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Journal of tu

Ropal n^icroscoplcal Societp

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS

AND

A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia)

EDITED BY
CHARLES SINGER, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P.

WITH THK ASSISTANCK 01<' THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND

J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. LL.D. A. N. DISNEY, M.A. B.Sc

Regtus Professor of Natural History in the F. IAN G. RAWLINS

University of A berdeen

FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY

A. B. RENDLE, M.A. D.Sc. F.R.S. F.L.S.

Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museu>n
AND

RALPH ST. JOHN BROOKS,
M.A. M.D. D.P.H. D.T.M. & H. (Camb.)

Minimis partibus, per totum Naturae campum, certitudo omnis innititur
quas qui fugit pariter Naturam fugit. — Linnmis.

FO R THE YEAR
1921

TO BE OBTAINED AT THE SOCIETY'S ROOMS

20 HANOVER SQUARE, LONDON, W.i
OF Messrs. WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 Henrietta Street, London, W.C.2
AND OF Messrs. DULAU & CO., Ltd., 34 Margaret Street, London, W.i

CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

PAGE

I, — CONTEIBUTIONS TO THE StUDY OP THE OOGENESIS OF

Patella. By Reginald James Ludford, B.Sc. (Lond.),
Zoology Department, University College, London. (Two
Plates) 1

II.— The Reduction of Osmic Acid by Lipoids. By J. R.

Partington and D. B. Huntingford 15

III.— A New Method of Treating and Mounting Celloidin

Sections. By E. J. Sheppard, F.R.M.S 20

lY.— The Behaviour of the Nucleolus during Oogenesis,
WITH Special Reference to the Mollusc Patella.
By Reginald James Ludford, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.R.M.S.,
Department of Zoology, University College, London.
(Two Plates) .. .": 121

Y.— Some Suggestions Regarding the Mechanical Design
of Microscopes. By Captain Frank Oppenheimer,
LM.S., M.B., Ch.B., F.R.M.S 134

YL— Mr. Fred Enock's Method of Mounting Heads of

Insects without Pressure. By the Rev. J. S. Pratt 141

YIL— Polarizers for the Microscope. By B. K. Johnson,
Department of Optical Engineering, Imperial College of
Science and Technology 147

YIII. — A POLARISCOPE for DISSECTING AND PoCKET MICRO-
SCOPES. By Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S 149

IX. — Some Abbe Letters. Read by Professor Cheshire, C.B.E.,

F.R.M.S. (Four Text-Figures) 221

X. — The Technique of Culturing Amceba proteus. By
Monica Taylor, S.N.D., D.Sc, and Catherine Hayes,
S.N.D. Communicated by Professor J. Bronte Gatenby,
F.R.M.S 241

XL — On the Presence of Two Spermathec.^ in the Rare
Mole Flea (Hystrichopsylla talp^), and the
Flea as Distributor of a Tyroglyphid. By F.
Martin Duncan, F.R.M.S., F.R.P.S., F.Z.S. (One Plate
and Three Text- Figures) 245

IV CONTENTS.

PAGE

XII. — New Hypotrichous Infusoeia from Calcutta. By
EkeDdranath Ghosh, M.D., M.Sc, F.R.M.S., Professor of
Biology, Medical College, Calcutta. (Two Text- Figures) 248

XIII. — A Gregarine Parasite of the Earthworm. By M. T,

Denne, O.B.E., A.Inst.P., F.R.M.S 251

XIV. — On Ostracoda, Foraminifera, and some Organisms
related to Calcisph^r^ from the Devonian oof
Germany. By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.,
etc., PalaBontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne,
Lecturer in Palaeontology, Melbourne University. (One
Plate) 329

XV. — A Preliminary Account of the Spermatogenesis of
Sphenodon. By Lancelot T, Hogben, M.A.(Cantab.),
D.Sc.(Lond.), F.Z.S., F.R.M.S. (Lecturer and Huxley
Curator, Imperial College of Science). (Eighteen Text-
Figures) 341

XVI. — Mermis Parasitic on Ants of the Genus Lasius.
By W. C. Crawley, B.A., F.E.S., F.R.M.S., and H. A.
Baylis, M.A., D.Sc, F.Z.S. (Twelve Text-Figures) . . 353

XVII, — Notes on Resolution. By Conrad Beck, C.B E.,

F.R.M.S 373

XVIII. — A Key for the Identification of Bacteria. By

Joseph Kitchin, F.R.M.S 378

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES IN—

ZOOLOGY,

BOTANY,

MICROSCOPY, AND

INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES.

NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Any Omissions or Errors in this List should be notified to the

Secretary.

LIST OF FELLOWS

OF THE

Ropal microscopical Societp

{Coirected to November SOfh, 1921.)

— ■rrity^^^'S

ORDINARY FELLOWS.

* Felloios icho have compounded for their Annual Subscriptions.

Elected.

1915 Abraham, Mrs. L. A. Johnston Abraham.

59, Cambridge-terrace, Hyde Park, W.2

1892 Abraham, Eev. Nendick.

King Edward-avenue, Scoitsville, Maritzburg, Natal,
S. Africa.
1894 Abrams, Albert, M.D.

2135, Sacramento-street, San Francisco, Cal., U.S.A.

1919 Abushady, Ahmed Zaby, L.M.S.S.A.

21, Cairn-avenue, Ealing, W.5

1893 Adair, Thomas Stewart, M.D., CM., Edin.

Storthes-Hall-asijlum, Kirkburton, near Huddersfield.
1918 Adams, Basil.

Li/nivood, Cromwell-road, Beckenham.
1893 Adams, "Charles, M.D.

33, Bellevue-place, Chicago, III., U.S.A.

1920 Adams, Frederick, M.Iust.C.E.

4 Calle de Panuco, Mexico City, Mexico.
1893 Adams, James.

Comely-park, Dunfermline, N.B.
1918 Agate, Charlton S., B.Sc, etc.

Engineering Staf, Marconi Works, Chelmsford.
1892 Aikin, Charles Edmund, M.E.C.S., L.S.A.

Pentre Felin, Llangollen, Denbighshire, North Wales.
1918 Ainslie, Maurice Anderson, Instructor Commander, K.N.

Boyal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.IO, and 69,
Shooters-hill-road, Blackheath, S.E.S

[1]

2 ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Klecti^.

1906 Aitken, Henry James.

24, Oahley-square, N.W.I
1914 Akehurst, Sydney Charles.

60, Boives-road, Palmers Green, N.Vd
1913 Allan, Mark J.

" Ludgershall" Boslyn-street, Middle Brighton, Victoria,

1905 *Allis, Edward Phelps, jun., C.E., LL.l)., F.L.S., F.Z.S.
Palais Carnoles, Menton, Alpes Maritimesp France.

1919 Alston, Richard A., A.M.C.T.

4, Colley -street, Chester-road, Stretford, Manchester.

1920 Altof, Mrs. Bertha.

Innespec, Alberta, Canada.
] 906 Andrews, Cnthbert Utto Ealph.

47, Bed Lion-street, Holhorn, W.C.X

1921 Angers, Captain Arthur, A.M.I.F.E.

Bristol-road, Wavertree, Liverpool.
1912 Angus, Herbert Francis.

73, Bushwood, Leytonstone, E.ll

1911 Armstrong, Frank.

78, Deansgate, Manchester.

1912 Ash, Lieut. Edward C.

Dallim/hoo Hall, Wichliam Market, Sufolk.
1909 Ashe, Albert.

55, Warrior-square, Southend-on-Sea.

1913 Aubin, Percy Adrian.

10, Elizabeth-place, St. Helier, Jersey.
1912 Audas, James W., F.L.S.

" Correa," 580, Malvern-road, East Prahran, Melbourne,
Victoria.

1921 Baddeley, William Henry Llojd.

29, Church-crescent, Church-end, Finchley, N.
1920 Bagnal), Kichard Siddoway, F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

Bydal Mount, Blay don-on- Tyne.
1909 Bagshaw, Walter.

17, Hereford-road, Harrogate.
1894 * Bailey, Charles, M.Sc., F.L.S.

Sandhurst, St. Mary Church, Torquay.
1908 Baird, Thomas Stewart, F.I.O., F.S.M.C, D.B.O.A.

54, St. Enoch-square, and 34-36, Queen-street, Glasgow.
1915 Baker, Arthur.

Davenport Lodge, Pelham-road, Gravesend, Kent.
1885 Baker, Frederick Henry, F.L.S.

167, Hoddle-street, Bichmond, Victoria, Australia.
1894 Raker, Frederick William Watson.

313, High Holborn, W.C.I
1914 Baker, Wilfred E. Watson.

313, Hiqh Holborn, W.CX

ORDINARY FELLOWS. 3

Elected.

1882 Bale, William Moimtier.

83, Walpole- street, Kew, Victoria, Australia.
1895 Barnard, Joseph Edwin, F.Iust.P. — Hon. Secretary.

Park View, Brondeshury-park, N.W., and Royal Societies
Club, St. James' s-street, S.W.I
1913 Barratt, Thomas Franklin.

Bellmoor, Hampstead Heath, N.W.
1921 Batchelor, Arthur James,

151, Gasewick-road, W. Norwood, S.E.27
1874 Bate, George Paddock. M.D., F.E.C.S.E., M.R.C.S., Surgeon-
Lieut. -Col. Army Medical Reserve.

2, King Edward-road, Hackney, E.9
1920 Bates, George Frederick, B.A., B.Sc.

66, Craigie-road, Perth.

1920 Bates, James J. G.

Derbyshire Royal Infirmary, Derby.
1918 Baxter, Charles, C.E.

Cleveland-house, Bradford-road, Shipley.
1913 BayliPS, Professor William Maddock, D.Sc, F.R.S.

St. Cuthbert's, West Heath-road. Hampstead, N. W.S
1899 Beale, Peyton Todd Bowman, F.R.C.S

" Oaklands," Hythe, Southampton.
1915 Beattie, William.

8, Lower Grosvenor-place, S.W.I
1885 *Beck, Conrad, C.B.E.

68, Cornhill, E.C.S
1899 Beck, Horace Courthope.

Lister Works, Weedington-road, Kentish Town, N.W.b
1879 *Bell, Francis Jeffrey, M.A., F.Z.S. Emeritus Professor of
Comparative Anatomy and Zoology in King's College, London,
Corresponding Member Linnean Society of New South Wales,
Honorary Member Manchester Microscopical Society.

11, Aberdeen-chambers, 43, Great-Marlborough-street, W.l
1910 Berridge, Miss Emily Mary, D.Sc, F.L.S.

7, The Knoll, Beckenham, Kent.

1918 Berry, John Leslie.

151a, New-street, Burton-on-Trent.
1913 Bestow, Charles Horton.

Melford-house, Upper Clapton, N.E.

1921 Bharadwaja, Pandit Yajnavalkya, M.Sc, M.B.A.S. Senior

Professor of Biology and Botany, St. John's College,
Agra, India.

1919 Bhatia, Bihari Lai, M.Sc, F.Z.S., Professor of Zoology.

Department of Zoology, Government College, Lahore, India.
1912 Billinghurst, Humphrc^y Godwin.

76, Lebanon-gardens, Wandsworth, S.W.l^
1918 Blackmore, Herbert George.

23, Gloucester-gardens, W.2
1899 Bliss, J.

Boar Bank Hall, Grange-over-Sands, Lancashire.

A 2

4 ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Ejlected

1903' *Blood, Maurice, M.A., F.C.S.

51, Winchester-avenue, Kilhurn, N.W.Q
1916 Bocock, C. Hanslope, F.E.S.

The Elms, Ashley, Newmarket.
1918 Bois, Sir Stanley.

12, Fenchurch-street, E.G.

1889 Booth, Miss Mary Ann.

60, Dartmouth-street, Springfield, Mass., U.S.A.
1862 Borradaile, Charles.

3, Norfolk-terrace, Brighton.

1920 Bowell, Ernest W., M.A, M.ii.C.S., L.R.C.P.

21, Princess-road, South Norwood, S.E.^5

1921 Bowtell, Alexander James.

123, Dalston-lane, E.8
1914 Boyer, Charles S , A.M.

6140, Golumhia-avenue, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.

1910 Bracewell, Geoffrey Alfred.

2, Bingley-road, Heaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1921 Bradbury, J. G.

1, Hogarth-hill, Finchleij-road, Hendon, N.W.ll

1920 Bradford, Philip G.. A.M.I. Mech.E.

Crown Hotel, Greashro, near Botherham.
1918 *Bradshaw, Thomas Buller, J.P.

Millways, Launceston, Gornwall.

1914 Brand, Felix.

37 (& 88, Hatton-garden, E.G.I

1915 Brewster, Frank.

Criminal Intelligence Office, Simla, India, and The
" Dingle," Simla.

1890 Briant, Lawrence, F.C.S. , Mem. Soc. Public Analysts.

24, Holborn-viaduct, E.G.I
1905 Bridge, John William.

Brewer-street, Maidstone.

1921 Brislee, Francis Joseph, D.Sc, F.I.C.

Holmfield, Ghurchroad, Boby, Lanes.
1908 Brooks, Theodore, B.A. (Cantab.), F.R.G.S., Member of the
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, U.S.A., Member
of the Erdomological Society of America.

Galle 5, Esquina 4, Ve^dado, Hahana, Guba.
1887 Browne, Edward Thomas, F.Z.S.

Anglefield, Berkhampstead, Herts.

1911 Browning, Sidney Howard, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.

22, Harley-street, W.\
1920 Brumwell. Harold.

cjo Messrs. Searle, Ltd., Great Br ok Biver, Gape Province,
South Africa.
1920 Bull, Henry H. J.

The Bungalow, Haddenham, Bucks.

1912 Bullamore, Geo. W.

Walden-cottage, Albury, Herts.

OUl)INARY FELLOWS. 5

EUcted.

1920 Bullock- Webster, Eev. Canon George E.
17, Gordon-square, W.C.

1919 Bumsted, William Frederick.

16, Oonway-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
1D20 Burgess, Arthur Savell, M.A., M.B., B.Ch.

c/o Provincial Medical Officer, Kumasi, Gold Coast, West
Africa.
1918 Burke, George Edwin.

Box 476, Colorado Springs, Colorado, U.S.A.

1920 Burns, John Marsh.

London Joint City and Midland Bank, Ltd., Windsor.
1913 Burns, Nesbitt, B.A., M.B., B.Ch.

The Lodge, Highhridge, Somerset.

1921 Caffyn, Charles Henry.

32, Falkland-road, Hornsey, N.8
1910 Caird, William John.

Schoolhouse, Sandhaven, Fraserburgh.
1920 Cannon, Herbert Graham, B.A., F.Z.S.

Zoology Department, Imperial College of Science and
Technology, and 62, Stockwell-park-road, Stockwell,
S.W.^
1913 Capell, Bruce J.

10, Castelnau, Barnes, S.W.IS
1920 Carleton, H. M., B.A.

Physiology Laboratory, The University, Oxford.
1891 earlier, Edniond William Wace, M.D., B.Sc, Professor of
Physiology, Mason University College, Birmingham.

Morningside, Granville-road, Dorridge, near Birmingham.
1880 *Carruthers, William, Ph.D. F.E.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.

44, Central-hill, Norwood, S.E.1%
1910 Carter, John Arthur, M.I.M.E.

6, Temple-road, Stowmarket, Suffolk.
1920 Carter, J. Thornton, F.Z.S.

University Col'ege, Gower -street, W.C.I, and The Grange,
Middle Green, Langley, Bucks.
1920 Cathcart, Eryk Hayman.

Metherell Moor-house, Beaworthy, North Devon.
1861 *Cattley, Edward Abbs.

Officer Str'. 5, lodg. 15, St. Petersburg, Russia.
1918 Cattley, Major Eobert, M B., CM., B.Sc, etc.

43, Main-avenue, Heworth, York.
1903 Chapman, Alfred Chasten, F.E.S., F.I.C, F.C.S.

8, Duke-street, Aldgate, E.C.S

fi ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Elected.

1892 Chapman, Frederick, A.L.S., Palaeontologist to the National
Museum, Melbourne ; Hon. Palaeontologist, Geological
Survey, Victoria ; President, Microscopical Society, Victoria ;
Lecturer and Demonstrator in Paleeontology, Melbourne
University.
" Croham Hurst," Threadneedle-street, Balwyn, near
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
1921 Chappie, William E.

8, Branscombe-gardens, WincJimore-hill, N.
1921 Charles, John H. V.

Biochemical Department, Nobel's Explosives Co., Ltd.,
Ardeer Factory, Stevenston, Ayrshire, NB.
1909 Cheavin, Captain W. H. S., F.C.S., F.E.S.

Middlesex Medical College, Berners-street, W.l
1904 Cheshire, Professor Frederic John, C.B.E., PMnst.P., Director
of Technical Optics, Imperial College of Science and Tech-
nology, South Kensington, S W.l

23, Carson-road, West Dulwich, S.E.
1885 Clark, Joseph.

Hind Hayes, Street, S.O., Somerset.
1917 Clemence, Walter, M.I.Meeh.E.

1, Park-terrace, Nottingham.
1914 Clibborn, Lt.-Col. John, C.I."e., B.A.
87, Victoria-street. S.W.I

1907 Clowes, William Archibald, F.Z.S.

Duhe-streef, Stamford-street, S.E.I

1919 Coghill, Douglas.

The Dominion Laboratory, Sydney-street, Wellington, New
Zealand.

1920 Collins, William G.

The Cambridge & Paul Instrument Co , Ltd., Chesterton-
road, Cambridge.

1908 Connell. John Gibson.

Biology Department, Glasgow Provincial Training College,
Cowcadd ens-street, Glasgow, and 22, Bellwood-street,
Glasgoio.

1919 Constantine, Eev. Allan W., B.A.

Grafton Lodge, Muizenburg, Cape Peninsula, ^ South
Africa.

1921 Cooke, Harold D. R., B.Sc.

Sydenham-house, Pearl-street, Saltburn-by-Sea.

1920 Cooke, William Edmund, M.D., F.R.C.P., D.P.H.

Ashjield-house, Aspull, Wigan, Lanes.

1921 Coombs, Rev. W. Mouaghau.

48, Dalton-street, Hulme, Manchester.
1875 Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.S.

Sutherland-house, Clevedon, Somerset.
1921 Crawley, Walter C, B.A., F.E.S.

29, Holland -park-road, TF.14
1881 Creese, Edward James Edgell, F.Z.S.

3, Goswell-villas, London-road, Newbury, Berks.

OUblNARY FELLOWS.

1

Klected.

1884 *Crisp, Lady Catherine.

5, Lansdotvne-road, Notting-hill, W.
1921 Crowther, Cole Willard Weetou, A.C.I C.

Canada Carbide Co., Ltd., Shawinigan Falls, Quebec,
Canada.
1891 Crowther, Henry.

Curator, The Museum, Leeds.
1919 Curties, Charles Lees.

244, High Eolborn, W.C.I
1921 Cutting, Ernest M., M.A., F.L.S.

125, Tredegar-road, Bow, E.
1913 Cnzner, Edgar.

36, Trothy-road, Bermondsey, S.E.I

1920 Da Fano, Corrado, M.D., L.D.

Kings College, Strand, W.C.I

1914 Daniels, Major William Cooke.
1916 Davies, Alfred T.

Avon-house, Keynsham, near Bristol.
1908 Davies, Daniel.

c/o Messrs, McGruer, Davies & Co., Timaru, New Zealand.

1921 Davis, Archibald A.

" Bochdale," 1, Kings-road, Henley-on-Thames.

1915 Denne, Mark Thomas, O.B.E.

74, Hornsey-lane, Highgate, iV.6
1921 Depew, Ganson.

Marine Trust Co. Building, Buffalo, N.I., U.S.A.
1920 Derry, D. C. L.

North Bonk, OaJcleigh-parh, N.

1885 De Witt. William G.

88, Nassau-street, New York, U.S.A.
1904 Dibdiu, William Josej)h, F.I.C., F.C.S.

31, Idmiston-road, West Norwood, S.E.27
1918 Digby, Miss Lettice.

Kings Ford, Colchester.
1913 Diusley, Lieut. Alfred, H.A.O.C.

•' Carlton," Lice-avenue, Great Crosby, near Liverpool.

1886 Disney, Alfred Norman, M.A., B.Sc.

14 Wilton-crescent, Wimbledon, S.W.l^J

1918 * Dixon, Miss Annie.

43, Pine-road, Didsbury, Manchester.
1896 Dixon, Walter.

38, Bath-street, Glasgow.
1892 Dixon-Nuttall, Frederick Eichard.

Ingleholme, Eccleston-park, near Prescot, Lancashire.

1919 Dovey, Ernest Koadley, A.E.C.S.

Government Laboratori/, Hongkong, China.
1907 Dowdy, Sidney Ernest, M.P.S.

1, Bellon-villas, Hill-road, Dovercourt, Essex.

8 ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Klected.

1918 Downes^ Harold, M.B., CM., L.E.C.P., etc.

Ditton Lea, Ilminster, Somerset.

1919 Drescher, Theodore Bausch.

149, Westminster-road, Rochester, N.T., U.S.A.
1919 Drew, Aubrey H., D.Sc.

Imperial Cancer Research Fund, 8-11, Queen-square,
W.C.I

1910 Duraat, Frauk Campbell.

26, Standard Banh-chamhers, Johannesburg, Transvaal,
South Africa.
1894 Duucau, Cecil Cooke, F.I.C., F.C.S.

The County Chemical Laboratory, Shire Hall, Worcester.

1911 Duncan, Francis Martin, F.E.P.S., F.Z.S.

37a, Belsize-square, N. W.S
1921 Dunkerly, John S., B.Sc, Ph.D.

Zoology Department, The University, Glasgow.
1919 *Duun, Gano, A.I.E.E.

J. G. ^V}tite Engineering Corporation, 43, Exchang e- place ,
New York, U.S.A., and 20, Washington- street, New York.

1919 Dunn, Reginald.

90, Lome-road, Clarendon-park, Leicester.

1920 Durand, Alexandre.

16, Rue Casimir Delavigne, Havre, France.

1910 Earland, Arthur.

Aviemore, 34, Granville-road, Watford, Herts.
1907 Eastham, John W., B.Sc. (Edin.).

Vernon British Columbia.
1912 Edwardes, Seabury.

Burma Excise Department, Mculmein, Lower Burma.
1899 Elliott, Oliver Thomas, M.P.S., Ph.C.

c/o Messrs. Philip Harris & Co., Edmund-street, Birming-
ham, and The Roicans, Lloyd's-street, Small Heath.
1920 Euna, Fini G. A.

cjo S. A. Cortume Carioca, Penha, Brazil.
1886 Ewell, Marshall D., M.D.

749, Tate-avenue, Memphis, Tenn., U.S.A.
1897 Eyre, John William Henry, M.D., M.S.Durh., D.P.H., F.K.S.E.
— President, Professor of Bacteriology in the London
University.
Bacteriological Laboratories, Guy's Hospital, S.E.I
62, Wimpole-street, W.\, and The Warren, Tulse-hill,
S.W.2

1921 Falkner, Herbert John.

3, Abbey -crescent, Torquay.
1883 *Fawcett, John Edward.

Heron-court, Farnham, Knaresborongh .

OROINARY FRI.LOWS. 9

Elected.

1883 Fellows, Charles Sumner.

107, Ghamher of Commerce, Minneapolis, Minnesota,
U.S.A.
1917 Fendick, Ernest A.

WiMewood, 22, Finedon-road, Wellingborough.
1909 Ferguson, Arthur Duncan.

British Guiana Bank, Georgetown, Demerary, British
Guiana.
1904 Fischer, Charles Edward Max, M.D., Associate Professor of
Biology, Histology, and Embryology, College of Physicians
and Surgeons of the University of Illinois, Memb. Amer.
Microscopical Soc, Memb. of the Amer. Assoc, for the
Advancement of Science.

Suite 1320-2, 25, E. Washington-street, Chicago, Bl., U.S.A.
1866 *Fitch, Frederick George.

34, Hamilton-terrace, JV.PT.S
1902 Flatters, Abraham.

Syddal-cotiage, Bramhall, Cheshire.
1919 Fleuret, John B.

47, Walsingham-road, Hove.
1921 Flower, John W.

35, Surrey-street, Strand, W.G.2
1921 Foster, Holly George.

Aston-villa, Burton Joyce, Notts.
1917 Fotheringham, William, J.P.

Hillhead, LerwicJc, Shetland.
1921 Frith, James Stretton, A.I C. A.E.S.I.

308, West Ferry-road, Millwall, JS.14

1912 Gadd, Arthur.

115, Atwood-road, Didsbury, near Manchester,

1918 Garbutt, Ernest Chalders.

York-house, St. Ives, Cornwall.
1902 Gardner, William.

292, Holloway-road, JV.7
1911 Garforth, Sir William Edward, LL.D.

Snydale Hall, Normanton.

1919 Garnett, John Benbow.

309, Oxford-road, Manchester.

1920 Gatenby, James Bronte, B.A., B.Sc, D.Phil.(Oxon), D.Sc.

(Lond.).

Professor of Zoology, Trinity College, Dublin.

1920 Gauntlett, H. Leon, M.K.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.Z.S., F.E.S.

45, Hotham-road, Putney, S.W.15

1921 Ghosh, Professor Ekendranath, M.Sc, M.D., Professor of

Biology.

Medical College, Calcutta, India.
1921 Ghosh, Professor P. N., M.A., Ph.D.
97, Finborough-street, S. W.IQ

[2]

10 ROYAL MICROSCOPICAI, SOCIETY.

Elected.

1902 Gibson, Joseph.

Elmfield, Psalter-lane, Sheffield.

1919 Gibson, William H., M.B.E., D.Sc.

York-street Flax Spinning Co., Ltd., Yorh-street, Belfast.
1892 Gifford, James William.

Oaklands, Chard, Somerset.
1921 Gillings, Horare Clifford.

48, Hertford-street, Cambridge.
1899 Gleadovv, Frank.

Bakeham-house, Englefield Green, Surrey.
1912 Glover, Samuel.

Olive Mount, St. Ann's, St. Helens, Lancashire.
1910 Gooding, Henry Cornisb,

Ipswich-street, Stoiomarket, Suffolk.

1908 Gordon, David.

Care of D & W. Murray, Ltd., Adelaide, South Australia.

1909 Gordon, Fred. William.

18, Ea$t 64:th Street, New York City, U.S.A.

1920 Graham, Joseph, B.Sc.

Glen Hurst, Corbridge-on-Tyne.
1919 Grant, Ernest Henry.

3 and 4, Great Winchester-street, E.C.2
1904 Griffiths, Waldron.

1, Cecily-hill, Cirencester.

1910 Grundy, James.

96, Teiynmouth-road, Cricklewood, N.W.2
1912 Gurrin, Gerald Francis.

59, Holborn-viaduct, E.C.I
1902 Gussow, Hans Theodore.

Chief, Divixion of Botany, Dominion Experimental Farm,
Ottawa, Canada, and 43, Fairmount-avenue, Ottawa,
Canada
1910 Gwyune-Vaughan, Dame Helen Charlotte Isabella, D.Sc,
F.L.S., Professor of Botany, Birkbeck College, E.C.4:
93, Bedford-court -mansions, W.C.I

1919 Hadfield, Sir Robert A., Bart., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.Inst.P.

22, Carlton -house-terrace. S.W.I
1893 Hagler, Elmer Ellsworth, M.D.

The Hagler Building, 401, East Capitol-avenue, Spring-
field, Illinois, U.S.A.
1914 Halford-Roberts, Stanley.

9, Sandwell-crescent, West Hampstead, N. W.6
1912 Hall, Eev. C. A.

" Woodburn," Clynder, Dumbartonshire .
1921 Hall, John Tliomas, L.D.S., R.C.S.

Stoke Prior, Paole-road, Bournemouth.

1920 Hall, T. D. Tuton.

Technical School, Rochdale.

ORDINARY FKLLOWS, 11

Elected.

1921 Hall, William Ewart.

64, Northampton-road, Wellingborough.
1885 Haliara, Samuel Eobinsou, L.S.A.(L(ma.)j L.M.8.8.A.

586, Old-Kent road, S.E.I
1920 Hallowes, Kennett Knight, M.A., F.G.S., A.R.S.M.,
A.Inst. M.M., Assistant Superintendent, H.M. Geological
Survey of India.

27, Choivringhill, Calcutta, India, and 50, Begenfs-park-
road, N. W.
1919 Hampshire, Percy.

5, Kensington-terrace, Leeds.

1914 Hardinc;, H. Bertram, F.L.S.

77, Hannah-street, Forth, Glam.

1919 Harper, Captain Eaymond Sydney, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,

K.A.M.C.

4, Adelaide-crescent, Hove.
1905 Harris, Charles Poulett, M.D. (Loud.), M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
192, Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon, S.E.

1920 Harris, William Charles, F.C.S.

Tayside, Mill Parh, Hornchurch, Essex.

1915 Hartland, AlLert J.

22, Cambridge-rd., King Williams Town, Cape Province, S.A.
1867 *Hartree, William, Associate lust. C.E., F.Z.S.

Holmwood, Torquay.
1911 Hartridge, Hamilton, M.A., M.D.

King's College, Cambridge.
1897 Hassall, John, M.D., M.R.C.S., Ac.

Ingleside, Mouldsworth, near Chester.
1910 Hately, John Craig.

70, Board of Trade, Chicago, III., and Galewood, Lake
Geneva, Wiss., U.S.A.

1919 Havvksley, Charles Worthiugton.

83, Wigmore-street, W.l, and 13 Alma-square, St. John's-
wood, N.W.H

1916 Hazeldine, Frederick James.

Barnjield, South Godstone, Surrey.
1909 Heath, Charles Emanuel.

178, Loughborough-road, Brixton, S.W.9
1909 Heath, Ernest.

Clidga, Sennen, Cornwall.
1899 Heatou, John, F.C.S.

Southcliffe, Boker, Sunderland.

1917 Hensmau, Leonard Newton, Ph.C, M.P.S.

2, Killarney-road, Wandsworth, S.W.IS

1920 Hepworth, John, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

Plestor House, Selborne, Hants.
1889 Hepworth-Collius, Walter, F.G.S., F.C.S.

Junior Constitutional Club, Piccadilly, W.
1920 Herbert, W. J. S.

22 Beaufort-street, Brynmawr, Brechnoclcshire.

12 ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Elected.

1891 Heron -Allen, Edward, F.E.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S,,
M.R.I.A., etc.

33, Hamilton-terrace, N.W.8, and "Large Acres," Selsey-
hill, Sussex.
1921 Hewison, Rev. G. H., M.A.

Marr Vicarage, Doncaster.

1910 Hewlett, Richard Tanner, M.D., F.R.C.P., D.P.H.

Professor of Bacteriology. Bacteriological Laboratory,
King's-college, Strand, W.C, and 12 CoUnette-road^
Putney, S.W.15
1921 Higginson, Richard William.

21 Prince of Wales-road, Kentish Town, N.W.5
1904 Hill, Cyril Francis, M.Inst.M.M.

Druids-croft, Kinnaird-avenue, Bromley, Kent.
1881 *Hill, Joseph Alfred, F.L.S.

St. Bees, Northumberland-road, Leamington.

1920 Hill, W. Basil, F.C.S.

Eastjield, Stockton-lane, York.
1906 Hiscott, Thomas Henry.

16, Woodville-road, Ealing, W.6, and 5, Stone-buildings,
Lincoln's Inn, W.C

1917 Hitchins, Alfred Bishop, Ph.D., D.Sc, A.M.

c/o Ansco Co., Research Laboratory, Binghampton, N.Y.,
U.S.A.

1921 Hogben, Lancelot T., M.A., D.Sc.

Imperial College of Science and Technology, South
Kensim/ton, S.W.7
1921 Holder, J. T.

114 Pepys-road, S.E.U
1921 Holt, Alfred, F.C.S.

76 Nipper-lane, Whitefield, near Manchester.

1920 Hornyold. Professor Alfonso Gandolfi, D.Sc.

Professor Agregardo of the Marine Biological Laboratory,
Porto-Pi, Palma de Mallorca, Spain, and Instituto
Espanol, de Oceanografia, Fometito, 7, Madrid.

1918 Hort, Edward C, F.R.C.P.

8, Harley-street, W.l

1921 Horton, William.

17 Grove-park, Liverpool.
1918 Hoseason, William Sandford.

Dockmaster's Office, Alexandra Dock, Bombay, India.
1891 Howard, A. Dashwood, B.A., M.D., M.R.C.S., L.E.C.P.

" The Corner," Hampton-hill, Middlesex.

1917 Howard, Henry J.

6, College-road, Norwich.

1918 Hughes, Owen Lloyd.

Ael-y-Bryn, Heullan, Trefnant, Denbighshire, N. Wales.
1913 Hughes, K. H. Pullen.

Alexander-house, 141, Duke-street, Southyort.

1911 Huish, Charles Henry.

" The Limes," 79, Station-road, Bedhill, Surrey.

ORDINARY FELLOWS. 13

K lee ted.

1921 Humphery, William Overton, M.I.M.E., P.A.S.I., M.R.San.I.

Puddinq Norton, Fakenham, Norfolk.
1921 Hunt, Eeginald J. H.

2 Blawith-road, Harrow.
1913 Hurrell, Harry Edwar.l.

25, Regent-street, Great Yarmouth.
1920 Hutchinson, Alfred, M.A., B.Sc.

Manesty, Saltburn-by-Sea, Yorks.

1867 Ingpeu, John Edmund.

21, Wrotham-road, Broadstairs.
1920 Ireland, William Jabez.

6, Hurlinghnm-road, Fulham, S.W.6
1903 Ives, Frederic Eugene, F.E.P.S., Member of the Franklin Imt.,
N.Y., Camera Club, and American Microscopical Soc,
F.A.A.A.S.

1327, Sjjrnce- street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.

1901 Johnson, Charles Harold, M.D., CM., F.R.C.S.E.

22, The Ridge, Canterbury, near Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia.

1912 Johnston, Thomas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc, F.Z.S.

Professor of Biology, The University of Queensland, Bris-
bane, Australia.

1918 Jones, Sir Bertram Hyde, K.B.E.

llgars, Runwell, Wickford, Essex.
1910 Jones, William Llewellyn.

1885 Karop, George C, M.R.C.S.

Inniscorrig, Beltinge-road, Heme Bay.
1910 Keeley, Frank J,, B.S., E.M., Member of the Council, Academy
of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia ; Vice-Director, Miner al-
ogical Section, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
Box 25, Merion Station, Penna, U.S.A.

1919 Keen, Percy Frederick,

64, Fairholt-road, Stamford-hill, JV.16
1918 Kidd, Robert Hicks.

Marlborough-house, Neiobury, Berks.

1912 King, Mrs. Cecil.

33, Evelyn-gardens, South Kensington, S. W.7
1909 Kirby, Edwin Henry.

The Sungei Bahru Rubber Estates, Ltd., Home Division,
Alar Gaja, Malacca.
1905 Kitchin, Joseph.

The Mount, 53, Park-hill-road, Croydon.
1897 Klein, Sydney Turner, F.L.S., F.E.A.S., F.E.S.

Lancaster-lodge, Kew-gardens, Surrey.

1913 Koch, Victor M. E.

c/o Messrs. Carl Zeiss, J 53, West 23rd Street,\New York,
U.S.A. [3]

14 ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL .SOCIETY.

Elected.

1920 Lamb, Morris Charles, F.I.C

176, Tower-Bridge-road, S.E.I
1915 Lambert, Joseph, F.K.H.S., F.P.C

68, Dartmouth-road, Cricklewood, N.W.2

1918 Lancaster, Henry C.

39, Ladbroke-grove, Holland-park, W.

1920 Langeron, Maurice C. P., Docteur en Medicine,-^ Chef de

Lahoratoire a la Faculte de Medicine de Paris.
15, Bus de VEcole de Medicine, Paris, France.
1865 Lankester, Sir Edwin Eay, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.E.S., F.L.S.,
F.Z.S., Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford.
44, Oakley-street, Chelsea, S. W.S
1887 Latham, Miss Vida Annette, M.D., D.D.S.

1644, Morse-avenue, Boger's-park, Chicago, III., U.S.A.

1919 Lauwers, Walter H. M., F.P.S.L.

77, Bue Lamoriniere, Antwerp, Belgium.
1919 Lawrie, Leslie G.

Stornoway, Holden-road, Kersal, Manchester.
1912 Lawson, Peter.

" Jesmond," Nella-road, Fulham-pal ace-road, Hammer-
smith, TF.6

1921 Lazlo, Henry G. de.

3 Palace-gate, Kensington, W.S
1914 Leeson, John Eudd, J.P., M.D., F.L.S., F K.A.^.

Clifden House, Twickenham.
1921 Le Souei; Leslie Ernest.

Trinity College, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.

1919 Lissimore, Norman.

Byde Villa, Dixon' s-green, Dudley, and The Clinical
Laboratory. 10, Princes-square, Harrogate.

1920 Loxton, Samuel Ernest. F.E.A.S., F.G.S.

Icknield Little Aston, near Sutton Coldfield, Staff's.

1921 Ludford, Eeginald James, B.Sc, F.B.H.S.

1, Oakfield-road, Southgate, N.li, and University College,
W.G.I

1916 *McEwen, Alfred.

Craig Avel, Tarrytowii-cn-the- Hudson, New York, U.S.A.
1921 McFarlane, Miss Mabel Jeanuette, B.Sc.

55, Springbank-street, Glasgow.
1894 Macintyre, Jolm, M.B., CM., F.R.S.E.

179, Bath-street, Glasgow.
1919 Mackay, Rev. A. F. Gordon.

The Manse, Mecklenburg, New York. U.S.A.
1910 McKeever, Frederick Leonard

P.O. Box 210, Penticton, British Columbia.
1904 MacKenzie, John Eoss, F.C.S.

Woodleigh, Selborne-road, Barbourne, Worcester.

OKDINARY FELLOWS. 15

Elected.

1921 McLatcliie, Jolin Drummoud Pryde. M.B., CM.

34, WelbecJc-street, W.i
1884 McMiu-rich, J. Playfair, M.A.

Anatomical Laboratory, University of Toronto, Toronto,
Canada.

1919 Macphersou, Angus Duncau, M.B.

18, Cornwall-mansions, Chelsea, S.W.IO

1911 Mansfield-Aders, Walter, Ph.D.

Zanzibar, East Africa.
1909 Mapp, Charles Eichard, B.Sc.

37, Montpellier-terrace, Cheltenham.

1920 Marchment, Reginald Henry.

lo, High-road, Wood Green, N.
1896 Marshall, William John.

96, Emlyn-road, Wendell Park, W.12
1904 Mason, Francis Archibald.

29, Frankland-terrace. Leopold-street, Leeds.

1921 Mathews, Harold J. C, F.C.S.

Bridge End Brewery, Burnley.
1921 Matthews, Ernest Chauuing-, F.R.G.S., Member of the Boyal
United Service Institution.
Jesus College, Cambridge, and Authors' Club, 3 Whitehall-
court, S.W.I

1920 Maulik, Professor Samarendra, M.A., F.Z.S.

Zoological Laboratory, The University, Calcutta, India.

1921 Maurice, Edmund.

48, Gordon-mansions, W.C.I
1892 Maw, William Henry, C.E., F.E.G.S.

18, Addison-road, Kensington, W.
1879 *Mercer, A. Clifford, M.D.

324, Montgomery-street, Syracuse, N.Y., L.S.A.
1899 Merlin, Augustus Alfred Cornwallis Eliot.

3, Cleveland-gardens, West Ealing, PF.13
1901 *Metheny, Samuel Alexander Sterrett, B.A., M.D.

Peermont, New Jersey, U.S.A.
1877 Michael, Albert Davidson. F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.H.S.

The Warren, Sludland, near Swanage, Dorsetshire. (See
Honorary Fellows.^
1921 Mignot, Ernest A.

33, Ferme Fark-rond, Stroud Green, N.4:
1895 Millard, Edgar James, F.C.S.

35-42, Charlotte-street, E.C.2
1891 Miller, John Albert, M.Sc, Ph.D., F.C.S., Chemist to the State
of New York.

44 and 45, Lewis Block, East Swan-street, Buffalo, N.Y.,
U.S.A.
1920 Mills, Albert Edward, F.C.S., M.P.S.

8, George-street, Bath.

1912 Mills, Frederick William, F.L.S.

Flying Hall, near Robin Hood's Bay, Yorks.

16 KOYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Elected.

1907 Miuns, John Edward, M.S.C.I.

32, North-street, Taunton, Somersetshire, and 5, North
Town-terrace, Taunton.
1905 Moffat, Eliezer.

75, High-street, Chatham.
1911 Mond, Eobert Ludwip;, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.Iust.P., F.C.S.,
r.Pli.S., F.G.S., F.^.S.

Combe Bank, Sevenoaks, Kent.
1916 Moore, Professor Benjamin, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

4, Tackley-place, Oxford.
1921 Moore, Harold, O.B.E., B.Sc, F.I.C., F.Inst.P.

Lindsey-house, Lloyd's-place, Blackheaih, S.E.d
1897 Moore, Harry, Curator, Public Museum, Clifton-park, Rother-
ham.

12, Whiston-grove, Moorgate, Rotherham.
1851 Moreland, Richard, M.Inst.C.E.

4, Highbury-quadrant, Highbury, N.5
1896 Moreton-Parry, Lewis.

163, Oakjield-road, Everton, Liverpool.
1918 Morrish, William I., M.D., etc.

'■'■Westleigh," Thr ale-road, Streatham-park, S.W.16

1918 Mortimer, Hugh Hamilton.

15, Mulgrave-road, Croydon.
1915 Mosley, Frederick Ormrod.

University College, Reading, and ^'■Whernside" Basing-
stoke-road. Beading.
1914 Mumford, Major E. Moore, M.Sc.

75, Hiqh-street, Ghorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester.
1900 Murphy, Albert John, F.C.S.

2, Dorset-square, N. W.l

1919 Murray, James Alexander, M.D., Hon. Seceetaky.

Director, hnperial Cancer Besearch Fund.
8, Queen s-square, W.C.I

1914 Nail, Rev. George Herbert.

18, Dean's-yard, Westminster, S.W.I

1915 Naylor, George, F.B.O.A., F.I.O.

52, Cavendish-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1890 *Nelson, Edward Milles.

Beckington, near Bath, Somersetshire.
1921 Newmarch, Edgar Ribton.

" Westbury," The Drive, Walthamstow, E.17
1911 Noad, Lewis.

7, King's Bench-walk, Temple, B.C.
1899 Norman, Albert, L.R.C.P. and L.R.C.S. Ediu.

35, Coleherne-road, Earl's Court, S.W.IO
1921 Norman, Albert.

New Haw, Weybridge.

OUDlNAItY KEIXOWS. 17

Elected.

1920 Oakden. Cliailes H., F.R.RS.

Hamilton House, W.C.
1887 Ochsner. A. J.. Ph.D., M.D.

21U6, Sedqwich-street, Chicago, HI., U.S.A.
1883 Offord, John Milton.

8, Culmington-road, West Ealing, W.ld
1907 Ogilvy, James Wilson.

18, Bloomshury-sqaare, W.C, and 21, liavensdale-man-
sions, Crouch-end, N.

1878 O'Hara, Lieut.-Colonel Richard.

West Lodge, Galway.
1919 Oppenheimer, Captain Frank, I.M.S., M.B., Ch.B.

cjo Messrs. Grindlay & Co.. Bombay, India.
1897 Orueta y Duarte, Domingo de

Lagasca 116, Madrid, Spain.
1900 Oxbrow, Alfred William.

7, Old Haymarket, Norwich.

1879 Oxley, Frederick.

1912 Palmer, Henry, J. P., F.R.G.S.

The Hill, Skelton -in- Cleveland, Yorks.

1910 Palmer, Thomas Chalkley, President of Delaware County

Natural History Society, Vice-Director, Biological Section,
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Media, Delaware Co., Penn., U.S.A.

1919 Parish, Rev. Herald.

191, Stamford-street, Brooks's Bar, Manchester.

1920 Parker, James Gordon, Ph.D., F.I.C.

176, Tower-bridge-road, S.E.I
1890 *Paterson, Mrs. Catherine Childs.

15, Compayne-gardens, N.W.6
1907 Paulson, Robert, F.L.S.

Glenroij, Cecil-park, Pinner, Middlesex.
1898 Payne, Arthur E. T.

Physiological Laboratory, University of Melbourne,
Victoria, and Scotsburn, Toorak, Melbourne, Victoria.
1884 *Peek, The Honourable Lady.

Widworthy Court, Honiton.
1898 Pillischer, Jacob.

88, New Bond-street, W.\

1911 Pinchin, Ernest Alfred, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C.

36, Sternhold-avenue, Streatham-hill, S.W.'I

1906 Plaskitt, Frederick James Wade.

15, Uxbridge-road, Bickmansworth, Herts.

1907 Pledge, John Harry.

72, Nibthwaite Road, Harrow, Middlesex.
1919 Poignaud, Rev. Cecil W., M.A.

The Beccles, Walsham-le- Willows, nr. Bury Si. Edmunds

18 ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Elected.

1897 Pollard, Jonathan.

10, Porteu8-road, Paddington-green, W.2
1902 Poser, Max.

16, Vick Park B., Bochester, N.Y., U.S.A., and c/o
Bausch d Lsmb, St. Paul-street, Bochester, N.Y.,
U.S.A.
1867 Potter, George.

10, Priestwood-mansions, Highgate, N.6
1919 Pougher, Ernest W., M.M.A.E.

93, Manchester-road, Chorlton-cum- Hardy, Manchester.
1892 Pound, Charles Joseph.

Director, Stock Experiment Station, Yeerongpilly, Queens-
land, Australia.
1880 Powell, Thomas Hugh.

Emsdale, Greenham-road, Musicell-hill, N.
1921 Poyser, W. A.

2420, Catherine-street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.

1898 Radley, Percy Edward, F.Z.S.

Nesta, Broxhourne, Herts, ati'l The Metric Publishing Co.,
329, High Holborn, W.C.I

1919 Ramaun-Sastriu, Vedaranyesvara Vaidvanatha, M.A., Ph.D..

F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.H.S., F.K.A.S., F.K.Met.Soc, F.P.S.L.,
Mem. Brit. Astron. Ass., Mem. Royal Astrou. Soc. of
Canada, Mem. London Math. Soc., M.R.A.S.

Vedaraniam, Tanjore, Dt., South India, and 1, Sami
Pillai-street, Clioolai, Madras, N.C., South India.

1896 Ranken, Charles, F.C.S.

11, Stockton-road, Sunderland.
1921 Ran, A. Subba, B.A.

Department of Zoology, University College, W.C.I

1920 Rau, Venkata, M.A.

Depaitment of Agriculture, Bangalore, India, and
<;/o Messrs. Coutts .£ Co., Bankers, Strand, W.C.
1917 Rawlins, Francis Ian Gregory.

White Waltham Grove, near Maidenhead, Berkshire.
1912 . Rees, W. Eric, F.S.MC.

Clovelly, Bedford-road, Newport, Mon.
1910 Rei.1, Alfred, M.B., D.P.H., B.Hy. Durh., M.R.C.S. Eug.,
L.R.C.P., Government Medical Officer.

Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Federated Malay .States.
1920 Reid, Duncan James, M.B., CM.

20, Blakesley-avenne, Ealing, W.5

1897 Remington, John Stewart, M.R.A.C, F.C.S., I'.L.S.

Aynsome-housv, Grange-over-Sands, B.S.O., Lancashire.

1899 Rheiuberg, Julius.

23, The Avenue, Brundesbury-park, N. W.

ORDINARY FELLOWS. 19

Klected.

1893 Richardson, Frederic William, F.I.C., F.C.S., County Analyst,

Bradford, and Oak Lea, Menston, Yorkshire.
191(5 Kichiirdson, John.

12, Sutherland-gardens, East Sheen, S.W. 14:
1921 Roberts, William James David.

21, Penn-road, N.l
1908 Robertson, James A.

Skerryvore, Ilolmfield-avenue, Cleveleys, near Blackpool.
1921 Robertson. Thomas E., F.C.I.P.A., A.F.R.Ac.S., A.M.I.E.E.

Hazlitt House, 43-46, Southampton-huildings, Chancery-
lane, W.C.'l
1921 Robins, Edmnnd Arthur.

" Gorran," Cassiohury-park-avenue, Watford, Herts.

1910 *Robins, Herbert George, F.R.G.S.

Toms Farms, Wankie, S. Rhodesia, South Africa.

1917 *fiobinson, Miss Nancy M.

Glassel House, Glassel, Aberdeenshire.
1899 Rogers, George Henry James.

2, Bower-terrace, Tonhridge-road, Maidstone.
1921 Room, H. W. Reginald.

Sunnymead, Lansd own-road, Bromley, Kent.

1911 Ross, John Pilkethly, M.P.S.

Care of Messrs. Stella and Co., Esplanade-road, Bombay,
India.

1918 Ross, Sydney W.

Michelmersh, Bomsey, Hants.
1883 *Rosseter, Thomas B.

6, Salisbury-road, St. Stephen's, Canterbury.
1918 Rowley, Frank, M.I.M.M.

21, Buckland-crescent, Hampstead, N. W.S
1917 Ryland, Lieut,-Colonel Alfred W.

Glen Hurst, Watling-street-road, Fulioood, Preston.

1921 Sachs, Leonard, M.P.S.

Box 969, Pretoria, S. Africa.
1921 Sagucbi, Professor Sakae.

Kanazawa Medical School, Kanazawa, Japan.
1921 Sahni, C. L., M.B., B.S.

c/o Messrs. Henry S. King cO Co., 9, Pall-mall, S.W.I
1919 St. John- Ward, Henry.

Brebner School, Bloemfontein, Orange Free State, South
Africa.
1918 Salmon, Walter

17, The Grove, Eccles, Lanes.
1892 *Salomons, Sir David Lionel, Bart., J.P., M.A., D.L., F.R.G.S.,
F.G.S., F.Z.8.

49, Grosvenor-street, W. ; and Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

20 ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Klected.

1909 Saxtou, Thomas E., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E.

43, East Bank, Stamford-hill, JV.16
1898 Scales, F. Shillington, M.A., M.D., B.C. (Cantab.).

Bedcourt, Adams-road, Cambridge.
1880 Scott, Dukiiifield Henry, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., LL.D., F.E.S.,
F.L.S.

East Oakley-house, Basingstoke, Hants, and Athenaeum-
cluh.

1916 Scott, Joseph Henry.

1909 Scott, Walter.

Nant-y-Cocd, Conway, Carnarvonshire.
1913 Scott, Wm., F.E.C.V.S.

Friarn House, Bridgwater.
1900 Scourfield, David J., F.Z.'S.

63, Queens-road, Leytonstone, E.ll
1907 Scriven. Charles E.

Kingscote, Furze-hill, Burgh-heath, Surrey.
1919 Seager, John Horsford.

1, St. Marif s-road, Faversham, Kent.

1917 Sears, E. S. W. "

1, Lisson-grove, Marylehone. N.W.I
1921 Sen, Lolitmohan, M.B., D.P.B., D.T.M.

cjo Messrs. Grindlay d' Co., 54, Parliament-street,
S.W.I

1918 Seymour- Jones, Alfred.

" Fendower," Wrexham.
1921 Seymour-Jones, F. L.

414, West nSiJi-street, New York, N.Y., U.S.A.
1902 Sharpe, Charles James.

130, Fenchurch-street, E.C.S
1885 *Shelley, Major A. D. G., R.E. (Eetired).

1910 Sheppard, Alfred William, F.L.S.

c/o Longmans, Green d Co., 89, Paternoster-roio,

E.C.4:

1909 Sheppard, Edward James.

137, Kennington-road, Lambeth, S.E.ll
1920. de Sibour, Le Vicomte, F.Z.S.

c/o Messrs. Morgan Grenfell d' Co., 22, Old Broad-
street, E.C.

1909 Sidwell, Clarence J. H.

46, Ashbourne-grove, East Dulwich. S.E.
1921 Sierra, J. M.

Biological Laboratory, Cadby Hall, Kensington, TF.14
1912 Simpson, Norman Douglas, B.A.

Maesburi/, Cavendish-road, Bournemouth.
1916 Singer, Charles, M.A., M.D.

5, North-grove, Highgate, N.6

1910 Sinha, J. C, J.P., Honorary Presidency Magistrate.

c/o Jones d Co., Solicitors, 6, Old Post Office-street,
Calcutta,

ORDINARY FELLOWS. 21

Elected.

1918 Skepper, Hsirry Godfrey.

" Lindum," Brother toft-road, Boston, Lines.

1917 Smith, Joseph, P.S.A.A.

28, Altom-street, Blackburn, Lancashire.

1908 Smith, Theodore White.

920, North Michigan-avenue, Illinois, U.S.A.
1906 Smith, Thumas James.

Braeside, Bostvorth-ioad, New Barnet.
1897 Soar, Charles David, F.L.S.

10, Westmoreland-road, Barnes, S.W.I'd

1920 Souiitag, Charles F., M.D., Ch.B.

80a, Belsize-park-gardens, N.W.3

1918 Springall. Huhert F.

The Friars, King's Lynn.
1903 Spry, Eobert, Lieut.-Commander, E.N.

83, Mount-Gold-road, Plymouth.
1882 Squauce, Major Thomas Coke, M.D., M.S., F.K.S.E.

The Cottage, Newbiggin, Aysgarth, S.O., Yorks.

1909 Stewart, Thomas S., M.D.

1736, Spruce-street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
1900 Stiles, Matthew Henry.

10, Avenue-road, Doiicaster.

1921 Stobart, Captain Heury Francis.
1867 Stoker, George Naylor.

Fairfield, Lessar-avemie, Clapham-common, S.W.
1914 Strachau, James, F.Inst.P.

74, Blenheim-place, Queen's Cross, Aberdeen.
1912 *Stringer, Edward Belcher.

Egerfon-lodge; Bromley, Kent.
1871 Stuart, John.

3, North-side, Clapham-common, S.W.4:
1921 Stump, Dan M., B.S., M.E.

5451, Monroe-street, Chicago, III., U.S.A.

1918 Sutclitfe, Herbert.

The Besearch Laboratory, Petaling, Federated Malay
States.
1920 Sutherland, Donald, M.A.

" Golden Hurst,' 20, Carmunnock-road, Cathcart,
Glasgoiv.

1919 Swainson-Hall, K., F.L.S.

Poste Restante, Casa de Senor Joao Martins, Cabinda,
Portuguese Congo, S. W. Africa.
1906 Swift, Mausell James.

