Prisms, 959.
and Foucault’s Polarizing Prisms,
Madan’s Modification of, 328.
Air, Curved Bacilli in, 697.
——, Determination of the Number of
Germs in, 561.
——,, Freeing Objects from, 898.
—— in Water-conducting Wood, 679.
, Ozonized, Action of, upon Micro-
organisms and Albumen in Solu-
tion, 1053.
, Purity of, in Alpine Regions, 511.
——,, Supply of, to the Roots and Root-
pressure, 490,
“ Akakia,” 139.
Alaska, Arctic, New Arenicola from,
456.
——, ——, New Crustacea from, 453.
Albumen, Formation of, in Green
Plants, 274.
— in Solution, Action of Ozonized
Air upon Micro-organisms and, 1053.
Albuminoid Constituents of Plants,
97.
Albuminoids, Idioblasts containing, in
some Crucifers, 672.
Alcohol,Miiller’s Methylized, for Fungi
and other Plants, 164.
Alcoholic Ferments, Preservation of,
in Nature, 114.
Alge. See Contents, xxviii.
Algiers, Bay of, Lower Animals of, 65,
Algo-Lichen Hypothesis, 103, 688,
Alimentary Canal of Blatta peripla-
neta, Physiology of, 991.
of Crustacea, 994,
4D
1126
Alimentary Canal of Insects, 442.
Almond, Sweet, and Flax, Germination
of, 271.
Almavist, E., 161.
Alpine Regions, Purity of Air in, 511.
Amann, J., Balsam of Tolu as a
Medium for Mounting, 353.
Amarecium proliferum, Development
of, 437.
, Preparing Embryos of, 731.
Ambronn, H., Heliotropic and Geo-
tropic Torsion, 95.
Ambulacra of Echinoderms, 815.
America, North, Fresh-water Turbel-
laria of, 648.
American Association for the Adyance-
ment of Science, 888.
Fresh-water Sponges, New, 464.
— Society of Microscopists, 139,
335, 363, 726, 888, 1078.
—— —,, “ Working Session” of,
356.
— (South) Isoetes, 279.
Sponges, Wide Distribution of
some, 76.
Amici’s Microscopes, 531.
Ammonia, Action of, upon Lepidop-
terous Pigments, 52.
Ammoniacal Ferment, 680.
Amoeba infesting Sheep, 1018.
——, Pseudocyclosis in, 1019.
Ameebee, Critical Notes on, 1018.
, Studies in, 260.
Ameeboid Movements of Spermatozoa
of Polyphemus pediculus, 239.
Ameeboidee, 506.
Amphibia, Development of the Coelom
and Ceelomie Epithelium of, 423.
Amphipleura, Beads of, 380.
pellucida and the Diffraction
Theory, 529.
resolved into “ Beads,” 169,
1738.
Amphipoda, Polymorphism in, 997.
——, Urinary Organs of, 640.
Amphipodous Crustacean, New, 238.
Amplifying Power of a Lens or Lens-
system, Remarks on Prof. Abbe’s
Note on the Proper Definition of,
960.
Amylase, Presence of, in Leaves, 97.
Amyot, T. E., Direct Vision Micro-
scopes, 1056.
Analysing Prism and Goniometer,
Boecker’s Holder for, 705.
Anatomy of the Phanerogamia.
Contents, XXi.
Anchinia, Genetic Cycle and Germina-
tion of, 630.
Anderson, J., jun., 562.
André, Formation of Nitrates in Plants,
270.
See
INDEX.
Andrews, E. A., Anatomy of the Spider
Crab, 60.
and H. F. Nachtrieb’s Water-
bath, 1086.
Andreecium, Movements of, in Sun-
flowers, 268.
Angiosperms, Fecundation of Ovules
in, 270.
Angiostomum, 1001.
Anilin-green, 903.
Anisotropy of Organic
Causes of, 487.
Annelids, Lymphoid Cells of, 454.
. Pelagic, 998.
ae Polycheetous, Nervous System of,
44.
——,, Preparing Byes of, 1110.
Anodonta, Organs of Bojanus in, 795.
—, Relations of Cavernous Spaces
in Connective Tissue of, to the Blood-
vascular System, 794.
Anomocladina, Structure of theSkeleton
in, 464,
Anoplophrya circulans, 818, 819,
Ant, Tasmanian White, Infusorial
Parasites of, 662.
Anut-harbouring Organs of Plants, 484.
Antenne of Myriopoda, Demonstrating
Nerve-end Organs in, 896.
, Nerve-terminations on,
Substances,
448,
Anther of Flowering Plants, Bursting
of, 1032
Anthers, Dehiscence of, 91.
——,, Opening of, in Ericacez, 675.
=e Structure and Dehiscence of,
32.
Anthony, J., Structure of the Tongue
of the Blow-fly, 174.
, W. A,, 335.
Ants, Sensorial Organs of the Antennz
of, 441.
Aperture and Power of Microscopic
Objectives, Measurement of, 1082.
— , Large, Cost of Objectives of, 325.
——, Numerical, Table, 972.
Puzzles, 721, 882.
, Supposed Increase of, of an Ob-
jective, by using highly refractive
Media, 1077.
Aphides, Development of, 53.
—., Treatment of the Ova and Em-
bryos of, 147.
Aphrophoride, Australian, Larvee and
Larva-cases in some, 992.
Apical Growth of Phanerogams, 487.
Apios tuberosa, Nectar-glands of, 269.
Apospory in Ferns, 99, 491.
Apothecia of Lichens, Development of,
499.
Apple-trees, ‘‘ Cancer ” of, 106.
Apus, Nervous System of, 805.
INDEX.
Aquatic Plants, Epidermis of Leaves
of, 674.
, Structure of Stem of, 480.
Aquiferous Pores in Lamellibranchs,
227.
Arachnida. See Contents, xiv.
Arbaciadex, 652.
Arcangeli, G., New Methods of Pre-
paring Carmine Staining Fluids,
1094.
Archegonium and Sporogonium of
Muscinez, 279.
Archenchytrzus Mobii, 643.
Archerina Boltoni, 259.
Archiannelides, Nervous System of, 62.
Arctic Expedition, Greely, 1115.
Ocean, Algal-flora of, 1039.
Ardissone, F., Floridez of the Medi-
terranean, 102.
Arenicola, New, from Arctic Alaska,
456.
Argiope Kowaleyskii, 49.
Aril, Structure and Function of, in
certain Leguminose, 829.
Arloing, §., Influence of Light on the
Vegetation and on the Pathogenous
Properties of Bacillus anthracis, 297.
—, of the Sun on the Growth
and Activity of Bacillus anthracis,
1050.
Arnaud, W., Identity of the Orange-
red Colouring Matter of Leaves with
Carotine, 670.
Arnold, C., 161.
Arsenic, Tribromide of, 909.
Arthropoda. See Contents, xiii.
Arthur, J. C., Pear-Blight, 1053.
Arum italicum, Blooming of, 835.
Ascidians, Eggs of, 987.
——, Simple, New Species of, 45, 631.
—, Social Development of, 627.
Asclepias Cornuti, Fertilization of, 834.
Ascomyces, Development of, 689.
Ascomycetes, Monascus, A New Genus
of, 291.
Asellus, Brain of, 238.
Ash of Equisetaces, Composition of,
and its Bearings on the Formation
of Coal, 681.
Aspergillus niger, Remarkable Deve-
lopment of, 289.
Assimilating Cavities in the interior of
Tubers of Bolbophyllum, 671.
Assmann, R., Microscopical Observa-
tions on the Constituents of Clouds,
919.
Astacus, Development of, 805.
— fluviatilis, Extraction of Urie Acid
Crystals from Green Gland of, 805.
Asterida, Histology of, 652.
Asteroidea of Mauritius, 1009.
Asteromphalus flabellatus, 380.
127
Astrangiacese, Structures liable to
Variation in, 73.
Athyrium Filix-foemina, Singular Mode
of Development in, 491.
Atlas of Practical Elementary Biology,
787.
Attenuation of the Choleraic Virus,
1051.
Atwater, W. O., Absorption of Atmo-
spheric Nitrogen by Plants, 680.
Atwood’s (H. J.) Apparatus for Photo-
micrography, 330.
aera compressa, Development of,
96.
Aubert, A. B., Styrax and Balsam,
744,
Aulophorus vagus, Anatomy and His-
tology of, 1001.
Aulosira, 692.
Aurantiacee, Fungi Parasitic on, 106.
Australia, South, New Sponges from,
465, 1013.
Australian Aphrophoride, Larve and
Larva-cases of some, 992.
Bryozoa, 633.
— Crustacea, 998.
— Hircinide, Fibres of certain, 254.
—— Hydroid Zoophytes, 656.
—— Hydromeduse, 252, 1011.
— Pyenogonida, 994.
—— Serpulea, Anatomy of, with Cha-
racteristics, 241.
Sponges, 76, 1014.
Austria, Latzel’s Myriopods of, 638.
Autumnal Tints of Foliage, 97.
Avicularian Mandible, On the use of,
in the Determination of the Chilosto-
matous Bryozoa, 774.
Axes, Primary, Anatomy of Peduncles
compared with that of, and of Pe-
tioles, 833.
Axolotl Ovum, Karyokinesis in Seg-
mentation of, 976.
Ayers, H., Structure and Functions of
bs! tas of the Echinoidea,
B.
B.Se., 139, 161, 335, 363, 530.
Baccarini, P., Mechanical Function of
Crystals of Calcium Oxalate, 265.
Be Pc ta of the Receptacle,
Bachmann, E., Structure and Function
et the Aril in certain Leguminosa,
29,
Bacilli, Curved, in Air and Water, 697,
— of Hydrophobia, 573.
— of Malaria, 1052.
—,, Tubercular, Diagnostic Value of,
298.
4p2
1128
Bacillus alvei, Pathogenic History and
History under Cultivation of, 581.
— Amylobacter, Development of, in
Plants in a Normal Condition of
Life, 297.
anthracis, Artificial Attenuation
of, 696.
, History of Development and
Morphology of, 297.
, Influence of Light on the
Vegetation and on the Pathogenous
Properties of, 297.
Sun on the Growth
and Activity of, 1050.
—, Cholera, 113, 383, 509, 697, 850,
953, 1050.
, Comma, 383, 566, 953.
—__ ——, Experiments on Feeding
Insects with, 602, 941.
——, ——, Inoculation of Guinea-pigs
with, 509.
——, —, Morphology of, 1051.
—,—, Odour and Poisonous
Effects of the Fermentation pro-
duced by, 298.
—, —, of Cholera, First Discovery
of, 383.
——, Koch’s, Staining of, 557.
— leprz, Discrimination of, 362.
——, New Chromogenous (B. luteus
suis), 1052.
— of Cattle Plague, 114.
—— of Syphilis, Preparing, 539.
—— of the Vine, 1053.
— subtilis, Chemistry of, 598.
—— —, Double Staining, 363.
——, The Niesen, 769. ‘
—— tuberculosis, Discrimination of,
362.
—, Modified Method of Stain-
ing, 924.
——, Staining the Spores of, 342,
Bacteria, 695.
—— , Aerial, Hourly Variations in, 111.
—, , Resistance of, to Cold, 511,
, Balsam for Mounting, 166.
——, Cornil and Babes’, 853.
— ., Culture Media for, 363, 564.
——,, De Bary’s, 108.
——, Development of, 110.
——, Examining, 362.
—— Investigation, Dolley’s Techno-
logy of, 917.
, Pathogenic Pleomorphy of, 1049.
——, Relations of, to Asiatic Cholera,
299.
—,, Staining, for Photo-micrographic
Purposes, 166.
with Dahlia, 558.
, Systematic Position of, 850.
Bacteriacese, Systematic Position of,
1048.
——
INDEX.
Baeterial Pathology, 745.
Bacterioidomonas undulans, 360.
Bacterium, Development and Patho-
genous Properties of a, 852.
foetidum (Thin), Identity of,
with Soil Cocei, 696.
lactis, On Some Unusual Forms
of, 205.
ure, 696.
Baikal, Lake, Crustacea of, 807.
Bainier, G., Zygospores of Mucorini,
505.
Balanoglossus, Anatomy of, 69.
Kowalevskii, Development of,
461.
, Later Stagesin the Development
of, 650.
Balanus, Embryology of, 643.
Balbiani, E. G., Anoplophrya circu-
lans, 818.
Baldini, A., Spur of Cucurbitacese,
831.
Baldwin, L. A., 161.
Bale, W. M., Australian Hydroid Zoo-
phytes, 656.
Balkwill’s (F. P.) Foraminifera Slides,
1084.
Balsam and Glycerin Mounts, 353.
and Styrax, 744.
for Mounting Bacteria, 166.
——. Mounting in Cells with, 909.
— of Tolu, 160, 1116, 1147.
Banks, C. W., Electric Spark under
the Microscope, 888, 1078.
Barfurth, D. Comparative Histochem-
ical Observations on Glycogen,
981.
Barnes, C. R., Fertilization in Campa-
nula americana, 1028.
——, Stomata of Marchantia, 1036.
, Studying Pollen-grains, 1085.
Barrett, J. W., 161.
, New Microtome, 1089.
Barringtonia, Embryo of, 271. ~
Barrois, J., Development of Chelifer,
449,
—, Genetic Cycle and Germination
of Anchinia, 630.
—, T., Byssogenous Glands and
pateous Pores in Lamellibranchs,
27.
Barthélemy, A., Head and Mouth of
the Larva of Insects, 441.
Bary’s (A. de), Fungi, Mycetozoa,
and Bacteria, 108.
, Vegetative Organs of Phanero-
gams and Ferns, 93.
Basidiomycetes, Glycogen in, 503.
Bast-fibre, Influence of Cortical Pres-
sure on, 89.
Bastin, E. S., 745.
Bates, C. P., 530.
INDEX.
Bates, F., Sexuality in Zygnemacex,
285.
Bateson, W., Development of Balano-
glossus Kowaleyskii, and the Affini-
ties of the Enteropneusta, 461.
, Later Stages in the Development
of Balanoglossus, 650.
Batrachospermum, 494.
Battery, Beck’s Portable, for small
Incandescence Lamps, 172.
Baumgarten, P., Discrimination of
Bacillus lepre and B. tuberculosis,
362.
——,, Staining Method for Karyokine-
tic Figures, 341.
Baumler, J. A., Parasitic Fungus on
the Red-currant, 291.
Bausch, E., 335, 888.
, Universal Screw for Microscope
Objectives, 335.
Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.’s Labo-
ratory and Student’s Microtomes,
1089.
—— — — Mirror Diaphragms,
523.
— —— —— “Universal Accessory,”
713.
Bayberry Tallow for Imbedding, 735.
Bayerl, B., Demonstrating the Origin
of Red Blood-corpuscles in Cartilage
at the Margin of Ossification, 537.
Beads, Amphipleura pellucida re-
solved into, 169, 173.
— of Amphipleura, 380.
Beard, J., Preparing Myzostoma, 897.
——,, Structure and Development of
Myzostoma, 66.
Beauregard, H., Alimentary Canal of
Insects, 442.
——, Natural Development of Can-
tharis, 798.
, Structure of the Wings of Vesi-
cating Insects, 992.
Beccari, O., Ant-harbouring Organs of
Plants, 484,
Béchamp, A., Organisms Productive of
Zymosis, 693.
—, Origin of Microzymes and Vibrios
of Air, Water, and Soil, 295,
Beck, C., Modification of the “ Com-
plete” Lamp, 380.
—., E. J., Muscular and Endoske-
letal Systems of Limulus and Scorpio,
992.
—., G., Trochobryum, a New Genus
of Seligeriacesw, 281, 841.
Beck’s (KR. & J.) Automatic Microtome,
153.
—— Combined Substage Apparatus,
115
— Portable Battery for Small Incan-
descence Lamps, 172.
1129
Beck’s (R. & J.) Portable National
Microscope, 115.
“‘ Star” Microscope, 1121.
Rings for Throwing the Coarse
Adjustment out of gear, 525.
—— “Star” Microscope, 512.
— Universal Microtome, 344.
Vertical Illuminator, Diaphragms
for, 522.
Becke, F., 161.
Beckwith, E. F., 726.
, Method for Showing the Distri-
bution and Termination of Nerves in
the Human Lungs, 894.
Beddard, F. E., Nephridia of a New
Species of Earthworm, 999.
——,, Acanthodrilus sp., 813.
, Structure of the Body-wall in
Earthworms, 243.
Bedot, M., Histology of Porpita medi-
terranea, 463.
, Structure of Velella, 1010.
Bee, Bacillus alvei, Cause of Foul
Brood, 581.
Beeching, 8., 889.
Bees and Wasps, Apparatus for Differ-
entiating the Sexes in, 1.
, Receptaculum seminis of, 1.
Beggiatoa alba, 1046.
roseo-persecina, 508.
Begonia socotrana, Bulbils of, 676.
Behrens, W. J., 335, 363, 726, 1079.
, Modification of the Abbe Con-
denser, 124.
——, Text-book of General Botany,
677.
Belgium, Van Heurck’s Synopsis of the
Diatoms of, 686.
Bell, F. J., Comparative Anatomy and
Physiology, 620.
——,, Cotton-spinner, 462,
——., Gordius verrucosus, 1002.
——, New Minyas, 1010.
—, Peculiar Variety of Acineta
grandis, 167.
Bell-glass, Cheap, for the Laboratory
Table, 1111.
Bellonci, J., Karyokinesis in Segmen-
tation of Axolotl Ovum, 976. ~
Beneden, E. van, and C. Julin, Foetal
Appendages of Mammals, 423.
, Postembryonal Deve-
lopment of Phallusia scabroides, 795.
Benham, W. B. §S., Muscular and
Endoskeletal Systems of Limulus
and Scorpio, 992.
Seg R., ‘ Challenger’ Nudibranchs,
——, Genus Melibe, 226.
——, Metamorphosis of Nephelis, 241.
Bergonzini, Collodion and Phenol in
Microscopical Technique, 559.
1130
Berner, H., Causes of Sex, 215.
Bernimoulin, E., Division of the Cell-
nucleus in Tradescantia, 475.
Beroid of Port Jackson, 1011.
Bert, P., 1079.
Berthelot and André, Formation of
Nitrates in Plants, 275.
Berthold, G., Fertilization of Crypto-
nemiacee, 683.
— , V., 563.
Bertkau, P., Digestive Apparatus of
Spiders, 235.
——, Seasonal Dimorphism in Spiders,
993.
, Sense-organ of Spiders, 993.
Bertrand’s (H.) Adapter Nose-piece,
525.
, Polarizing Prism, 133.
Bessey, C. E., Bisexuality of the
Zygnemacee, 1038.
—, Inflorescence of Cuscuta glome-
rata, 1026.
—, Opening of the Flowers of
Desmodium sessilifolium, 1026.
, Styles of Indian Corn for Exam-
ining Movement of Protoplasm, 1106.
Betts, J. B.,and T. Taylor, Discrimina-
tion of Butter and its Substitutes,
918.
Beyerinck, W., Cecidomyia-galls on
Poa, 1026.
Bibliography. See Contents, xliv.
——, Thompson’s, of Protozoa, Sponges,
Coelenterata, Worms, and Mollus-
coida, 983.
Biehringer, J.. and P. M. Fischer,
Imbedding and Examining Trema-
todes, 735.
Bienstock, Double Staining Bacillus
subtilis, &c., 363.
Bigelow, H. R., Cholera Bacillus, 697.
Bilharzia hematobia, Anatomy of,
1003.
Billet, A., Bacterium uree, 696.
—, Formation of the Spores of
Cladothrix, 692.
Biniodide of Mercury and Potassium
as a Swelling Agent, 341.
Binocular, Focal Depth with, 726.
M.D., 530.
, Position of Objects with, 1075.
Binoculars, Adjusting the Eye-pieces
of, to eyes of unequal focal length,
1065.
Biondi, D., Origin of the Spermatozoids
in the Seminiferous Canals, 979.
Birds, Pneumonomycosis of, 848.
Bisexuality of the Zygnemacez, 1038.
Bivalves, Hinge of Shells of, 229.
Bizzozero, G., 924.
, Microphytes of Normal Human
Epidermis, 849.
INDEX.
Bizzozero, G., and Torres, Staining for
oe Study of Red Blood-corpuscles,
741.
Bjeloussow, A. K., 1109.
Black Sea Algez, Morphology and
Classification of, 1039.
Blackburn, W., 139.
Blacking Brass Diaphragms, &e., 1079.
Bladderwort and Diatoms, 685.
Blane, H., Collecting Rhizopods, 534.
, Development of the Egy and For-
mation of the Primitive Layers in
Cuma Rathkii, 238, 641.
——,, Variability and Mode of Repro-
duction of Ceratium hirundinella, 470.
Blanchard, R., New Type of Sarco-
sporidia, 820.
Blastoderm, Formation of, in the Bird’s
Ege, 615.
Blastoderms, Preparing and Preserving
Eggs of Cephalopoda, 1083.
Blastopore in Phoronis, 242.
—— of Rana temporaria, Fate of, 425.
——,, Yolk, Position of, as determined
by the Size of the Vitellus, 978.
Blatta periplaneta, Physiology of the
Alimentary Canal of, 991.
Bleaching Agent, Hydrogen Peroxide
as, 340.
“Bleeding” of Parenchymatous Tissues,
837.
Bles, E. J., 889.
Blight, Pear, 1053.
Blochmann, 563.
——,, F., Brachiopoda, 440.
—,, Direct Nuclear Division in the
Peon Investments of Scorpions,
48.
Blood, Examining, in Typhoid Fever,
1104.
——, New Constituent of, and its Phy-
siological Import, 428.
——, Stained Human, Method of pre-
paring permanent specimens of, 537.
Blood-corpuscles, Demonstrating Nuclei
in, 730.
—— ——, Measurement of, 1105.
— —,, Red and White, Formation
of, 220.
—— —, Red, Origin of, in Cartilage
at the Margin of Ossification, 537.
, Staining for the Study
of, 741.
Blood-vessels of the Test in Tunicata,
Evolution of, 230.
Blooming of Arum italicum, 835.
Blowfly, Influence of some Conditions
on the Metamorphosis of, 441.
——, Mounting Proboscis of, in Binio-
dide of Mercury, 733.
—, Tongue of, 174, 751.
——, —, Photo-micrograph of, 1077.
INDEX.
Blue Rays for Optical Work, Madan’s |
Method of isolating, 327.
Blundstone, E. R., Glycogen in “ Vesi-
cular Cells” of Mollusca, 986.
Body, Vertebrate, Primitive History of,
780.
Body-tube, Microscope with Bent, 517.
-tubes, Short v. Long, 339.
-wall in Earthworms, Structure
of, 243.
Boécker’s Dissecting Microscope with
Briicke Lens, 319.
Holder for Analysing Prism and
Goniometer, 705.
Bohemia, Algz of, 684.
Boéhm’s Carmine Acetate, 341.
Bojanus, Organs of, in Anodonta, 795.
Bokorny, T., and O. Loew, Silver-re-
ducing Animal Organs, 619.
Bolbophyllum, Assimilating Cavities in
the interior of Tubers of, 671.
Bolina Chuni, Metamorphosis of, 1010.
Boltenias, Slimy Coatings of certain,
233.
Bombus, Male, Copulatory Apparatus
of, 50.
Bombyx, Composition of Ova of, 441.
Bone and Teeth Sections, Rapid Method
for Making, 348.
Bonnet, R., 563.
Bonnier, G., and L. Mangin, Respira-
tion and Transpiration of Fungi,
104.
—— —, ——,, of Germinating Seeds,
272.
—— ——,, —— of Leaves in Darkness,
488.
— —,, — of Plants, 835.
— — at Different
Seasons, 836.
—~ ——, ——- of Tissues not contain-
ing Chlorophyll, 94.
, Variation of Respiration with
Development, 679.
Booth, M. A., 745.
, White Zine Cement, 363.
Borax-methylen-blue, Application of,
in the Examination of the Central
Nervous System, 731.
Bornet, E., and C. Flahault, Aulosira,
692.
Borodin, J., Comparative Anatomy of
Leaves of Chrysosplenium, 91.
——,, Crystals in the Leaves of Legu-
minose, 823.
Boro-glyceride for Mounting, 742.
Borzi, A., Nowakowskia, a new Genus
of Chytridiaces, 846.
Botanical Lectures, Apparatus for,
$12.
Bothriocephalidw, Nervous System of,
646.
1131
Bothriocephalus, New, 810.
Botrychium ternatum, Growing the
Spores of, 1109.
Botrytis cinerea, Nocturnal Spore-for-
mation in, 690.
Botterill, C., 335.
Bottone, S., 745.
Botys hyalinalis, Embryology of, 447.
Boulay, M., Mosses of France, 281.
Bourne, A. G., Communication of the
Vascular System with the Exterior in
Pleurobranchus, 794.
, Hydroid Phase of Limnocodium,
Sowerbii, 72, 251.
Boutan, L., Anatomy of Fissurella, 985.
——, Nervous System of Fissurella, 624.
Boutroux, L., Preservation of Alcoholic
Ferments in Nature, 114.
Bouvier, E. L., Nervous System of Buc-
cinide and Purpuride, 793.
Bower, F. O., Apex of the Root in Os-
munda and Todea, 1033.
, Apospory in Ferns, 99.
—, Morphology of Phylloglossum
Drummondii, 1034.
, and K. T. Druery, Apospory in
Ferns. Singular Mode of Develop-
ment in Athyrium Filix-foemina,
492.
——, and S. H. Vines, Examining the
Spectrum of Chlorophyll, 527.
—— — and W. T. T. Dyer, Practi-
cal Botany, 484, 563.
Box Microscope, 701.
Brachiopoda. See Contents, xiii."
Bradbury, W., 139, 335.
Brain of Asellus and Cecidotea, 238.
—— of Urodela, Preparing, 536.
Branchiobdella, Oogenesis and Sper-
matogenesis in, 643.
Brass, A., Chromatine in Cell-division,
263.
—., Methods of Investigating Animal
Cells, 729.
Brasse, L., Presence of Amylase in
Leaves, 97.
Braun, M., Mounting Media for Nema-
todes, 897.
Brayley, E. B. L., 363.
Brearley, W. H., 363.
Brefeld, O., Conidiobolus, a New Genus
of Entomophthores, 106.
—, Cultivation Methods for the In-
vestigation of Fungi, 534.
Breidler, J., and G. Beck, Trochobryum,
a New Genus of Seligeriaces, 281,
841.
Brevoort, H. L., Construction of Fur
Fibres, 173.
Brieger, L., Bacteria, 695.
Brightness, Sense of, and of Colour in
Animals, 38,
1132
Briozi, G., Heterophylly of Eucalyptus
globulus, 1025.
Brisingide of the ‘Talisman’ Expe-
dition, 1009.
Britton, N. L., Fecundation of Ovules
in Angiosperms, 270.
Brock, J., Development of Generative
Organs of Pulmonata, 623.
Bronold, A., Influence of Electricity
on the Growth of Plants, 835.
Brook, G., Development of Motella
mustela, 785.
f the Lesser Weever-
—, —, 0
Fish, 34,
—, Origin of the Hepat in Pela-
gic Teleostean Ova, 214.
, Spawning of the Cod, 786.
Brooks, W. K.,, Life-history of EKutima
mira, 251.
——, New Law of Variation, 216.
—, Recognition by Marine Animals
of the Hour of the Day, 431.
Broths, Sterilized, New Method for
Transfer of, 359.
Brown, G. D., {Mounting Dry Opaque
Objects without cover-glass, 161.
——, Use of the Chitinous Element in
the Classification ,of the Polyzoa,
381.
—, H. H., Spermatogenesis in the
Rat, 783.
Brownell, J. T., Staining and Mount-
ing Pollens and Smuis, 349.
—, Turntable, 350.
——.,, Wax Cells,’ 363.
Bruchmann, H., Development of the
Vegetative Organs of Selaginella
spinulosa, 279.
-——, Prothallium of Lycopodium,
839.
Brucin, Micro-chemical Test for, 920.
Briicke Lens, Dissecting Microscopes
with, 319.
Briicke’s Electrical Apparatus, 869.
Brun, J., Double Staining, 558.
Brunchorst, J., Galvanotropism of
Roots, 836.
Brunn, A. v., Westien’s Universal Lens-
holder, 316.
Brunt, C. Van, Fixing Objects to the
Cover-glass, 1097.
Bryacex, Peristome of, 1035.
Bryozoa, see Polyzoa.
Buccal Membrane of Cephalopoda,
622,
Buccinide, Nervous System of, 793.
Buchner, Cholera Bacillus, 509.
, H., Influence of Oxygen on Fer-
mentation by Schizomycetes, 850.
» H., 1109.
Buck, E., Unstalked Variety of Podo-
phrya fixa, 662.
INDEX.
Bud-cones of the Carob, Hypertrophy
of, 675.
Buffham, T. H., Conjugation of Rhab-
donema arcuatum, 842.
Bulbils of Begonia socotrana, 676.
Bulloch, W. H., Combination Micro-
tome, 548.
, Magnifying Power of Objectives
and Position of Wollaston Camera,
335.
——,, New Lamp, 133.
Bungener, H., Degeneration of Yeast,
693.
Burch, G. J., Supposed New Infusorian,
1015.
Bureau of Scientific Tnfonmenitcnt 745.
Burgerstein, A., Physiological and
Pathological Effect of Camphor on
Plants, 837.
Burrill, T. J., 746, 889, 1079.
, Mechanical Injury to Trees by
Cold, 1029.
Bursting of Sporangium of Ferns and
the Anther of Flowering Plants,
1032.
Busk, G., ‘ Challenger’ Polyzoa, 47.
Biitsehli, O., 563.
, Hye of Gastropoda, 222.
——, Marine Rhizopoda, 1016.
—, Origin of the Nervous System of
Nematodes, 458.
Butter and Fats, Examination of, 356.
—, Discrimination of, and its Sub-
stitutes, 918.
Butterflies, Structure of Scales of, 165.
Buysman, Influence of direct Sunlight
on Vegetation, 678.
C.
C., L. P. de, 889.
Cabbage, Red, Amplification of Colour-
ing Matter of, in Histology, 558.
Cabinet, Microscopist’s Working, 365. '
Cactacez, Annular and Spiral Cells of,
672.
——, Elasticity in the Fruit of, 1027.
Cactuses, Use of Spines in, 1027.
Calanidx, Sense-organs of, 997.
Calcareous Sponges, Histology and
Nervous System of, 1011.
Caleituba polymorpha, 258.
Calcium Oxalate, Mechanical Function
of Crystals of, "265.
Caldwell, H., Embryonic Membranes
of Marsupials, 34.
—,, W. H., Automatic Microtome,150.
— ; Blastopore, Mesoderm, and Meta-
meric Segmentation in Phoronis, 242.
——, Oviparous Reproduction in the
Monotremes, 33.
Callitriche, Fertilization of, 677.
INDEX.
Cambridge Rocking Microtome, 549.
Camera, Direct Vision, 336.
Lucida, Schréder’s, 140.
, Wollaston, Position of, 335.
, Robinson’s Miniature Micro-
scopic, 528.
, Small, 529.
Camerano, L., Distribution of Colour
in the Animal Kingdom, 37.
Cameron’s (P.) British Phytophagous
Hymenoptera, 440.
Campanula americana, Fertilization in,
1028.
—, Reduced Organ in, 675.
Campbell, D. H., Growing the Spores
of Botrychium ternatum, 1109;
— , Third Coat in the Spores of the
Genus Onoclea, 493.
Camphor, Physiological and Patho-
logical Effect of, on Plants, 837.
“Cancer” of Apple-trees, 106.
Cantharis, Natural Development of,
798.
Cantor Lectures on the Microscope, 1124.
Caplatzi, A., 889.
Capus, G., Direct Observation of the
Movement of Water in Plants, 359.
Car, L., Copepoda of the Adriatic, 454.
Carbolic Acid Shellac, Mayer’s, 909.
Carbon dioxide, Evolution of, in Leaves
kept in Darkness, 678.
Carmine Acetate, Bohm’s, 341.
— Solution, New, 740.
— Staining Fluids, New Methods of
Preparing, 1094.
Carnot, A., Composition of Mineral Oil
in Relation to the Plants which have
produced it, 276.
Carnoy’s (J. B.) Biology of the Cell, 669
Carob, Hypertrophy of the Bud-cones
of, 675.
Carotine, Identity of the Orange-red
Colouring Matter of Leaves with, 670.
Carpenter, H. 8., and W. O. Nicholson,
Examination of Water for Organ-
isms, 560.
—, P. H., New Species of Me-
tacrinus, 815.
—, Stalked Crinoids of the ‘ Chal-
lenger’ Expedition, 653.
—, Vascular System of Echinoids,
814,
—, W. B., 335, 1079.
—,, Death of, 1119.
——,, Focal Depth with the Binocular,
726.
—, Standard Thickness of Glass
Slips, 329,
Carriere, J., Eyes of some Invertebrata,
39
Carter, H. J., Circulation in Spongida,
816.
1133
Carter, H. J., New Sponges from South
Australia, 465.
—, New Variety of Meyenia fluvia-
tilis, 658.
—, Spongilla fragilis, and a New
Species of Spongilla, 255.
—,, J., & Co., 363.
Cartilage, Origin of Red Blood-corpus-
cles in, at the Margin of Ossification,
537.
Cartilages of Limulus and Sepia, Chitin
as a Constituent of, 222.
Castellarnau, J. M. de, 746.
Castracane, F'., Deep-sea Diatoms, 498.
, Fossil Diatoms, 498.
, Internal Spore-formation in Dia-
toms, 1041. 4
Caterpillar of Lagoa, Unusual number
of Legs in, 990.
Cattaneo, L., Fixing, Staining, and
Preserving Infusoria, 538.
Catti, J. T., Manner in which Lamelli-
branchs attach themselves to Foreign
Objects, 626.
Cattle-disease, “‘ Rauschbrandpilz,” a
parasitic, 300.
— Plague, Bacillus of, 114.
Cecidomyia-galls on Poa, 1026.
Cecidomyians, Relations of Two, to
Fungi, 291.
Cecidotza, Brain of, 238.
Cell, Carnoy’s Biology of, 669.
— _, Live, 134.
—, —, Giles’, 135.
—, Structure, Vital Phenomena, and
Reactions of, 86.
Cell-contents, Small Rod-like, of cer-
tain Cercariz, 1003.
Cell-continuity, 426.
Cell-division, 217.
— —, Chromatine in, 263.
—— — in Melosira, 497.
— —,, Influence of Gravity on, 426.
ee Preparing Tissues to show,
Cell-nuclei, Significance of, in the
Processes of Heredity, 975.
Cell-nucleus, Division of, in Plants
and Animals, 666.
—— —— in Tradescantia, Division of,
475.
—— — Structure and Division of,474.
Cell-wall, Behaviour of Optical Axes
of Elasticity of, under Tension, 476.
of Diatoms, Structure of, 685.
—— —— of Epidermal Cells, Changes
in, and in the Hairs of Pelargonium
zonale, 668.
— — Siliceous Membrane with
Properties of, 263.
— — thickenings in Chara and
Vaucheria, 838.
1134
Cells, Animal, Methods of Investigat-
ing, 729.
, Annular and Spiral, of Cactacee,
672.
—, Chapman’s Mould for, 911.
——, Epidermic, of Tadpoles, 977.
, Follicular and Granular, of Tuni-
cates, 44.
, Forms of, 820.
——,, Hard-rubber, 925.
— , Leakave of, 1102.
——, Male Germinal, Development of,
in Hydroids, 462.
——, Mounting in, with Canada Bal-
sam, 909.
, Parietal, in Nerve-fibres, 428.
——.,, Sexual, Origin of, in Obelia, 250.
, Spiral, of Nepenthes, 1023.
, “ Vesicular,” of Molluscs, Gly-
cogen in, 986.
, Wandering, in Epithelium, 980.
, Wax, 363.
Cellulin-grains in Chara and Vaucheria,
838.
Cellulose, Sensitive Tests for, 897.
Cement, 1110.
for Glass, Porcelain, &., 162.
— , Glycerin and Litharge as a, 743.
— ,, Smith’s New, 1099.
—,, White Zinc, 363, 365, 1101.
Cephalophorous Molluscs, Radula of,
434.
Cephalopod Liver, Pancreatic Function
of, 622.
Cephalopoda, Buccal Membrane of, 622.
— , Fecundation in, 983.
— , Integument of, 40.
— _,, New, 984.
— , New‘ Challenger,’ 435.
, Preserving Eggs of, and preparing
Blastoderms, 1083.
, Retina of, 41.
Ceratium hirundinella, Variability and
Mode of Reproduction of, 470.
Ceratophyllum, Anatomical Structure
and Development of, 825.
Cercarize, Action of Sodium Chloride
on, 814.
——, Small Rod-like Cell-contents of
certain, 1003.
Certes, A., Employment of Colouring
Matters in Study of Living Infusoria,
555.
, and D. Cochin, Effect of High
Pressures on the Vitality of Ferments
and on Fermentation, 693.
Ceylon, Echinodermata of, 462.
Chadwick, W. J., 1079.
Cheetopoda, Muscles of, 456.
Chetotaxy, Comparative, 52.
Chairy, M., Action of various Com-
pounds on Tyrothrix, 510.
INDEX.
‘Challenger’ Cephalopoda, New, 435.
Cirripedia, 61.
—— Myzostomida, 68.
Nudibranchs, 43.
Polyzoa, 47.
Stalked Crinoids of, 653.
Chalon, J., 726.
Chamberland, C., Removal of Microbes
by Filtering, 561.
Chaney, L. W., jun., 726.
Chapman’s Mould for Cells, 911.
Chara and Vaucheria, Staining, 557.
— , Ccll-wall thickenings and Cellu-
lin-grains in, 838.
Characez. See Contents, xxviii.
Chareyre, J., Anatomy of Pitcher-
plants, 1024.
Chatin, J., Appendages of the Jaw of
Mandibulate Insects, 50.
, Morphology of the Mouth-organs
of Hymenoptera, 989.
Cheeseman, H. L., Growing Slide, 335.
Chelifer, Development of, 449.
Chemical and Medico-legal Microscopy,
1108.
— Phenomena of the Respiration
of Plants, 488.
Chemistry of Bacillus subtilis, 508.
Cheshire, F. R., The Apparatus for
differentiating the Sexes in Bees and
Wasps. An Anatomical Investiga-
tion into the Structure of the Re-
ceptaculum Seminis and adjacent
parts, 1.
, and W. W. Cheyne, The Patho-
genic History and History under
Cultivation of a New Bacillus (B.
alvei), the Cause of a Disease of the
Hive Bee hitherto known as Foul
Brood, 581.
Chester Society of -Natural Science,
139
Cheyne, W. W., Cholera Bacillus, 850.
—— and F. R. Cheshire, The Patho-
genic History and History under
Cultivation of a new Bacilllus (B.
alvei) the Cause of a Disease of the
Hive Bee hitherto known as Foul
Brood, 581.
Chilton, C., Australian Crustacea, 998.
—, Marine Species of Philougria,
239
454.
—, Polymorphism in the Amphi-
poda, 997.
Chitin as a Constituent of the Carti-
lages of Limulus and Sepia, 222.
— ,, Distribution of, 984.
—, Method of Softening, 896.
Chitinous Element, Use of, in the
Classification of Polyzoa, 381.
Chitonidz, Eyes of, 224.
INDEX.
Chitons, Generative and Urinary Ducts
in some, +2.
Chiusoli, V., 140.
Chlorzemidz, Problematical Organ in,
457.
Chlorophyll, 87.
and its Combinations, 822.
—, Chemical and Physiological Ac-
tion of Light on, 837.
Reactions of, 264.
—, Conditions of the Development
and of the Activity of, 1020.
——,, Decomposition of Solutions of, by
Light, 669.
—,, Examining the Spectrum of, 527.
in Leaves, Fluorescence of, 88.
of Fucacex, 282.
, Respiration of Tissues not con-
taining, 9+.
Chlorophyll-grains, Morphology of, 88,
475.
Chlorophyll-green of Fucacex, 1038.
Chlorophylloid Granules of Vorticella,
78.
Chlorospore, Vegetative Changes of
Form in, 283.
Choano-Flagellata, New, 258.
, Relationship of Sponges to,
>
657.
Cholera-bacillus, 113, 509, 697, 850,
953, 1050.
, first discovery of, 383.
——, Relations of Bacteria to Asiatic,
299.
Choleraic Virus, Attenuation of, 1051,
Cholodkovsky, N., Malpighian Ves-
sels of Lepidoptera, 51.
——,, Testes of Lepidoptera, 51.
Chromatine in Cell-division, 263.
Chromatology of Actinic, 464, 656.
Chromatophores and Nuclei, Distribu-
tion of, in the Schizophycee, 691.
—, Occurrence of, in the Phycochro-
maces, 102.
—, Structure of, 109, 293.
Chromie Acid, Action of Light on
Objects hardened in, 148.
Chrysosplenium, Comparative Ana-
tomy of Leaves of, 91.
Chun, C., 726.
Chytridiacex, New, 846.
—, Nowakowskia, a new Genus of,
846,
Circulation in Ephemera’ Larvae, 637.
—— in Spongida, 816.
of Schizopoda and Decapoda, 60.
Circulatory and Nephridial Apparatus
of the Nemertea, 810.
Cirripedia, Anatomy of, 641,
—, ‘Challenger,’ 61.
Cladothrix, Formation of Spores of, 692.
Clam, Parasitic Copepod of, 239.
or
1135
Classification, Phylogenetic, of Ani-
mals, 221.
—— of Fungi, 689.
—— of Polyzoa, Use of the Chitinous
element in, 381.
of the Lower Alga, 495.
Claus, C., Circulation of Schizopoda
and Decapoda, 60.
——.,, Cyclical Development of Sipho-
nophora, 1010.
Elementary Text-book of Zoo-
logy, 38, 431.
, Morphology of Crustacea, 803.
Cleaner, James’ Cover-glass, 354.
Cleaning Fluid fur Vegetable Tissues,
366.
Clepsine, Development of the Sexual
Organs of, 455.
Cleve, P. T., Fossil Marine Diatoms,
1042.
Clouds, Microscopical Observations on
the Constituents of, 919,
Cloudy Mounts, 366.
Coal, Composition of the Ash of Equi-
setacee, and its Bearing on the
Formation of, 681.
— Seams, Carboniferous, Structure
and Origin of, 406.
Coarse Adjustment, Rings for throwing
out of gear, 525,
Cocain, Action of, on Invertebrates,
621.
— for Mounting Small Animals,
893.
Cocardas, E., Penicillium-Ferment in
Pharmaceutical Extracts, 1046.
Cocci, Soil-, Identity of Bacterium
foetidum (Thin) with, 696.
Cochin, D., Effect of High Pressures
on the Vitality of Ferments, and on
Fermentation, 693.
Cocoon of Periplaneta orientalis, Orien-
tation of the Embryo, and Formation
of, 991,
Cod, Spawning of, 786.
Coelenterata. See Contents, xviii.
Ceelenterate Nature of Sponges, 816.
Ccelom and Colomie Epithelium of
Amphibia, Development of, 423.
Coelopleurus Maillardi, “ Tag ” of, 815,
Coenonia, a New Genus of Myxomy-
cetes, 293.
Cohn, F., Mould-fungi as Ferments,
1045
Cold, Mechanical Injury to Trees, by,
1029.
——, Resistance of Aerial Bacteria to,
511,
Cole, A. C., 364, 563, 746, 924, 1109.
——,, Preparing Tail of Puppy, 894.
——, Studies in Microscopical Science,
355.
1136
Coleman, J. J., and J. G. M‘Kendrick,
Action of Ozonized Air upon Micro-
organisms and Albumen in Solution,
1053.
—— — ., Effects of Very Low Tem-
peratures on Living Organisms, 619.
Coleoptera, Scales of, 442.
Coleps hirtus, 1015.
Collecting-bottle, Hardy’s Improved,
145.
— Objects. See Contents, xxxviii.
Collins, C., 746.
, Portable Microscope, 701.
Collodion and Phenol in Microscopical
Technique, 559.
, Uses of, 908.
Colloids and Carbonate of Lime, On
Erosion on the Surface of Glass,
when exposed to the joint action of,
761.
Coloration of the Anterior Segments
of the Maldanide, 999.
Colour, Distribution of, in the Animal
Kingdom, 37.
——,, Sense of, and of Brightness in
Animals, 38.
Colour-Corrections, Table of, 1068.
Colour-varieties, Local, of Scypho-
meduse, 71.
Coloured Crayons for Marking Prepa-
rations, 1103.
Colouring Matter of Red Cabbage,
Application of, in Histology, 558.
— —, Orange-red, of Leaves,
Identity of, with Carotine, 670.
— Matters, Employment of, in the
Study of Living Infusoria, 555.
— —— of Flowers and Fruits,
264.
—— ——,, Susceptibility of the Dif
ferent Tissues to, 554.
Colours, Fries’ Nomenclature of, in
the Agaricini, 105.
— of Birds’ Kiggs, 618.
Comatula, Development of, 655.
—— mediterranea, Process resembling
Copulation in, 70.
Combustion, Respiratory, 95.
Comes, O., Gummosis of Figs, 1053.
, New Parasitic Oidium, 505.
Comma Bacillus, 566.
, Inoculation of Guinea-pigs
with, 509.
Composite, Anatomical Structure of
the Stem of, 480.
, Function of Latex in, 266.
Compressor, Cover-, A Simple, 564, 925,
Compressorium, Jung’s, 136,
—, Viguier’s, 137.
Compton, B., 140.
Condenser, Abbe’s, 123, 1065.
—, ——,, Modification of, 124, 125.
INDEX.
Condenser, Nelson’s Simple, 327.
—, Swift’s Cone and Achromatized
Immersion Paraboloid, 126.
—,, Wallich’s, 127.
——.,, Zentmayer’s Abbe, 710.
Conidia, Mycelial, of Polyporus sul-
fureus, 289.
Conidiobolus, a New Genus of Entomo-
phthorex, 106.
Conifers, Anatomy of Wood of, 825.
—, Comparative Anatomy of the
Tissue of the Medullary Rays and
Annual Zones of Growth in, 826. .
Conjugation of Rhabdonema arcuatum,
842.
Conn, H. W., Formation of Trocho-
sphere in Serpula, 240.
—, Marine Larve and their Rela-
tions to Adults, 788.
Connor, R., Pen-and-Ink Drawings of
Microscopie Objects, 1077.
Contraction, in Striated Muscles, Phe-
nomena.of, 428.
Convoluta Schultzii,
Organ of, 1004.
Cooke, M. C., 746.
— ,, Monograph of Polyporus, 289.
—, Some Remarkable Moulds, 848.
Cooper, W. A., 889.
Copepod, Parasitic, of the Clam, 239.
Copepoda, Morphology of Cyclops and
Relations of, 452.
— of the Adriatic, 454.
— of the North Pacific, 454.
Copulation, Process resembling, in
Comatula mediterranea, 78.
Copulatory Apparatus of the Male
Bombus, 50
Corethra plumicornis, Uses and Con-
struction of Gizzard of Larve of,
991.
Cornil (A.) and V. Babes’ Bacteria,
853.
Corry, T. A., Fertilization of Ascle-
pias Cornuti, 834.
Corsinia, Exudation of Water from the
Female Receptacle of, 1035.
Cortex, Formation of Secondary, 673.
Cortical Pressure, Influence of, on the
Bast-fibre, 89. :
Corvo, L. A., Bacillus of the Vine,
1053.
Corynelia, 105.
Costantin, J., Epidermis of the
Leaves of Aquatic Plants, 674.
——,, Influence of the Medium on the
Structure of Roots, 832.
——,, Structure of the Stem of Aquatic
Plants, 480.
—— and L. Morot, Fibrovascular
Bundles of Cycadex, 1023.
Cotton-spinner, 462.
New Sensory
INDEX.
Cotyledons and Endosperm, Compar-
ative Anatomy of, 481.
Coulter, J. M., Relation of Ovary and
Perianth in the Development of |
Dicotyledons, 1026.
Council’s Report for 1884, 372.
Councilman, W. T., Weigert’s Staining |
? >] Pp om }
Central Nervous |
Method for the
System, 159.
Counting of Microscopie Objects for
Botanical Purposes, 744.
Courroux, E. §., Preparing Diatoms
from the Stomachs of Mollusca and
Crustacea, 734.
Cover, Fixing Objects to, 1097.
Cover-glass Cleaner, James’, 354.
Cover-glasses, Handle for, 1115.
Coverdale, G., Action of Ammonia upon
Lepidopterous Pigments, 52.
ox, ©) F:, 530.
, Hard-rubber Cells, 925.
—, J. D., 336.
— , Actinic and Visual Foci, 331.
; in Photo-micro-
graphy with High Powers, 1070.
—, Structure of Diatoms, 168, 175.
—. of the Diatom Shell. Sili-
ceous Films too thin to show a
broken edge, 398.
Coxal Gland in the Phalangida, 58.
Crab, Spider-, Anatomy of, 60.
Crania, Anatomy of, 633.
—, Digestive and Reproductive
Organs of, 233.
Crayons, Coloured, for Marking Pre-
parations, 1103.
Creutzburg, N., Circulation in Ephe-
mera Larve, 637.
Crinoids, Stalked, of the ‘ Challenger’
Expedition, 653.
Crisp, F., 338.
—, On the Limits of Resolution in
the Microscope, 968.
Crombie, J. M., Algo-Lichen Hypothe-
sis, 103, 688.
Cross-breeding and Hybridization of
Plants, 1028.
Crozier, A. A., Node of Equisetum,
840.
Crucifere, Idioblasts containing Albu-
minoids in some, 672.
Crustacea. See Contents, xv.
Crustacean inhabiting the Tubes of
Vermilia, 238.
ga a New Genus of Tuberaceer,
05.
Cryptogamia. See Contents, xxvii.
Vascularia. See Contents, xxvii.
Cryptonemiacew, Fertilization of,
683,
Crystals in the Leaves of Leguminosa,
$23.
1187
Crystals of Calcium Uxalate, Me-
chanical Function of, 265.
Cuboni, G., Formation of Starch in the
Leaves of the Vine, 670.
| Cucurbitacez, Cystoliths of, 87.
| ——, Sieve-tube System of, 477.
, Spur of, 831.
Cugini, G., Anatomy of the Female
Inflorescence of Dioon edule, 832.
Cultivation Methods for the Investiga-
tion of Fungi, 534.
of Actinomyces, 534.
Culture Chamber, Simple, 163.
— Media for Bacteria, 564.
Culture-tube, Salmon’s, 145.
Cuma Rathkii, Development of the
Egg and Formation of the Primitive
Layers in, 238, 641.
Current Apparatus, Fabre-Domergue’s,
526.
Curties, T., 140.
, Improved Hardy’s Collecting-
bottle, 145.
—, Modification of the Abbe Con-
denser, 125.
Curvature of Ovules, 267.
Cuscuta glomerata, Inflorescence of,
1026.
Cutting Ribbons of Sections, 157, 158.
Cyanea, Identity of the two British
Species of, 464.
Cybulsky, J. B., Staining the Nervous
System of the Muzzle and Upper Lip
of the Ox, 555.
Cycadex, Embryo of, 270.
, Fibrovascular Bundles of, 1023.
Cyclas cornea, Development of, 625.
Cyclical Development of Siphonophora,
1010.
Cyclops, Development of, 641.
——, Morphology of, and Relations of
the Copepoda, 452.
Cyclostoma and Pomatias, 436.
Cymbulia, General Characters of, 627.
Cynthiidez, Microscopie Elements
serving for the Determination of,
230.
Cyperaceze and Graminee, Homology
of Floral Envelopes in, 676.
Cyphonautes, Metamorphosis of, 798.
Cystitis and Nephritis produced by
Micrococcus ures, 1047,
Cystoliths of Cucurbitacese, 87.
Cystopus Capparidis, 107,
Czapski, 8., 1079.
Dz.
D., E. T., 140, 336, 564.
, Glass Slips for Collecting, 364.
——, Preserving Hydrachna, 364,
D’ Agen, F., 530.
1188
Dahl, F., Anatomy of Spiders, 640.
, Organs of Sense in Spiders, 58.
—, Season Dimorphism in Spiders,
803.
, J., Foot-glands of Insects, 989.
Dallinger, W. H., The President’s
Address, 177.
Danilewsky, B., Heematozoa in Cold-
blooded Animals, 472.
Daphne, Embryo-sac of, 830.
Daphnia, Fungus-disease in, 1046.
Dareste, C., Physiological Purpose of
Turning the Incubating Hen’s Egg,
617.
Darkness, Leaves kept in, Absorption
of Oxygen and Evolution of Carbon
dioxide in, 678.
, Respiration of Leaves in, 488.
D’Arsonval, [llumination for Projection
Microscopes, 866.
—., Water Microscope, 1054.
Date, Peculiar Structures in Flesh of,
824.
Davidson, J., Influence of some Condi-
tions on the Metamorphosis of the
Blow-fly, 441.
Davies, T., 162.
Davis, G. E., 140.
——,J.J., A Simple Cover-compressor,
564, 925.
, J. R., Habits of the Limpet, 225.
Davison, J., Navicula cuspidata as a
Test-object, 140. ;
Day, E. G., 925.
——, Balsam of Tolu as a Medium for
Mounting, 352.
Debes, E., Cleaning and Preparing
Diatom Material—Mounting Dia-
toms, 898.
Deby, J., Test for the Hand-Lens, 720.
, Twin Microscope, 854.
—and A. B. Aubert, Styrax and
Balsam, 744.
Decalcification and Staining of Osseous
Tissue, 905.
Decapod Crustacea, New, 453.
——., Spermatogenesis in, 237.
Decapoda, Circulation of, 60.
Decomposition and Fermentation of
Milk, 1048. -
Deecke, T., New Protozoon, 663.
Deep Fauna of Swiss Lakes, 238.
Degeneration of Yeast, 693.
Dehérain, P. P., and L. Maquenne,
Absorption of Oxygen and Evolution
of Carbon dioxide in Leaves kept in
Darkness, 678.
Debydrating Apparatus, Haacke’s,
148.
Dekhuijzen, M. C., 162.
Delage, Y., Evolution of Sacculina,
454.
INDEX.
Delage, Y. Nervous System of Accelo-
mate Planarians and new Sensory
Organ of Convoluta Schultzii, 1004.
Delogne, 162.
Deniker, J.. Footus of Gibbon and its
Placenta, 783.
Dentalium, Anatomy of, 623, 984.
Departure, A New, 7495.
Descent, Theory of, 1027.
Desmidiez, Movement and Formation
of Mucilage by, 1040.
Desmids, On some New and Rare, 933.
— _, New Fresh-water, 497.
——,, Staining, 742.
Desmodium sessilifolium, Opening of
Flowers of, 1026.
Detmer, W., Formation and Ferment-
ing Action of Diastase, 98.
—, Formation of Hydrochloric Acid
in Plants, 274.
Detmers, H. J., 1109.
Dewitz, H., How Insects adhere to flat
vertical Surfaces, 801.
Diamonds and Cut Gems, Examining,
1108.
Diaphragms, &e., Blacking Brass, 1079.
a for Beck’s Vertical Illuminator,
922.
, Mirror-, 523.
Diastase, Formation and Fermenting
Action of, 98.
—, —— of, 276.
Diatom Material, Cleaning and Pre-
paring, 898.
——,, Mysterious Appearance of, 1041,
— Shell, Structure of. Siliceous
Films too thin to show a broken
edge, 406.
Valve, Structure of, 286, 498.
Diatom-synonymy, Lagerstedt’s, 287.
Diatomacez, Styrax for Mounting,
166.
Diatomaceous Deposit, New, at Santa
Monica, 173.
Deposits in Scotland, 287.
Diatomescope, Osborne’s, 128.
Diatoms and Bladderwort, 685.
, Deep-sea, 498.
——,, Filamentous Projections on, 571.
— _, Fossil, 498.
——,, Fossil Marine, 1042.
from Lago Trajano, 103.
— in Phosphorus, 354.
——, Internal Spore-formation in, 1041.
——, Mounting, 898.
—.,, Nature of the Striz of, 169, 173.
——, New, from the “ Saugschiefer ” of
Dubravica, 497.
of Belgium, Van Heurck’s Sy-
nopsis of, 686.
——, Prepared, in Fluid ready for
Mounting, 927.
INDEX.
Diatoms, Preparing, from the Stomachs
of Mollusca and Crustacea, 734.
, Sections of, from the Jutland
“ Cemenstein,” 843.
, Structure of, 168, 175, 286.
—. of Cell-wall of, 685.
, Zenger’s Mounting for, to view
them on both sides, 161.
Dichroiscope, Sorby’s, 121.
Dicotyledons, Relation of Ovary and
Perianth in the Development of, 1026.
, Sieve-tubes in Leaves of, 1020.
Dienelt, F., 364.
Dietzsch, O., 162.
Dietzell, B. E., Source of the Nitrogen
of the Leguminose, 680.
Dieulafait, Composition of the Ash of
Equisetacee and its Bearing on the
Formation of Coal, 681.
Difflugia cratera, 819.
Ditfraction Theory, Amphipleura pel-
lucida and the, 529.
Digestion, Mole of, in Sponges, 74.
—— of Proteids in Plants, 1030.
Digestive Apparatus of Spiders, 235.
Organs of Crania, 233.
Dimmock, G., Scales of Coleoptera, 442.
Dimorphism, Seasonal, in Spiders, 993.
Dinobryon, 258.
Dioon edule, Anatomy of the Female
Inflorescence of, 832.
Diphtheria, Micro-organisms as a cause
of, in Man, Pigeons, and Calves,
694. ;
Diplosomidz, The Synascidian, 796.
Dippel, L., 140, 336.
; Biniodide of Mercury and Potas-
sium as a Swelling Agent, 341.
—-, Diatoms in Phosphorus, 354.
——,, Electrical Apparatus, $72.
——,, Polarized Light in Vegetable
Histology, 357.
—, Testing the different Sectors of
Objectives, 324.
Diptera, Structure of Halteres of, 636.
Dissecting Insects, 166.
—— Purposes, Double Injections for,
905.
Distaplia, Structure of, 233.
Distribution, Wide, of some American
Sponges, 76.
Division ,and Structure of the Cell-
nucleus, 474.
—— —— of the Nucleus, 262.
—, Artificial, of Infusoria, 472, 658.
—, Behaviour of Nucleus after, 475.
—, Cell-, Chromatine in, 263,
-———, ——, in Melosira, 497.
——, ——, Influence of Gravity on,
426,
——, ——, Preparing Tissues to show,
893.
1139
Division, Direct Nuclear, in the Embry-
onic Investments of Scorpions, 448.
of the Cell-nucleus in Plants and
Animals, 666.
in Tradescantia, 475.
of the Nucleus, 86.
Doassansia, Development of, 502.