81, Tottenham-court-road, W.\.
1889 Sykes, Mark Langdale.

Eversley cottage, Coombe Down, Bath.

22 ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETV.

Elected.

1911 Tabor, Charles James, F.R.A.T.

The White House, Knott' s-green, Ley ton, Essex.
1891 *Talmage, James Edward, D.Sc, Ph.D. F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
Professor of Geology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City,
Utah, U.S.A.

The Deserei Museum, Salt Lake City, Utah.

1900 Taverner, Henry.

Wrehin House, 319, Seven- Sisters-road, Finsbury-park,N .'i

1919 Taylor, Albert.

32, William- street, Byecroft, Ashton-under- Lyne.
1915 Taylor, Frederick H.

County Bank, Chorley, Hants.
1891 Terry, Edwin, F.C.S.

Sunburi/ House, 374, Brixton-road, S.W.9
1921 l^hapar, Professor Gobind Singh, M.Sc, F.E.M.S.

Canning College, Lucknow, India.
1885 *Thomson, J. Arthur, M.A., LL.D., F.K.S.I-:., F.Z.S., Begins
Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.

Natural History Department, Marischal College,University,
Aberdeen, and Castleton House, Old Aberdeen.

1881 Thorasou, William.

Boyal Institution Laboratory, 79a, Princess-street, Man-
chester.

1920 Thorne, Captain Ralph G. A., B.A.

82, Ashley -gardens, S.WA

1912 Tierney, Clarence, M.S., D.Sc.

" Netherton," Coulsdon, Surrey.

1901 Tilling, George.

Grasmcre, Bydal-road, Streatham, S.W.16
1919 Toiiilinson, Thomas Willis Brown.
High-street, Berkhamsted.

1919 Topley, William Whiteman Carlton, M.D., F.R.C.P.,

M.R.C.S,, etc.

The Institute of Pathology, Charing Cross Hospital
Medical School, Chandos-street, W.G.2, and One Tree-
house, The Grove, Hampstead, N.W.^

1918 Triggs, Edward E.

CjO Marconi Co., Milburn House, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1920 Trinder, George A. W., M.J.I.

100, Marine-street, PT.IO
1917 Tripp, Charles Llewellyn H., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
11, East Grove-road, St. Leonard's, Exeter.

1919 Tucker, Quincey C, M.B., Ph.G.

1920 Turner, William.

21, Vera-road, Fulham, S.W.
1915 Tutt, Captain John Francis Donald, M.R.C.V.S., F.L.S.,
F.Z.S., F.E.S.. M.B.O.U.

1, St. Cross-road, Winchester.

1882 Tuttle, Albert Henry, M.Sc.

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va., U.S.A.

ORDINARY FELLOWS. 23

Elected.

1913 Verrall, Fmierick H., B.A., LL.B.
The Hollies, Worthing, Sussex.

1909 Walter, Rev. Frederick William.

The Grange, Worstead, Norfolk.
1867 *Walters, James Hopkins, M.R.C.S.

15, Friar-street, Beading.
1869 Ward, Frederic Henry, M.E.C.S.

52, Lancaster-road, West Norwood, S.E.27

1920 Ware, John William.

c/o P. 0. Hea, Esq., Solicitor, P.O. Box 45, Dundee,
Natal, South Africa.
1885 Warner, Edmond.

Southend House, Eltham, S.E.

1911 Warrington, (Japt. A. F. G., F.IJ.G.S.

c/o The British India Marine Service, Club, Norton s-
buildim/s, Calcutta, India.
1883 Waters, Arthur William, F.L.S., F.G.S.

Alderley, McKinley-road, Bournemouth.

1921 Watkin-Brown, W. Tliomas, J.P.

24, Bowns-road, Kogarah, Sydney, N.S. W.
1919 Watkinson, Harry.

Westwoods, Welhohiie-road, Grimsby.

1919 Watts, George William, L.D.S.Eng.

103, Haver sti.ch-hill, N.W.^

1912 Webb, Wilfred Mark, F.L.S.

The Hermitage, Hanwell, W.

1897 Webster, William Thomas.

252, Caledonian-road, N.l

1920 Welsford, Miss Evelyn Janie, M.B.E., F.L.S

Department of Agriculture, Zanzibar.
1920 Westerdyk, Tidde.

Keizersgracht, 642-44, Amsterdam, Holland.

1885 *Westeru, Edward Young.

27, Pembridge-square, Notting-hill-gate, W.S

1919 Whipp, James Ewart, M.P.S.

15, St. John-street, Longsight, Manchester.

1886 *Whitehead, Ralph RadclitTe.

Woodstock, Ulster C, N.T., U.S.A.

1920 Whitfield, Herbert Charles.

6, Kassala-road, Batter sea-park, S.W.ll

1898 Whittaker, Oscar, F.E.S.

Box 552, Chilliwack, British Columbia.
1915 Whitteron, Frederick.

''Cooranga," Toorak-avenue, Kooyong, Melbourne,Vietoria ,
Australia.

1913 Wigau, Basil P., E.C.S.

Bhondda-valley Breweries Co., Treherbert, S. Wales.

24 KOYAL MICKOSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Elected.

1910 Wilding, Percy P.

Fern Nook, Penwortham Hill, Preston, Lanes.
1921 Wildmau, J. T. E.

36 Etherley-road, South Tottenham, JV.15
1916 Wilkin, Lieutenant Arthur P., F.K.H.S., F.Z.S., F.K.B.S.

cjo Eastern Telegraph Co., Ltd., Bombay. India.

1908 Wilson, Joseph.

The Hawthorns, 3, West-park-road, Kew-qardens, S.W.

1911 Wilton, Edmund Wade, A.I.S.E., F.S.A.

Planet Works, Bramley, Leeds, and Whit eg ate -house.
The Valley, Scarborough.

1909 Winton, Francis Langridge, M.A.

The Brewery, Chatteris, Cambs., and 23, Bateman-street,
Cambridge.
1911 Woodhead, Sir German Sims, K.B.E., M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
F.E.S.E., F.R.C.P. (Ed.), Professor of Pathology in the
University of Cambridge.

Dysart House, Luard-rottd, Cambridge.
1880 *Woodward, Bernard B., F.L.S., F.G.S.

4, Longfield-road. Ealing, W.6
1889 Wright, Charles Henry.

10, Clarence-road, Kew.

1920 Wright, Clarence.

14, Sussex-gardens, Eastbourne.
1882 Wright, Prof. R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc.
9, Moreton-road, Oxford.

1921 Wrighton, Harold, B.Met.

64, Kinveachy-gardens, Charlton, S.E.I
1900 Wyatt, William.

4, Addison terrace, Victoria-park, Manchester.
1919 Wycherley, Sydney R.

25, Hollegrave-road, Bromley, Kent.
1921 Wyn-Miller- Williams, E. B.

Warpool-court, St. Davids, S.O., co. Pembroke.

1918 Yermoloff, Sir N., K.C.B., K.C.V.O., F.L.S.

3, Whitehall-court, S.W.I
1890 *Youdale, William Henry.

21, Belle Isle-street, Workington.
1918 Young, George William.

20, Grange-road, Barnes. S.W.

1904 Zimmerman, Professor Charles.

Sao Carlos de Pinhal, Rua 13 de Maio, 60, Estado de
S. Paulo, Brazil.
1920 Zwick, Karl George, Ph.C, Ph.D., M.D.

Spalen Eing, 103, Basle, Switzerland.

HONORARY FELLOWS. 25

HONORARY FELLOWS.

Elected.

1879 Balbiani, E. G.

Paris.
1904 Bonnier, G.

Paris.

1918 Bruce, Lady Mary Elizabeth, R.R.C.

London.
1904 Delage, Y.

Paris.
1895 Golgi, C.

Padua.
1906 Jennings, H. S.

Baltimore.
1897 Lee, A. R.

Gologny.

1919 Michael, Albert Davidson, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.H.S.

Studland.
1912 Penard, Eugene.

Geneva.
1904 Ramon y Cajal, S.

Madrid.
1879 Ranvier, L.

Paris.
1879 Sars, G. O.

Christiania.

1904 Teall, J. J. H.

London.
1897 Toni, G. B. De

Modena.
1879 Warming, E.

Copenhagen.

1905 Wilson, E. B.

New York.
1905 Wood, R. W.

Baltimore.

latron.

HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

fast-l^resibents.
* Elected

*SiR KioFARD Owen, K.C.B., D.C.L., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 1840-1

*JoHN LiNDLEY, Ph.D., F.R.S 1842-3

*Thoma8 Bell, F.R.S 1844-5

* James Scott Bowerbank, LL.D., F.R.S. .. .. 1846-7
*George Busk, F.R.S 1848-1)

* Arthur Farre, M.D., F.R.S 1850-1

*George Jackson, M.R.C.S. 1852-3

* William Benjamin Carpenter, C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 1854-5
*George Shadbolt .. .. ,. .. .. .. 1856-7

*Edwin Lankester, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S 1858-9

*John Thomas Quekett, F.R.S. .. .. .. .. 1860

*Robert James Farrants, F.R.C.S. .. .. 1861-2

*Charles Brooke, M.A., F.R.S 1868-4

* J AMES Glaisher, F.R.S 1865-6-7-8

*Rev. Joseph Bancroft Reade, M.A., F.R.S 1869-70

* William Kitchen Parker, F.R.S. 1871-2

*Charles Brooke, M.A., F.R.S 1873-4

*Henry Clifton Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S 1875-6-7

* Henry James Slack, F.G.S. .. .. .. .. 1878

*LioNEL S. Beale, M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.S 1879-80

*Pbter Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S 1881-2-3

*Rev. William Henry Dallinger, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

1884-5^6-7
*Charles Thomas Hudson, M.A., LL.D. (Cantab.), F.R.S.

1888-9-90

*Robert Braithwaite, M.D., M.R.C.S 1891-2

Albert D. Michael, F.L.S 1893-4-5-6

Edward Milles Nelson .. .. .. ,. 1897-8-9

Willi\m Carruthers, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S 1900-1

*Henry Woodwakd, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. .. 1902-3

DuKiNFiELD Henry Scott, M.A., I'h.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

1904-5-6
*The Right Hon. Lord Avebury, P.C, D.C.L., LL.D.,

F.R.S., etc 1907-8

Sir Edwin Ray Lankester, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,

F.L.S., F.Z.S 1909

J. Arthur Thomson, M.A., F.R.S.E. .. ' .. 1910-11
*Hbnry Geo. Plimmer, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., etc. .. 1911-12
G. Sims Woodhead, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., etc. .. 1913-15
Edward Heron-Allen, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc. .. 1916-17
Joseph E. Barnard, F.Inst.P 1918-19

* Peceased,

COUNCIL

OF

I'HE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Elected 21st Januaky, 1921.

PRESIDENT.

J. \V. H. Eyre, M.D., M.S., F.R.S.Edin.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.
Frederic J. Cheshire, C.B.E., Percy E. Radley.

F.Inst.P. David J. Scourfield, F.Z.S.

Sir George Sims Woodhead, K.B.E., M.A., M.D., LL.U., etc.

HONORARY TREASURER.— Cyril F. Hill.

HONORARY SECRETARIES.

Joseph E. Barnard, F.Inst.P. | James A. Murray, M.D.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

Maurice A. Ainslie, R.N.

S. C. Akehurst.

W. E. Watson Baker.

Aubrey H. Dreav, D.Sc.

F. Martin Duncan, F.R.P.S.,

^•^•^ j Joseph Wilson

Arthur Earland.

E. Heron-Allen, F.R.S.

T. H. Hiscott.

Julius Rheinberg.

E. J. Sheppard.

Clarence Tierney, M.S., D.Sc.

Librarian.— F. Martin Duncan, F.R.P.S., F.Z.S.

Editor.— Charles Singer, M.A., M.D.

Curator of Instruments. — W. E. Watson Baker.

Curator of Slides. — E. J. Sheppard.

Curator of MetallurgicalkSpecimens. — F. Ian G. Rawlins.

Secretary. — C. J. Lock.

THE

JloDul lllicroscouixal Sarktrr.

Established in 1839. Incorporated by Royal Charter in 1866.
20 HANOYER SQUARE, LONDON, W.l

The Society was established in 1839 for the promotion of Micro-
copical and Biological Science hy the communication, discussion, and
publication of observations and discoveries relating to (1) Improve-
ments in the construction and mode of application of the Microscope, and
(2) Biological or other sul)ject8 of Microscopical Research.

It consists of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-officio Fellows of either sex.

Ordinary Fellows are elected on a Certificate of Recommendation
and signed by three Ordinary Fellows, setting forth the names, residence,
and qualifications of the Candidate. The Certificate is read at two General
Meetings, the Candidate being balloted for at the second Meeting.

The Admission Fee is 21. 2s., payable at the time of election; and the
Annual Subscription is 21. 2s., payable on election, and subsequently in
advance on 1st January in each year, but the Annual Subscriptions may be
compounded for at any time for 31L 10s. The Annual Subscription of
Fellows permanently residing abroad is 11. lis. Gd., or a reduction of
one-fourth.

The Council, in whom the management of the property and affairs
of the Society is vested, is elected annually, and is composed of the Presi-
dent, four Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, two Secretaries, and twelve other
Ordinary Fellows.

The Meetings are held on the third Wednesday in each month
from October to June, in the Lecture Hall, at 20 Hanover Square, W.l
(at 7.30 for 8 p.m.). Visitors are admitted on the introduction of
Fellows. The business of the Meetings includes the reading of papers,
the exhibition of microscopical ol)jects and apparatus, lantern demonstra-
tions, and discussions.

The Journal is pubUshed quarterly. All Fellows are entitled to a
copy, and it is also sold to Nou -Members, at an annual Subscription of 42s.
post free. It contains the Transactions and Proceedings of the Society,
and a Summary of Current Researches relating to Zoology and Botany
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), and Microscopy.

The Library, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cabinet of
Objects, is open for the use of Fellows daily (except Saturdays), from
10 A.M. to 5 P.M. It is closed for four weeks during August and September.

Forms of proposal for Fellotvship, and any ficrtlier information, may be obtained
on application to the Secretary, Royal Microscopical Society, 20 Hanover Square,
Jjondon, W.l

K

"i-i^CH )

-4. U '

. J O U K N A L

OF THE . ,.^--^ ^^

KOYAL MICROSCOPIC /VL SOCIETY.

MARCH, li)21.

TBAN8ACTI0NS OF THE SOCIETY.

I._C0XTRIBUT10NS TO THE STUDY OF THE
OOGENESIS OF PATELLA.

By Reginald James Ludford, B.Sc.(Lond.), F.R.M.S.,
Zoology Department, University College, London.

(Read February 16, 1921.)
Two Plates.

Introduction.

Recent work on oogenesis lias shown that the part played in tliis
process by the various cytoplasmic inclusions varies considerably
in different organisms. Mitochondria and the Oolgi appai^atus
have been shown to be present in nearly all animal cells studied
by modern methods ; and although there is occasionally some
doubt about the mitochondi'ia, both categories of cellular inclusions
are probably present in the undifferentiated germinal epithelial cells
from which ova and spermatozoa arise. In the complex series of
changes which take place during oogenesis the mitochondria increase
in number by fission and spread throughout the cell, and either they
remain unaltered in the mature ovum, as in certain Molluscs, or a
part of the mitochondrial content of tlie cell may be converted into
yolk bodies, as has been described in Ascaris (8),* Apanteles (4),
Eana and Lepus (7). In young Ascidian oocytes, according to
Hirschler {9), there is present a granular body, the chondriome,
from which is formed the mitochondria and also yolk nuclei.

The Golgi apparatus of most animals in the youngest oocytes
is excentrically disposed, and consists of a number of rods or

* The italic figures within brackets refer to the Bibliography at the end of the
paper.

B

2 Transactions of the Society.

batonettes surrounding the archoplasm (7). With the growth of
the egg, the individual rods increase by binary fission and spread
through the cytoplasm. The young Ascidian oocyte contains {8)
five or fewer dome-shaped or hollow spherical Golgi elements —
"the primary diffuse condition." As the oocyte grows these come
together and form a net-like structure — " the complex condition "
— and then later they become once more scattered in the cyto-
plasm— " the secondary diffuse condition."

The Golgi elements may or may not undergo transformation.
In Grantia {5), Helix (J2), Limnxa (3), Apantcles {Jf), and Lepus (7)
the apparatus probably takes no direct part in yolk formation.
In Rana (7) the elements seem to be swollen with a yolk sub-
stance, and in Ascidian oocytes (5) many of the Golgi elements
enlarge and become fused to swollen mitochondria to form complex
yolk bodies.

Apart from the influence of the mitochondria and Golgi
apparatus, yolk granules are formed in some cases as the result of
metabolic processes in the ground cytoplasm. This is the case in
the sponge, Grantia -compressa (-5), where they seem to develop as
small vacuoles in the cytoplasm. These yolk spheres are easily
distinguishable from the mitochondria, which are few in numl^er
and much larger. . ,

Besides yolk bodies, oil globules have been described in some
eggs. Thus in Ascaris (8), where mitochondria enlarge to form
the yolk spheres, fat granules are developed as the result of
metabolism in the ground cytoplasm. However, in other eggs,
e.g. those of Ascidians, which have been specially examined for fat
granules, none have been found (9). The black colorization with
osmic acid techniques in such cases is due to the presence of lipin
in the Golgi elements, mitochondria or yolk bodies.

Pkevious Work on Oogenesis in Patella vulgaris.

Gatenby and Woodger in a recent paper (7) refer to oogenesis
in Patella. They describe the spreading out of the Golgi apparatus
during growth of the egg, and refer to its part in yolk formation.
" However the yolk spheres may be formed, be it from the mito-
chondria, archoplasm, or simply in the ground cytoplasm, the
Golgi elements later become stuck upon the surface of many, if
not all, of the yolk spheres and form a most important part of the
yolk substance."

It was with a view to ascertaining the nature of this process
that the investigation here described was carried out, at the sugges-
tion of Dr. J. Bronte Gatenby and under his supervision, in the
Department of Zoology of University College, London. My
thanks are due to Dr. Gatenby for his advice and helpful criticism
throughout this research.

Contributions to the Study of the Oogenesis of Patella.

Technique.

The method adopted in this investigatiou was to remove small
portions of the ovary from lightly chloroformed animals and to drop
the pieces into capsules of various fixatives. Those used included
Kopsch, Mann-Kopsch, Cajal, Da Fano, Flemming- without- acetic,
Zenker-without-acetic, Champy-KuU and Hermann. Of these the
clearest pictures of the Golgi apparatus were obtained with the
]Mann-Kopsch method — i.e. fixation in corrosive osmic for two or
three hours, then wr.shing in distilled water and transferring to
2 p.c. OSO4 for fourteen days. Slides of material prepared in this
way were stained in acid fuchsin and dijEferentiated in warm picric
acid after the method of Altmann. The Golgi elements are then
stained black. The developing yolk granules appear first as a
dark brownish coloration amongst the Golgi elements, larger and
older ones are darker, and the mature spheres are of a deep
brownish black coloration. The mitochondria appear as red
granules, as do also the plasmosomes of the nucleus.

If before staining with acid fuchsin slides are treated with
turpentine for about a quarter of an hour, the black appearance
due to true fats is removed, owing to the oxidizing properties of
the turpentine. The yolk bodies then appear as colourless spheres,
to the sides of which are attached the Golgi elements, still of a
deep black colour, which shows them to be of a special lipoid
constitution.

In Limnxa preparations made by the Mann-Kopsch method
and stained with Altmann's acid fuchsin, Gatenby describes reddish
mitochondria and black Golgi elements and quite separate yolk
granules, which are of a yellowish-brown colour with a greenish
tinge due to the osmic acid. In Patella, however, no yolk granules
distinct from Golgi elements are found, so that while in Kopsch
preparations of the mature eggs of Liiiinxa the Golgi elements are
black, and the yolk bodies yellowish to brown, in Patella the
complex yolk bodies, consisting of Golgi elements and yolk bodies
combined, are of a deep black colour. In such preparations the
mitochondria appear as pale brown granules not at all clearly
distinguishable. The difference in colour in the yolk bodies in the
two cases appears to be due to' the superior olein content of the
Patella yolk body.

The mature eggs of Patella prepared by the Mann-Kopsch
method and treated with turpentine show just beneath the Q.og
membrane, and again around the nucleus, layers of black granules
whose histo-chemical reactions show them to be of a lipoid nature,
though not true fat ; as will be described later, they are derived
from the Golgi elements of the yolk granules. The same granules
are shown by other fixatives which preserve the Golgi apparatus.

B 2

4 Transactions of the Society.

The methods of (.'iijal and Da Fano, which depend upon silver
impregnation, do not give such clear and definite pictures of the
apparatus as those previously mentioned, and preparations made
by these methods were used^chiefly as controls.

Although the mitochondria show quite well in Mann-Kopsch
preparations stained with acid fuchsin, they show more clearly with
riemming-without-acetic, or Zenker-without-acetic fixation and
iron haematoxylin staining. By these methods the mitochondria
stain a deep black. Tlie cytoplasm is of a pale bluish grey colour,
much darker in the youngest oocytes. The nucleoli are black, as
well as the mitochondria, while the Golgi elements in those cases
where they stain are black also. In slides untreated with turpentine
the yolk appears as deep brown coloured spheres.

The Ovary of Patella.

The ovary of Patella is situated on the ventral side of the
visceral mass. According to Davis and Fleure (7), " in very young
forms it is practically a pouch, the cavity of which is coelomic.
This cavity is lined by germinal epithelium, M'hich, with its under-
lying tissue, grows in as folds, some of which unite into trabecul?e,
thus converting the pouch into a mass of sex cells covering the
connective basis. As the gland grows in each season towards
maturity it pushes forward, sometimes as far as the level of the

EXPLANATION OP PLATE I.

Lettering. — C, connective-tissue basis of trabecular wall; CH., chondriome
granule (granules comprising the mitochondrial complex of the cell) ; GA., Golgi
apparatus; GE., individual Golgi element or batonette ; GE.1-GE.4, Golgi
elements during the various stages of yolk formation ; GP., fragments of ihe
Golgi elements broken off from the fully-formed yolk spheres ; M, mitochondria ;
N., nvicleus of &gg\ NC. nurse cell or yolk cell; NOT., nucleus of connective-
tissue cell of the trabecula ; NE., solid material extruded from the nucleus ; NL.,
nucleolus of egg; NM., nuclear membrane of egg; NN., nucleus of nurse cell;
OC, oocyte ; OY., ovum; V., vitelline membrane; Y, yolk sphere; Ya-Yd., suc-
cessive stages in the development of a yolk sphere; YS., yolk sphere of nurse cell.

Fig. 1. — Portion of the trabecula of the ovary, showing developing oocyte
(OC.) and nurse cells (NC). F.W.A. and iron haematoxylin.

Fig. 2. — Young oocyte with Golgi apparatus (GA.) in concentrated condition.
De Fano and Jlann's metbyl-blue eosin.

Fig. 3 — Similar young oocyte from a ^laun-Kopsch-Altmann preparation,
showing the Golgi apparatus after treatment with turpentine.

Fig. 4. — Slightly older oocyte, with the Golgi elements (GE.) beginning to dis-
perse. Technique as fig. 3.

Fig. 5. — Oocyte with the Golgi elements (GE.) spreading out in the cytoplasm.
]\I.K. with turpentine.

Fig. 6. — Young oocyte, showing the emission of solid nucleolar material (NE.).
^lann-Kopsch-Altmann.

Figs. 7, 8. — Young oocytes between the stages shown in figs. 4 and 5, illustrat-
ing the formation of yolk as the Golgi elements disperse. M.K.A.

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC, 1921. PI. I,

i'iicu ji. ■).

Contributions to the Sfiidy of the Oogenesis of Patella. 5

cesophageal pouches, iUid often extends across the median line
towards the right side." At different seasons of tlie year the ovary
varies considerably in size, and it seems peculiarly liable to over-
growth. Ova are extruded by rupture of the ovary wall into the
cavity of the right kidney wlience they pass to the exterior. There
are no accessory sexual organs.

The breeding season is in the autumn. Boutain found sexual
maturity to be reached in September at Eoscoff, but Davis and
Fleur regard it as somewhat later at Aberystwyth (/).

NUTKITION OF THE YoUNG OoCYTES.

Fig. 1, Plate I, shows a portion of one of the trabecuhe of the
ovary, lu the middle is the connective tissue basis, the cells of
which do not show at all clearly in Flemming-withovit-acetic prepa-
rations stained with iron alum haimatoxylin ; but with fixatives
containing acetic acid, and iu ethyl l)lue staining, the trabecula is
seen to be composed of rather long narrow cells witli elongated
nuclei, bound together by connective tissue fibres. On either side
of the partition thus formed are attached the undifferentiated cells
of the germinal epithelium with characteristic elongated nuclei,
the young developing oocytes and numerous yolk containing nurse
cells. At ()C. is seen a cell which has just commenced to differ-
entiate and acquire the characteristics of an oocyte. Its cytoplasm
is stained differently from that of the neighbouring cells, and it
contains several black granules. Similar cells of Mann-Kopscli
preparations show a concentrated Golgi apparatus, as in fig. 2.
With the F.W.A. and iron hematoxylin technique the cytoplasm
of the young oocytes stains a blue colour, while that of the neigh-
bouring cells is almost colourless. This difference in staining
properties seems t(j be due to the very active metabolism in the
cytoplasm at this stage, when the cell is preparing for growth, as
with its subsequent enlargement the cytoplasm stains a pale colour.

During the primary >;tages of growth the young oocyte, attached
to the trabecula, is surrounded by nurse cells containing yolk
granules. As it grows out into the lumen of the ovary certain of
the yolk cells separate from the connective tissue of the trabecula
and come to surround it, forming a temporary follicle, as is seen in
the cell OV. At first these " follicle " cells contain numerous
yolk granules, but they are evidently used up in providing nourish-
ment' for the developing egg, for in oocytes which have just
separated off from the trabecula and come to lie freely in the
lumen, nurse cells are found surrounding them, as in fig. 13, but
in such cases it is not usual to find much yolk. It would seem
probable that this substance has been acted upon by enzymes and
become converted into a liquid which can be absorbed through the
wall of the oocyte. As the oocyte continues development the yolk

6 Transactions of the Society.

cells surrounding it appear to dwindle in size, and eventually they
disappear from its surface. The mature oocyte is surrounded by a
well-marked vitelline membrane.

In'iea Vitam Examination of the Oocytes.

When living eggs are examined microscopically two types of
cytoplasmic inclusions are distinguishable, large clear bodies, the
yolk spheres, and smaller granular ones, the mitochondria. Eggs
from animals wliich had been liglitly chloroformed were smeared
on slides and treated with various staining reagents. The large
yolk bodies, in common with iat compounds, were stained red by
alcoholic solutions of scarlet red and Sudan III, but they were not
coloured by the other reagents used. The mitochondria were
stained a pale green colour by Janus green, and methyl green, and
a purple colour by dahlia : the other stains were without effect.
A 1 p.c. solution of potassium permanganate, 1 p.c. acetic acid and
iodine solution produced no appreciable change; but with 90 p.c.
alcohol the yolk spheres underwent a slirinking, so that they
appeared somewhat like crenulated blood corpuscles. This was
evidently due to something being dissolved out. Most probably
this substance is a lecithin-like body, as lecithin is known to be
present in the yolk spheres of most animals, and is soluble in
alcohol.

Although Janus green does in some cases stain the Golgi
apparatus (6'), it was without effect in the material examined.

The Golgi Apparatus and its Function in
Oogenesis.

In the youngest oocytes the Golgi apparatus consists of a
number of rods or batonettes of a semi-lunar shape arranged
around the archoplasm. In Plate I, fig. 2 and fig. 3, are shown
cells at this stage. The former is drawn from a preparation by
Da Fano's silver impregnation method, and the latter from a
Mann-Kopsch preparation. In both of these cells the large
nucleoli (plasinosomes) are a distinguishing feature of the nucleus.
As the cell grows certain of the Golgi elements begin to spread
out away from the archoplasm, but others appear to remain attached
to it for a time, and to initiate the process of yolk formation.
In fig. 4 is shown a cell with the Golgi batonettes just commencing
to disperse. This is drawn from a Mann-Kopsch preparation
which has been treated with turpentine to remove the blackened
fat. The archoplasm is therefore colourless. In fig. 8, however,
which has not been treated with turpentine, the whole of the compact
part of the Golgi apparatus appears black, showing that a fatty
substance has been already formed at this stage. The batonettes

Contrilmtions to the Stud n of the Oogenesis of ratella. 7

which are seen moving away from the archoplasm in fig. 4 multiply
by fission and spread throughout the cytoplasm. As they do so
they lead to the formation of yolk spheres. The archoplasm also
seems to break up into several portions, each of which becomes an •
active centre for the formation of yolk and the spread of baton ettes
which carry on the same process. In fig. 8, which is drawn under
a lower power than fig. 7, several such groups of yolk bodies are
seen, as are also scattered elements which are forming yolk bodies.

It is during the early stages of this process of the spreading
out of the Golgi apparatus and yolk formation that a peculiar
nuclear phenomenon is to be observed. The large plasmosomes to
which attention was directed in the youngest oocytes, fragment
under peculiar conditions, and there is during subsequent stages
an emission of nucleolar material. This is shown in fig. 6 and
fig. 8. The exact nature of this process I am still investigating,
and hope to describe later.

Gradually the Golgi batonettes spread throughout the cyto-
plasm. At fig. 5 is shown a cell in which they are much dispersed.
The yolk bodies appear colourless, as all the fat has been dissolved
out. If the fat is not removed from the cell, but is stained with '
osmic acid, the eggs at this stage appear as shown in fig. 9. This cell
shows the gradual formation of fat under the influence of the Golgi
elements. At GE.l are seen single batonettes. At GE.2 several
are seen together, and between them the cytoplasm stains a dark
colour. At GE.3 the yolk body has increased in size and the
Golgi elements have spread out over its surface. From the
examination of various eggs at this period of growth it seems that
the Golgi batonettes come to almost completely surround each
yolk sphere. When fully formed the yolk bodies stain a deep
black with osmic acid, as seen at GE.4 and at Y. in fig. 10.

It is impossible to say with certainty whether the fatty sub-
stance of the yolk bodies is formed within the archoplasm or in
the cytoplasm. Owing to the manner in which the apparatus as a
whole stains black when the dispersal of the batonettes commences,
it seems that this must be due to the archoplasm becoming laden
with fat ; but the case of those yolk spheres which are formed
under the influence of scattered batonettes is very difficult to
settle. It may be that each batonette as it leaves the archoplasm
carries away a small portion of that substance, which grows and
becomes swollen with fat, but it is impossible to verify this from
my preparations.

New yolk bodies continue to be formed throughout oogenesis.
At fig. 10 is shown a portion of the periphery of an egg at an
advanced stage of development. Many of the yolk spheres are
completely formcjd, but others are to be distinguished at various
stages of growth, and there are also scattered batonettes.

The successive stages in the development of the yolk bodies are

8 Transactions of the Society.

denoted by the letters Ya, Yh, Yc, Yd and Y., the last being the
completed yolk sphere. In this cell mitochondria are to be seen
scattered throughout the cytoplasm.

When each yolk sphere is completely formed, the investing
sheath of Golgi elements begins to break up, and the fragments
pass eithei- outwards to the periphery, where they form a layer
under the vitelline membrane, or else towards the nucleus, around
which they form a covering. The breaking away of the Golgi
elements is shown in tig. 11, which also shows the collecting of
the fragmented portions at the periphery. At fig. 12 is shown a
portion of the periphery of a full-grown egg. The yolk bodies are
all much the same size ; between them are mitochondria and
fragmented portions of the Golgi apparatus, and similar pieces are
seen forming layers underneath the egg membrane and around the
nucleus. Fig. 11 shows a similar portion of an egg from which
the fat has been dissolved. It is here .seen that although the
greater part of the Golgi elements have become dispersed from the
peripheral yolk bodies, yet a few batonettes still remain attached.
In no preparation examined have I found eggs in which the whole
''of the apparatus elements have been broken away from the yolk
bodies.

The Mitochondria.

The chondriome or mitochondrial complex of the cell is
represented in the youngest 0(')cytes by several irregular-shaped
masses which stain a deep black with iron ha'matoxylin after Fleni-
ming- without- acetic fixation, or red with acid fuchsin after fixing

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Fig. 9. — Older oocyte than that in fig. 8, showing the behaviour of the Golgi
elements (GE.l-GE.d) during yolk formation. Chondriome granules are seen
dividing to form mitochondria (^I.). Ditto.

Fig. 10. — Portion of the periphery of an older oocyte, showing the formation
of yolk spheres (Ya-Y.) at the periphery of the cell. Ditto.

Fig. 11. — Portion of the periphery of a full-grown oocyte, with a peripheral
layer of fragmented Golgi elements (GE.) and yr Ik spheres (Y.), with portions of
the Golgi aj)paratus still adhering ; fully-grown mitochondria in the cytopla.sm.
M.K.A. with turpentine.

Fig. 1-2. — Peripheral region of a full-grown oocyte untreated with turpentine,
drawn under a lower power than fig. 11.

Figs. 13, 14. —Young oocytes slightly older than that shown in fig. 2, showing
the chondriome granules (CH.) and the temporary follicle of nurse cell (NC).
F.W.A. and iron htematoxyliu.

Fig. 15. — Oocyte at about the same stage of development as shown in fig. 8,
showing the yolk spheres (Y.) scattered in the cytoplasm and the mitochondria
(^I.) beginning to spread out in the cell. F.W.A. and iron haematoxylin.

Fig. 16. — Older oocyte, with fairly evenly-distributed yolk spheres (Y'.) and a
number of centres of actively-dividing mitochondria (M.). F.W.A. and iron
htematoxylin.

Fig. 17. — One of the groups of actively-dividing mitochondria (M.) shown in
fig. 16, under a higher power. F.W.A. and iron haematoxylin.

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC, 1921. PI. II.

Knee IP. 8.

Contributions to the Study of the Oogeneds of Patella. '•

in osniic acid. Such granules are shown in the young 0()cytes at
CH. in Plate 1, tig. 1, and in Plate II, figs. 13 and 14. ^ Wlule tlie
oocyte grows and increases in bulk, these granules become dispersed
in the protoplasm. During the early stages of oogenesis they seem
to remain almost inert while the Golgi apparatus is actively
dividing and spreading out, so influencing the formation of yolk
spheres throughout the cell. In fig. '.), which shows the yolk bodies
scattered on all sides of the nucleus, the chondriome is represented
by a few small granules in process of division. The same thing is
shown again in fig. 15, which represents a somewhat later stage,
drawn under a lower magnification. The yolk Ijodies here shown
as colourless spheres, owing to the fat having been abstracted by
the turpentine, are seen widely distributed, but the mitochondria
are represented by a few slowly dividing granules. The same
process is seen again in fig. !>, which shows the various stages in
the formation of yolk granules ; the Golgi elements are well
advanced in their activities, while the chondriome consists of a few
small groups as before.

Xot until the yolk bodies are well distributed in the oocyte do
the mitochondria commence active division. Fig. 16 represents
an oocyte at this stage. The yolk bodies are seen occupying the
greater part of the cell, and in the cytoplasm amongst them are
the groups of actively dividing mitochondria, shown in black. At
fig. 17 one of these groups is drawn under a high magnification.
It shows some suiall granules in process of fission, otliers liaving
grown larger, spreading out from the centre of distribution and
continuing to divide as they do so. Eventually they become
scattered fairly regularly amongst the yolk spheres in all parts of
the 0("»cyte, as is shown in fig. 11 at M.

It would seem that durint; their growth the mitochondria
became somewhat swollen with reserve food products intended to
supply energy, after fertilization, for the development of the embryo.

That the mitochondria take no direct part in the formation of
yolk I conclude from the following observations. Yolk Ijodies are
formed directly under the influence of the Golgi rods. There is no
fusion of ( lolgi elements with mitochondria, but the latter remain
separate throughout oogenesis. They do not become active in the
cell until the process of yolk formation is well advanced, and there
is no evidence »if mitochondria becoming swollen to form yolk
bodies, the latter bodies staining differently and always being
considerably larger than the biggest mitochondria.

Discussion.

In considerino' the role of ( jrolgi appai-atus and mitochondria in
0(')geuesis it is of interest to bear in mind what so far has been
<liscovered concerning their behaviour in the cell. Although there

10 Transactions of the SocAety.

are differences in form and behaviour in different organisms, in all
investigations by modern methods (see the writings of Faure-
Fremiet, Gatenby, Hirschler, Meves, Sjovall and Weigl, etc.) it
has been found that they have the following characteristics in
common ■ —

1. They appear to be constituted of a living protoplasmic basis,
impregnated with or enclosed by some kind of lipoid substance
which is not a true fat. The chemical composition of this-
substance is not the same in Golgi apparatus and mitochondria, as
is shown by their staining reactions.

2. They are capable eitlier of independent movement within the
cell or are carried about by streaming movements of the cytoplasm ;
sometimes we see them dispersing from a centre, other times
coming together to form a compact mass of granules.

3. They grow evidently by assimilating the necessary food
substances from the cytoplasm, and increase in numbers by fission :
sometimes multiple fission in the case of the Golgi apparatus.

4. When cell division is about to take place, the mitochondria
and Golgi apparatus become spread out more or less evenly in the
cytoplasm, so that when division actually occurs each daughter
cell has approximately the same number of each category of
cytoplasmic inclusion.

It will be noticed that many of the activities of the mitochon-
dria and Golgi apparatus are characteristic of independent living
organisms — a similarity which has led some writers to compare
them to the symbiotic algas living in some Protozoa, or to bacteria
living in a culture medium.

The exact behaviour of the mitochondria and Golgi apparatus
during oogenesis differs in detail in most cases which have been
investigated. That of LimnfBa, studied by Gatenby, is one of the
simplest {3). In this Mollusc mitochondria appear in the oocyte
in the form of granules on one side of the nucleus. Thev mav
possibly be formed under its influence as the result of the emission
of some nuclear stimulus. These mitochondria spread out around
the nucleus and become fairly regularly distributed throughout the
cell. During growth some enlarge more rapidly than others, and
all do not attain the same size.

The Golgi apparatus of Limnsea in the earliest stages resembles
that of Patella, shown in Plate I, fig. 2. The archoplasm breaks
up and each Golgi element as it disperses carries away with it a
small piece of that substance. The archoplasm only divides by
binary fission after it has become studded with a number of Golgi
elements. The yolk bodies are formed under the influence of the
Golgi element, as is the case in Patella.

In Helix {2) the mitochondria also appear as a cloud of
granules adjoining the nucleus. During dispersal they pass tlii'ough
a stage when they appear as small flocculent masses, but later they

Conf7'ihutions to the Study of the (Jugenesia of Patella. IL

acquire typical granular form. Yolk bodies are probably formed
the same way as in Liinmva and Patella.

The earliest stages in the development of the mitochondria of
Patella are very similar to what has been described in Ascidian
oocytes by Hirschler (.9). He finds in the youngest oocytes round
oval granules which comprise the chondriome or niitoch(jndrial
complex of the cell. They are coloured red in Mann-Kopsch
preparations stained by Altmann's method. These bodies increase
in size, and at their peripheries granular mitochondria appear and
spread out in the cytoplasm. While this is taking place stalk-like
processes arise connecting the chondriome bodies with the nuclear
membrane, and it seems that some substance passes out from the
nucleus along the stalks into these bodies, as at their centres, which
are capsule-like at this stage, granules are seen which resemble
the fine granules of the nuclear network.

From the chondriome bodies arise also yolk nuclei. They
attain their maxinmm size before the Golgi elements begin to
spread out in the cell ; then as these latter organs begin to
disperse the nuclear stalks Ijreak. down and the yolk nuclei
disintegrate and eventually disappear altogether. In Patella the
mitochondria appear to develop as the result of the breaking up of
the granular bodies seen in the youngest oocytes ; there are no
connecting stalks seen between these granules and the nucleus.
It is interesting, however, to note that there is an extrusion of
solid nucleolar substance into the cytoplasm.

The Golgi apparatus is described by Hirschler in the Ascidian
oocyte as at first consisting of five or fewer granules. They increase
in size and collect into small heaps, and eventually become joined
together by black threads to form a complex net-like body, which
he terms the complex stage. Hirschler sees in this the prepara-
tion for a nuclear division which does not take place. He quotes,
in support of his views, the researches of Deinecka, who showed
that in young nerve cells capable of division, and also in tlie
meristematic cells of pavement epithelia, the Crolgi apparatus is in
the concentrated condition, while in older cells incapable of division
it is in the diffuse state.

When the ' volk nucleus ' lias reached its maximum growth
and the mitochondria are being dispersed in the cell, the Golgi
api aratus breaks up to form a small cloud of particles about the
size of a mitochondria, but distinguished from them in the Mann-
Kopsch preparations by the difference in colour. The individual
Golgi elements extend throughout the cell and decrease in numljer
towards the end of oogenesis owing to their conversion into yolk.
Individual elements fuse with swollen mitochondria to form a
complex yolk body.

In Ascidian oocytes, then, according to Hirschler, we have a case
of the Golgi element itself being converted into yolk. This also

12 Transactions of ttie Society.

happens to a certain extent in Patella, but at the end of oogenesis
a Lirge number of the elements appear to be discarded where their
function is fulfdled and they form perijtheral layers of lipoid
substance outside the nucleus and inside the vitelline membrane,
while others seem to remain attached to the sides of the yolk
spheres.

From a consideration of a number of cases of oogenesis it is
evident that the (xolgi apparatus and mitochondria are quite
distinct, although there seems to be a decided relationship of function
between them. They seem to be semi-independent, but probably
under the controlling influence of tlie nucleus, so that the cell as
a wliole is a complex unified system. A\\y attem|)t to explain the
metabolism of the cell must take into consideration the part which
eacli cell organ plays and the relationship of function which exists
between them ; a task which in the light of our present knowledge
must be confessed to be an impossibility.

Although both Golgi apparatus and mitochondria are present
in the youngest oocytes they do not always develop concurrently.
In Limntva (■>') the latter organs s])read out in the cytoplasm
slightly more rapidly than tlie former; however, in Patella the
mitochondria do not begin to disperse until the Golgi elements are
well spread throughout the cell. In the Ascidian egg the dispersal
of mitochondria has progressed considerably before the Cuilgi
apparatus passes out of the net-like com])lex condition; but the
mitochondrial content as a whole is smaller in bulk than that of
the Golgi apparatus, tlie reverse is the case in Liinntva. These
differences appear to be related to the part the cytoplasmic organs
play in the formation of yolk. In the Ascidian oocyte it is the
mitochondrial granules which enlarge, become swollen with yolk,
and combine with the Golgi elements ; but in Patella the Golgi
elements influence the formation of }olk, and the mitochondria
play no direct part in the process, so that they do not become
active in the cell until yolk formation is much advanced.

The exact function of mitochondria and Golgi apparatus is still
a matter of controversy. Meves and Duesberg think that the
former may be the bearers of the hypothetical cytoplasmic organ-
forming substance which determines the development of the
various parts of the body during organogeny, but owing to the
diversity of l)ehaviour of these cytoplasmic bodies in different
organisms .this view seems hardlv likelv. I have not studied
organogeny in Patella, but from a perusal of the literature and
investigation of the oogenesis it seems to me much more likely that
the mitochondria and Golgi apparatus are especially concerned with
the general metabolism of the cell at certain stages of growth. Their
spreading out in the growing oocyte is probably to be accounted for
as a means of influencing the cytoplasm, and also as a preparation
for equal distribution when the cell divides- in embryogeny. It

Confribvtio/is to th; Shidy of tlu; Onf/enesw of ratell'i. lo

\vould seem that not the least important part of their function
during oogenesis is the formation and storage of food for the develop-
ment of the embryo. Variations in their behaviour in different
organisms are most likely related to the different conditions of
niitrition to which the growing oocyte is subjected. Further
research alone will solve this problem of biology.

SUMMA-RY.

I. Nutrition of the Young Ooci/te.

1. The young oocyte arising from an undifferentiated cell of
the germinal epithelium is surrounded by nurse cells containing
yolk granules.

2. As the oocyte grows and extends outwards into the lumen of
the ovary it becomes surrounded by some of these nurse cells,
which form a temporary follicle.

3. The yolk granules of the nurse cells are completely used up
in providing nourishment for the growing oocyte, and at quite an
early stage in its development the nurse cells disappear from its
surface.

II. Golgi Apparatus and Vitelloyenesis.

1. In the youngest oocytes the Golgi apparatus consists of a
number of curved rods surrounding the archoplasm.

2. Probably in the archoplasm, yolk is formed under the in-
fluence of the Golgi rods, and while this is taking place other
Golgi elements divide and spread out in the cytoplasm, thns leading
to the formation of scattered yolk granules.

3. The archoplasm breaks up and disperses in the cell. Probably
each Golgi element as it moves away from the archoplasm carries
with it a small portion of the latter, and this becomes distended
as the result of fatty yolk being formed within it.

4. Scattered groups of Golgi elements continue the process of
volk formation until the egg is filled with spherical yolk bodies
surrounded by Golgi elements.

5. When the yolk bodies are completely formed the surround-
ing layer of Golgi elements breaks up, and fragments pass out
into the cytoplaom and come to form a peripheral layer under-
neath the vitelline membrane, and another layer around the nucleus.

(d. Throughout the process of yolk formation there is an extru-
sion of nucleolar material from the nucleus into the cytoplasm.

14 Transactions of the Society.

III. Mitochondria.

1. The mitochondria are represented in the youngest oocytes
by several irregular-shaped granules.

2. As the oocyte grows these granules become spread out in
the cell.

3. They remain comparatively inert until the process of yolk
formation is well 'advanced ; they then begin to divide, to form
typical granular mitocliondria, which become fairly regularly dis-
tributed in the cytoplasm.

4. Mitochondria in Patella take no direct part in yolk forma-
tion.

Bibliography.

Davis, J. R. Ainsworth, & Fleurs, H. J. — Patella. Liverpool Marine

Biological Committee Memoirs, No. X.
Gatenby, J. Bronte, — The Cytoplasmic Inclusions of the Germ Cells.

Part II. Helix aspera. Quarts. Journ. Micr. Sci., Ixii.
The Cytoplasmic Inclusions of the Germ Cells. Part V. The

Gametogenesis and Early Development of Limncea stagnalis, with

special reference to the Golgi Apparatus and the Mitochondria. Quart.

Journ. Micr. Sci., Ixiv.

The Cytoplasmic Inclusions of the Germ Cells. Part VI. Apanteles.

Quart Journ. Micr. Sci., Ixiv.

5. The Cytoplasmic Inclusions of the Germ Cells. Part VIII. Grantia

compressa. Journ. Linn. Soc. (1920).

6. The Identification of Intracellular Structures. Journ. Roy. Micr.

Soc. (1919).

7. Gatenby, J. Bronte, & Woodger, J. H. — On the Relationship between

the Formation of Yolk and the Mitochondria and the Golgi Apparatus
during Oogenesis. Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc. (1920).

8. HiRSCHLER, Jan. — Ueber die Plasmastrukturen in den Geschlechtszellen

der Ascariden. Arch. f. Zellf., Bd. 9 (1913).

9. Uber die Plasmacomponenten der weiblichen Geschlechtszellen

(Zytologische Untersuchungen am Ascidien Ovarium). Archiv. f.
Micro. Anat. (1916-17).

15

ir— THE EEDUCTION OF OSMIC ACID BY LIPOIDS.
By J. K. Partington and D. B. Huntingford.

(Read November 17, 1920.)

The use of osmic acid in microscopy for staining fats and allied
substances has long been applied. The material is immersed in a
dilute aqueous solution of osmic acid ; reduction of the latter
occurs, and a deep black substance is deposited. In the case of
olein globules the black stain penetrates the drop completely, and
extrudes on treatment with turpentine. The composition of the
black substance has been variously stated to be metallic osmium (i),*
a lower oxide Q2), or a lower hydroxide, such as Os(OH)4. At the
suo-crestion of Dr. J. B. Gatenby the authors decided to attempt an
analysis of a small amount of the material placed at their disposal.
This had been prepared in the following way : — Pieces of tissue
were placed in a clear 2 p.c. aqueous solution of osmic acid (osmium
tetroxide, OSO4). After a few days' use the solution became black.
The liquid could be filtered without losing its colour, so that the
substance is in the state of colloidal solution. On addition of a
little chromic acid, or potassium dichromate solution, a fine black
powder deposited, which could be filtered off and washed without
passing back into colloidal solution. The filtered solution some-
times contains a little unchanged osmic acid, according to the
completeness of reduction of the solution. In the particular solu-
tion used, a little osmic acid was still present before washing.
The black precipitate was dried on the filter paper in a desiccator
over sulphuric acid for ten days. A slight greenish tinge possessed
by the moist substance disappeared on drying, and the product
was a pure black powder, easily detached from the paper. The
powder was not heated during the drying process.

For various reasons it was assumed that the material so
obtained was the same as that present in the stained fat globules,
but further experiments with osmic acid and pure olein in vitro
are in progress which will decide this point conclusively.

From its method of preparation the material might contain the
following substances : Metallic osmium ; lower oxides of osmium ;

* The italic figures within brackets refer to the Bibliography at end of the
paper.

16 Transactions of the Society.

»

water, either in combination or absorbed by the solid ; and, finally,
cliromium compounds from the chromic acid used in precipitation.
The absence of chromium was shown by fusing the residue from
the experiments described below with sodium carbonate and
potassium nitrate, dissolving the mass in water, adding dilute
sulphuric acid and hydrogen peroxide, and shaking with ether.
No trace of blue colour was detected in the ether.

The carefully weighed black substance was placed in a porce-
lain boat in a hard glass tube through which a current of carefully
purified liydrogen was passed. When all the air was displaced
from the apparatus the powder was heated. The water contained
in the substance was driven off, and was collected in a carefully
weighed phosphorus pentoxide tube. If the powder consists of
metallic osmium and water, the loss in weight of the l)oat and
substance, after cooling, should be exactly equal to the gain in
weight of the phosphorus pentoxide tube. If, however, the sub-
stance contains an oxide of osmium, the increase in weight of the
phosphorus pentoxide tube will be greater than the loss in weight
of the boat, since water will be formed from the oxygen contained
in the substance. The gain in weight of the tube will now be
made up of two parts : (1) The water originally contained in tlie
powder as such ; (2) the water formed from the oxygen in the
powder, the weight of which may be calculated from the loss in
weight of the ])Owder and the total weight of water formed. It
was found that more water was formed than corresponded with the
loss in weight of the powder, and the ratio of oxygen to osmium in
the latter was found to be 2 : 1. The material is therefore osmium
dioxide, OsOa, and not metallic osmium. Water was also present ;
but although the composition corresponded closely with the
formula OsOaoHaO — and a hydrated oxide has been described by
former experimenters (S) — the exact state of this water casnot at
present be decided with certainty.

The experimental details were as follows : Hydrogen was
generated from a considerable quantity of pure electrolytic zinc
and hydrochloric acid (1 vol. of pure concentrated acid to 4 vols,
of water) in a bottle provided with a dropping funnel for the acid
and a run-off tubulure at the bottom. Admission of air was there-
fore reduced to a minimum. The gas was freed from acid spray
and vapour by bubbling slowly through caustic soda solution in a
wash bottle, and was roughly dried in a calcium chloride tower.
To remove all traces of oxygen from the gas it was next passed
through a heated tube containing platinized asbestos, and the
moisture w^as then completely removed by passing through a long
tube containing calcium chloride in the first part and phosphorus
pentoxide in the second part. The two materials were separated
by a column of glass wool.

The Reduction of Osrnic Acid by Lipoids. 17

The purified liydrogen was next passed tlnough a haixl glass
tube containing the black substance carefully weighed into a
porcelain boat. The gas was allowed to pass through this for ten
minutes to displace air, and the tube containing platinized asbestos
was heated to redness, and was kept heated throughout the rest of
the experiment. The gas was allowed to pass for another ten
minutes, and the tube containing the substance M^as then connected
with a carefully weighed I'^-tube with glass stopcocks, containing
phosphorus pentoxide. The combustion tube was then heated ta
redness and maintained at a red heat for fifteen minutes, with
hydrogen passing through. A guard tube containing calcium
chloride was attaclied beyond the weighed phosphorus pentoxide
tube to prevent any possible diffusion of moisture from the air.
Since dry hydrogen or air was always passing through the
apparatus when the stopcocks of the P2O5 tube were open, it was
not necessaryto use a PaOg guard tube, and calcium chloride was
sufficient.

The tube was allowed to cool in the current of hydrogen until
it was possible to handle it, and the hydrogen was then displaced
by a current of dry air passing for half an hour. The possibility that
some water was formed by catalytic action of metallic osmium
when the hydrogen was displaced by air, was negatived by repeating
this part of the operation with a weighed phosphorus pentoxide
tube attached. No increase in weight of this tube was found.
After the hydrogen had been displaced by air the boat and the
drying tube were weighed.

Since the entrance of air into the apparatus was of uo account
except after the tube containing platinized asbestos, ordinary
rubber stoppers were used up to this point. The connexion
between the drying tube after the platinized asbestos and the hard
glass tube containing the boat was made by a small rubber stopper.
Minute quantities of air might leak into the apparatus by diffusion
through this stopper. Experiments showed that when the tube
was heated under the same conditions as in the actual experiment,
but without the boat, there was, in fact, a very slight gain in weight
of^the phosphorus pentoxide tube. After the whole apparatus
had become perfectly dried by long passage of hydrogen, this
increase in weight was practically constant for the period of opera-
tions described, and amounted in total to 0-00081 grm. This
weight was subtracted from the gain in weight of the tube in the
actual experiment. We are inclined to the opinion, from previous
experience in similar work, that this correction is probably smaller
than would have been the case if glass joints had been used
under the conditions of the experiment, so that more complicated
apparatus would not have offered any advantages.

The results of the single experiment, which it was possible to

c

18

Transactions of the Society.

carry out with the small amount of material at our disposal, are
given below: —

Grm.

Weight of boat + osmium compound before experiment = 3 - 18265

after „ = 3-16766

Weight of boat alone = 3-14585

Loss of weight of substance . . . . = 0-01499

Weight of residual osmium . . . . . . = 0-02188

Weight of P^Oj tube before experiment . . . = 22 • 27879

„ " after „ . . . = 22-29508

Weight of water derived from substance = 0-01629 —

0-00081 . / = 0-01548

Let p = weight of water contained in substance, and q = weight
of oxygen contained in substance. Then 2^ -{- q = 0-01499, and

p -i-lq = 0-01518. Hence, p = 0-01107 and q = 0-00392.

o

From these ligures, and the weight of the osmium, the following
ratios are found : —

Weight

Weight/Atomic (or
molecular) Weight

Ratio

Oxygen
Osmium
Water .

0-00392
0-02181
0-01107

0-000245
0-000114
0-000615

2-1
1-0
5-4

These figures indicate that the black substance is a hydrated
form of osmium dioxide, OsOjAq. They would point to an
approximate formula OsOaSHaO. Such a substance has been
described, but we are not sufficiently convinced that the amount of
water contained in the solid was that corresponding with a definite
hydrate ; the degree of desiccation of the material was too arbitraiy
to allow of any such conclusion being drawn. If the small amount
of material be taken into account, we believe, on the other hand,
that the results are definitely in favour of the dioxide, and in any
case they definitely negative the hypothesis that the black material
is metallic osmium.

The properties of osmium dioxide have recently been described
by 0. Euff and H. Eathsburg (S), but the material dealt- with by
these experimenters does not appear to have had properties at all like
those of our substance. They state that a colloidal solution is
formed, but the precipitated substance passed again into solution
on washing. Two solid forms are described, one pyrophoric — or
even spontaneously explosive when dry — and a second stable form,
OsOa, 2H2O, reduced almost explosively by hydrogen, and oxidized
rapidly by oxygen. The older experiments of Berzelius (4) pointed
to a substance of much greater stability, and we are inclined to
think that the material used by Ruff and Eathsburg may have

The Rediidion of Osmic Acid hy Lipoids. 19

contained some organic matter used in the reduction, and that its
properties were modified by this substance. In later experiments
we hope to be able to examine more definitely the properties of
osmium dioxide, and of the black substance used in this experi-
ment, and also the action of different reducing materials on osmic
acid. The latter experiments may be of' value in differentiating
tissues under the microscope. Since the subject appeared to Ije
extremely obsdure, and the statements contradictory, we thought it
would be of interest to record the results of our experiments at the
present stage.

Summary.

The black substance formed by the reduction of osmic acid by
olein in tissue-staining was found to he a hydrated form of osmium
dioxide, OsOi, and not metallic osmium, as has sometimes been
stated.

BiBLIOGEAPHY.

1. RoscoE & ScHOELEMMEE. — Treatise on Chemistry, ii. (1913), p. 1353 ;

J. N. Feiend, Inorganic Chemistry, ix. part 1, p. 219 (1920).

2. HoFMANN, K. A. — Lehrbuch der anorganischen Chemie, 1919, p. 647.

0. O. Ruff & H. Rathsbueg. — Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges., 1917, 1. pp. 484-98.
4. Beezelius. — Traite de Chimie, 1840 edit., iii. p. 29.

C 2

20

III.— A NEW METHOD OF TEEATING AND MOUNTING

CELLOIDIN SECTIONS.

By E. J. Sheppard, F.R.M.S.

{Bead November 17, 1920.)

The following observations and description of my work regarding
the treatment of " Celloidin Sections " will I feel sure prove of
interest to those who have to do section- cutting of tissues which
it is necessary to embed in this material. The method so far as
I am aware is quite new, and one which introduces " great
simplicity " by condensing a branch of micro-technique, at times
very tedious and lengtliy, into one wliere such qualities are
conspicuous by their absence.

Owing to the difficulty of removing most of the anilin dyes
from celfoidin it is the custom with but few exceptions to stain
in toto prior to embedding.

Probably the best and most simplified method in use at the .
present moment for cutting celloidin sections is the so-called
" dry-cutting method," fully described in the sixth edition of
" Bolles Lee A^ade Mecum." This is doubtless a valuable method,
but one requiring a large amount of time apart from that actually
taken for the infiltration of the tissue, and possesses the great
drawback of the annoying condition known as "frilling" which
has to be contended with during manipulation of the sections
when cut.

The method which I shall put before you is not the result of
my purposely setting out to discover or devise a new and simplified
process, but on the contrary came about hj my endeavour to mount
some celloidin sections in " Euparal Media " by adopting the
usual procedure that is required for mounting in " Canada
Balsam."

I was somewhat surprised to fiiid that this could not be done,
or at least not without some difficulty, which in my endeavour to
try and overcome brought about the following highly interesting
result.

Having cut a number of sections by the ordinary " wet method "
I cleared a few of these by immersing in " Oil of Thyme." One
of these was lifted out of the oil with the aid of a section-lifter

Method of Treating und Mounting Celloidin Sections. 21

and stretched out evenly upon the centre of a micro-slip ; the
superfluous oil was drained away and the remainder soaked up by
the use of filter paper. 1 then dropped a few drops of " Euparal
Mountant " upon the section and found that it was immediately
turned milky. I thought at first that this was due to my acci-
dentally breathing across the slide or possibly an excess of moisture
in the air. This is not an infrequent occurence when mounting
in " Euparal " under such conditions, particularly in the winter or
upon damp days. This is however easily and quickly dispersed
by slightly warming over the spirit flame, which I proceeded to do,
but to my surprise this milkiness could not be removed by this
means, and no amount of continued warming had the desired effect.
After trying a few methods to get rid of the milkiness without
success, I came to the conclusion that the action of the " Oil of
Thyme" upon the celloidin possibly produced a change which
made " Euparal " an unsuitable mountant, and therefore nothing
could be done but to use " Canada Balsam " in its place.

As the refractive index of Canada balsam in this case was
higher than I wished for the sections under treatment, I left the
matter for a while in order to think over other possible causes
which might have produced the milkiness. After some amount
of meditation the thought occurred to me that knowing it was
possible to mount direct from 95 p.c. spirit into "Euparal" I
wondered if the latter would act as a clearing agent for celloidin.

To my agreeable sur]:)rise and satisfaction I found that this ivas
the case. It remained only then to take the sections out of the
spirit on a lifter, transfer to the centre of the slide, spread them out
evenly, add a few drops of " Euparal," and cover with cover-glass,
and the preparation w^as so far finished.

Occasionallv however, according to the amount of moisture
present in the atmosphere, or if one should accidentally breath
across the slide, a varying amount of milkiness may spread on the
surface of the " Euparal " 1 )efoie the cover-glass is applied ; but in
this case, as previously mentioned, it is at once dispersed by a
sliglit amount of warmth carefully regulated over the spirit flame.
It will be seen that as a result of this favourable action of
"Euparal" applied direct to celloidin sections taken from spirit,
that the use of a special cleaning agent prior to mounting is not
required; a most valuable saving of time and manipulation is thus
brou,^it about.

There appears to be a very slight solvent action upon the
celloidin by the " Euparal," luit this need not in the least be
feared ; on the contrary it has a most desirable effect, so far that,
owing to this very slight action, any "frilling" or "puckering"
of the sections which may be apparent when they are spread out
upon the slide almost immediately disappears, and the section is
consequently flatted down and " partially cemented " as soon as the

22 Transactions of the Societt/.

" Euparal " is added. This latter condition is easily made apparent
by any adjustment that may be made npon the cover-glass for the
purpose of centring same ; the section will be found to remain
perfectly adherent however much movement is applied. Indeed for
the purpose of testing the amount of adherence of the section to
tlie slip, I have frequently moved the cover completely off and
reapplied same without the least undesirable movement or dis-
arrangement of the section.

In conclusion, I feel sure that this method of handling sections
that have been cut from celloidin-embedded material will prove of
great value to all microtomists. I have placed under the microscope
for examination a section of the developing teeth of a foetal kitten
doubly stained and mounted in the manner described ; there are
otliers on the table whicli can be inspected by hand.

23

SUMMARY OF CIUUIENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(PKINCIPALLY INVERTEBRATA AND CRYPTOGAMIA),

MICEOSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology, Evolution, Heredity, Reproduction,
and Allied Subjects.

Transmission of Induced Eye Defects. — M. F. Guyer and E. A.
Smith {Journ. Exper. ZooL, 1920, 31, 171-223, 4 pis., 7 figs.). In
previous experiments pregnant rabbits and pregnant mice were treated
with fowl serum sensitized, respectively, to the crystalline- lens of the
rabbit and of the mouse. It was found that antenatal defects in the
lenses of the young could be secured in this way. Thus, in rabbits
treated during pregnancy with fowl serum sensitized to rabbit lens,
some of the young "showed eye defects, such as opacity of the lens and
partial or, less frequently, complete liquefaction of the lens. Similar
results Avere obtained with mice of the genus Peromyscus. The present
paper deals with more experiments on rabbits, and includes an account
of the transmission through successive generations of eye defects
originally induced in the rabbits l)y means of lens-sensitized fowl serum.
The defects in the eyes were mostly concerned with some sort of lique-
faction of the lens.

A certain effect is produced which may be transmitted, even to the
sixth generation, without any subsequent treatment with the sensitized
sera. The modifications were extracted through the male line, thus
eliminating all possibility of the condition in later generations having
been due merely to placental transmission from the blood of affected
mothers. The authors feel that the evidence establishes a clear-cut
case of the inheritance of a specific modification produced by extrinsic
factors. •

It is not entirely clear whether the result should be reckoned
primarily as an example of the inheritance of a somatic modification —

* The Society does Hot hold itself responsible for the views of the authors
of the papers abstracted. The object of this part of the Journal is to present
a summary of the papers as actually ptiblished, and to describe and illustrate
Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have not been previously
described in this country.

'2-t SU-M-MAKY OF CUKRl':NT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

that is, a change produced in the lens of the uterine young which in
turn has induced a change in the lens-producing constituents in the
germ-cells of these young — or as simultaneous changes in the eyes and
in the germ-cells of the young. In either case the inference is that
there is some constitutional identity between the substance of the
mature organ in question and its material antecedents in the germ.

J. A. T.

Amnion-formation in Bats. — A. Celestino da Costa {Mem. Soc.
roiiugaise ScL Nat., 11)20, 3, 1-51, 3 pis.). The formation of the
amnion in Miniopterus schreibersii shows the following phases : (1) The
appearance of a closed cavity in the embryonic disc, the upper wall of
which is the primordial amnion ; (2) the rupture of this wall and the
disappearance of the primordial amniotic cavity, which is replaced by a
tropho-ectoblastic space ; (3) the formation of an amnion and a defini-
tive amniotic cavity with ectoblastic folds. In some other bats, Muriirns
and the Xoctule, it is the same, except that the primordial amniotic
cavity is less definite. The primordial type of amniogenesis in Mam-
mals, like that of Minwpterus, is seen in guinea pig, Galeopithecus,
Tatusia, and Primates. The primitive cavity disappears, and is replaced
by a cavity limited by the amniotic folds in Microchiroptera, pig, rat,
and mouse. The primitive cavity may be absent or only hinted at, as in
Gymnura, mole, Tvpaia, Tarsius, rabbit, and Carnivores. As Hubrecht
showed, the afiinion and the trophoblast are independent. J. A. T.

Case of Human Synophthalmia. — Sixto de Los Angeles and
Anastaoia Villegas {P/uUpjjiue Journ. Sc/., 1920, 16, 99-107, 2 pis.).
Description of a case of male synophthalmia l>ilentica in an almost
full-term foetus, probably of eight months. It is very remarkable in
the apparent al^sence of the external nares, the representation of the
mouth by a small triangular opening about 1"5 mm. in diameter, the
presence of a snout-like dark-coloured structure above the oral aperture,
the, peculiarly shaped ears situated almost horizontally at the anterior
part of the neck, and the absence of the median walls in the fused
orbital cavity. , J. A. T.

Piebald Spotting in. Dogs. — C. C. Little {Journ. Heredity, 1920,
11, 1-4, 3 figs.). Two cases are reported which give direct evidence as
to the origin of spotted individuals, and suggest that a spotted race may
arise from a self race by mutation without passing through a series of
minute gradations directed by selection. J. A. T.

Hereditary Tendency to form Nerve Tumours. — C. B. Davenport
{Proc' Nat. Acad. Set., 1918, 4, 21:)— 1). Multiple neurofibromatosis is
a rather rare condition, characterized by the appearance of numerous
sessile or stalked s^^•ellings or tumours of varying consistency and size,
containing one or more nerve fibres, or, if more deeply seated, enlarge-
ments of the perineurium of nerve trunks. They are due to cell
proliferations of the connective-tissue sheaths of nerves. The course of
the disease is influenced by metabolic changes in the body — e.g. those
associated with puberty and pregnancy, or by zymotic diseases. Associated

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 25

with the tendency to form tnmonrs is the prodnction of pigmented spots
or patches on the skin, of a cafe-an-lait colonr. The disease may occnr
without a break for several generations, and is equally apt to come down
the male and the female line. Consequently, it looks as though the
hereditary factor is a dominant one. In each affected fraternity about
50 p.c. of the individuals are affected. The fact that neurofibromata
have an inheritable basis strengthens the view that cancers in genera 1
have such a basis. J. A. T,

Heredity of Susceptibility to a Transplantable Sarcoma. — C. C.
Little {Science, 1920, 51, 467-8). From experiments with Japanese
waltzing mice it is concluded provisionally (1) that there is hereditary
susceptibility to the growth of a transplanted sarcoma, to which common
mice are not susceptible : (2) that from three to five factors, probably four,
are involved in determining the susceptibility ; (3) that for susceptibility
the simultaneous presence of these factors is necessary ; (4) that none
of these factors is carried in the sex (X) chromosome ; and (5) that
these factors Mendelize independently of one another. J. A. T .

Inheritance of Tremor.— E. Bergman {Hereditas, 1920, 1, 98-l<)6).
Hereditary tremor consists in small, rapid, involuntary, and rhythmic
contractions of certain groups of muscles, especially in -the hands and
arms. It is usually present without intermission except during sleep
and perfect rest. It is usually increased by motion and exercise. The
tremor may be rather rapid (eight to ten vibrations a second) or com-
paratively slow (three to four vibrations a second). A case is discussed
where the tremor occurred in four members of a family in three genera-
tions, and apparently behaved as a dominant. J. A. T.

Inheritance of Genotypical Deaf-mutism. — H. Lundborg {Herc-
cUtas, 19:^0, 1, ;!5-4o). Deaf -mutism may be acquired or innate.
Acquired deaf-mutism may originate in utero or after birth. Con-
sequently " congenital deafness " is not always heritable. In the past
there has not been sufficient care taken to discriminate between geno-
typical, or innate, and phenotypical, or acquired, deaf-mutism. Trying to
make this discriminatian, Lundborg has arrived at the conclusion that
there is constitutional or genotypical deaf-mutism, and that it behaves as
a recessive and monohybrid character. He criticizes and rejects Plate's
theory that deaf -mutism is a dihybrid character, requiring two factors to
bring it about. Lundborg pleads, however, for an extension of precise
enquiry in regard to this important case. J. A. T.

Polydactyl Negro Twins.— C. H. Danforth {Amer. Journ. Phijs.
Anthropol, 1919, 2, 147-65). A comparison of the left hands of
polydactyl negro twin infants (possibly uniovular in origin) with the
left hand of a normal white infant for reference. In several respects
the three infants showed like departures from what is generally con-
sidered as the normal adult condition. The extra digits were found to
present the elements of a normal finger in a shortened and more or less
abortive condition. The twins exhibited a marked similarity in respect

26 SUMMARY OF CURKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

to the friction ridges, the muscles and the arteries ; some similarity in
the distribution of nerves ; and practically no resemblance in regard tfi
the veins. Of the forty-nine points in which one or another of the
three hands differed from the other two, the twins were alike in thirty-
five, while each twin differed from the other twin and agreed with the
control in seven different points. If 50 p.c. be deducted for indirect
effects of .the extra digits and for racial factors, the twins would still
resemble each other two and a half times as much as either one resembled
the control. It would seem therefore that heredity is the principal
factor involved in the variations in question. J. A. T.

Resemblance and Difference in Twins. — C. H. Daxforth {Journ.
of Heredity, lt»ll), 10, No. 'J, 1-6). The close similarities of some twins
and the differences of others are commonly explained on the assumption
that there are two kinds of twips, those arising froui a single ovnm,
and those derived from two separate and independent ova, the former
being closely alike, the latter often very unlike. But Thorndike has
found that many twins that are undoubtedly biovular in origin resemble
each other more than they resemble their other brothers and sisters.
Three questions are asked : — 1. Are the resemblances of uniovular
twins confined to certain traits, or does the similarity pervade their
whole being ? 2. Apart from environmental diffei'ences, how great is
the similarity that may be expected l)etween biovular twins ? 3. How
great are the differences that may be expected to appear in uniovular
twins ? To the first question it is answered that the resemblances are
fundamental ; but this may be due not to some general quality that the
two individuals have in common, but rather to the sum of the many
similar special traits which, added together, give the indiviilual his
character. This will account for cases where in spite of close similarity
there are differences in some traits. To the second question it is
•answered that biovular twins will on the whole resemble each other to a
degree about equal to the average for all children of the same family,
but this may be increased by the sameness of the nurture. The data,
however, are apt to lead astray, because twins who do not closely
resemble one another tend to be overlooked. Differences in uniovular
twins may l)e due to the same cause as the differences between the two
sides of the body. Wilder has suggested that if a twin is developed
from part of an ovum while the ordinary individual is developed from
all of it, twins should be more symmetrical than ordinary individuals.

J. A. T.

Heredity in Rabbits, Rats and Mice.— W. E. Castle (Publications
Carnegie Inst. Washington, 11)19, 288, 1-56, 3 pis.) 1. The hooded
character in piebald rats is a Meudelizing character, but selection, either in
the plus direction or in the minus direction, is marked l)y a consistent
advance in the mean of the character. It appears, therefore, that selec-
tion can permanently change racial characters which Mendelize. Crossing
the plus-selected hooded race with the non-hooded wild race reduces the
grade of the hooded character, undoing in a measure the work of selec-
tion. Crossing the minus-selected race with the same wild race resulta

i

ZOOLOGY AND BU'l'ANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 27

in a shifting in a pins direction, -J. A¥liitc-spotting in rabbits— the
occnrrence of wholly nnpigmented areas in the skin and in the hair
thereon— occnrs in two forms, one recessive and the other dominant in
crosses witli the same race of unspotted ral)bits. Experiments point to
to the conclnsion that genetic variability by minnte gradations is a
reality, precisely as Darwin assnmed it to be, and this fact allows races
to be altered steadily and permanently by selection, either natiiral or
artiticial, as Darwin also assnmed to l)e the case. In short, nnit-
characters, while exhibiting Meiidelian inheritance, are often greatly
modified by crosses, and can be modified by selection alone, nnattended
by crossing. 3. lied eyes and yellow colonr in the common rat (3Ins
iiorvegiciis) are due to linked genes, and the same is true of pink eyes and
yellow colonr. The Hnkage between red-eyed yellow and albinism is
stronger still. On the chromosome theory the genes for albinism and for
red-eyed yellow are extremely close to each other in the same chromosome :
and the gene for pink-eyed yellow, while lying in the same chromosome,
is at some distance from the genes for albinism and red-eyed colour.
But this abstract hardly does more than indicate the general scope of
tlie paper. J. A. T.

Female Reproductive Org-ans in some Falconidae. — Max Kollmaxn
{Bull. Soc. Zoiil. France, 11J19, 44, 4;:5-52, ?. figs.). About a hundred
cases are known where there is some development of gonads on the right
side of a bird. The frequent statement that there is no right ovary is
too sweeping. Kollmann has found six cases of a bilateral ovary and a
persistent right AVolffian duct in adult Falconidae {Accipetor nisus, Astur
pahtmbariiis, and Tin/iunculus tliniancuJux). AVhether the right ovary
may be functional or whether an ovum liberated from the right ovary
could reach the left oviduct remains uncertain, (/hapellier reports a
case of two oviducts as well as two ovaries in a duck, but tbis is extremelv
r:u-e. J. A. T. "

Brachydactyly in Fowls.^C. H. Danforth {Amer. Journ. Anat.,
lOr.t, 25, t»7-iir), 5 figs.). In certain strains of poultry (and pi'obably
in pigeons) there is a close correlation between brachydactyly (involving
the size and number of bones in the feet) and the presence of feathers
on the " tarsi." The evidence from the development shows that while
the size and number of skeletal elements are determined by the length
of the embryonic toe, there is no causal relation between toe length and
feathering. The data seem to indicate, on the contrary, that brachy-
dactyly, feathering of the tarsi, and probably syndactyly are all depen-
dent on one and the same factor. No attempt is made to postulate the
nature of this factor, but it is suggested that a study of the early func-
tioning of the endocrine glands in normal and abnormal embryos might
throw some light on the question. Xo correlation could be detected
between either of the characters referred to and polydactvly or comb
form. ■ J. A. T.

A Hereditary Complex in the Domestic Fowl. — C, H. Danforth
{Genetics, 1919, 4, 587-96). Evidence is presented that brachydactyly,

28 SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

syndactyly and leg-feathering (or " ptilopody "), at first sight apparently
distinct and uiu'elated, are in reality the prodnct of a single gene or a
single combination of genes. J. A. T.

Transplanting Limbs of Amblystoma Embryo. — S. R. Detwiler
{Jouni. Exper. ZooL, 1920, 31, 117-69, 2 pis.). When the anterior
limb is excised and re-implanted to the same embryo at distances ranging
from 1-7 segments posterior to the normal position, there is a corre-
sponding decrease in the function of these limbs as they are implanted
more and more remote from the normal situation. Shifting the limb
does not effect a corresponding shifting of the segmental nerve contribu-
tion. If the limbs be so far posterior to the normal situation that thej
receive no innervation from the normal limb level of the cord, they
receive their main innervation from segments anterior to the transplanted
limb rather than from segments corresponding to the position of the
limb. The gradual decrease of function seems to be correlated with the
segmental nerve supply ; the function beisig more perfect when the
innervation is from the limb level. As the distance from the normal
increases the time required for initial limb reflexes increases, [t looks
as if the transplanted limb rudiment had a guiding influence on the
nerve contribution. The positive reaction toward this influence appears
to be greater in the nerves coming from the normal limb level of the
cord. The architecture of the nerve distribution within the transplanted
limb is the same as that in the normal limb. Gradually increasing the
distance Itetween the normal position and the transplanted limb brings
about a gradual increase in the number of reduplicated appendages.
The reduplication is manifestly non-adaptive. J. A. T.

Transplanted Limbs and their Innervation.— 8. R. Detwiler

{Froc. Nat. Acad Sci., 191!), 5, :'>24-P)l, 2 figs.). Additional limbs
transplanted ;!-5 segments posterior to the normal intact limb of the
Amblystoma embryo never attain the completeness of function attained
by limbs in the same relative position with the normal limb extirpated.
Although such limbs may. be well supplied with peripheral nerves, derived
from segments of the cord posterior to the normal limb level, their
greatly impaired movements appear to be a consequence of their
inadequate supply of central efl'erent neurones, which run apparently
only as far as the normal limb level, where they discharge into the
somatic motor centres of the normal intact limb. The generally
restricted and non-adaptive movements which these limbs do exhil)it
upon stimulation are probably effected through more or less imperfectly
connected intraspinal, intersegmental correlation neurones of the levels
from which peripheral innervation is derived. J. A. T.

Regeneration of Fore-Brain in Amblystoma Larvae. — H. Saxton
BVRR (Joimi. Comp. Neurology, 191G, 26, 203-11, 4 figs.). Experi-
ments show that the fore-brain of Amblystoma larviv will not regenerate
when it and its functional end-organ are completely extirpated. The
healing of the wound results in the formation of a curtain across the
interventricular foramen derived from the ependyraa lining the neural

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSGOPY, ETC.

29

tube. If, on the other huiid, the fore-brain is removed without removing
the end-organ, the nasal placode, the presence of the latter acts as a
stimulus to the regeneration of a new telencephalon through the ingrowth
of the optic nerve. The jmlhal region of the telencephalon is regenerated
in all cases owing to the stimulus afforded by the forward growth of
axones from lower centres in the brain and cord. These ingrowing

Transverse section through embryo of Aniblystoma one and a
half months after the operation, showing the regenerating telen-
cephalon as the result of the presence of the nasal placode.

axones stimulate a mass of neuroblasts at the posterior margin of the
interventricular foramen. In three and a half months the new cereljral
hemisphere could not be distinguished from its fellow. J. A. T.

Development of Japanese Giant Salamander. — Dan de Lange,
Jun. {TijdscJir. Nederland. Dkrlc. Ver., 1916, 14, 22i-372, 8 pis.). A
study of the development of Megalohatraclms maximus during the first
eighteen days, especially as regards the anterior region. The cepha-
logenesis or protogenesis includes the formation of the head to behind
the auditory vesicle and the branchial region, with the exception of
the greater part of the protochordal plate. The somatogenesis or deuto-
genesis leads to the formation of the anterior half of the trunk, includ-
ing the protochordal plate. The urogenesis or tritogenesis, which is not
discussed, leads to the formation of the posterior half of the trunk and
the tail. Stomodseum, primordium of brain, and the sensory organs of
the head are formed in situ by the cephalogenesis ; the protochordal
plate is of mixed origin, being in part somatic. The anterior head-

30 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

mesoderm or primary mesoderm, from which arise the mesodermic head-
organs in front of the hyomandibular cleft, is entirely due to cephalo-
genesis. A detailed account is given of what haj)pens on each day.

J. A. T.

Development of Vertebral Column of Megalobatrachus. — J. P.
De Gaay Fortman {Tijdschr. NederJand. Dierk. Ver., i;»18, 16,
121-62, 2 pis., 10 figs.). In this giant salamander there is a hint of
an intervertebral cleft. In the place of the spinous processes there are
closing pieces of connective tissue, which are continued into the
arcualia of two vertebra and form by their union the pre- and post-
zygapophyses. Between the centra there is no cartilaginous joint, but
a broad ring of connective-tissue cartilage. This is continued far into
the centrum and forms eventually a very delicate cartilaginous zone.
The intervertebral cartilage arises in the notochord itself, wliich is
constricted intra-vertebrally and continued inter-vertebrally. The
vertebra of Amphibia are referable to fish vertebrge in which there has
been fusion of two arcualia. Half of the first segment forms cartilage,
which takes part in forming the condyles and the bases of the arcualia
of the first vertebra. The boundary between occipital and atlas is in
this first half-segment. The first vertebra is, as regards arcualia, more
than one vertebra, for three sclerotome halves share in its making. Parts
of the atlas and of the condyles are the equivalents of Albrecht's pro-
atlas. ■ J. A. T.

Eel with Left Eye in Lower Jaw.— C. E. Droogleevbr Fortuyx-
VAN Leyden {Tijdschr. Nederland. Dierl. Ver., 1918, 16, 271-9, (5 figs.).
A curious abnormality in a common eel about 30 cm. in length. The
left eye was situated on the under surface of the lower jaw, a little
to the left of the middle line, and had a normal structure. At the
spot where the left eye should have been there was a small dimple.
It is probable that the optic vesicle grew out anteriorly and towards
the ventral surface, instead of laterally ; that it reached and traversed
the anterior mesodermic mass ; and that it continued growing until it
reached what afterwards became the epidermis of the lower jaw. It is
probable that the epidermis reacted to form a lens and cornea. It
is probable that the primordia of the eye-muscles, applying themselves
at a very early stage to the capsule of the eye, were gradually led as they
developed to their extraordinary final position. J. A. T.

Eye-displacement in Pleuronectids.— Otto T'au.o{Zool. Anzeir/er,
1920, 51, 119-42, 12 figs.). In young flounders, plaice, and the like,
the two eyes are for a considerable time symmetrically disposed, one on
each side of the head. The young fishes swim vertically till they are
10-15 mm. long, when they lie on one side on the sand. At this stage
the lower eye may be lost by friction. It may be noted that there are
blind, genera {Soleotalpa, Apionichthys and others). The friction of the
sand causes cramp-like contractions of the eye-muscles, which lift the
eye to the other side of the head. The change takes place in three
days or so. Its mechanism is analysed. The gap is filled with support-
ing tissue, partly ossified. The musculus rectus externus degenerates

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 31

relatively to the others — a secondary effect of the displacement. There
is great mortality during the migration of the eye. The importance of
tlie paper is in its analysis of the factors actually operative in the moving
of tlie down-turned eye to the up-turned side. J. A. T.

&. Histolog'y.

The Neurone. — H. B. Ferris {Psychological Bulletin, 1918, 15,
257-63). A review of numerous recent papers on the neurone. L. S.
. Eoss regards the trophospongium of the crayfish (Gamharus) as a
nutritive and supporting, non-nervous framework extending in from
without. Ramon y Cajal believes that the Golgi net in cells of the
cerebral cortex represents a canalicular system filled with a lipoid-con-
taiiiing substance. It is noted by A. M. Pappenheimer that the Golgi
net has not been observed in the living cell, though it occurs in pre-
parations of most kinds of cells. Nissl-bodies are generally believed to
consist of a nucleo-protein containing iron, which is elaborated by the
nucleus. Some observers claim that they can see them in the living
cell ; others regard them as precipitation products. E. Y. Cowdry finds
that " chromophile " cells in the nervous system are usually shrunken
as a whole and as regards their nucleus ; the condition is not an
artefact, or pathological, or senile. M. Flesch finds abundant " chromo-
phile " cells in the Gasserian ganglion, larger than the normal cell, and
fewer in young than in old. M. E. and AY. H. Lewis observe that
mitochondria change in shape, size and number, and that they move
about and may pass from one cell to another. N. 0. Nicholson notes the
differences in the mitochondria of different cells of the central nervous
system of the white mouse. M. I)e (i. Thurlow believes that there is a
definite mitochondrial-cytoplasmic ratio. The evidence from various
sources seems to show that mitochondria are definite, discrete, formed
elements found in all kinds of cells, and at all ages, and are chemically
a lipoid albumen. They are not related genetically to the neurofibrils,
Nissl-bodies, or the Golgi net. They are connected with the funda-
mental metabolic processes that occur in cells, possibly with respiration.

J. A. T.

Motor Nuclei and Roots in Brain of Fishes. — C. .T. Van der

HoRST {Tijdschr. Nederland. Dierlc. Ver., 1918, 16, 168-270, 16 pis.,
37 figs.). An elaborate study relating to a great variety of types,
showing that the position of the motor nuclei and roots has often con-
siderable taxonomic value, and showing that their position and displace-
ment bear out, on the whole, the theory of neurobiotaxis — that the
main dendrites grow out towards, and the whole body of the ganglion
cell is displaced in the direction of the centre of stimulation, while the
axis-cylinder grows away from the centre of stimulus or the source from
which stimuli radiate. J. A. T.

EflTect of Ions on Ciliary Motion. — J. Gray (Proc. Gamhridge
Phil. Soc, i;)20, 19, 313-4). A large number of experiments show that if
the concentration of hydrogen ions is only slightly greater than normal,
the cells (of mussel gills) can react to the environment, and recovery

32 SUMMARY OF QUERENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

takes place in the acid solution. In stronger acid, ho^vever, recovery
only takes place on removing the gills to a more alkahne solution. In
still stronger acid the cells become opaque and are killed. Mussel gills
exposed to an abnormally high concentration of hydroxyl ions behave in
a remarkable ^^'ay. In such solutions the ciliary action is either not
affected at all or proceeds at an abnormally rapid rate, but the individual
cells of the ciliated epithelia break away from each other and move
about in the solution owing to the movement of their cilia. A number
of experiments show that sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium
are all necessary to maintain gill fragments in a normal state of ciliary
activity for a protracted period, viz. four days. If one or more metals
are omitted, the individual cells of the ciliated epithelia show the same
disruptive phenomenon as in sea-water of abnormally high concentration
of hydroxyl ions. J. A. T.

c. General.

Comparative Study of Rodent Brains. — L. Eeisixger {ZooL
Anzeiijer, 1920, 51, 107-1), 4 figs.). A comparison of the brains of
rabbit, squirrel, rat, and guinea-pig, which show close similarity, although
the animals differ much in apparent intelligence. There is certainly no
close correlation between convolutions and intelligence. The point is
made that if there is sufficient cranial space there is no need for con-
volutions. Many small rodents may have a relatively large brain,
though this is- almost smooth. J. A. T.

Variations of Pit Viper. — Joan B. Procter {Proc. ZooL Soc,
11)18, 163-82, 5 figs.). An account of the variation of the principal
characters of the Central and South American pit viper, Lachesis atrox.
With this species L. lanceolatus is synonymous, and of this species
L. affinis Gray, L. jararaca Wied., and L. jararacussu Lacerda are
varieties. The more northern form L. affinis is most primitive in its
markings, and from it the patterns of the markings of the others may
be derived. J. A. T.

The Urodele Vomer. — Inez Whipple Wilder [Proc. Amer. Soc.
Zool. in Anat. Record, 1920, 17, 349). A study of the vomer in SpeUrpes,
Diemyctylus, and Amhlystoma. During the metamorphosis in Spelerpes
the vomer shows (1) an anterior and lateral extension as a plate-like
reinforcement of the floor of the nasal region ; (2) an extension of the
median part, mainly in a posterior direction, through the fusion of the
bases of a new series of teeth which appear at this time in the roof of
the mouth ; and (3) the absorption of the larval vomerine teeth of the
ridges that bore them, so that this region also becomes thin and plate-
like. J. A. T.

Pectoral Fin of Eusthenopteron. — Branislav Petronievics {Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., 1918, 2, 471-6, 2 figs.). A description of the skeletal
structure of this fossil fish and a discussion of its homology with the
tetrapod limb. The posterior bifurcation of the fourth axonost may be
a remnant of a more primitive stage in which the fourth axonost was

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. MIGUOSCOPY, ETC. .33

oomposed of two separate ossifications, the paired fins of Easthenopteron
being evidently the reduced archipteryg'iuiu type of Gegenbaur (uniserial
rather than biserial). J. A. T.

Phylog'eny of the Orthobiont. — Charles Janet {Sur. la Phijlogemse
de V Orthobionte, Limoijes, 191G, 72 pp., 6 tables, <S pis.). According to
the author the primitive organism was a Phyto-zoo-flagellate with both
photosynthetic and animal modes of nutrition. This primitive organism
differentiated into Phyto-flagellates (holophytic), leading on to plants,
and Zoo-flagellates (holozoic), leading on to animals. The successive
generations of a flagellate include: (1) A " merism " consisting of
groups of monoplastid individuals enclosed in a cyst (a " blastea ") ;
and (2 ) a " merism " consisting of a multitude of free monoplastid
individuals (a " plethea "). Among the free monoplastids there is an
occurrence of special gametes which unite in pairs to form zygotes.
These multiply by bipartition. All the progeny of a given zygote
before fresh gametes occur constitute a " holobiont " ; a direct line
from one zygote to a new zygote constitutes an '' orthobiont." The
orthobiont of the primitive flagellate consists of an alternation of
encysted blasteas and sporadic pletheas, and the author's idea is that
the orthobiont of any organism consists of a succession of blasteas and
pletheas homologous to the blasteas and pletheas constituting the
orthobiont of the primitive flagellate. The author shows how this
Avorks out, as it seems to him to do, in cases like Voh'ox, Fiicus, a liver-
wort and an insect. The thesis is illustrated by numerous finely
drawn figures, indicating the supposed homologies, and by ingenious
comparative tables. J. A. T.

Physiological Analysis of Behaviour. — H. B. Torey (Journ.
Animal Behaviour, 1916, 6, lskO-9). The behaviour of Paramecium in
the presence of an obstruction in its path shows a succession of motor
reflexes orientated with reference to the source of stimulation. Are
these and other precise responses that organisms make to directive
stimuli the outcome of selection whether of individual reactions or of
individuals themselves ? " On the contrary, evidence is accumulating in
favour of the view that organisms respond typically without trials ; that
what have been called, by a figure of speech, trials are actually definite
responses to stimuli that are neglected by the observer ; that behaviour
is the resultant of many stimuli of which the directive stimulus is but
one ; that, in fact, the tropic response is rigidly determined as to
direction by factors which complete analysis may be expected in all
cases to bring to light." J. A. T.

Large Size of Abyssal Animals. — A. Sokolowsky {Schrifl. Zocl.
Stat. Biistim, 1919, 1, 15-l.s, 1 fig.). Attention is directed to the
tendency of abyssal animals to attain very large size, e.g. Macrocheira
{Ksenipfferia) ksempjferi, the giant crab which may measure 11 feet
from the tip of one forceps outstretched to the tip of the other. There
are large deep-witer fishes, like oar-fish; large Cephalopods ; and the
well-known hydroid Monocaulns imperator may rise to a heiglit of about
eight feet. Some deep-sea animals, not in themselves very large, are

D

34 SUiMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

relatively gigantic compared with their relatives in shallow water, as
may be well illustrated by the sea-slater, Batliynomus doaderleiiii, and
even by some very large Foraminifera. The chief cause is probaljly
that the stillness of the great depths allows of great estensiou of body
without risks. J. A. T.

Prolongation of Life and Vigour. — W. Harms {Zooloy. Anzpifjrr,
1020, 51, 161-<s). In some worms, e.g. the Palolo worm, and in other
cases, there is a natural evasion of senile degeneration by surrendering
a large part of the body. In Hydroides an artificial removal of the
ageing abdominal segments gives the worm a new lease of life. Another
method is the artificial implanting of testes, which Harms found to be
efficacious in guinea-pigs. After sexual vigour had quite waned it was
restored by ingrafting a piece of young testes. The ' restoration of
sexual vigour lasts for some time. J. A. T.

•
Tunicata.

Test Vesicles in Tunicates. — Caswell Grave {Proc. Amer. Soc.
Zool. in Anat. Record, 1!)20, 17, 350). The fully developed tadpole
larva of Amaroucium constellatum has about sixty spherical multicellular
test vesicles. They arise as elongated evaginations from four median
sagittal elevations of the ectoderm, but they become free in the larval
tunic and resemble Echinoderm blastulffi. When the metamorphosis
beaius thev migrate to the external surface of the tunic and begin to
proliferate tunic material. They are concerned with the formation and
I'egulation of the common tunic of the colony, and continually produce
new cells. They do not increase or decrease in number during the life of
the colony. No structural connexion with ascidiozooids was made out.
The vesicles are organs of the colony as a whole, but they are all derived,
from the individual by which the colony is founded. They persist,
however, long after the primary zooid has lost its identity. J. A. T.

IN VERT E BE, AT A.

MoUusca,
a. Cephalopoda.

Regeneration of Arm of Octopus. — Mathilde M. Lange (Jouni.
E,vper. Zool., 19:^0, 31, 1-40, 8 pis.). AYhen an arm of Octo'pus vuhjark
is cut off the edges of the wound curl inwards; the axial nerve pro-
trudes ; bleeding sets in after five to six hours ; the pi'otrusion of the
^ axial nerve disappears ; an epithelial healing occurs. A knob appears
with a thin rod-like appendage. New suckers ajjpear on the regenerated
piece proper, and at the obtuse end of the arm stump. The first new
chromatophores appear about three or four weeks after operation. All
new tissues, with the exception of the dermal connective tissue (which
is- probably developed from the primary blastema due to the agglutinated
blood-corpuscles) are produced in regeneration from the pre-existing.
tissu'.'S of the same kind. J. A. T.

i

ZOOLOGY. AND BOTANV, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 35>

7- G-astropoda.

New Chitons. —Edwin Ashby {Trans. Proc. R. Soc. S. Australia,
li:>l'.). 43, GG-7r), 1 pi.). Definition of a new sub-genus, Zostcrkola,
differing from Stenorhiton {sensu stricto) in that the shell is short and
broad instead of being elongated and narrow. It possesses the highly-
polished and unscniptnred surface and minute girdle-scales so distinctive
of the true Steiior.hitdit, and it lives on the same plants, the sea-grasses.
The new sub-genus is erected for the reception of Stcnochiion pilshry-
aiius Beducdl. K description is ako given of Kopion-ella g.n., which
differs from Plaxiphora in having peculiar oar-headed girdle bristles or
spicules, and an elevated recurved tail-valve with terminal mucro ; and
from Frenibleyana in the peculiar bristles and in the slits in the median
valves being centrally situated, and in the sinus being much narrower,
especially in the tail-valve. J. A. T.

New Australian Chitons. — Edwin Ashby {Trans. Proc. R. Soc.
S. Anstralia, 191'.t, 43, ;;9-4-404, 2 pis.). Descriptions of Xotoplax
porcina sp. n., from Gulf St. Vincent ; Acanthocliiton niaxiUaris sp. n.,
from S. Australia, a beautiful and striking form with a row of excep-
tionally large milk-white pustules, suggesting a row of rounded teeth set
in a jaw ; ^4. gatUffi, sp. n. ; and two new sub-species of Call isto chiton
antiqaus. ' J. A. T.

Revision of Genus Loricella. — Edwin Ashby {Trans. Proc. R.
Soc. Victoria, 191'J, 43, r)9-(;r), 1 pi.). A description of the two species
of this genus of Polyplacophora — L. angasi H. Adams and Angas, and
L. torri sp. n., both Australian. The genus may be near Lorica, as is
suggested by the cleft in the girdleand by the character of the tail-valve,
but its large head and the small foot, together with its markedly distinct
girdle, suggest that the relationship may be more superficial than real.
The girdle is clothed with peculiar bilobed scales, like grains of wheat
set on end, either transparent and glassy or opaque white. Between
these there are strange "spear-heads," which push through to about
eight times the length of the scales. They look hke cylindrical
pointed spear-heads of porcelain. They grow into coarse hairs or tubes,
and give off more " spear-heads " as buds. A single stalk may have as
many as six " spear-heads," Their function is obscure. J. A. T.

Spermatogenesis in Gastropods. — Victor Schitz {Arch. ZooJ.
Exper., 1920, 58, 489-520, 12 figs.). In Cerithium, Bittium, and
TurriteUa there is a typical and an atypical spermatogenetic cycle, the
latter resulting in spermatozoa with a bundle of long cilia. In the
typical cycle the chromatin forms the head ; in the atypical it degene-
rates and disappears. In the atypical cycle the role of the idiozome
remains obscure ; in the typical cycle it serves as a " vehicle " for the
transport of the anterior pole of the nucleus of the spermatid, the deri-
vative of the central corpuscle. It afterwards slips along -the tail with a
blob of protoplasm and disappears. The idiozome is the same as the
" nebenkern " of Pulmonates ; it is not mitochondrial in origin, as

D 2

36

SUMMARY OF CURRENT LESE ARCHES RELATING TO

Faure-Fremiet has stated ; it is more probably an organite of the cell.
The mitochondria take part in the typical series in forming the middle
piece ; in the atypical series they form the envelope of the body of the

i.

S

C.

\ \

\^

'Ir

\

, 1 1 n

"■ I

\ ^

1, 3, 5, ripe spermatozoa of the typical series, 2, 4, 6, ripe spermatozoa of the
atypical series, iu CerUhiuin, Bittium, and Turritella respectively.

spermatozoon-. No intranuclear rodlet was found. The central cor-
puscles of the typical series form the axial filament and the caudal
flagellum. The proximal corpuscle forms finally a little ring between

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 37

the nucleus of the head and the tail ; the distal corpuscle descends,
along the tail as a minute granule. In the atypical series the central
corpuscles form the axial body and the caudal cilia, which together
correspond to the intracellular and extracellular fibrils of other Proso-
branchs. J.A.T.

Eyes of Gastropods. — Hanna Eisenmank (Zool. Anz'eiger, 1920,
51, 14o-5.s, 10 figs.). A comparison of the eyes of terrestrial Gastro-
pods {Helix and Arion) and fresh-water Gastropods {Faludina) as
regards shape, lens and retina. The eye is spherical in Helix and Arion,
an elongated pear-shape in Paludina. The innervation is rather dif-
ferent. The differences in lens, retina, cornea and external envelope are
discussed. J. A. T.

Arthropoda.

a. Insecta.

Fertilization in the Honey-Bee. — George H. BisHor {Journ.
Exper. Zool., 1920, 31, 225-G5, 3 pis., 3 figs.). The drone is not
sexually mature at the time of emergence of the imago, but grows for at
least 9 to 12 days. The sperm and the mucus of the accessory gland
change in character and behaviour as development goes on. They
remain separate till copulation. The partition separating them from the
ejaculatory duct, consisting of the chitinous lining of the blind end of
that duct, does not break through until copnlation. Then the sperm
and mucus are forced out of their receptacles by contraction of the
muscular walls of these organs. The musculature of the whole base of
the gland is so arranged as to cause, on violent contraction, the shutting
off of the distal portion of the gland from the proximal by a muscular
valve. The mucous content is thus closed off from its outlet through
the ejaculatory duct : at the same time sperm is allowed to pass through
the vas deferens and basal portion of the gland into the ejaculatory
duct. This spermatic fluid is thus the first to be ejaculated. The
mucus follows, forcing all the sperm out, and coagulating into a plug.
The penis is torn out in copulation. The bulb and elastic end of the
ejaculatory duct do not act as a spermatophore, although after copula-
tion, and while still attached to the queen, they may hold what remains
of mucus. The drone's reproductive organs are very easily stimulated
to contraction ; picric acid solution inhibits this, other acids provoke it.

J. A. T.

Insemination of Queen-Bee. — George H. Bishop {Journ. Exper.
Zool, 1920, 31, 2G7-S6, 2 figs.). The result of copulation is not the
immed^iate filling of the final sperm reservoir, the seminal receptacle of
the queen, but the reception of the spermatic fluid (from the seminal
vesicles of the drone) and the mucus (from his accessory glands). The
spermatozoa alone enter the spermotheca, all of them in about six and
a half hours. Their progress is not wholly passive ; it is possibly
guided Ijy chemotaxis. The mucus forces up the spermatic fluid and by
coagulation seals up the torn end of the copulatory organ, preventing
back flow. A description is given of the face-to-face coition, the
tapering end of the ejaculatory duct adjoining the bulb being everted

38 SUMMARY OF CUURENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

through the bulb into the vagiua. The alternate contractions of circular
and longitudinal muscles of the seminal vesicles and accessory glands
bring about ejaculation — first of the sperms only and then of mucus.
The queen breaks off the everted copulatory organ, usually close behind
the bulb, by crawhng or flying in a circle round the drone, and returns
with it to the hive. It becomes dislodged or is pulled away by the bees
in the hive within a few hours. The mucus is absorbed in the oviduct ;
-the sperms pass by the sperm-duct to the spermotheca. J. A. T.

Nest of Solitary Wasp, Crabo cephalotes.— Cecil VVarburton
{Proc. Camhridye I'hil. Soc, 192<t. 19, 21)0-8). Observations on a small
colony in a log of elmwood kept in the author's garden at Cambridge
as an example o'f a woodpecker's nest. The cavity was gradually filled
with the " sawdust " of the burrows in the wood. C^onspicuous on the
sawdust were numerous Syrphid flies, especially Syrphm balteatus, used
as food. There was no attempt to seal or mask the tunnels. There
was nothing to prevent any enemy from entering. The main tunnels
were clear, and penetrated the wood for several inches, with abrupt
turnings on no definite plan. From these proceeded side galleries in
which were found " sawdust," the debris of flies, and the brown cocoons
containing the fully-fed wasp larvae. J. A. T.

Inheritance of Silkworm Characters.— Maude L. Cleg-horn {Proc.
Zool. Soc, 19LS, 138-46). The inheritance of the visible colour
character of the cocoons is clearly Mendelian. The inheritance of the
invisible univoltine and multivoltine character (dominant when inherited
by the females, recessive in males) does not appear to be quite Mendelian,
but it may be that the sex-limited descent affects the inhei'itance. and
that there is really no failure in segregation of the unit characters.

J. A. T.

Origin of 6ynandromorphs.~-T. H. Morgan and C. B. Bridges

{Puhlication 278, Carnegie Inst. Washin/jton, 1919, 1-122, 4 pis.,
70 figs.). A study of gynandromorphs (combining male and female
characters, it may be both gonadial and somatic) in Drosophila meJano-
gaster, on which numerous experiments have been made. Many of the
gynandromorphs were hybrids of known sex-linked characters, i.e.
characters whose genes are carried by the sex chromosomes. By adding
to such crosses additional characters whose genes lie in other than the
sex chromosomes, it has been possible to prove that the male and female
parts of the gynandromorph differ l)y the sex chromosomes alone, i.e.
both male and female parts contain the same autosomal group. It was
possible, in consequence, to show that these gynandromorphs are not
due to partial fertilization (Boveri), or to polyspermy (Morgan), but to
chromosotnal elimination (Morgan). Chromosomal elimination means
that at an early stage in embryonic development one of the daughter
chromosomes of one of the X's fails to pass over to one of the daughter
plates, and accordingly gets left out of that nucleus. In consequence,
one of the two cells will contain only one X chromosome, and produce
male parts, while the sister cell with two daughter X chromosomes will
produce female parts. The evidence that elimination of this kind takes
place rests on cases in which the X chromosome derived from the father

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 39

contains different self-linked genes from those borne by the X chromo-
some derived from the mother.

A logical consequence of the proof that the gynandromorphs arise
through elimination is that they should all start as females, i.e. as XX
individuals. A second logical consequence is that, starting as an XX
individual, the male parts will be XO, and not XY as in the normal
male. A striking fact in regard to these gynandromorphs is that the
male and female parts and their sex-linked characters are strictly self-
determining, each developing according to its own constitution. No
matter how large or how small the region is, it is not interfered with by
the aspirations of its neighbours, nor is it over-ruled by the action of
the gonad.

In 88,000 flies there were found 40 gynandromorphs, or 1 to 2,200.
The fact that most of the mosaics include large regions of the body may
mean that elimination takes place more often during the first or second
division of the segmentation nucleus, but it may also mean that when
smaller regions are involved the gynandromorph would be more often
overlooked. Both gonads of the same individual are always alike — i.e.
both are testes or both are ovaries — even when the external markings of
the abdomen are male on one side, female on the other. This finds its
explanation in the assumption that the germ-plasm of DrosophiJa, as in
some other flies, arises from a single cell. This cell, arising after
elimination, must be either a spermatogonium or an oogonium. Court-
ship has been watched in a number of flies that were partly male and
partly female. Many of them are indifferent ; some react as males,
others as females.

The only other theory besides elimination that the authors have
found it necessary to employ in accounting for the gynandromorphs of
DrosophiJa, where the genetic evidence makes the analysis possible, is
the theory of Ijinucleated eggs. This applies to two gynandromorp]/
silkworms described by Toyama. Gynandromorphs in birds and
mammals are discussed, along with a number of peculiar conditions.
That genetic factors determine the sex-condition in certain types does
not in itself prove that there may not be influential environmental or
nurtural factors in other types. J. A. T.

The Second-Chromosome G-roup of Mutant Characters in Droso-
phila melanogaster. — C. B. Beidges and T. H. Mokcian (Publication
278, Carnegie Inst. Washington, 1919, 128-304, 7 pis., 17 figs.). This
paper deals with thirty-nine mutant races whose genes lie in the " second
chromosome " (arbitrarily defined as that which carries the gene for
black and other related genes). The point of the investigation is
mapping out of the loci of the various genes in the chromosome in
question — a remarkable triumph of experimental analysis. Thus, " star
eye " has its gene at the extreme "left" of the chroriiosome, "purple
eye " has its gene at the centre near that of black, the " speck " character
has its gene near the right end, and "curved " has its position at the
right of the central group. Apart from the localization of yenes, the
authors discuss the " modifiers " of characters, autosomal and balanced
lethals, and the variations in the amount of crossing-over due to specific
genes and to such factors as age and temperature. J. A. T.

40 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RKSEA.RCHES RELATING TO

Inherited Linkage Variations in Second Chromosome of Droso-
phila. — A. H. Sturtevant(P«&/*c«^ww 278, Carnegie Inst. Washinriton,
lOl'.t, 307-4:1). In a female of Drosopliila mehinogaster (jtmpeJophUa)
that came from a stock collected in Xova Scotia, the author found two
genes that influence the amount of crossing-over in the second chromo-
some. Crossing-over, it mtij be recalled, is the interchange of blocks of
genes between two homologous chromosomes lying apposed. Each of
the genes in question, in females heterozygous for it, decreases the
amount of crossing-over in the region in which it lies. The author
indicates where the genes have their locus in the chromosome. Neither
of these two genes causes any change in the usual condition of no
iTossing-over in males. J. A. T.

Modifying- Genes. — T. H. Morgan {Publication 278, Carnegie Inst.
Washing/on, 191ii, 345-88, 1 pi., 15 figs.). Notch wing is a dominant
character in some females of Drosopliila melanogaster, and is caused by
a domijiant gene in the sex chromosome. In addition to its dominance,
the gene produces a recessive lethal effect, killing every male that carries
the gene. Xotch females are heterozygous for the Notch gene. i.e. one
X chromosome carries the gene for Notch, the other X chromosome
carries its normal allelomorph. The latter saves the female from the
lethal effect of the Notch gene. It has been shown by Morgan that
mass selection on this character, carried out for twenty-four generations,
results in a change in the character in the direction of the selection.
It is also shown ingeniously that the changes brought about by the
selection are due to the presence in the stock of a recessive modifying
factor in the second chromosome. Notch females homozygous for this
factor give the "selected group." Those heterozygous for it, or lacking
it altogether, give the atavistic or original group. J. A. T.

Minute Structure of Diptera. — P. E. Keuchenius (//'//'''• ^'eder-
Jand. Dierlc. Ver., 1917, 16, 1-52, 3 pis.). ' Description of the minute
structure of the reproductive organs, Malpighian vessels, fatty tissue,
epidermis and muscle in Tipida oleracea, Enxtalis tenax, E. arbi/storum,
Beris claripes, Lucilia csesar, and Chironomvx annularis {?). The ova-
rioles consist of terminal filaments, terminal chamber, and follicles, or of
terminal chamber and follicles, or of follicles only. In the cells of the
youngest follicles of IJeris and Lucilia there is merely indifferent nucleo-
plasm which may form the nuclei of ova or may be absorbed by the
growing ova without ever forming a true nucleus. An account is given
of the three spermothecaj, the receptacula, the seminal canal, the uterus^
the vagina, and the occasional accessory glands. The Malpighian
tubules show a secreting synctium without cell walls. The fatty tissue
is heterogeneous, even in the same animal. There is sometimes {Eristalis).
an intimate contact between liparocytes and oenocytes. The epidermis
is usually very delicate and its nuclei are often difficult to find ; in
Beris it is structureless ; in Cldrononius it is well developed. In Erislalis
arbustorum the muscles show not only a terminal insertion, but also
a lateral attachment to the epidermis. Different forms of striped muscle
are described. • J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY', ETC. 41

Lygocerus Hyperparasite of Aphidius. — Maud D. Haviland
(Proc. ( 'ambridlje Phil. Soc, 11)20, 19. 21K5-5). Plant-lice are frequently
parasitized by certain Braconid:i? of the family Aphidiida% of which
Aphidius is a good example. The parasite oviposits in the hfemocade
of the aphis, and the larva, during development, consumes the viscera of
the host. At metamorphosis nothing remains but the dry skin, ^vithin
which the Aphidius spins a cocoon for pupation. At this stage the
Aphidius itself is apt to be parasitized by certain Cynipida3, Chalcidje
and Proccotrypidffi. Thus the Proctotrypid Lygocerus testacdmamis
Kietf. is a hyperparasite of AjJhidius salicis Hal., parasite of Aphis
saliceti Kalt., from the willow ; and L. earner oniKiefi. is ajiyperparasite
of Aphidius ervi Hal., parasite of Macrosiplmm urticee, from the nettle.
The author communicates her observations on the life-history of these
two species. J. A. T.