Doderlein, L., Japanese Echinoidea,
1009.
Dogfish, Formation of Egeg-shell in,
425.
Dogs, Domestic, Frequent occurrence
of Teenia Echinococcus in, 1002.
Dohrn, A., Primitive History of. the
Vertebrate Body, 780.
Doliclum, 231.
Dolley, C. 8., 564.
, Technology of Bacteria Inves-
tigation, 917.
Dornitories, Piieumonia-cocci in, as a
cause of Pneumonia, 300.
Dorocidaris, Anatomy of, 815.
papillata, Larval Form of, 1008.
Double-Drum Micro-cope, 703.
Douglas, J. C., Litharge and Glycerin
as a Cement, 743.
Dowdeswell, G. F., On a Septic Mi-
crobe from a high altitude. The
Niesen Bacillus, 769.
, Occurrence of Variations in the
Development of a Saccharomyces,
16
—, The Cholera “Comma” Bacil-
lus, 953.
Doyen, Cholera Bacillus, 509.
Draper, E. T., 746, 925, 1109.
Drawings, Multiplying, 527.
» Pen-and-Ink, of Microscopic
Objects, 1077.
Dripping Apparatus, Gannett’s, 900.
Druery, E. T., Apospory in Ferns,
99.
and F. O. Bower, Apospory in
Ferns—Singular Mode of Develop-
ment in Athyrium Filix-foemina,
491.
Dry Mounting, 1100.
—— of Opaque Objects, 560.
—— ——,, without Cover-
glass, 161.
—— Preparations, Modification
- Semper’s Method of making, 898.
Dry-rot, 505.
Duboseq’s (T. and A.) Projection Mi-
croscope, 861.
Dubravica, New Diatoms from the
“ Saugschiefer ” of, 497.
Duchartre, P., Bulbils of Begonia
socotrana, 676.
——, Influence of want of Moisture on
the _ S08 of the Chinese Yam,
1029.
of
1140
Duclaux, E., Effect of Sunlight on
Micrococcus, 1047.
, Influence of Sunlight on the
Vitality of Germs, 508.
——,, Origin of Microzymes and Vibrios
of Air, Water, and Soil, 295.
——,, Vitality of Germs of Microbes,
296.
Ducts, Generative and Urinary, in
some Chitons, 42.
Dudley, P. H., 889.
Duffield, G., 364.
Dufour, J., Influence of Gravitation on
the Movements of Stamens, 272.
Dunant, P. L., Effect of Prolonged
Repose and Filtration through Por-
celain on the Purity of Water, 561.
Duncan, P. M., “Tag ” of Ceelopleurus
Maillardi, 815.
and W. P. Sladen, Arbaciade,
652.
Duncker, H. C. J., Actinomyces in
Swine’s-flesh, 290.
Duplessis -Gouret, G., Fresh-water
Monotide, 813.
Durand, W. F., 889.
Durkee, R. P. H., Structure of the
Diatom Valve, 286.
Du Sablon, L., Dehiscence of Anthers,
91.
—, of the Sporangia in Vascular
Cryptogams, 276.
——, Development of the Sporangium
of Frullania, 840.
—,, Elaters of Hepatice, 682.
, structure and Dehiscence of
Anthers, 832.
Diising, K., Regulation of the Propor-
tion of the Sexes in Man, Animals,
and Plants, 214.
Duval, M., Formation of the Blasto-
derm in the Bird’s Egg, 615.
Dybowski, B., Crustaceaof Lake Baikal,
807.
Dyer, W. T. T., 484, 568.
, Apospory in Ferns, 99.
Dynamo-electric Machines, 889.
E.
Earthworm, Nephridia of a new Species
of, 999
Earthworms, Structure of the Body-
walls in, 243.
Eau de Javelle as a Medium for Clari-
fying and Dissolving Plasma, 893.
for Clearing, 1097.
Ebeling, M., Absorbing Organs of
Albuminous Seeds, 829.
Echinodermata. See Contents, xviii.
Echinoidea, Japanese, 1009.
INDEX.
Echinoidea, Structure and Functions
of the Spheridia of, 1009.
Kchinoids, Morphology of, 1008.
——,, Vascular System of, 814.
Kehinorhynchi, Preparing, 147.
Echinorhyncus claveeceps, Host of the
Larva of, 459.
Edible Dipterous Larve from Alkaline
Lakes, 53.
Edinger, L., Apparatus for Botanical
Lectures, 312,
—, Preparations of the Central
Nervous System for Projection, 146.
Egg, Bird’s, Formation of Blastoderm
in, 615.
, Development of, and Formation
of the Primitive Layers in Cuma
Rathkii, 238, 641.
—., Fowl’s, Electromotive Function
of, 34.
Ege-shell in Dogfish, Formation of
425.
Eggs, Birds’, Colours of, 618.
, Hatching of, "after Lesion of
the Shell, 784.
—, Incubating Hen’s, Physiological
purpose of Turning, 617.
— of Ascidians, 987.
of Cephalopoda, Preserving, and
preparing Blastoderms, 1083.
of Spider, Treatment of, 1083.
Ehlers, “ Rauschbrandpilz,” a parasitic
cattle-disease, 300.
Ehrenbaum, E., Preparing Thin Sec-
tions of Shells and Teeth, 348.
——, Structure and Formation of the
Shell of Lamellibranchs, 44.
Ehrlich, Susceptibility of the Different
Tissues to Colouring Matters, 554.
Elasticity in the Filaments of Helian-
thus, 268.
—— in the Fruit of Cactacee, 1027.
—— of Cell-walls under Tension, Be-
haviour of the Optical Axes of, 476.
Elaters of Hepatic, 682.
Electric Lamp, New, 339.
— Light, Homologous Sections and
Molecules, 337.
—— —— in Microscopy, 1080.
—— — , Stein’s Microscopes for use
with, 303.
Electrical Apparatus, Microscopical,
867.
— Illumination, Helot-Trouvé Appa-
ratus for, 864.
Electricity, Influence of, on the Growth
of Plants, 835.
—— under the Microscope, 1078.
Electromotive Function of the Fowl’s
ligg, 34.
Elfving, F., Ascent of Water in Plants,
274.
INDEX.
Ellis, A. J., 1079.
Elsner, F., 140.
Elytra of some Polynoina, 456.
Embryo, Human, Tail of, 781.
of Peripatus Edwardsii and P.
torquatus, Preparing, 734.
, Orientation of, and Formation of
the Cocoon of Periplaneta orientalis,
991.
Embryo-sac of Santalum and Daphne,
830.
Embryology of Vertebrata. See Con-
tents, viii. %
Embryonic Forms of Gadinia garnotii,
224.
— Membranes of Marsupials, 34.
Embryos and Ova of the Aphides,
Treatment of, 147.
of Amarecium proliferum, Pre-
paring, 731.
— of Limacina, Nervous System of,
228.
— of Physoclist Fishes, Transloca-
tion forwards of the Rudiments of
the Pelvic Fins in, 618.
——, Preparing, 729. ; at
Emery, C., Preparing Luciola italica,
733.
Emmerlich, R., Pneumonia-cocci in
Dormitories as a Cause of Pneu-
monia, 300.
Emmerling, A., Formation of Albumen
in Green Plants, 274.
Enal, 530.
Endoskeletal and Muscular Systems of
Limulus and Scorpio, 992.
Endosperm and Cotyledons, Compara-
tive Anatomy of, 481.
——, Development of, in Hordeum,
485.
Engelmann’s Electrical Apparatus, 874.
Enteric Glands in the Crustacea, 61.
Enterochlorophyll and Allied Pig-
ments, 621.
Enteropneusta, Affinities of, 461.
Entomogenous Fungus, New, 505.
Entomophthorez, Conidiobolus a new
Genus of, 106.
Entz, G., Infusoria of the Gulf of
Naples, 80.
——, Tintinnodea, 470.
Enzyma and Ferments, 1031.
Eosin and Ribesin, 342. :
Ephemera Larve, Circulation in, 637.
Epicrium, Development of, 618.
Epidermic Ce)ls of Tadpoles, 977.
Epidermis, Formation of Centrifugal
Thickenings in the Walls of Hairs
and in, 267.
— , Mechanical Function of, 91.
, Normal Human, Microphytes of,
849.
Ser. 2.—Von. V.
1141
Epidermis of Petals, 481.
—— of the Leaves of Aquatic Plants,
674.
Epipodium of Gastropoda, 223.
Epithelial Tissues, Demonstration of
Karyokinesis in, 730.
Epithelium, Cloacal, of Seyllium Cani-
cula, Preparing 731.
, Intercellular Spaces and Bridges
in, 221.
x —— of, and their signifi-
cance in Pulmonate Mollusea, 435.
, Wandering Cells in, 980.
Equisetaceze, Composition of the Ash
of, and its Bearings on the Form-
ation of Coal, 681.
Equisetum, Node of, 840.
, Stomata of, 99.
——, Transitional, 681.
Ericacew, Opening of Anthers in,
675.
Eriksson, J., New Fungus-parasite on
the Rose, 847.
Erlicki’s Hardening Solution, 341.
Ermengem, E. van, 140, 336.
, Cholera-bacillus, 113, 851.
——, Inoculation of Guinea-pigs with
Comma-Bacillus, 509.
Erosion of the Surface of Glass, when
exposed to the Joint Action of Car-
bonate of Lime and Colloids, 761.
Errera, L., 140.
ae Glycogen in the Basidiomycetes,
503. .
, Hydrocarbon Reserve-products of
Mushrooms, 1044.
, Law of Growth of the Fructifica-
tion of Phycomyces, 288.
Error, Sources of, in the Examination
of Fresh Tissues, 896.
Erythropsis agilis, 77, 255, 1016.
Eternod, A., 726.
——, Microtome with Triple Pincers,
900.
Etiology of Tuberculosis, 851.
Etti, 564.
Eucalyptus globulus, Heterophylly of,
1025.
Euglena, Preparing, 539.
Euphorbiacew, Anatomy of, 824.
European Sphagnacex, 281.
Eutima mira, Life-history of, 251.
Evaporative Surfaces of Plants and In-
fluence of Moisture in Soils on Plant
Growth, 486.
Evergreen Plants, Behaviour of Leaf-
trace-bundles of, as the stem in-
creases in thickness, 826.
Ewart, J. C., 564.
and G. Brook, Spawning of the
Cod, 786.
Ewell, M. D., 140.
4z
1142
Ewell, M. D., Measurement of Blood-
corpuscles, 1105.
and H. L. Tolman, Eye-piece
Micrometers, 704.
Examining Objects.
XXXViii.
Excretion of Healing Substances into
Wounds, 476.
Excretory Organs of Nemertines, 244.
of Worms, 243.
Exhibitions, Microscopical, 926.
Exner, §., 530.
Exogens, Growth of the Thickening-
ring in, 478.
, Relation of Annual Rings of, to
Age, 1023.
Eye and Optic Tract of Insects, 633.
—,, Microscopical Technique of, 895.
—, Morphology of, and Compound
Vision, in Insects, 234.
— of Gastropoda, 222.
Eye-piece Micrometers, 704.
Hye-pieces of Binoculars, Adjusting, to
eyes of unequal focal length, 1065.
—— ——,, Report on, 338.
—— ——,, Standard, 322.
Eyes, Compound, and Multiple Images,
356.
See Contents,
——, Keeping both, open in Observa-
tion, 881.
of Annelids, Preparing, 1110.
— of Chitonide, 224.
—— of Gasteropods, Preparing, 895.
—— of some Invertebrata, 39.
Eyferth, B., 564.
F.
F.R. M.S., Oblique Illuminations, 130.
BS Wis 140:
,Osborne’s Diatomescope. Modified
Wenham Disk Illuminator, 128.
Fabre-Domergue, P., 564, 746.
——, Current Apparatus, 526.
Famintzin, A., Development of the
Sclerenchymatous Fibres of the
Oleander, 478.
—, Siliceous Membrane with Pro-
perties of the Cell-wall, 263.
Fasoldt, C., 889.
Fat Absorption, Study of, in the Small
Intestine, 731.
Fats and Butter, Examination of, 356.
Fauna of Shallow Seas, Influence of
Wave-currents on, 38.
Feathers, Acari inhabiting the Quill of,
236.
—_,, Histology of, 35.
Febiger, C., 1109.
Fecundation, Artificial, of Mollusca,623.
—— in Cephalopoda, 983.
—— of Ovules in Angiosperms, 270.
INDEX.
Feeding Insects with Curved or
“Comma” Bacillus, Further Experi-
ments on, 941.
Fell, G. E., 336.
Fellows, H., Organs of Bojanus in
Anodonta, 795.
Female and Male Plants, Production
of, 677.
—— Receptacle of Corsinia, Hxudation
of Water from, 1035.
Ferment, Ammoniacal, 680.
——,, Lactic, on some unusual forms of,
205.
—, Penicillium, in Pharmaceutical
Extracts, 1046.
Fermentable Liquids, Sterilization of,
in the Cold, 562.
Fermentation and Decomposition of
Milk, 1048.
—— by Schizomycetes, Influence of
Oxygen on, 850.
— Odour and Poisonous Effects of,
produced by the Comma Bacillus,
298.
Fermenting Fungus, New, 292.
Ferments, 849.
, Alcoholic, Preservation of, in
Nature, 114.
and Enzyma, 1031.
——, Effect of High Pressures on the
Vitality of, and on Fermentation, 693.
——, Mould-fungi as, 1045.
, Peptonizing, in Secretions, 491.
Ferns and Phanerogams, Vegetative
Organs of, 93.
—, Apospory in, 99, 491.
—,, Bursting of Sporangium of, 1032..
—, Dorsiventral Development of
Organs, and Growth at the Growing
Point of, 276.
Ferran, J., Morphology of the Comma
Bacillus, 1051.
Fertilization in Campanula americana,
1028.
— of Asclepias Cornuti, 834.
— of Cryptonemiacez, 683.
— of Naias and Callitriche, 677.
— of the Wild Onion, 1028.
» Problem of, and of the Isotropy of
the Ovum, 421.
Fertilizers, Insects as, 990.
Feuilleaubois, Structure of Phallus
impudicus, 505.
Fever, Typhoid, Examining Blood in,
1104.
——, ——, Human, Microbe of, 299,
1052.
——, Yellow, Microbe of, 694.
Fewkes, J.W., Development of Agalma,
1009.
—,, Larval forms of Spirorbis borealis,
644.
INDEX.
Fibres of certain Australian Hircinide,
254.
, Sclerenchymatous, of the Ole-
ander, Development of, 478.
Fibrovascular Bundles, Cortical, of
Viciex, 266.
of Cycadez, 1023.
Field, A. G., Mounting
Deposits, 365.
Fielde, A. M., Tenacity of Life and
Regeneration of Excised Parts in
Lumbricus terrestris, 455.
Figs, Gummosis of, 1053.
Filaria sanguinis hominis, Metamor-
phosis of, in the Mosquito, 65.
Filter, Francotte’s Paraffin, 343.
Filtering Minute Quantities, 1103.
, Removal of Microbes by, 561.
Finder, 1103.
—, Francotte’s, 325.
Finkler and Prior, Cholera Bacillus,
1050.
Firket, C., 925.
Firmness of Tissues, 476.
Firtsch, G., Geotropic Sensitiveness of
the Apex of the Root, 96.
Fisch, C., Development of Ascomyces,
689.
——, —— of Doassansia, 502.
— , Flagellata and allied Organisms,
10
——s
Urinary
—, New Chytridiacesx, 846.
——, Systematic Independence and
Position of Saccharomyces, 294.
— Position of the Bacteria,
850.
Fischer, A., Sieve-tube System of
Cucurbitaces, 477.
—., Sieve-tubes in the Leaves of
Dicotyledons, 1020.
——,, Starch in Vessels, 671.
—, E., Development of the Gastero-
mycetes, 501.
—,, G., 140.
—, H., Comparative Anatomy of the
Tissue of the Medullary Rays and
Annual Zones of Growth in Conifers,
826.
, P. M., and J. Biehringer, Imbed-
ding and Examining Trematodes,
735.
Fishes, Osseous, Development of the
Rays of, 213.
—, , Primitive Streak in, 425.
; Parasites of Fresh-water, 647.
—, Pbhysoclist, Translocation for-
wards of the Rudiments of the
Pelvic Fins in Embryos of, 618.
, Phytophagous, as Disseminators
of Algw, 843.
—, Viviparous Osseous, Development
of, 978.
1148
Fissurella, Anatomy of, 985.
—- , Nervous System of, 624.
Fixing Objects to the Cover-glass, 1097.
FlagelJata and allied Organisms, 1016.
Pelagic Fauna of Lakes, 258.
Flagellate Infusorian parasitic on
Trout, 82.
Flahault, C., 746.
—, Aulosira, 692.
—, Lithoderma fontanum, a New
Fresh-water Phzeospore, 285.
Flask-animalcule, 818.
Flax and Sweet Almond, Germination
of, 271.
Fleischer, E., Protection of Leaves
from excessive Transpiration, 1025.
Fleischl, E. v., 1079.
Fleischmann, A., Movement of the
Foot in Lamellibranchs, 437.
Flemming, W., 364.
——,, Division of the Nucleus, 86.
——, Formation of Spindles in Mam-
malian Ova during the Degeneration
of the Graafian Follicle, 975.
——,, Staining Technique, 554.
Flesch, M., 140, 162.
, Application of the Colouring
Matter of Red Cabbage in Histology,
558.
Flies, Movement of, on Smooth Surfaces,
636.
Flight of Insects, 988.
—, Size of the Surfaces of Organs of,
221,
Fioral Envelopes, Homology of, in
Graminez and Cyperacez, 676.
Floridea, New Epiphytic, 842.
Floridez of the Mediterranean, 102.
Floscularia, Four new Species of, 608.
— _, New, 250.
Flowers, Colouring-matters of, 264,
— of Desmodium sessilifolium, Open-
ing of, 1026,
Fluorescence of Chlorophyll in Leaves,
88
Focal Depth with the Binocular, 726.
Foci, Actinic and Visual, 331.
—_—, —_—_ — , in Photo-micrography
with High Powers, 1070.
Foerste, A. F., Nectar-Glands of Apios
tuberosa, 269.
——,, Fertilization of the Wild Onion,
1028.
Foetal Appendages of Mammals, 423.
Fottinger, A., 1109.
——,, Histriobdella homari, 456,
Foetus of Gibbon and its Placenta, 783,
, Passage of Pathogenous Microbes
from the Mother to, 296, 1051.
Foex, G., and P. Viala, “ Pourridié”
of the Vine, 107.
42
1144
Fol, H., 141, 746.
——,, Cell-continuity, 426.
——, Chromatine in Cell-division, 263.
, Determination of the Number of
Germs in Air, 561.
, Injection-table, 1092.
, Microscopic Anatomy of Denta-
lium, 623.
——, New Method for the Transfer of
Sterilized Broths, and the Determi-
nation of the Number of Living
Germs in Water, 359.
, Parabolic Mirror for Correction of
too hard or too soft Paraffin, 344.
, Ribesin and Kosin, 342.
-—, Tail of Human Embryo, 781.
and P. L. Durrant, Effect of
Prolonged Repose and Filtration
through Porcelain on the Purity of
Water, 561.
Foliage, Autumnal, 272.
, Tints of, 97.
Folin, de, New Condition of Reticular
Rhizopods, 1017.
Structure of Reticular Rhizo-
pods, 471.
Food, Hssential, of Plants, 1029.
Food-Material, Circulation and Rota-
tion of Protoplasm as a Means of
Transport of, 665.
, Penetration of the Mechani-
cal Ring for the Transport of, 479.
Foot in Lamellibranchs, Movement of,
437.
Foot-glands of Insects, 989.
Foraminifera Slides, Balkwill’s, 1084.
Fore-gut of Arachnida, Structure of,
56.
Forel, A., Sensorial Organs of the
‘Antenns of Ants, 441.
—, FA, Deep Fauna of Swiss
Lakes, 238.
Forestry, Spiders in Relation to, 450.
Formative Force of Organisms, 780.
Forssell, K. B. J., Anatomy and De-
velopment of Lecanora granatina,
1043.
Foslie, M., Laminariacesee of Norway,
1039.
Fossil Marine Diatoms, 1042.
Foucault’s and Ahrens’ Polarizing
Prisms, Madan’s Modification of, 328.
Foul Brood, Bacillus alvei the cause
of, 581
Foulerton, J., 726.
Fourment, L., New Nematoid from
Merlangus, 646.
Fourot, Adamsia palliata, 816.
Fowke, F., First Discovery of Comma-
bacillus of Cholera, 383.
Fraipont, J., Nervous System of Archi-
annelides, 62.
INDEX.
Fraisse, Chromatine in Cell-division,
263.
France, Mosses of, 281.
Franchet, A., South American Isoetes,
279.
Francotte, P., 336, 364, 565.
——, Finder, 325. Zk
, Imbedding in Paraffin by Means
of a Vacuum, 149.
, Improvements in Microtomes and
Knives, 347.
——, Paraffin Filter, 343.
Frank, B., Formation of Gum in Wood, 88.
— and M. Woronin, Nutrition of
Trees by Means of Underground
Fungi, 844.
Frankel, B., Staining of Koch’s
lus, 557.
Frankland, P. F., Removal of Micro-
organisms from Water, 923.
Fraser, A. T., Autumnal Foliage, 272.
Frazer, P., 746.
Freia Ampulla, 818.
Freire, D., and Rebourgeon, {Microbe
of Yellow Fever. 694.
Freud, S., Method for Displaying the
Course of the Fibres in the Central
Nervous System, 159.
Frenzel, J., Alimentary Canal of Crus-
tacea, 994.
——, Enteric Glands in the Crustacea,
61
Bacil-
——, Marine Gregarinida, 471.
—, Mid-gut Gland (Liver) of the
Mollusca, 792.
——, Temperature Maxima for Marine
Animals, 791.
Fresh Tissues, Sources of Error in the
Examination of, 896.
Freudenreich, de, Purity of Air in
Alpine Regions. Resistance of Aerial
Bacteria to Cold, 511.
Frey, J., death of, 336.
Friedrich, K., 336, 1079.
Fries’ Nomenclature of Colours in the
Agaricini, 105.
Fritsch, G., Anatomy of Bilharzia
hematobia, 1003.
—, Monocular uo asoscola Vision,
332.
Frog, Apparatus for comparing sym-
metrical parts of the Webs of the
right and left Feet of, 879.
——, Ova of, Demonstrating Spindle-
shaped Bodies in the Yolk of, 895,
Frogs, Spindle-shaped Bodies in the
Yolk of Young Ova of, 213.
Frommann, C., Changes in the Cell-
walls of Epidermal Cells and in the
Hairs of Pelargonium zonale, 668.
, Structure, Vital Phenomena, and
Reactions of the Cell, 86.
INDEX.
Fructification of Phycomyces, Law of
Growth of, 288.
of Sigillaria, 493.
Fruit of Cactacex, Elasticity in, 1027.
of Ranunculacex, Anatomy of, 831.
Fruits, Bursting of ripe, 481.
, Colouring-matters of, 264.
Frullania, Development of the Spo-
rangium of, 840.
Fucacez, Chlorophyll of, 282.
, Chlorophyll-green of, 1038.
——., Protoplasmic Continuity in, 682.
Fiinfstiick, M., Development of the
Apothecia of Lichens, 499.
— ,, Formation of Thalli on the Apo-
thecia of Peltidea aphthosa, 843.
Fulgur perversus, Spawning of, 986.
Fungi. See Contents, xxix.
Fur Fibres, Construction of, 173.
G.
eee... L079:
Gadinia garnotii, Nervous System and
Embryonic Forms of, 224.
Gaffky, Artificial Attenuation of Bacil-
lus anthracis, 696.
Gage, S. H., 365, 925.
Galeodes, Presence of Coxal Gland in,
236.
Galloway, D. H., Spores of Lycopo-
dium, 839.
Galls, Cecidomyia, on Poa, 1026.
, Tannin and Lignin in, 1020,
Galvanotropism, 1032.
of Roots, 836.
* Gamma Sigma,” 336.
Gannett’s(W. W.) Dripping Apparatus,
900.
Garbini, A., 141.
Garrison, F. L., 1109.
Gartner, G., 727.
Gas Chambers, Pringsheim’s, 720.
Gases, Deviation of Roots from their
Norma] Direction through the in-
fluence of, 96.
Gasteromycetes, Development of, 501.
Gastropoda, Epipodium of, 223,
—, Eye of, 222.
——, ——,, Preparing, 895.
Gautier, A., Sterilization of Ferment-
able Liquids in the Cold, 562.
Geissler Tube, Microscopic, 367.
Gelsenium sempervirens, Internal Cam-
bium Ring in, 478.
Geminella interrupta, 285.
Gems, Cut, and Diamonds, Examining,
1108.
Gendre, A. v., Electromotive Functions
of the Fowl’s Egg, 34.
Generative Organs of Pulmonata, De-
velopment of, 623.
1145
Genoa, Protozoa of the Gulf of, 256.
Geology, the Microscope in, 921.
George, C. F., 141.
Geotropic and Heliotropic Torsion, 95.
Phenomena, Secondary, 273.
Sensitiveness of the Apex of Root,
6.
Geotropism, Influence of Light on, 491.
Gerlach, L., Hatching of Birds’ Eggs
after Lesion of the Shell, 784.
, Imbedding Small Objects, 541.
Germinal Vesicle, Staining the Nucleus
of, in Arthropoda, 905.
Germination and Genetic Cycle of An-
chinia, 630.
and Growth of Plants, Effect of
Depth of Sowing on, 93.
and Spore-coats of Hepatics, 101.
——.,, Behaviour of Tannin in, 272.
of Flax and Sweet Almond, 271.
of Seeds, Influence of Light on, 93.
—— of Spores of Merulius lacrymans,
845.
Germs in Air, Determination of the
Number of, 561.
—, Influence of Sunlight on the
Vitality of, 508.
—, Living, Determination of the
Number of, in Water, 359.
Giacomini, C., 162.
, Microscope with Large Stage,
15
——, Modified Hardening Process for
the Central Nervous System, 340.
Gibbes, H., 1109.
Gibbon, Foetus of, and its Placenta, 783.
Gierke, H., 565, 925, 1109.
, Staining for Microscopical Pur-
poses, 554, 900.
Gilbert, J. H., and W. J. Russell,
Conditions of the Development and
of the Activity of Chlorophyll, 1020.
Giles, G. M., 162.
, Live-cell, 135.
Gill, T., Oviparous Reproduction in the
Monotremes, 33.
Gill in Neptunea, 226.
Gill-book of Limulus, New Hypothesis
as to the Relationship of the Lung-
book of Scorpio to, 639.
Gillo, R., Mounting Insects without
Pressure, 732.
Giltay, E., 141.
—, Peculiar Structure of Protoplasm
in Paratracheal Parenchyma 1020.
—, Remarks on Prof. Abbe’s “* Note
on the proper Definition of the
Amplifying Power of a Lens or
Lens-system,” 960.
Girard, A., Nutritive Properties of the
Various Portions of the Grain of
Wheat, 671.
1146
Girod, P., Integument of Cephalopods,
40.
Gizzard of Larve of Corethra plumi-
cornis, Uses and Construction of, 991.
Gland, Coxal, in the Phalangida, 58.
—, , Presence of, in Galeodes,236.
—, Green, of Astacus fluviatilis,
Extraction of Uric Acid Crystals
from, 805.
, Mid-gut (Liver) of the Mollusca,
92.
7
Glands, Byssogenous,
branchs, 227.
, Calcareous, of Plumbaginex, 92.
—, Coxal, of Mygale, 639.
——, Enteric, in the Crustacea, 61.
—,Honey, Distribution of, in
Pitchered Insectivorous Plants, 269.
—,, Nectar, of Apios tuberosa, 269.
—, Spinning, of Saw-flies, 442,
—,, Staining Salivary, 1095.
, Unicellular, in the Cloaca of
Rays, 221.
, Vascular Development of, 787.
Glass, Erosion of the Surface of, when
exposed to the Joint Action of Carbo-
nate of Lime and Colloids, 381, 761.
—,, Melted, and Water Lenses, 890.
—— Slips for Collecting, 364.
— —,, Standard Thickness of, 329.
Glowworm, Luminosity of, 50.
Glycerin and Balsam Mounts, 353.
— and Litharge as a Cement, 743.
Glycogen, Comparative Histo-chemical
Observations on, 981.
— in the Basidiomycetes, 503.
Bre ae “ Vesicular Cells ” of Molluses,
Gobi, C., Amceboidesx, 506.
Godfrin, J., Comparative Anatomy of
the Cotyledons and Endosperm, 481.
Godlewski, E., Movement of Water in
Plants, 490.
Goebel, K., Tetramyxa parasitica, 292.
CSne, R., “ Cancer” of Apple-trees,
06
Gotte, A., Development of Spongilla,
254, 81 7.
Golei, C., Preserving Sections of the
Nervous System treated with Bichro-
mete of Potash and Nitrate of Silver,
731.
Gongrosira, 103.
Goniometer and Analysing Prism,
Bocker’s Holder for, 705.
Goodale, G. L., 1110.
Goodwin, W., 746.
Gordius verrucosus, 1002.
Gosse, P. H., 163.
Gottschau, M., Advantages and Dis-
advantages of Different Forms of
Microtome, 541.
in Lamelli-
INDEX.
Govi, Discovery of Pseudoscopy, 722.
Gowen’s (F. H.) Microtome, 899.
Graafian Follicle, Formation of Spindles
in Mammalian Ova during the De-
generation of, 975.