Pharyngeal Musculature of Larvae of Dytiscus marginalis.—

Walter Spey'er (Zoid. Anzeii/., li)20, 51, 248-50, 4 tigs.). A detailed
description, in some ways extending that of Rungius (11)11). An
analysis is given of the dorsal dilators (eight in number), the ventral
dilators, the circular muscle, and the longitudinal musculature. Attention
is directed to the bristles borne by the pharyngeal intima and their
probable function. J- A. T.

Synapsis in Cockroach. — Lancelot T. Hogben (Proc. Roy. Soc,
11)2U, ]>. 91, ;)05-21», r> pis,). A study of oogenesis and spermatogenesis
in Periplaneta. The chromosomes do not divide in the pre-meiotic
mitoses, as they pass to the polar ends df the spindle ; in the telophase,
they become attenuated before passing into the reticulate condition, but
do not display any evidence of cleavage. The splitting of individual
chromosomes begins in the prophase, the separation of the halves being
a process of progressive differentiation ; cleavage is completed before
they adopt the equatorial position in the metaphase. Counts in the
metaphase confirm Morse's view that there are two accessory chromo-
■somes in the female cells and an unpaired heterochromosome in the male.
'I'he accessory chromosomes in the female behave in all respects like
autosomes.

Hi its earliest stages the heterotype prophase differs from the pre-
meiotic reticulate nucleus in the organization of the chromatin in the
form of elongated, finely beaded filaments, forming an intricate tangle.
The polarized leptotene threads of the early bouquet are present in the
full diploid number. Parallel conjugation of leptotene threads takes
place in the bouquet stage at the point of masiujal contraction. The
diplotene loops of the post-synaptic spireme become straightened and
at)breviated, in anticipation of their transformation into heterotype
chromosomes. Li both cases two of the bivalents retain their looped
condition till the transformation of the remainder has already made
considerable ]U"ogress. and it is suggested that the differential rate of
metamorphosis of annular heterotype chromosomes has given rise to the
appearance that the latter are foimed through the union of the free ends
of a diplotene loop. The heterotype chromosomes are formed by the

42 SUMMARY 'OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

opening out of the shortened diplotene rods along the line of cleavage,
so as to assume eventually the form of stretched rings.

From the fact that, in the oocyte, the splitting of the diplotene
filaments appears to correspond with the plane in which conjugation
takes place, it is inferred that segregation of homologous chromosomes
is effected in the heterotype mitosis. The elimination of " chromatin "
particles in the diffuse stage of the oocyte nucleus has been fully investi-
gated ; it has been shown that the formation of yolk is consequent upon
the elimination of material from the plasmosome, and the suggestion is
made that similar nuclear particles in other animals arise from the
plasmosome. J. A. T.

Respiration in Dragon-fly Larvae. — Hans Wallengren {Lunds

o

Univ. Arsshft., 1915, 11, No. 11, ;'>-12). In Vv'ater with normal
oxygenation the oxygen content of the tracheal air is always lower, and
the C^02 content the same as or a little higher than that of the water
used in the respiration. The diflference can be explained according to
the laws of diffusion. The tracheal air varies with the oxygenation of
the water, but has always less oxygen. From the tracheal gills the
oxygen diffuses into the large dorsal and ventral tracheas. By the
breathing movements, the body movements, the contractions of the
walls of the respiratory part of the intestine, as also by diffusion,
the oxygen passes into the finer branches and is absorbed by the l)lood,
the tissue-bathiug fluid, and the cells themselves. The carl )on- dioxide
given off by the cells is dissolved in the tissue-bathing fluid and the
blood, and only a small part passes into the tracheal system ; the rest
diffuses from the blood through the skin, the tracheal gills, and the wall
of the respiratory part of the intestine directly into the gut. When the
insect gets into respiratory difficulties, the oxygen percentage in the
tracheal air sinking below 4 p.c, cei'tain reflexes are put in operation
and the larva comes to the surface. When they increase the percentage
of oxygen in the tracheal air to about 12 p.c. (high above the normal
in sub-aquatic life) the larvBS return from the surface. J. A. T.

Maturation of Parthenogenetic Ova of Aphis palmse. — V. I), de
Baehr {La Cellule, 11)2(», 30, 317-49, 1 pi.). In the oogonia there
are always eight chromosomes. These are reduced in the synaptic
prophase to four bivalent or diakinetic chromosomes. In the matura-
tion these are analysed into their components, and, since no maturation-
spindle is formed, these remain in the nucleus. Eight simple chrono-
somes are seen, as in the oogonia. This may be compared to the first
maturation-division in the male germ-cells or in the winter ova. But
in the parthenogenetic ova there is no mechanism for transporting the
dissociated chromosomes in opposite directions. The single maturation
mitosis which is realized in these ova corresponds to the ordinary
second maturation -division and not to the first. J. A. T.

Aphids of the Rose and other Plants. — Edith M. Patch {Bull.
Maine Aijric. Station, 1919, 282, 205-48). For many years after
Linnteus gave " the " rose aphid the specific name of rosse, this term

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, HTC. 43

proved sufficiently elastic to embrace all the large green and pink apliids
found upon this host. Just how many of these there may prove to be
when the subject has been more thoroughly studied it is still too soon
to say. But it is certain that there are at least three species of Macro-
siphuni common on the rose in Maine, and that each of these has pink
and green varieties. The three are 31. rosae proper, which does not
migrate ; 31. solanifolii, which migrates to the potato ; and 31 . pseudorosse
sp. n., which migrates to ragworts. Eleven more new species of 3Iacro-
siphum are described, and a key to forty eastern American species is
given. There is also a continuation of the food-plant catalogue of the
AphididfB of the world, extending from the dogwood to the nightshade
family. J. A. T.

Formosan Termites. — Masamitsu Oshhia (F/iilippine Journ. Sci.,
1919, 15, 319-83, 13 pis., 5 figs.). In Formosa there are three termites
which injure wooden structures : Leucotermes Jiaviceps, Coptotermes fnrmo-
scmu.s, and Oilonfofermes formosanns. A pair of mature individuals of
C'optotermes is able to start a new colony.; in a newly established colony,
egg-laying begins 5-13 days after swarming ; an individual lavs 1-4
eggs a day ; the eggs hatch in 24-32 days ; the soldier develops from
the egg laid by the queen ; this species attacks lime mortar, but its
principal food is cellulose. The termite-proof concrete layer is entirely
satisfactory in preventing the entrance of termites from the ground ;
teak and cypress pine are immune ; the resistance of timber- is not due
to hardness or weight, nor to the inorganic compounds in it, but to
organic compounds which can be extracted by benzine or alcohol —
namely, sequiterpene alcohol. As camphor green oil contains 25 p.c.
of sequiterpene alcohol it is entirely satisfactory as a preventive for
buildings. The anthracene oil fractionated from coal tar is effective in
preventing the damage of Odontotermesformosanus. J. A. T.

5. Arachnida.

Sensory Setae of Arachnids. — Friederich Dahl {Zool. Anzeiij.,
1920, 51, 215-9). Stiff tactile setge, innervated at their base, issuing
through fine pores in the cuticle, occur in all Arachnids. Thicker,
firmly imbedded, spine-like structures, without a nerve at their root, are
probably protective. The fine hairs of Arfjyroneta prevent the animal
being wetted. But there is another type of seta, delicate and very
mobile, always arising from a pit. They are peculiar to Arachnids.
Tliey move at a breath ; they vibrate at a sound. They sometimes
occur in regular lines, "bahl called them " auditory setre " in 1883;
Krtepelin used the term " trichobothria." Dahl regards them as
percipient of sounds. J. A. T.

Structure of Pantopoda.— J. C. C. Loman (Ti/dschr. XederJand.
DierJc. !>/•., 1917, 16, 53-102, 1 pi., 24 figs.). Much assistance in
investigation was obtained by feeding Fhoxidulidium femoratum and
Nymphon ruhrum on Tubularia heads which had been coloured with
neutral red (a chemical union, unlike colouring with methvlene-blue,

44

SUMMARY OF CUKRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

whicli is physical). There are usually two kinds of corpuscles in the
colourless blood — so-called " heemocratera " and leucocytes. The larvee,

ho

fl

r '--

-k-

...f

Fj

I

Pi —

p6 -

, (

PI

Nervous system of very young larva of PJioxichilidium ;
h.g., cerebral ganglion ; p 1-p 7, appendages ; 2-9, ganglia.

.A

^

1 A

a —
9 '~

Nervous system of fuU-
growu larva.

, <+ -"

:^

■^*>

i3'9

r/

t-O

Nervous system of adult male ;
CO., commissure.

like the adults, are keen parasites on hydroids and the like, using their
proboscis in ingestion. A description is given of ovary, nervous system,
and larval appendages. Marked shortening of the trunk of the body is

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY. KTC. 45

associated with marked concentration of the nervous system, which may
show a fusion of the second and third ganglia with the fourth. The
author holds the view that Pantopods are nearer to Crustaceans than to
Arachnids, and that Pantopods and Crustaceans have diverged from an
Annehd stock. . J. A. T.

e. Crustacea.

Respiratory Organs of a West Indian Land Crab. — C. C. Nuttinci
{Froc. Anier. Soc. Zool. in Anat. Pk,ecord, l'J20, 17, 350-1). In Ucides
caudatus, found at Antigua in a mangrove swamp, partly aquatic and
partly terrestrial in habit, the branchial chamber is divided into an
upper pulmonary portion and a lower branchial portion, the two separated
by a shelf attached to the branchiostegite. Three brush-like flagella
attached to the maxillipedes serve to moisten the edges of the gills.
The upper chamber is lined by a highly vascular membrane with villi.
On the body-wall proper, projecting into the pulmonary chamber, there
is a large turgid S-shaped Ijody (perhaps a big blood sinus) and a
number of enigmatical rigid capitate rods. This type seems to be
midway between Gecarcinus and Birgus. J. A. T.

Permeability of the Gut in Crayfish and Snail. — H. J. Jordan
and H. J. Lam {Tijdschr. Ne.derland. Dierk. Ver., 191S, 16, 281-92). In
Astac'us there is a semi -permeable membrane lining the intestine ; in
Helix pomatia there is diffusion of salts and sugar in accordance with the
laws of osmosis. A gut may show (1) pure osmosis, (2) diosmosis or
diffusion, and (3) absorption. The last depends on cellular activity.
The absorbed material is found in vacuoles in the absorbing cells. So
far as is known they are never the same as the substances to which they
are changed by digestion. Foodstuffs are removed from the lumen of
the gut into the wall of the intestine, but not from the body cavity into
the gut. In the snail the special absorbing area is the mid-gut gland.
Glucose produced elsewhere by digestion may pass into other parts nf
the gut- wall, but this is not true absorption. In the mid-gut gland of
Astacus there is also true absorption. J. A. T.

Studies on Oniscoidea. — Karl W. Verhoepf {Zoolog. Anzeiger,
1920, 51, 169-89). The term larva may be applied to the stages
between the throwing off of the embryonic sheath (long before the end
of the marsupial period) and the complete differentiation of the
principal parts of the seventh pair of legs and the first pleopod. It is
probable that all Oniscoidea have three larval stages. There is consider-
able diversity among species and considei'able variety within a species
(e.g. PorcelUo scalier) as regards the length of the embryonic de\^eloprnent
and larval stages. The brood-chamber or marsupium is made by five
pairs of brood-plates or ovostegites w^hich arise near the base of the first
five legs. It has a mechanically protective function, but it admits of a
large brood, it allows the brood to get advantage of the respiratory
current, and it prevents desiccation. It has very slight nutritive
significance. The cotyledons are evaginations of the delicate opercular
covering of the brood-sac and assist in the respiration. A marsupium

46 SUiMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARGEIES RELATING TO

is formed for each brood, and some species have three broods in a year.
A young form must live for at least a winter before it is mature. The
two pairs of accessory hepatic tubes have in terrestrial Isopods a primary
function as stores for the yolk left over from the embryonic period. An
account is siven of the development -of monostigmatic and polystigmatic
tracheal systems. AVe cannot do more than indicate the scope of a
paper rich in detailed results. J. A. T.

Studies in Asellidae. — B. G. Racovitza (Arch. Zool. Exper., 1920,
58, Notes et Revue, 79-115, figs. 52-84). A study of the North
American species Asellns rommnnis, which shows a strange combination
of highly specialized and very primitive characters. Likewise a study
of the structure and development of the first and second pleopods of
Asellidte, which have come into the service of reproduction. The first
pleopod of the male is reduced to two undivided joints, a sympodite
and an exopodite. It is absent in the female. The second pleopod of
the male consists of an undivided sympodite, a slightly modified
biarticulate exopodite, and a biarticulate or undivided endopodite trans-
formed into a copulatory organ. In the female it is an unjointed
fusion of sympodite and exopodite. J. A. T.

Early Development of Rock-barnacle. — H. C. Delsmax {Tijdschn
Nederland.Dierlc. Ver., 1917, 15, -119-520, 15 pis., 8 figs.). The ovum
of Balanus halanoides is among the largest of Cirripede ova ; it is the
richest in yolk ; its segmentation is mainly unequal. From the fertilized
ovum four yolkless micromeres are constricted off, marking the separa-
tion of ectoderm and endoderm. Then follows the division of the yolk-
containing macromere into two approximately equal cells. At the sixth
cleavage each of the two yolk-cells gives off a small yolkless cell, a meso-
blast. Further divisions of the yolk-cells lead to the primordium of the
mid-gut. The four micromeres form a cap growing round the yolk-cell
or yolk-cells. Their divisions are equal. Gastrulation is epibolic, the
micromeres growing round the endoderm. The blastopore is dia-
metrically opposite the animal pole. At the completion of the epibole
there are two yolk-cells. Most of the mesoblast arises from ecto-
dermic micromeres at the margin of the blastopore ; the entomesoblast
has been already referred to. A remarkable feature is the origin of the
proctodeum from the distal end of the stomodsal invagination. The
number of chromosomes in the somatic cells is thirty-two. J. A. T.

Appendage of Sex-intergrade of Daphnia longispina. — A. M.

Banta anil Mary Gover {Proc. Amer. Soc. Zool. in Anat. Record, 1920,
17, 348-9). Every detail of the first leg which is subject to .sexual
modification is also subject to intermediate development. Any portion
may show- any condition from a slight departure from the type of the
normal female to an approximation to the typical male. The different
portions of the same individual appendage may show a range from
fully female to moderately male in character, or from an intermediate
condition to a fully male condition. There is, however, a certain amount
of correlation between the degree of maleness and f emaleness manifest in
the different portions of the same appendage. J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MrCROSCOPY, ETC. 47

Egg-envelope in Centropages hamatus. — Werner Busch (ZooL
Anmg., 19*20, 51, 201-5, 5 figs.). In this Copepod the typical ovum
{Ovum Impidum) shows a number of spine-like hollow processes of the
envelope, very variable in number and shape. The fresh-laid ovum is
spherical, and shows a delicate and transient plasmic membrane. Within
this the cytoplasm of the egg forms by retraction and secretion the
definitive envelope with its processes. The sea-water is the liberating
stimulus. J. A. T.

New Species of Clavella on Cod. — W. Harold L kigh-Sharpe
{Joani. Marine Biol. Aasoc, 1920, 12, ;');)2-8, 9 figs.). The author bases
a new species, ClavelJa iadda, on specimens of a parasitic Copepod
collected by Michael (!. L. Perkins from cods. Compared with C
scialherica, the body is less globose, longer than wide ; the ovisacs are
tapering; there is a posterior trilobate genital process (as in G.irina
Wilson, but less pronounced) ; the cephalothorax is comparatively short,
little curved, and in line with the second maxillge ; the bulla is widest
at the apex of the sphere, not at the l)ase as in G. HciatJierica ; and
there is a slight difference in the mandibles. The ducts and apertures
of the renal excretory organs can be made out with great clearness on
the base of the second maxilla?. A provisional key to the species of
Clavella is submitted. J. A.. T.

Cambrian Trilobites. — R. Etheridcie, Jun. {Trans. Proc. R. Soc.
S. Ai/slralia, J919, 43, 373-93, 2 pis). Au attempt to put in order
the remains of Cambrian Trilobites. There is seldom more than a
portion of a cephalon or pygidium preserved. In addition to the minute
Agnostus ellcedraensis there is perhaps only one weli-])reserved form,
that known as Ftychoparia alroiensis. J. A. T.

Aunulata.

Early Development of Scoloplos armiger. — H. C. Delsman
{Tijdschr. Nederland. Dierk. Ver., 191(i, 14, 383-498, 6 pis., 5 figs.).
In this Polycha3t the segmentation is very typical. Four quartettes are
formed. The first gives rise to the apical spot and the trochoblasts.
The second gives rise anteriorly to the secondary trochoblasts, a small
portion of the trunk ectoderm, and the stomodfeum ; and posteriorly to
almost the whole of the trunk ectoderm. The third gives rise anteriorly
to the stomodteum and ectomesoderm, and posteriorly to the ventral
ectoderm (neurotroch) and more ectomesoderm. The fourth quartette
gives rise anteriorly to the endoderm and posteriorly to the entomesoderm.
The other macromeres form the endoderm. Although the egg is one
of the largest Polychtet eggs as yet studied, there is not very al)undant
yolk. The endomeres are relatively small. The process of gastrulation
is neither epibole nor embole, but it is nearer the latter. There is a
somewhat irregular inward-gliding of endomeres, which arrange them-
selves to line the lumen. The early primordium of the larval pharynx
is like that of the radula-sac in Molluscs. The anus is late of appear-
ance and has no relation to the blastopore. There is a suppression of
the free-swimming trochophore stage ; what hatches out is a miniature
worm. J. A. T.

48 SUMMA.KY OF CUKRENT KESEARCHES RELATING TO

Tropisms of Earthworm. — L. H. Bittner, G. R. Johnson, H. B.
ToRREY {Jouni. Animal Behavioi/r, 1915, 5, Gl-5). Tropism hypotheses
agree iu exdudino; the conception of orientation by trial reactions.
Fnndamental to all of them is the conception of orientation by means of
movements that, with reference to a given source of stimulation, are
predictable as to direction. The conception of the " method of trial "
has been used to supplement tropism theories. Experiments with earth-
worms have shown that photic stimulation, far from inducing random
movements, immediately calls forth reactions in a definitely predictable
direction. Like the sow-bug (ForceUio) the earthworm must be placed
in that group of organisms whose orientation to light is determined
essentially by movements that are predictable as to direction, and hence
neither random movements nor " trials." J. A. T.

Nematohelminthes.

Nematodes of Clean Earth. — J. G. de Man {Tijdschr. Nederland.
Dierk. Ver., 1917, 16, 103-19). An account of a collection of fifteen
species from clean earth at Atna in Norway. The total list of Nematodes
from similar habitats in Norway is now twenty-eight ; the new collection
includes DoryJaimus consolrinus sp. n. J. A. T.

Free-living Nematodes from Mountain Lakes of Peru. —
G. Steiner {Revue Suisse ZooL, 1920, 28, 11-44, 22 figs.). From
lakes Huaron and Naticocha, at a height of 5140 metres above sea-level,
a collection of free-living N.ematodes was made, including Flectas
naticochensis sp. n., Mo7iohysUra {Afonohi/streUa) godeti^^. n., Aphelmchus
naticochensis sp. n., Dorylaimus incae sp. n., and eleven other forms, all
of which are described. J. A. T.

Habronema in Horses. — Lionel B. Bull {Trans. Proc. R. Soc.
S. Australia, 1919, 43, 85-141, 3 pis.). A granulomatous condition
found most frequently affecting the external mucous membranee of the
horse in Southern Australia is due to the presence of the larval stages of
three species of Habronema, a genus of Nematodes. The tissue reaction
following the introduction of the larva gives rise to a characteristic
tumour. The larvie are only to be found in lesions up to three weeks'
duration. Evidence suggests that they are deposited on moist surfaces
by Musca domestica, which acts as the intermediate host of H. mnscse
and H. megastoma. When deposited on the external mucous membranes
the larvte appear to be capable of pushing their way through the
membrane and of entering the submiicosa. On other parts the larvas
suffer desiccation unless there is some exudation of blood or serum, sncli
as may be produced by biting flies like Stouioxys calritrans. It appears
that H. megastoma is chiefly responsible for the infection. '" Swiimp
cancer " is a similar granuloma which may be due to H. microstoma
possibly introduced by Stomoxgs. It may be that much the same is true
in regard to "Leeches" in North America and " Bursattee " in India.
The adult Nematodes occur in the stomach, and it is important lo get
them expelled and to get rid of loo.^e liorse-dung. J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AXD HOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 49

Hereditary Resistance to Heterodera schachtii. — H. Xilsson-Ehlk
(Hereilitas, 1920, 1, 1-34. 4 titjs.)- The first article in this new journal
of .2:enetics, published by the Meudelian Society of Lund, deals with
resistance to this eel-worm. In contrast to wdiat is true in other cereals
there are amont; barleys striking variations in resistance to Heterodera
schachtii, for which some kinds are susceptible, others quite immune.
Both states are heritable. The quality of immunity behaves as a
dominant unit character ; there is typical segregation in the second and
third filial generations. The quality of immunity, can be combined
with other qualities in the usual Meudelian fashion. Even infected
plants of barley are not greatly damaged, but it is very different with
oats and wheat. Therefore the cultivation of susceptible barleys is to
be avoided, since it implies fostering the Nematodes in the soil, and thus
lessening of the yield of oats and wheat afterwards sown in the same
ground. Several of the best barleys of South Sweden are susceptible.
It is pi'acticable by crossing to attach to the good qualities of these kinds
the quality of immunity, replacing that of susceptibility. Thus Itarleys
may be grown which will favour the yield in other cereals. J. 1. T.

Important Nematode Parasite of Chickens. — James E. Ackert
(Proc. Amer. Soc. ZooL in Anat. Record, 1920, 17, ;531-2). A study of
the development of Ascaiidia perspiciUam, which matures in the small
intestine of chickens. The female may contain 1200 eggs. These
develop in the intestine, showing larvae in nine days. Eggs containing
larv» give rise to free motile larvte in twenty-eight hours or so if they
are ingested. After three days' sojourn in the chick's intestine the
larva? have doubled their length. J. A. T.

Observations on Gordius. — G. W. MiJLLER {Zool. Anzeig., 1920,
51, 225-9). In small pools which dry up in summer large numbers of
Parachordodes tolosanus were found, sometimes seventy coiled together.
Most came from a Carabid beetle, Pterostichus niger ; some from
jVebria picicornis, also a Carabid. The larvie may survive the winter in
damp mud, and the same may be true of late-laid eggs. It does not
seem to be true of adults. Larva3 occur in larvte of Dytiscus w-hich are
probably infected directly.. Larvae (probably of Parachordodes) were
also found in an Enchyfcri\^id {Friihricia), and there were Gordins-laryse
in larvse of Limnobiida3 (Pedicia rivosa and Dicranota sp.), which may
feed on Fridericia. But no pupae or adults were found in the adult
Limnobiidfe. The author's general view is that the whole development
may take place simply without an intermediate host before the definitive
beetle-host is reached. J. A. T.

Structure and Development of Gordius robusta. — H. G. May
{Proc. Amer. Soc. Zool. in Anat. Record, I'd 20, 17, 332-8). There is no
complicated metamorphosis in this parasite of Locustidae, but the larval
cuticle and the hooks of the proboscis are shed at the end of the
parasitic period. The adult cuticle is formed from differentiated parts
of the hypoderm cells ; the bristles are part of the fibrous cuticle. The
intestine is never open anteriorly. Muscles and parenchyma arise from
mesenchyme cells ; the parenchyme cells form a solid mass filling nearly

E

50 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

every space in the body. The nerve cord is derived from two rows of
cells in the larva which enlarge and pass inward ; the brain is derived
from a ring of cells in the base of the proboscis. The gonads appear as
two rows of cells dorsal to the intestine, and grow into solid strands not
covered by epithelinm. J. A. T.

Structure and Development of Paragordius varius. — G. H. May

(Froc. Amer. Soc. Zooh in Anat. Record, 1920, 17, o;35). The development
of this parasite of crickets is like that of Gordius rohustus in essential
features. The bristles are derived from the homogeneous layer of the
adult cuticle, not from the fibrous layer. There is an opening from the
anterior end of the intestine to the anterior end of the body when the
larval cuticle is shed. The ovaries are surrounded by parenchyma, and
double mesenchyme mesenteries are formed, which are quite absent in
Gordius rohustus. J. A. T.

Life-cycle of Acanthocephala. — H. J. Van Cleave {Proc. Amer.
Soc. Zool. in Anat. Record, 1920, 17, 330). In the stomachs of white-
fish heavily infested with Echinorhynchus coregoni there were Amphipods
{Pontoporeia sp.) which contained larvae of E. coregoni. In a species
of HyaJella there were larv« of E. thecafus, and young small-mouthed
black bass fed on infected Hycdella developed a heavy infestation of
E. thecatus. There is probably an intermediate Vertebrate host between
HyaleUa and the definitive fish-host. . J. A. T.

Intestinal Parasites in One Hundred Sick Filipino Children. —
Frank G. Haughw^out and Fe S. Horrilleno {Philippine Journ. Sci.,
1920, 16, 1-73, 1 fig.). Of the hundred children ninety-two were
infected with one or more parasites. Under one year the incidence was
66 • 6 p.c. ; between the first and second years, 73 ' 6 p.c. ; all the children
between two and thirteen years were parasitized ; the earliest case of
parasitism was in a child of seven months. Xo Protozoon of proved
pathogenic effects was found, but the incidence of Spirocheeta eurygyrata
(without significant consequences) was notably high (61 p.c). Infec-
tions with Trichuris and Ascaris were serious. Hookworm occurred in
12 p.c. of the cases. No Cestodes or Trematodes were found.

J. A. T.

Platyhelminthes.

Placocephalus javanus in Siam. — Tokio Kaburaki (Records
Indian Museum, 1920, 19, 39-40). This land Planarian, fairly
common in the Malay Archipelago (Java, Sumatra, Singapore), is now
recorded from Siam. It is protandrous and may multiply by transverse
fission. J. A. T.

Notes on Japanese Triclads.— Tokio Kaburaki {Annot. Zool.
Japon., 1917, 9, 325-33). i\. Triclad frequenting the King-Crab, pre-
viously described as Procerodes limuU, is raised to the rank of a new
genus, Ectoplana, differentiated by the spacious vestibule receiving
directly the two oviducts. A description is given of Polycelis ijimai sp. n.,
and a key to Japanese marine and fresh-water Triclads. J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 51

Notes on Japanese Triclads. — Tokio Kabijra.ki" {Annot. Zool.
■Japon., r.)l8, 9, i-i/)-;), U figs.). The spermatophore in PUmaria vivida
is formed in the vesicula seminalis and the adjoining parts of the vas
deferens impar ; the fiapsule consists of an eosinophil substance. In
various species of Flanaria there are alternate periods of asexual
multiplication by fission and sexual reproduction. A curious case of
budding was observed in Sorocelis sapporo ; the mother individual, with
well-developed genital organs, bore on its left side in the pharyngeal
region two branch-like Ijuds — one an additional posterior body-part,
and the other an additional anterior part. The latter was practically
an entire young individual connected to the mother by the tail-end.

J. A. T.

New Japanese Polyclads. — Megumi Yeri and Tokio Kaburaki
{Annot. Zool. Japon., i;t20, 9, 591-.S, 5 figs.). A description of
Neostyloclms fulvojmnctatus g. et. sp. n., from between tide-marks at
Misaki. It has an oval body, no tentacles, marginal eyes confined to
the frontal region, a true seminal vesicle, a prostate gland dorsal to the
seminal vesicle, a slender tubular penis, and a single large accessory
vesicle on the vagina. It is intermediate between Stylochus and
IdiopJana. A key to Stylochid genera is given. Another new form,
from the coast of Hatakejlma, is Frosthiosiomum triUnmtum sp. n., very
distinctive in its coloration. J. A. T.

Eyes and Orientation of Planarians. — W. H. Taliaferro {Journ.
Exper. Zool., l'.)2o, 31, 59-llG, is tigs.)- Tlie eye of Planaria maculata
is a typical Turbellarian eye, consisting of accessory cells forming the
pigment cup and the sensory cells or retinuhw Each retinula consists
of three regions — the nucleus-bearing region, the middle region and the
rhabdome — which show a striking resemblance to the three regions of
the vertebrate retinula — namely, the myoid, the ellipsoid, and the
rhabdome. The orientation of Planaria maculata is negative to light,
and accurate in relation to a horizontal beam of light. Orientation
is, under certain conditions, direct ; blit trial movements are at times
functional in the process of orientation. An account is given of
numerous experiments bearing on this orientation to light. J. A. T.

New Trematode from Frog-'s Bladder. — John E. Guberlet
{Proc. Amer. Soc. Zool. in Anat. Becord, 1920, 17, 331). A brief
description of Gorgodera circava sp. n., from the cloacal bladder of Rana
catesbiana. The parasite occurs firmly fastened to the wall of the
bladder by the ventral sucker, which is surrounded by a distinct
circular sheath. The gonads are described. J. A. T.

Life-history of Gape-worm. — B. H. Ransom {Proc. Amer. Soc. Zool.
in Anat. Record, 1920," 17, 330-1). Out of 679 turkeys, 22-5 p.c. were
infected with Syngamus trachealis ; out of 63") chickens from the same
market none harboured the parasite. Full-grown chickens are very
resistant. Infection may persist in the soil for a long time ; eggs and
larvtB were kept alive in most media for over eight months at a
temperature of about 50° F. When eggs containing larv^ were fed to

E 2

52

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

exp

Cercaria of Schistosoma japonicimi, ventral view; as, anterior spines;
b, excretory bladder ; h, excretory bladder of tail ; eg, cepbalic
glands ; cm, circular muscles ; dcg, ducts of cephalic glands ; ds, diges-
tive system ; exp, excretory pore ; /, flame cell ; hg, head gland : ?,, island
in excretory .bladder ; It, lobe of the tail ; m, mouth ; n, nervous system ;
st, stem of "tail; s, ventral sucker.

ZOOLOGY AND BO IAN Y, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 53

young chickens the young worms were found in the lungs witliin a
week. The two sexes are coupled while still very small (2 • 25 mm. in
length). The females were mature in the trachea (15 mm. long) two
weeks after the eggs from which they developed were swallowed.

J. A. T.

Leucochloridium problematicum. — T. B. Magath {Proc. Amer.
Soc. Zool. in Anat. Record, 1920, 17, B3;3— t). This is a new species of
a remarkable genus, found in Planorlns trivolvis and Succinea return in
Iowa. The sporocysts are I'J: cm. long and 0'33 cm. wide, pointed at
both ends, markedly different from those of the European L. macrostomum.
The mature sporocyst projects from the tentacle of the snail and is
connected to immature ones in the liver. Inside a sporocyst are about
one hundred larva;, 2 '2 mm. in length, with oral and ventral suckers.
An interesting feature is that Laurer's canal opens into the excretory
duct near the excretory pore. ■ J- A. T.

Cercaria of Japanese Blood Fluke. — William W. Cort {Univ.
California FuMimiions, Zoologij, 1919, 18, 485-507, 3 figs.). The
cercarijB of )Schistosoma japonicum Katsurada are very variable in
length, accordinir to the degree of extension. The body may be 0*9 to
0'21 mm. The whole surface of the body and the tail is covered with
backward-pointing cuticular spines. Beneath the delicate cuticula are
outer circular and inner longitudinal layers of muscles, and inside these
a very thin layer of parenchymatous tissue enswathing the organs. The
tail is an effective muscular organ, readily lost when the cercaria begins
to penetiate into its host. A description is given of the excretory
system, of the bilobed central nervous system, of the very rudimentary
digestive system, of the oral sucker and cephalic glands. When freed
from the sporocyst the cercaria swims in the water for a short time,
vibrating both the body and the tail. If it touches a surface it im-
mediately adheres and starts a looping movement — an alternate taking
bold and loosening of the ventral sucker and the anterior tip. It butts
with the spines at the tip and produces a slight opening in tissue. The
cephalic glands appear to have a cytolytic action. In short the larvs
is well adapted to penetrate the skin of its definitive host. As is well
known it enters the skin of men working in the rice-fields. J. A. T.

Excretory System of a Stylet Cercaria.— William W. Cort
{Univ. ('aliforma Fublications, Zoolut/i/, 1919, 19, 275-.S1, 1 fig,). An
account of the excretory system of Cercaria polyadena Cort from various
species of Lymnsea. The method of division of the capillary groups
supports the hypothesis that each capillary group is formed in the
development of the system by longitudinal divisions of a single flame
cell. According to this hypothesis an excretory system of the fully
developed Cercaria pah/adena passed through a' stagr^ in which it was
composed only of the bladder, the common collecting tubes, and the
anterior and postei'ior collecting tubes, each of which received three
capillaries from three flame cells, making a total of twelve flame cells.
The capillaries of these flame cells would correspond to the accessory

54

SUMMARY OF CUERENT RESEA.RCHES RELATING TO

collecting- tubes of the fully developed system. In further development
each of these flame cells with its capillary first divided into two flame
cells and capillaries, one going to the dorsal and the other to the ventral

The excretory system of Cercaria polyadena, ventral view ; body
spines, stylet, and cystogenous glands are not shown ; acct, accessory
collecting tube ; act, anterior collecting tube ; h, bladder ; c, capillary ;
cct, common collecting tube ; exp, excretory pore ; /, flame cell ; os, oral
sucker ; pet, posterior collecting tube ; ph, pharynx ; st, stylet ; vs, ventral
sucker.

side of the body. One of these two flame cells again divided, making
the groups of three found in the fully developed system in which the
common collecting tubes, entering the horns of the bladder, receive-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC.

55-

twelve accessory collecting: tubes, each joined by a group of three
capillaries — the " 2 by 0 by ;! " type. Tiie light thrown on affinities by
the excretory system is discussed. J. A. T.

Eg-gs and Miracidia of Human Schistosomes. — William W.
CoRT {Univ. California Pi/blicntions, Zoology. 1911), 18, 50i)-519,.
7 figs.). In Schistosoma mansoni the position of the miracidium within.

Miracidium of S. mansoni, from glandular surface ; ad, anterior ducts ;
ap, anterior papilla ; eg, cephalic gland ; exp, excretory pore ; /, flame
cell ; gc, germ cell ; n, central nervous mass ; rd, rudimentary digestive
sac.

the egg may be either with the anterior papilla toward the spine or
away from the spine. The shell is very tough and resistant. When
liberated the miracidium swims actively, rotating on its long axis.
Penetration into the intermediate host may be facilitated by the
secretions of the large uniceUular cephalic glands. These may dissolve
the tissue or neutralize the secretions of the host. The central nervous-

56

SQMMAKY OF CURKENT KESEAKGHES DELATING TO

system is an oval, slightly irregular mass lying about the centre of the
body ; it was called a viscus or stomach liy Holcomb. The excretory
pores are located on eacii side of the body near the posterior end.
Four large flame cells are present. In cross-section the larva is round,
but the cephalic glands lie nearer one surface of the body, while the
central nervous body and ruilimentary digestive sac lie nearer the other.
These surfaces may be called respectively glandular and neural. The
^gg and miracidiun) of S. japoiiicmn are smaller than those of *S'. mansoni
or S. hsematobium. The spine may be absent in as many as 50 p.c.

ht

ey.p

]\Iiracidium of S. japonicum within the egg, from glandular surface ;
ap, anterior papilla ; rn', rudimentary digestive sac ; ad, anterior duCt ;
eg, cephalic gland ; /, flame cell ; c, capillary from flame cell ; ht, bladder
tubule ; .cx"p, excretory pore ; vm, vitelline membrane. Five germ cells
are shown.

of specimens of eggs from one and the same case of .bipanese schisto-
somiasis. The egg-shell begins to swell soon after thc^ egg is placed
ill water, and it bursts by spUtting because of the swelling. The freed
miracidium differs in many details, e.g. the proportionately smaller
cephalic glands, from that of S. mansoni. Some good figures are
given. " J: A. T.

Development of Digenic Trematodes and the Continuity of the
Germ Plasm. — L. Kathakixer {ZuoJ. Anzen/., 192U, 5., 2:^0-3).
From the fertilized ovum is formed the somatic tissue of the m.:-acidium

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 57

and the iintliiferentiated germ cells found in the interior. In the
sporocyst some of the germ cells form another sporocyst generation ;
others remain as germ cells ; and some of them give rise to redias.
There is no parthenogenetic development of ova arising from somatic
. cells : there is a continuity of the germ cells, all descended from the
fertilized egg cell. This view has been corroborated in a recent paper
by Dolleus (11)19). J. A. T.

Incertee Sedis.

Larval Colonies of Pectinatella. — Stephen R. Williams [Proc.
Amer. Soc. Zool. in Anat. Record, 1920, 17, 3;>9). Balloon -shaped,
ciliated, larval colonies are set free from the gelatinous mass of the
adult, and after swimming about for a time, attach themselves by
mucous secretions to any convenient surface, especially one facing down-
wards. In laboratory conditions, through defective nutritive conditions,
the young colonies, which have on an average four polyps, degenerate
successively to three and two polyps, and then to one. When the rest
have gone the mucous attachment of the survivor elongates : the polyp
drops off and dies. J. A. T.

EchiDoderma.

Regeneration of Arms in Asterina g-ibbosa. — <iiusEPPK Zirpolo
[Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli, 191.5, 28, 119-20). There is in this starfish a
ready regeneration of excised arms — even when all the five arms are
removed. There is a slight decrease in the regenerative capacity as the
number of arms to b ; regrown increases. The rapidity of the regenera-
tion varies, e.g. with size ; it is greater in spring than in winter (as
0"U;3 per day in spring to O'Ol per day in winter). J. A. T.

Abnormalities in Arms of Asterina gibbosa. — Giuseppe Zirpolo
{Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli, 191 (i. 29. ;5-16, 2 pis.). The occurrence of abnor-
malities in the arms of this starfish is frequent. . Thus there may be
four arms or six. The bifurcation of an arm is recorded. The number
of madreporic plates is variable. A supernumerary arm is usually
normal m structure. Fine photographs are given. J. A. T.

Anomalous Specimens of Asterina gibbosa. — Giusepj'e Zirpolo
{Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli, 1919, 32, 6o-7u). Records of three speci-
mens with four arms and four with six arms. Full details are given in
regard to the madreporic plate, the mouth plates, and the evidences
of reo-eneration. J. A. T.

■"t>^

Anomalous Starfishes. — Giuseppe Zirpolo {Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli,
l'.»16, 29, 49-58, 1 pi., 3 figs.). Records and figures of a specimen of
Chsetaster loiigipes with four arms, of another with one of the five arms
deeply bifurcate, and of a specimen of Hacelia attenaata with four very
regular and symmetrical arms, without anv trace of lesion or cicatrix.

J. A. T.

58 SUMMARY OF CUKKENT KESKAKCHES RELATING TO

Abnormalities in Starfishes. — Giuseppe Zirpolo {Boll. Soc. Nat.
Napoli, 1*.>17, 30, 20-29, 4 figs.)- In Echinaster sepositus Gray there is
very frequently some abnormality in the arms. Thus there may be six or
one may be bifurcated. Figures of these are given. In Asterias
ijlacialk 0. F. Miiller variations in the number of arms are much less
frequent. Some abnormalities show excess, e.g. six arms, and 'some
show defect, e.g. four arms. The abnormality is sometimes due to a re-
generative process ; thus the bifurcation of an arm in consequence of
some longitudinal lesion may result in six arms. J. A. T.

Three Madreporic Plates in Astropecten aurantiacus. — Giuseppe
Zirpolo {BoU. Soc. Nat. Napoli, 1919, 32, 71-6, 1 fig.) Three quite
distinct madreporic plates were found in a specimen of this starfish, a
large one and two smaller ones. They communicated independently
with the stone canal. J. A. T.

Partial Regeneration in Astropecten aurantiacus. — Giuseppe
Zirpolo {Publ. Stazione Zool. Napoli, 1918, 2, 169-75, 1 pi., 2 figs.).
A case in which the loss of two arms has been followed by the growth
of a small one at one spot and a mere cicatrix at another. In this way
forms with four arms may arise. J. A. T.

Anomalous Forms of Astropecten aurantiacus. — Giuseppe

Zirpolo (i)y//. Soc. Nat. Napoli, VM'f^, 31, 100-9, 8 figs.). Instances
of three, four, and six arms. The three-armed form is due to the loss
of two arms and the absence of regeneration. The four-armed forms
are due {a) to the loss of one arm and the absence of regeneration ;
{h) to the loss of one arm and the regeneration of one only ; and (c) to
the loss of three arms and the regeneration of two only. The six-armed
form is probably the outcome of hyper-regeneration. When the lesion
does not aifect a large part of the region of the disc, there may be a
regeneration of either one arm or of two. J. A. T.

Regeneration of Arms in Sea-urchin. — Giuseppe Zirpolo {Boll.
Soc. Nat. Napoli, 1919. 32, 4.5-50, 1 fig.). A record of a specimen of
Sphser echinus granularis in which a deep depression in the test near the
al)oral pole shows a distinct zone of regenerated plates. J. A. T.

Coelentera.

New Species of Hydra. — Ed. Boecker {Zool. Anzei//., 1920, 51,
250-6, 1 fig.). It has been proposed by P. Schulze to divide the genus
Hydra into Glorohydra Sch., Hydra L. s. str., and Pelmatohydra Sch. In
the genus Hydra s. str. six species have been recognized differing in
their cnidoblasts, habit, sex-condition, shape of testes and embryotheca.
The author describes a new form, H. ovata sp. n., the term referring to
the shape of the larger adhesive cnidoblasts (large glutinants or strepto-
lines). It comes nearest to Schulze's H. stellata. J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. 59

Porifera.

Species and Sponges. — H. Y. Wilson {The Scimtific 3IonthUj,
rJl'.i. ;U'.»-57). Racial features often vary up and down, apparently in
response to the environment, in such a way as is possible only to easily
alterable species-plasms. One comes to symbolize the latter after the
fashion of chemistry as complexes of atoms, molecules, and radicals.
Thus we may think of radicals which lose or gain atoms or simple mole-
cules in response to environmental (external or internal) conditions. The
radical thus varies up or dowm, and with it the features of the resulting
organism. The graded series met with in sponges are equally describ-
al)le in the language of the gene theory. It may be that the visible
material particles (chromatin masses) with which " characters " are
associated are not determinants but differentiations — as indeed the first
conspicuous differentiations that are made by the idioplasm in the
course of the chains of events which lead to the appearance of particular
characters. Close series of species are in a measure phylogenetic, but in
some cases the terms of the series represent only different degrees in the
response to the environmental stimuli, which related idioplasms have
carried out independently of one another. J. A. T.

Genera in Sponges.— H. V. AVilsox {Joiirn. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc,
1919, l."i-19). A discussion of the genus Tetilla, and a plea for the
recognition of large heterogeneous genera (groups built up round a
type embodying a certain combination of well-marked features or cha-
racters) with included groups of types forming subgenera. A middle
way must be found between (a) combining genera so that groups are
formed too heterogeneous to be of use, and (b) splitting up genera on
the plan that each genus shall represent only a particular combination.

J. A. T.

Sponges of North Carolina.— W. C. Geoege and H. Y. Wilson
(Bull. Bureau Fisheries, 1919, 36, 131-9, 11 pis.). An account of
seventeen sponges from Beaufort ^ Harbour and vicinity, including
SpirastreUa andreu'sii sp. n. : Foterion atlantica sp. n., which begins as a
boring sponge and becoming free grows very large ; Suherites u/iilulatus,
which may be massive or branched ; Tetilla laminaris sp. n. ; Reniera
tuhifera sp. n. ; Esperiopsis obliqua sp. n., with very varied habit from
incrusting to branching ; Phheodictijon nodosum sp. n., where the skeleton
is not a reticulum of distinctly chalinine spiculo-fibres ; Fhoriospontjia
osbtirnensis sp. n., incrusting an Alcyonarian ; and other new species of
Axinella, Acanthella, Aplysilla, and Hircinia. An interesting form is
FleraplysiUa latens sp. n., which occurs in the form of thin colourless
incrustations on oyster shells. Its skeleton consists of simple independent
fibres made of sand-grains and the like held together bv a little spongin.

J. A. T.

Protozoa.

NeW Balantidium. — Walfrido de Leon {Fhilippine Journ. Sci.,
1919, 15, 389-408, 1 pi., 5 figs.). An account of Balantidium haughtvoiiti
sp. n. from the intestinal tract of a fresh-water snail, a species of

60

SUMMARY OF CURIIENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

.■yu .V..- -

■ ■■■' -s?^UV -;

^<^J^Jm::-

'.^-. s ^^. ^ ■

;;m:^'

Balantidium haitgh uouti sp. u. Average length, 50 fx.

ZOOLOGY AXU BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 61

Ampullaria, common in tlie Philippine Islands. It is a voracious
organism, like a miniature l)alloon, moving evenly and gracefully with a
slight rotary motion, but assuming varied shapes (like anKXibie) when
under constraint. The most remarkable feature is the enclosure of the
micronucleus within the megaimcleus. Its normal position is at the
concavity on one side, but it may be actually enclosed. At other times
it may wander out into the cytoplasm. The actual enclosure may imply
a type of nuclear division of a rather new and remarkable kind, or a
process of nuclear re-organization comparal)le to endomixis. The anterior
end of the animal is a blunted cone, excavated ventrally into a funnel,
at the base of which there is the cytostome with a ciliated cytophaiwnx.
There are two well-defined contractile vacuoles. J. A. T.

Trypanosoma associated with Fatal Disease in the Carabao. —
Frank G. Haughwout and STAXTO>f YouxGBEiiG {Philippine Journ.
Sci., 1920, 16, 77-87, o pis., 2 figs.). A male Philippine carabao,
which died with severe haemorrhage, hsematuria and other symptoms,
showed polymorphic trypanosomes which were nearer to Trt/panosoma
theihri than to other forms. A description is given of the form, which
by reason of its large size and certain peculiarities in the relations of
nucleus and parabasal b )dy is well suited for cytological study. A
watch must be kept for the recurrence of this trypanosome. J. A. T.

Strombidium viride. — E. Pexard {Revue Suisse Zool., 1920, 28,
1-9, 9 figs.). As in 8. mirabile there is in S. viride a cuirass of very
minute hexagonal plates. The peristome shows a crown of ten to eleven
strong membranellae. The cytoplasm is filled with zoochlorellte and
trichocysts which can be made to ':'xi:)lode. There are two very minute
micronuclei beneath the large spherical or ovoid macronucleus. There
are no true contractile vacuoles, but there are vacuoles in connexion
with an annular equatorial canal, and this canal is in relation with a
special tube or canal issuing from the depth of the peristomial depression
and pursuing a somewhat intricate " figure eight " course. This has to
do with the formation of a new individual by a process like internal
budding. This interesting Infusorian is found among plants in the
clear water of ditches, but it is not common. J. A. T.

Vitality in Infusorians. — Gary X. Calkins {Journ. Exper. Zool.,
1920, 31, 287-:-!05, 1 chart and 2 diagrams). It has been shown that
[■roUpfus mobilis after conjugation has an initial optimum vitality which
gradually diminishes with age until the protoplasm finally decays from
the exhaustion of metabolic activities. An analysis of seventeen series,
all representing the same original protoplasm, shows that the differences
between them as regards vitality are due to the age of the parents at the
time of conjugation, or rather, to differences in vitality at different
periods of the life-tistory. All series with an extremely low vitality
come from parents which were in the period of old age at the time of
conjugation. All series with high vitality, on the other, hand, came
from parents in the period of youth at the time of conjugation. So far as
the experiments have gone. there is no evidence that continued in-breed-

62 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ing has any deleterious effect on the vitality of the stock. But there is
some evidence that congenital weakness due to old age conjugation is
inherited by the later offspring. J.. A. T.

Life-history of Sarcocystis tenella. — John W. Scott {Proc. Amer.
Soc. Zool. in Anat. Record, 1920, 17, 382). Lambs with ewes have
been reared in a screened cage, insect-free except for a few small transient
gnats, and with a cement foundation preventing the ingress of mice or
other animals that serve as hosts of the parasite. Nevertheless the
muscles of the lambs were infected. It is probable tliat the life-history
is a direct one, and that infection takes place by means of food recently
contaminated with fresh fgeces from an infected sheep or lamb. There
may be a hitherto scarcely suspected, probably sexual, stage of Sarcocystis
tenella in the intestine of the host. J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 63

BOTANY.

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Cytolog-y,
Including- Cell-Contents.

Chondriome of Plants and Pig-ment-formation. — A. Guilliermond
{Rev. Gcncr. Bot., 1!)19, 31, 6^5^)-770, 36 pis., 36 text-figs., 1 table).
The author concludes his study of the physiology of the plant-cell by
an account of the chondriome, the origin of the chrumoplastids, and
the formation of xanthophyll and carotin-pigments. His conclusions
are based upon observations of the epidermal cells of the flowers, bracts
and fruits of numerous plants, but the clearest results were obtained
with the flowers of Iris germanica and tulip. The cytoplasm appears
to be a homogeneous and hyaline substance holding in suspension a
chondriome composed of granular mitochondrias, rod-like bodies, and
chondriocontes of various forms, all of which travel rapidly in the
cytoplasmic currents towards and away from the nucleus. The chon-
driocontes appear to be of a semi-fluid nature, since they are continually
changing their shape. In addition to the chondriome, the cytoplasm
also contains small fatty or lipoid granules. The mitochondrias are
the most fragile constituents of the chondriome, and respond rapidly to
alterations in conditions of pressure, temperature, compression, etc.
In hypotonic sohitions they swell and are transformed into vacuolar
structures causing the cytoplasm to have a spongy or alveolar appearance.
This behaviour partly explains the difficulty of observations made upon
fixed and stained material. In their morphological, physiological and
histo-chemical characters the mitochondrias of plant-cells appear to be
identical with tliose of animal-cells. The author has proved that
globules of fat, starch, and pigments of xanthophyll and carotin are
formed by the chondriocontes, and they themselves are ultimately trans-
formed into chloroplasts. During cell-decay the chondriocontes are
transformed into chondriomites or granular mitochondrias, but in some
cases they form fatty globules, which fuse and are the final constituents
of the dying cell.

These results confirm those of Faure-Fremiet and other Avriters, and
show that the cytoplasm is a fundamental substance, probably in the
condition of a colloidal jelly, and that the chondriome is one of the
most frequent elements of the cytoplasm, and plays a predominant part
in elaboration of cell-contents ; they likewise prove the elaborative
function of the mitochondrias. The xanthophyll and carotin pigments
are formed either in the chondriocontes or in the chloroplasts, or by the
metamorphosis of the chloroplasts. The formation of the pigments is
usually accompanied by the appearance of starch-grains and globules of

64 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

fat. but there is no evidence to show that this has any direct connexion
with the pigment. The latter appears in three forms : {a) diffuse and
composed of indistinct granules, (b) distinctly granular, (c) crystalline.
All the observations tend to prove that the plastids are a variety of
mitochondrias which are differentiated at a very early stage and adapted
to a special function. With very few exceptions the pigments are
formed directly and without any previous formation of chlorophyll.
Pigment-formation in plants resembles that recently noticed in certain
animal-cells. S. Greves.

Microsporog-enesis in Datura. — C. E. O'Neal (Bull Torr. Bot. Club,
1920, 47, 2;!1-4:1, 2 pis.). The author has studied the cytology of
Datura Stramonium, with special reference to the Mendelian theory. The
writer contirms Bonicke's statement that this species has twelve bivalent
chromosomes, and finds that the parts of the latter which are cut from
the spireme thread form twisted loops or rings, or less often assume a
U-shape ; from this time until the telophose of the second division they
do not lose their individuality. The most striking feature of these
chromosomes is their remarkable uniformity of size, luit no basis can be
found for any Mendelian characters which would result in the occurrence
of mutants. The exact results obtained by breeders appear to be due to
unusual regularity in the formation and behaviour of the chromosomes.

S. G.

Statocytes of Wheat.— T. L. Prankerd {Bot. Gaz., 1920, 70,
148-52, i tigs.). The statocytes of the wheat-haulm are of two types
— smaller ones containing movable starch-grains, and larger ones con-
taining a single movable crystal of calcium oxalate ; both types are
found at the nodes. The rate of fall of the crystal in the largest type
is much greater, and the period of migration less than in the case of
those statocytes containing starch -grains. The author suggests that the
nodes of wheat should be regarded as sense-organs of a high degree of
evolution, and that in all future studies as to the reaction of the plant to
gravity this point of view should be considered. S. G.

Structure and Development.
Vegetative.

Stem- anatomy of Dioon. — L. M. Langdon {Bot. Gaz., 1920, 70,
110-25, 3 pis., 4 figs.). In the stem of Dioon spi7wJosum iheve are three
types of medullary rays : (1) uniseriate rays, which are one cell in width
and several cells deep ; (2) multiseriate rays, which are two or more
cells wide and of variable depth ; (3) broad foliar rays or leaf-gaps.
The fibro-vascular elements of the latter, together with those of tlieir
connexions with the secondary wood, have peculiar, irregular, scalari-
form tracheids, which curve down until they become inserted in the
fibrous elements of the main stele. The regular pitted vessels are
diverted sideways parallel to the leaf-trace. Both the scalariform and
pitted vessels exhibit a marked sliding growth. Each leaf or leaf-scale
has seven to nine strands, the two inner of which take a direct vertical

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 65

course to the under side of the petiole ; the rest pass obliquely upwards
to the cortex and base of the leaf, forming two characteristic girdles.
The two direct strands may also unite with two dorsal strands at the
base of the petiole, so that in the older seedhng and adult stem the
whole of the fibro-vascular system may be reducible to the two main
horizontal strands and their associated lateral traces. S. 0.

Internal Stomata in Fruits. — H. F. Bergmax {Bull. Torr. Bot,
Cluh, 192(1, 47, 213-21, '.) figs.). The author has examined the fruits of
various species of Ericace^, and also of Grinum asiatlcum, Sympliori-
carpos 7'acemosHs, and Canna sp., and finds that stomata are present in
the endocarp ;"the guard-cells contain cliloroplasts, and the stomala are
of the same type as those on the other parts of the same plants, except
that theyJiave a tendency to be misshapen. Observations carried out
under different conditions of light, humidity, and temperature prove
that in most cases these internal stomata remain always open, and are no
longer functional, but are hereditary survivals of the leaves which have
been modified to form the carpels. S. G.

Physiolog'y.

Formation and Utilization of Fats in Germination and Matura-
tion.—E. F. Tp^rroixe {Ann. Sci. Nat. {But.), ll»20, 10, No. 2, 1-68).
The most striking feature in the physiology of these two inverse pro-
cesses in oily fruits and seeds is the symmetry of the mechanism involved.
During germination the first process in the formation of neutral fats is.
saponification accompanied by the production of fatty acids ; in the
lipogenesis which immediately precedes maturation of the fruit or seed
neutral fats and free fatty acids accumulate. In germination saponifica-
tion results through the agency of a lipase which is only active if
sufficient water is present ; in lipogenesis the same results can only be
brought about if the seed or fruit is dry. In germination the formation
of fat is accompanied by a regular decrease in the iodine index, thus
pointing to the prior production of the less saturated fatty acids. In
lipogenesis the regular increase of the iodine index indicates that the less
saturated fatty acids are formed at a later stage. During germination
fats are formed from carbohydrates, and the same appears to be true
during lipogenesis. In germination saccharose is the first sugar formed,
and the only sugar present in the ripe, resting seed is saccharose,. Thus
the first and final stages in the formation and utilization of fats are clear,
but so far there is no evidence as to the intermediate stages, and at no
stage has it been possible to detect the presence of such bye-products as
glycerine. This uncertainty as to the intermediate metabolism should
form a fruitful subject for future investigation. S. G-.

General.

Relative Effectiveness of Cross- and Self-fertilization. — Y. Emotq
{Joiirn. Coll. ScL Tohijo, 1920, 43, No. 4, 1-31, 4 tables, 2 pis.). A
large number of plants were examined in order to ascertain the relative

F

66 SUMMARY OF CUKKENT RKSEARCHES KELATING TO

effects of cross- and self-fertilization upon the formation of fruit and
seed. In eight species examined xenogamy produced the best results in
fruit formation ; in only one case — viz. in Tritonia aurea — was geitono-
garay more effective. The same results were obtained in con-
nexion with the size of the fruits and the number of seeds, except that
in three cases longer fruits were formed on geitonogamous or autogamous
plants. In most species the seeds were heaviest in xenogamitic fruits,
but in Primula sinensis geitonogamy produced the best seeds, and in one
variety of Brassica, in Toona, Hyacinthus, F7-eesiaLeicMlini, and Tritonia
aurea, the heaviest seeds were obtained from self-fertilized flowers. The
germination of seeds from xenogamous fruits was more certain in sverv
instance except iu T. aurea, where geitonogamous seeds were most pro-
ductive. The author therefore concludes that xenogamy is relatively of
greater importance than either geitonogamy or autogamy. 8. G.

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

Contributions towards a Knowledge of the Anatomy of the
Genus Selaginella.-- J C. Th. Uphoff (Annals of Botany, 1920, 34,
493-517, 13 figs.). An investigation of the anatomy of the root.
Summing up his work, the author says that SelayineUa is a remnant of
a group of primitive vascular plants, and therefore is of great interest
morphologically. Some living allies of SelagineUa have true roots,
though not very different anatomically from stems {Lycopodiuni) ; and
some have no true roots {Psilotum). Generally the root is simple in
construction and differs from the stem, the former lacking the lacuna.^
and trabecule of the latter. There is no important anatomical differ-
ence between aerial and terrestrial roots. The difference of the outer
tissue is due to environmeutal circumstauces. Physiologically both
kinds of roots have the same characteristics in the same degree ; both
are negatively heliotropic. Eoots with root-cap always have root-hairs,
which are very rare in case of roots without a rootrcap. In all species
the root originates with regard to the stem exogenously ; the branching
is monopodial. Some species, when bruised, form small stems instead
of rhizophores ; these- suggested to many investigators that the latter
are leafless stems ; but the anatomy shows that these branches have the
same construction as a stem and are positively heliotropic, wdiereas
so-called rhizophores have the construction of a root and are negatively
heliotropic. The vascular system is monarch; the endodermis and
pericycle are always present. The phloem shows the same arrangements
as in the stem, although its elements are less abundant. The xylem is
composed of one group of protoxylem and usually a well-developed
metaxylem. The thick-walled tissue which follows the three layers of
thin-walled cells of the periphery of the terrestrial roots apparently
belongs to the hypodermis. A. Gepp.

G-all-like rormation on Antrophyum semicostatum Bl. —
K. GiESENHAGEN (Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., 1917, 34, 802-7; see
also Bot. CentralbL, 1918, 137, 168). On the margin of a frond of

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICIIOSCOPY, ETC. 67

Aiitrophi/nm semicostatwn occnvved pockets of tissue, from each of which
protruded a brown egg of some insect. As the eggs were all empty, it
was not possible to determine the genus and species, nor did the material
show the developing stages of the pockets. The cells of the spongy
parenchyma press closely on the egg with broad surface, whereas other-
wise the inner leaf -cells develop excrescences : the development of the
cells is thus directly influenced by the insect egg. E. S. Gepp.

Fern-hybrid Asplenium Ruta-muraria L. x septentrionale (L.)
HofFm.: A misinterpreted plant. — S. Mukbeck {Bot. Xolmr, 1910,
257-G2 ; see also Bot. Ceatralbl., 1918, 138, 69). The above
hybrid is described in detail, having been often wrongly diagnosed in
hterature. It is recorded from Sweden (Gestrikland, Medelpad),
Norway (Hardanger), and Tyrol (entrance to the Oetztal). E. S. G-.

Contributions to the Flora and Plant-geography of Australia :
Part I., Pteridophyta, G-ymnospermse, Monocotyledonese. — K. Domin
{Bihliotli. Bot. Stuttgart, 191."), 85, .554, 117 figs, in text, 18 pis.;
see also Bot. Gentralbh, 1918, 138, 4-12). A report on the collections
made by the author in Queensland and X. S. Wales in 1909 and 1910.
The present part includes the Pteridophytes, treated systematically.
References to literature, figures, synonyms, geographical distril)ution in
general are given for each species, together with a complete record of
its Australian distribution. Endemic species are described. The author
expounds his views on the relationship of species, basing them on the
large mass of material collected. Important details are included con-
cerning the manner of life of the plants (height, frequency, substratum,
epiphytic growth, etc.), and their significance for mankind. The
systematic treatment is founded on the methods of Diels, Christ, and
Christensen's Index. Contrary, however, to the opinion of these
authors, the. genus Notholsena is united with Cheilanthes. The number
of new species of ferns is extraordinarily large. Eight species of
Lycopodiales are recorded, with old and new varieties. E. S. G.

Remarks on Pteridophytes from Baden. — W. Zimmermann {Allg.
Bot. Zeitsch., 1916, 22,32-56 ; see also Bot. Gentralhl., 1918, 138, 26).
A preliminary list of new varieties and forms, to be followed by a
critical work on Baden Pteridophytes. Aspidiimi Filix-mas sub-var.
ursimcm is the name given to the German approximation-form
which has arisen in our latitudes, possibly from var. palmceam Moore.
Polijpndium disjnnctum Rupr. is no independent species, but merely a
shade-form (lus. disjunctum) of A. Robertianum Luerss. In the upper
Black Forest occurs a form of Aspidium Dryoptcris seeking shelter from
too great illumination (lus. insolatum). Aspidmm Fhegopteris var.
acutuin has acute pinnule-margins ; var. setoswn has xerophil tendencies.
A new luxuriant form, var. pulcherrimum of Asplenium Triclwmcmes,
occurs between Oberried and St. Wilhelm ; var. dubium of the same
species is probably a cross between var. typumni Luerss. and var.
pachgrachis Chr. New forms of Equisetum are also described.

E. S. G.
F 2

68 SL.M.MARY OF CUBRENT EESEAECHKS RELATING TO

Bryophyta.

Early Stages in the Development of the Sporophyte of
Sphagnum subsecundum. — Geo. S. Bryan {American Journal of
Botany^ 11)20, 7, 296-o0o). The young sporophytes were dissected out
of the archegonium, and the following summaiy is given : — 1. The
fertilized ^^g di\ides by a horizontal wall into two approximately equal
cells. A filament of cells — six or seven in number— is usually formed
before longitudinal divisions occur. 2. In the material studied the
first transverse wall cannot be traced with certainty in the older stages ;
licnce no exact statement can be made as to the contribution of each of
these two cells in the development of the sporophyte. 3. It is reasonably
certain that apical growth occurs, 4. The Ijasal portion of the young
sporophyte may have walls appearing in a regular or in an irregular
order. As a result of the former process there is developed a long,
slender type of young sporophyte ; as a result of the latter, a shorter,
bulbous type. 5, The number of primary segments, i.e. segments formed
bv walls transverse to the axis of the archegonium, has not been found to
exceed twelve. G. A considerable number of very young sporophytes
show basipetal disintegration. In conclusion, the early embryogeny of
Sphagnum is nearer to that of the Jungermanniales than to that of
Anthocerotales, though the endothecial origin of the sporogenous tissue
in Sphagnales and Anthocerotales has been much insisted on as evidence
of affinity. A. Gepp.

Segmentation of the Apical Cell and Position of the Leaves in
Mosses.— E. M. Mekl {Flora, l'J17, 109, 189-212, 13 figs. : see also
Bot. CentraJhl., 1918, 138, 25-6). In the twenty-seven species examined
the majority showed the position of the youngest septum of the apical
cell to be in an a-nodal direction. Marked exceptions are Barhula
palndosa (in part) and Fontinalis (always). A principal argument
against Seckt's assumption of the original " parallel " arrangement of
the inner to the outer edge of the youngest segments is that in most of
the mosses examined the inner edge actually intersects the other ; and
further, that this mode of division occurs in many mosses together
with the recognized course of segmentation, which, however, encroached
somewhat in an a-nodal direction. No definite connexion was found
between the different stages of the encroachment of the wall and the
relationship and position of the species. In the case of species showing
both kinds of segmentation the type in which the inner edge does not
intersect with the outer is confined to the more tender shoots. The
youngest septum is already inclining in an a-nodal direction. The form
of the septum which divides the apical cell from the youngest segment
is not an even surface, but appears much crumpled and twisted awry. It
is precisely this peculiariiy of the segment edges which lends to the
apical cell its usttal pecuharly twisted form. Crumpling of the septa
occurs also in mosses in transveise walls of rhizoids grown in the dark.
The encroachment in an a-nodal direction in any segmentation layer and
the whole form, so peculiarly twisted, of the segments play a large part
in the leaf arrangement of mosses. The amount of the torsion would be
probably governed by the same factors as in the spirotrophic growth of

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIUKOSUOrY, ETC. 69

the growing- point of Pandanus. Experiments were not made with
regard to this point. The leaf arrangement depends on the mode of
cell-division in the apex. E. S. Gepp.

Calyptra-formation on the Sporogonium of Aneura pinguis Dum.
— C'h. Benedict {Xotizhl. Kgl. Bot. Gart. Berlin-Daldein, I'JIT. 7,
78-80 ; see also Bot. CentralbL, l')is, 37, 214). The record of a capsule
of Aneura pinguis in Von Flotow's herbarium, in which the calyptra did
not remain at the base of the seta, but had been carried up with the
sporogoninm as in mosses. This abnormality has never been recorded
hitherto. E. S. U.

Bavarian Liverworts. — F. Famillee {Denlcschr. Kql. Bayer. Bot.
<je>>., 1!)17, 13, n.f. 7, 153-304; see also Bot. CentralbL, 1^)18, 137,
215). The object of this paper is to record all liverworts found up to
the present in Bavaria, and W'here they occurred. The author includes
only authentic records, after a careful personal examination of all collec-
tions. Numerous notes on the biology and ecology are interspersed
among the records of species. The author divides Bavaria into six geo-
graphical areas, and shows the distribution of the species over these
areas in a table. He also compares the liverworts of neighbouring
countries with those of Bavaria, and shows the richness in species of the
latter. E. S. G.

Hepaticse Baumgartnerianse Dalmaticae. — V. Schiffner {Oesterr.
hot. Zeitschr., 1916, 66, 337-53, 13 figs, in text; see also Bot. Cen-
tralbl., 1918, 138, 87-8). A treatment of the liverworts of the South
Dalmatian Islands. Few species occur in the wooded districts. The
stems, however, of bushes in copses are covered with a luxuriance of
■GololejpAinea uiinutissima, and from the branches hang Leptodon, 2\ech>ra,
Usnea, and F.ruUania Tamarisci. Few liverworts occur in the 7'ocky
districts. Eight species of Riccia are recorded, of whicii R. crijstalJina
L. sub. sp. austrigena, from Lagosta, is a novelty. Its principal charac-
teristics are very narrow air-spaces, pale grey-green c jlour ; median
furrow generally very distinct towards the apex of the frond-lobes ;
spores prickly in profile. It is possibly a good southern species. The
differences between Riccia Henriquesii Lev. and R. Michelii Rad. are
shown in figures. . In the new variety iatermedius of Sphseroearpus
texanus the spores occupy a middle position between the type and
S. 3IicheUi Bell. The material of Dichiton calycidatum Schiflfn. proves
the justice of separating this species from D. galUcum. The position
of Dichiton near Lophozia is certainly wrong. The Cephaloziellace^e, a
new family of Douin and Schiffner, are most nearly allied to Ptilidiacea^.
The former is distinguished from the Trigonanthaceae Spr. principally
by the totally different kind of perianth, a character on which Spruce
laid most weight. One character, common to all CephaloziellaceaB —
namely, that the seta of the sporogoninm is always composed of four cell-
series — is found in no other group of liverworts. Rare species which
occur on the South Dalmatian Islands are — Soatlibya stillicidioram,
Lophozia turbinata, L. lieteropiiylla, Scapania aspcra, Marchesiaia
JlacJcayi, Anthoceros dichotomus. E. S. G.

70 SUMMARY OF CUKUENT RESEARCH Ks RELATING TO

Contributions to the Moss-flora of the Pyrenees. — F. Kern
{Jahresb. SchJes. Ges. VaterJ. Kultur, 1914, 34-40 ; see also Bot.
CentralbL, 19ls, 137, 329). An historical account of bryological in-
vestigation in the Pyrenees. The species of the mountainous region are
mostly the same as in Prussian Silesia. Unfortunately the Spanish side
is too little known, the author recording only forty-two Bryales and ten
HepaticR?. A new species is Grimmia pyrmaica, a dwarf species \^'ith the
habit of a Weisia and allied to G, caespitiria.

Contributions to the Moss-flora of the Salzburg Alps. — F. Kern

{JiiJirezh. Scliles. Ges. Vaterl. Kalttir., 1915, 24-35 ; see also Bot.
( 'cntraU)}., 1918, 137, 329). Many species are recorded. A new variety
of Hijynenosfomum tortile var. aJpinum is described. Mnium Bltjtii is a
new record for the district. 2'richostomum Fleisclieri Bauer is regarded
as belongino- to Tortelht tortuosa. E. S. G.

'&'

Thallophyta.

Alg-se.

Ionic Phase of the Sea. — A. H. Church {The New FhytoJogist, 18,
1919, 239-47). An account of the physico-chemical constitution of the
sea. with special reference to the fact that the sea is the sole food-
solution of the marine phytoplankton and algse, and is the medium in
which all the cytoplasmic organisms of the sea have been evolved. The
generally accepted hypothesis, that living plasma originated directly
from sea-water itself, is discussed. Protoplasm is non-molecular, as
also is a larger proportion of sea-water. The ionic phase of the sea is
one of inconceivable complexity. Colloidal cytoplasm absorbs ions, not
molecules. The connexion between the ions of carbonic acid and those
of water are of special biological interest, as under the influence of
solar radiation they would seem to have led to the evolution of auto--
tropliic pelagic life, by the formation of simple carlwhydrates. Beyond
the introduction of solar energy it is not possible to draw any sharp line
between living and non-livinir reactions in the sea. A. Gbpp.

Peridinium Gilstrowiense sp. n. and its Variation Forms. — E.

LiNDEMAXX {Arcli. Hydrobiol. ti. Planlctonk., 1916, 11, 49ii-5 : see also
Bot. Centralbl., 1918, 137, 310). During an examination of the shallow-
waters in the neighbourliood of Ciistrow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the
author found in a small, quiet woodland lake a new species of Peridinium
in large quantity. It is specially interesting by reason of its series of
variation forms. Three of these are described and figured : f. typica,
f. intercaldtum, and f. Jatissime intercalatum. Besides these there are
two " form-deviations," in which an approach to P. Willei Huitf.-Kaas
may be detected. E. S. (Iepp.

Causes of a Brown Colouring of the Water in a Pond of the
Experimental Fishery Station at Aneboda in South Sweden. — E.
NaU-MANN {Intern, revue HydrabioJ. u. Hydrogr., 1913-14, 6, 7-11; see
also Bot. Centralld., 1918, 137. 391-2). In 'the summer of 1912 this
pond was coloured chocolate-brown by a fine brown detritus, partly from
%

ZOOI-OtiY AND liUTANV, iMlCJiOSUUPY, ETC. 71

the moor, partly from tlie fragiuents of past plankton-maxima and the
remains of undevoured hsh food. In the snnimer of 1911 the same
pond was coloured brown tlirough a maximum development of Trache-
Jomonas volvocina Ehr. Another pond showed a green colouring from
('/il(im//do))wna.<^ and species of Trai-lielonwnns. E. S. G.

Green Marine Plankton Alg'a, Meringosphsera. — A. Pas<!HER {Ber.
Deutsck. Bot. Gesell., li)17, 35, 170-5, 2 tigs. ; see also Bot. GentralbL,
l'.)18, 137, 167). Investigations by the author and by Schiller confirm
the author's previous conviction that Meringoq)haera belongs to the
Heterokontffi. He gives the following description : — Merinposphaera
reproduces itself by four non-motile, endogenously formed autospores.
Sometimes it forms endogenous, strongly silicated, two-shelled cysts.
Meriiigosphsera is placed in the Heterokont* and not in Chlorophycese,
on account of the cell morphology, siliceous membrane, disc-shaped
cbromatophores with high carotin content, deficiency of pyrenoids, each
of starch, and the formation of endogenous, 2-shelled, siliceous cysts.
It is distantly related to Halosplisera, more closely to r>(evdof€trsedron,
Gentritr actus, Aurosphsera, EchinosphaerkUion, and perhaps to Acnntho-
sphsera. ileriimosphsera is the second of the marine green plankton
alga3 to be excluded, like Holosphsera, from ChlorophyceaB. E. S. G.

Remarks on the Composition of Marine Phytoplankton. — A.
Pasc'HER {Biol. (JeniralbL, 191.S, 37, 312-5; see also Bot. Centmlbl.,
1918, 137, 310-11). Fresh-water phytoplankton is remarkable for its
enormous richness in ChlorophyceaB. This character is absent from
marine phytoplankton, in which few green species other than Flagellates
have been published. Oonjstis occurs in brackish water, but not in the
sea. Pelagocystis does not belong to Thlorophycea^. Halosphaera and
Meringospihaer-a must be excluded From Chlorophyce^ f<r the following
reasons : — Halosphsera has a siliceous membrane, a paucity of pyrenoids
in the disc-shaped cbromatophores, a lack of starch, swarm-spores with
two unequal cilia, two-shelled siliceous i^planospores, and similar large
cysts : Aleringosphxra has a siliceous membrane, disc-shaped cbromato-
phores without pyrenoids or starch, and endogenous two-shelled siliceous
cysts — all of Avhich characters prevent their inclusion in Chlorophyceae.
No marine species of plankton algic belonging properly to Chlorophyceas
ha>^ been hitherto recorded. The author places Meringo&plnera and
Hidosphsera in Heterokontie, and this group, together with Bacillariaies
and Chrysomonadineffi (including Silicoflagelhita; and Coccolitho-
phoraceai), in Chrysophyta. Marine phytoplankton, apart from fissile
plants, is formed from the two stems of the brown algae, Chrysophyta
(Clirysomonadiuffi in a wide sense. Pterospermacese, Bacillariaies, Hetero-
kontie) and Pyrrhophyta (Desmomonadales, Cryptomonadales, Dino-
flagellata?, Cystoflagellatte). E. S. CI.

Coccolithophoridse. — H. Lohmann {Vortrag Deutsch. Zool. Ges.,
I'.n3. I'ord .lahresversannul. Bremen; see also Bot. Gentralljl., 1918,
137. 39(1-391). The number of the cilia is without systematic
iniportance. A table shows the vertical distribution of tl.e most

72 SUM.MARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

important genera. Certain interesting forms are discussed, notaV)ly
Heiiniella excentrka, which is covered with coccoliths ; Sijracosphsera
prolongata ; and the diatoms Brenneckella lorenzinl and B. Kohli, which
form a colony with Pontosphsera sessilis. E. S. Gr.

Quantitative Investigations of Formations of Organisms on the
Surface of Water : I., Euglena sanguinea. — E. Naumanx (Infprn.
Rev. Ges. ffydrobiol. a. Hydrogr., 1915-16, 7, 214-21, 4 pis. ; see
also Bot. CentralbL, 1918, 137, 391). The species in question. E.
sanguinea, forms a bright to l)rown-red cover over the entire surface of
the water, and along quiet, banks it lies in red streaks. In quiet bays
Eiiglena forms small red patches on the surface. The species which
form this mass in the ponds of Aneboda in South Sweden are
enumerated. E. S. (x.

Common Diatoms. — Thos. K. Melloe {London .- W. Wesley and
Son, 1920, 16, pis. a-g). A series of seven plates containing 400
original drawings from all parts of the world, with an introduction
and a general index. The intention is to aid the amateur and to
popularize the study of Diatoms. A. Gepp.

Green Oysters in Denmark in 1911-12.— C. G. J. Petersen
{Intern. Kerne ges. ffydrobiol. n. ffydrogr., 1915-16, 7, 39-41 ; see
also Bot. CentralbL, 1918, 137, 392). In the new cemented basin for
the storage of oysters in the' Limfjord in Denmark occurs Navicula
ostrearia both in blue-green and in colourless forms, which are connected
by intermediates. This alga is certainly not the cause of tl e green
colouring of the oyster-gills, for but few examples of it were found in
the intestine, and indeed it often passes alive through the oyster. Also
the alga was not plentiful in the basin. The colouring matter of the
diatom is known to be very easily extracted, while that of the oyster
gills is not dissolved by alcohol, ether, hot water or nitric acid, though
it loses its colour in an alkaline solution. The author believes that the
green colour of the oyster gills is not caused by digestion of N. ostrearia,
but rather from constituents in the water. E. S. Gepp.

Bacillariales from the Neighbourhood of Wurzberg. — A. Mayer
{Kryptog. For.H'h. hrsg. Eager. Bot. Ges., 1917, 41-7 ; see also Bot.
CentralbL, 1918, 137, 310). A list of 102 species, three of which are
new to Bavaria : Diploneis oculata CI., Nitzschia apiculata Grun., and
A'". Claiisii Hantzsch. Many other rather rare species are recorded.

E. S. G.

Bacillariegs of the Jaszoe Fish-ponds. — I. L. Lacsny {Bot.
Xozlein., 1917, 16, 12-20, figs, in text; see also Bot. Centralbl., 1918,
137, 341). The two ponds in question lie in the Tapolcza valley in
the district Abauj Torna ; one of these is very shallow and covered
with "bloom." The author records eighty-two species, of which two
species and foui- varieties are new. The paper is written in Macvar.

E.\S. G.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 73

Note on a New Alg^a, Leptobasis caucasica mihi, followed by a
Critical Revision of the Genus Microchsete Thur. — A. A. Elenkix
{Bull. Jard. Imp. Bot. Piprre Ic Grand, 1!)15, 15, 5-22, 14 figs. ; see
also Bot. Centralhl., liUS. 137, 151-2.) This paper is written in
Russian, with a French resume. A new species of Cjanophjceaj is
described from the environs of Gagry in the Caucasus, found in 1912
on stones in a river. It much resembles Mkrochsete striatida Hy, but is
distingiiished by certain pronounced characters. The author has made
a special study of the genus Microchsete, and is of the opinion that the
species should be divided into three groups, which he considers distinct
genera : — (1) Microcli.sete (Thur. p.p.) Elenk., which consists of species
allied to the genus Calothrix : M.grisea Thur., M. vUiensis Asken., M.
robnsta Setch. et Gardn. (2) Coleospermum Kirchn., which consists of
species allied to Aidosira : G. Goeppertianum Kirchn., G. tenerum, G.
diplosiphon. (3) Leptobasis Elenk., containing L. caucasica, L. stria-
tula, L. tenuissima. The most marked character of this gemis is in the
shape of the filament, which is enlarged towards the apex and diminished
gradually towards the base. This singular and remarkable character is only
found in certain of the Scytonemaceaj. The genera Mirorhsete, Goleo-
spermmn and Leptobasis are obviously distributed among different sections
of Hormogotieaj. Microchsete, which is allied to Calothrix, goes into the
Rivulariea3 sub-tribe Trichophorete, although it lacks a long hair. The
positions of the genera Coleospermum and Leptobasis in Horraogone^e
is quite uncertain, and they are therefore placed provisionally in
Scytonemacefe. E. 8. G.

Hormogonial Cyanophyceae of the Middle Saale Valley. — G. Schmid
(Bedu'igia, 1917, 58, 342-57, 1 fig. ; sec also Bot. Centralbl, 191S, 137,
311-2). A list of twenty-one Cyanophyce^ observed by the author in
Jena. The width of the filaments is considered an important systematic
character and is given for each species. Colour and, in many cases,
the direction of torsion of the filaments round their axis are regarded
as useful in determining species. The method of observing the torsion
is described. E. S. G.

The Story of a " Water-bloom."— H. Ammann {Arch. Uydrobiol. u.
FlanktonJc., 1916, 11, 49G-501 ; see also Bot. Centralbl, 1918, 137, 294).
In the year 1907 some carp were introduced into the Wesslingsee from
a pond which contained Anabsena macrospora. As a result such an
enoiTnous mass of this alga appeared in the Wesslingsee, in which before
1907 no special algal growth had ever 'been observed, that the fish
culture was nearly ruined. The author found a dead fish of 4 lbs.
weight washed up on the bank which had its gills entirely glued
together with Anabsena. The appearance of the lake during the years
of water-bloom, 1908-12, is described. A marked rise in the quantity
of oxygen contained in the water was caused bv the Anabsena.

E. S. G.

Contribution to a Study of Polymorphism and of Monstrosities
in Desmidiacese.— F. Ducellier {Bidl S'og. bot. Ge^uve, 1915, 7,
73-118, 31 figs., 3 pis, ; see also Bot. Centralbl, 1918, 138, 80), The

74 SUMMAKY OF CURKEJST RESEARCHES RELATING TO

polymorphism of Eaastrum Didelta is described and discussed. The
forms with divergent, young' semi-cells are called by the author "mixed
forms." Nine intermediate forms are figured. These are followed by
the monsti'osities. The material examined came from Col des Gets,
Piora and Bisanne. E. S. Ct.

Contribution to a Study of the Desmid Flora of Switzerland.
— F. DuCELLiEU {Bull. Soc. hot. Geneve, 19 IC, 8. 2nd Ser., 2'.)-79, figs,
in text ; see also hot. Cenfralbl., 1918, 138, 38). An addition to
previous work on the subject by the author. A large number of species
and groups are discussed critically and figured in detail ; and one new
variety and many new forms are described. The Col du Simplou is rich
in species of Penmm. E. S. G.

New Species of Spirog-yra. — Wiltjam J. Hodgetts {Annals of
Botany, 1920, 34, 519-24, 1 pi. and 5 figs.). A description of
Spirogyra colligata, a new species from King's Norton, Worcestershire,
with special discussion of th(i remarkable clamp-connections which
develop between the contiguous pairs of cells of the filament. These
clamps are short open cylinders, bisected by a median septum or
diaphragm, and appearing like the letter H in optical longitudinal
section. In each compartment of the clamp is firmly set the end of an
adjacent cell. Conjugation in this species is both scalariform and
lateral, and also terminal (apparently a unique feature), A. Gepp.

Studies in the Conjugation of Spirogyra ternata. — Mabel L.
Merriman {Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 1920, 47, 9-20, 3 figs.). An in-
tensive study of one species of Spiroyyra, with tables of measurement of
successive cells of two conjugating, filaments, male and female, showing
the dimensions of three sorts of cells — conjugating, tumid (but not
conjugating), non-conjugating (vegetative) — and their ratios to one
another ; and showing also the measurements of the outer and inner
walls of the cells, where the curvature of the filaments was greatest.
This is a preliminary paper ; and all deductions as to potency of cells,
formation of conjugating tubes, and other problems are reserved for a
future paper. A. G.

Flagellates and Algse of the District around Birmingham. —
W. B. Grove, B. Muriel Bristol and Nellie Carter {Journal
of Botany, 1920, 58, Supplement III., 55). A list compiled from
records made by the late Prof. G. S. West during the years
1906-1919, together with recent collections and determinations by Mr.
W. J. Hodgetts. The list is extensive, and comprises 192 genera,
736 species, and numerous varieties. Subdivided the numbers are as
follows :— Flagellata (13 gen., 33 sp.) ; Myxophycese (27 gen., 85 sp.) ;
Peridiniea3 (5 gen., 14 sp.) ; Bacillarie£e (35 gen., 154 sp.) ; Chloro-
phycese (1 12 gen., 450 sp., inclusive of 22 gen. and 196 sp. of Desmidiacea3).

• A. G.

Fresh-water Algae of Devonshire. — G. T. Harris {Report and
Trans. Devonshire Association, Plymouth, 1920, 52, 263-75). A list
of thirty-five Myxophycea?, eighty-two Chlorophycete, two Rhodophycefe,

ZOOLOdY AND BOTANY, IMIGKOSCOPY, ETC.' 75

und four Desmidiacete collected by the aathoi' in various localities in
Devon, and determined by him. Special notes are given on certain of
the more interesting records. E. S. Gepp.

Alg-SB of the Zehlaubruch from a Systematic and Biological
Standpoint. — F. Stkixkoke {Schrift. Phi/sik.-okon. Gcs. Ivuiuijsber;/,
r.ilG. 56, lo.s pp., 32 figs, in text, \ pi. : see also Bot. GentraJbJ., 1918,
138. 18-22). The area in question is a tract of high moorland
;)1 km. S.E. of Konigsberg in Prussia, which has been secured by
E. Prussian naturalists as a natural preserve. Tbe conditions are
primeval, and all formations, etc., are to be found undisturbed by
cultivation. The author visited the moor one to three times every
month from April, I'Jl-i, to June, 1914, and obtained very good results.
He records 270 species and 5U varieties of algte, together with their
morphological conditions, locaUty, and references in literature. Two
new genera and ten new species are described, besides a number of new
forms. Emjlena dongata Schewiakoff is new to Europe. Other records
are new to Germany, and many are rare species. The biological stand-
point is fully discussed. The conditions obtaining in the low moorland,
the intermediate, and the high are described, with the characteristic
algal features of each. Nutrition, periodicity, sexual reproduction and
other interesting subjects are fully dealt with. E. S. G.

Plant-world of Two Moorland Areas in Upper Swabia, with
Regard to the Micro-org'anisms. — <i. Schlenker [Jaliresh. Vcr.
VaterJand. Naturk. Wiirttemberg, 1916,72, 87-120; see also Bot.
Ce/itralhl., 1918, 138, 2s). The areas examined are the Dornachried,
lying between Blitzenreute and Wolpertswende, 580 metres above sea-
level, in the Piavensburg district, and the Dolgenried, .575 metres above
sea-level, in the Saulgau district. The botanical records include Cyano-
plivceffi. Conjugate, Diatoms and Chloropliyce^. The paper appears
to be a preliminary one, but notes are appended on colouring, growth-
forms, etc. Many rare species are recorded, a considerable number of
alpine ones, and a few northern. E. 8. G.

Fresh-water Algae from Caucasus and Turkestan. — K. M. STE0ii
(X/jt. Maij.f. Nat.-viiUnskab., May, 1919, 57, 1-1- pp., I pL). A list of
seventy-one species collected by Prof. N. Wille in 1897. The Desmids
are poorly represented. The predominating genus is ('ladophora.
Chroococcus and the OscillatoriaccEe are fairly well represented. Three
new varieties of Desmid species are described. E. S. G.

Fresh-water Algae from Tuddal in Telemark. — K. M. Str0m
(iV/jt. Jlai/.f. Nat.-videnskab., June, 1919, 57, 53 pp., 3 pis.). A list of
species collected by the author in the summer of 1919 in the higher
mountains of S. Norway. The area investigated was that of which the
Tuddal hotel (3100 ft.) forms the centre, and includes the Gausta-
mountain (6000 ft.). It has a southern exposure, and most of it is
situated near or above the forest-limit. Three small lakes were examined
for plankton, which, however, proved of little interest. Only Sphsero-
cystis Schroeteri was really abundant. Elakatothrix f/elafinosa is recorded.

76 SUAIMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

previously known only from AV. Norway and England. An account of
thirty different associations at elevations varying from 5000 ft. to
2700 ft. is given. The total number of species recorded in the area is
500, exclusive of diatoms, but would be largely increased by a syste-
matic investigation of the Myxophyceaj, and by an autumn collection.
The author concludes that at moderate altitudes in S. Norway (not
exceeding 4000 ft.) almost as many alga? occur as in the lowlands, the
richness or poverty of the alga-flora depending largely upon the
geologic formations and the rain and snowfall. Many of the Desmids
were of distinctly western types, a few were arctic or alpine. Many are
rare, and two are new to science. E. S. G.

Development of Batrachospermum moniliforme. — H. Kylin {Ber.
Devtsch. Bot. GeseJl, 1917, 35, 155-04, 7 figs. ; see also />W. Centralbl,
19 IH, 137, 152-3). An account of the nuclear division of B. monili-
forme in connexion with its reproduction. Various accounts of the
process in that genus have been put forward, and the author hopes to
decide wdiich is correct. His conclusions are as follows : —The sperma-
tangia mother-cells are not to be distinguished from the vegetative cells.
The young spermatangiura possesses a small nucleus, in wdiich is a
nucleolus surrounded by a light halo. In the ripe spermatium this halo
is lacking, and it appears now as if the nucleus were composed of about
ten granules. From this the author concludes that the nucleus of the
ripe spermatium goes through a later prophase condition, as in the other
Florideffi. Schmidle's assertion that the spermatium nucleus divides
after adhesion to the trichogyne was not proved with certainty. AA hetlier
the occurrence of two nucleus-like granules points to a true nuclear
division, or lias its origin merely in a dissolution of the nucleus, was not
determined. On the ground of other observations, however, the author
believes in a mitotic division. At the fusion of the two sexual nuclei
in the carpogonium they are in a resting stage. The spermatium
nucleus, however, on issuing from the spermatangium is in a later
prophase condition ; the male nucleus at the time of fertilization, on the
other hand, is in a resting stage. From this the author concludes that
in the interval a nuclear division took place, and he considers Schmidle's
view really correct. Further, he found no indication of a trichogyne
nucleus, though Davis records one. Past investigations seem to show
tl;at normally the Floridean trichogyne contains a nucleus. Thus
Batrachospermum forms an exception, which is explained ])y its low state
of development. The author then describes the first division of the
zygote nucleus. Nothing was observed of the prophase stages until the
nucleus was in the diakinesis stage of a reduction-division. If the
interpretation of the first phase as a heterotypic division be correct, the
second phase would be the homotypic, and the four cells from which
the gonimoblast is developed would be homologous with the four tetra-
spores which arise after a reduction-division. Also, the differences in
the development of the gonimoblast in Batrachospormum as compared
with that of NemaUon indicate the lower state of development of the
former. The spore germination is alike in both genera. Schmidle's
assertion that the unicellular hairs of B. moniliforme lack a nucleus is
incorrect. Each hair possesses a small nucleus, which is easily demon-
strated by iron-haematoxylin. E. S. G.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 77

Alternation and Parthenog-enesis in Padina. — J. J. Wolfe
{Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc, 1918, 34, 78-109, 1 pL, tables). An account
t»f fxperiments carried out on Padina varienata Tickers, with a view to
duplicating the work of W. D. Hoyt on Didtjota. The same metliod
was adopted as in Hoyt's work, cultures beins; started in aquaria and
ti'ansferred later to the harbour at Beaufort, X.C. The development of
the various cultures is described in detail, and is also set forth in tabular
form. The author summarizes his results as follows :— 1. Tetraspores
produce only male and female plants. The nnmbers are approximately
equal, even when the spores are from the same plant and grown on the
same shell. Sex is therefore predetermined, probably, in the reduction-
division of the tetrasj)ore mother-cell. 2. Eggs when fertilized produce
tetrasporic plants only. There is thus an alternation of a sporophyte
generation which is an entirely distinct individual, with the gametophytic
generation consisting of two separate plants, the one bearing eggs, the
other sperms. 3. Unfertilized eggs divide freely, producing a cell-body
of varying size, which however invariably fails to mature. There is thus
in Padina parthenogenetic germination, bnt no parthenogenctic repro-
duction. E. S. G.

Marine Algae of Guernsey. — Lilian Lyle {Journal of Botany,
1920, 58, Supplement II., 53 pp., 6 figs.). This paper consists
of a list of the marine algee of the island, together with an account
of certain ecological factors, a discussion of types in relation to
habitat and climate, economic uses, etc. A summary of previous lists is
followed by a systematic enumeration of all the known species, collected
by the author and others. The total number recorded is 350 species
and 78 varieties and forms, including many novelties for the Chamiel
Islands, a few for Britain, and one species and one form new to science.
The list contains a few critical notes on the structure, development,
habitat, distribution, systematic value, etc., of certain species founded
on the author's observations. In the section devoted to ecological
factors she describes the physical position of the island, tides, currents,
nature of the substratum, configuration of the coast, salinity, and
temperature. Four distinct types of vegetation are found, which
coincide in each case with certain climatic conditions ; the dominant
species of each are given and each type is discussed. The zones or belts
are distinctly traceable, though they vary considerably in width and
occasionally even disappear. Each zone is discussed separately, and the
littoral algse and lichens are set out in tabular form. Under the head-
ing " Composition of the Flora " the two elements of the marine vegetation
are pointed out : the northern, which is derived from the North Atlantic
and extends to the Norwegian Polar Sea ; the southern, which includes
species. from the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, Brazil, W. Indies, etc.
The species representing both elements are enumerated. Finally, a
section is devoted to economic considerations. Up to the present only
two portions of our coast have been treated from the ecological point of
view : Clare Island and the neighbouring shores of Clew Bay, by Mr. A. D.
Cotton ; and Guernsey in the present paper. E. S. G.

Studies of Algse of the Adriatic. — Y. Schiffner ( Wiss.
Meeresunters. N.F. Abt. Helgoland, 191(3, 11, 129-98, 133 figs, in text;

78 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

see also Bot. Oe/ifralbl., 1918, 137, 21)4). The studies consist of a series of
4U'ticles dealing with various algological questions. The genus Leathesiu,
including Cori/nophla'a, is worked out afresh and the structural develo})-
luent described, as is also that of Myriactis and Elachista. The distin-
guishing generic characteristics are given of Enteromorpha, Gladophora,
Contarinia, Cruoridla, Fei/ssonellia, and PltyUophora. Rhodochorton
membrcmaceum Hauck, and Chantransia yninutissima Hauck, are united
under the name Rhodochorton ffaiicJcii. The systematic position of
Chondria tenuissima and AJsidlum Helminthochortos is made clear, and the
antheridia of the latter are described. Five new species and three new
forms of existing species are described. Pringsheimia scidata is recorded
for the first time from the Mediterranean region. A special section,
" Contributions to a Knowledge of tlie Marine Summer Vegetation of
Trieste and Eovigno," contains the ecological observations. E. 8. G.

Physicological Contributions. — W. A. Setchell and X. L. Gardner
{Univ. California Puhlir. Bot., 1920, 7, 279-324, pis. 21-31). The
authors describe and discuss critically one new genus and seventeen new
species, and form seven new combinations to denote previous species or
varieties, all belonging to Chlorophycea;. The new geimsPnter/ioretia is
proposed for a new endophyte found growing within the membranes of
Porphyra naiadt/m. Its reproduction not having been determined, it
is among the numerons form-genera of uncertain position and is placed
provisionally among the Chastophoraceas. It resembles Pseudodicfyon
Gardner, from which it differs in forming solid filaments several cells in
thickness. Gomontia Bornetii nov. nom. represents plants hitherto
included under G. polyrhiza B. & F., which have the shorter and broader
type of sporangium, and blunt, simple or slightly branched rhizoids.
All the species here described are the novelties included in the author's
" Marine Algte of the Pacific Coast of North America : Part 11. ,
Chlorophyceffi." E. S. G.

Marine Algae of the Pacific Coast of North America : Part XL,
ChlorophycesB. — W. A. Setchell and N, L. Gardner {Univ. Calif ornki
Publ. Bot., 1920, 8, 139-374, pis. 9-33). The second part of this work
is here presented, the first having been devoted to the Myxophycea?.
Pending the publication of the other two parts, no explanation nor
introduction is issued. Keys are given to orders, families, genera and
species, followed in each case by a diagnosis, references to literature, and
valuable critical notes on history, structure, systematic position, geo-
graphical problems, etc. Thirty-four genera are represented. The
no\ cities were published previously in a separate paper. E. S. G.

Fungi.

Research on the Sexuality of Phycomyces nitens. — Grete Orban
{Bedi. Bot. Gentralbl., 36, Abt. 1, 50 pp., 2 pis., 20 figs. ; see also
Hedwi-na, 1920, 62, Beiblatt, 21-22). The writer follows on the steps
of Blakeslee's work on Mucorini. She finds + and - mycelium in
Phycomyces, and is able to distinguish them by differences in growth,
etc. The processes of growth and copulation between the gametes is

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 79

described, and the behaviour of the plant when that is impossible owing
to the absence of tlie conjugating hyphai. A. Loruain Smith.

Phytophthora Meadii sp. n on Hevea braziliensis. — W. McRae
{Mem. Dept. Auric Tiidia, 1018, 9. 2r.)-7;5, ;> pis.)- The disease caused
by the fungus manifest? itself as fruit-rot, an abnormal leaf-fall, and
a rot of the tapped surface. The author gives a full description of the
development of the fungus itself ; he finds that fertilization is similar
to that described by Pethybridge in P. enjthroseptica : viz. that the
oogonial branch grows through the antlieridium. McRae contrasts
the fungus wi4:.h Phytopltthora Faheri on Cacao fruit, and describes the
points in which they differ. He discusses the dissemination of the fungus,
the loss sustained by growers, and the preventive measures that are
advisable. A. L. S.

Galactinia amethystina (Phill.) Wakef. — E, M. Wakefield {Tram.
Brit. M/jcol. Soc, l'.)20, 6, pt. 4, 375). The species here described has been
published as Ascoboh/s amethystimis by Phillips and later as Galactinia
Phillipsii by Boudier. The specific name amelhystinm^ has therefore
been restored. It is characterized by its deep purple colour and by the
purple-coloured spores. A. L. S.

Pyronema Isetissimum Schrot. from Silesia. — A. Lingelsheim
{Hediviijia, I'JIG, 58, ir)3-5, 1 fig.). In a full description of the fungus
the author gives notes on the colouring substance of the hyph;©. He
concludes that it belongs to the Carotin group, which has been found
in other fungi, UredineiB, Pezizacete, etc. A. L. S.

Rare Pezizacese from Bavaria. — S. Killerman {Hedwigia, 1917,
59, 234-5). Killerman records the finding of Pyronema leetissimum
in early spring. He compares it with Peziza pluvialis and Pyronema
domesticum. Several other known species were found. A. L. S.

New Locality for Sarcosoma globosum. — S. Killerman {Hed-
wigia, 1918, 59, 313-8, 2 figs.). The author gives a full description
of the fungus and of the habitat among moss in fir woods. He found
it in Bavaria. A. L. S.

Mycological Contributions : I., Ascomycetes. — K. Boedyn and
C. VAN Overeem {Hedwigia, 1918, 59, 307-12). The authors found
a brightly coloured Humaria, in which they determined the colouring
substance as a Carotinoid. They describe the fungus as Humaria
carota sp. n. They found Carotin crystals also in Ascophanus pinicola
sp. n. A. L. S.

Ascomycetous Fung-i of Human Excreta. — Charles B. Fairman
{Lyndonville, New York, 1920, 1-11, 1 pi. 3 figs.). The author
discusses the various fungi that have been identified as occurring in
excreta. He calls attention to the difficulty of determining isolated
spores. A list has been drawn up by him of Ascomycetous forms,
fifteen of which have been described at various times. The author gives
a figure and description of a new species, Cylindrocolla fsecalis (Hypho-
mycete). A. L. S.

80 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

New Discinelia.— W. D. Buckley {Trans. Brit. Ilt/col. Soc, 1920,
6, pt. 4, 346-7). The new species was found at Slough in May 1920,
growing among moss under Uldx. It approaches nearest to D. Menziesi
Bond., but is smaller and pearl-grey with a touch of pink, as contrasted
with the rose colour of the former. A. L. S.

Conidia and Paraphyses of Pezicula eucrita Karst. — J. S. Bay-

Liss Elliott and H. C. Chance ( I'm;? s. Brit. Mycol. Soc, 1920,6,
pt. 4, 353-4, 1 fig.). The spores of this fungus may often germinate
in the ascus, and conidia can be seen arising on the germ-tube ; they
are linear and are produced on any part of the spore or germ-tube in
chains, in bunches or singly. The paraphyses are long and slender, and
branched or unbranched. The excipulum is parenchymatous and
covered with hairs. A. L. S.

Volutin, or the Metachromatic Bodies in the Yeast Cell. — AV. Hen-
NEBERG {Wocheiischr. Braiierei, 1915, 301-54, 1 tig. ; see aho Hediri(/ia,
1918, 60, Beiblatt, 25-6). Metachromatic bodies are recognized as those
that take stains in the yeast cells, and they are practically identical i\4th
"volutin" or " volutin-drops." The record is given of much experi-
mental work and of the conclusions reached. Henueberg is convinced
that volutin is the fermentation enzyme itself or the mother substance
of the enzyme, and cites in support of his view the rapid multiplication
of the " volutin-drops " during activity of fermentation. Volutin varies
in the different fungus cells, and it is hoped that a ready means of
identification will be found in the differences of staining. A. L. S.

Fungi Imperfecti. — Franz von Hohnel {Hedwigia, 1917, 59,
236-84 ; 1918-19, 60, 129-209 ; 1920, 62, 56-80). the author has
prepared a complete account of Fungi Imperfecti to be published shortly.
He gives here descriptions of new species and critical notes on a large
number of forms. As new genera, based on species already described,
he publishes : Sderochseta (based on Phoma) ; SclerochseteUa (near to
Fyrenoc'haeta) ; Sderostagonospora (on Hendersorise Heradei) ; Rhizo-
sphserdla (on Perisporiitm Lentisci) ; Pleuronsema (on Sphseronsema
procumbeus) ; Sphseronsemina (on Sphderonaema cylindricum) ; Gerato-
phorna (on Sphseronsema rostratuni) ; ChondropodielJa (on Spliseroneema
rathrincolum) ; MycorhgndteUa (on Spseronema Betee) ; Gyanophomella
(on Plioma acervalis) ; Badrexciptda (somewhat similar to Stagonospora
Pint) ; Stidopatella (on Phyllostida destrudiva) ; Didymochora {Lepto-
.s^romac^ae), the pycnidial form of Euryacliora spp. ; Sderotliyrium [Conio-
thyrium, etc.) ; and Pseudodidiomera, the pycnidial stage of Cucurhitaria
spp. Full notes of these and many other members of the group are
contributed by the author.

In a further contribution many more genera are passed under
review and one new genus diagnosed, Amphiciella, which forms small
stromata on dead leaves ; the spores are colourless, and one to three
septate. A. L. S.

New Species of Melanotsenium, with a General Account of the
Genus. — Rudolph Beer {Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc, 1920, 6. pt. 4,
331-43, 1 pi.). The author found the new species Mehinotaenium Lamii

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICUOSCOPY, El'C. 81

on Lamhim album, nimierous tumour-like swellings formed on the
underground organs being due to the presence of the fungus. There
may be dark blister-like swellings on the side of the stem or tuberous
bodies surrounding the stem in the form of K'ataplasmic galls. The
author considers the genus to be a member of the Ustilagineaj. He
reviews the various species of Melanotieaium already published, and
describes more particularly the morphology and cytology of 21. Lamii.
The mature spore is uni-nucleate ; the hyphal cells and young spores
are binucleate. A. L. 8.

Biology of Panus stypticus. — Maeie E. M. Johnson (Trans.
Brit. Mycol. Soc, 1920, 6, pt. 4, 348-52, 1 pL). The author thus
summarizes new results : — (1) The sporophores can withstand frost, and
so can be cultivated > in the open during winter. A sporophore takes
about three months in developing. (2) Spores germinate readily in
suitable media ; wood-block cultures in favourable conditions produce
sporophores in six or seven weeks. (3) Wood attacked by the fungus
"becomes light, very soft, and paler in colour ; the less lignified elements
disappear first. (4) Sporophores, after a time of desiccation, when
moistened, shed spores which are viable ; the mycelium also can be
dried for many months and still retain its vitality. A. L. S.

New Record for Polyporus montanus Quelet. — S. Killerman
(Bednigia, 1910, 61, 1-3, 1 pi.). The fungus was found in the
Bavarian forests in large quantities and growing to an immense size.
It is distinguished by the ochraceous echinulate spores. It has a wide
distribution in Central Europe. A. L. S.

Mycological Transactions.— (5/-//f, 3Ii/col. Soc., 1920, 6, pt. 4,
299-396). The present part opens with an account of the Spring
Foray at Painswick. Larger fungi were scarce, but other kinds of great
interest were collected ; 'EicMerieJ/a spinidosa was collected for the first
time so far south. The English records of Stereum 7-iifimiVi'eve based on
this plant, and other synonyms are Radulum deijluhens and R. spinu-
losnm. A list of the fungi collected is appended. A. L. S.

Note on Marasmius cauticinalis. — D. Paul (Trans. Brit. Mtjcol.
Soc, 1920, 6, pt. 4, 344-5). The name cauticinalis has been confused
with caulicinalis, and the confusion may have been due to a printer's
error. Paul has traced the changes of the spelling through the dif-
ferent authors ; caulicinalis, he holds, is well-chosen and descriptive, as it
means growing on stalks, stems, etc., which exactly expresses the habit of
the Marasmius in question. A. L. S.

■ Records of Surrey Resupinate Hymenomycetes. — E. M," Wake-
field and A. A. Pearson (Trans. Brit. Mijcol. Soc, 1920, 6, pt. 4,
317-21, 6 figs.). A descriptive list is given of a varied series of
" resupinates," most of them new to Britain. They were collected mostly
near AYeybridge. Sistotrema variecolor w'as collected at Farnborougli,
Hampshire, and was determined by M. I'Abbe Bourdot. It has the
habit of Vi Radulum, but is sufficiently distinguished by the larger, longer
spores. A. L. ST

G

82 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

New or Rare British Fung-i. — Garleton Rea {Trans. Brit. Mycol.
Soc, l!)2(i, 6, pt. 4, 822-30, 1 col. pi.). The descriptive list of novelties
contains two new species of Mycena, one Nolanea, and a new variety of
Plutem pldebopliorus. Asirosporina Schroet. is a genus new to Britain ;
one species is newly recorded for this country, another is new to science.
Asfrosporina includes species with irregular or rough spores formerly
classified under Iiiocijhe. Rea also describes a new Ascomycete, Urceo-
hlla Iridis, from Perthshire. A. L. S.

Comparative Research on the Biology of Wood-destroying Fungi.
—Bruno Radau (Beifr. Biol. Pfl. {Cohii), 1917, 13, 375-458, 6 pis).
The author comments on the economic necessily of understanding the
luology of fungi that attack forest trees. For the present elaborate
study he selected Polyporus iyniarins as one of th^most wide.spread and
most dangerous parasites of deciduous trees. He examined the tissues
of a number of trees, Alnus incana, Betula alba, Carpinas Betalus, etc.,
and records his results in detail. In Section III. he summarizes the
results as affecting different parts of the tree. The mycelium of the
Polyporus cannot penetrate cork ; the fungus is therefore a wound
parasite. A. L. S.

Boletus conglobatus sp. n. — K. Blagaic-Zagreb {Hedwiyia, 1918,
60, lo-ll) The new Jlolefifs gvew cAo&e to oak-trees iusomew-hat light
soil from July to September in Maksimii-. It is characterized by the
yellow flesh of the pileus and the brown fusiform spores. A L. S.

Red Squirrel of North America as a Mycophagist. — A. H. R.
Buller {Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc, 1920, 6, pt. 4, 355-62). Field
observations on the eating of mushrooms by squirrels, rabbits, etc., have
already been made in this country. Buller describes the mushroom-
eating habit of squirrels in North America. He sums up thus : — The
red squirrel of North America not only feeds on tlie seeds of fir-cones,
hazel-nuts, etc., but is also an habitual mycophagist. In the late
autumn it often collects fleshy fuugi in large numbers for its winter
supply of food, and it stores these fungi sometimes en masse in holes in
tree-trunks, old bird's nests, etc., and sometimes separately on the
branches of certain trees. A. L. S.

New British Coprini. — A. H. R. Buller {Trans. Brit. Mycol Soc.^
1920. 6, pt. 4, 3();;-5). The first to ha described is new to science,
Goprinus echinosporus, with finely echinulate or warted spores. It was
found on sticks taken from a pool at Kew in October, 1911. The other
two were also found at Kew. Full descriptions are given. A. L. S.