Graber, Y., Preparing Eyes of Annelids,
1110.
= Sense of Colour and of Brightness
in Animals, 38.
Gut L. v., ‘ Challenger’ Myzostomida,
See Species of Myzostoma, 814.
Gram, C., 163.
Gramineze and Cyperacee, Homology
of Floral Envelopes in, 676.
Grant, F., 565, 747, 889.
Gravis, A., Cutting Ribbons of Sec-
tions, 157.
—., Vegetative Organs of Urtica
dioica, 833.
Gravitation, Influence of, on the Move-
ments of Stamens, 272.
Gravity, Influence of, on Cell-division,
426.
Gray, A., Movements of Androecium
in Sunflowers, 268.
Gray, S., 889.
, Water Microscopes, 1079.
——, W. J., Balsam of Tolu for Mount-
ing, 160.
Greely Arctic Expedition, 1115.
Green Plants, Formation of Albumen
in, 274.
Gregarine, New, 471.
Gregarines, Development of Monocystid,
665.
Gregarinide, Marine, 471.
Gregory, J. W., 747.
Grenacher, H., Retina of Cephalopoda,
41.
Griesbach, H., Inception of Water
among Mollusca, 794.
Griffin, F. W., 141.
Griffith, E. H., 141, 336, 365, 727.
——, A beautiful Slide, 163.
Taras Mechanical Finger Objective,
aa Microscopist’s Working Cabinet,
65
Griffiths, A. B., Extraction of Uric Acid
Crystals from the Green Gland of
Astacus fluviatilis, 805.
——, Pancreatic Function of the
Cephalopod Liver, 622.
—, Physiology of the Alimentary
Canal of Blatta periplaneta, 991.
— and H. Fellows, Organs of
Bojanus in Anodonta, 795.
Grosglik, S., Influence of Light on the
Development of the Assimilating
Tissue of Leaves, 266. ;
Grove, W. B., Pilobolidew, 292.
INDEX.
Growing Point of Dorsiventral Ferns,
Development of Organs and Growth
at, 276.
Slide, 335.
— the Spores of Botrychium terna-
tum, 1109.
Growth and Germination of Plants,
Effect of Depth of Sowing on, 93.
, Annual Zones of, and Medullary
Rays in Conifers, Comparative Ana-
tomy of Tissue of, 826.
, Apical, of Phanerogams, 487.
—, , of Root of Todea, 839.
of Plants, Influence of Electricity
on, 830.
, Influence of Water on, 93.
— of the Fructification of Phyco-
myces, Law of, 288.
of Vegetable Organs, Laws of:
Roots, 272.
—,, Plant-, Influence of Moisture in
Soils on, 486.
Gruber, A., Artificial Division of Infu-
soria, 472, 658.
, Multinucleated Protozoa, 467.
—, Protozoa of Gulf of Genoa, 256.
——,, Studies in Amcebee, 260.
Grunow, J., Abbe Condenser, 1065.
Gryllotalpa, Development of, 798.
Guébhardt, A., 141.
Guignard, L., Division of the Cell-
nucleus in Plants and Animals, 666.
, Structure and Division of the
Cell-nucleus, 262, 474.
Guignet, Chlorophyll and its Combina-
tions, 822.
Guillebeau, A., Fungus-disease in
Daphnia, 1046.
Guinea-pigs, Inoculation of, with Comma
Bacillus, 509.
, Vesiculze seminales of, 35.
Gum, Formation of, in Wood, 88, 89.
Giimbel, v., Shells of Molluscs, 228.
Gum-canals of the Sterculiace, 827,
Gummosis of Figs, 1053,
Gundlach, E., 141, 531, 727.
—, “An Improvement in Objec-
tives,” 705, 863.
Gunning, J.W., Examination of Potable
Waters, 923.
Gymnosperms, Pollen of, 484.
EH
Haacke, W., 747, 926.
—, Dehydrating Apparatus, 148.
— _, Morphology of Echinoids, 1008.
—, Oviparous Reproduction in the
Monotremes, 33.
, Pseudorhiza Haeckelii, 71.
Haberlandt, G., Conduction of Water
in the Stem of Mosses, 681.
1147
Haberlandt. G., Physiological Anatomy
of Plants, 677.
Hickel, E., Origin and Development of
Animal Tissues, 426,
Haddon, A. C., Generative and
Urinary Ducts in some Chitons, 42.
Hematoxylin, New Application of,
158.
Staining Fluid, Method of Pre-
paring, 741.
, Staining with, 1095,
Heematozoa in Cold-blooded Animals,
472.
Hailes, H. F., 365.
Hairs, Formation of Centrifugal Thick-
enings in the Walls of, 267.
—, Histology of, 35.
——, Microscopically examined and
Medico-legally considered, 429.
of Pelargonium zonale, Changes
in, and in the Cell-walls of
Epidermal Cells, 668.
Halia priamus Risso, Anatomy and
Systematic Position of, 624.
Halicryptus, Skin and Nervous System
of, 645.
Haliotis, Natural History of, 43.
Halisarca lobularis, Development of,
73.
Haller, B., Renal Organ of Prosobran-
chiata, 793.
; , G., Descriptions of New Acarina,
49, ;
Hallez, P., Development of Nematodes,
809.
—, Orientation of the Embryo
and Formation of the Cocoon of
Periplaneta orientalis, 991.
Halliburton, W. D., Chemical Compo-
sition of Zoocytium versatile, 818.
—., Chitin as a Constituent of the
Cartilages of Limulus and Sepia,
222,
Hallier, E., Apparatus for Botanical
Lectures, 312.
Halteres of Diptera, Structure of, 636,
Hamann, O., Histology of Asterida,
652.
, New Carmine Solution, 740,
Hamlin’s (F'. M.) Ideal Slide, 743.
Hanaman, C. E.,White Zine for Mount-
ing, 163.
Hand-Lens, Test for, 720.
Handle for Cover-glasses, 1115.
Hanks, H. G., New Diatomaceous
Deposit at Santa Monica, 173,
Hansen, A., Chlorophyll, 87.
—, Chlorophyll of Fucacem, 282.
——, Chlorophyll-green of Fucacem,
1038.
——, Colouring-matters of Flowers and
Fruits, 264.
1148
Hansen, A., Ferments and Enzyma,
1031.
——, Peptonizing Ferments in Secre-
tions, 491.
——, Supply of Air to the Roots and
Root-pressure, 490. .
——., Transpiration-currents, 1032.
—, E.C., Counting of Microscopic
Objects for Botanical purposes, 744.
——, Ferments, 849.
——, New Fermenting Fungus, 292.
-, G. A., Sponges of the Norwegian
North Sea Expedition, 658.
Hansgirg, A., Algze of Bohemia, 684.
, Classification of the Lower Alga,
495.
——, Distribution of Chromatophores
and Nuclei in the Schizophycez,
691.
, Polymorphism of Algz, 1037.
Hard Organized Substances, Rapid
Method of making Sections of, 553.
Hardening Process, Modified, for the
Central Nervous System, 340.
Solution, Erlicki’s, 341.
Hard-rubber Cells, 925.
Hardy, J. D., 365, 727.
, Direct Vision Camera, 336.
—, Improved Collecting-bottle, 145.
Hare, A. W., 747.
Harker, A., Coloration of the Anterior
Segments of the Maldanide, 999.
Harmer, 8. F., Method for the Silver
Staining of Marine Objects, 160.
——, Structure and Development of
Loxosoma, 631.
Harris, V. D., Method of Preparing
Permanent Specimens of Stained
Human Blood, 537.
Harrison, W. J., 565.
Hart, C. P., 1110.
——, Microtome-Microscope, 861.
Hartig, R., Dry-rot, 505.
—, Germination of the Spores of
Merulius lacrymans, 845.
Harting’s Electrical Apparatus, 871.
Hartwich, C., Tannin and Lignin in
Galls, 1020.
Hartlaub, C., Origin of Sexual Cells in
Obelia, 250.
Hartog, M. M., Morphology of Cyclops
and Relations of the Copepoda, 452.
——,, Nature of Lichens, 500.
Hastings, C. 8., 889.
Haswell, W. A., 163, 1110.
, Anatomy of the Serpulea, with
Characteristics of Australian Species,
241.
——, Australian Pycnogonida, 994.
—, Crustacea, 998
—., Crustacean Inhabiting the Tubes
of Vermilia, 238.
INDEX.
Haswell, W. A., Imbedding in Parafiin,
1096.
—, Parasite of the Rock Oyster,
1000.
——, Segmental Organs of Serpula,
458.
——,, Staining with Hematoxylin, 1095.
——, Symbiosis of Worms and Sea
Anemones, 982.
Hatfield’s (J. J. B.) Rotary Section-
cutter, 735.
Hatschek, B., Development of the Head
of Polygordius, 808.
Hauser, G., Development and Patho-
genous Properties of a Bacterium,
852.
——, Pleomorphy of Pathogenic Bac-
teria, 1049.
Haushofer, K., 365, 926.
—, Filtering Minute Quantities,
1103.
——, Microscopical Reactions, 1106.
Haustoria of Parasitic Phanerogams,
268.
Hawkins’ (R.) Observatory Trough, 719.
Hay, O. P., 565.
—, Double Injections for Dissect-
ing Purposes, 905.
, — — for Histological Pur-
poses, 906.
——, Modification of Semper’s Method
of making Dry Preparations, 898.
Hays, J. E., Finish for Slides, 744.
Head and Mouth of the Larva of In-
sects, 441.
Healing Substances, Excretion of, into
Wounds, 476.
Heart, Development of, in Vertebrates
and Invertebrates, 212.
Heat and Light, Influence of, on Plant
Development, 485.
Heckel, E., Formation of Secondary
Cortex, 673.
——, Mycological Monstrosities, 847.
a end Chareyre, Anatomy of
Pitcher-plants, 1024.
Hegelmaier, F., Wolftia microscopica,
834.
Heidenhain, R., New Application of
Hematoxylin, 158.
Heinricher, E., Idioblasts containing
Albuminoids in some Crucifere, 672.
—, Reduced Organ in Campanula,
679.
Helianthus, Elasticity in Filaments
of, 268.
Helicinz, Uropneustic Apparatus of,
225.
Helicobasidium, a new Genus of Hy-
menomycetes, 1045.
Heliotropic and Geotropic Torsion,
95.
INDEX.
Heller, Sources of Error in the Ex-
amination of Fresh Tissues, 896.
Hellriegel, H., Evaporative Surfaces
of Plants and Influence of Moisture
in Soils on Plant Growth, 486.
—, Influence of Light and Heat
on Plant Development, 485.
Water on Growth
of Plants, 93.
Helmholtz, H. L. F., 1079.
Heélot-Trouvé Apparatus for Electrical
Tlumination, 864.
Henking, H., 163, 1110.
Henneguy, L. F., Flagellate Infusorian
parasitic on Trout, 82.
, New Ciliated Infusorian, 79.
, Primitive, Streak in Osseous
Fishes, 425.
Hennum, J. O., Forms of Cells, 820.
Hénocque, 889.
, Lilumination for Projection Micro-
scopes, 866.
Henshall, W., 365.
Hepatice, Elaters of, 682,
, Spore-coats and Germination of,
101.
Hepworth, T. C., 141.
Herail, J., Structure of Stem of Strych-
nos, 828.
Herdman, W. A., Evolution of the
Blood-vessels of the Test in Tuni-
cata, 230.
, Phylogenetic Classification of
Animals, 221.
, Structure of Sarcodictyon, 253.
Heredity, Significance of Cell-nuclei
in the Processes of, 975.
Hericourt, J., Curved Bacilli in Air
and Water, 697.
Hermann, L., Electromotive Function
of the Fowl’s Egg, 34.
Hermaphroditism of the Male of Trom-
bidium, 58.
Hertwig, O., Demonstrating Spindle-
shaped Bodies in the Yolk of Frog’s
Ova, 895.
—., Influence of Gravity on Cell-
division, 426.
—, Problem of Fertilization and
of the Isotropy of the Ovum, 421.
—, Spindle-shaped Bodies in Yolk
of Young Ova of Frogs, 213.
—,, R., Erythropsis agilis, a New
Protozoon, 77, 255.
Hervey, A. B., 727.
Hesse, R., Cryptica, a New Genus of
Tuberaces, 105.
—, Hysterangium rubricatum, a New
Hymenogaster, 505.
, New or Rare Crustacea, 453.
Heterophylly of Eucalyptus globulus,
1025,
1149
Heteropods, Histology of, 42.
Heurck, H. van, 141, 336, 531, 747,
890, 1080.
, Amphipleura pellucida resolved
into “ Beads.”—Nature of the Striz
of Diatoms, 169, 173.
——,, Beads of Amphipleura, 380.
, Helot-Trouvé Apparatus for Elec-
trical Dlumination, 864.
» Oblique [luminators, 129.
——,, Small Camera, 529,
——, Structure of the Diatom-valve,
498.
, Synopsis of the Diatoms of Bel-
gium, 686.
Hibernation of Zygnemacex, 284.
Hick, T., Methods for observing Pro-
toplasmice Continuity, 540.
, Protoplasmie Continuity in
Fucacex, 682.
Hickson, 8. J., Compound Vision and
Morphology of the Eye in Insects,
234.
——, Eye and Optic Tract of Insects,
633
» Method of Preparing Hema-
toxylin Staining Fluid, 741.
Hieronymus, G., Stephanosphera plu-
vialis, 495.
Hildebrand, F., Protective Contri-
vances in the Bulbs of Oxalis, 92.
Hilgendorf, F., 747.
Hilger, C., Eye of Gastropoda, 222.
——., Preparing Eyes of Gasteropods,
895.
Hiller, G. H., Epidermis of Petals, 481.
Hillhouse, W., Intercellular Relations
of Protoplasts, 84.
Hincks, T., New Polyzoa, 439.
Hinton, E., 747.
Hippisley, J., A Pocket Field Micro-
scope, 890.
——, Water and Melted Glass Lenses,
890
Hircinidsw, Fibres of certain Austra-
lian, 254.
Hirst, G. D., 141.
Hirudinea, Organization of, 807.
Histology of Vertebrata. See Contents,
viii.
Histriobdella homari, 456.
Hitchcock, R., 142, 163, 337, 338, 365,
531, 727, 747, 890, 926, 1080.
——,, Microscopical Exhibitions, 926,
Societies, 332.
——, Mounting in Phosphorus, 353.
——, Multiplying Drawings, 527.
——,, Optical Arrangements for Photo-
Micrography, and Remarks on Mag-
nification, 1070.
——, Schroder’s Camera Lucida, 140,
—— Simple Culture-chamber, 163,
>
1150
Eee R., White Zine Cement, 163,
Hock. °p. P.C., Anatomy of Cirripedia,
Lee:
‘Challenger’ Cirripedia, 61.
— ” Development of the Oyster, 226.
Hoffman, H., Production of Male and
Female Plants, 677.
Hogg, J., 1080.
~ Indestructible Infusorial Life, 39.
Hohnel, F. y., Influence of Cortical
Pressure on the Bast-fibre, 89.
——, Rapid Method of making Sections
of hard Organized Substances, 953.
, Striated Woody Tissue, 828.
Holdeficiss, Influence of Electricity on
the Growth of Plants, 835.
Holl, M., Tolu instead of Chloroform
for Imbedding in Paraffin, 541.
Holmes, EH. A., 727.
—, O. W., 531.
Holothurians, Variations in, 1007.
Holzner, G., Contribution to the His-
tory of Staining, 553.
Homing Faculty of Hymenoptera, 990.
Homologous Sections, Electric Light,
and M olecules, 337.
Honey-Glands, Distribution of, in
Pitchered Insectivorous Plants, 269.
Hordeum, Development of Endosperm
in, 485.
Horner, J., 747, 1110.
Horst, R., Development of the Vivipar-
ous Edible Oyster, 436.
Problematical Organ in Chlore-
mide, 457.
Hour of the Day, Recognition of, by
Marine Animals, 431.
Howes, G. B., Atlas of Practical Ele-
mentary Biology, 787.
Hoyle, W. E., Loligopsis and Allied
Genera, 984.
——, New Cephalopoda, 984.
. —_—, New ‘ Challenger’ Cephalopoda,
435.
, Preserving Eggs of Cephalopoda
and Preparing Blastoderms, 1083.
Hiibrecht, A. W., Development of Ne-
mertines, 1004.
——., Excretory Organs of Nemertines,
244,
Hudson, C. T., New Floscularia, 250.
—, On Four New Species ‘of the
Genus Floscularia, and Five other
New Species of Rotifera, 608.
Hunt, A. R., Influence of Wave-cur-
rents on Fauna of Shallow Seas, 38.
— , G., 337.
-——, Right-angled Prism instead of a
Pla ane Mirror, 709.
Hunter, J. J., 727.
Hiippe, F., 365.
INDEX.
Hiippe, F., Decomposition and Fermen-
tation of Milk, 1048.
Hussak, E., 365.
Hy, L’Abbé, Archegonium and Sporo-
gonium of Muscinex, 279.
Hyatt, J. D., Compound Hyes and
Multiple Images, 356.
, Hydrogen Peroxide as a Bleach-
ing Agent, 340.
Hybridization and Cross-breeding of
Plants, 1028.
Hybrids, Fertility of, 271.
Hyde, H. C., The Electric Light in
Microscopy, 1080.
Hydrachne, Preserving, 364.
Hydrocarbon Reserve-products of
Mushrooms, 1044.
Hydrochloric Acid, Formation of, in
Plants, 274.
Hydrocyanie Acid, Production of, by
Plants, 97.
Hydrogen Peroxide as a Bleaching
Agent, 340.
Hydroid Zoophytes, Australian, 656.
— of the ‘ Willem Barents’
Expedition, 1881, 73.
Hydroids, Development of Male Ger-
minal Cells in, 462.
Hydromeduse, Australian, 252, 1011.
Hydrophobia, Bacilli of, 573.
Hymenogaster, Hysterangium rubri-
catum, A New, 505.
Hymenomycetes, Helicobasidium, a
New Genus of, 1045.
Hymenoptera, Cameron’s British Phy-
tophagous, 440.
—, Homing Faculty of, 990.
See oes of Mouth-organs of,
——,, Wings of, 234.
Hypertrophy of the Bud-cones of the
Carob, 675.
Hypoblast, Origin of, in Pelagic Tele-
ostean Ova, 214.
Hysterangium rubricatum,
Hymenogaster, 505.
a New
I.
Thiza, L. é, 565.
Ice, Organisms in, 40.
Idioblasts containing Albuminoids in
some Cruciferz, 672.
Idotea, New Species of, 454.
Ihering, 18h, Wey Uropneustic Apparatus
of Helicine, 225,
Thl, A., 747,
—, Sensitive Tests for Wood-fibre
and Cellulose, 897.
Iuminating Apparatus, Tépler’s, 710.
— Beam, “Centering, O24,
Illumination, 713.
INDEX.
Illumination, Electrical, Hélot-Trouvé
Apparatus for, 864.
for Projection Microscopes, 866.
of Microscopes and Balances, 328.
Illuminator, Beck’s Vertical, Dia-
phragms for, 522.
— , Modified Wenham Disc, 128.
, Stephenson’s Cata-dioptric Im-
mersion, 207, 523.
—, Ward’s Iris, 326.
——, West’s Adjustable Dark-ground,
523.
Illuminators Oblique, 129, 130.
Images in the Binocular Microscope,
1073.
Imbedding
todes, 735.
——, Bayberry Tallow for, 735.
— in Parafiin, 1086, 1096.
—— — by Means of a Vacuum, 149.
— , Tolu instead of Chloroform
for, 541.
, Rapid, 150.
Small Objects, 541.
Imhof, O. E., Deep-water Turbellarians
of Lakes, 1004.
—, Difflugia cratera, 819.
— , Flagellata (Dinobryon) as Mem-
bers of the Pelagic Fauna of Lakes,
258.
—, Pelagic and Fresh-water Rota-
toria, 814.
—, Sense-organs of Calanide, 997.
Immortality of Unicellular Organisms,
466.
Impressions of Plants, Tracks of Insects
resembling, 635.
Indian Corn, Styles of, for Examining
Movement of Protoplasm, 1106.
Inflorescence, Female, of Dion edule,
Anatomy of, 832.
of Cuscuta glomerata, 1026.
Infusoria, Artificial Division of, 472,658.
Pm: Fixing, Staining, and Preserving,
8.
—, Living, Employment of Colour-
ing Matters in the Study of, 555.
—, New, 470.
—., Fresh-water, 80, 257, 659.
Parasitic, 81.
—— of the Gulf of Naples, 80.
Infusorial Life, Indestructible, 39.
Parasites of the Tasmanian White
Ant, 662.
Infusorian, Flagellate, Parasitic on
Trout, 82.
—, New Ciliated, 79.
— Parasite, New, 81.
, Supposed New, 1015.
Injecting the Arteries and Veins in
Small Animals, Simple Method of,
1093,
and Examining Trema-
1151
Injection-table, Fol’s, 1092.
Injections, Double, for Dissecting
Purposes, 905.
; , for Histological Purposes,
906.
Inostranzeff’s Double Microscope, 1058.
Insecta. See Contents, xiii.
Insectivorous Plants, Pitchered, Distri-
bution of Honey-glands in, 269.
Insects. See Insecta.
Instruments, Accessories, &c. See Con-
tents, XXXiii.
Integument of Cephalopoda, 40.
Intercellular Spaces and Bridges in
Epithelium, 221.
of Epithelium, and their
Significance in Pulmonate Mollusca,
435.
——,, Protoplasm in, 820.
Inventions Exhibition, International,
890.
——,, Microscopes at, 1076.
Invertebrata. See Contents, x.
‘© Invicta,” 142, 337.
Ishikawa, C., Development of Atye-
phira compressa, 996.
Isoetes, South American, 279.
Isopoda of the ‘ Willem Barents’ Ex-
pedition, 450.
Israel, O., Cultivation of Actinomyces,
534
Italian Microscope, Old, 518.
J.
Jackson, E. E., 747.
Jacobs’ (F. O.) Freezing Microtome,
899,
Jadanza, N., 727, 1080.
James, F, L., 164, 337, 365, 890, 926,
1110.
—, Cement, 1110.
Cover-glass Cleaner, 354.
—, Examining Diamonds and Cut
Gems, 1108.
——., Leakage of Cells, 1102.
—, Preparing Slides with Shellac,164,
—, White Zine Cement, 365, 1101.
Jamieson, T,, Essential Food of Plants,
1209.
Jannettaz, E., 142.
Janney’s (R.) Simple Solar (or Projec-
tion) Microscope, 309.
Janse, J. M., Movement of Water in
Plants, 836.
Japanese Kchinoidea, 1009.
Jaubert, L., 1080.
Jaw of Mandibulate Insects, Appen-
dages of, 50,
Jendrissik and Mezey’s Electrical
Apparatus, 868,
Jenkins, A. l., 565, 747.
1152
Jickeli, C. F., Process resembling Copu-
lation in Comatula mediterranea,
70.
Johannsen, W., Development of the
Endosperm in Hordeum, 485.
Johne, Cholera Bacillus, 509, 747.
Johow, F., Adaptation of Leaves to
their Environment, 91.
Joliet, L., Development of Spheeru-
laria bombi, 646.
Joly’s (J.) Meldometer, 1068.
, Microscopical Examination of
Volcanic Ash from Krakatoa, 923.
Jonsson, B., Fertilization of Naias
and Callitriche, 677.
Jorissen, A., Germination of Flax and
Sweet Almond, 271.
——,, Production of Hydrocyanic Acid
by Plants, 97.
—., Reducing Properties of Seeds and
Formation of Diastase, 276.
Joseph, R. E., 142.
Joubin, Anatomy of Crania, 633.
, Digestive and Reproductive
Organs of Crania, 233.
Jourdain, S., Nervous System of
Embryos of Limacina and the Rela-
tions of the Otocyst, 228.
, The Synascidian Diplosomide,
796.
Jourdan, E., Elytra of some Polynoina,
456.
Journal of Mycology, 293.
of New York Microscopical
Society, 332.
of R. Microscopical Society, 337,
366.
Julien, A. A., 926.
Julin, C., Foetal Appendages of Mam-
mals, 423.
——, Postembryonal Development of
Phallusia seabroides, 795.
Juncus bufonius, Fungus of Root-
swellings of, 107.
Jung’s (H.) Compressorium, 136.
, R., Strop for Knives, 157.
Juranyi, L., Pollen of Gymnosperms,
484.
Jutland ‘“ Cementstein,”
Diatoms from, 843.
K.
Sections of
K., 142.
Kaatzer, P., 565.
Kain, C. H., Balsam of Tolu, 1117.
——, Schmidt's Atlas der Diatomaceen-
kunde, 103.
Kaiser, W., Luminosity of the Glow-
worm, 90. ;
Kalchbrenner, K., Miller’s Methylized
Alcohol for Fungi and other Plants,
164.
INDEX.
Kamienski, F., Vegetative Organs of
Monotropa, 1025.
Karop, G. C., Bacilli of Hydrophobia,
073.
Karsch, F., Seasonal Dimorphism in
Spiders, 993.
Karyokinesis, Demonstration of, in
Epithelial Tissues, 730.
—— in Segmentation of Axolotl Ovum,
976. -
Karyokinetic Figures, Staining Method
for, 341.
Keller, C., Spiders in Relation to
Forestry, 450.
Kellicott, D. S., New Infusoria, 470.
——, New Vorticellid, 78.
Kennel, J. v., Development of Peripatus
56.
——, Preparing Embryo of Peripatus
Edwardsii and P. torquatus, 734.
Kent, W.S., Infusorial Parasites of the
Tasmanian White Ant, 662.
Kerbert, C.. New Infusorian Parasite,
81.
Kerremans, 164.
Kerville, H. G.de, New Entomogenous
Fungus, 505.
King, J. D., 366.
Kingsley, J. S., Glycerin and Balsam
Mounts, 353.
——, Rapid Imbedding, 150.
Kinne, C. M., 531.
Kirchner, 565.
Kjellman, F. R., Algal-flora of the
Arctic Ocean, 1039.
Kitton, F., Balsam of Tolu, 1116.
, — — asa Medium for Mount-
ing, 352.
——, Diatoms and Bladderwort, 685.
——, Mysterious Appearance of a Dia-
tom, 1041.
——,, Navicula Durrandii n. sp., 1042.
——, New Diatoms from the “Saug-
schiefer ” of Dubravica, 497.
——, Osteromphalus flabellatus, 380.
Klebs, G., Movement and Formation of
Mucilage by the Desmidiex, 1040.
—, Peridiniz, 468.
, Preparing Euglena, 539.
——, Structure of Chromatophores,
109.
Klein, C., 890.
, Mineralogical and Petrological
Microscopes, 856.
— , E., 565, 747.
——, Relations of Bacteria to Asiatic
Cholera, 299.
, L., Development of Organs and
Growth at the Growing Point of
Dorsiventral Ferns, 276.
, Nocturnal Spore-formation in
Botrytis cinerea, 690.
INDEX.
Klercker, J. E. F. af, Anatomical
Structure and Development of Cera-
tophyllum, 825.
—, Mechanical Function of the
Epidermis, 91.
Klonne and:Miiller’s Dissecting Micro-
scopes with Briicke Lens, 319.
Pocket Microscope, 309.
Knives and Microtomes, Improvements
in, 347.
, Strop for, 157.
Knop, W., Absorption by the Plant of
Non-nutrient Substances, 1032.
Kny, L., 366.
— and A. Zimmermann, Spiral Cells
of Nepenthes, 1023.
Koch, A., Course and Termination of
the Sieve-etubes in the Leaves,
90.
—., Gaffky, and Loffler, Artificial
Attenuation of Bacillus anthracis,
696.
— , R., Cholera-bacillus, 113.
, Etiology of Tuberculosis, 851.
K6hler, R., Marine Hemipterous In-
sect, Zipophilus Bonnairei, 448.
Kélliker, A., Epidermic Cells of Tad-
poles, 977.
—, Significance of Cell-nuclei in the
Processes of Heredity, 975.
Koninck, L. de, 565.
Koristka, T., 531.
Korotneff, A., Development of Gryllo-
talpa, 798.
Korschelt, P., Apical Growth of Phane-
rogams, 487.
Kostler, M., Preparing the Sym-
pathetic Nervous System of Peri-
planeta orientalis, 538.
Koubassoff, Passage of Microbes by
means of Milk, 1052.
, Passage of Pathogenous Microbes
from the Mother to the Foetus, 296,
1051.
Kowalevsky, N., Development of Lu-
cernaria, 253.
Krabbe, G., Growth of the Thickening-
ring in Exogens, 478.
Krakatoa, Microscopical Examination
of Voleanie Ash from, 923.
Krasan, F., Malformations caused by
Insects, 484.
Kraus, C., “ Bleeding” Parenchyma-
tous Tissues, 837.
——, Excretion of Healing Substances
into Wounds, 476.
— , G., Blooming of Arum italicum,
835.
Krause, F., Micrococcus in Acute In-
fectious Osteomyelitis, 508.
Krukenberg, C. F. W., Distribution of
Chitin, 984.
1153
Kruttschnitt, J., Fecundation of Ovules
in Angiosperms, 270.
Kihne’s Electrical Apparatus, 868.
Kiikenthal, W., 926.
——., Lymphoid Cells of Annelids, 454.
Kultschizky, N., Staining Salivary
Glands, 1095.
Kiinekel d’Herculais, J., 337.
Kiinstler, J., Bacterioidomonas undu-
lans, 300.
, New Rhizopod, 82.
—, Psorosperm in
Pleural Cavity, 261.
, Systematic Position of the Bac-
teriacese, 1048.
Kupffer, C., Preparing Meroblastic
Ova, 340.
, Staining the Axis-cylinder of
Medullated Nerve-fibres, 742.
the Human
L.
Laborie, E., Anatomy of Peduncles
compared with that of the Primary
Axes and of Petioles, 833.
Laboulbeéne, A., and P. Mégnin, Sphe-
rogyra ventricosa, 449.
Lacaze-Duthiers, H. de, 891.
——, Anatomy of Dentalium, 984.
—,, Epipodium of Gastropoda, 223.
—, Microscopic Elements serving for
the Determination of the Cynthiide,
230.
——., Nervous System and Embryonic
Forms of Gadinia garnotii, 224.
, Pheenicurus, 1005.
Laccopteris, Affinities of, 681.
Lacerta viridis, Embryology of, 212.
Lachmann, P., Apical Growth of the
Root of Todea, 839.
—, Root-organs of Nephrolepis, 1033.
Lacy, W. A., Treatment of the Eggs
of the Spider, 1083.
Ladowsky, M., Demonstrating the
Nuclei in Blood-corpuscles, 730.
ae oe A., Ammoniacal Ferment,
0.
Lagerheim, G., Occurrence of Chroma-
tophores in the Phycochromaces, 102,
Lagerstedt, N. G. W., Diatomsyno-
nymy, 287.
Lagoa, Unusual Number of Legs in
Caterpillar of, 990.
Lakes, Alkaline, Edible Dipterous
Larve from, 53.
——, Deep-water, Turbellarians of,
1004.
—, Flagellata (Dinobryon) as Mem-
bers of the Pelagic Fauna of, 258.
—, Swiss, Deep Fauna of, 238.
aaa Aquiferous Pores in,
(f
1154
Lamellibranchs, Classification of, 625.
——, Manner in which they attach
themselves to Foreign Objects, 626.
—, Movement of the Foot in, 437.
——, Shell of, 230.
——, Structure and Formation of Shell
of, "44,
Laminariacez of Norway, 1039.
mane Bulloch’s New, 133.
“« Complete,” Modification of, 380.
: New Electric, 339.
Lampert, K., Variation in Holothurians,
1007.
Lamps, Small Incandescence, Beck’s
Portable Battery for, 172.
Landolt, T., 142.
Lang, A., Excretory Organs of Worms,
243.
» Polycladidea, 245.
Lange, J., Oil-receptacles in the Fruit
of Umbelliferee, 89.
Langton, W., 926.
Lankester, E., 531, 1080.
—,, E. R., Archerina Boltoni, 259.
——, Cholera Bacillus, 113.
, New Hypothesis as to the Rela-
tionship of the Lung-book of Scorpio
to the Gill-book of Limulus, 639.
— , Polyzoa, 797.
——, Protozoa, 817.
——, Rhabdopleura, 46.
—, W. B.S. Benham, and E. J. Beck,
Muscular and Endoskeletal Systems
of Limulus and Scorpio, 992.
Lantern Transparencies, 866.
Lanzi, M., Diatoms from Lago Tra-
jano, 103.
Larches and Pines, Organs of Secretion
in, 269.
Larva of Insects, Head and Mouth of
the, 441.
Larve and Larva-cases of some Aus-
tralian Aphbrophoride, 992.
, Edible Dipterous, from Alkaline
Lakes, 53.
——,, Marine, their Relation to Adults,
—— of Corethra plumicornis, Uses and
Construction of Gizzard of, 991.
, Phytophagous, Nature of the
Colouring of, 801.
Larval Form of Dorocidaris papillata,
1008.
—— Forms of Spirorbis borealis, 644.
Laschenberg, O., Colours of Bird’s
Eggs, 618.
* Latent period ” of Unstriped Muscle
in Invertebrates, 982.
Latex, Function of, in the Composite,
266.
Latham, V. A., 142, 164, 747, 926, 1110.
Laticiferous Vessels, 1022.
INDEX.
Latzel’s (K.) Myriopods of Austria,
638.
Laulainé, F., Development of Sexu-
ality, 974.
Nature of the Placental Neo-
formation and the Unity of Compo-
sition of the Placenta, 783.
, Unity of the Process of Sperma-
togenesis i in Mammalia, 615.
Laurent’s (L.) Apparatus for Register-
ing the Curvature and Refraction of
Lenses, 862.
Lawes, J. B., Source of the Nitrogen in
Plants, 275.
Leaf, Anatomy of, in Vismiex, 675.
Leaf - trace - bundles of Evergreen
Plants, Behaviour of, as the stem
increases in thickness, 826.
Leakage of Cells, 1102.
Leaves, Adaptation of, to their environ~
ment, 91.
, Course and Termination of the
Sieve-tubes in, 90.
—,, Fluorescence of Chlorophyll in,
88.
, Green, Spectra of Pigments of,
and their Derivatives, 670.
, identity of the Orange-red
Colouring Matter of, with Carotine,
670.
, Influence of Light on the Deve—
lopment of the Assimilating Tissue
of, 266.
—— kept in Darkness, Absorption of
Oxygen and Evolution of Carbon
dioxide in, 678.
——,, Nyctitropic Movements of, 273.
— of Aquatic Plants, Epidermis of,
674.
— of Chrysoplenium, Comparative
Anatomy of, 91.
— of Dicotyledons, Sieve-tubes in,
1020.
— of Leguminose, Crystals in, 823.
— of Statice monopetala, 829.
— of the Vine, Formation of Starch
in, 670.
———,, Pericycle of, 673.
, Preparing, to show Starch-erains,
84,
, Presence of Amylase in, 97.
—, ’ Protection of, from excessive
Transpiration, 1025.
, Respiration of, in Darkness,
488.
Leblois, A., Function of Latex in the
Composite, 266.
Leboucq, H., 164.
Lecanora granatina, Anatomy and De-
velopment of, 1043.
Leckenby’s (A. B.) Microscope Pencil-
case, 1065,
INDEX.
Lee, A. B., 366, 1110.
— Microtomist’s Vade Mecum, 355.
— , “ Ribbon” Section-cutting, 552.
—., Structure of the Halteres of
Diptera, 636.
Leech, New Parasitic, 643.
Legs, Unusual Number of, in Cater-
pillar of Lagoa, 990.
Leguminose, Crystals in Leaves of,
823.
, Source of the Nitrogen of, 680.
, Structure and Functions of the
Aril in certain, 829.
Lehmann’s (O.) Crystallization Micro-
scope, 117.
Leidy, J., New Bothriocephalus, 810.
— _, New Parasitic Leech, 643.
, Organisms in Ice, 40.
, Urnatella gracilis, 439.
Leitgeb, H., Exudation of Water from
the Female Receptacle of Corsinia,
1035.
—, Spore-coats and Germination of
Hepatic, 101.
Lendenfeld, R. v., 926.
——, Amceba infesting Sheep, 1018.
—, Australian Hydromeduse, 252,
1011.
——. Sponges, 76, 1014.
— , Beroid of Port Jackson, 1011.
—, Ceelenterates of the Southern
Seas, 656.
—, Development of the Versuride,
72
—, Fibres of certain Australian
Hircinide, 254.
, Flexor Muscle of the Hydroid
Polyp of Sarsia radiata, 72.
, Flight of Insects, 988.
—, Histology and Nervous System
of Calcareous Sponges, 1011.
——, Local Colour-varieties of Seypho-
meduse, 71.
—, Metamorphosis of Bolina Chuni,
1010
—. Mode of Digestion in Sponges,
74
——, Nervous System of Sponges, 253.
—, New Sponges from South Austra-
lia, 1013.
—, Occurrence of Flesh-spicules in
Sponges, 254.
—,, Scyphomeduse of the Southern
Hemisphere, 71.
—,, Series of Sections.
Sections, 1092.
—, Slimy Coatings of certain Bolte-
nias, 233.
——, The Phoriospongi«, 1012.
Lens, Crystalline, Homologies of the
Vertebrate, 430.
—_, Glory of, 337.
Thickness of
1155
Lens or Lens-system, Remarks on Prof.
Abbe’s Note on the proper Definition
of the Amplifying Power of, 960.
Lens-holder, Ward’s and Queen’s, 317.
——, Westien’s Universal, 316.
Lenses, Laurent’s Apparatus for regis-
tering the Curvature and Refraction
of, 862.
, Water and Melted Glass, 890.
Lenticels, 825.
Leone T., 1110.
Lepidoptera, Malpighian Vessels of, 51.
, Morphology of, 635.
—., Testes of, 51.
Lepidopterous Larve, Number of
Abdominal Segments in, 636. |
Pigments, Action of Ammonia
upon, 52.
Lépinay, M. de, 727.
Lépine, R., and G. Roux, Cystitis and
Nephritis produced by Micrococcus
ures, 1047.
Lett, H. W., Cloudy Mounts, 366.
Leuckart, R., 926.
, Development of Spherularia
bombi, 810.
Lewis, R. T., 1080.
—, Electrical Apparatus, 875.
—. W. J., Hair microscopically
examined and Medico-legally con-
sidered, 429.
Lichenes. See Contents, xxviii.
Life-Box, Whitney’s, 330.
Light, Action of, on Objects hardened
in Chromic Acid, 148.
—— and Heat, Influence of, on Plant
Development, 485.
—, Chemical and Physiological
Action of, on Chlorophyll, 837.
——, Decomposition of Solutions of
Chlorophyll by, 669.
—, Influence of, on Geotropism,
491,
—, ——, on the Development of the
Assimilating 'Tissue of Leaves, 266.
——,——, on the Germination of Seeds,
93.
»——, on the Vegetation and on the
Pathogenous Properties of Bacillus
anthracis, 297.
Lignin and Tannin in Galls, 1020.
Limacina, Nervous System of Embryos
of, 228.
——,, Relations of Otocyst in, 228.
Lime, Carbonate of, and Colloids, On
Erosion on the Surface of Glass,
when exposed to the Joint Action
of, 761.
Limit of Angular Vision, 339.
Limnocodium Sowerbii, Hydroid Phase
of, 72, 168, 251.
Limpet, Habits of, 225.
1156
Limulus and Sepia, Chitin as a Con-
stituent of the Cartilages of, 222.
, Muscular and Endoskeletal
Systems of, 992.
, New Hypothesis as to the Rela-
tionship of the Lung-book of Scorpio
to the Gill-book of, 639.
polyphemus, Embryology of, 806.
Linck, G., 164.
Lindt, O., Micro-chemical Test for
Brucin and Strychnin, 920.
Linstow, O. v., Angiostomum, 1001.
Lissauer, 164.
List, J. H., Anilin-green, 903.
, Preparing the Cloacal Epithe-
lium of Scyllium Canicula, 731.
-, Staining Methods, 902.
— , Unicellular Glands in the Cloaca
of Rays, 221.
—,, Wandering Cells in Epithelium,
980.
Litharge and Glycerin as a Cement, 743.
Lithoderma fontanum, a New Fresh-
water Pheospore, 285.
Live-Cell, 134.
—,, Giles’, 135.
Liver, Cephalopod, Pancreatic Func-
tion of, 622.
of the Mollusca, 792.
Lockwood, 8., Pseudo-cyclosis, 663.
Loffler, Artificial Attenuation of Ba-
cillus anthracis, 696.
—, Micro-organisms as a Cause of
Diphtheria in Man, Pigeons, and
Calves, 694.
Lofthouse, T. W., Dry Mounting, 1100.
Loligopsis and Allied Genera, 984.
Lommel, E., 532, 727.
Looss, A., Anatomy of the Trematoda,
460.
, Method of Softening Chitin, 896.
Loriol, P. de, Asteroidea of Mauritius,
1009.
Loudon, J., 532.
Low, E., Insects as Fertilizers, 990.
—, O., Protoplasm and its Powers
of Resistance, 421.
——, Various Degrees of Resistance in
Protoplasm, 1019.
—— and T. Bokorny, Silver-reducing
Animal Organs, 619.
Lowe, L., Preparing Embryos, 729.
Léwit, M., 337.
, Formation of Red and White
Blood-corpuscles, 220. _ —_-
Lowne, B. T., Compound Vision and
the Morphology of the Eye in
Insects, 234.
Loxosoma, Structure and Development
of, 631.
Lubbock, Sir J., Homing Faculty of
Hymenoptera, 990.
———
INDEX.
Lucerazaria, Development of, 253.
Luciola italica, Preparing, 733.
Ludwig, F., Spectroscopic Examination
of Photogenic Fungi, 504.
Lumbricus terrestris, Tenacity of Life
and Regeneration of Excised Parts
in, 455.
Lung-book of Scorpio, New Hypothe-
sis as to the Relationship of, to the
Gill-book of Limulus, 639.
Lungs, Human, Method for showing
the Distribution and Termination of
Nerves in, 894.
Lustgarten, S., Preparing the Bacillus
of Syphilis, 539.
Lwoff, W., Histology of Hairs, Sete,
Spines, and Feathers, 35.
Lycopodium, Prothallium of, 277, 839.
, Spores of, 839.
Lymphoid Cells of Annelids, 454.
M.
M., 727.
M. D., 164.
MEOSME Coa
Macadam, W. T., Diatomaceous De-
posits in Scotland, 287.
M‘Allister, Slide showing path of
Electric Spark, 727.
M‘Calla, A., 366, 565, 748.
M‘Connel, J. C., 891.
McCook, H. C., Hibernation and
Winter Habits of Spiders, 640.
Macdonald, J. D., General Characters
of Cymbulia, 627.
Macfarlane, J. M., Distribution of
Honey-Glands in Pitchered Insecti-
vorous Plants, 269.
MacGillivray, J. H., Australian Bry-
ozoa, 633.
M‘Intosh, W. C., Identity of the two
British Species of Cyanea, 464.
—, Phosphorescence of Marine
Animals, 981.
—,, Reproduction of Mytilus edulis,
437.
M‘Kendrick, J. G., and J..J. Coleman,
Action of Ozonized Air upon Micro-
organisms and Albumen in Solution,
1053.
, Effects of very Low Tem-
peratures on Living Organisms, 619.
MacLeod, J., Coxal Gland in the Pha-
langida, 58.
——, Hermaphroditism of the Male
of Trombidium, 58.
——, Presence of a Coxal Gland in
Galeodes, 236.
——, Structure of the Fore-gut of
Arachnida, 56.
i
INDEX. ELT
MacMunn, C. A., Arrangement of the
Micro-spectrosecope, 527.
—, Chromatology of Actiniz, 464,
656.
——, Enterochlorophyll and Allied
Pigments, 621.
, New Organic Spectra, 429.
MeMurrich, J. P., Structure and A flini-
ties of Phytopus, 236.
Macrucystis, Anatomy of, 28.
Macrotoma plumbea, 637.
Madan’s (H. G.) Method of Isolating
Blue Rays for Optical Work, 327.
—., Modification of Foucault’s and
Ahrens’s Polarizing Prisms, 328.
Maddox, R. L., Experiments on Feed-
ing some Insects with the Curved or
“Comma” Bacillus, and also with
another Bacillus (B. subtilis), 602.
, Further Experiments on Feed-
ing Insects with the Curved or
“Comma” Bacillus, 941.
—, On Some unusual Forms of Lac-
tic Ferment—Bacterium lactis, 205.
Madreporaria (Astrangiacez) Struc-
tures liable to Variation in, 73.
Meena vulgaris, Parasites of, 805.
Maggi, L., 164.
Magnetism, Influence of, upon Insect
Development, 988.
Magnification, Remarks on, 1070.
Magnifying Power of Objectives, 335.
Malaria, Bacilli of, 1052.
Malassez, Illumination for Projection
Microscopes, 866.
Malcolm, E. D., Adjusting the Eye-
pieces of Binoculars to eyes of un-
equal focal length, 1065.
Maldanide, Coloration of the Anterior
Segments of, 999.
Male and Female Plants, Production
of, 677.
Malformations caused by Insects, 484.
Mallvy, A. C., 338.
, Llumination, 719.
Malpighian Vessels of Lepidoptera, 51.
Mammalia, Unity of Process of Sper-
matogenesis in, 615.
Mammals, Foetal Appendages of, 423.
Manchester Microscopical Society, 143.
Mandibulate Insects, Appendages of
Jaw of, 50.
Manganese, Presence of, in Plants, 671.
Mangin, L., Absorption of Oxygen and
Evolution of Carbon dioxide in
Leaves kept in Darkness, 679.
, Respiration of Germinating
Seeds, 272.
‘ of Leaves in Darkness, 488.
—, — of Plants, 835.
, — of Plants at different Sea-
sonk, 836,
Ser. 2.—Vo.. V.
Mangin, L., and G. Bonnier, Respira-
tion and Transpiration of Fungi, 104.
, Respiration of Tissues not
containing Chlorophyll, 94.
Manson, P., Metamorphosis of Filaria
sanguinis hominis in the Mosquito,
65.
Manton, W. P., 143.
Maquenne, L., Absorption of Oxygen
and Evolution of Carbon dioxide in
Leaves kept in Darkness, 678.
Marchantia, Stomata of, 1036.
Marchesetti, C. di, New Instance of
Symbiosis, 282.
Marié, P., Structure of Ranunculacez,
674.
Marine Animals, Recognition by, of
the Hour of the Day, 431.
Hemipterous Insect, AZpophilus
Bonnairei, 448.
Mark, E. L., 1111.
, Notes on Section-cutting, 737.
, Uses of Collodion, 908.
Markfeldt, O., Behaviour of the Leaf-
trace-bundles of Evergreen Plants as
the Stem increases in Thickness, $26.
Marking Preparations, Coloured Cray-
ons for, 1103.
Marseilles, Gulf of, Tectibranchiata of,
624,
Marshall, W., Ccelenterate Nature of
Sponges, 816.
, Reproduction of Spongilla lacus-
tris, 1011.
ep Wiebusul toe
Marsupials, Embryonic Membranes of,
Martin, 8., Digestion of Proteids in
Plants, 1030.
Martinotti, G., 164.
Massee, G., New British Micro-Fungi,
757.
Masters, M. T., Petalody of Ovules, 676.
Matthews, J., 162, 564.
Maumene, EH. J., Presence of Manga-
nese in Plants, 671.
Maupas, E., Coleps hirtus, 1015.
Maurice, C., and A. Schulgin, Develop-
ment of Amarcecium proliferum, 437.
—— —, Preparing Embryos of Ama-
reecium proliferum, 731.
Mauritius, Asteroidea of, 1009.
Maxon, E. R.,°366.
Mayall, J. jun., 532, 727.
—,, Mechanical Stage, 122.
——,, Nobert’s Ruling Machine, 377.
Mayer’s (P.) Carbolic Acid Shellac,
909. f
Mayr, H., Organs of Secretion in Pines
and Larclies, 269.
Mays, K., Staining Nerves in Muscle,
903.
49
1158
Measurement of Blood - corpuscles,
1105.
of Power and Aperture of Micro-
scopic Objectives, 1082.
Mechanical Finger Objective, Griffith’s,
709.
—— Injury to Trees by Cold, 1029.
Tissue System, 828.
“Medicinze Doctor,” 565.
Medico-legal and Chemical Micro-
scopy, 1108.
Mediterranean, Floridese of, 102.
Medullary Rays and Annual Zones of
Growth in Conifers, Comparative
Anatomy of Tissue of, 826.
Meehan, T., Elasticity in the Filaments
of Helianthus, 268.
—, — in the Fruit of Cactacea,
1027.
— , Fertility of Hybrids, 271.
—, Sexual Cheractersin Zinnia, 267.
, Use of Spines in Cactuses, 1027.
Megaloscopy, 1061.
Meégnin, P., Sclerostoma boularti, 244.
Meldometer, Joly’s, 1068.
Melibe, the Genus, 226.
Melland, B., Simplified View of Histo-
logy of Striped Muscle-fibre, 787.
Melosira, Cell-Division in, 497.
Mer, E., Nyctitropic Movements of
Leaves, 273.
Mercer, A. C., 366.
Mercury, Mounting Proboscis of Blow-
fly in Biniodide of, 733.
— , Perebloride of, in the Study of the
Central Nervous System, 904.
Merian, A., 164,
Merlangus, New Nematoid from, 646.
Merulius lacrymans, Composition and
Spore-cultivation of, 845.
, Germination of the Spores
of, 845.
Mesoderm in Phoronis, 242.
Metacrinus, New Species of, 815.
Metameric Segmentation in Phoronis,
242.
Metamorphosis of Cyphonautes, 798.
— of the Blow-fly, Influence of
some Conditions on, 441.
Metschnikow, E., Erythropsis agilis,
1016.
Metzdorf, Bacillus of Cattle Plague,
14:
Mexico, Fresh-water Sponge from,
1014.
Meyenia fluviatilis, New Variety of,
658.
Meyer, A., 565.
, Examining Vegetable Powders,
962.
——, Formation of Gum in Wood, 89.
——, Microtome Clamp, 156.
INDEX.
Mezey and Jendrdassik’s LElectrical
Apparatus, 868.
Michael, A. D., 338.
, New British Oribatide, 385.
, Notes on the Life-Histories of
some of the little-known Tyro-
glyphide, 19.
, Standard Thickness of Glasg
Slips, 529.
Michaelsen, W., Archenchytreeus Mobil,
643.
Michelson, P., 566.
Microbe of Human Typhoid Fever, 299.
of Typhoid Fever in Man, 1052.
of Yellow Fever, 694.
-—, On a Septic, from a high altitude,
769.
Microbes in the Soil, 693.
, Passage of, by means of Milk,
1052.
,Pathogenous, Passage of, from the
Mother to the Foetus, 296, 1051.
, Removal of, by Filtering, 561.
, Vitality of Germs of, 296.
Micro-chemical Examination, Isolating
Minerals in Sections for, 921.
Examination of Minerals,
920.
Test for Brucin and Strych-
nin, 920.
Micrococcus, Effect of Sunlight on,
WOH
— in Acute Infectious Osteomyelitis,
5
ures, Cystitis and Nephritis pro-
duced by, 1047.
Microcystis, 692.
Micro-Fungi, New British, 757.
Microgoniometer, Pfaff’s, 702.
Micrometer, Screw Stage-, Schieck’s
Microscope with, 861.
——,, Standard, 338.
Micrometers, Hye-piece, 704.
— mounted in Media of High Re-
fractive Index, 330.
Micro-organisms, Action of Ozonized
Air upon, and Albumen in Solution,
1053.
— —— as acause of Diphtheria in
Man, Pigeons, and Calves, 694.
— ——, Examination of Water for
the Development of, 560.
—— —, Removal of, from Water,
923.
» Saprogenous and Patho-
genous, Plaut’s Staining Process for
the Demonstration of, 342.
Microphytes of Normal Human Epi-
dermis, 849.
Microscope, Amici’s, 531.
——, Application of, to Practical
Mineralogical Questions, 922.
INDEX.
Microscope, Beck’s Portable, 115.
+ —— — “Star,” 1121.
heat “ Star,” 512.
—, Binocular, Images shown by,
1073.
—, Box, 701.
— , Cantor Lectures on, 1124.
, Collins’s Portable, 701.
—.,, D’Arsonval’s Water, 105+.
— _, Deby’s Twin, 854.
— , Direct Vision, 1056.
—, Dissecting, with Briicke Lens,
319.
—,, Double-Drum, 703.
— , Duboseq’s Projection, 861.
—— _, Electric Spark under, 888.
——, Giacomini’s, with large Stage,
515.
—,, Gray’s Water, 1079.
——,, in Geology, 921.
— in the Schoolroom, 728.
— , Inostranzeff’s Double, 1058.
—— is always ready, 145.
——,, Janney’s Simple Solar (or Projec-
tion), 309.
, Klein’s Mineralogical and Petro-
logical, 856.
— , Klonne and Miiller’s Pocket, 309.
, Lehmann’s Crystallization, 117.
— ,, Microtome-, 861.
——, Miiller’s Insect-catcher with Lens,
519.
——, Murray and Heath’s Class, 515.
——, Nachet’s Class, 514.
: Pocket and Portable, 700.
— ,, Old Italian, 518.
—— Pencil-case, Leckenby’s, 1065.
——,, Perfect Laboratory, 891.
— , Pocket Field, 890.
—, Queen and Co.’s Class, 119.
— , Riddell’s Binocular Compound,
1059.
, Reichert’s Mineralogical-Geologi-
cal, 858.
> — No. VIL., 302.
—, Schieck’s, with Screw Stage-
Micrometer, 861.
—, Bacteria, 301.
—, Stein’s, for use with the Electric
Light, 303.
—, Swift’s Sheep-Scab, 307.
—, Swift-Wale, 119.
——,” Theiler and Sons’ “ Universal
(Achromatic) Pocket, 704.
——, Thompson’s Projection, 310.
—, * Times” on, 883.
—,, Tolles’ Clinical, 308.
—, “'I'win” Simple, 862.
—-, Védy’s Revolving Stage, 699.
, Watson’s Camera or Lantern,.1064.
Swinging Substage, 1062.
——, Watson-Wule, 860.
1159
Microscope, Winkel’s Demonstration,
308.
with Catgut Focusing Adjust-
ment, 1057.
, Wright’s Lantern, 196.
Microscopes at the Inventions Ex-
hibition, 1076.
— , Illumination of, and Balanees, 328.
—-, Projection, Ulumination for, S€6.
with Accessory Stages, 1058.
with Bent Body-tube, 517.
Microscopist ?”’, “ What is a, 333.
Microscopy, Medico-legal and Che-
mical, 1108.
Micro-spectroscope, Arrangement of,
5s
Microstoma lineare, Nephridia of, 813.
Microtome, Advantages and Disadvan-
tages of Different Forms of, 541.
, Barrett's New, 1089.
—, Beck’s Automatic, 153.
—, Universal, 344.
—, Bulloch’s Combination, 548.
—, Caldwell’s Automatic, 150.
——, Cambridge Rocking, 549, 1091.
—, Eternod’s, with Triple Pincers,
900.
——, Gowen’s, 899,
——, Hatfield’s Rotary, 735.
—, Jacob's Freezing, 899.
—— Object-clamp, Reichert’s, 347.
——,, Reichert’s Simple Hand-, 346.
—, Schanze’s, 547.
——,, Seiler’s Attachment, 1091.
——, Thoma’s, 153.
Microtome-Clamp, Meyer’s, 156.
-Microscope, &61.
Microtomes and Knives, Improvements
in, 347.
, Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.’s
Laboratory and Student’s, 1089.
Microtomist’s Vade Mecum, Lee’s, 355.
Microzymes and Vibrios of Air, Water,
and Soil, Origin of, 295.
Miles, J. L. W., Dry Mounting, 1100.
Milk, Decomposition and Fermentation
of, 1048.
——, Passage of Microbes by means of,
1052.
Miller, M. N., 727.
Mills, H., Filamentous projections on
Diatoms, 571.
—, New American
Sponges, 464.
Milne, W., New Rotifer, 1007.
Mimicry among Marine Mollusea, 795.
Mineralogical Questions, Practical,
Application of Microscope to, 922.
Minerals, Isolating, in Sections for
Micro-chemical Examination, 921.
—,, Micro-chemical Examination of,
920,
4rnQ2
Fresh-water
1160
Minot, C. S., 927.
, Dripping Apparatus, 900. _
, Formative Force of Organisms,
780.
, Vesicule seminales of Guinea-
pigs, 35.
Minyas, New, 1010.
Miquel, P., Hourly Variations in Aerial
Bacteria, 111.
, Nutritive Paper, 111.
Mirror Diaphragms, 523.
, Parabolic, for Correction of too
hard or too soft Paraffin, 344.
, Plane, Right-angled Prism in-
stead of, 709, 864.
Mitrophanow, P., Intercellular Spaces
and Bridges in Epithelium, 221.
Mobius, K., Freia Ampulla O. F. Miull.,
the Flask-animalcule, 818.
, Mechanical Sheaths to Secretion
receptacles, 267.
——, New Epiphytic Floridea, 842.
Moist Chamber, 526.
Moisture in Soils, Influence of, on Plant
Growth, 486.
, Influence of Want of, on the
Growth of the Chinese Yam, 1029.
Mojsisovies v. Mojsvar, A., 566.
Molecules, Homologous Sections and
Electric Light, 337.
Molisch, H., Deviation of Roots from
their Normal Direction through the
Influences of Gases, 96.
, Micro-chemical Detection of Ni-
trates and Nitrites in Plants, 359.
Moller, H., Plasmodiophora Alni, 844.
, Respiration of Plants, 94.
, J., 143, 927, 1080.
Mollusca. See Contents, xi.
Molluscoida. See Contents, xii.
Monascus, a New Genus of Ascomy-
cetes, 291.
Monuino, C., Perchloride of Mercury
in the Study of the Central Nervous
System, 904.
Monopora vivipara, Development of,
811.
Monotids, Fresh-water, 813.
Monotremes, Oviparous Reproduction
in, 33.
Monotropa, Vegetative Organs of, 1025.
Monoyer, M. F., 728.
Monstrosities, Mycological, 847.
Moore, A. Y., 728.
, 8. Le M., Identity of Bacterium
feetidum (Thin) with Soil Cocci, 696.
Morini, E., Parasitic Fungi, 100.
, H., New Ustilaginea, 288.
Morot, L., Fibrovascular Bundles of
Cycadex, 1023. ,
, Pericycle of the Root, Stem, and
Leaves, 673.
INDEX.
| Morris, W., 1080.
Moseley, H. N., Eyes of Chitonide,
224.
Mosquito, Metamorphosis of Filaria
sanguinis hominis in, 65.