Significance of Sex and Nuclear Fusion in the Fungi. — Harold
"WaCtEU {Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 192ii. 6, pt. 4, 305-17). The author
gives an outline of the occurrence and manner of sexual fusion in the
different fungus families. Sexuality, he states, is characterized by
the association of two cells, each with its nucleus, and their fusion to
form a zygote, at a definite period in the life-history of any plant ov
animal in which it occurs. But though fusion is necessary for the
blending of hereditary characters, it is not essential for growth and

o'

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOI'V, ETC. 83

development, since the developmental stimulus under certain conditions
can be effected by other agencies. AVager gives special attention to
sexuality in Ascomyeetes, where there may be well-ditferentiated sexual
organs with nuclear fusion, and again a nuclear fusion in the ascus. The
latter fusion is always present. He discusses the significance of nuclear
fusion and its importance in the life-history of the organism. A. L. S.

Experimental Research on Red Mildew Fungi. — F. ^y. Negkr
(Flora, 11)17, 110, 67-131), :il ligs. ; see also Hedwif/ia, 1918, 60,
Beiblatt, 20-80). It is a mistake, according to the author, to conclude
that only one species enters into the dark brown felt on leaves that
constitutes the above fungus. Only culture experiments will enable the
mycologist to differentiate the various forms. By sowing spores of
Bulgaria pohjmorpha, Herpotrichia tiajra, Xylaria Hypoxylon, etc., in
concentrated sugar solutions he was able to produce growths identical
with the red mildew forms. A. L. S.

Fung'us Flora of Hevea braziliensis. — T. F. Chipp {Gardens'
Bulletin, ^Straits /Settlements, 11)20, 2, l.SG-92). The paper was prepared
in answer to enquiries as to the fungus diseases of Hevea. The long list
is grouped according to the respective habitats of the fungi — on root and
collar, stem and branches, etc. — and contains the names, with notes, of
all fungi that have been found on the tree in Malaya. A. L. S.

Mycological Contributions : I. Ascomyceten. — C. van Overeen
{Hedivigia, 1920, 61, 383-9, 2 figs.). The author adds notes to the
previously published descriptions of several fungi, as, for instance, in
Gorgoniceps aridula, in which he found the spores formed in a fascicle ;
they varied from single to Ifi-septate, and were all equally capable of
germination. Helotium pallescens is also described, and the conidial
stage, Rutsbrcemia firma,. is described and figured. Other Discomycetes
are reviewed. In another paper on Fungi Imperfecti (pp. 375-79, 1 fig.,
1 pi.) Overeen gives an account of two little-known parasites of
Discomycetes, Stephanoma strigosuni and S^pedonium simplex, both of
which grow on Lachnea liemisptiserira and other Pezizae. A. li. S.

Hypomyces on Lactarius. — A. Lingelshelm {Hedirigia, 1920, 61,
380-2). The author describes a new species, Verticillium silesiarum,
which grew on Lactarius the/ogola. He discusses the relation of this
fungus with Hgpomyces lateritius. A. L. S.

New or Rare Microfungi. — A. Lorrain Smith and J. Ramsbottom
(Trans. Brit. Mycol. Hoc, 1920, 6, pt. 4, 365-76). A long list of species
new' to Britain have been determined and published ; a few are new
species ; two genera have been added to the British Flora. Many of the
fungi listed are minute parasites on the higher plants. A. L. S.

Host Index of Fungi of the Malay Peninsula.- T. F. Chipp
(Gardens' Bulletin, Straits Settlements, 1920, 2, 231-8, 276-82). The
host plants are listed alphabetically, and the fungi include not only
the known parasites wliich cause disease, but all those that have been

( ■ s

84 SUMMARY OF CUIUIENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

recorded on any of the higher plants. Biological notes are given in
many instances — short descriptions of the effect produced by the parasite,
etc. A. L. S.

Mycological Notes. V.— W. B. Grove {Journ. Bot., lOin. 59,
13-17). Notes are given on various species, Boydia inscnlpta Pucciiiia
Peucedmii-parisiensis and Phomopsis abietina, the latter a parasite on
Pinus silvestris and Psendofsuga Douglasii, reported as causing great
harm on the Continent, and a source of possible danger to home
conifers. A. L. S.

Macrosporium ?oot-rot of Tomato. — J. Rosenbaum {Pliijto-
patholofpj, 191^0, 10. 415-22, 4 figs.). The author has suggested Foot-
rot as a suitable name for this disease, seeing that the trouble is mainly
visible at the base of the plant ; the stalks turn brown where they
emerge from the soil, and the fungus causing the disease spreads both
up and down. Plants are attacked at all ages both in the seed bed and
in the field, and the disease has caused considerable logs in Delaware.
Many cultures and inoculations were made, and the fungus was finally
identified as Macrosporium Solani E. & M. A. L. S.

Pythium Disease of Ginger, Tobacco and Papaya. — L. S. Subra-
MANIAM {Mem. Df'pt. Auric. India, l'J19, 10, 181-94, 6 pis., 3 col.)
The disease, which attacks not only seedlings but the base of trees, is
caused by a new species oV Prjthium.. P. Bnfleri. The author gives an
account of experimental cultures and inoculations and suggests methods
of treatment. ^ A. L. S.

Mycological Notes. — C. (I. Lloyd {Cincinnati, Ohio, 192o, No. 02,
904-44, 16 pis.). A portiait and chronological arrangement of the
principal events of J. C Arthur's career opens the present series of
notes. Several genera of fungi are described, the species of which
are criticized and figured. Among these are Cordyceps, Thamnomyces,
Alevrodiscus, Echinodothis, etc. There are also historical and structural
notes of many other somewhat obscure species. A. L. S.

Mycological Notes.— C. G-. -Lloyd (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1920, No. 63,
945-84). The author begins these notes by calUng attention to an
article on Fungi in the " National Geographic Magazine " by Ij. C. 0.
Krieger. It is illustrated by sixteen coloured plates and thirty-six
photographs. Both styles of illustration are ©f very high quality.
Lloyd also remarks on the death of P. A. Saccardo and bears testimony
to his great work on Fungi. The bulk of the notes deals with letters
from correspondents and the fungi sent by them from all over the
world. A. L. S.

Fungi from the Polish Trenches. — S. Killermax {Hedwiyia,
1917, 59, 220-33, 1 fig.). The collection was made by a theological
student who served in the war. The fungi were chiefly collected during
the summer of 1916 in the virginal forest near Lida. Drawings made
by the collector enabled Killerman to determine many of the species,
mostly Basidiomycetes, and some of the larger Ascomycetes. There is
one Myxomycete determined, Ceraiiomyxa mucida. A. L. S.

ZOOLOGY xVND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 85

Fungi of North Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands. — E. M, Wake-
field (F. Sarasin and J. Roux, Berlin and Wiesbaden, Nova Galedonia,
H)2<», 89, 108). The author comments on the character of the fungus
flora ; it is on the whole of tropical type with an intermingling of
temperate forms, and " the affinities are with Malaya, Australia and
other Pacific islands." There are also relations with Central and South
America, as well as with tropical Africa. There is a numerous list of
genera and species. The fleshy Agarics were named by the late W.
Massee. A nun^ber of new species in ttie various groups are diagnosed.
Habitats are not given. A. L. S.

Botrytis cinerea as Parasite of .^sculus parviflora Walt. —
Alfred Markowski {Beltr. Biol. Pff. {Cohn), 1U17, 13, ;)47-74, 5
figs., 2 pis.). The fungus attacked and destroyed the twigs and
branchlets of the trees. The author has proved that the trouble was
due to Botrytis cinerea. He made careful inoculations on ^scuhis
parvitiora, where the results were immediate, and also on JE. Hippo-
castaaum, where they were less visible, as the fungus in that tree seemed
to go deeper. The action of the fungus on the host tissues is described.
Markowski discusses the question of sclerotia formation by Botrytis
cinerea. He does not look on the fungal balls formed by the fungus as
true sclerotia, but as pseudo-sclerotia, and concludes that there is no
connexion between this funs^us and Sclerotinia. A. L. S.

o

Diagnoses of Fungi from " Spotted " Apples. — x^rthur S. Horne
{Joiirn. Bot., ll)2(i, 58, 23S-J:2). The author isolated from "spotted"
apples a considerable number of familiar fungi, Pyrenomycetes or
Basidiomycetes. In addition he determined a new species, F]eof:pora
pomorum, and a new genus of Spha3ropsidea3 near to Fhoma, but
distinguished by the number of ostioles formed in one pycnidium. He
has named it Polyopeus, and has described four species of the genus
with a number of varieties. A. L. S.

Lichens.

Lichen Systematic Studies: 1. The Lichen-Genus Rhabdopsora
Miill.-Arg.— A. Zahlbruckner {tiedwiyia, 1917, 59, 801-4 ; 1918,.
305-G, 1 fig.). The genus Rhabdopsora was doubtfully placed by
Zahlltruckner among Gyalectaceffi. He has now examined the lichen on
which it was based, and he concludes that it is a member of the
Pyrenidiaceas. A. Lorrain Smith.

Verrucariacese of Central Europe. — H. Zschaoke {Hedwiyia, 1918^
60, 1-9). The study of this family w^as made while the author was
interned in Switzerland. He collected round Davos, and w^as granted
permission to work at the Zixrich Technical School. He gives lists,,
with notes, etc., of the genera Staurothele and FoJyblastia, both well
represented in Switzerland. A. L. S.

86 SUM .MARY OF GUERENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Swiss Lichens. — I. (1. Lettau {Hedwigia, 1918, 60, x4-lo<s ; II.,

1919, 267-312). The lichens listed in this work were mainly collected
in 1912. They are arranged according to locality : from Via Mala,
Martigiiy, Sion, etc. Any new species found are to be published later.
Most of the lichens collected are sasicoloiis. A. L. 8.

Contributions to the Lichen-flora of Lower Austria. — A. Zahl-
BRUCKNER {Verk.K. K. Zonl.-Bot. ties. Wien, 1917, 68, l-;55). The
list is fairly extensive and includes a number of new species. Diagnoses
are also given of species not previously described with sufficient care.

A. L. S.

Llanberis Lichens and District. — J. A. Wheldon {Journ. Bot,

1920, 58, ]1-15). The lichens recorded are mostly saxicolous, as the
author of the paper spent most of his time collecting on the mountains
above the tree zone. The species found are listed, and biological notes
with the localities of eacli species are appended. Wheldon discovered a
new species, Bilimhia canihrica, the diagnosis of which is given. The
author states that the list is by no means exhaustive.

W. Watson {Journ. Bof., 1920, 58, 108-10) evidently collected
over a wider area. He has recorded a considerable number of lichens
additional to Wheldon's list. These comprise many corticolous species,
and a proportion of rare and unusual plants. A. L. S.

New Bueliise.— J. Steiner {Oesterr. Bof. Zeitschr., 1919, Xo. 57,
141-8). The Lichens here described are from many different countries
— from Central Africa, South America, North Europe, etc. — showing the
wide distribution of the genus, A. L. S.

'Lichenographic Notes.— J. Steiner (Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., 191S,
Nos. 8--9, 27<)-81)= The author here deals with a fascicle of lichens
collected in Portugal by L. Menyhart in 1890. They are almost exclu-
sively corticolous species on Arbutus l7nedo,Pistacia Lentiscus, Fhillyrea,
Quercus Ilex, Ptjrus Mains, Viburnum Tinus, etc. With the exception
of a few new species or forms, and a few that are peculiarly ]\Iediter-
rauean species, the collection belongs to the widespread European flora.

A. L. S.

Contribution to the Knowledge of the Greek Flora : C. Lichenes. —
J. Steiner ( rv/r. K.K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien. 1919, 70, 52-101). The
lichens were collected by members of the Vienna University Expedition
in 1911. There are a large number from various regions and on various
substrata. A number of new species are described, and as the most
ontstiinding of these Steiner indicates Stereocaulon Santorinense, which,
though allied to S. denuilatum, differs in the persistence and form of
the primary thallus on which are borne the apothecia; the podetia are
constantly sterile. A. L. S.

Preparation for a Lichen-flora of Balmatia. — A. Zahlbruckner
{Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., 1919, 70, 1-18, 148-65, 287-53, 297-326). The
present series of papers deals with collections by Baumg;>i-tner and
others made in Dalmatia and on many of the islands. The series

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, AIICJIOSCOPY, ETC. S?

includes the numbers 441-5o2, with notes on niunl>ers pruviously
recorded. The most noteworthy discovery recorded is I'kylUiporina
Hdhneliana (previously published us Cahnectrla Hdhneliuiui Jaap). a
genus of tropical lichens that grows on leaves, but in this case on the
stems and phylloclades of Ruse us aculealus. Zahlbruckner also reinstates
the genus Ainpliiditon in Heppiacete ; he liad relegated it to Lepto(iium
sect. Homodium. A. L. S.

Relation between the Alga and Fungus of a Lichen. — R. Paulson
and SoMERViLLE 1Ia«tixgs {Jouni. Linn. Soc , 19:^0, 44, 497-506,
2 pis.): The authors comment on the mistaken theory that the lichen
plant is merely a fungus parasitic on an alga. They cite various authors
who in recent times have revived and upheld this view of the relationship
between the two organisms of the composite plant. Research was
undertaken to find out if possible the connexion between the fungus and
the alga, and the condition of the algal host. The method of preparing
and staining the sections is described. The material was collected in
February and March and also in autumn, and incidentally it was found
that spring was the season of most active growth. The green cells are
then increasing veiy rapidly, and the authors determined that their re-
production was by the formation of daughter gonidia within the parent
algal cell (autospores — reduced zoogonidia). They claim that this
abundant increase testified to the healthy condition of the alga. Xo
instance of parasitism or penetration of the alga by fungus hyphfe was
seen. The form and contents of the algal cell are described and dis-
cussed. It is probably a species of Ghlorella. A. h. S.

Lichens found near Painswick — Pt. Paulson {Trans. Brit. Mi/roJ.
Soc., 1920, 6, pt. 4, 303). Paulson found at Painswick a rich harvest
of saxicolous lichens : they grew in great profusion on the sunny side of
oolitic stone walls, and on rocks projecting from the soil. Corticoious
species were rare in the woods, and Paulson is unable to account for their
absence, unless some unknown edaphic factors have been inimical to
their growth. The fungus parasite Tichothec iinn injg mseimi was aljundant
on the thallus of Plncodium ru'pestre. A. L. 8.

Fruticose and Foliose Lichens of North Bohemia, II. — Josef
Anders {Hedu-igia, 1920, 6i, ;>ol-74). Owing to war conditions the
writer had to work under great disabilities. The list is restricted to the
larger lichens. Among the most numerous of these are the Cladoniee ;
not only species but a large series of varieties and forms are listed.
Farmelia and Cetraria are fairly well represented : Usneacete by only
one lichen, Letharia vulpina, a rather poor greenish-coloured specimen.
There were found two species of Gyrophora and one Fhijscia. A. L. S.

Lichens of New Caledonia. — K. D. Cotton (F. Sarasin and J. Roux,
Berlin and Wiesbaden : Xova Caledonia, 1920, 108). A short supple-
ment to a previously recorded list. Two of the species are from New
Caledonia, the others from Loyalty Islands. A. L. S.

Lichens from Litau, — E. Bach-aiann and Fk. Bachmann {Hedu-igia,
1919, 61, 308-20 ; 1920, 61, 321-42). The lichens enumerated were

88 SUM.MAKY OF CUKRKNT KESEAHCUES RELATING TO

collected on the German East Front during- the war. The writers give
the general topography, the climate, etc. The lichen-flora showed most
affinity with that of East Prussia. The special earth lichens are noted
as growing on soil poor or rich in lime. As to the rocks of the district
there was an absence of lime and a corresponding scarcity of calcicolous
lichens. Epiphytic lichens are carefully delimited according to the trees
on which they were mostly found. The complete list of lichens found is
given, and then follows a comparison with other districts. The great
similarity as to the lichen-flora between Litau and Prussia is again
commented on. A. L. S.

Lichen Symbiosis. — A. H. Church {Joiirn. Bot., 1920, 58, 213-9,
2G2-7). The autlior's views on the origin of lichens may be best
summed up by the closing paragraphs of his paper : — " Lichens tli us
present an interesting case of an algal race, deteriorating along the
lines of a heterotrophic existence, yet arrested, as it were, on the somatic
down-grade by the adoption of intrusive algal units of lower degree to
subserve photosynthesis (much in the manner of the marine worm Couvo-
lata). Thus arrested, tlieylhave been enabled to retain more definite
expression of more deeply inheritant factors of sea-weed habit and
construction than any other race of fungi ; though closely paralleled by
such types as Xylarin (Ascomycete) and C/aw<r/« (Basidiomycete) which
have followed the full fungus-progression as holosaprophytic on decaying
plant-residues."

" There can be little doubt that such a view will enlarge one's
conception, not only of the remarkable history of these often despised
fungus-races, as compared on one hand with the surviving Floridefe of
the sea, and on the other with the great range of Ascomycetous phyla ;
but also it must throw light on the general problems of tliB changes
of biological environment which may have been effective in such a
striking response as included within what has been termed the period of
the suba^rial transmie:ration." A. L. S.

'o*

New Portuguese Lichens.— (Ioncalo Sampaio {Porlo, 1920, 8 pp.).
Diagnoses are published with biological notes of a number of new species
of crustaceous lichens, Lecideaceae and Lecanoraceit, with one foliose
species, Lobaria molUssima Gong., intermediate in appearance between
Lobaria scrobiculata and Peltigera limbata. The lichens were collected
in Lusitania. A. L. S.

Spanish Lichens from the Wilkomm Herbarium. — GoncalO'
Sampaio {Ass. Esp. Para, el Profi. Giencias Madrid, 1917, 135-44).
The plants have been preserved in the University of Coimbra, and
lichens form only a small part of the general collection. Gongalo, who
has overhauled these, found among them two new species, Phijsma
/mjjanicuni and Acarospora (jranatensis. A. L. S.

Portuguese Lichens. — Goncalo Sampaio {Ann. Acad. Pohjtechnica do-
Porto, 1918, 12, 1-1.5). The author has listed, with full descriptions,
5f) species of lichens belonging to many different families and genera ;
several species are new to science. A. L. S.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, KTC. 89

MICROSCOPY.
A. Instruments, Accessories, etc.

National Physical Laboratory Report, 1919. PLiblished by His
Majesty's Stationery Office. The following abstracts are of interest to
microscopists : —

Optical Glass. — Dnring the latter part of the war the Laboratory
was called upon to test large numbers of specimens of glass for refrac-
tive index and dispersion. In connexion with this work a number of
investigations were made which proved to have important bearings on
other optical problems. The reliability of such measurements is of
great importance, as an error may easily lead to the waste of much
material, as well as of skilled lal)Our, in making systems which are only
found to be unusal)le when they are completed. Since the war the
demand for such tests has ceased, but it is very desirable that further
investigations contemplated in connexion with these measurements
should be continued. The tests are of fundamental importance to the
optical industry, and it is only the extensive experience acquired in
making them which has enabled the existing degree of accuracy to
be reached. One of the questions proposed for examination in this
connexion is the constancy of quartz and other natural transparent
minerals as regards their optical properties. Existing determinations
show variations which may either be instrumental errors or may be due
to variations w'ith different specimens. The source of these variations
can be traced quite definitely with the accuracy in measurement which
is now attainable, and it can thus be determined whether such materials
can l)e used with safety as standards of reference in the calibration or
checking of instruments intended for testing other materials. For this
purpose it is necessary to obtain a number of specimens of quartz wh( se
history is known. In particular it is desired to examine prisms of
quartz derived from all the chief sources at present known, j'hese
specimens should preferably be examined independently by a number of
investigators who have made accurate determinations of refractive
indices, with a view both to increased accuracy on the finally accepted
results and to the application of corrections for instrumental errors, if
such exist, to other measurements made previously. It is hoped that
specimens owned by other investigatoi's will be lent for examination at
this Laboratory.

Optical Calculations. — For some years before the war extensi^'e re-
searches had been made into the methods employed in calculating optical
systems. It is hoped before long to })repare for publication a systematic
account of a number of the results already reached, which indicate that
methods of calculation differing from those in general use can be very
widely adopted with a great saving of time. Approximate methods of

90

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

calculation have been tried in the past and abandoned, but the failure of
any one system need not mean the failure of all systems resting on a
similar basis. The question of success or failure appears to be largely
determined by what may at first sight seem to be quite minor details in
the application of approximate methods. It will be necessary to justify
the new methods suggested for use by including a large number of
fully worked examples illustrating applications to a considerable variety
■of optical problems. •

Microscopes. — A number of requests have been made from time to
time for certificates for microscope objectives, eye-pieces, and other
apparatus. It is evident that the institution of regular tests of this
kind, as distinct from the unsystematized tests hitherto made, would meet
a generally felt want. As in the examination of many other optical
instruments, such as high-class photographic lenses, the tests will only
•carry the necessary authority if they are made by admittedly expert
workers.

Before the tests can be standardized it will be necessary to acquire
typical specimens of the various objectives produced by different manu-
facturers at home and abroad. In some cases the qualities of objectives

are largely a function of the price at which they
are sold, and it is not altogether justifiable to
demand the same standard from expensive and
cheap objectives having approximately the same
fundamental properties. Additions are also re-
quired to the microscope equipment of the depart-
ment for general laboratory work.

Standard London Microscope (manufactured
by R. & J. Beck, Ltd., 1020).— The base of this
microscope is on the so-called horse-shoe pattern,
standing on three feet.

The pillar has a joint for inclination.
The stage is completely covered with ebonite
and is 4 in. wide. The free distance from the
optical centre to the limb is 3 in.

The mechanical stage is attached to the
microscope by means of a bolt which passes
through a hole provided for the purpose in the
limb of the instrument. It has slightly over 1 in.
vertical and 2 in. horizontal travel, each provided
with divided scales.

The draw tube is nickel-plated, and is divided
in millimetres, enabling any tube length l)etween
140 and 200 mm. to be used.
The coarse adjustment is by means of spiral rack and pinion, cut on
specially made machines to secure accurate and smooth running teeth.

The fine adjustment is on a new patented design in which both
milled heads are upon the same axis, but the whole of the complicated
cams and worm wheels generally adopted for side slow motions are
dispensed with, and the movement is imparted by the point contact of a

ZOOLOGY AiN'l) IJOTANY, M ICKOSCOPY, ETC.

91

92

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

screw upon a lever. The imlled head on one side moves the body at
twice the speed of that on the other, so that either a nioderatelj fine or
a superlatively fine adjustment can be used. The friction is so slight
that the delicacy obtained only by a lever and point contact motion is
secured. One of the milled heads is divided in -yho of a millimetre for
measuring thickness.

The mirror is 2 in. in diameter, and is plane on one side and concave
on the other, mounted on a swinging arm on which it slides up and
down for focusing.'

The substage is made to the standard 1*52 in. diameter.

A possessor of a Standard London Microscope in its simplest form
with only a tubular substage can, at any time, obtain one of the different
substages together with full instructions for fitting, and can attach it
himself with the aid of a screw-driver.

Beck Micrometer Eye-piece. — This consists of a complete eye-piece
with a magnifying povrer X8, and a special vernier millimetre scale A
(see diagram) placed in its focus, which is outside the lenses.

It is provided with a collar B, which fits over the draw tube and can

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be clamped in position by a milled head C. The eye-piece itself can be
focused up and down by revolving it in its fitting till the scale A is in
exact focus for the observer's eye.

The scale (see diagram) is in millimetres with a vernier reading
to yV of a millimetre.

On the left is a vertical series of divisions divided in half -millimetres
for rough measurement. For fine measurement the object to be
measured is placed in a horizontal position, or the eye-piece scale turned
round, and the length is measured in y^u millimetre by use of the slanting
line on the right. The image of an object as shown in the diagram
measures 8*25 millimetres, because it covers three large divisions and
extends to the oblique line at a point halfway between the 0 • 2 and 0 • 3
of tenth millimetre vernier divisions.

To obtain the actual size of the object itself this result has merely
to be divided by the initial magnifying power of the object glass, which
is engraved on each object-glass.

In cases where great accuracy is required each object glass can be
verified as to its initial magnifying power by the use of a stage micro-
meter. For this purpose focus the scale of a stage micrometer carefully ;

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

93

if ^V of a millimetre now measures 2 • 5 millimetres in the scale with the
coi-rect tube length of IGO millimetres, and a particular object glass, the
magnifying power of that object glass is 25.

Sloan Objective Changer. — This apparatus, which is patented, takes
the place of the double or triple nose-piece, and has many advantages.
It consists of an adapter which has on one side a sloping projection A
with a bevelled nut 0. The adaptei' is clamped to the nose-piece of the
microscope by a screwed ring D, which is provided with stop, into which

<&

a halfpenny will fit, for tightening it up, and a series of loose fittings,
one of which is screwed on to each object glass.

These can be readjusted by means of a spanner supplied for that
purpose, so that each lens can be centred with an accuracy that is never
possible with a revolving nose-piece. The object glasses can be inter-
changed almost as rapidly as turning a i-evolving nose-piece.

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

A New Microscope Illuminator. — The device, patented by Alexander
Silverman, which is here described has already come into extensive use
in the United States.

The lamp consists of a ^-in. glass tube containing a single tungsten
filament. The tube is bent into a circle of 1-in. inside diameter and
l|-iu. outside diameter. It is made of colourless or blue (daylight)
glass, and silvered so that light is reflected downward from the circular
source to the object being examined.

The lamp is operated at 0'9 ampere and 13 "5 volts for visual work,
and I'OG ampere and 18 volts for photographic work. Current from
an ordinary lighting circuit is utilized and controlled tlirough a special
rheostat (fig. 1) which contains a push-button switch for the lower
current and a spring contact for the higher one.

An automatically adjustable support (fig. 2), provided with three
iris-like fingers, controlled by springs, is attached concentrically about
the objective. The lamp is held to the underside of the support by
two curved prongs and a perforated spring clip which slips over the

94

SUMMARY OF CQltRENT KESEARCHES RELATING TO

exhaust-protuberance of the lamp. The terminal wires from the lamp
are attached to binding posts which are so constructed that they Avill also
receive the brass pegs attached to the cord coming from the rheostat.
These pegs may be inserted vertically or horizontally.

Fig. 1.

For general observation the lower portion of the lamp is in a plane
with the flat face of the ol)]ective-lens, but it may be raised or lowered
to meet the needs of the operator.

While the lamp-holder is clamped directly to the objective on

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monocular (tig. 1) and single-objective binocular microscopes when
16 mm. or higher power objectives are employed, a stage support (fig. 3)
is provided for use with low power objectives and double objective
binocular microscopes. Ijateral adjustment of the stage adapter centres

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

95

the light, and vertical adjustment enables the operator to keep the lamp
at a constant distance from the object under examination.

A shutter (fig. i), which slips inside the lamp circle, may be placed
ander the lamp to cut off the light from one half of the circle so as to
produce shadows where these prove desirable. Where depth without
shadows is desired the shutter is unjiecessarj.

The absorption disk is a dull black disk (fig. 5) for covering highly
polished surfaces, so that only the small portion under examination is
exposed to the light.

For photomicrographic work the illuminator is attached as already
described and the camera employed without lenses except those contained
in the oljjective and ocular.

Excellent results have been obtained with low-power objectives from

Fig. 4.

Pig. 5.

GO mm. to IG mm. By using the stage adapter for ;-)2 nun. and less
powerful objectives it is possible to place the lamp about -|-in. from the
object and obtain beautiful effects. This is of advantage also with the
double ol)jective binocular microscope.

The illuminator has proven satisfactory for oil-immersion work with
a 1-8 mm. objective and lox ocular (1425 diameters). The markings
on diatoms and structure of fine-grained alloys .show clearly.

9G

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Fig. 6.

To allay any fear concerning the heat radiated or conducted from
the lamp, it may be stated that the lamp was attached to various
objectives and ran continuously at 100 p.c. over-voltage for more than
half an hour without doing any harm to the objectives. Dr. E. M.

Chamot, of Corrjell University, conducted an
independent, series of experiments in which he
drilled a hole in the side of the objective, in-
serting a small pyrometer tube between the
lenses. He burned the ;lamp continuously over
long periods and pronounced it harmless.

The Contrast Sensibility of the Eye as a
Factor in the Resolving Power of the Micro-
scope.— F. E. "Wright. The following sum-
mary is reprinted from the Journal of the Optical
Society of America, I'^l^, 2-3, Nos. 3-6. May-
November. Attention is directed to three factors
which are of importance in high-power microscope
work, namely — («) the use of a polarizing prism
to eliminate that part of the field light which
does not contribute to the diffraction pattern in
the image, and hence tends to reduce the con-
trast and to decrease the sharpness and crispness
of the image. This pihenomenon arises because diffracted beams which
emerge from gratings whose interval is of the order of magnitude of
half-a-wave length of light are sensibly polarized in a plane normal to
the lines of the grating. (J)) A diaphragm of the rectangular type is
recommended for use in the image plane of the eye-piece in order to cut
out all light except that from the particular object under examination.
This device allows the eye to work at best efficiency because it is not
disturbed by extraneous light. For the same reason the writer uses a
soft rubber eye-shield fitted to the microscope to cut out extraneous
light from the sides. Rubber eye-shields of this kind have been
employed by the Army and Navy for many years on fire-control and
other observing instruments. A dark screen or curtain of velvet is also
sus]">ended Ijetween the observer and the strong source of light and
shields his eye from the intense rays which fatigue them quickly, (c) The
importance of a field intensity of illumination approaching that of day-
light and best adapted for the eye at any particular time is emphasized ;
the simplest method for securing this is by means of a substage polarizer
which can be rotated, and with it the intensity of illumination of the field
varied.

These factors are not important for ordinary observations, because
the resolving power there required is not great ; but in high-power,
critical work they are significant and enable the observer to accomplish
with comparative ease that which under other conditions is a matter of
difficulty. J. E. B.

i

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 97

METALLOGRAPHY.

Defects arising- iu Steel during Fabrication. — Austin R.Wilson
{Chemical itnd Metalliin/lcal Kiujlaeeriim, Dec. 22, 11)20, 23, No. 25).
Microscopic appearances caused by surface defects, cold-working, over-
heating;, and burning. Nuclei of fatigue fractures are associated with
phosphorus bands. Photographs of changes in structure during anneal-
ing of steel castings are also given.

Effect of Iron on Brass. — 0. S>l\lley {Melal Indmtrij, Nov. 26,
1920. 17, No. 22). The author concludes that small quantities of iron
improve the hardness and strength and shock-resisting properties of
brasses, aud discusses its effects upon the working of both cast and
wrought l)rass.

Polarized Lig-ht in the Study of Ores and Metals.— F. E. Wright
{Froc. Amer. Phil. Soc, 191'.), 58).

Examination of Ores and Metals in Polarized Light. — F. E.
Weight (Minin// and Metallurgy, 1920, No. 15s).

Metallography of Arc-fused Steel. — Henry S. Rawdon, Edward
C. CtRoesbeck, and Louis Jordan {Chemical and MeUdlarcjical En-
gineerinij, Oct. 20, 1920, 23, No. 16). Various lines of investigation
are utilized to support the idea that microscopic " plates " existing in
fusion welds are due to nitrogen ; that the plates are very persistent , and
are not responsible for the low ductility of the metallic piece.

Diffusion of Solid Copper in Liquid Aluminium. — Robert J.

Anderson {Chemical and Mel all urn iced Engineering, Sept. 22, 1920, 23,
No. 12). Details of experiments where copper rods were dipped in
molten aluminium under definite conditions, and the resulting alloy
analysed. Filiation experiments also were made in various ways, all
giving nearlv the same results.

s

Manufacture of Rich Copper : Aluminium Alloys or Hardeners. —
Rokt. J. Anderson {Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Sept. 29,
1920, 23, No. 13). Describing the methods in use in aluminium
foundries of the United States for manufacturing rich alloys of copper
and aluminium, and details of experiments carried out for the purpose
of comparing different methods.

Quenching- of Carbon Steels.— Portevin and Garvin {Bulletin
de la Sociite d' Encouragement pour rindustrie Nationale, May-June,
1920). This study deals mainly with the conditions under which
troostite and martensite are formed. F. L G. R.

H

98 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

Relationship between Dendritic Structure and Ferrite Mesh. — ■
F. GiOLiTTi {Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, May 1'.', r.>20,
22, 921-1)). These investigations were made upon a 2 p.c. open-
hearth nickel steel. Both tlie position and the form of the ferrite
elements appear to be wholly independent of the position, and also the
state, of the system of dendrites. Microphotographs accompany the
paper. • F. I. G. R.

Microstructure of Malleable Cast-iron in relation to its
Behaviour under Stress.— R. Stotz {Stahl and Eisen, July 2'J, 1920,
40, 997-1002). The appearance of the fracture when subjected to
microscopical examination is described, in the case of both correctly
and incoiTectly manufactured specimens. F. I. Ct. R.

Oblique Fracture in Steel, and Segregation. — P. Oberhoffer
{>Smhl and Eisen, June 20, 1920, 40, 705-13, 872-8). The author
considers the form of fracture to be due to local accumulations of
phosphorus. Segregation and means of revealing it by different etching
re-agents are discussed, and some particularly interesting microphoto-
graphs are appended. F. I. ("x. R.

Effect of the Addition of other Metals on the Plasticity of Nickel
Steel.— C.E.GuiLLAUME {Compter Rendns, June 28, 1920,170, 143o).
The effect is described of varying proportions of manganese, chromium ,
and carbon in nickel steel of known nickel content. F. I. (}. R.

99

NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS.

Report of the Inquiry Committee on the Standardisation of the
Elements of Optical Instruments. London : Published for the
Department of Scientitic and Industrial Research bv His
Majesty's Office. 1920. Price l.s. net.

The question of standardisation of the elements of optical instruments,
the need for which was made evident by experience during the war, v/as
first brought to the attention of the Sub-Committee on Standardisation
of the Elements of Optical Design of the Standing Committee on Glass
and Optical Instruments by members representing the Ministry of
Munitions, the War Office and the Admiralty. Previous to the appoint-
ment of the Committee on Standardisation, a questionnaire was addressed
to the principal manufacturers of optical instruments, twenty-three in
number, in order to ascertain their opinions on the subject generally,
and on the following subjects in particular : — Units of measurement ;
diameters, focal lengths and radii of curvature of lenses ; small screws ;
screw threads for cells and tubing; diameters of tu])es, rods and wire ;
thicknesses of sheet metal ; shafts and holes : racks and pinions.

The replies of the manufacturers indicated great diversity of practice,
and showed generally that standardisation would be welcomed by them.
The chief objects of the Committee have been to reduce to a reasonable
minimum the existing great variety of sizes of some of the components
of optical instruments, and to appoint limiting dimensions so as to
secure, among components of the same nominal size, real interchange-
ability and reasonable closeness of fit. The present Report is confined
to certain subjects selected by the representatives of the xidmiralty. War
Office and Air Ministry as being most urgent in connexion with the re-
designing of Service instruments in the light of experience during the
war, but it is applicable to other optical instruments. J. E. B.

The Microscope : An Introduction to Microscopic Methods and to
Histology. By Simon Henry Gage. 1920. x + 474 pp. l^th
edition. Published by the Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca.
New York.

The Growth and Shedding of the Antler of the Deer. By Wilham
Maceweu, F.R.S. 1920. xviii + 110 pp. Published by
Maclehose, Jackson and Co., Glasgow. Price 10s. 6d. net.

H 2

K)0 2 NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS.

The Microscope in the Mill. The Formation, Chemistry, and Pesti*-
of Corn, Meal and Flour. By James Scott. 1920. x + 246 pp.
Published by the Northern Publishing Co., Ltd., 17 Goree
Piazzas, Liverpool.

An Introduction to the Chemistry of Plant Products. Yol. L, On
the Nature and Sigiiificance of the Commoner Oro-anic Com-
pounds of Plants. 'By Paul Haas and T. G. Hill. 'li)21. 3rd
edition, xlv + 414 pp. Published by Longmans, Green and Co.,
39 Paternoster Row, E.C.4. Price 16s. net.

The British Fresh-water Rhizopoda and Heliozoa. Vol. Y., Heliozoa.
By G. H. Wailes. 1921. sii + 72 pp. and 10 pis. Published
by the Ray Society.

101

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

AX ORDINARY MEETINCt

■OF THE Society was held at 20 Hanovek Square, W., ox
Wednesday, October 20th, 1920, Professor John Eyre,
President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read, contirmed, and
signed by the President.

The nomination papers were read of twelve candidates for Fellowship.

New Fellows.— The following were elected Ordinary Fellows of
the Society : — • ,

Mr. Richard Siddoway Bagnall, F.R.S.E., F.L.S.
Mr. James Bronte Gatenby, B.A., B.Sc, Ph.D.

A Donation was' reported from Mr. AY. M. Bale (Australia) of a
Collection of Slides, (Hydroids, etc.), and a hearty vote of thanks was
■accorded to the Donor. •

The Deaths were announced of : —

Mr. Frank W. Lacy— Elected 1917.

Mr. Francis E. Robotham — Elected 1916.

Mr. Wynne E. Baxter— Elected 1890.

The President referred to the services rendered to the Society by
Mr. Wynne Baxter, who was elected a ^Member of the Council in 1900,
and served as Honorary Treasurer from 1903 to 191o.

A paper by Professor G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., entitled " A Polariscope
for Dissecting and Pocket Microscopes," was read, and will be published
in the Society's Journal.

lOl' PEOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

An Exhibition was then given, ilhistrating the use of polarized light
in inicrosco[>ical work.

Mr. Scourfield said that in suggesthig this exhibition he had hoped
that they would not only have examples of the use of polarized light in the
study of rocks, minerals and other inorganic substances, but also a very
full demonstration of its value in connexion with organic structures.
Although the exhibition in this respect was by no means complete, he
thought that it did show very clearly that polarized light was a most
useful aid to research in the organic world. It might not always be
possible to find out absolutely new structures by its means, but it often
put one on the track of things that would otherwise be overlooked, or
gave a new significance to well-known details. He thought that work
with high powers and a very strong light in conjunction with the polari-
scope would probably open up a very fruitful line of research. For
instance, in examining Volvox in this way he had noticed that the red
eye-spots of the individual green cells show out like so many little glow-
lamps, probably indicating a very definite specialized structure in
addition to the pigment. Tlie eye-spots in other forms of the Volvoeacese,
such as (Jhlaniydomonas, he found to behave in the same way. In many
Desmids strong polarized light with high magnification revealed myriads
of bright granules often arranged in characteristic ways. In a species
of Pleurotsenium he had seen the cell sap charged with minute scintil-
lating particles, not uniformly distributed, but massed at different spots,
in one case ending abruptly about half way along a semi-cell as if
retained by a septum. It was just possible that this was a very early
indication of approaching cell division not recognizable at that stage in
any other way.

Mr. Scourfield also read extracts from letters he had received from
Mr. Ashe and ^Ir. Wycherley, who were unfortunately unable to be
present, giving many examples of the way in which they had found the
use of polarized light helpful in their work, especially in the examination
of foodstuffs, drugs, fibres used in paper manufacture, etc.

Exhibits were made by

F. Addey , . . Transverse section of leaf of Eahm,

showing columnar sclerides.

M. A. Ainslie . . Eesolution of fine Diatom structure,

Nitzscliia singalensis, 117,000 trans-
verse striae per inch ; practically
unresolvable in styrax without polar-
ized light.

S. G. Akehurst . . Wing case of Beetle, Dichirotrkhus

pubescens, showing rows of tiny
medallions with characteristic black
cross.

W. E. Watson Baker . A'arious rock and mineral sections,

chemical substances, etc.

F. E. Cocks . . Meh'reria rinijens.

E. Cuzner . . . (voumarin, Platino-cyanide of Yttrium.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIKTV.

103

B. K. .Johnson

C. H. Oakden .
F. A. Parsons

J. H. Pledge
F. I. G. Rawlins

F. Rowley .

W. Russell

D. J. Scourtield ,

W. R. Traviss ,
J. Wilson .

G. W. Young-

Section of Granite. Polarizer made
of a 3 in. by 1 in. slip, with black
varnish on one side stuck on to
mirror.

Crystals of Quinol.

Crystjils of Oxalurate of Ammonia.

Leg of Cockroach showing muscles.

Various rock sections.

Section of Norite showing good
Felspars.

Raphides of Daffodil leaf.

Volvox aureus, showing eye -spots glow-
ing like little lamps.

Platino-cyanide of Barium.

Leptodora hyalina. showing muscles.

Section of Labradorite in Basalt, also
Radula of Whelk.

Various objects were also shown with polarized light Ijy means of
the projection lantern, and a hearty vote of thanks, proposed from the
Chair, was accorded to those gentlemen who had assisted in the
exhibition.

The President announced that the next meeting of the Biological
Section would be held on Wednesday, November o, when Dr. A. H.
Drew would give a practical demonstration of microscopic technique.

The business proceedings then terminated.

AN ORDINARY MEETING

OF THE Society was held at No. 20 Hanover Square, W., on
Wednesday, November 17th, 1920, Professor John Eyre,
President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read, confirmed, and
signed by the President.

hii:

The nomination papers were read of twelve Candidates for Fellow-

snin.

104 PROCEEDINGS OF TflE SOCIETY.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows of the
Society : —

Mr. Pi-ederick Adams, M.Inst.C.E.

Mr. James J. G. Bates.

Mr. PhiliD G. Bradford, A.M.I.Mech.E.

Mr. H. M. Carleton, B.A.

Mr. Eryk Hayman Catiicart.

Mr. William Ci. Collins.

Mr. W. J. S. Herbert.

Mr. W. Basil Hill, F.C.S.

Mr. Alfred Hutchinson, M.A., B.Sc.

Mr. John William Ware.

Mr. Tidde Westerdyk.

Mr. Karl George Zwick, Ph.C, Ph.D., M.D.

Professor J. R. Partington read a paper on "The Reduction of
Osmic Acids by Lipoids," contributed l)y himself and Mr. D. B.
Hunting-ford. The paper will be published in the Society's Journal.

Mr. E. J. Sheppard read a paper on " A New Method of Treating
and Mounting Celloidin Sections."

Very hearty votes of thanks to the authors of the foregoing papers
were proposed from the Chair and carried by acclamation.

The President announced that the next Meeting would lie on
December 15, when a Conversazione would be held at the jNIortimer
Halls ; that the Biological Section would meet on Decemlier 1, when
Commander Ainslie would make a communication on " The Correct
Microscopical Image," and that the Section would pay a visit to the
Cancer Research Laboratory on December s, by the kind invitation of
the Director, Dr. J. A. Murray.

The business proceedings then terminated.

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.- 105

AN ORDINARY MEETING

OF THE Society ayas held at the Mortimer Halls, W., on
Wednesday, December 15th, 1920, Mr. Radley, Vice-
President, IN THE Chair.

The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read, confirmed, and
signed by the Chairman.

The nomination papers were read of ten Candidates for Fellowship.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows of the
Society : —

Mr. Ernest W. Bowell, M.A^ M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
Mr. John Marsh Burns.
Mr. J. Thornton Carter, F.Z.S.
Mr. D. C. L. Derry.
Mr. Fini G. A. Enna.
Mr. John Hepworth, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
Mr. Alfred Edward a'Court Hudson.
Mr. James Gordon Parker, Ph.D., F.I.C.
• Mr. Herbert Charles Whitfield.
Mr. Clarence Wright.

Mr. Hiscott and Mr. Mortimer were elected Auditors for the ensuing
year.

The names of Fellows nominated for election to the new Council
were read.

The business proceedings then terminated.

The Meeting was held during the Society's

CONVERSAZIONE

at the Mortimer Halls, Mortimer Street, W.l

A Reception was held by the President, Professor Eyre, from
7.15 to 8.15.

106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY,.

General Exhibits were sho\yii by —

F. Addey. — Longitudinal Section of first year ovule of Finns sylvestris.
S. C. Akehurst, F.R.M.S.— Mayfly (Ephemeridfe).

G. P. Bate, M.D., F.E.M.S.— Eyes of Insects and Spiders (Opaque).
Charles Baker. — Latest Pattern Microscopes and Accessories.

Pi. & J. Beck, Ltd. — Standard London Microscopes, showing Test

Podnra Scales, and other Microscopical Apparatus.
C. H. Bestow, F.R.M.S. — Spicules of Synapta.

A. J. Bowtell. — LarvEe of Trichina spiralis, encysted in human muscle.
British Drug Houses Ltd. — Microscopical Stains.
Miss Brooks. — Drawings of Microscopical ( )b]ects.
W. G. Collins, F.R.M.S.— Ebonite — Transparent Sections — and

Photomicrographs of Slides.
J. Bronte Gatenby.B.Sc, D.Phil. (Oxon), F.R.M.S. — Insect Parasites.
C. E. Heath, F.Pt.M.S. — Arachnoidiscus on Weed (Dark-ground Illu-
mination).
E. Heron-Allen, F.Pt.S., F.Pv.M.S., and A. Earland, F.R.M.S.—

Foraminifera.
W. J. Ireland, F.R.M.S. — Muscle Structure in Insects (Polarized

Light).
A. MoRLEY Jones. — Diatomacete.
H. C. Lancaster, F.R.M.S. — Metallurgical Specimens — Non-ferrous

Alloys.
J. R. Leeson, M.D., F.RM.^.— Spironema pallidum (Organism of

Syphilis).
^y. J. Marshall, F.R.M.S. — Auditory Organs of Cricket.
E. R. Newmarch.— Chemical Crystals, etc. (Polarized Light). -
C. H. Oakden. — Living Cheese Mites.
J. Rheinberg, F.R.M.S. — Graticules, Eye-piece and Stage Micrometers,.

etc.
Frank Rowley, F.R.M.S. — Insects Eggs (Opaque ; Binocular) ; Dia-
toms (High-power Binocular).
H. A. St. George.— Opal-eyed Spider: also Disintegrated Roman Glass.
E. J. Sheppard, F.R.M.S.— Mitosis.

H. Taverner, F.R.M.S.— Stereo Colour Photographs of Water-Mites.
C. Tierney, M.S., D.Sc, V.PtM.ii.— >Spironei)ia2>allidi(m in t\ssne.
G. Tilling, F.R.M.S.— The Ruby-tailed Fly, Chr/jsis ignita{Chvj8idid3d).
W. R. Traviss. — Eyes of Jumping Spider.
AV. AVatson & Sons, Ltd. — Microscopes and Accessories, and Various

Forms of Illumination.
C. li. AViTHYCOMBE.— Early Stages of some Marine Animals : Pluteus

Larvae, Zoeae, etc.
S. R. AVycherley, F.R.M.S.— Marine Alg».

Demonstrations were given by —

Professor John Eyre on "Blood Gron^ting."

Dr. T. Skene Keith on " Bacteriological Staining Methods.

Mr. F. AVelch with the Microscopical Projection Apparatus.

PEOOEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

lo:

Pond Life Exhibits were shown bv the followiug Fellows of the
Society and Members of the Quekett Microscopical Club —

M. Blood, F.R.M.8.

H. G. Cannon, F.R.M.S.

F. E. Clocks.
T. X. Cox.

A. J. CURWEN.

B. S. CURWBN.

Miss A. Dixon, F.R.M.S.
A. J. French.

G. Fryer.
H. Goullee.
H. F. Green.
J. T. Holder.
J. J. Jackson.
H. J. Lawrence.
A. E. McClure.
E. R. Martin.
E. K. Maxwell.

H. H. Mortimer, F.R.:\[.S.
J. C. Myles.

E. R. Newmarch.

J. M. Offord, F.R.:\r.s.
R. Paulson, F.R..M.S. .

F. J. W. Plaskitt, F.R.M.S.
J. Richardson, F.R.M.S.

\V . Russell.

D. J. SCOURFIELD, F.R.M.S.
R. S. W. Sears, F.R.M.S.
C. D. Soar, F.R.M.S.

B. J. Thomas.

G. Tilling, F.R.M.S.

C. Turner.

J. AViLsoN, F.R.M.S.
C. L. Withycombe.

Photomicrographic Exhibits were shown by the following Members

of the PjiOTOMICROliRAPHIC SOCIETY —

A. W. Aldis. — Photomicrographs.

W. H. Baddeley. — Microscope and Objects, Photomicrographs and

Transparencies.'
^y. R. Biss. — Photomicrographic Camera.
J. G. Bradbury. — Photomicrograpliic Camera, Microscope, Prints and

Transparencies.
E. M. Bull. — ]\Iicroscope, and Geological Specimens and Prints.
C H. Caffyx.— Ditto, ditto.

E. CuzNER, F.R.M.S. — Microscopic Marine Stndies and Stereoscopic

Transparencies of the Same

F. Martin Duncan, F.R.M.S. — Photomicrographs.

D. J. Rbid, M.B., F.R.M.S. — Microscope and Objects, and Photo-
micrographs.
J. M. Sierra. — Ditto, ditto.
H. C. Whitfield. — Photomicrographic Projection Apparatus.

An Exhibit of Early Microscopes was shown, comprising types
of Simple and Compound INIicroscopes up to the year 1750 from the
collection of the Royal Microscopical Society, with objects as then
mounted with the original objectives ; illustrated by contemporary books
and pamphlets.

The Nickolds Quartette, under the direction of Mr. A. H. Nickolds^
gave Selections during the evening.

108 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

THE ANNUAL MEETING

OF THE Society was held at No. 20 Hanovee Square, W., ox
Wednesday, Ja^'uary 19th, 1921, Professor John Eyre,
President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read, confirmed, and
signed by the President.

The nomination papers were read of seven Candidates for Fellowship.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows of the
Society : —

Captain Arthur Angers, il.M.I.E.E.

Mr. P. Y. Bharadwaja, M.Sc, M.R.A.S.

Mr. John H. Y. Charles.

Mr. Walter C. Crawley, B.A., F.E.S.

Mr. E. M. Cutting.

Mr. J. T. Holder.'

Mr. Henry (I. de Lazlo.

Mr. AY. A. Poyser.

Mr. Frank L. Seymour-Jones.

Mr. John T. R. Wildman.

A Donation of a Collection of Metallurgical Specimens was reported
from Dr. Stead.

On the motion of the President, a very hearty vote of thanks was
accorded to Dr. Stead for his valuable gift to the Society.

The Annual Report of the Council for 1920 was read as follows : —

FELLOWS.

During the year r)8 Ordinary Fellows have been elected and 1 rein-
stated. Six deaths have been reported, 7 Fellows have resigned and
1 has been removed from the Roll.

The number of Fellows at the end of the year 1920 uas as
follows : —

Ordinary . . . . IGl

Honorary . . . .17

Ex-officio .... 69
Corresponding ... 1

549

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 109'

Of the Ordinary Fellows —

380 have paid the annual subscription,
of) have compounded,
(j have had subscriptions remitted.

The deaths reported above were those of —

Mr. Wynne E. Baxter. Elected 1890.

Mr. John Davis. Elected 1875.

Mr. William ^add, C.E. Elected 18.s<).

The Hon. Thomas Kirkman. Elected 1898.

Mr. Frank Lacy. Elected 1917.

Mr. Francis E.^Eobotham. Elected 191G.

Mr. AYynne E. Baxter, who was elected in 1890, became a Member
of the Council in 190;'), and was elected Treasurer in 1906, serving in
that capacity until 1913. The Society owes mncli to his energ-y and
continued active interest in its affairs.

FINANCE.

The Revenue Account shows the excess of the expenditure over
income as £280. Since the valuation of the Society's securities last year,
these have suffered a further depreciation of £177, and this amount
has therefore been written off the Investment and Capital Account.
The Investment Account, therefore, now stands at £1,(336.

During the year two life membership fees have been received, and
these have been placed to the credit of the Life Membership Account,
which now stands at £181 2s. 6rf.

Compared with last year the income of the Society shows a net
increase of £68, but the net expenditure has advanced by £349, the cost
of the publication of the Journal alone being increased by £200.

Fellows of the Society will realize that it is impossible to meet post-
war expenses with pre-war subscriptions — unless the membership is
greatly increased. The reputation and success of the Society largely
depend on the maintenance of i the quality of the Transactions, and for
this reason the Council is anxious to avoid the necessity of further
reducing; the volume of Transactions.

The extra commitments for the year 1921 are likely to be heavy, as^
in addition to other necessary items, the Council wish to commence
printing a catalogue of the instruments and accessories.

The Council has had untler serious consideration the advisability of
increasing the subscriptions, but have deferred taking action at the
present time in the hope that during the coming year the steady increase
of subscription and admission fee income will enable the Society to
balance its expenditure account.

It has, therefore, been decided to open a voluntary fund to meet this
year's deficit, and all Fellows are invited to subscril)e at least 20s. to this
fund. A copy of this report and a special letter will be sent to all
Fellows.

ir.

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT

Dec. 31, 1919.

£ S. d.

155 5 0

254 7 6

29 0 2

85 19 7

32 2 0

310 12 8

35 fi 9

10 10 0

2 16 7

916 0 3

To Rent and Insuiance

,, Salaries and Reporting

,, Sundry Expenses —

Library, Bcolvs and Binding
Stationery, Printing, etc. .
Cleaning Library and Repairs
Petty Expenses and Postages

,, Journal —

Expenditure —
Printing

Editing and Abstracting ."
Illustrating
Postages, etc. .

Less Receipts —

Sales ....
Advertisements

Expenses of Conversazione
Symposium

Donation to Board of Scientific
Societies ....

Balance, being excess of Income
over Expenditure

d.

875
73
23
34

390
116

7
4
0

7

9
0
0
6

11
10

72 19

100 16

13 1

41 8

82
41

17
3

1005 19 3

506 7 9

6
9

164
292

s.
18

16

d.

6

11

228 5 0

499 11 6

74 1 3
5 5 0

£1264 18 2

i0r,

BALANCE

Dec. 31, 1919.
£ S. d.

364 2 7

118 2 6
2023 2 3

Liabilities. ;

To Sundry Creditors —

Subscriptions paid in Advance
On A/c Journal Printing, etc.
,, Sundry A/cs outstanding

„ Life Membership (1917 A/c) .
Add Life Membership Fees
received in 1920

,, Capital Funds —

Balance as per last A/c
Less Depreciation of Society's
Investments .

Less Excess of Expenditure
over Income for vear

d.

£ s. d.