Mosses. See Muscinee.
Motella mustela, Development of, 785.
Mother to Fetus, Passage of Patho-
genous Microbes from, 296, 1051.
Mould for Cells, Chapman’s, 911.
Mould-fungi as Ferments, 1045.
Moulds, Some Remarkable, 848.
Mounting Media for Nematodes, 897.
, Smith’s (H. L.) of High
Refractive Index, 352, 1097.
— Medium, New, 377.
Objects. See Contents, xxxviii.
Mouth and Head of the Larva of
Insects, 441.
Mouth-organs of Hymenoptera, Mor-
phology of, 989.
Movement and Formation of Mucilage
by the Desmidiex, 1040.
— of Ascending Sap, 489.
— of Protoplasm in the Styles of
Indian Corn, Examining, 1106.
of Water in Mosses, 493.
in Plants, 490, 836.
— — —,, Direct Observation of,
359.
Movements, Nyctitropic, of Leaves, 273.
of Andrcecium in Sunflowers, 268.
of Stamens, Influence of Gravita-
tion on, 272.
——., Spontaneous, of Pigment-bodies,
476.
Mucilage, Movement and Formation
of, by the Desmidiex, 1040.
Mucorini, Zygospores of, 505.
Mulberry, Fungi Parasitic on, 290.
Miillenhoff, K., Size of the Surfaces of
Organs of Flight, 221.
Miller, C., Mosses of Terra-del-Fuego,
1036.
——, Stolons of Sagittaria sagittee-
folia, 479.
, F., Diagnostic Value of Tuber-
eular Bacilli, 298.
—, J., Contributions to
ology, 1042.
—, K., Solmsiella, a new genus of
Mosses, 101.
, O., Cell-Division in Melosira,
497.
, Structure of the Cell-wall of
Diatoms, 685.
, P., Insect-catcher with Lens, 519.
——, W., Shell of Lamellibranchiata,
230.
Miiller’s Methylized Alcohol for Fungi
and other Plants, 164.
Multinucleated Protozoa, 467.
Lichen-
INDEX.
Multiple Images and Compound Eyes,
356.
Multiplying Drawings, 527.
Murdoch, J., New Arenicola from
Arctic Alaska, 456.
» New Crustacea from
Alaska, 453.
Murray and Heath’s Class Microscope,
515. .
—, G., “Sclerotioids” of Potato,
1022.
Muscines. See Contents, xxvii.
Muscle, Flexor, of Hydroid Polyp of
Sarsia radiata, 72.
——, Staining Nerves in, 903.
, Striated, Phenomena of Co:trac-
tion in, 428.
—, Unstriped, “Latent period” of,
in Invertebrates, 982.
Muscle-fibre, Striped, Simplified View
of Histology of, 787.
Muscles of Chetopoda, 456.
of Invertebrates, Absolute Force
of, 58.
. Unstriated,
Physiology of, 791.
Muscular and Endoskelctal Systems of
Limulus and Scorpio, 992.
Mushrooms, Hydrocarbon Reserve-pro-
ducts of, 1044.
Mycetozoa, De Bary’s, 108.
Mycoderma vini, Influence of External
Conditions on the Development of,
294.
Mycological Monstrosities, 847.
Mycology, Journal of, 293.
——, Pathological, Woodhead and
Hare’s, 698.
Mygale, Coxal Glands of, 639.
Myriopoda. See Contents, xiv.
Mytilus edulis, Reproduction of, 437.
Myxomycetes, Coenonia, a new Genus
of, 293.
. Zopf’s, 690.
Myzostoma, New Species of, 814."
——,, Preparing, 897.
a Structure and Development of,
6
Arctie
of Invertebrata,
Myzostomida, ‘ Challenger,’ 68.
N.
Nachet’s (A.) Class Microscope, 514.
— pce and Portable Microscopes,
00.
Nachtrieb, H. F., Phylogeny of Echino-
derms, 651.
Naias, Fertilization of, 677.
Nalepa, A., Intercellular Spaces of
Epithelium, and their significance
in Pulmonate Mollusea, 435.
Naphthalin, Monobromide of, 909.
1161
Naples, Gulf of, Infusoria of, 80.
Zoological Station, 1111.
Nassonow, N., E.nbryolozy of Balanus,
643.
Navicula cuspilata as a Test-object,
140.
Durrandii n. sp. F. K., 1042.
Nealey, E. T., Rapid Methol for
Making Bone and Teeth Sections,
348.
Nectar-Glands of Apios tuberosa, 269.
Neelsen and Ehlers, “ Rauschbrand-
pilz,” a parasitic cattle-disease, 300.
Negatives, Compound, 331.
» Small, 528.
Negri, A. F., Staining the Spores of
Bacillus tuberculosis, 342.
Nelson, E. M., 143, 338, 566, 728, 1080,
1081,
——, Comma Bacillus, 563.
——, Illumination, 713.
——, Images in the Binocular Miero-
scope, 1073.
——., Keeping both Eyes open in Ob-
servation, 881.
——, Oblique Illuminators, 129.
, Position of Objects with the Bin-
ocular, 1075.
——, Right-angled Prism instead of a
Plane Mirror, 864.
-——, Simple Condenser, 327.
——, Standard Thickness of Glass
Slips, 329.
——, Testing the differeat Sectors of
Objectives, 324.
Nematodes and Rotifers, Relationship
of, 1006.
——,, Development of, 809.
——, Mounting Media for, 897.
——, Origin of the Nervous System of,
Nematoid; New, from Merlangus, 646.
Nemertea, Circulating and Nephridial
Apparatus of, 810.
Nemertines, Development of, 1004.
—, Excretory Organs of, 244,
“ Nemo,” 533.
Nepa cinerea and Notonecta glauca,
Developmental History and Morpho-
logical Value of the Ova of, 447.
Nepenthes, Spiral Cells of, 1023.
Nephelis, Metamorphosis of, 241.
Nephridia of a New Species of Eurth-
worm, 999,
—— of Acanthodrilus sp., 813.
—— of Microstoma lineare, 813.
Nephridial and Circulatory Apparatus
of the Nemertea, 810.
Nephritis and Cystitis, produced by
Micrococcus ures, L047. :
Nephrolepis, Root-organs of, 1033.
Neptunea, Gill in, 226.
1162
Nerve-end Organs in the Antenne
of Myriopods, Demonstrating, 896.
Nerve-fibres, Medullated, Staining the
Axis-cylinder of, 742.
, Parietal Cells in, 428.
Nerve-terminations on the Antenne of
Myriopoda, 448.
Nerves in Muscle, Staining, 903.
Method for showing the Dis-
tribution and Termination of, in the
Human Lungs, 894.
Nervous Organs, Central, Investigating
the Structure of, 730.
— System and Embryonic Forms of
Gadinia garnotii, 224.
Sponges, 1011.
, Central, Application of
Borax-methylen-blue in the Exami-
nation of, 731.
— —, —, Method for Displaying
the Course of the Fibres in, 159.
—— ——, ——, Modified Hardening
Process ‘for, 340.
——, Perchloride of Mer-
eury in ‘the Study of, 904.
—, , Preparations of, for
Projection, 146.
— ., Weigert’s Staining
Method for, 158, isi).
— ——, New Double Stain for, 741.
—— —— of Accelomate Planarians,
1004.
—— — of Apus, 805.
— —— of Archiannelides, 62.
— of Bothriocephalide, 646.
—— —— of Buccinide and Purpuri-
de, 793.
—— — of Embryos of Limacina, 228.
— —— of Fissurella, 624.
—— —— of Gadinia garnotii, 224.
— of Muzzle and Upper Lip of
the Ox, Staining, 555.
—— —— of Nematodes, Origin of, 458.
—— —— of Polycheetous Annelids,644,
Pate of Priapulus and Halicry ptus,
—— —— of Sponges, 253.
— —— of Tenia, 244, 459.
—— ——, Preserving Sections of,
Treated with Bichromate of Potash
and Nitrate of Silver, 731.
, Sympathetic, of Periplaneta
orientalis, Preparing, 538.
Net for Microscopists, 535.
Neumayr, M., Classification of the
Lamellibranchs, 625.
a Hinge of the Shells of Bivalves,
29,
Neville, J. W., 566.
New York Microscopical Society, Jour-
nal of, 332.
——_
INDEX.
Nicati, W., and Rietsch, Attenuation
of the Choleraic Virus, 1051.
—— ——, Odour and Poisonous Effects
of the Fermentation produced by the
Comma Bacillus, 298.
Nicholson, W. O., 563.
—— and H. 8. Car penter, Examina-
tion of Water for Organisms, 560.
Nicol Prism, Repairing, 891.
Niemiec, J., Morphology of Suckers of
Animals, 431.
—, Nervous System of Bothrio-
cephalide, 646.
—, — of Tenia, 244, 459.
Nikolaides, ne Phenomena ‘of Con-
traction in Striated Muscle, 428.
Nitrates and Nitrites, Microchemical
Detection of, in Plants, 359.
. Formation of, in Plants, 275.
Nitrogen, Atmospheric Absorption of,
by Plants, 680.
— of the Leguminosx, Source of,
680.
—, Source of, in Plants, 275.
Nobert’s Ruling Machine, 377.
Node of Equisetum, 840.
Noll, F., Eau de Javelle as a Medium
for Clar ifying and Dissolving Plasma,
893.
Norway, Laminariaceze of, 1039.
Norwegian North Sea Expedition,
Sponges of, 658.
Nose-piece, Bertrand’s Adapter, 525.
Notonecta glauca, and Nepa cinerea,
Developmental History and Morpho-
logical Value of the Ova of, 447.
Nowakowskia, a new Genus of Chy-
tridiaceze, 846.
Nuclei and ’ Chromatophores, Distribu-
tion of, in the Schizophycez, 691.
——, Cell-, Significance of, in the Pro-
cesses of Heredity. 975.
in Blood-corpuscles,
strating, 730.
Nucleolus, Structure of, 821.
Nucleus, Behaviour of, after Division,
475.
—, Division of, 86.
,in Plants and Animals, 666.
sae , in Tradescantia, 475.
—— of the Germinal Vesicle in
Arthropoda, Staining, 905.
——, Structure and Division of, 262,
A74.
Nudibranchs, “ Challenger,” 43.
Nusbaum, J., Development of the
Sexual Cee of Clepsine, 455.
Nussbaum, M., and A. Gruber, Artifi-
cial Division of Infusoria, 472.
Nutations of Seedlings, 490.
, Spontaneous, Mechanical Ex-
planation of, 273.
Demon-
INDEX.
Nutrient Substances, Non-, Absorption
by the Plant of, 1032.
Nutrition of Trees by means of Under-
ground Fungi, 844.
Nutritive Properties of the Various
Portions of the Grain of Wheat, 671.
Nyctitropic Movements of Leaves, 273.
O.
Obelia, Origin of Sexual Cells in, 250.
“ Obituary,” 143.
Objective, Griffith’s Mechanical Finger,
709.
, Supposed Increase of the Aper-
ture of, by Using Highly Refractive
Media, 1077.
Objectives, An Improvement in, 705.
and Oculars, Choice of, 1082.
——,, Care and Use of, 708.
—,, Gundlach’s Improved, 863.
——, Magnifying Power of, and Posi-
tion of Wollaston Camera, 335.
—, Measurement of Power and Aper-
ture of, 1082.
—— of Large Aperture, Cost of, 325.
—, Series of, 863.
——, Testing the Different Sectors of,
324.
——, Universal Screw for, 335,
Oblique Illuminators, 129, 130.
Ocular. See Eye-piece.
Ognew, J., 1111.
Oidium, New Parasitic, 505.
Oil, Mineral, Composition of, in Rela-
tion to the Plants which have pro-
duced it, 276.
Receptacles in the Fruit of Um-
belliferze, 89.
Oldfield, W., 1081.
Oldham, W. P., 533.
Oleander, Development of Sclerenchy-
matous Fibres of, 478.
Olivier, L., Method for Observing Pro-
toplasmic Continuity, 892.
Oltmanns, F., Conducting Water in the
Stem of Mosses, 682.
——, Movement of Water in Mosses,
493,
Onion, Wild, Fertilization of, 1028.
Onoclea, Third Coat in the Spores of
the Genus, 493.
Oogenesis in Branchiobdella, 643.
Opaque Dry Objects, Mounting with-
out Cover-glass, 161.
— Objects, Dry Mounting of, 560.
Ophioglossaces, Structure and Classi-
fication of, 1034.
Ophrydium versatile, Chemical Com-
position of Zoocytium of, 818.
Ophryocystis Biitschlii, 82.
Opossum, Development of, 976.
1163
Optic Ganglion of Aschna, 800.
of Palinurus vulgaris, 450.
Ord, W. M., On Erosion of the Sur-
face of Glass, when exposed to the
Joint Action of Carbonate of Lime
and Colloids, 381, 761.
“ Orderie Vital,” 891.
Oribatide, New British, 385.
Orley, L., Respiration of the Serpu-
laceee in Relation to their Tegu-
mentary Pigments, 64.
SOss7 one.
Osborn, H. F., Preparing Brain of
Urodela, 536.
, Simple Method of Injecting the
Arteries and Veins in Small
Animals, 1093.
, H. L., Gill in Neptunea, 226.
and E. B. Wilson, Mimicry among
Marine Mollusca, 795.
Osborne, J. A., Embryology of Botys
hyalinalis, 447.
, Lord S. G., 143.
——, ——., Diatomescope, 128.
Osmunda, Apex of the Root in, 1033.
Osseous Tissue, Decalcification and
Staining of, 905.
Osten-Sacken, C. R., Comparative
Chetotaxy, 52.
Osteomyelitis, Acute Infectious, Micro-
coceus in, 508.
-cocci, Development of, in the
Organism, 290.
Ostroumoff, A., Metamorphosis of
Cyphonautes, 798.
Otocyst, Relations of, in Limacina, 228.
Otto, J. G., 566.
Oudemans, A. C., Circulatory and
Nephridial Apparatus of the
Nemertea, 810.
Ova and Embryos of the Aphides,
Treatment of, 147.
——,, Formation of, in Pyrrhocoris, 798.
——, Frog’s, Demonstrating Spindle -
Bodies in Yolk of, 895.
——,, Influence of External Conditions
on the Development of, 423.
, Mammalian, Formation of
Spindles in, during Degeneration
of the Graafian Follicle, 975.
——, Meroblastic, Preparing, 340.
—— of Bombyx, Composition of, 441.
—— of Nepa cinerea and Notonecta
glauca, Developmental History and
Morphological Value of, 447.
, Pelagic 'Teleostean, Origin of the
Hypoblast in, 214.
——, Young, of Frogs, Spindle-shaped
Bodies in the Yolk of, 213.
Ovary and Perianth, Relation of, in
the Development of Dicotyledons,
1026,
1164
Oviparous Reproduction in the Mono-
tremes, 33.
Ovules, Curvature of, 267.
, Fecundation of, in Angiosperms,
270.
, Petalody of, 676.
Ovum, Isotropy of, and Problem of
Fertilization, 421.
of Axolotl, Karyokinesis in Seg-
mentation of, 976.
Owen, D., Clearing Fluid for Vege-
table Tissues, 366.
—, Mounting Sections Stained with
Picro-carmine, 164.
Ox, Staining the Nervous System of
the Muzzle and Upper Lip of, 555.
Oxalis, Protective Contrivances in the
Bulbs of, 92. .
Oxygen, Absorption of, in Leaves kept
in Darkness, 678.
, Influence of, on Fermentation by
Schizomycetes, 850.
Oyster, Development of, 226.
——,, Viviparous Edible, Development
of, 436.
——,, Rock, Parasite of, 1000.
12
Pe 43!
Pachydrilus enchytreoides, Organiza-
tion of, 1000.
Pacific, North, Copepoda of, 454.
Packard, A. 8., Brain of Asellus and
Cecidotza, 238.
—, Embryology of Limulus poly-
phemus, 806.
——, Number of Abdominal Segments
in Lepidopterous Larve, 636.
——, Unusual number of Legs in the
Caterpillar of Lagoa, 990.
Palinurus vulgaris, Optic Ganglion of,
450.
Paludicella, New Species of, 47.
Pancreatic Function of the Cephalopod
Liver, 622.
Paneth, J., Histology of Pteropods and
Heteropods, 42.
Papayer, Soluble Yellow Pigment in
the Petals of, 476.
Paper, Nutritive, 111.
Paraffin, Imbedding in, 1086, 1096.
. , by means of a Vacuum, 149.
——, Parabolic Mirror for Correction
of too hard or too soft, 344.
Parallel Rays in Photo-micrography,
528.
Parasite, Flagellate Infusorian, on
Trout, 82.
——,, New Fungus, on the Rose, 84’7.
——, New Infusorian, 81.
— of the Rock Oyster, 1000.
INDEX.
Parasite, Rhodomyces, a New Human,
1046
Parasites, Infusorial. of the Tasmanian
White Ant, 662.
— of Fresh-water Fishes, 647.
of Mena vulgaris, 809.
Parasitic Cattle - disease,
brandpilz,” 300.
Copepod of the Clam, 239.
— Fungi, 105.
on Aurantiacez, 106.
on the Mulberry, 290.
—— Fungus on the Red-currant, 291.
— Infusoria, New, 81.
—— Oidium, New, 505.
—— Phanerogams, Haustoria of, 268.
Pneumonia, Infectious, 510.
Parasitism, Change of Sarcopsylla
penetrans through, 447.
Parenchyma, Paratracheal, Peculiar
Structure of Protoplasm in, 1020.
Parenchymatous Tissues, ‘“‘ Bleeding ”
of, 837.
Parona, New and Little-known Pro-
tista, 261.
Parsons, F. A., Hydroid form of Lim-
nocodium Sowerbii, 168.
Parthenogenesis in Spirogyra, 285.
Passerini, G., Fungi Parasitic on the
Mulberry, 290.
Pasteur, L., Origin of Microzymes and
Vibrios of Air, Water, and Soil, 295.
‘Pathological Mycology, Woodhead
and Hare’s, 698.
Patouillard, N., Helicobasidium, anew
Genus of Hymenomycetes, 1045.
Patten, W., Artificial Fecundation of
Mollusca, 623.
——, Development of Phryganids, 53.
Pax, F., Anatomy of Euphorbiacez,
824.
Pear Blight, 1053.
Pedley, P. R., Stupefying Active Forms
of Aquatic Life, 165. _
Peduncles, Anatomy of, compared with
that of the Primary Axes and of
Petioles, 833.
Pelagic Alge, 684.
Pelargonium zonale, Changes in Hairs
of, and in the Cell-walls of Epider-
mal Cells, 668.
Pelletan, J., 533, 566, 1081.
Pelley, C. le, 747.
Pelseneer, P., Coxal Glands of My-
gale, 639,
, Nervous System of Apus. 805.
Peltidea aphthosa, Formation of Thalli
on the Apothecia of, 843.
Penhallow, D. P., Handle for Cover-
glasses, 1115.
-—, Relation of Annual Rings of
Exogens to Age, 1023.
“ Rausch-
INDEX,
Penicillium-Ferment in Pharmaccu-
tical Extracts, 1046.
Penny, W. G., 143.
Penzig, O., Cystoliths of Cucurbi-
taceze, 87.
——, Fungi parasitic on Aurantiacez,
. on the Mulberry, 290.
Peragallo, H., 748.
Pereyaslawzew, 8., Development of
Rotifers, 1006.
, Development of Turbellaria, 648.
Pergens’s Picrocarmine, 558.
Perianth and Ovary, Relation of, in the
Development of Dicotyledons, 1026.
Pericycle of the Root, Stem, and Leaves,
673.
Peridiniz, 468.
——,, Marine, 469.
Peripatus, Development of, 56.
—— capensis, Development of, 802.
Edwardsii, and P. torquatus, Pre-
paring Embryo of, 734.
Periplaneta orientalis, Orientation of
the Embryo and Formation of the
Cocoon of, 991.
—— ——,, Preparing the Sympathetic
Neryous System of, 538.
Peristome of Bryacez, 1035.
of Mosses, 100.
Perrayex, E., Formation of Egg-shell
in Dogfish, 425.
Perrier, E., Ambulacra of Echinoderms,
815.
——, Brisingide of the ‘Talisman’
Expedition, 1009.
, Development of Comatula, 655.
Perroncito, E., Action of Sodium Chlo-
ride on Cercarie, 814.
Petalody of Ovules, 676.
Petals, Epidermis of, 481.
Petioles, Anatomy of Peduncles com-
pared with that of the Primary Axes
and of, 833.
Pfaff’s (F.) Microgoniometer, 702.
Pfitzer, E., Assimilating Cavities in the
interior of Tubers of Bolbophyllum,
671.
Pfurtscheller, P., Anatomy of the Wood
of Conifers, 825.
Phzospore, Lithoderma fontanum, a
New Fresh-water, 285.
Phalangida, Coxal Gland in, 58.
Phallus impudicus, Structure of, 505.
Phallusia scabroides, Postembryonal
Development of, 795.
Phanerogamia, Anatomy and Physio-
logy of. See Contents, xxi.
Pharmaceutical Extracts, Penicillium-
Ferment in, 1046.
Phenol and Collodion in Microscopical
Technique, 559.
1165
Philibert, Peristome of Bryacez, 1035.
; of Mosses, 100.
Phillips, P. A., 338.
Philougria, Marine Species of, 239.
Phipson, T’, L., Chemical Phenomena
of the Respiration of Plants, 488.
Pheenicurus, 1005.
Phoriospongiz, The, 1012.
Phoronis, Blastopore, Mesoderm, and
Metameric Segmentation in, 242.
Phosphorescence of Marine Animals,
981.
Phosphorus, Diatoms in, 354.
, Mountiny in, 353.
Photogenic Fungi, Spectroscopic Ex-
amination of, 504.
Photographing, Selection and Prepara-
tion of Objects for, 911.
Photo-micrograph of Tongue of Blow-
fly, 1077.
Photo-micrographic Purposes, Staining
Bacteria for, 166.
Photo-micrographs, Value of, 528.
Photo-micrography, 338.
, Actinic and Visual Foci in,
with High Powers, 1070.
——, Atwood’s Apparatus for, 330.
—— ——,, Optical Arrangements for,
1070.
—— ——, Parallel Rays in, 528.
, Staining Tissues for, 559.
Phryganids, Development of, 53.
Phycochromacee, Occurrence of Chro-
matophores in, 102.
Phycomyces, Law of Growth of Fructi-
fication of, 288.
Phylloglossum Drummondii, Morpho-
logy of, 1034.
Phylogeny of Echinoderms, 651.
Physiology of the Phanerogamia. See
Contents, xxi.
Phytophagous Larve, Nature of the
Colouring of, 801.
Phytopus, Structure and Affinities of,
236
Piccone, A., Phytophagous Fishes as
Disseminators of Algse, 843.
Pick, H., Red Pigment of Phanerogams,
265.
Picrocarmine, Mounting
stained with, 164.
——,, Pergens’s, 558.
——, Staining Vegetable Tissues in,
165.
Piersol, G. A., Staining Tissues for
Photo-micrography, 558.
Pigment, Red, in Flowering Plants, 670.
—, , of Phanerogams, 265,
, Soluble Yellow, in the Petals of
Papaver, 476.
Pigment-bodies,
ments of, 476,
Sections
Spontaneous Move-
1166
Pigments, Enterochlorophyll and
allied, 621.
, Lepidopterous, Action of Ammonia
upon, 52.
of Green Leaves, Spectra of, and
their Derivatives, 670.
, Tegumentary, Respiration of the
Serpulacez in Relation to their, 64.
Pilobolide, 292.
Pines and Larches, Organs of Secretion
in, 269.
Pirotta, R., Cystopus Capparidis, 107.
Pitcher-plants, Anatomy of, 1024.
Pitres, A., Psorosperm in the Human
Pleural Cavity, 261.
Placenta, Foetus of Gibbon and its, 783.
, Nature of the Placental Neofor-
mation and the Unity of Composition
of, 783.
Planarians, Accelomate, Nervous Sys-
tem of, 1004.
Plasma, Eau de Javelle as a Medium
for Clarifying and Dissolving, 893.
Plasmodiophora Alni, 844.
Plasmolysis, 84.
Plate, L., Structure of Rotatoria, 65.
Plateau, F., Absolute Force of the
Muscles of Invertebrates, 58.
Plaut’s Staining Process for the De-
monstration of Saprogenous and
Pathogenous Micro-organisms, 342.
Pleomorphy of Pathogenic Bacteria,
1049.
Pleural Cavity, Human, Psorosperm in,
261.
Pleurobranchus, Communication of the
Vascular System with the Exterior
in, 794.
Pleuroweisia, a New Genus of Mosses,
1036.
Plossl’s Electrical Apparatus, 867.
Plowright, C. B., Life-history of certain
British Hetercecismal Uredinee, 288.
, Reproduction of the Hetercecious
Uredinew, 503.
Plumbaginez, Calcareous Glands of,
92.
Pneumonia, Infectious and Parasitic,
510.
Pneumonia-cocci in Dormitories as a
Cause of Pneumonia, 300.
Pneumonomycosis of Birds, 848.
Poa, Cecidomyia-galls on, 1026.
Podophrya fixa, Unstalked Variety of,
662.
Poggi, T., Fungi Parasitic on the Mul-
berry, 290.
Poirier, J.. Anatomy and Systematic
Position of Halia priamus Risso, 524.
, Trematoda, 1002.
Polarized Light in Vegetable Histology,
357.
INDEX.
Polarizing Prism, Bertrand’s, 133.
Prisms, Madan’s Modifications of
Foucault’s and Ahrens’, 328.
Poleck, Composition and Spore-culti-
vation of Merulius lacrymans, 845.
Poletajew, N., Spinning Glands of Saw-
flies, 442.
Pollen of Gymnosperms, 484.
Pollen-grains, Studying, 1085.
Pollens and Smuts, Staining and
Mounting, 349.
Polycladidea, 245.
Polycystina, Cleaning and Mounting,
165
Polygordius, Development of the Head
of, 808.
Polymorphism in the Amphipoda, 997.
of Algze, 1037.
Polynoina, Elytra of some, 456.
Polyphemus pediculus, Ameceboid
Movements of Spermatozoa of, 239.
Polyporus, Monograph of, 289.
sulfureus, Mycelial Conidia of,
289.
Polyzoa. See Contents, xii.
Pomatias and Cyclostoma, 436.
Pommer, G., Decalcification and Stain-
ing of Osseous Tissue, 905.
Poppe, 8. A., Copepoda of the North
Pacific, 454.
Porcelain, Effect of Prolonged Repose
and Filtration through, on the
Purity of Water, 561.
Porifera. See Contents, xix.
Porpita mediterranea, Histology of,
463.
Port Jackson, Beroid of, 1011.
Portraits of Presidents, 1121.
Position of Objects with the Binocular,
1075.
Postal Microscopical Section of Royal
Society of South Australia, 891.
Postembryonal Development of Phal-
lusia scabroides, 795.
Potash, Bichromate of, Preserving
Sections of the Nervous System
treated with, 731
Potato, ‘‘ Sclerotioids” of, 1022.
Pottia Giissfeldti, a New Moss, 682.
, Spores of, 1036.
Potts, E., Fresh-water Sponge from
Mexico, 1014.
——, Minute Fauna of Reservoirs, 433.
——, Modification in the Form o
Sponge Spicules, 75.
——, New Fresh-water Sponge, 658,
817.
—— New Species of Paludicella, 47.
——, Wide Distribution of some
American Sponges, 76.
Pouchet, A. G., Cholera Bacillus, 1051.
Marine Peridiniz, 469.
?
INDEX.
Poulton, E. B., Nature of the Colour-
ing of Phytophagous Larve, 801.
“ Pourridié” of the Vine, 107.
Powders, Examining Vegetable, 562.
Powell & Lealand’s Rings for Throwing
the Coarse Adjustment out of Gear,
525.
Power and Aperture of Microscopic
Objectives, Measurement of, 1082.
Prantl, K., Structure and Classification
of Ophioglossacesw, 1034.
Pratt, W. F., Staining Vegetable
Tissues in Picrocarmine, 165.
Prazmowski, A., History of Develop-
ment and Morphology of Bacillus
anthracis, 297.
President’s Address. 177.
Presidents, Portraits of, 1121.
Pressure, Apparatus for Watching the
Phenomena that Animals subjected
to great, present, 876.
Pressures, Effect of High, on the
Vitality of Ferments and on Fer-
mentation, 693.
Priapulus, Skin and Nervous System
of, 645.
Primitive Layers in Cuma Rathkii,
Development of the Egg and Forma-
tion of, 238, 641.
Streak in Osseous Fishes, 425.
Pringsheim’s (N.) Gas Chambers, 720.
Prinz, W., Sections of Diatoms from
the Jutland “ Cementstein,” 843.
Prior, Cholera Bacillus, 1050.
Prism, Right-angled, instead of a
Plane Mirror, 709, 864.
“ Prismatique,”’ 338.
Prisms, Improved Form of Stephenson’s
Erecting and Binocular, 959.
Problematic Organisms of the Ancient
Sea, 1039.
Proceedings of the Society. See Con-
tents, xliv.
Procella, 1081.
Production of Male and Female Plants,
677.
Projection, Preparations of the Cen-
tral Nervous System for, 146.
Prosobranchiata, Renal Organ of, 793.
Proteids, Digestion of, in Plants,
1030.
Prothallium of Lycopodium, 277, 839.
Protista, New and Little-known, 261.
Protophyta. See Contents, xxxi.
Protoplasm and its Powers of Resist-
ance, 421,
—, Circulation and Rotation of, as
a means of Transport of Food-
material, 665.