37 5 6-

365 2 6

18 15 0

118 2

6

63 0

0

2023 2 3

177 0 0

3
4

280 18

£ s. d.

421 3 0

181 2 6

1565 3 11

2505 7 4

£2167 9 5

(Signed) G. F. Hill, Hon. Treasurer.
11th Jan., 1921.

Cr,

FOR YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER, l92o.

Dec. 31, 1919.
€ s. d. £ s. d. & s. d.

By SubscriptioQS (excluding Life Members' Fees) 699 4 3
„ for year 1920, unpaid . . 37 16 0

682 15 5 737 0 3

77 14 0 ,, Admission Pees ...... 115 10 0

35 15 8 ,, Sundry Sales ...... 622

119 15 2 ,, Interest on Investments and Deposit A/c . 125 7 5

916 0 3

,, Balance being Excess of Expenditure over
Income .......

280 18 4
£1264 18 2

SHEET.

Dec. 31, 19J9.

£ s. d.

150 0 0

86 2 11

3 2 5

259 16 6

1813 0 0
18 16 0

174 9 6

2505 7 4

Assets.
By Cash-
On Deposit A/c .....
On Current A/c .....
On Petty Cash A/c ....

,, Sundry Debtors —

Subscriptions unpaid ....
On A/c Journal Sales ....
,, ,, Advertisements

,, Investments at Valuations, Dec. 31, 1919 —
£400 North British Railway 3 % Deb.
£500 Nottingham Corporation 3 % Deb.
£915 India 3 % Deb.
£150 Metropolitan Water Board 3 %
£421 War Loan 5 %
£612 Caledonian Railway No. 1 Pref.
Less Depreciation ....

,, Stock of Screw Gauges, Valued at
,, Property Account, as per last Balance Sheet
Add Purchased during year .

d.

55 12
5 18

7
9

37 16

192 8"

43 5

0
7
0

1813
177

174
14

0
0

9

14

0
0

Cr.

£ s. d.

61 11 4

273 9 7

1636

0
5

0
0

189 3 6

£2167 9 5

We have examined the accounts as above set forth, and have verified the same with the
books, vouchers and securities belonging to the Society, and, in our opinion, the
Balance Sheet is properly drawn up so as to exhibit a true and correct view of the
Society's affairs, but no account has been taken of the value of the Society's Library,
Instruments and Stocks of Journals (valued for Insurance at £3500)

(Signed) T. H. HISCOTT, \ „ , ,.,

H. H. MORTIMER, / ^'"'- ^^'-d^tors.

112 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

JOURNAL.

For some years past, owing to the adverse condifcions prevailing, it
was found impossible to produce the Parts of the Journal during the
months for which they were dated. Your Council is pleased to report
that the current Part was issued in good time, and it is hoped that no
delay will occur in the publication of future Parts.

The Council wishes to thank most cordially the Editors, Abstractors
and Contributors for their valuable and much appreciated work during
the past year.

LIBRARY.

Daring the year 117 volumes have been borrowed from the Library
by Fellows of the Society, in addition to 19 volumes that have been
obtained from I^ewis's Library for their use.

Donatious to the Library have been received from — The British
Museum, The Cambridge LTniversity Press, Mr. E. Heron-Allen, Messrs.
Methuen & Co., Ltd., Mr. P. E. R"adley, Dr. E. J. Spitta, and Messrs.
W. Wesley & Son.

INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS.

The Listruments and Apparatus belonging to the Society are in
excellent condition.

During the year the Society has received the following donations : —

Mr. C. D. Soar :— A Microscope.

Major T. C. Squance : — Three Microscopes.

A large amount of work has been done during the year by Mr.
W. E. Watson Baker and Mr. C. F. Hill in the preparation of a
Catalogue of the Society's Collection. The thanks of the Society are
due to those gentlemen for their valuable services.

GAUGES.

Early in the year the Committee of Cauges, in conjunction with the
Committee of Standardization of Limits of Optical Instruments of the
Department of the S. and L Research, fixed the limits for eye-piece and
eye-piece fittings of Microscopes. A full report will be found on
p. 127 of the R.M.S. Journal, 1920.

CABINET.

During the year valuable additions to the Society's Cabinet have
been received from :—

Mr. W. Bale :— A Collection of Slides (Hydroids, etc.).
Mr. C. T. Harris :— A Collection of Slides (Bryophyta).
Dr. E. Penard : — A Collection of Slides (Rhizopoda, etc.).

PROCEEDINGS OV THE SOCIETY. 113

MEETINGS.

The Meetings of the Society luive been well attended.

The papers have been of a varied and interesting character, and
have been followed by nsefiil discussion.

The Biological Section, which meets on the first Wednesday of each
month, has had a most successful year. During the session a special
visit was paid to the Cancer Reseai'ch Laboratory l)y the kind invitation
of the Director, Dr. J. A. Murray.

The thanks of the Society are due to i\Ir. J. Wilson for his continued
energy and activity as Honorary Secretary of the Section.

LEATHER INDUSTRIES SECTION.

Owing to the active interest of j\[r. Alfred Seymour- Jones, a new
Section of the Society has been formed which will deal with Physiology ,
Mycology and Bacteriology in relation to the Leather Industries. The
inaugural meeting was held in November, when Dr. S. H. Browning
kindly undertook the duties of Honorary Secretary to the Section. It
is hoped that during 1921 a great amount of useful and practical
research work will be accomplished. It is anticipated that similar
developments may be arranged in connexion with other important
industries.

THE SYMPOSIUM.

In addition to the Ordinary Meeting in January a Symposium was
held on the 14tli of the mimth of which an account was included in last
year's report. This Symposium was followed by special sectional
discussions in Sheffield in February and in the Lecture Hall of the
R.M.S. on April 21. A full report of the Symposium and the subsequent
discussions has been issued as the concluding Part of the Society's
Journal for 1920, and forms a very valuable work of reference to those
epoch-making conferences.

A CONVERSAZIONE

was held on the 15th December at the Mortimer Halls. The exhibits
were numerous and of a most interesting character, and the thanks of
the Society are due to those Fellows of the Society and Members of the
Quekett Microscopical Club and Photomicrographic Society whose
assistance contributed to the success of the evening.

INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS.

During the year the Society has become a Participating Society in
the newly formed Institute of Physics. Fellows are urged to enrol
themselves as Members of the Institute, x^rrangements are being made
whereby Members of the Institute who are also subscribing Fellows or
Members of other Participating Societies will be allowed a substantial
reduction in the fees payable to such Societies. Other benefits of a
far-reaching character are anticipated in the future.

114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. .^

During August the R.M.S. table at the Plymouth Laboratory was
placed at the disposal of Mr. A. Clavering Hardy, and some useful work
was accomplished by that gentleman.

Mr. Marshall moved, and Mr. Pledge seconded, that the Annual
Report and Balance Sheet be received and adopted. Carried.

Mr. Cuzner moved, and Mr. A. W. Sheppard seconded, that a very
hearty vote of thanks be tendered to the Honorary Officers and Members
of the (*ouncil for their services to the Society during the past year.
Carried.

The President appointed Mr. Cuzner and Mr. Whitfield to act as
Scrutineers, and afterwards announced the result of the IxiUot for the
election of Officers and Council for the ensuing year as follows :—

President.— J. W. H. Eyre, M.D., M.S., F.R.S.Edin.

Vice-Presidents. — Sir George Sims Woodhead, K.B.E., M.A.. M.l).,
LL.D., etc. ; Frederic J. Cheshire, C.B.E., F.Inst.P. : Percy E. Radlev ;
David J. Scourfield, F.Z.S.

Treasurer. — Cyril F. Hill

Secretaries. — Joseph E. Barnard, F.Inst.P. ; James A. Murray, M.D.

Council.— lsi&x\x\CQ A. Ainsiie, Pt.N. ; S. C. Akehurst ; W. E. Watson
Baker; Aubrey H. Drew, D.Sc. ; F. Martin Duncan, F.Pt.P.S., F.Z.S. ;
Arthur Earland ; E. Heron-Allen, F.P.S. ; T. H. Hiscott ; Julius
Pheinberg ; E. J. Sheppard : Clarence Tierney, M.S., D.Sc. ; Joseph
Wilson.

Librarian. — F, Martin Duncan, F.R.P.S., F.Z.S.

Editor.— V\\2iX\Q^ Singer, M.A., M.D.

Cur((tor of Instruments. — W. E. Watson Baker.

Curator of Slides. — E. J. Sheppard.

Curator of Metal htrf/ical Specimens. — F. Ian (J. Rawlins.

A vote of thanks to the Scrutineers was moved from the Chair and
carried.

Mr. Scourfield exhiliited a further selection from Dr. Penard's
preparations of Rhizopoda and Heliozoa presented to the Society last
year, and called attention to the great value of the Collection to those
working on those groups.

The President then delivered his Presidential Address, " Twenty-
five Years' Bacteriological Work : a Personal Retrospect."

Mr. Mortimer moved : " That the best thanks of this meeting be
accorded to Professor Eyre for his Presidential Address, and that he
be asked to allow it to be printed in the Journal of the Society."'

Mr. E. J. Sheppard seconded the proposal, wliich was carried by
acclamation.

PKOCEEDINGB OF THE SOCIETY. 115

The President announced that he had a very sad and at the same
time a very pleasant duty to perform. For many years Mr. Scourlield
had acted as Honorary Secretary to the Society. The Fellows knew Mr.
Hconrfield, and they loved him — (applause) — and he did not think there
was a ^lember of the Council who had nut tried to induce Mr.
Sconrheld to retain his position. But nothing would move him from
his decision to retire. He had spent many years in doing what he could
for the Society, and no man had its interests more at heart, or had done
his work better. He had certainly earned his retirement. He was now
going to devote his time to a special research work, and he (the
President) was sure it was the desire of the Fellows to exprefcs their
appreciation of all that Mr. Scourlield had done, and to wish him every
success in any work he might undertake in the future — (applause).

Mr. Scourfield, in reply, said he hardly knew how to thank the
Fellows for the kindly way in which they had received the remarks of
the President. He had tried to do what he could for the Society, and
it gave him great pleasure to know tliat his efforts had met with theii'
appreciation. He was sorry to relinquish the duties, but he felt that he
must have more spare time in which to do some original work.

The President announced that the nest meeting of the Societv
would l)e held on February IG, and of the Biological Section on
February 2, when Mr. E. Cuzner would make a communication on
" Hydrozoa."

AN ORDINARY MEETING

ov THK Society was held at -20 Haxoveu SQUAUii, W., on
Wednesday, February IGth, 1921, Professor John Eyre,
President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read, confirmed, and
signed by the President.

The nomination papers were read of three Candidates for Fellowship.

New Fellows : — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows of the
Society : —

Rev. W. Monaghan Coombes.

Mr. James Stretton Frith, A.I.C.

Mr. Reginald J. Ludford, B.Sc, F.R.H.S.

Mr. Edgar Ribton New march.

Mr. C. L. Sahni, M.B., B.S.

Mr. J. M. E. Sierra.

Captain Henry Francis Stobart.

I 2

IK) i'KOCEEDINGS OF THE SOUIKTY.

Donations were reported as follows : —

Mr. J. Kheinberg —

A Pointolite Lamp.
Mr. C. D. Soar—

" Woolwich Surveys."
Mr. S. H. Gage—

" The Microscope."
Messrs. Longmans, Green & Co. —

" Chemistry of Plant Products."
Messrs. Maclehose, Jacknjn & Co. —

" Growth and Shedding of the Antler of the Deer."

Thanks were accorded to the donors.

The Deaths were announced of : —

Mr. C. E. Hanaman— Elected 1882.
Professor Henry Hanks — Elected 1874.
Mr. F. A. Parsons— Elected 1912.
, Dr. E. J. Spitta— Elected 190:^..

Mr. Reginald J. Ludford, B.Sc. r< ad a paper, " Contributions to
the Study of the Oogenesis of Patella.'''' It was illustrated by means of
exhibits and lantern slides, and will be pnblislied in the Society's Journal.

The President said that it was extremely fascinating to trace the
processes stage by stage, and it was to be hoped that at some future
time Mr. Ludford would l)e able to descril)e the later stages.

A discussion followed, in which Dr. Murray, Dr. Gatenby and
Dr. Bowell took part, after which a very hearty vote of thanks to Mr.
Ludford for his interesting paper was proposed from the Chair, and
carried unanimously.

Mr. Rawlins presented a Report on the Collection of Metallurgical
Specimens recently presented to the Society by Dr. J. E, Stead, F.R.H.S.

The thanks of the Meeting were accorded to Mr. Rawlins, and also
to Messrs. Hawksley & Sons for the loan of ^Microscopes.

The President announced that the .next Meeting would be held on
March 16, and that the Biological Section would meet on March 2.

The business proceedings then tei'minated.

•i;i»(;ERr)iNGs ov tiik sodirty. IJ7

KKPOliT ON THE WORK OF THE RIOLOUICAL SECTION
DURING THE SESSION 1919-20.

It is my pleasing duty to submit to the Council the 12th Annual Report
of the Biological Section, for it will show that increased interest is
taken in the sectional work, that the evenings have been fully occupied,
and that the average attendance at the meetings is steadily increasing.
In the Session 1918-19 the average attendance was 25-6, that being a
record. The average attendance last session was 30 '1, the lowest
number at any meeting, November, was 20, and the highest at the May
meeting, :'!(), a record number.

Durino' the session eight meetings were held on the first Wednesdays
in the months November to June, at which seven interesting communi-
cations were read and discussed. At the November meeting Mr. Paulson
gave some notes on " The Nucleus and Ryrenoid in certain Spherical
Algaj." The Decend^er meeting was occupied by .Mr. Akehurst with
'•Notes on the liarva of Gorethia Fhimicoriiisy On January 7, 1920,
\)\\ J. A. Murray gave a practical demonstration on " The Manipulation
of Frozen Sections of Animal Tissues." At the February meeting Sir
Nicholas Zermoloff gave an interesting communication on " Beggiatoa
and Allied Forms." The March meeting was mainly occupied by Dr.
Tierney on the " Bacterial Flora of Water," and this proved of such
interest that the discussion upon it was adjourned until the April
meeting, when the specimens of cultures exhibited could be further
examined. The meeting on May 5 was occupied by Mr. J. E. Barnard,
who described "The Correct Image" in the unavoidable absence of
Commander Ainslie, R.N., who was on the programme for that evening.
The last meeting of the Session was on June 2, when Mr. Scourfield
gave some '' Notes on Zoochorellae."

In addition to these communications, many interesting specimens
were shown under the microscope and described by the exhibitor, thus
addine- to the attraction and usefulness of the meetings.

J. WILSON, Hon. Secretary.

118 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

REPOET ON THE COLLECTION OF ME^JWLLUBGIdAL
SPECIMENS RECENTLY PRESENTED TO THE
SOCIETY BY DR. J. E. STEAD, F.R.S.

By F. Ian (t. Rawlins.

At the Meeting of this Society held in November 1919, Dr. .). F.
Stead, F.R.S., who was present, asked me to announce that he would be
willing to contribute a number of metallurgical microscope specimens to
our collection, of which the first instalment was given bv Sir Robert
Hadfield, Bart.

Dr. Stead's valuable gift has now come into the Society's possession,
and, in accordance with the wish of the Council, it is proposed to exhibit
it at this meeting and to describe its outstanding features.

A catalogue on the lines of that already issued will shortly be
available for the use of Fellows who wish to examine the collection.
IMeanwhile, it is pleasant to say that the specimens are of unique
interest, as being the actual material upon which Dr. Stead conducted
his classical researches on Blast Furnace Bears and the iron-carbon-
phosphorus system of alloys.

The collection consists of eighteen micro- sections. A number of
these require polishing and etching, so that some delay may ensue before
they are ready, but those that do not require such treatment are on
view to-night. The method of differentiating the structure is that
known as heat-tinting. The piece of material is immersed in a small
bath of molten-lead, with the polished face upwards, just lying in the
liquid surface. The different constituents present oxidize at different
rates, forming, for a given temperature, characteristically coloured films.
The process can be stopped at any desired moment by removing the
specimen from the lead, and plunging it into mercury. As a method
of showing up the structure it is very perfect and beautiful, no
depressions or alteration of level of the surface beiug produced, such
as necessarilv occur with etching re-agents. It mav be pointed out
that the examination of such sections microscopically is attended with
some difficulty, as the light incident upon such a surface must be truly
normal, otherwise there is loss of illumination and also flare due to the
complete absence of minute shadows such as occur with etched slides.

Before proceeding to a brief resume of the structures it might be
well to mention that the behaviour of phosphorus in iron and its alloys is
complicated, but in general it is as follows : In carbonless iron, a binary
eutectic Fe-^P (61 p.c.) and a saturated solution of FcgP in iron (;)9 p.c.)
occurs, but when carbon is present a ternary eutectic containing FcyP,
FcgC, and ferrite with small amounts of phosphorus in solution manifests
itself. This ternary eutectic is characteristic of white and mottled cast-
iron, but the binary eutectic (" Steadite ") is found in grey cast-irons,
even if the metal contains less than 1*7 p.c. C.

PBOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 119

The outstanding features of some of the structures may now be very
l)riefly stated (the numbers referring to the annotated list). In No. 21,
in both sections, the interesting matter is tlie appearance of the minute
white rod-like crystals of iron phosphide. No. H is mostly remarkable
for the exceptionally perfect trianj^ular inclusion of binary eutectic at
the junction of three ferrite grains. Its area is no less than 2 sq. mm.
(approximately). The dove-grey manganese sulphide in No. 25 is very
clearly defined, and is particularly welcome from the microscopist's point
of view, because usually this constituent needs a magnification of the
order of 1000 to. recognize it, and even then it is very elusive. All the
other specimens are interesting for one reason oi- another, but these
remarks must only be taken as giving a few hints towards examining
the more unusual of them. In conclusion, it is a matter of great
satisfaction to us to have been favoured with such a gift from one of
the greatest masters of Metallurgical Research, in which the microscope
has played so great a part.

ANNOTATED LIST OF THE .METALLURGICAL SPECIMENS PRE-
SENTED TO THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY
BY DR. J. E. STEAD, F.R.S.

21. COAHULA MeTEOEITE AND COLUMNAR CRYSTALS. — He^t-tinted.

liimi. : X 800.

The blue and red background is a section through the columnar
crystals of ferrite. Miimte white spots, crystals of Fe.^F.

Brf.: ■•' Micro-analvsis " (Stead), fig. 11)1. "Journal of the Iron
and Steel Inst." (Stead), No. L for 1915, p. 140.

22. ToLUCA Meteorite. — Heat-tinted, llaff. : x 25.

Background, saturated solution of Fe.^P in iron (1 "7 p.c. P). Bright
yellow areas, binary eutectic containing (U p.c. Fe.^P, 89 p.c. saturated
solution of FcgP in iron.

Ref. : " Metallography " (Sauveur), p. 388 et i<ec[.

23. AVhite Iron from Blast Furnace Bear.— Heat-tinted. Mag. :

X 50 for general view. x 300 for the ternary eutectic.
Red = FegC. : blue = FcgP ; white = iron (ferrite) containing
some phosphorus in solid solution. Composition of ternary
eutectic as follows: — Fe = 91-19 p.c. ; P = 6*89 p.c. ; C =
1 • 92 p.c.

Ref. : " Journal of the Iron and Steel Inst." (Stead), No. I. for
1915, p. 140, and coloured plates.

24. (Irey Iron from Blast Furnace Bear. — Mag. : x loO. Gon-

dituents : (Iraphite (dark plates), pearlite (laminated), ferrite
(plain), steadite (mottled). The last-mentioned is a eutectic
containing 10 p.c. P, 90 p.c. Fe, approximately.

Ref. : "Metallography " (Sauveur), pp. 390 and 391, fig. 374.

L20 TKOGEEDINGS OF THK SOCIP^TV.

25. Segregatiox of Manoanehe' Sulphide (MnS) from Blast
Furnace Bear. — Heat-tinted. Man. '• x ^''<*- Constituents :
White = iron. <^rey = MnS. Dark = graphite.

Ref. : " Proceedings of the f 'leveland Inst, of Engineers " (Stead),
li)13-l!)14, p. 169.

2(), 27, 28, 29. Electrically Treated Steels. — May. : x loo.

C = 0 25 p.c. o-fi8 p.c, 0-S2 p.c, 1-32 p.c, respectively, showing
strong line of demarcation of structure.

Ref. : " Value of Science in the Smithy and Forge " (Cathcart),
chap. vii.

30. Inoot Steel. — C = o-3 p.c, P = 0-3 p.c. 3Iag. : x loo.

After forging from C in. ingot to 2 in. bar. The effect of mechanical
work on the structure is illustrated consecutively by this specimen, which
consists of four pieces.

Ref. : " Metallography " (Sauveur), chap. xiv.

JOUENAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

JUNE, 1921.

THAN 8 ACTION 8 OF THE 80CIETY,

IV.— THE BEHAVIOUE OF THE NUCLEOLUS DURING
OOGENESIS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
THE MOLLUSC PATELLA.*

By ReTginald James Ludford, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.R.M.S.,
Department of Zoology, University College, London.

(Read Fehruary 16, 1921.)
Two Plates.

Introduction.

In a previous paper on the Oogenesis of Patella {11)] the relation
of the Golgi Apparatus and Mitochondria to the formation of yolk
■was described, and it was mentioned that during that process there
was an extrusion of " solid " nucleolar material from the nucleus
into the cytoplasm. The present paper is devoted to an account
of the behaviour of the nucleolus and the changes in the chromo-
phility of the cytoplasm during oogenesis.

This research, as the former, was carried out in the Zoological
Laboratories of University College, London, and my thanks are
due to Dr. J. Bronte Gatenby, Lecturer in Cytology, for his kindly
interest and helpful suggestions during the course of this investi-
gation.

I have also to thank Mr. H. Graham Cannon, of the Imperial
College, for some help with the literature of the subject, and Mr.

* The cost of the materials used in this research was defrayed by a Govern-
ment Grant of the Royal Society, for which I express thanks.

t The figures in brackets refer to the bibliography at the end of the paper.

K

122 Transactions of the Society.

J. H. "Woodger, of University College, for kindly fixing some of
the material used in this research, during my absence.

Previous Work on the Nucleolus.

It is customary to recognize three types of nucleoli within the
nuclei of various cells — namely, plasmosomes, karyosomes and
amphinucleoli (i). The plasmosomes, or " true nucleoli " are
usually spherical bodies, composed of " plastin " whose staining
reaction is oxyphil — that is, they take up acid stains such as eosin.
The term karyosome is usually applied to nuclear granules whose
histo-chemical reactions are similar to those of chromatin ; such
bodies stain with dyes like hsematoxylin and methyl green, and
are therefore spoken of as basophil. Amphinucleoli are believed
to be composed of a mixture of " chromatin " and " plastin " ;
they occur in many Protozoa. Their staining reactions are inter-
mediate between those of plasmosomes and karyosomes.

Our knowledge of the relationship of the nucleolus to the
metabolism of the cell is very fragmentary. Nucleoli at different
times have been regarded as storehouses of either albuminous
compounds, or chromatin, or both combined, as accumulations of
waste products within the nucleus, or as special nutritive organs
concerned either with the metabolism of the cell, or else with the
elaboration of chromatin from the karyolymph.

Piecently, emphasis has been laid upon the importance of the
nucleolus by Carleton (^), who has shown that within the nucleolus
of epithelial cells of the gut of the cat and frog there is an argento-
phil core consisting of several granules. During cell division,
while the greater part of the nucleolus disintegrates, these granules
persist and pass in about equal numbers to each of the newly
forming cells, where a new nucleolus is formed around them.
Such intranucleolar bodies have been found associated with both
plasmosomes and karyosomes.

Actual fission of the nucleolus can be observed during amitosis
of follicle cells in the ovaries of insects. In those of Dytiscus,
which have been prepared by fixation in Bouin's fluid and stained
with Mann's methyl blue eosin, I find a distinct oxyphil nucleolus.
This elongates, becomes dumb-bell shaped and eventually separates
into two distinct spherical bodies. Meanwhile the nucleus as a
whole has elongated, and eventually becomes separated into two
parts in typical amitotic fashion.

That nucleoli of somatic cells may stand in nutritional relation-
ship to the cytoplasm has been shown by the work of Schreiner
on Myxine (lo). He found that the oxyphil nucleolus or plasmo-
some of many of the somatic cells increased in size, became
lobulated, and portions broke away and passed in the form of
granules from the nucleus into the cytoplasm ; there they formed

The Behaviour of the Nucleolus during Oogenesis. 123

rodlets which broke up into smaller granules which were converted
into fat. Nucleolar extrusion in Myxine has been observed in
pigment cells, connective tissue cells, blood cells, many gland cells,
and in the male germ cells.

Schreiner regards the rodlets formed by the extruded nucleolar
fragments as mitochondria, and considers this to be a case of
conversion of mitochondria into fat. The transformation of mito-
chondria into fat globules has been described by Murray in the cells
of a transplantable sarcoma of Cavia {13), where the mitochondria
at first, either moniliform or filamentous, break up to form granules
which become swollen and eventually are converted into fat
globules. No mention is made as to the nucleolus being concerned
in this process, but nucleolar extrusions are described and figured
in cells of the same tumour, their ultimate fate being uncertain.

Nucleolar extrusions in somatic cells seem to be specially
related to active metabolism of the protoplasm. Instances of this
are the considerable nucleolar extrusions which occur in the
epithelial cells of the silk glands of insects during the formation
of silk, and in the cells of squamous epithelium of Mammals
during the formation of keratin.

It is doubtful to what extent the nucleoli of oocytes are
comparable with those of somatic cells. Usually there is a single
nucleolus present in the young oocyte. This is the case in most
Echinoderms, many Coelenterates, worms, molluscs and rodents (2).
After the oocyte has undergone the prophases of the heterotypic
division, the chromosomes as such generally seem to disappear {5).
This seems to be due to their spreading out in order to exert their
maximum influence in the growing cell. Confirmation of this is
afforded by the work of Marechal on the oocytes of Elasmobranchs
{13), where after the diplotene stage the chromosomes spread out
irregularly to form a structure which has been compared to a
cylindrical chimney brush.

During the growth stages when the chromosomes are becoming
less distinct in the nucleus of the young oocyte, the nucleolus
makes it appearance, and grows considerably in size. Usually
there is one large plasmosome at the beginning. During the early
stages of oogenesis in Periplaneta and Libellula {8), Hogben has
recently shown that there is an extrusion of oxyphil material from
such a nucleolus, and he concludes that this is connected with
yolk formation and that "the chromatic organization of the nucleus
retains its integral continuity throughout this phase." This is
contrary to the opinion of Schaxel {14), who working on the
oocytes of Echinoderms and Tunicates came to the conclusion that
chromatin was emitted from the nucleus and played an important
part in yolk formation, a conclusion which is open to considerable
doubt in the light of recent work.

In the oocyte of Saccocirrus, Gatenby {6) has found a

K 2

124 Transactions of the Society.

complicated case of nucleolar extrusion. " The nucleolus buds off
fragments which, passing into the cytoplasm, give rise by fission
to numberless granules of a dense proteid nature ; these granules
form the main bulk of the reserve material of the Saccocirrus egg
and constitute the yolk."

The behaviour of that part of the nucleolus which remains within
the nucleus until the end of oogenesis varies in different animals.
In many cases it seems to persist as a definite body until the
chromosomes reappear, and then it disintegrates with the breaking
down of the nuclear membrane preparatory to the maturation
divisions. Kuhn {10), however, describes in Baphnia a large
central nucleolus which breaks up to form a number of smaller
granules which become spread over the linin network. At the
late diakinetic stage when the nuclear membrane breaks down,
the remaining nuclear mass disintegrates. Jorgensen (9) working
on a species of Patella describes, in the youngest oocytes, a nucleolus

EXPLANATION OF PLATES SHOWING THE BEHAVIOUE
• OP THE NUCLEOLUS IN PATELLA.

Lettering. — BB. , basophil body or basophil staining nucleolus ; BP., part of nu-
cleolus which will form the basophil body ; DB., disintegrating basophil nucleolus ;
FB., fragment of basophil substance derived from the basophil nucleolus ; FO.,
fragment of oxyphil substance derived from the oxyphil nucleolus ; GA., Golgi
apparatus; LN., linin network of nucleus; NC, nurse ceU ; NE., oxyphil sub-
stance extruded from nucleolus ; NL., nucleolus; OB., oxyphil body or oxyphil
nucleolus; OC, oocyte; OP., part of nucleolus which will form the oxyphil
body; OS., oxyphil substance remaining attached to basophil nucleolus; T.,
trabecula wall ; YS., yolk spherule.

The oxyphil nucleolus and the substance extruded from it into the cytoplasm
are shown in red ; the basophil nucleolus in black. The chromophilitj" of the
cytoplasm is not represented in colour owing to the difficulty of reproducing the
gradations in colour between primary oxyphilia and basophilia, and basophilia
and secondary oxyphilia.

All the figures are drawn from portions of the ovary fixed in either Bouin with
acetic or corrosive acetic and stained wich Mann's methyl blue eosin.

Plate III.

Fig. 1. — Connective tissue cells, showing the oxyphil nucleolus (NL).

Fig. 2. — Portion of trabecula, showing young oocyte (00) with oxyphil
nucleolus (NL), surrounded by yolk cells.

Fig. 3.— Older oocyte with a large pear-shaped oxyphil nucleolus (NL) and
extruded oxyphil substance in the cytoplasm.

Fig. 4. — 05cyte at a later stage with nucleolus (NL) rounded ofi and extruded
nucleolar material (NE) in the cytoplasm.

Fig. 5. — An early stage in the differentiation of the nucleolus into two parts.
BP will become the basophil body, OP the oxyphil one.

Fig. 6. — Oocyte during the process of differentiation, showing the extrusion
of oxyphil material from the nucleus (NE) and the beginning of basophilia at BP.

i ig. 7. — A slightly later stage than Fig. 6. The basophilia of BP is more pro-
nounced, and the nucleolar extrusion is still proceeding.

Fig. 8. — Oocyte with distinct oxyphil (OB) and basophil (BB) nucleolar bodies
joined together.

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC, 1921. PI. III.

Face p. 124.

The Behaviour of the Nucleolus during Oogenesis. 125

apparently ampliophil, from which are budded off into the
karyolymph two kinds of bodies— namely, amphophile bodies
which develop a basophil cap, and oxyphil granules. During
growth these become scattered throughout the nucleus and
eventually arrange themselves peripherally as " Eandnukleolen,"
The behaviour of the nucleolus in this species is very different
from what is described below in another member of the same
genus, a difference which emphasizes the striking cytological
dis-similarities which occur in closely related oi-ganisms.

Technique.

The material used in the present investigation was fixed either
in corrosive acetic or Bouin's modified solution, picro-formol
acetic acid. The best staining results were obtained by using
Mann's methyl blue eosin, which stained the nucleoli red, blue or
purple according to the stages of development of the oocyte. The
same histo-chemical reactions, however, resulted from the use of
Unna's methylene blue and eosin, lichtgriln and safranin, or
hsematoxylin and eosin used according to Scott's method. Nucleoli
at similar developmental stages which stained blue with methyl
blue took up the green stain when lichtgriin and safranin were
used, or coloured purple when hematoxylin and eosin were em-
ployed. Such nucleoli are therefore referred to in this paper as
. the basophil nucleoli, while those nucleoli which colour with eosin
or safranin are referred to as the oxyphil nucleoli.

In preparations made by the Mann-Kopsch method ( 11), stained
with acid fuchsin and differentiated in picric acid, similar pictures
were obtained as with the fixatives previously mentioned. However,
the difference in staining reaction of different parts of the nucleolar
content of the nucleus, although noticeable, was not so striking as
with the other techniques. Sections fixed by the method of
Mann-Kopsch were treated with potassium permanganate solution
to rectify the loss of staining properties due to the osmic acid, and
then treated with Mann's methyl blue eosin, but although the
same essential results were obtained the Staining reaction was not
satisfactory.

The acetic acid fixatives have the further advantage over
chrome-osmic acid when dealing with the nucleolus and nucleolar
extrusions, as the chrome-osmic preserves the mitochondria, and
these stain with acid fuchsin similarly to the nucleolus and its
extrusions, and so render it difficult to distinguish between the two.

Cheomophility of the Cytoplasm of Patella.

In preparations made by fixation in corrosive acetic or Bouin
with acetic, and stained by so-called acidic and basic stains, the

126 Transactions of the Society.

cytoplasm colours differently according to the stage of develop-
ment of the oocytes. With Mann's methyl l^liie eosin the nuclei
of typical somatic cells stain blue and their cytoplasm purple,
while witli hematoxylin and eosin used according to Scott's
method the nuclei are purple and cytoplasm red. The undifferen-
tiated cells of the germinal epithelium appear to stain in the same
way. However, when such cells begin to develop into oocytes, a
change takes place both in their nuclei and cytoplasm. The latter
begins to stain basophil (that is, with methyl blue eosin it stains
blue, with hsematoxylin and eosin purple). During growth of the
oocyte, by the time that yolk spheres are sparsely scattered through-
out the cytoplasm its chromophility undergoes a further change.
The bhie or purple colour very gradually gives place to red again.
This change in staining properties occurs at about the same
time as the scattered mitochondrial granules {11) commence active
division. In- the full-grown oocyte the cytoplasm stains similarly
to that of the undifferentiated epithelial cells.

There is therefore, in the process of development of the egg
from a cell of the germinal epithelium, a change from primary
oxyphilia to basophilia, followed by a state of secondary oxyphilia
in the mature oocyte.

The Nucleola-K Phenomena .during the Oogenesis

OF Patella.

The nucleolar phenomena were studied in material fixed in
Bouin (with acetic) or corrosive acetic, and stained with Mann's
methyl blue. eosin, or hsematoxylin and eosin, or lichtgriin and
safranin.

The nucleolus of a typical somatic cell stains oxyphil, as is
shown in Fig. 1, Plate III, which represents connective tissue
cells from the digestive gland. The nucleus of the youngest
oocyte has also a small oxyphil nucleolus. In Fig. 2 is shown a
young oocyte growing up from a trabecula of the ovary amongst
three yolk cells. As such an oocyte as this grows the nucleolus
increases considerably in size until it comes to occupy a large area
within the nucleus. During such early growth phases there is a
considerable extrusion of the oxyphil substance into the cytoplasm.

In Figs. 2 and 3 are shown the large oxyphil nucleoli (NL),
and in the cytoplasm the oxyphil substance (NE) derived from
them". This extruded substance appears to dissolve slowly in the
cytoplasm, as different fragments show various intensities of coloura-
tion ; some are as red as the nucleolus itself, while others are
purple in colour, due it would seem to intermingling with the
ground cytoplasm, which stains blue.

It will be observed from the figures shown in Plate III. that

21ic Behaviour of the Nucleolus during Oogenesis. 127

the early extrusion of nucleolar material takes place when the
nucleus is largest in proportion to the volume of the cytoplasm.

At the end of the preliminary growth stages the nucleolus
becomes rounded off, and a distinct separation into two parts is
noticeable. This is shown in the cell drawn in Fig. 5. From this
stage onwards the two parts of the nucleolus react differently to
stains. One part of the nucleolus (OP) still stains oxyphil, while
the other gradually changes. At first, as shown at BP in Figs. C)
and 7, it stains a reddish purple, the colour change gradually
spreads over the whole of this part of the nucleolus, and it
becomes more and more bluish till eventually it appears as a
definite basophil body, as is shown at BP in Fig. 8. The nucleolus
then appears to be made up of two parts, one the oxyphil body,
the other the basophil.

During the process of differentiation into two parts there seems
always to be an extrusion of oxyphil substance into the cytoplasm.
This is shown specially strikingly in Fig. 7, where the nucleolus
is lobulated and oxyphil fragments are breaking away from it and
passing out through the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
The nuclear membrane does not appear to be damaged by this
process, which recalls the passage of leucocytes through the walls
of blood capillaries. The oxyphil portion of the nucleolus during
this process is usually vacuolated.

By comparing preparations fixed in corrosive acetic with those
made by osmium tetroxide fixation (e.g. Mann-Kopsch-Altmann
technique), it is seen that the early extrusion of nucleolar substance
takes place before the dispersion of the Golgi elements, and the
latter process commences about the time that the nucleolus becomes
differentiated into oxyphil and basophil portions. Such comparisons
lead one to assume that the oxyphil material dissolves in the
cytoplasm and plays some part in preparing the cytoplasm for the
activities of the Golgi elements, which, it was shown in a previous
paper {11), are responsible for the formation of yolk spherules.
Whether or not this be the case, the nucleolar extrusion ceases for
a time, and is not so pronounced from this point onwards, until the
end of the odgenetic process.

After the differentiation of the two parts of the nucleolus, the
oxyphil and basophil portions may break up into several smaller
bodies, or the two parts may remain joined, or they may separate
and form distinct basophil and oxyphil nucleoli. The latter seems
to be the commonest occurrence, and in such cases very often there
is found a small portion of oxyphil substance remaining attached
to the basophil body.

From the differentiation stage onwards, the oxyphil part of the
nucleolus becomes gradually smaller in proportion to the basophil
portion, and a certain amount of extrusion of oxyphil substance
goes on. This is seen by comparing Figs. 9 and 10. The two

128 Transactions of the Society.

nucleoli however remain distinct throughout the process of yolk
formation, but by the time that the yolk bodies are fairly evenly
scattered through the cytoplasm, both the oxyphil and basophil
bodies have become vacuolated, and they commence to disintegrate.
The oxyphil nucleolus breaks up into fragments which pass into
the cytoplasm, as is seen taking place in Fig. 11, while the basophil
nucleolus disintegrates and spreads out over the linin network of
the nucleus. Fig. 12 sliows this process taking place. When the
basophil material is spread out in this manner there appears to be
a small quantity of oxyphil substance left over, as is seen in
Fig. 12 at FO. This seems eventually to pass out into the cyto-
plasm.

The basophil substance becomes spread out evenly over the
linin network and forms little bodies at the nodes of the reticulum
(FB in Fig. 13), resembling similar structures in the nuclei of
somatic cells which are usually described as karyosomes.

It has been impossible to ascertain accurately whether a small
quantity of oxyphil matter does or does not remain in the mature
oocyte, owing to the present difficulty of obtaining oocytes at the
maturation stages. This problem, together with the subsequent fate
of the nucleolus, is still under investigation.

Discussion.

It will be noticed from the above description that the oxyphil
nucleolus resembles in its general behaviour that of Lihcllula and
Periplaneta (S) as described by Hogbeu, in that there is an early
extrusion of oxyphil granules from the nucleolus into the cytoplasm.
These granules however " pass to the periphery of the oocyte, where
they Ijreak up into smaller spheres which become the first vitellus."
A somewhat similar process has been described by Gatenby in the

Plate IV,

Fig. 9. — Older oocyte with the two parts of the nucleolus separated. Extru-
sion is taking place of oxyphil substance which had been left attached to basophil
nucleolus.

Fig. 10. — Oocyte at a later stage with a large vacuolated basophil nucleolus
(BB), and a smaU vacuolated oxyphil nucleolus (OB). Yolk spherules (YS) are
lairly evenly scattered throughout the cytoplasm.

Fig. 11. — Older oocyte showing the breaking up and extrusion (FO) of the
oxyphil nucleolus and the beginning of the spreading out of the basophil sub-
stance (F and FB).

Fig. 12. — Nucleus showing the disintegration of the basophil nucleolus (DB),
and the dispersal of its substance (FB) over the linin network (LN). Oxyphil
fcubstance produced as the result of this process is seen at FO.

Fig. 13. — Nucleus with basophil substance (FB) fairly regularly arranged upon
the linin network. At NE is seen some of the remaining oxyphil substance being
extruded into the cytoplasm.

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC, 1921. Pi. IV.

Face p. 12S.

The Behaviour of the Nucleolus during Oogenesis. 129

case of Saccocirrus {G), where there is an amphinucleoliis with
basophil preponderance in the youngest oocytes. From this
nucleohis portions break away and pass through the nuclear
membrane, remaining attached for a time to its outer surface. A
basophil cloud at this stage appears round the nuclear membrane
and conceals somewhot the extrusions. This corresponds with a
change in the chromophility of the cytoplasm from primary
oxyphilia to basophilia. The basophil cloud disperses and the
nucleolar granules become arranged spherically around the nucleus.
Later they become scattered irregularly in the cytoplasm, and
Gatenby shows that by fission they give rise to smaller granules
which grow into yolk spherules. In the oocyte of Saccocirrus there
are also present small yolk bodies derived from the Golgi apparatus.

The chief difference between these cases and that of Patella
is that in the latter the nucleolar extrusions appear to dissolve in
the cytoplasm, and it seems most probable that this dissolved
nucleolar substance either becomes converted into yolk under the
influence of the Golgi elements, or else acts as an enzyme during
yolk formation. This is borne out by the fact that there is always
considerable nucleolar extrusion before the Golgi elements spread
out in the cytoplasm to form the yolk granules.

In the oocytes of Ascidians, according to Hirschler (7), there are
present densely sUining granules which give rise both to
mitochondria and to a yolk nucleus. While the mitochondria are
breaking away and spreading out in the oocyte, the densely staining
granule is temporarily connected with the nucleus by a stalk along
which granules appear to flow out from the nucleus. The yolk
granules of Ascidians are complex bodies formed as the result of
the fusion of a Golgi element and a swollen mitochondrium, so
that it may be that the mitocliondria in these cases contain a
small quantity of nucleolar substance, and this functions as an
enzyme in the formation of yolk under the joint influence of
mitochondria and Golgi elements.

The chromophility of the cytoplasm of the Ascidian oocytes
undergoes two changes. At first, during the primary diffused stage
of the Golgi apparatus, the cytoplasm stains oxyphil. When the
Golgi elements come together to form a compact body the cyto-
plasm becomes basophil, and the change to secondary oxyphilia is
concurrent ■ with the scattering oL the Golgi elements, and the
formation of yolk from them and the mitochondria. In Patella
the Golgi apparatus is compact in the youngest oocytes, and the
change from primary oxyphilia to basophilia is unrelated to any
observable change in the apparatus. The transition from basophilia
to oxyphilia seems to take place at the same time as the fission
and spread of the mitochondria, and this occurs after the early
nucleolar extrusion has taken place and the nucleolus has been
differentiated into oxyphil and basophil portions.

130 Transactions of the Society.

One of the most remarkable cases of nucleclar extrusion is
that which has been described in Hymenoptera by Buchner {3),
Hegner (see 6), and Gatenby {6). In t]ie oocyte of certain
Hymenoptera, the nucleolus buds off bodies which pass out of the
nucleus into the cytoplasm, where they give rise to " secondary
nucleoli" with a basophil reticulum and an oxyphil nucleolus.
The function of such " secondary nucleoli " is not properly known.

The behaviour of the basophil nucleolus of the Patella oocyte
is paralleled by that of Daphnia 'puUx worked out by Kuhn {10),
and I have observed exactly the same process occurring with the
basophil nucleolus of Limnaia. The large central nucleolus in the
oocyte of these organisms towards the end of oogenesis becomes
vacuolated and breaks up to form a mass of granules which spread
over the linin network, as in Patella. Kuhn found that with the
reappearance of the chromosomes, preparatory to the maturation
divisions, the greater part of the nuclear matter disintegrated.
Lack of suitable material has so far prevented the observation of
the later stages in Patella, but the problem is still being
investigated.

Marechal found a process of disintegration of the nucleolus of
a somewhat similar nature in the oocytes of Selachians (1'^) towards
the end of oogenesis. When the chromosomes were reforming, the
nucleolus broke up into a mass of granules which became scattered
in the nucleus, and in some cases formed rodlets resembling the
chromosomes.

It is very difficult to find any explanation of the function of
the nucleolus in such cases as these. In Patella and Limiwea. the
basophil nucleolus is undoubtedly a specially elaborated substance,
and it seems to me possible that it stands in some functional
relationship to the subsequent condensation of the chromosomes
as compact rodlets out of the diffused chromatinic reticulum.
Possibly this is effected by producing a shrinkage or contraction of
the framework upon which the cliromatin is distributed, or may be
by a kind of flocculation.

This is borne out by the fact that in preparations of the
ovotestis of Limnxa which I have studied, there is a marked
elaboration of basophil substance in the oocytes, and towards the
end of oogenesis, the basophil body disintegrates and spreads over
the linin reticulum, as in Patella. In the spermatocytes, however,
there is an amphinucleolus with definite oxyphil preponderance,
which is present in the cells up to the late synaptic stages of the
heterotypic prophase. There is no elaboration of definite basophil
substance, nor is there any extrusion of nucleolar material during
spermatogenesis.

Eecent work on staininsr reactions has shown that we have no
stain which can be relied upon as a criterion for chromatin.
In preparations of the ovotestis of Limnxa stagnalis fixed in

The Behaviour of the Nucleolus during Oogenesis. 131

corrosive acetic or Bouin (with acetic), and stained with Mann's
methyl blue eosin, I find that the chromosomes of the spermatocyte
during reduction division appear amphophile with distinct basophil
preponderance, and later the same chromatinic substance forming
the head of the spermatozoon appears brilliantly red. Gatenby
finds a similar thing in Saccocirrus (6'), after fixation in Petrunke-
witsch and staining in Ehrlich's or Delafield's heematoxylin and
eosin or Biebrich scarlet. It is therefore absolutely unjustifiable
on staining tests alone to call a basophil staining nucleolus a
chromatin body, or to deny that an oxyphil nucleolus may contain
chromatin.

It is also known that the fixative used mav determine to a
great extent the nature of the suljsequent staining. Jorgensen, in
his work on Patella, found the nucleolus ampliophile with basophil
preponderance in the youngest oocytes, while in the species of
Patella described in this paper the nucleolus was in most cases
distinctly oxyphil, although there were exceptions where it could
be described as amphophile with distinct oxyphil preponderance.

I attribute this difference in a large degree to the fixative used,
for in making preparations with Limnsea material, I find that
after fixation with Bouin's fixative the nucleolus stains oxyphil,
while with prolonged fixation in corrosive acetic it stains basophil.

Observations such as these detract from the value of much
work on nucleoli and chromatin based upon staining reactions
alone. Also we know that differences in staining may be the
result of differences in the surface membrane of the objects stained.
In the case of Patella however, where there is a functional
differentiation of the nucleolus into two parts, I consider it is
justifiable to assume that the difference in staining reactions of
oxyphil and basophil nucleoli corresponds to a difference in
chemical constitution. That there is a difference in the chemical
composition of the nucleoli of different animals has been shown
by Jorgensen {9), who, as the result of digestion experiments with
pepsin, divides nucleoli into three classes — namely, those inmiedi-
ately digested, those digestible after prolonged exposure to the
ferment, and those indigestible to begin with, but soluble later.

Jorgensen concluded " that we can only say with certainty that
the nucleolar substance is a functional organ during egg growth,
and is no worthless metabolic product " ; and all that we are justified
in adding at present is that it is in several species related to the
formation of yolk, while in others it gives rise to " secondary
nucleoli," and that it may stand in some functional relationship
to the formation of the small condensed chromosomes from the
much spread out structural forms the latter assume during the
various formative processes in the o5cyte, but such a hypothesis
does not imply any interference with the integral continuity of the
chromosomes throughout the germ cell cycle.

132 Transactions of the Society.

Summary.

A. — Chromophility of the Cytoplasm of the Oocyte

of Patella.

1. Transition from an undifferentiated cell of the germinal
epithelium to an oocyte is marked by a change in the chromophility
of the cytoplasm from oxyphilia to basophilia.

2. During the early stages of oogenesis, the cytoplasm remains
basophil. A change towards secondary oxyphilia occurs about the
time that the G-olgi elements have become scattered and the mito-
chondria are commencing active division.

3. From this stage onwards, the cytoplasm becomes gradually
more oxyphil till definite secondary oxyphilia is attained.

B. — Behaviour of the Nucleolus of the Oocyte of Patella.

1. The nucleolus of the youngest oocytes resembles that of
certain of the somatic cells iu being an oxyphil body.

2. During the early stages of growth before the commencement
of yolk formation, the oxyphil body extrudes portions of itself into
the cytoplasm. These fragments disintegrate or dissolve.

3. At an early stage the oxyphil nucleolus becomes differen-
tiated into two parts, one of which remains oxyphil, while the other
begins to stain basophil.

4. There is an extrusion of oxyphil substance during the
differentiation of the nucleolus, especially marked in that part
which is becoming basophil.

5. Definite basophil and oxyphil parts of the nucleolus are
established, and in most oocytes they separate into distinct spherical
bodies. During the later stages of oogenesis, the oxyphil nucleolus
dwindles in size, and ultimately fragments into granules which are
extruded into the cytoplasm, while the basophil nvicleolus disinte-
grates and becomes distributed upon the linin network, mostly
in the form of little accumulations of basophil material around the
nodes of the reticulum.

6. tt is suggested that the oxyphil substance extruded froix
the nucleus is related to yolk formation. The basophil substance
is tentatively assumed to stand in functional relationship to the
condensation of the spread out chromosomes into discrete chromo-
somes from the chromatinic network. This does not imply any
interference with the integral continuity of the chromosomes
throughout the germ cell cycle.

The Behaviour of the Nucleolus during Oogenesis. 133

BiBLIOORAPHY.

1. Agar, W. E. — Cytology, with Special Reference to the Metazoan

Nucleus. Macmillan (1920).

2. BucHNER, Paul. — Praktikum der Zellenlehre. Berlin (1915).

3. Die akzessorischen Kern des Hymenoptereneies. Archiv. fur

Mikr. Anat., Bd. xci (1918).

4. Carleton, H. M. — Observations on an Intra-Nucleolar Body in the

Columnar Epithelial Cells of the Intestine. Q.J.M.S., vol. 64 (1920).

5. DoNCASTER, L. — Introduction to the Study of Cytology. Cambridge

Univ. Press (1920).

6. Gatenby, J. Bronte. — The Cytoplasmic Inclusions of the Germ Cells.

Part X., Some New Facts in the Gametogenesis of Saccocirrus.
Q.J.M.S. {in press).

7. HiRscHLER, Jan. — Uber die Plasma componenten der weiblichen

Geschlechtszellen (Zytologische Untersuchungen am Ascidien
Ovarium). Arch. f. Micro. Anat. (1916-17).

8. HoGBEN, K. — Studies in Synapsis : III., The Nuclear Organization of the

Germ Cells in Libellula depressa. Proc. E. Soc. (1920).

9. JORGENSEN, M. — Zellenstudicn I., Morphologische Beitrage zum

Problem des Eiwachstums. Archiv. fur Zellforschung, Bd. 10 (1913).

10. KiJHN, A. — Uber determinierte Entwicklung bei Cladoceren. Zool. Anz.,

Bd. 38 (1911).

11. LuDFORD, E. J. — Contributions to the Study of the Oogenesis of Patella.

J.R.M.S. (March, 1921).

12. Marechal, J. — Sur I'ovogenese des Selaciens : La Cellule, Bd. 24(1906).

13. Murray, J. A. — A Transplantable Sarcoma of the Guinea Pig. Journal

of Pathology and Bacteriology, vol. xx (1916).

14. ScHAXBL, J. — ^Das Zusammenwirken der Zellbestandteile bei Eireifung,

Furchung, und ersten Organbildung der Echinodermen. Archiv. fur
Mikr. Anat., Bd. 76.

15. Schreiner, K. E. — Kern u. Plasmaveranderungen in Fettzellen wahrend

des Fettansatzes. Anat. Anzeig. (1915).

134

v.— SOME SUGGESTION'S EEGAEDING
THE MECHANICAL DESIGN OF MICEOSCOPES.

By Captain Frank Oppenheimer, I. M.S., M.B.,
Ch.B., F.E.M.S.

(Read Apr-il 20, 1921.)

The meclianical design of the modern microscope has of late
been receiving increasing attention, and formed an important
subject for discussion at the recent Symposium held by the allied
scientific Societies,

On this occasion the need for improved design was emphasized,
but very few definite suggestions as to the line such improvements
should follow were brought forward, except that the optical- bench
principle should be more fully applied to the higher types of
instrument. As one who uses the highest type of microscope
for critical work, and is at the same time a constant worker in
medical laboratories, I venture to put forward a few concrete sug-
gestions for alterations or improvements, some of which are intended
for incorporation in the highest type of instrument, and others for
the ordinary laboratory or standard microscope, and some of whicli
might be applicable to both types. It is only right to state that I
have not had the opportunity of having these ideas incorporated in
an experimental instrument owing to the prohibitive cost.

First, with regard to concentric, rotating, and centreing motions
to the stage.

As usually constructed, this is a most expensive item in
microscope construction, owing to the fine machining and fitting
required for the two concentric rings which form the bearing of
the rotary mechanism. It is, moreover, usually impossible to
compensate for wear, the consequence being that the stage drops
slightly when the microscope is brought to the horizontal position,
and a certain undesirable play is given to the upper stage as a
whole.

In the design suggested the centreing and rotatory movements
are combined in a single simple fitting which is more or less
geometric, and which cannot possibly develop shake or play in any
direction.

The bottom plate of the rotating stage A has attached to it
underneath a turned bronze ring B, in which is turned a channel of

Suggestions regarding the Mechanical Design of Microscopes. 135

triangular section. In this channel engage three steel balls about
j% *ot' an inch in diameter. These balls are held in conical cups
attached to the centreing screws and the spring buffer. The stage
is supported by and rotates on this ball-bearing while the balls
communicate the centreing motion to the stage. The axes of the
centreing screws, buffer and clamp screw are all on one plane at
right angles to the optic axis. The pressure of the spring buffer
should be considerable, to prevent the stage being dislocated
from its three-point bearing. Eotation is by hand, and the move-
ment is locked by the action of a screw located near to the spring
buffer, the point of the former engaging in fine serrations cut in
the bottom of the channel when the locking screw is screwed
home. This provides a positive lock wliich does not tend to press
the stage upwards and so throw the object out of focus, as is
commonly the case. An index to record the angle of rotation of
the stage is mounted on the buffer pin, which is provided with a
rib to prevent its rotation.

The buffer pin and clamp screw should be mounted in the front
edge of the stage, and the centreing screws at either side of the
limb.

Improvememts in the Substage.

Now that nearly every microacopist, including laboratory
workers since the introduction of the high-power dark ground
illuminator, requires to change his substage condenser frequently
and easily, and with the minimum of labour in re-centreing, it would
appear that the standard ring fitting for condensers is obsolete. The
changing of apparatus is laborious, and sometimes entails the in-
clining of an instrument for which the lighting has been arranged
when in a vertical position, and invariably entails re-centreing of
the apparatus to be used.