, Continuity of, 473.
—, Examining Movement of, in the
Styles of Indian Corn, 1106.
1167
Protoplasm in the Intercellular Spaces,
820
——, Intercellular, and Protoplasts,
Connection of, 83.
, Peculiar Structure of, in the
Paratracheal Parenchyma, 1020.
——,, Various Degrees of Resistance in,
1019.
Protoplasmic
Fucacez, 682.
, Methods for Observing,
Continuity in the
540, 892.
Protoplasts and Intercellular
toplasm, Connection of, 83.
, Intercellular Relations of, 8+.
Prototracheata. See Contents, xiv.
Protozoa. See Contents, xx.
Prouho, Anatomy of Dorocidaris, 815.
—, Larval Form of Dorocidaris
papillata, 1008.
Pruvot, G., Nervous System of Poly-
cheetous Annelids, 644.
Pseudo-cyclosis, 663.
— in Ameeba, 1019.
Pseudopodia, Experiments on Forma-
tion of, 1014.
Pseudorhiza haeckelii, 71.
Pseudoscopy, Discovery of, 722.
Psorosperm in the Human Pleural
Cavity, 261.
Pteris aquilina and Struthiopteris ger-
manica, Anatomy of Vegetative
Organs of, 492.
Pteropods, Histology of, 42.
Puccinia Thlaspidis, 1045.
Pulmonata, Development of Generative
Organs of, 623.
Pumphrey, W., 533.
» Parallel Rays in Photo-micro-
graphy, 528.
Punches, Cheap, for Sheet Wax, 367.
Puppy, Preparing Tail of, 894.
Purpuride, Nervous System of, 793.
Puzzles, Aperture, 721, 882.
Pycnogonida, Australian, 994.
Pyronema confluens, Development of,
289.
Pyrrhocoris, Formation of Ova in, 798.
Pro-
Q.
Queen, J. W., 728, 748.
—, Centering the Illuminating Beam,
524.
— Lens-holders, 317.
, Table of Colour-corrections, 1068.
——, J. W., & Co., 728, 891.
—— — Class Microscope, 119.
—— — Prepared Diatoms in Fluid
ready for Mounting, 927.
— — Slide Case, 1111.
1168
R.
R., R. D., 533.
Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic
Germany (Fungi), €90.
(Marine Algze),
Flora ‘of
685.
Rabl, C., Cell-division, 217.
, Preparing ‘issues to show Cell-
division, 893.
Slide for Viewing Objects on both
Sides, 329.
Radoszkowski, O., Copulatory Appara-
tus of Male Bombus, 50.
Radula, 282.
of Cephalophorous Molluses, 434.
Ralph, T. S., Examining Blood in
Typhoid Fever, 1104.
Rana temporaria, Early Development
of, 785.
—, Fate of Blastopore of, 425.
Ransom, W., Cardiac Rhythm of Inver-
tebrates, 789.
Ranunculaceze, Anatomy of the Fruit
of, 831.
, structure of, 674.
Rat, Spermatogenesis in, 783.
Ratte, F., Larve and Larva-cases of
some Australian Aphrophoride, 992.
Rauber and Sachsse, Influence of ex-
ternal conditions on the Development
of Ova, 423
“Rauschbrandpilz,” a parasitic cattle-
disease, 300.
Rayleigh, Lord, 143.
Rays of Osseous Fishes, Development
of, 213.
— Unicellular Glands in Cloaca of,
221.
Rebourgeon, Microbe of Yellow Fever,
694.
Receptacle, Morphology of, 831,
Receptaculum Seminis of Bees and
Wasps, 1.
“ Rector, F.R.A.8.,” 891.
Red-currant, Parasitic Fungus on, 291.
Reess, E., Systematic Position of Sac-
charomyces, 29+.
Refracting Media, Highly, supposed in-
crease of the Aperture of an Objec-
tive by using, 1077.
Refractive Index, Device for Testing,
1066.
—— ——, High, Micrometers mounted
in Media of, 330.
»——, Smith’s
Media of, 753, 1097.
Regeneration of Excised Parts and Te-
nacity of Life in Lumbricus terrestris,
455. ;
Regnard, P., Apparatus for watching
the phenomena that animals sub-
jected to great pressure present, S76.
Mounting
INDEX.
Reichert’s (C.) Microtome
clamp, 347.
Mineralogical - Geological Micro-
scope, 858.
, No. VII. Microscope, 302.
, Simple Hand-Microtome, 346.
Reighard, J., Anatomy and Histology
of Aulophorus vagus, 1001.
Reinhardt, L., Morphology and Classi-
fication of Black Sea Algze, 1039.
Reinke, J., Decomposition of Solutions
of Chlorophyll by Light, 669.
——, Fluorescence of Chlorophyll in
Leaves, 88.
Renal Orzan of Prosobranchiata, 793.
Repiachoff, M., New Turbellarian, 248.
Reproductive Organs of Crania, 233.
Reserve - products, Hydrecarbon, of
Mushrooms, 1044.
Reservoirs, Minute Fauna of, 433.
Resolution, on the Limits of, in the
Microscope, 968.
Respiration and Transpiration of Fungi,
104.
— of Germinating Seeds, 272.
of Leaves in Darkness, 488.
—— of Plants, 94, 835.
—— —— at Different Seasons, 836.
,Chemical Phenomena of, 488.
of the Serpulaceze in relation to
their Tegumentary Pigments, 64.
—— of Tissues not containing Chloro-
phyll, 94.
of Truncatella, 986.
——, Variation of, with Development,
679.
Respiratory Combustion, 95.
Retina of Cephalopoda, 41.
Retterer, Development of Vascular
Glands, 787.
Reynolds, R. N., 165.
Rhabdonema arcuatum, Conjugation of,
842.
Rhabdopleura, 46.
Rhizopod, New, 82.
Rhizopoda, Marine, 1016.
Rhizopods, Collecting, 534.
——, Reticular, New Condition of,
1017.
——,, Reticular Structure of, 471.
Rhodomyces, a New Human Parasite,
1046.
Rhythm, Cardiac, of Invertebrates, 789.
Ribbert, M., Development of Osteo-
myelitis-cocci in the Organism, 290.
——, Staining Bacteria with Dahlia,
558.
Ribbons of Sections, Cutting, 157, 158,
552.
Ribesin and Hosin, 342.
Richard, J., Action of Cocain on In-
vertebrates, 621,
Object-
INDEX.
Richard, J. Cocain for Mounting Small
Animals, 893.
Ord; ) 165.
Richmond Atheneum, 144.
Richter, P., Beggiatoa roseo-persecina,
508.
, Microcystis, 692.
Riddell’s (J. L.) Binocular Compound
Microscope, 1059.
Ridley, S. O., Structures liable to
Variation in the Astrangiacez
(Madreporaria), 73.
Riesengebirge, Fauna of the Pieces of
Water of, 433.
Rictsch, Odour and Poisonous Effects
of the Fermentation produced by the
Comma Bacillus, 298.
and W. Nicati, Attenuation of the
Choleraic Virus, 1051.
Rimmer, F., Nutations of Seedlings,
490.
Ring, Internal Cambium, in Gelse-
mium sempervirens, 478.
, Mechanical Penetration of, for
the Transport of Food-material, 479.
, Thickening, in Exogens, Growth
of, 478.
Rings, Annual, of Exogens, Relation
of to Age, 1023.
for Throwing the Coarse Adjust-
ment out of Gear, 525.
Rischawi, L., Galvanotropism, 1032.
Rob. Crus., 728, 891.
Robin, C., Death of, 1118.
Robinson’s Miniature
Camera, 528.
Roboz, Z. yv., Calcituba polymorpha,
258.
Rocher, B. du, Megaloscopy, 1061.
Rogers, W. A., Micrometers mounted in
Media of High Refractive Index, 330.
aor? 7 Mounting of Opaque Objects,
60.
Section-cutter, 347.
Rohde, E., Muscles of Chzetopoda,
456.
Rohrbeck, H., 748.
Rollett’s Electrical Apparatus, 874.
Romanes, G. J., Homing Faculty of
Hymenoptera, 990.
Rombouts, J. E., Movement of Flies on
Smooth Surfaces, 636.
Romiti, G., 748.
Rommier, A., Cultivated Wine-yeast,
114.
Root, Apex of, Geotropic Sensitiveness
0 >
——, ——, in Osmunda and Todea,
1033.
of Todea, Apical Growth of, 839,
. Perieycle of, 673.
Root-organs of Nephrolepis, 1033,
Microscopic
1169
Root-swellings of Juncus bufonius,
Fungus of, 107.
Roots, 272.
, Deviation of, from their Normal
Direction through the Influences of
Gases, 96.
, Galvanotropism of, 836.
, Influence of the Medium on the
Structure of, 832.
——, Motions of, during growth, 272.
of Aithalium septicum, Thermo-
tropism of, 844.
, Supply of Air to, and Root-pres-
sure, 490.
, Thermotropism of, 679.
Rose, New Fungus-parasite on, 847.
Rosenvinge, L. K., Parthenogenesis in
Spirogyra, 285.
Rosseter, T. B., Uses and Construction
of the Gizzard of Larvee of Corethra
plumicornis, 991.
Rossler, R., Radula of Cephalophorous
Molluses, 434.
Rotatoria, Pelagic and Fresh-water,
814.
, Structure of, 65.
Rothrock, J. T., Internal Cambium
Ring in Gelsemium sempervirens,
478.
Rotifer, New, 1007.
vulgaris, Reproduction and De-
velopment of, 249.
Rotifera, On Five new Species of, 608.
Rotifers and Nematodes, Relationship
of, 1006.
, Development of, 1006.
Roule, L., New Species of Simple
Ascidians, 45, 631.
Roux, G., Cystitis and Nephritis pro-
duced by Micrococcus ure, 1047.
——,, Small Negatives, 528.
Royal Microscopical Society, Deputa-
tion from, 339.
Royston-Pigott, G. W., 338, 1081.
— ,, Limit of Angular Vision, 339.
——, Note on the Structure of the
Scales of Butterflies, 165.
Rulf, P., Behaviour of Tannin in Ger-
mination, 272.
Rusby, H. H., Opening of the Anthers
in Ericacesx, 675.
Ruschhaupt, G., Development of
Monocystid Gregarines, 665.
Russell, W. J., Conditions of the De-
velopment and of the Activity of
Chlorophyll, 1020.
Russow, E., Protoplasm in the Inter-
cellular Spaces, $20.
Ryder, J. A., Cheap Bell-glass for the
Laboratory Table, 1111.
——, Chlorophylloid Granules of Vor-
ticella, 78.
1170
Ryder, J. A., Development of the Rays
of Osseous Fishes, 213.
4 of Salmon, 786.
——, —— of Viviparous Osseous Fishes,
978.
. Position of the Yolk-Blastopore
as determined by the Size of the
Vitellus, 978.
, Translocation forwards of the
Rudiments of the Pelvic Fins in the
Embryos of Physoclist Fishes, 618.
8.
Sabatier, A., Eggs of Ascidians, 987.
, Follicular and Granular Cells
of Tunicates, 44.
, Spermatogenesis
Crustacea, 237.
Saccardo, P. M., Fungi Parasitic on
the Mulberry, 290.
Saccharomyces, Occurrence of Varia-
tions in the Development of a, 16.
——, Systematic Independence and
Position of, 294.
Sacculina, Evolution of, 454.
Sachs, J., 339.
, Preparing Leaves to show Starch-
grains, 1084.
Sachsse, Influence of external condi-
tions on the development of Ova,
423.
Safftigen, A., Preparing Echinorhyn-
chi, 147.
Sagittaria sagittefolia, Stolons of, 479.
Sahli, H., Application of Borax me-
thylen-blue in the Examination of
the Central Nervous System, 731.
——, New Double Stain for the Ner-
vous System, 741.
St. Clair, R. W., New Electric Lamp,
339.
Saint-Loup, Organization of Pachy-
drilus enchytrzoides, 1000.
—, —- the Hirudinea, 807,
——,, Parasites of Meena vulgaris, 805.
Salensky, W., Development of Mono-
pora vivipara, 811.
Salivary Glands, Staining, 1095.
Salmon, D. E., Culture-tube, 145, 367.
, and T. Smith, 566.
—, New Chromogenous
B. luteus suis, 1052.
Salmon, Development of, 786.
Santa Monica, New Diatomaceous de-
posit at, 173.
Santalum, Hmbryo-sac of, 830.
Sap, Ascent of, 1031.
, Movement of Ascending, 489.
Saporta, G. de, Problematic Organisms
of the Ancient Sea, 1039.
in Decapod
Bacillus,
INDEX.
Sarasin, P. B. and C, F., Development
of Epicrium, 618.
Sarcodictyon, Structure of, 253.
Sarcopsylla penetrans, Change of,
through Parasitism, 447.
Sarcopsyllide, New genus of, 447.
Sarcoptide, 803.
Sareosporidia, New Type of, 820.
Sarsia radiata, Flexor Muscle of the
Hydroid Polyp of, 72.
Satterthwaite, T. H., 566.
Saunders, W. D., 165.
Savastano, L., 927.
, Hypertrophy of the Bud-cones of
the Carob, 675.
Saw-flies, Spinning Glands of, 442.
Sazepin, B., Demonstrating Nerve-end
Organs in the Antenne of Myrio-
pods, 896.
—, Nerve - terminations
Antenne of Myriopoda, 448.
Scales of Butterflies, note on Structure
of, 165.
of Coleoptera, 442.
Schaarschmidt, G., Cell-wall-thicken-
ings and Cellulin-grains in Chara
and Vaucheria, 838.
, Hibernation of Zygnemacez, 284.
—., Vegetative Changes of Form in
Chlorosporeee, 283.
——,, J., Connection of Protoplasts and
Intercellular Protoplasm, 83.
—,, Gongrosira, 103.
——,, Staining Vaucheria and Chara,
557.
Schacht’s Electrical Apparatus, 868.
Schafer, H. A., 927.
, Hlectrical Apparatus, 872.
Schanze’s (M.) Microtome, 547.
Scharff, R., Skin and Nervous System
of Priapulus and Halicryptus, 645.
Scheit, M., Air in Water-conducting
Wood, 679.
Schenck, H., Changes of Structure in
Land - Plants when growing sub-
merged, 674.
, Formation of Centrifugal Thick-
enings in the Walls of Hairs and in
the Epidermis, 267.
Scherrer, J., 728.
Schieck’s, (J. W.), Bacteria Micro-
scopes, 301.
, Dissecting Microscopes
Briicke Lens, 319.
, Microscope with Screw Stage-
Micrometer, 861.
Schiefferdecker, P., 367, 927.
, Anilin-green, 903.
Schimkewitsch, W., Change of Sar-
copsylla penetrans through Parasit-
ism, 447.
, Development of Astacus, 805.
on the
with
INDEX.
Schimkewitsch, W., Change of the
Heart in Vertebrates and Inverte-
brates, 212.
, New genus of Sarcopsyllide, 447.
and P. Bertkau, Sense-organ of
Spiders, 993.
Schizomycetes, Influence of Oxygen on
Fermentation by, 850.
Schizophycex, Distribution of Chroma-
tophores and Nuclei in, 691.
Schizopoda, Circulation of, 60.
Sehlechter, J., Causes of Sex, 215.
Schlen, v., Bacilli of Malaria, 1052.
Schliephacke, K., Pleuroweisia, a new
genus of Mosses, 1036.
, Pottia Giissfeldti, a new Moss, 682.
Schloesing, T., Absorption of Oxygen
and Evolution of Carbon dioxide in
Leaves kept in Darkness, 679.
Schmidts Atlas der Diatomaccen-
kunde, 103.
Schmitz, F., Structure of Chromato-
phores, 109, 293.
Schneider, A., Anoplophyra circulans,
819.
——,, Ophryocystis biitschlii, 82.
Schnetzler, J. B., Beggiatoa alba, 1046.
——, Remarkable Development of As-
pergillus niger, 289.
Schoolroom, Microscope in the, 728.
Schott, 728.
Schrenk, J., Haustoria of Parasitic
Phanerogams, 268.
Schréder, H.; Bertrand’ s Polarizing
Prism, 133.
— Camera Lucida, 140.
Schrodt, J., Bursting of the Sporangium
of Ferns and the Anther of Flower-
ing Plants, 1032.
Schroller, Influence of Electricity on
the Growth of Plants, 835.
Schroter, J., Classification of Fungi,
689.
Schiiler, P., Relations of Cavernous
Spaces in the Connective Tissue of
Anodonta to the Blood-vascular
System, 794.
Schulgin, A., Argiope Kowalevskii, 49.
— , Development of Amarcecium pro-
liferum, 437.
Schultze, E. A., 339.
Schulze, C., Albuminoid Constituents
of Plants, 97.
Schiitz, Pneumonomycosis of Birds,
848.
Schiitzenberger, P., Respiratory Com-
bustion, 95.
Schwarz, F., Behaviour of the Nucleus
after Division, 475.
Schwendener, 8., Firmness of Tissues,
476.
——, Laticiferous Vessels, 1022.
LAE
Science Studies, Influence of, 1081.
Sclerostoma boularti, 244.
* Sclerotioids” of Potato, 1022.
Scorpio, Muscular and Endoskeletal
Systems of, 992.
, New Hypothesis as to the Re-
lationship of the Lung-book of, to
the Gill-book of Limulus, 639,
Scorpions, Direct Nuclear Division in
the Embryonic Investments of, 448.
Scotland, Diatomaceous Deposits in,
287.
Screw, Universal, for Microscope Ob-
jectives, 335.
Seyllium Canicula, Preparing the Clo-
acal Epithelium of, 781.
Seyphomeduse, Local Colour-varieties
of, 71.
of the Southern Hemisphere,
(fale
Sea, Ancient, Problematic Organisms
of, 1039.
Sea-Anemones and Worms, Symbiosis
of, 982.
Seaman, We He 533, 065, 927
Seas, Shallow, influence of Wave-cur-
rents on Fauna of, 38.
Season Dimorphism in Spiders, 803.
Secreting Canals of Plants, 823.
Secretion, Organs of, in Pines and
Larches, 269.
-receptacles, Mechanical Sheaths
to, 267.
Secretions, Peptonizing Ferments in,
491.
Section-cutter. See Microtome.
Section-cutting, Notes on, 737.
“Ribbon,” 552.
Sections of Bone and Teeth, Rapid
Method of making, 348.
——of hard Organized Substances,
Rapid Method of making, 553.
——, Series of, 740, 1092.
x Suezgestions as to the Pre-
paration and Use of, in Zootomical
Instruction, 1091.
——,, Thickness of, 1092,
Sedgwick, A., Development of Peri-
patus capensis, 802.
Sée, Infectious and Parasitic Pneumo-
nia, 510.
Seedlings, Nutations of, 490.
Seeds, Albuminous, Absorbing Organs
of, 829.
——,, Germinating, Respiration of, 272.
—,, Influence of Light on Germination
of, 93.
, Reducing Properties of, and For-
mation of Diastase, 276.
Secliger, O., Development of Social
Ascidians, 627.
Segmental Organs of Serpula, 458.
?
1172
Segmentation of Axolotl Ovum, Karyo-
kinesis in, 976.
Segments, Number of Abdominal, in
Lepidopterous Larve, 636.
Seiler’s (C.) Microtome Attachment,
1091. :
Selaginella spinulosa, Development of
the Vegetative Organs of, 279.
Selenka, E., Development of the Opos-
sum, 976.
——, Imbedding in Paraffin, 1086.
Seligeriacee, Trochobryum, a new
Genus of, 281.
Seminiferous Canals, Origin of Sperma-
tozoids in, 979.
Semper’s Method of making dry Pre-
parations, Modification of, 898.
Sense-organ of Spiders, 993.
-organs of Calanide, 997.
of Spiders, 58.
Sensorial Organs of the Antenne of
Ants, 441.
Sepia and Limulus, Chitin as a Con-
stituent of the Cartilages of, 222.
Series of Sections, 740, 1092.
, Suggestions as to the Pre-
paration and Use of, in Zootomical
Instruction, 1091.
Serpula, Formation of Trochosphere in,
240.
, Segmental Organs of, 458.
Serpulaceze, Respiration of, in Relation
to their Tegumentary Pigments, 64.
Serpulea, Anatomy of, with Character-
istics of Australian Species, 241.
Sete, Histology of, 35.
Sex, Causes of, 215.
Sexes in Bees and Wasps, Apparatus
for Differentiating, 1.
, Regulation of the Proportion of,
in Man, Animals, and Plants, 214.
Sexton, L. R., Obituary of, 339.
Sexual Characters in Zinnia, 267.
Organs of Clepsine, Development
of, 455.
Sexuality, Development of, 974.
—— in the Zygnemacee, 285.
Seynes, J. de, Mycelial Conidia of Poly-
porus sulfureus, 289.
Sharp, B., Homologies of the Verte-
brate Crystalline Lens, 430.
— H., Mounting in Cells with
Canada Balsam, 909.
—., Mounting the Proboscis of the
Blow-fly in Biniodide of Mercury,
733.
Sheaths, Mechanical, to
Receptacles, 267.
Sheep, Ameeba infesting, 1018.
Shell, Hatching of Birds’ Eggs after
Lesion of, 784.
of Lamellibranchiata, 230.
Secretion
INDEX.
Shell of Lamellibranchs, Structure and
Function of, 44.
Shellac, Mayer’s Carbolic Acid, 909.
, Preparing Slides with, 164.
Shells of Bivalves, Hinge of, 229.
of Molluses, 228.
——, Preparing Thin Sections of, 348.
Sieve-hyphe in Algs, 684.
—— -tube System of Cucurbitaceze, 477.
—— -tubes, Course and Termination of,
in Leaves, 90.
in the Leaves of Dicotyle-
dons, 1020. :
Sigillaria, Fructification of, 493.
Siliceous Films too thin to show a
broken edge, 406.
Membrane with Properties of the
Cell-wall, 263.
Silliman, W. A., Fresh-water Turbel-
laria of North America, 648.
Silver, Nitrate of, Preserving Sections
of the Nervous System treated with,
731.
Silver-reducing Animal Organs, 619.
Simroth, H., Cyclostoma and Pomatias,
436.
Siphonophora, Cyclical Development
of, 1010.
Sirodot, S., Batrachospermum, 494.
Skin of Priapulus and Halicryptus,
645.
Slack, H. J., 144, 166, 367, 566, 748,
927.
Sladen, W. P., Arbaciade, 652.
Slater, J. W., Influence of Magnetism
upon Insect Development, 988.
Slide, a beautiful, 163.
— Boxes, 910.
— Case, 1111.
—, Double-sided, 908.
—— for Viewing Objects on both Sides,
Rabl’s, 329.
——, Hamlin’s Ideal, 743.
Slides, Balkwill’s Foraminifera, 1084.
, Finish for, 744.
Slingo, W., 144.
Small Objects, Imbedding, 541.
Smith, C. V., death of, 533.
——, H. L., Device for Testing Refrac-
tive Index, 1066.
—,, Influence of Science Studies, 1081.
, Mounting Media of High Refrac-
tive Index, 352, 753, 1097.
—, New Cement, 1099.
—, 8. I., New Crustacean, 807.
——, New Decapod Crustacea, 453.
)
—, New Chromogenous Bacillus—
B. luteus suis, 1052.
Smuts and Pollens,
Mounting, 349.
Societies, Microscopical, 332.
Staining and
INDEX.
Sodium Chloride,
Cercariz, 814.
Soils, Influence of Moisture in, on
Plant Growth, 486.
Solger, B., Development of the Coelom
and Ccelomic Epithelium of Am-
phibia, 423.
Solla, R. F., 566.
— , Pelagic Algs, 684.
Sollas, W. J., 1111.
, Apparatus for Determining the
Specific Gravity of Minute Objects
under the Microscope, 879.
—, Development of
lobularis, 73.
—., Structure of the Skeleton in the
Anomocladina, 464.
Solmsiella, a new Genus of Mosses, 101.
Sommer, A., Macrotoma plumbea, 637.
Sonsino, P., Small Rod-like Cell-
contents of certain Cercariz, 1003.
Sorby, H. C., 1082.
—, Autumnal Tints of Foliage, 97.
—, Dichroiscope, 121.
Southall, G., 339.
Southern Hemisphere, Scyphomedusse
of 74:
—— Sea, Ceelenterates of, 656.
Southworth, E. A., Stomata of
Equisetum, 99.
Sowing, Effect of Depth of, on the
nen and Growth of Plants,
3.
Spark, Electric, Stokes - Watson
Apparatus, 728, 1069.
eo , , Slide showing Path of,
727.
——, ——,, under the Microscope, 888.
Spawning of Fulgur perversus, 986.
—— of the Cod, 786.
Specific Gravity of Minute Objects
under the Microscope, Apparatus for
Determining, 879.
Spectra, New Organic, 429.
—— of the Pigments of Green Leaves
and their Derivatives, 670.
Spectroscopic Examination of Photo-
genic Fungi, 504.
Spectrum of Chlorophyll, Examining,
527.
Spee, F., Sections in Series, 740.
Spencer, W. B., Early Development of
Rana temporaria, 785.
——,, Fate of the Blastopore of Rana
temporaria, 425.
= Urinary Organs of Amphipoda,
Action of, on
Halisarca
. ~
Spengel, J. W., Anatomy of Balano-
glossus, 69.
Spermatogenesis in Branchiobdella,
— in Decapod Crustacea, 237.
Ser. 2.—Vot. V.
1178
Spermatogenesis in the Rat, 783.
, Unity of Process of, in Mamma-
lia, 615.
Spermatozoa of Polyphemus pediculus,
Amceboid Movements of, 239.
Spermatozoids, Origin of, in the Semi-
niferous Canals, 979.
Spheridia of the Echinoidea, Structure
and Functions of, 1009.
Spherozgyna ventricosa, 449.
Spherularia bombi, Development of,
646, 810.
Sphagnaces, European, 281.
Spicules, Flesh-, Occurrence of, in
Sponges, 254.
——, Sponge-, Modification in form of,
5
Spiders. See Arachnida.
Spinal Cord, New Method of Staining,
742.
Spindle-shaped Bodies in the Yolk of
Young Ova of Frogs, 213.
Spindles, Formation of, in Mammalian
Ova during the Degeneration of the
Graafian Follicle, 975.
Spines, Histology of, 35.
, Use of, in Cactuses, 1027.
Spinning Glands of Saw-flies, 442.
Spirogyra, Parthenogenesis in, 285.
Spirorbis borealis, Larval Forms of, 644.
Sponges. See Porifera.
Spongilla, Development of, 254, 817.
fragilis, 255.
lacustris, Reproduction of, 1011.
, New Species of, 255.
Sporangia, Dehiscence of, in Vascular
Cryptogams, 276. .
Sporangium of Ferns, Bursting of,
1032,
— of Frullania, Development of, 840.
of Trichia, Development of, 107.
Spore-coats and Germination of Hepa-
tice, 101,
—— -cultivation and Composition of
Merulius lacrymans, 845.
—— -formation, Internal, in Diatoms,
1041.
— —, Nocturnal, in
cinerea, 690.
Spores of Botrychium ternatum, Grow-
ing, 1109.
— of Cladothrix, Formation of, 692.
— of Lycopodium, 839.
of Merulius lacrymans, Germina-
tion of, 845,
of Pottia, 1036.
of the Genus Onoclea, Third Coat
in, 493.
Sporocyst, Free-swimming, 648.
Sporogonium and Archegonium of
Muscines, 279.
Spur of Cucnrbitacer, 831.
4a
Botrytis
1174
Stage, Mayall’s Mechanical, 122.
, Tolles’s Centering, 521.
Stages, Microscopes with Accessory,
1058.
Stahl, E., Influence of Light on Geo-
tropism, 491.
Stain, New Double, for the Nervous
System, 741.
Staining and Decalcification of Osseous
Tissue, 905.
—— and Mounting Pollens and Smuts,
349.
Bacteria for Photo-micrographic
purposes, 166.
with Dahlia, 558.
——, Contribution to the History of,
— Desmids, 742.
— ,, Double, 558.
——, ——,, Bacillus subtilis, &., 363.
— Fluid, Method of Preparing
Hematoxylon, 741.
— Fluids, Carmine, New Methods of
Preparing, 1094.
for Microscopical Purposes, 554,
900.
for the Study of Red Blood-
corpuscles, 741.
Infusoria, 538.
— Method for Karyokinetic Figures,
341.
— —— for the Central Nervous
System, Weigert’s, 158, 159.
— Methods, 902.
—— Nerves in Muscle, 903.
— of Koch’s Bacillus, 557.
Process, Plaut’s, for the Demon-
stration of Saprogenous and Patho-
genous Micro-organisms, 342.
—— Salivary Glands, 1095.
, Silver, of Marine Objects, Method
for, 160.
Technique, 554.
— the Axis-cylinder of Medullated
Nerve-fibres, 742.
— the Nervous System of the
Muzzle and Upper Lip of the Ox,
550.
the Nucleus of the Germinal
Vesicle in Arthropoda, 905.
—— the Spinal Cord, New Method of,
742.
—— the Spores of Bacillus tubercu-
losis, 342.
— Tissues for Photo-micrography,
559.
Vaucheria and Chara, 557.
— Vegetable Tissues in Picrocar-
mine, 165.
with Hematoxylin, 1095.
Stamens, Influence of Gravitation on
the Movements of, 272.
INDEX.
Starch, Formation of, in the Leaves of
the Vine, 670.
in Vessels, 671. :
Starch-grains, Preparing Leaves to
show, 1084.
— -meal, 265.
Statice monopetala, Leaves of, 829.
Stearn, C. H., 339.
Stebbing, T. R. R., New Amphipodous
Crustacean, 238.
Stein’s (S. T.) Microscopes for use
with the Electrie Light, 303.
Steinbrinck, C., Bursting of Ripe
Fruits, 481.
Steinheil, A., 339, 533.
Stem of Aquatic Plants, Structure of,
480.
of Composit, Anatomical Struc-
ture of, 480.
of Strychnos, Structure of, 828.
——, Pericycle of, 673.
Stephani, F., Radula, 282.
Stephanosphera pluvialis, 495.
Stephenson, J. W., Erecting and Bino-
cular Prisms, Improved Form of, 959.
, Immersion Illuminator, 523.
—, On a Cata-dioptrie Immersion
Tiluminator, 207.
Sterculiaceze, Gum-canals of, 827.
Stereoscopic Vision, Monocular, 332.
Sterilization of Fermentable Liquids
in the Cold, 562.
Sternberg, G. M., Culture-tubes, 367.
, Relation of Bacteria to Asiatic
Cholera, 299.
—, Selection and Preparation of
Objects for Photographing, 911.
Stieda, L., 367.
Stilling, J., Investigating the Structure
of the Central Nervous Organs, 730.
Stillson, J. O., 367.
Stodder, J. C., Series of Objectives,
863.
Stokes, A. C., New Choano-Flagellata,
258.
——, New Fresh-water Infusoria, 80,
257, 659.
—., New Parasitic Infusoria, 81.
——,, New Vorticella, 470, 819.
—,, Vorticellee with Two Contractile
Vesicles, 659.
, G. G., 892.
Stokes-Watson Electric Spark Appa-
ratus, 728, 1059.
Stolons of Sagittaria sagitteefolia, 479.
Stomachs of Mollusca and Crustacea,
Preparing Diatoms from, 734.
Stomata of Equisetum, 99.
—— of Marchantia, 1036.
Stowell, C. H., 144, 566, 748.
——,, Dissecting Insects, 166.
——, Microscopic Geissler Tube, 367.
INDEX,
Stowell, C. H. and L. B.,144, 533, 566,
728.
Strahl, H., Embryology of Lacerta
viridis, 212.
Strasburger, E., 144.
, Coloured Crayons for Marking
Preparations, 1103.
, Development of the Sporangium
of Trichia, 107.
—, Eau de Javelle for Clearing,
ie
—, Embryo-sac of Santalum and
Daphne, 830.
——,, Finder, 1103.
——,, Practical Botany, 332.
——,, Theory of Descent, 1027.
Streng, A., Isolating Minerals in Sec-
tions for Micro-chemical Examina-
tion, 921.
Strie of Diatoms, Nature of, 169, 173.
Striated Woody Tissue, 828.
Stricker’s Electrical Apparatus, 870,
874.
— Electrodes, 875.
Strobelt’s Electrical Apparatus, 870.
Strop for Knives, 157.
Struthiopteris germanica and Pteris
aquilina, Anatomy of Vegetative
Organs of, 492.
Strychnin, Micro-chemical Test for,
920.
Strychnos, Structure of Stem of, 828.
Stuhlmann, F., 1111.
Stupefying Active Forms of Aquatic
Life, 165.
Sturtevant, E. L., Hybridization and
Cross-breeding of Plants, 1028.
Styles of Indian Corn for Examining
Movement of Protoplasm, 1106.
Styrax and Balsam, 744.
— for Mounting Diatomacee, 166.
Substage Apparatus, Beck’s Combined,
115.
Succulent Plants, Periodical Forma-
tion of Acids in, 97.
Suckers of Animals, Morphology of, 431.
Summary of Current Researches, See
Contents, viii.—xliv.
Sun, Influence of, on the Growth and
Activity of Bacillus anthracis, 1050.
Sunflowers, Movements of Androecium
in, 268.
Sunlight, Effect of, on Micrococcus,
1047.
, Influence of direct, on Vegeta-
tion, 678.
—, —, on the Vitality of Germs,
508.
Surfaces, flat vertical, How Insects
adhere to, 801.
Swaen, A., Early Developmental
Stages of Torpedo, 977.
1175
Swelling Agent, Biniodide of Mercury
and Potassium as, 341.
Swift’s (J.) Cone and Achromatized
Immersion Paraboloid Condenser,
126.
— Sheep-Scab Microscope, 307.
Swift, M. J., Photo-micrograph of
Tongue of Blow-fly, 1077.
Swift-Wale Microscope, 119.
Swine’s-flesh, Actinomyces in, 290.
Swiss Lakes, Deep Fauna of, 238.
Symbiosis, New Instance of, 282.
of Worms and Sea-Anemones, 982.
Synascidian Diplosomide, the, 796.
Syphilis, Preparing the Bacillus of,
539,
Abe
Table, Numerical Aperture, 972.
Tadpoles, Epidermic Cells of, 977.
Teenia, Nervous System of, 244, 459.
Echinococcus, Experimental
Breeding of, 1002.
——, Frequent occurrence of, in
Domestic Dogs, 1002.
“Tag” of Coelopleurus Maillardi, 815.
Tail of Human Embryo, 781.
‘Talisman’ Expedition, Brisingide of,
1009.
Tangl, E., Continuity of Protoplasm,
473.
Tannin and Lignin in Galls, 1020.
—, Behaviour of, in Germination,
272.
Tasmanian White Ant, Infusorial Para-
sites of, 662.
Tate, A. N., 749.
Taylor, C. J., Apparatus for Botanical
Lectures, 312.
—, F. W., 367.
—, G. H., 927.
——, H., and F. Kitton, Diatoms and
Bladderwort, 685.
—, T., 927.
——, Examination of Butter and Fats,
356.
—, and J. B. Betts, Discrimina-
tion of Butter and its Substitutes,
918.
Tayou, M., Microbe of Human Typhoid
Fever, 299
——, —— of Typhoid Fever in Man,
1052.
Tea, Microscopical Examination of,
749
Technical Notes, Various, 928.
Technique, Hints on, 166.
Tectibranchiata of the Gulf of Mar-
seilles, 624.
Teeth and Bone Sections, Rapid
Method for Making, 348.
——, Preparing Thin Sections of, 348.
4a2
1176
Temne, F., Formation of Gum in
Wood, 88.
Temperature Maxima for
Animals, 791.
Temperatures, Effects of Very Low, on
Living Organisms, 619.
Tension, Behaviour of the Optical
Axes of Elasticity of Cell-walls
under, 476.
Terletzki, P., Anatomy of the Vege-
tative Organs of Struthiopteris ger-
manica and Pteris aquilina, 492.
Terra-del-Fuego, Mosses of, 1036.
Test for the Hand-Lens, 720.
—— in Tunicata, Evolution of the
Blood-vessels of, 230.
Test-object, Navicula cuspidata as a,
140.
Testes of Lepidoptera, 51.
Testing the different Sectors of Objec-
tives, 324.
Tests, Sensitive, for Wood-fibre and
Cellulose, 897.
Tetramyxa parasitica, 292.
Tetraplatia volitans, 252.
Textile Microscopical Association, 728.
Thalli, Formation of, on the Apothecia
of Peltidea aphthosa, 843.
Thallwitz, J., Development of Male
Germinal Cells in Hydroids, 462.
Thanhoffer’s Electrical Apparatus, 869.
Theiler and Son, 729.
* Universal (Achromatic) Pocket
Microscope,” 704.
Thermal Waters, Ales of, 1047.
Thermotropism of Roots, 679.
— of Atthalium septicum, 844.
Thickenings, Centrifugal, Formation
of, in the Walls of Hairs and in the
Epidermis, 267.
Thoma’s (R.) Microtome, 153.
Thomas, J. D., Experimental Breeding
of Tzenia Echinococcus, 1002.
—, Frequent occurrence of Tenia
Echinococcus in Domestic Dogs, 1002.
Thompson’s (D’A. W.), Bibliography
of Protozoa, Sponges, Coelenterata,
Worms, and Molluscoida, 983.
——, Hydroid Zoophytes of the ‘ Wil-
lem Barents’ Expedition, 1881, 73.
— (W. G.) Projection Microscope,
310.
Thore, J., Algee of Thermal Waters,
1047.
Thoulet, J., 166.
Thudichum, J. L. W., Medico-legal and
Chemical Microscopy, 1108.
Thimen, F. v., Fungi of the Vine and
Willow, 291.
Thurston, E., 749.
—.,, Balsam for mounting Bacteria,
166,
Marine
INDEX.
Thurston, E., Examining Bacteria, 362.
. staining Bacteria for photo-micro-
graphic purposes, 166.
Tichborne, Application of the Micro-
scope to Practical Mineralogical
Questions, 922.
Tichomirow, Composition of the Ova of
Bombyx, 441.
——,, W. A.., Peculiar Structures in the
Flesh of the Date, 824.
Tieghem, P. van, Annular and Spiral
Cells of Cactaceze, 672.
——, Coenonia,a New Genus of Myxo-
mycetes, 293.
, Cortical Fibrovascular Bundles of
Vicieze, 266.
, Curvature of Ovules, 267.
——, Development of Bacillus Amylo-
bacter in Plants in a Normal Condi-
tion of Life, 297.
, —— of Pyronema confluens, 289.
——, Gum-canals of the Sterculiacez,
827.
——, Monascus, a New Genus of Asco-
mycetes, 291.
——,, Secreting Canals of Plants, 823.
Tiemann, Examination of Water for
the Development of Micro-organisms,
560.
‘Times,’ The, on the Microscope, 883.
Timiriazeff, C., Chemical and Physio-
logical Action of Light on Chloro-
phyll, 837.
Tindall, H. A., 533.
Tintinnodea, 470.
Tissue-system, Mechanical, 828.
Tissues, Animal, Origin and Develop-
ment of, 426.
——, Firmness of, 476.
, Susceptibility of the Different, to
Colouring Matters, 554.
——, Vegetable, Cleaning Fluid for,
366.
Tizzoni, Demonstration of Karyokinesis
in Epithelial Tissues, 730.
Todea, Apex of the Root in, 1033.
, Apical Growth of the Root of,
839.
Toldt, C., 567.
Tolles, R. B., 339.
, Centering Stage, 521.
——,, Clinical Microscope, 308.
——, Memorial Fund, 380.
—— —— ——, Donation of Society to,
168,
Tolman, H. L., and M. D. Ewell, Eye-
piece Micrometers, 704.
Tolu, Balsam of, as a Medium for
Mounting, 352, 1116, 1117.
— instead of Chloroform for Imbed-
ding in Paraffin, 541.
Tongue of Blow-fly, 751.
INDEX.
Toépffer, A., Transitional Equisetum,
Tépler’ s (A.) Illuminating Apparatus,
710.
Torpedo, Early Developmental Stages
of, 977.
Torsion, Heliotropic and Geotropic, 95.
Townsend, F., Homology of the Floral
Envelopes in Graminez and Cypera-
ce, 676.
Trachinus vipera, Development of, 34.
Trachsel-Crozet, 1111.
Tracks of Insects resembling the Im-
pressions of Plants, 635.
Tradescantia, Division of Cell-nucleus
in, 475.
Trajano, Lago, Diatoms from, 103.
Transactions of the Society. See Con-
tents, xliv.
Transparencies, Lantern, 866.
Transpiration and Respiration of
Fungi, 104.
, Protection of Leaves from exces-
sive, 1025.
Transpiration-currents, 1032.
Treasurer’s Account for 1884, 373.
Trees, Mechanical Injury to, by Cold,
1029.
——,, Nutrition of, by means of under-
ground Fungi, 844,
Trelease, W., Relations of Two
Cecidomyians to Fungi, 291.
Trematoda, 1002.
——, Anatomy of, 460.
Trematodes, Imbedding and Examin-
ing, 735.
Treub, M., Embryo of Barringtonia,
271.
—, —— of Cycadex, 270.
—, Prothallium of Lycopodium,
277.
Trichia, Development of the Spo-
rangium of, 107.
Trochobryum, a New Genus of Seli-
geriaceze, 281, 841.
Trochosphere, Formation of, in Serpula,
240.
oar espa Hermaphroditism of Male
of, 58.
Trouessart, E. L., Acari inhabiting the
Quill of Feathers, 236.
—, Sarcoptide, 803.
Trough, Hawkins’s Observatory, 719.
Trout, Flagellate Infusorian parasitic
on, 82.
Truncatella, Respiration of, 986.
Techirch, A., Chemical Reactions of
Chloro hyll, 264.
—, Ch orophyll of Fuecacer, 282.
—, Mechanical Tissue-system, 828.
—, Morphology of Chlorophyll-
grains, 88, 475.
1177
Tschirch, Penetration of the Mechanical
Ring for the Transport of Food-
material, 479.
, Starch-meal, 265.
Tuberacex, Cryptica, a New Genus of,
05
Tuberculosis, Etiology of, 851.
Tunicata. See Contents, xii.
Turbellaria, Development of, 648.
, Fresh-water, of North America,
648.
Turbellarian, New, 248.
Turbellarians, Deep-water, of Lakes,
1004.
Turner, W. B., On some new and rare
Desmids, 933.
——, Staining Desmids, 742.
Turntable, Brownell’s, 350.
——,, Microscopical, 166.
“Twin” Simple Microscope, 862.
Tyas, W. H., 928.
Tyroglyphidz, Noteson the Life-His-
tories of some of the little-known, 19.
Tyrothrix, Action of various Com-
pounds on, 510.
Tyrrell, P., 534.
U.
Uljanin, B., Doliolum, 231.
——,, Structure of Distaplia, 233.
Ulmer, J., Microscope with Catgut
Focusing Adjustment, 1057.
Umbelliferze, Oil-receptacles in the
Fruit of, 89.
Unicellular Organisms, Immortality of,
466.
“Universal Accessory,” Bausch and
Lomb Optical Company’s, 713.
Urbanovics, F., Development of Cy-
clops, 641.
Urediner, Life-history of certain
British Hetercecismal, 288.
——,, Reproduction of the Hetercecious,
503.
Uric Acid Crystals, Extraction of,
from the Green Gland of Astacus
fluviatilis, 805.
Urinary Deposits, Mounting, 365.
— Organs of Amphipoda, 640.
Urnatella gracilis, 439.
Urodela, Preparing Brain of, 536.
Uropneustic Apparatus of Helicins,
225.
Urtica dioica, Macks Organs of, 833.
Ustilaginea, New, 288.
Vu
bias i cae C., 534, 729, 749, 928,
——, Balsam of Tolu as a Medium
for Mounting, 352.
1178
Vandevelde, G., Chemistry of Bacillus
subtilis, 508.
Variation, New Law of, 216.
Varigny, H. de, “ Latent period” of
Unstriped Muscle in Invertebrates,
982.
, Physiology of the Unstriated
Muscles of Invertebrata, 791.
Vascular System, Communication of,
with the Exterior in Pleurobranchus,
794,
of Hchinoids, 814.
Vaucheria and Chara, Staining, 557.
— , Cell-wall Thickenings and Cel-
lulin Grains in, 838.
Vayssiere, A., Respiration of Trunca-
tella, 986.
—, Tectibranchiata of the Gulf of
Marseilles, 624.
Védy’s Revolving Stage Microscope,
699.
Vegetative Organs of Monotropa, 1025.
—— of Phanerogams and Ferns,
93.
Vejdovsky, F., Observations on some
Fresh-water Sponges, 255.
Velella, Structure of, 1010.
Venturi, G., Spores of Pottia, 1036.
Vermes. See Contents, xvi.
Vermilia, Crustacean inhabiting the
Tubes of, 238.
Verrall, G. H., 892.
Verrill, A. E., New Coelenterates and
Echinoderms, 432.
Versuridz, Development of, 72.
Vertebrata, Embryology and Histology
of. See Contents, viii.
Vesicating Insects, Structure of Wings
of, 992.
Vesiculz Seminales of Guinea-pigs,
35
Vesque, J., Anatomy of the Leaf in
Vismiex, 675.
—,, Ascent of Sap, 1031.
ae Movement of Ascending Sap,
89.
Vétillart, M., 567.
Viallanes, H., Optic Ganglion of
/ischna, 800.
— of Palinurus vulgaris,
450.
Vialleton, L., Buccal Membrane of
Cephalopoda, 622.
sree Fecundation in Cephalopoda,
Vibrios and Microzymes of Air, Water,
and Soil, Origin of, 295.
Vicieze, Cortical Fibrovascular Bundles
of, 266.
Vigelius, W. J., Morphology of the
Bryozoa, 438.
Viguier’s (C.) Compressorium, 137.
INDEX.
Viguier, Lower Animals of the Bay
of Algiers, 65.
—,, Pelagic Annelids, 998.
, Tetraplatia volitans, 252.
Villot, A., Host of the Larva of
Echinorhyncus claveceps, 459.
Vine, Bacillus of, 1053.
, Formation of Starch in Leaves
of, 670. ;
, Fungi of, 291.
——,, “ Pourridié ” of, 107.
Vines, S. H., and F. O. Bower,
Examining the Spectrum of Chloro-
phyll, 527.
, Practical Botany, 484.
Virchow, H., Action of Light on Ob-
jects hardened in Chromic Acid, 148.
Vision, Compound, and the Morpho-
logy of the Eye in Insects, 234.
, Limit of Angular, 339.
—, Monocular Stereoscopic, 332.
Vismiez, Anatomy of the Leaf in, 675.
Vitellus, [Position of the Yolk-Blasto-
pore as determined by the Size of, 978.
Vogel, J., 144.
Vogt, C., Erythropsis agilis, 77.
Voigt, W., Oogenesis and Spermato-
genesis in Branchiobdella, 643.
Volcanic Ash, Microscopical Examina-
tion of, from Krakatoa, 923.
Volkens, G., Calcareous Glands of
Plumbagines, 92.
Vorce, C. M., 339, 367, 534, 567, 928.
, Compound Negatives, 331.
——,, Lantern Transparencies, 866.
and R. Hitchcock, Multiplying
Drawings, 527.
Vorticella, Chlorophylloid Granules of,
8
78.
——,, New, 470, 819.
Vorticelle with Two
Vesicles, 659.
Vorticellid, New, 78.
Vosmaer, G. C. J., Note on Sponges, 75.
, Sponges of the ‘ Willem Barents’
Expedition, 1013.
Vries, H. de, Circulation and Rotation
of Protoplasm as a means of Trans-
port of Food-material, 665.
— , Periodical Formation of Acids in
Succulent Plants, 97.
——, Plasmolysis, 84.
Vuillemin, P., Anatomical Structure of
the Stem of Composite, 480.
——,, Puccinia Thlaspidis, 1045.
Contractile
W.
W.,D.S., Freeing Objects from Air, 898.
W., E. D., Measurement of Power and
Aperture of Microscopic Objectives,
1082.
INDEX,
Waldeyer, W., 144.
Wales, W., 534.
, Care and Use of Objectives, 708.
Waller, T. H., 367.
Wallich, G. C., 144.
——, Condenser, 127.
——,, Critical Notes on Amcebe, 1018.
——,, Pseudocyclosis in Amceba, 1019.
——,, Structure of Diatoms, 286.
Walmsley, W. H., 749, 892.
Walter, A., Echinodermata of Ceylon,
462.
——, Morphology of the Lepidoptera,
635
Walters, H. A., Net for Microscopists,
535.
—, W. H., 749.
Ward, E., 928.
—,, Dry Mounting, 1101.
. 144.
— ,, R. H., 729, 892.
——,, Choice of Objectives and Oculars,
1082.
——,, Tris Illuminator, 326.
——, Lens-holder, 317.
Warlomont,R., Microscopical Technique
of the Eye, 895.
Warnstoff, C., European Sphagnaceze,
281.
Wasps and Bees, Apparatus for Diffe-
rentiating the Sexes in, 1.
— —, Receptaculum
of, 1.
Water and Melted Glass Lenses, 890,
—,, Ascent of, in Plants, 274.
——, Conduction of, in Plants, Im-
portance of Dead Tubes and Living
Cells for, 490.
—, , in the Stem of Mosses,
681.
——, Curved Bacilli in, 697.
——,, Determination of the number of
Living Germs in, 359.
——, Effect of Prolonged Repose and
Filtration through Porcelain on the
Purity of, 561.
——, Examination of, for the Develop-
ment of Micro-organisms, 560.
——, Exudation of, from the Female
Receptacle of Corsinia, 1035.
——, Inception of, among Mollusca,
794.
, Influence of, on the Growth of
Plants, 93.
——, Movement of, in Mosses, 493.
——, ——,, in Plants, 490, 836.
— —,, ——,, Direct Observation of,
359.
——, Removal of Micro-organisms from,
923.
Water-bath, Andrews and Nachtrieb’s,
1086.
Seminis
1179
Waters, A. W., On the use of the Avi-
cularian Mandible in the determina-
tion of the Chilostomatous Bryozoa,
774.
Waters, Potable, Examination of, 923.
Watson’s Camera or Lantern Micro-
scope, 1064.
Swinging Substage Microscope,
1062.
Watson and Son’s Slides of British
Fresh-water Alge, 928.
Watson-Wale Microscope, 860.
Wave-currents, Influence of, on Fauna
of Shallow Seas, 38.
Wax Cells, 363.
——., Sheet, Cheap Punches for, 367.
Weber, C., Fungus of the Root-swell-
ings of Juncus bufonius, 107.
, M., Isopoda of the ‘ Willem
Barents’ Expedition, 450.
Wedding, H., 1082.
Weever-Fish, Development of the
Lesser, 34.
Wegmann, H., Natural History of
Haliotis, 43.
Wegscheider, R., Spectra of the Pig-
ments of Green Leaves and their
Derivatives, 670.
Weigert’s (C.) Staining Method for the
Central Nervous System, 158, 159.
Weisiger, W. R., Obituary of, 339.
Weismann, A., Immortality of Unicel-
lular Organisms, 466.
Weiss, A., Soluble Yellow Pigment in
the Petals of Papaver, 476.
, Spontaneous Movements of Pig-
ment-bodies, 476.
Wenham Disk Illuminator, Modified,
128.
West’s (F. L.) Adjustable Dark-ground
Illuminator, 523.
—., T., 166.
Westermaier, M., Importance of Dead
Tubes and Living Cells for the Con-
duction of Water in Plants, 490.
Westien’s (H.) Apparatus for comparing
symmetrical parts of the Webs of
the right and left Feet of a Frog, 879.
—— Universal Lens-holder, 316.
Wethered, E., On the Structure and
Origin of Carboniferous Coal Seams,
406.
Wettstein, R. v., Laws of Growth of
Vegetable Organs: Roots, 272.
——, Rhodomyces, a new Human Para-
site, 1046.
Weyenbergh, H., 144.
Wharton, H. J., Fries’ nomenclature of
Colours in the Agaricini, 105,
Wheat, Nutritive Properties of the
various portions of Grain of, 671.
White, T. C., 534.
1180
White, T. C., Value of Photo-micro-
graphs, 528.
White Zine for Mounting, 163.
Whitman, C. O., 166, 749, 928, 1111.
—, Cambridge Rocking Microtome,
1091.
—, Cutting Ribbons of Sections, 158.
Whitney, J. E, 567.
——, Cheap Punches for Sheet Wax,
367.
——,, Life-Box, 330.
Wichmann, A., Micro-chemical Exami-
nation of Minerals, 920.
Wielowiefski, H. v., Formation of Ova
in Pyrrhocoris, 798.
—, Staining the Nucleus of the Ger-
minal Vesicle in Arthropoda, 905.
Wienack, L., 567.
Wiesner, J., Mechanical Explanation
of Spontaneous Nutations, 273.
, Motions of Roots during Growth,
272.
Wigand, G., Development of Bacteria,
110.
Wilkie, F. B., 144.
shea H., Anatomy of Macrocystis,
84.
Willcox, J., Spawning of Fulgur per-
versus, 986.
Wille, N., Physiological Anatomy of
Alge, 841 ne
; Sieve-hyphe i in Algee, 684.
‘Willem Barents’ Expedition, 1881,
Hydroid Zoophytes of, 73.
, Isopoda “of, 450.
——,, Sponges of, 1013.
Walliams: C. F. Wak, 749.
—, G. H., The ” Microscope in
Geology, 921.
Williston, S. W., Edible Dipterous
Larve from Alkaline Lakes, 53.
Willow, Fungi of, 291.
Wills, L., Developmental History and
Morphological Value of the Ova of
Nepa cinerea and Notonecta glauca,
447,
Wilson, A. 8., “ Sclerotioids” of Potato,
1022.
Wings of Hymenoptera, 234.
—— of Vesicatiug Insects, Structure
of, 992.
Winkel’s Demonstration Microscope,
308.
Winogradsky, S., Influence of External
Conditions on the Development of
Mycoderma vini, 294.
Winter, G., Corynelia, 105.
, Rabenhorst’ s Cryptogamic Flora
of Germany (Fungi), 690.
34.
?
Winter ‘Habits and Hibernation of
Spiders, 640.
INDEX.
Wire, A. P., Boro-glyceride for Mount-
ing, 742.
Witlaczil, E., Development of Aphides,
53.
——,, New Gregarine, 471.
——,, Treatment of the Ova and Em-
bryos of the Aphides, 147.
Wolffia microscopica, 834.
Wolle, F., New Fresh-water Desmids,
497.
Wollny, E., Effect of Depth of Sowing
on the Germination and Growth of
Plants, 93.
——,, Geminella interrupta, 285.
, Microbes in the Soil, 693.
Wood of Conifers, Anatomy of, 825.
, Water-conducting, Air in, 679.
Wood-fibre, Sensitive Tests for, 897.
Woodhead (G. 8.) and A. W. Hare’s
‘ Pathological Mycology,’ 698.
Woodward, J. J., Obituary of, 339.
Woody Tissue, Striated, 828.
Wooldridge, L. C., New Constituent of
the Blood and its Physiological
Import, 428.
Wormley, T. G., 567.
Worms. See Vermes, xvi.
Woronin, M., Leaves of Statice mono-
petala, 829.
—,, Nutrition of Trees by means of
Underground Fungi, 845.
Wortmann, J., Red Pigment in Flower-
ing Plants, 670.
, Secondary Geotropic Phenomena,
273.
——,, Thermotropism of Roots, 679.
—, of Aithalium septicum,
844.
Wounds, Excretion of Healing Sub-
stances into, 476.
Wright, H. G. A., Tongue of Blow-fly,
751. .
—,, L., 144, 1083.
——, The Lantern Microscope, 196.
——,, R. R., Free-swimming Sporocyst,
648.
Eatals, Parasitic Copepod of the Clam,
239
——, Suggestions as to the Pre-
paration and Use of Series of Sec-
tions in Zootomical Instruction,
1091.
Wythe, J. H., 1083.
Y.
Yam, Chinese, Influence of Want of
Moisture on the Growth of, 1029.
Year-Book, 145.
Yeast, Cultivated Wine-, 114.
, Degeneration of, 693.
INDEX.
Yolk-Blastopore, Position of, as de-
termined by the Size of the
Vitellus, 978.
Z.
Z., 145.
Zacharias, E.,
Nucleolus, 821.
—, O., 145.
——, Ameeboid Movements of Sper-
matozoa of Polyphemus pediculus,
239.
, Experiments on
Pseudopodia, 1014.
, Fauna of the Pieces of Water of
the Riesengbirge, 432.
——, Nephridia of Microstoma lineare,
813.
——, Relationship
Nematodes, 1006.
——, Reproduction and Development
of Rotifer vulgaris, 249.
Zahlbruckner, A., Lenticels, 825.
Zawarykin, T., Study of Fat Absorp-
tion in the Small Intestine, 731.
Zeigler, E., 928.
Zeiller, R., Affinities of Laccopteris,
681.
——,, Fructification of Sigillaria, 493.
——, Tracks of Insects resembling the
Impressions of Plants, 635,
Structure of the
Formation of
of Rotifers and
1181
Zeiss, C., Dissecting Microscopes with
Briicke Lens, 319.
Zenger, C. V., Double-sided Slide,
908.
, Monobromide of Naphthalin and
Tribromide of Arsenic, 909.
——, Mounting for Diatoms, to view
them on both sides, 161.
, New Mounting Medium, 377.
Zentmayer’s Abbe Condenser, 710.
Ziegler, H. E., Development of Cyclas
cornea, 625.
Zimmermann, A., Behaviour of the
Optical Axes of Elasticity of Cell-
walls under Tension, 476.
——.,, Causes of Anisotropy of Organic
Substances, 487.
, Spiral Cells of Nepenthes, 1023.
—, O. E. B., 534.
Zinnia, Sexual Characters in, 267.
Zoocytium of Ophrydium versatile,
Chemical Composition of, 818.
Zopf’s (W.) Myxomycetes, 690.
Zschokke, F., Parasites of Fresh-water
Fishes, 647.
Zukal, H., Structure of Lichens, 687.
Zygnemacez, Bisexuality of, 1038.
, Hibernation of, 284.
——,, Sexuality in, 285.
Zygospores of Mucorini, 505.
Zymosis, Organisms Productive of,
693.
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The Library, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cakinot of
Objects, is open for the use of Fellows daily (except Saturdays), from 103;
am. to 5 P,mM., and on Wednesdays from 7 to 9.30 p.m. also. BA is closed aby.
for four weeks during August and September.
| Forms of proposal for Fellowship, and any further information, may be ibiasied 5 2 a
application to the Secretaries, or Assistant-Seeretary, at the Library of the Society, King’s | —
College, Strand, W.C.- Re
3 5185 00266 7739