I therefore suggest that the " ring " should be done away with
and replaced by a sliding changer of the same construction as the
Zeiss objective changer, but more massive, to allow of the use of
large-sized condensers.

Each upper slide with its own condenser system would have
its own centreing gear, as in the Zeiss changer.

These slides might be made with two standard threads, the first
to be R.M.S. objective size, taking most English condensers, and the
second the same thread as the Watson Holoscopic Condenser (dry),
which would also take the Zeiss, Abbe and many other large
patterns.

This system would permit of all the condensers in use being set
to work centrally with all the objectives, if the latter were provided
with their own centreing changers. Where a revolving nose-piece
was used, it would usually suffice in medical laboratories where the

136 Transactions of the Society.

•j'g-in. objective is used for practically all the finer work, to centre
all the condensers to the T^^-in. objective in use. «

Under this changing device would be the iris diaphragm and
stop carrier, which would be of the Abbe design, with the addition
of an extra turn-out ring to carry screens. On many instruments
it is impossible to use a stop and colour screen simultaneously in
the substage. For those who use two condensers only and desire a
less revolutionary change, I suggest that the substiige be provided
with two rings mounted on hinges some distance either side of the
centre line, and each provided with its own centreing gear. Either
of these could be in turn swung into position, and held by a catch
against a strong lug on the substage rack slide. By this means the
necessit}'' of removing the condenser and re-centreing when changing
from normal to dark ground illumination would be obviated. In
designing centreing gear for the ordinary substage ring, I would
point out that the pattern in which the moving ring is pressed
against the flat upper surface of the outer ring by the centreing
screws and buffer, which act on steel-faced inclined planes, is much
to be preferred, on mechanical and practical grounds, to the system
employed by most English houses. The addition of a locking nut
to the spring buffer which opposes the centreing screws would be
of value and increase the rigidity of the condenser fitting.

«
Substage Condenser Fittings.

Complaints are frequently made regarding the faulty placing
of the iris diaphragm and stop carrier in modern English condensers

EXPLANATION OF TEXT-FIGURE.

Showing structure of rotating centreing stage in three radial sections :
I. Through centreing screw. II. Through buffer: III. Through
clamp screw.

X-Y. Centre of stage and optic axis.

A. Bottom rotating plate of stage, bearing prismatic slide H for mechanical

stage.

B. Bronze ring with channel of triangular section turned in its periphery.

C. Steel bearing-ball.

D. Bronze end to centreing screw with conical hollow in head.

E. Centreing screw.

F. Fixed base of stage, attached to limb.

G. Milled head to centreing screw.

H. Prismatic bearing for mechanical movements.
K. Pin of spring buffer.
L. Index to record degrees of rotation.
M. Rib on K to prevent rotation of L.
N. Spring of buffer.
0. Clamp screw engaging in R.
P. Milled head to clamp screw.

R. Serration in bottom of channel to give clamp screw a positive locking
action.

Diagram drawn to a scale of x 2.

Suggestions regarding the Mechanical Design of Microscopes. 137

designed to slip into the substage ring from above, the diaphragm
being nearly always too far from the back lens of the condenser.
This is especially noticeable in a large instrument owned by
myself, in which, owing to the thickness of the mechanical stage,
an adaptor about ^ in. long has to be inserted between the optical
portion of the condenser and its mount.

When one considers the care taken to overcome this difficulty

/t^ %

in the early condensers made by Powell, Eoss and others (see
Carpenter, 4th edition), it is surprising that this detail is now so
neglected.

It is surely simple to mount the iris in its proper position close •
to the back lens of the condenser, and to actuate it by means of a
rotating tube within the ring of the condenser mount. The lower
end of this rotating tube should project about J in. below the sub-
stage ring and be milled.

138 Transactions of the Society.

Stops would be inserted on the summit of a third tube, sliding
easily within the iris tube, which should be lined with black cloth.
This would permit of the stop being adjusted in a vertical direction.

In addition to these advantages, such a condenser mount
would have no projecting levers to foul the substage slides when
used in a rotating substage.

The coarse adjustment to the body has been actuated from the
earliest days by rack and pinion, which has undergone various
improvements, such as Nelson's " stepped " rack, and finally the
oblique spiral form.

This has several disadvantages. First, in laboratories the
exposed rack frequently gets dirty and damaged. Secondly, the
motion is rather more rapid than is desirable, more especially
when most of the work is done with high powers. This in turn
leads to the abuse of the fine adjustment commented upon by
every skilled microscopist when watching the average laboratory
worker.

I propose that the rack and pinion be replaced by a multi-
thread large diameter screw, such as is used in the substage of
many student's microscopes, the body to travel on the usual
bearings.

The milled head controlling the motion might be mounted on
the top of the limb or at the bottom, in the position adopted for
the fine adjustment in Baker's Nelson model. If lateral milled
heads were considered essential they could be introduced by
employing a similar system to that used by Zeiss in the Berger
pattern fine adjustment, substituting bevel for worm gear perhaps.

The multi-thread screw would rotate in the microscope limb,
no vertical movement taking place, and movement would be
translated to the body tube by means of a split nut attached to
the latter and travelling upon the screw.

The rapidity of the motion could be made as desired, but half
the average present rate is suggested as suitable.

The advantages claimed for this system are : —

1. Slowing down of the movement.

2. No tendency to " run down " from the weight of the

body or pressure on the draw tube. Hence an easier
working adjustment can be made than where the
pinion has to act the part of a brake.

3. Mechanism entirely enclosed.

4. No fine teeth to be damaged by over-winding.

5. Especial value in very simple microscopes where no fine

adjustment is fitted.

There is much room for development along optical-bench lines,
and the first essential is that the main body tube and substage

Suggestions regarding the Mechanical Design of Microscojjes. 139

liearings should be planed on one block of metal on one machine
to ensure their being parallel and remaining so. This is only
done on a few instruments at present. The petrological instru-
ment might well be modified along these lines, the body tube with
its many doors and slots being abolished altogether. Nose-piece,
eye-piece, and all intermediate apparatus being attached to a bnr
carried by the adjustments, the eye-piece to be carried on a rack-
work extension. To exclude light a simple bellows could be
sprung on at top and bottom of this " tube." Many instruments,
including some of the most complete, appear to be designed with a
view to compactness when in their cases. This is no doubt a
desmable feature, but nothing should be sacrificed to attain it.
The commonest fault is the position of the focusing slides. With
many instruments the body is one or two inches out of its slides
when a short focus objective is in use with a nose-piece or changers
(one or the other appliance is in universal use). There is no
possible reason for this fault except the striving after compactness
— and this particular fault is the commonest cause of lack of
rigidity in the modern microscope.

The same tendency one must suppose is the. explanation of the
inadequate foot still commonly fitted, and the lack of room under
the stage for substage and mirror manipulation.

All this is perhaps excusable in student's microscopes, which
sometimes have to be carried about, but is quite inexplicable in
instruments designed for the advanced worker or the laboratory,
such being rarely moved from the room in which they are used
from one year's end to another. The type of foot which combines
the maximum of rigidity and convenience is one in which the limb
is swung between two strong vertical pillars which are cast in one
piece with a wide-spreading flat triangular base, the apex of the
triangle being toivards the front, as in a " flat-iron " ; this triangle
to rest on cork pads at the angles. Levelling screws may be added
at the corners for use in micro-photography.

For laboratory work I would make this flat triangular base so
large that a glass bell-jar placed over the instrument would rest
on the base, its circumference in no place projecting over the sides.
The trunnions should be placed at or above the level of the surface
of the stage and a clamping lever provided. If it is essential that
the instrument be more or less portable, it may be so made as to
be readily detached from its working foot and transferred to a light
folding tripod foot, a smaller travelling case being provided.

With regard to such details as milled heads, it is worth while
remarking that those of the coarse adjustment are commonly placed
too near together, and are frequently of too small a diameter. The
latter remark also applies to many fine adjustment milled heads
since the introduction of the lateral position.

Some firms appear to be taking up the position that one

L 2

140 Transactions of the Society.

" standard " simple microscope should be supplied which can be
gradually converted into a " research " model by various additions.
Surely this is analogous to trying to convert a " Ford " into a
" Eolls-Eoyce " by the addition of new radiator, self-starter, etc.
If the highest type of microscope is to be satisfactory it must be
designed as an instrument complete from the beginning. As
England has held the palm for the production of the finest types of
microscope from the very earliest days, one hopes that this class
of instrument will not be overlooked in the anxiety to fill the
world's demand for what one may call the " Ford " type of micro-
scope.

By far the largest number of microscopes produced are used in
the medical schools and laboratories. The work there is mainly
of the nature of " spotting " known structures or organisms, and
for such purposes neither very perfect appliances or manipulation
are essential. Consequently interest in the development of the
microscope has fallen very low in this quarter. The result is
extreme conservatism in the design of instruments for this work.
Where there is active interest there one finds new departures in
design, as is well shown in the development of the microscope for
metallurgy in recent years.

At the recent Symposium many speakers appeared to consider
that the question of design should be left in the hands of the
instrument makers. Surely the high state of development reached
in England in the early days was mainly diie to the stimulus of
suggestions by the working microscopist, and not least by the
Fellows of this Society. At this time, when makers are planning
models which will be the basis of their productions for many years
to come, every possible detail should be most carefully considered.
This communication is written with a view to provoking such
discussion.

141

VI.— MR. FRED ENOCK^S METHOD OF MOUNTING
HEADS OF INSECTS WITHOUT PRESSURE.

By The Rev. J. S. Peatt.

(Bead April 20, 1921.)

Some thirty years ago Mr. Enock explained to me his method of
mounting insects' heads without pressure, asking me to keep the
secret to myself, and, so far as I know, and I knew him very well,
he never confided the secret to anyone else. He told me that
the first idea was given him by seeing some of the Rev. Thorn-
ton's beautiful mounts which were evidently prepared without
pressure.

For eight years he worked at his method before being satisfied,
every slide not perfect being destroyed, for he would never have a
second best. But now that he is gone, leaving no one to carry on
his work, and, so far as I am able to learn, there being no one who
has any pecuniary interest in his method of mounting, it seemed
to me a pity that science should lose his beautiful discovery.

Therefore, after much thought and consultation with frienfls,
I approached the Royal Microscopical Society and asked them to
be .the custodians of Mr. Enock's method.

The President has suggested that I should write a paper for
publication in the Society's Journal, giving an outline of the
process, and for that purpose Colonel Carrick Freeman, M.D., has
most kindly drawn for me some illustrations. These are not to
scale.

The problem is — how to get, and keep, the tongue of, say, a
wasp or bee protruded, and the various mouth organs laid out, so
as to be easily seen in their entirety, and above all, to be as far as
possible in the same plane.

For this purpose we require a few special tools.

A small mounting block is* prepared, built up with a small
piece of sheet glass, a fairly thin slice of mounting cork, and a
piece of white note paper, of equal size — 1 inch by f inch — and
l)Ound together at each end with white thread, the cork being in
the middle, fig. 1. The head is set out on the paper in the space
between the threads.

A couple of special pins must also be prepared as follows.
Towards one side of a small block of cork, slightly less than
I inch square, a finest 1-inch entomological pin is thrust through

142

Transactions of the Society.

right up to its head, and from top to bottom of tlie cork. Seizing
the pin with a pair of pliers on the under side of and close up to
the cork, the pin is first bent at right angles to its upper part, and
then into a small loop, as in fig. 2. Behind this pin is thrust
through the cork a stouter 1-inch pin.

By this means the thin pin may slide up and down through

Cara.K.

-GLASS

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

the cork, as required, while the stouter pin secures the little
appliance to the small mounting block.

The second " cork pin " is prepared in like manner, except
that the thin pin is simply bent at right angles close ui) to the
cork, fig. 3.

When intending to use the pins during the operation of setting

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

out, it is well to cut off the heads of the entomological pins, and
a number of these may conveniently be reduced to h inch in length
.and to be stuck lightly in at one end of the mounting block, ready
to be taken up by the forceps as required.

I assume that an ordinary dissecting table is used, with rests
for the hands, but in place of the usual glass slide a wooden one
is fitted, aljout the centre of which two small lengths of wood

Method of Mounting Heads of Insects ivithout Pressure. 143

should be secured, at right angles to each other, into the corner of
which the small mounting block will fit and be kept in position
by a short length of spring, fig. 4.

I propose to deal with the mounting of a wasp's head, which
is in many ways more difficult to set out than a bee's, as the palpi
are troublesome and will curl up if they can.

The small mounting block being in position on the dissecting
table, the head is placed on it, antennse-side down, and is kept in
position by two of the headless pins placed one on either side
close behind the mandibles, fig. 5-\

Mr. Enock took a rather larger pin, and pushing it through a
small piece of thin card, placed it just behind the head, so that
tlie card pressed flat upon the head.^

Personally I dispensed with this card as I found it un-
necessary.

With a pin in the forceps open the left hand mandible and
push the pin into the cork.^

Do the same with the other mandible, being careful, having
regard to the beauty of the mount, not to straddle the mandibles
too wide open.

With the loop of the bent " cork pin " gently draw out the
tongue as far as it will go, and keep it protruded by pressing into
the mounting block the second or stouter pin.*

Next lay out the palpi, preventing them from curling up by
placing pins crossed where necessary.^

Finally place the straight " cork pin " across the tongue to
prevent its rising up during the hardening process.^

The head is now finished.

For the hardening process I had a large round bottle made,
about 5 in. in diameter, and 2 in. up to the shoulder, with an
opening 2 in. or 2^ in. in diameter, into which fitted a ground
.stopper. This bottle was tilled with sufficient methylated spirit
to completely cover the mount, say, for safety, to a depth of 1 in.

An ordinary common pin is stuck into one corner of the
small mounting block, which is now removed from the dissecting
table, and, by means of this pin, lowered into the spirit. Its glass
bottom will cause the block to sink.

Colonel Freeman has suggested, and I think it well worth con-
sideration, that in order to avoid the possible shrinkage and
twisting of parts, it might be well to use two strengths of spirit
solution, the first of half strength, in which the mount might
stand for (say) three days, 'and the second of full strength, into
which the mount might then be transferred, to stand for a week.

During the hardening, especially in the earlier stages, the
mount should be fi:equently examined to see that there is no
curling, or displacement of parts, and to remedy this if necessary.

When satisfied that the head is perfectly set lift the mounting

144 Traoisactions of the Society.

Hock from the spirit and most carefully remove the pins with the
forceps, sticking them into one side of the block ready for next use.
The head is then well washed in water, and transferred to the
following solutions, in the order and proportions named, allowing
it to remain at least three days in each : —

(a) Glycerin, 1 part ; water, 3 parts.

(b) Glycerin, 1 part ; water, 2 parts.

(c) Glycerin, 1 part ; water, 1 part.

(d) Glycerin, 2 parts ; water; 1 part.

This is the final stage, and the head is mounted in the last (d)
solution to which should be added 3 minims of phenol to each
2 oz. of solution, wliicli will cause the whole to smell strongly of
carbolic. The solution should be filtered through filter-paper, and
be kept in a capped bottle. The glass tube which takes out the
solution should always be kept in the bottle, but should never
touch the bottom. This may be prevented by fitting the tube
tightly through a piece of card, which fits the neck of the
bottle.

The mounting of a head is a matter of such vital imporcance
tliat I give a detailed description of it. The glycerin solution will
penetrate almost anything. It is necessary, therefore, to take
what may seem almost exaggerated precautions.

Most of my slides are tM'enty-five year,3 old, and so far, most are
absolutely safe, though one or two do exude a very little at the
top in very hot weather. I lay the greatest stress upon the cement.

It is composed of black sealing-wax dissolved in methylated
spirit, and marine glue. Mr. Enock used only this cement for
these mounts.

The wax must be of the very best and be crushed in a mortar
until it becomes a fine powder. Methylated spirit is then added
and the mixing and grinding in the mortar continued until it is
sufficiently thin to filter through moderately fine muslin. When
filtered, an equal part of liquid marine glue is added and thoroughly
mixed in. If time is no object evaporation may be allowed until
the required consistency (about that of thin cream) is reached,
otherwise it must be reduced to that state by gentle heat.

In building up cells I used vulcanite or ebonite rings, |-, |, and
f in. in diameter. Both sides of the rings should be rubbed on
sand-paper to remove the gloss, and the rings should be carefully
dusted before use, a cloth being passed through them.

Mr. Enock used to fix, or secure, his heads in the cells, but
not so much latterly.

I prefer them not fixed, as you can then place them in any
position.

In fixing, Mr. Enock made use of two short lengths of fine
tubing, attached side by side, into which fitted two fine needles.

Method of Mounting Heads of Insects without Pressure. 145

A strand of very fine silk was tlireaded tlirougli each needle,
which were then thrust right through the head, and on being
withdrawn left the two strands of silk with the ends at equal
distance on either side of the head.

A ring of cement having been spun on the top of the cell a
little glycerin solution is run, with a brush, all round and on the
bottom of the cell ; the ends of the silk, with the head suspended,
are stretched out at equal distance across the cell, on to which they
are lowered and embedded in the cement on each side. The cell
is then filled with glycerin solution to well above the top in its
convexity, on which a perfectly clean cover glass is carefully
lowered and gently pressed down until ii rests firmly on the cell,
the pressure being kept up by a small weight placed on the cover
glass until the cement dries.

For this purpose I used conical bullets.
• The excess of glycerin fluid may be brushed off, but no attempt
should be made to clean the slide until after the cover glass
has become firmly attached to the cell by the drying of the
cement.

The ends of the silk are then cut off, and the slip carefully
washed and dried.

Mr. Enock made use of a trough of wood, 12 in. long and
slightly over 3 in. wide, into which his mounts were placed, and
left until dry.

If it be not desired to secure the head with silk, a little of the
glycerin solution is run, with a brush, all round and on the bottom
of the cell, as before ; the head is placed in and arranged on the
bottom of the cell, which is then filled, and closed, as before.

The slide is finished by spinning several coats of cement round
the side of the cell and upon the edge of the cover glass, each coat
being allowed to dry hard before the next is applied — and to
perfectly seal the cell don't spare this part of the operation.

Such was Mr. Enock's beautiful method of mounting. One
word — don't be dismayed at failures, for only practice can accom-
plish perfection ; but the beauty of a successful mount is compensa-
tion indeed, for it is science and art in that small cell.

In conclusion I append a few notes.

1. The heads should be set before they are fixed in rigor mortis^
as they cannot then Ije relaxed. Mr. Enock suggested that all
insects be kept in crushed laurel leaves, which will keep them
relaxed for a short time, but they should be set out as soon as
possible.

2. It is impossible to clean a wasp's tongue. Put it under aii
inch power and you will see why it is so — those numberless hairs
in each cell of the tongue hold all impurities, and you cannot get
them away. If possible get queen wasps and hornets, for they
have fasted all through the winter and their tongues are beautifully

146 Transactions of the Society,

clean. Beetles may be kept alive a day or two in clean surround-
ings to clean their mouths.

3. All the water spoken of above is aqua distil. Never use
any other for solutions.

4. Always wash the brushes in spirit the moment you have
finished with the cement ; a small detail, but absolutely necessary,
and not always remembered.

147

VII.— POLARIZERS FOR THE MICROSCOPE.

By B. K. Johnson, Department of Optical Engineering,
Imperial College of Science and Technology.

{Bead March 16, 1921.)

Iceland Spar is very scarce and is becoming more scarce. In the
highest class of petrological microscopes, designed for advanced
and research work, a form of Mcol polarizer made of Iceland Spar
is desirable, but it is not necessary for the simpler students'
microscopes. A very efficient polarizer can be made by taking an
ordinary 3x1 slip and flowing a little black varnish over one
surface and then allowing it to dry. Such a slip can then be
stuck to the plane reflector with soft wax and tilted by trial to the
polarizing angle. In the case of a tilting microscope either sky-

s,<.y

.v*^

rt"f.

Light reflected from a bundle of plates varying in number from 1 to 32, the
light being incident at the polarizing angle (56|^).

o

Number op "PuATes,

148 . Transactions of the Society.

light or lamp-light may be directed directly upon the polarizer,
but in the case of a vertical microscope a piece of plane mirror
should be laid upon the table in front of the microscope to receive
the light and direct it upward to the polarizer (see sketch).

If the light given by a single blackened plate is insufficient, it
may be increased by superposing a second 3x1 slip upon the
blackened plate.

The curve given by Stokes (see p. 147) will be of interest to
microscopists.

From this curve it will be seen that practically the maximum
amount of polarized light which can be obtained by reflection is
obtained with eight plates. In practice one, or at most two, are
sufficient for subjective work.

The simple vertical microscope can be adapted very simply for
observation in polarized light by cementing a slip-polarizer to a
small block of wood adapted to slide between the sides of the
horseshoe foot.

,SR4P |_ F«&«-» StopinO.G^.

UEVJS

Cyi-flS-i

Analyser. — This must be some form of Nicol, and it should be
mounted to rotate. Perhaps the most generally useful form is a
small and therefore square-ended Hartmack prism in a separate
mounting, which can be placed when desired above the eye-piece.
The Abbe polarizing eye-piece is convenient for many purposes,
but it is not well known. It consists of a double-image prism
mounted between the eye-lens and the stop of a Huygenian eye-
piece. The prism and eye-piece combined project two images of
the aperture of the object-glass into the plane of the Eamsden
circle, one centrically and the other eccentrically. The eccentric
image is stopped out, and the light passing through the centric
image only is allowed to enter the eye. This analyser should be
used with an ordinary eye-piece of aljout the same power, adjusted
so that one eye-piece can be substituted for the other for refocusing.

149

YIII— A POLAEISCOPE FOE DISSECTING AND
POCKET MICROSCOPES.

By Peof. Ct. H. Bryan, F.K.S.

iBead October 20, 1920.)

Hitherto the polariscope has been usually regarded as an accessory
ouly of the compound microscope, for which purpose it generally
takes the form of a pair of Nicol prisms. There are, however, many
cases in which polarized light may be usefully employed in
connexion with a dissecting microscope or even a hand magnifier,
and in view of the scarcity of Iceland spar and the cost and small
size of the prisms obtainable, interest attaches to the well-known
alternative method of polarizing light by allowing it to fall on a
bundle of plates of glass or similar material placed at a suitably
oblique angle of incidence.

An application which should appeal to every microscopist lies
in the fact that dust fibres, which in ordinary light are almost
invisible in Canada balsam during the process of mounting a slide,
are readily detected with a polariscope, and can be easily removed
under a dissecting microscope fitted with this accessory. With the
same apparatus I have been able to show the " black cross " effect
and the colours produced by selenite on the shells of the embryo
Docis while alive and moving in the water ; and, on the other hand,
the absence of polariscopic effect in the floats of Velella shows
these to be non-calcareous in structure and formed of material
which is not of a doubly refracting character.

In some early treatises on natural philosophy a bundle of glass
plates is called a polarizing frwrne when the reflected light is used,
and a polarizing pile when use is made of the light transmitted
through the plates. As the light received in the former arrangement
is made up of a number of portions produced by reflection at the
several surfaces of the plates, a polarizing frame cannot be used as
an analyser, though it would be possible to employ a single reflect-
ing surface for the purpose. On the other hand, if the light is
incident at the polarizing angle on a pile of plates, the polarized
beam passes directly through the series of plates without any portion
of it being reflected, so that on looking through the pile a single
image only is seen, and it will be found that with an analyser of
this description the loss of definition is far less than might be

150 Transactions of the Society.

expected, even if ordinary cover-glasses are employed instead of
more optically perfect scales worked to uniform thickness.

If such an analyser be attached to the pocket lens or hand
microscope, which can be held in suitable inclined position, it is not
necessary to have anything more elaborate than one or more glass
slips laid on a dead black background as a reflecting polarizer.
The proper angle of reflection can easily be found by trial, but it
is rather convenient to make a set-square cut at this angle. This
will be a triangle in which two sides are at right angles and their
ratio is equal to the index of refraction, say 1 • 5 or 3 to 2 roughly.
When I was young I should have been very glad to make a
polariscope before I bought one, but I was deterred by the fact
that the book I had gave the polarizing angle in degrees and
minutes, whereas my protractor was only graduated in degrees !

For a dissecting microscope with a horizontal stage two reflect-
ing beams are required in order to throw the light upwards. It will
be found quite satisfactory to lay one frame horizontally and the
other one may be at 60° instead of the more accurate polarizing
angle of about 57°. Eays which are 3° on either side of the middle
ray will be reflected at 57° and 63° or 63° and 57°, and will then
be perfectly polarized at one or other of the frames, giving more
uniform polarization of the illuminating cone.

By using several plates of glass in a polarising frame the
intensity of the reflected polarized beam is increased, but about
four plates are sufficient, and not much is gained by using a greater
number. On the other hand, the degree of polarization of the
reflected beam depends largely on having the frame backed with a
surface which is sufficiently absorbent of the transmitted light,
since if any of this is reflected from the backing it will be
completely transmitted back through the plates.

In using a pile of plates as an analyser the degree of polariza-
tion depends on the completeness with which the light polarizable
by reflection is eliminated from the transmitted beam, and therefore
a larger number of plates is needed. But the proportion of
polarized to unpolarized transmitted light increases as the angle of
incidence is increased. Very fair polariscopic effects can be
obtained with as few as eight or ten cover-glasses if these be
indeed at an angle somewhat in excess of the " polarizing angle."
But it is better to use a large number, say from one to two dozen,
and the older treatises on natural philosophy contain tables showing
the number of plates sufficient to obtain practically complete
polarization at different angles of incidence, as found in Brewster's
experiments. If the angle of incidence falls short of the '• polariz-
ing angle " in any part of the field of view, that portion will hardly
show any polariscopic eftects unless a considerable number of
plates are used. A more uniform field of view could, of course, be
obtained by the use of two piles of plates turned in opposite

A Polariscope for Dissecting and Pocket Microscopes. 151

directions so that those rays incident on one at the least an^fle
would fall on the other at the greatest angle of incidence, but
unfortunately an analyser so constructed would be of too great a
length to be used except it be placed in the tube of a compound
microscope between the object glass and the eye-piece. It would
not be suitable for the simple microscope.

To fix the cover-glasses inside a blackened tube at the required
obliquity is not such a simple operation as it might seem, especially
as it is important to leave no gap through which light can escape
between the cover-glasses and the sides of the tube. The plan I
find best is to use a tube of black paper instead of cardboard, and
to have the top and bottom covers hinged at their edges to slips of
black paper which may be drawn through the tube until the pile
is adjusted to the proper angle. The free ends of the slips may
then be turned down outside, leaving however a very little free
play, and the whole enclosed in an additional outer tube which may
be of cardboard. This arrangement enables the cover-glasses to be
taken out and cleaned from time to time, and it also allows of the
angle of incidence being adjusted, being increased by slightly
compressing the tube laterally and decreased by drawing the pktes
together by means of the slips of paper.

The attachment of the outside covers to the black slips does
not really reduce the field of view, but has rather the effect of
cutting oif the light reflected from the edges of the cover-glasses,
which would otherwise be trouldesome. The fittings required to
attach the tube to a pocket lens or dissecting microscope can be
constructed without much difficulty.

For -use with my compound microscope I have fitted an old
eye-piece with a pile of cover-glasses between its two lenses. It
gives a somewhat limited field of view, but it has the advantage of
obviating the seven operations of screwing and unscrewing required
to attach or remove the Nicol prism analyser, and substituting
the simpler operation of changing the eye-piece. I have also
aiTanged a polarizing frame to slip over the mirror, giving a better
illumination than is obtainable with the Mcol. "With careful
adjustment this home-made polariscope shows the crosses on small
starch grains much better than one w^ould have expected under the
circumstances.

An important point to be borne in view is that only a very
small portion of tlie incident light reaches the eye through the
polariscope, and it is therefore very essential, especially in working
with a dissecting microscope, to screen off any light which would
otherwise fall on the object from above. Otherwise the object
will be visible as an ordinary opaque object on a dark background,
and the polariscopic effects will be unnoticeable. In cases of doubt
a selenite may be used with advantage, as doubly refracting objects
will show colours when the analyser (not the polariscope) has

152 Transactions of the Society,

been rotated into the position in which the colour of the selenite
just disappears. A selenite slide showing various tints does very
well for this purpose, and I am using home-made ones, split from
some crystals which I found in some Kimmeridge clay dug from a
well.

In claiming that these simple polarizing devices give much
better results than one might expect it is not meant that they are
free from defects. Apart, however, from their usefulness in the
rough-and-ready examination of objects previous to final mounting
there is a great interest to be derived by experimenting with the
apparatus here described.

153

OBITUABY,

EDMUXD JOHNSON" SPITTA, L.R.C.P. (Lond.),
M.R.C.S. (Eng.), F.R.A.S. 1853-1921.

Edmund Johnson Spitta, who died on January 21, 1921, was
born at Clapliam sixty-eight years ago. Entering St. George's
Hospital in 1870, he followed up a successful career as a student
by completing his studies at St. Thomas's and at Westminster.
In 1874 he settled down to active work with his father, and for
thirty years enjoyed a lucrative and extensive practice. He was
an eminently successful general practitioner, and it was with some
reluctance that he gave up practice in 1904 and retired to Brighton.

A man of tireless and almost restless energy, his mechanical
and practical mind found early scope for research in Astronomy
and Astrophysics, for he was elected a Fellow of the Eoyal
Astronomical Society in 1880, sitting as a member of the Council
for fourteen years, and later became Vice-President. In time his
observatory at Clapham became well known, and from it originated
several papers of great scientific interest, which were read before
the Eoyal Astronomical and other learned Societies. One of his
early contributions, on the " Satellites of Jupiter," put forth views
of an original and controversial character, which at the time
created much comment.

Even in those days the charm of the microscope and the fascina-
tion of its study held him in a firm grip, and when he found the
calls on his time by professional work increasing, the observatory
gradually gave place to the " Powell and Lealand." This gave
Spitta the opportunity to apply his knowledge of photography to the
microscope, and formed the foundation upon which his reputation
as a photomicrographer was built. His investigations in this direc-
tion rapidly extended, and he devoted much time to the subject, with
the same vitality, singleness of purpose, and thoroughness as he
had shown in his earlier years when astronomical studies absorbed
his attention.

His bent for photomicrography led to the publication of an
" Atlas of Bacteriology," produced in 1898 with Dr. Slater, then
Bacteriologist of St. George's Hospital, and marked the beginning
of a close and life-long friendship. This book met with great success,
and formed the nucleus from which developed his larger book upon
photomicrography published in 1899, which has passed through
several editions.

In 1904, jointly with his son. Dr. Harold Spitta, he was asked
to form an exhibit of high-power photomicrography by the Govern-
ment, to represent Great Britain at the St. Louis International

M

154 Ohituary.

Exhibition, wlien they received the Grand Prix ; two years before
tlie Gold Medal had been awarded in the same way for their joint
exhibit at the Paris International Exhibition.

On his retirement from practice, he took up the study of pure
Microscopy with redoubled energy, and for many years it was his
habit to spend two or three hours every night with his microscope,
and he ultimately produced the first edition of " Microscopy," a
comprehensive work dealing with the sultject from a practical and
theoretical point of view. This venture was equally successful,
and three editions have passed the press.

As he became better known as a microscopist he was elected
President of the Quekett Microscopical Club and a Vice-President
of the Eoyal Microscopical Society, in which he took the greatest
possible interest. In conjunction with Mr. Williamson, the well-
known cinematographer, he became interested in photography as
applied to the development of pond-life.

The accumulation of knowledge of Entomology gradually led
Spitta into the public lecture hall, and for some ten years he
devoted much time to travelling about the country giving lectures
on various scientific subjects, with his own lantern, slides, etc.,
leaving nothing to chance which might detract from the value of
his discourses. On these lectures he would spend weeks of pre-
paration, thinking out the minutest details and practical means of
bringing home to the audience the salient points.

He found time also to experiment with wireless telegraphy, and
the complete wireless equipment he fitted to his house was a
source of pleasure to himself and to his friends, enabling him to
take time signals and interpret messages sent by ships at sea from
one to another.

These few reflections show the many-sided character of the man,
and he would throw as much energy into discussions around these
little side issues as into the details of his meteorological station,
which he maintained for nearly thirty years.

At his funeral, which took place at Hove, members of the
learned Societies to which he belonged were represented, and many
of his personal friends attended the service In scientific circles
his good fellowship and his readiness to hold out a helping hand
to those interested in similar pursuits, will be nmch missed, for he
was a striking example of an able man of many sides who never
understood what it was to be unable to conquer a knotty scientific
problem.

AN APPRECIATION OF DR. E. J. SPITTA.

I FIRST made the acquaintance of Dr. E. J. Spitta in 1903 as
Secretary of the Quekett Microscopical Club, which was then
passing through one of those periods of stagnation which occur
in the life of all Societies. The enthusiasts who had been associated

^OURN. R. MICR. SOC. 1921. PI. Y.

Edmund Johnson Spitta, L.R.C.P.(Lond.), M.R.C.S.(EDg.), P.R.A.S.

Face p. 154.

Obituary. 155

■ with its early years were dead or retired from active work, and the
Club appeared to be settling down into a listless middle age. A
succession of weak Presidents possessing few qualifications for
the office had been followed by the distinguished mycologist Massee,
who held the Presidentship for four years. Ill health rendered
him a frequent absentee, and although the Club was still apparently
in a flourishing condition, the decreasing attendance gave warning
that a President was required who would devote time and energy
to his office. I was directed to get into touch with Spitta, who
had joined the Club in 1899, but who owing to the demands
of his large practice was unknown to the Committee at large. He
had, however, obtained some celebrity as a photomicrographer and
astronomer.

I called on Spitta at Clapham, where he then lived, and discussed
the position with him. I was immediately struck with his out-
standing appearance and personality, and with the care with which
he went into the situation and its requirements. He told me
that he was shortly retiring from practice, and he undertook, if
elected, to spare neither time nor trouble to make himself a success.
I reported accordingly to my Committee, and in February 1904
he was elected President.

Things soon began to move. Spitta had by this time gone to
live at Hove, but he took himself and his office very seriously,
travelling specially up for the meetings and doing all in his power
to attract members and visitors to the Club. Long before the
expiration of his four years' tenure of the office, the attendance had
increased to such an extent that the room was often uncomfortably
crowded. He was unquestionably a great success as President,
and he was just as unquestionably fully aware of it. He often told
me that he was proud to think that he left the Quekett Club to his
successor, E. A. Minchin, in a far stronger position than when he
assumed office.

I think the secret of his success was the seriousness with
• which he took himself and his position. Essentially a man of the
world, he realized that an author who prepares a paper deserves
to have some notice taken of his work, even if only to damn it.
I never heard Spitta utter from the Chair those words which have
damped the enthusiasm of so many authors : " Well, gentlemen,
we have just listened to a very interesting paper. I know nothing
of the subject myself, but no doubt somebody will make a few
remarks on it." Nobody ever has the audacity to know more
than the President, and the author goes away feeling that he has
wasted his time.

This was not Spitta's method. I never heard him claim any
special knowledge on a subject outside his own lines of work, but
whatever the paper might be he made a point of devilling up
the subject, and he invariably followed the author with a few

M 2

156 Obituary.

well-chosen remarks, which usually led to a general discussion
gratifying to the author and interesting to the audience.

A man of Spitta's sanguine temperament and somewhat dominat-
ing personality could not avoid making some enemies in his career.
He was a strong and outspoken President in Committee, and
his ways did not please all its members. But my relations with
him as Secretary, during the first three years of his office, were of
the most cordial description ; I was always assured of his support,
and I am glad to think that the friendship then formed remained
unbroken to the end. That he was proud of his office and appre-
ciative of the general support which he received, is shown by the
dedication of his book on the Microscope to the Council and
Members of the Quekett Microscopical Club. Less than a year ago
he sent me a copy of the latest edition — "just as a reminder of all
past and happy times." He was very human, and certainly one of
the most engaging personalities I reniember in the world of
Microscopy. A. E.

FEEDEEICK ANTHONY PARSONS.

It is with very great regret we have to record the death on
February 7 of Frederick Anthony Parsons, in his eighty-fifth year.

Mr. Parsons had been engaged as an Engineer's Draughtsman,
until he was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Royal ]\Iicro-
scopical Society in 1896. He held this post until 1912, and
during that period was a familiar figure at the meetings. On
retiring he was nominated as a Fellow by the Council, in recog-
nition of his long and valued service, and presented with a
testimonial and an address at the meeting held June 19, 1912.
He was a member of the Quekett Microscopical Club for a few
months short of half a century, and during that time served for
many years as Secretary to the Excursions' Committee. It was
in April, 1885, on one of the Club's annual visits to the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Regent's Park, that he was fortunate in first finding
specimens uf the' fresh- water Hydroid Polyp, a biological discovery
of much importance. It was taken from the Victoria llegia tank,
where a few years previously had been found the Medusoid form
which had been described by Prof, (now Sir) E. Ray Lankester,
under the name Limnocodium Sowerbi/i.

His kindliness, liis enthusiasm in microscopical matters, "the
thoroughness and neatness which were marked features in every-
thing he did, will be long remembered by all who knew him.
Mr. E. M. Nelson writes, " No microscopist I have ever met was
more ready than he to help not only in the department of pond-
life, but also in that of the mechanical construction of the micro-
scope, for he possessed a good knowledge of mechanical engineering."

A. W. Sheppaed.

157

SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

Cprincipally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICEOSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

1. Emtoryologry, Evolution, Heredity, Reproduction,
and Allied Subjects.

Pseudo-parthenogenesis in Human Ovum. — L. Hoche and R.
MORLOT (Comptes Retidus Soc. Biol. 11)20, 83, 1152-4). In a ripe
Graafian follicle in a girl of twelve, operated on for ovarian hernia, there
was found an ovum with distinct nuclear and cytoplasmic segmentation,
as if indicating the beginning of parthenogenetic segmentation. But
the cell-formation did not show the normal chromatin constitution and
represented little more than a sort of struggle against death. The
phenomenon was to be regarded as among the varieties of cellular
degeneration and death. J- A. T.

Development of Uterine Glands in Man. — E. A. BaumCtARTXer,
M. T. Nelson and Wm. Dock {Amer. Journ. Anat, 1920, 27,
20;-5-19, 7 figs.). Glands are found in the corpus of the uterus in a six-
to seven-month foetus. The earliest are small irregular outpouch ings
from the semilunar mucosal folds, subsequently developing constricted
necks and enlarged end-pieces similar to many other gland rudiments.
The necks persist even to the adult stage ; the enlarged ends become
tubular and divide T-like,with sometimes a second longitudinal division
of the end branches. The stalks follow an oblique course in the adult,
sometimes almost a spiral one. Xear the muscle layer the branches run
parallel to the surface and all in one direction, sometimes forming a net-
work by anastomoses of different branches. The greater part of the
glandular tissue lies in the lower one-third or one-fourth of the endo-
metrium. Adult uterine glands are compound, anastomosing, tubular
glands. J- A. T.

* The Society does not hold itself responsible for the views of the authors
of the papers abstracted. Ths object of this part of the Journal is to present
a summary of the papers as actually imhlishrxl, and to describe and illustrate
Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have not been previously
described in this country.

158 SUxMAIAKY OF CURREXT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Spermatogenesis in the Orvet. — A. Dalcq {Comptes Re?idus Soc.
Biol. l'J20, 83, 995-7). The apparently similar sperroatids have
a hidden dimorphism, for some of them show a heterochromosome
which the others lack. This corresponds to what has been observed
in various insects and mammals. J. A. T.

Post-natal Development of Rat's Ovary. — Hayato Arai {Amer.
Journ. Allot., 1920, 27, 405-62, 4 charts). The total number of ova
in both ovaries was counted in tliirty-nine albino rats, ranging in age
from birth to 947 days. In relation to the body-weight the size of the
ovaries increases to a maximum of 33 grm., thereafter it decreases
up to puberty, after which it increases rapidly and reaches the
second maximum. The ovary weight according to age shows continuous
increase up to thirty-one months. The weight of the right ovary is less
tban that of the left — about 90 p.c. — while the total number of ova is
slightly more in the right ovary. The total number of ova in both
ovaries decreases rapidly from 35,100 at birth to about 11,000 at twenty-
three days. From twenty-three to sixty-three days the number is
nearly constant (11,000 to 10,000). It then decreases again rapidly to
about 0,000 at seventy days. During the last period ovulation usually
occurs. From seventy days up to thirty-one months there is a slow
decrease to about 2,000 ova. In general, this decrease results mainly
from the degeneration of the primitive ova, but in part from that of the
definitive ova.

With the increasing weight of the ovary the total number of ova
decreases. The increase in weight is associated before puberty princip-
ally with the formation of large degenerate follicles together with mature
follicles and growth of connective tissue, but after puberty the increase
depends mainly on the accumulation of small corpora lutea in addition
to the mature and degenerate follicles and connective tissue. After
puberty the number of large corpora lutea is about the same in all
ovaries, and these, therefore, are not responsible for the regular age
changes in the weight of ovaries. The new formation of the ktgg^ cells
takes place after birth from the germinal epithelium. These ova grow
in Fitu, and, as development proceeds, are covered by the adjacent
epithelial cells and extend into the stroma, passing through the tunica
albuginea. From these newly formed germ-cells the definitive ova
appear to develop, beginning from about the second week after birth.
The primitive ova, which are present during foetal life, are found degene-
rating immediately after birth. After puberty the degenerate follicles
are derived principally from the definitive ova. The mean number of
all degenerated follicles is about 10 p.c. of the total number of ova.
Ovulation can occur spontaneously, indei^endent of sexual intercourse
and without the influence of the male. The corpora lutea formed in
rats in which the ova have been fertilized are a little larger than those
in non-fertilized rats. Near maturity there may be as many as twenty-
one follicles in both ovaries. J. A. T.

Development of Mammalian Spleen.— G. A. Thiel and H. Doavney
{Amer. Journ. Aaat., 1921, 28, 279-339, 3 pis., 3 figs.). The spleen
of white rat, pig and gopher is first seen as a dense mass of mesenchy-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 159

matous tissue in the left dorso-lateml portion of the mesentery. In the
first stages of its development it is impossible to make a sharp distinc-
tion between the ccelomic epithelium and the mesenchyme of the
mesogastrium. Proliferating activity on the part of the epithelial cells
may result in the crowding of some of the daughter cells into the
underlying mesenchyme. After the splenic rudiment is established
(15 mm. pig), the peritoneal cells are sharply separated from the
mesenchyme by a distinct limiting membrane. The earliest splenic
vessels are branches of the mesenteric artery, which form a network.
Blood-forming activity in the spleen begins in pig embryos of 8 to 4 cm.
in length ; cells of the mesenchyme become free lymphocytes. Erythro-
poietic activity is seen first in 4 to 6 cm. pig embryos. Erythroblasts
are seen in small graups in lacunte that were formed by the first free
cells as they were cut off from the mesenchymal syncytium. The
erythropoiesis is largely extra-vascular. Granulopoiesis is very limited
in the pig's spleen at any stage. The authors discuss the differentiation
of " white pulp," the lymphoid or follicular portion of the spleen, and
the appearance of large lymphocytes. J. A. T.

Development of Opossum's Stomach and Intestine. — C. H.
Heuser {Amer. Journ. Anat., 1921, 28, 341-6i), 6 pis.). As the intra-
uterine period in the opossum is very brief, the intestinal nutrition
commences in the new-born animals while they are relatively very
immature. Ten days after the beginning of segmentation, or thirteen
days after insemination, the young opossums appear in the pouch ; they
become at once attached to the teats, and milk soon enters their
stomachs. Five days before birth, however, the digestive tract of the
opossum is no further advanced than this system in the three-day chick
embryo ; the foregut extends forward from the broad connexion with
the yolk-sac, and the first rudiments of the liver, hind-gut and allantois
are just appearing. The transformation brought about during these
last five days is remarkable in its rapidity. Certain of the changes,
such as the enormous dilatation of the stomach, must be largely due to
mechanical causes ; other alterations, as in the formation of villi and
the differentiation of the epithelial cells in the upper parts of the small
intestine, must be accounted for by the natural processes of development
of the embryo, aided or hastened possibly by the early functional
requirements of the organs. J. A. T.

Hypertrophy of Remaining Ovary after Semispaying. — Hayato
Arai {Amer. Journ. Anat., 1920, 27, 59-79). Semispaying seems to
have no influence on the growth of the body of the albino rat. There
is compensatory hypertrophy of the remaining ovary, independent of
coitus or pregnancy. The number of ova in the right ovary, excised at
twenty days, and in the left surviving ovary in the same rat are about
the same, despite the fact that the weight of the surviving ovary is two
to ten times greater than that of the right ovary at the time of removal.
On the other hand, the number of ova in the surviving ovary is
12 p.c. less than that in the ovary of the corresponding side of the
controls in the same litter, and at the same ages ; nevertheless, the
surviving ovary weighs one and a half to two times more than the

160 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

control ovary. This iudicates that changes in the total number of ova
do not cause the hypertrophy of the surviving ovary. This is due to a
greater abundance of well-developed normal and degenerate follicles, as
well as by an excess of corpora lutea. This indicates an increased
activity of the surviving ovary due to some unknown stimulus. Changes
in the ovarian stroma influence but slightly, if at all, these results.
Semispayed females produce litters with nearly as many young as the
controls. The time of the first ovulation in the surviving ovary is
normal. Young females separated from the males show a slightly
slower growth and maturing of the ovary than do the females kept
with the males. J. A. T.

Degenerative Changes of the Pancreas during Pregnancy. —
M. Aron {Comptes Rendm Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 1122-5). Autolytic
processes on the surface of the small pancreatic lobules are seen in
pregnant bats and in some other cases, including man. Aron thinks
the phenomena may be due to a toxic fluid in the peritoneal serosa.

J. A. T.

Development of Supra-renal Body of Hedgehog.— A. Celestino
DA Costa {Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, <s78-9). The primordia
of the cortical portion are first seen in an embryo of 6 mm. Thickened
zones of coelomic epithelium grow into the mesenchyme, on the two sides
of the origin of the mesentery, a little in front of the emergence of the
coeliac artery. Besides this inter-renal primordium there is a distinct
genital primordium, and the relations between the two are very clear in
the hedgehog. Into the inter-renal primordium there is, in the 8 mm.
stage, a penetration of sympathetic elements. J. A. T.

Haematopoietic Processes in Gonads of the Fowl. — Jose F.
NoNiDEZ {Amer. Journ. Anaf., 1920, 28, 81-113, o pis.). In the
gonads of the fowl, both in the embryo and mature bird, there is a
widespread tendency towards the formation of blood-cells which usually
appear as small lymphocytes grouped in lymphogranulopoietic foci.
Similar groups occur in other organs and in the general mesenchyme.
The granule-laden cells could be traced to h?emocytoblasts or large
lymphocytes, which arise as a differentiation in the mesenchyme cells.
The hgemocytoblasts become granulocytoblasts (= myeloblasts) after
deposition of acidophile granules in their cytoplasm. The granulo-
cytoblasts eventually become eosinophile leucocytes which degenerate.
The small lymphocytes referred to above are endowed with seveial
potentialities. Besides becoming granular leucocytes of smaller size,
they give rise to large wandering cells which agree in their characteristics
with cells hitherto regarded as interstitial. But they may be quite
absent, and it does not seem probable that they have an endocrine
function. The granule-laden interstitial cells in the ovary and testis
described by Boring and Pearl are granulocytoblasts. The mature
cock-feathered-male lacks a specific interstitial tissue influencing the
secondary sex-characters. J. A. T.

Anterior End of Notochord in Embryos of Reptiles. — A. Webee
{Comptes Rendm Soc. Biol., 1920, 83," 1056-8). In the earliest

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 161

stages the anterior end of the notochord is connected with the band
uniting the pre-mandihibar head-cavities, and thereby with the posterior
wall of the hypophysial diverticulum. But there is great diversity later
on when the base of the cranium has become cartilaginous. In Varanus
and Cis/Niio there are notochordal nodules just behind the hypophysial
primordium, even in the sella turcica. In Gongylus ocellatus and
Cerastes cornutus at the same stage the anterior end of the notochord is
much further back and not in the vicinity of the hypophysis. J. A. T.

Development of Auditory Apparatus in Sphenodon. — F. R. Wyeth
{Pnir. Royal Soc, Series B, l'J20, 91, 224-8). The cartilaginous
auditory capsule and the anterior cornu of the hyoid are products of
two connective-tissue proliferations, and there are two centres of chon-
dritication — one hyoidean and one capsular— originally separated by an
intervening tract of mesenchyme. It is concluded that the columella
auris is derived from the hyoid arch, with which it is continuous
throughout all stages of development, and that the extra-stapedial
cartilage is primarily united with the anterior cornu of the hyoid. The
supra-stapedial cartilage (including the recurrent process) is developed,
and persists as an outgrowth from the extra-stapedial cartilage, and is
therefore a hyoidean derivative. The auditory capsule contributes, at
most, a portion of the foot-plate of the stapes, which is probably partly
capsular and partly hyoidean in origin. Tliei-distal portion of the stapes
is exclusively hyoidean. J. A. T.

Thyroid Gland of Anura in Relation to Metamorphosis. — C. 0.
Jexsen {Gomptes Rendiis Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 948-9). In larvas
of Rana esculenta, R. arvalis, and Biifo vulgaris anomalies in the
metamorphosis may be correlated with peculiar states in the thyroid
gland. Ill abnormally precocious metamorphosis tlie follicles of the
thyroid gland were filled with a colloid mass with a strong affinity for
eosin, which points to an unusually intense secretory activity. In larvae
that had remained larvee through the winter the thyroid was much
enlarged, the follicles were swollen with a colloid with little affinity for
eosin, and the epithelium of the foUicles was much flattened. In giant
tadpoles the thyroid was much enlarged, the numerous follicles in part
in process of proliferation showed cubical or cylindrical epithelium ;
between the follicles there were in certain places cellular masses of
considerable volume. J. A. T.

Pig'mentation in Larvse of Anura. — J. Nageotte {Gomptes Remivs
Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 319-20). What Prenant calls the reticulum
of Asvadourova was described by Eberth in 1866. In tadpoles of the
frog there are vacuoles with liquid contents between the chromatophores
and the basal membrane, and forming a continuous layer. They are
probably homologous with Eberth's reticulum seen in Alytes, Disroylof^siis,
Bombinator, and other forms. They do not occiu' in the tadpoles of
the common toad. J. A. T,

Grafted Embryos of Bombinator. — A. Weber {Gomptes Rendiis
Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 1058-60). Young embryos of Bombinator
igneus at the end of gastrulation were placed in the dorsal lymphatic

162 SUMMARY OF QUERENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

sac of adults of both sexes. They may develop till the appearance of
the branchial arches, when the larva emerges from the egg-envelope and
dies, being destroyed by the phagocytes of its host. In cases where
they were left alone for a month without any opening of the host, it
was found that development was very partial. There were traces of a
medullary groove, but the mesoderm showed marked de-differentiation.
The larvEe had developed up^to a certain point, showing adhesive organs
for instance, and had then gone back. J. A. T.

Grafting Eggs of Bombinator.— A. Weber (Comptes Rendus Soc.
Biol, 1920, 83, 891-2). Fertilized ova of Bombinator igneus surrounded
by their viscous envelope were placed in the peritoneal cavity or in the
dorsal lymph-sac of adults of both sexes and in the peritoneum of newts.
The newly fertilized ovnm underwent rapid destruction, especially in the
newts. The development hardly got past gastrulation, but some showed
an irregular medullary plate. An ovum that has undergone gastrulation
will go on developing almost normally, but somewhat asymmetrically.
The stage of branchial arches was reached, and then the larva hatches
inside its host. J. A. T.

Grafting Eggs of Newt. —A. Weber {Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol.,
1920, 83, 749-51). Experiments in grafting the ova of Triton alpestris
in the peritoneal cavity of the adult. The ovum is covered externally
with a transparent and elastic membrane ; there is a delicate translucent
vitelline membrane in direct contact with the ovum ; between the two
there is a fluid corresponding to white of egg, and in this some crystals
appear shortly before the liatching of the larva. When the eggs are
placed at various stages of development in the peritoneal cavity of the
male they are soon killed ; the same is true in the female, but the killing
is rapid. The same is true of larvae enclosed for a short time in the
peritoneal cavity of the adult. The peritoneal reaction is slight when
the introduced ova are in early stages of development ; it is marked
in the later stages. Segmentation of introduced ova may continue for a
short time, but there is irregularity in the blastomeres, and the gastrula
stage is never passed. Introduced larvse show before they are killed
some de-differentiation of the organs. J. A. T.

'^■o'-

Pigmentation of Tadpoles. — A. Pkenant {Comptes Rendus Soc.
Biol., 1920, 83, 8?)9-J:2). In tadpoles of Discoglossvs p ictus a number
of very pale, greyish cells, at first isolated, come together and anas-
tomose to form a "reticulum of Asvadourova," with quadrangular
meshes, the whole being visible to the naked eye. Independent of the
reticulum there are other pigmented cells at a deeper level, and some
melanophores appear from connective-tissue cells. The reticulum
occurs in Felodytes, but nut in Pelobates, frog, or toad. It is well
known that tadpole and adult Batrachians have two kinds of pigment
cells, xanthophores with a yellowish pigment, and melanophores with
melanin. The xanthophores occur singly or in a reticulum (the
*' reseau jaune " of Mile. Asvadourova) ; they contain in many cases
(frog and toad tadpoles) numerous globules coloured by vital stains,
but these are almost always absent in tadpoles of Alytes and Disco-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 163

ghssus. The pigment is usually indistinctly granular, hut it may be
distinctly granular and grey. The melanophores arise chiefly from
transformed xanthophores, which pass through the greyish phase ; and
there is a pigment intermediate between the yellow^ and the dark. It
may be that the yellowish pigment is of an amino-acid nature, as
Yerne linds in Crustaceans, and is transformed into a melanin.

J. A. T.

Lens Formation and Cyclopia in Tadpoles. — G. Leplat {Bull.
Soc. Roy. Belffique, Classe de Sciences, 1920, 252-61). In over 200
monstrosities, cyclopean and anophthalmous, only fifteen had differenti-
ated lenses, which is not in agreement with the view that the head-
ectoderm very readily develops lenses. J. A. T.

Uterus of Narcine indica. — B. Peashad (Records TmlMii Museum, ■
1920, 19, 97-105, 2 pis.). In a paper on Torpedinidie from the Orissa
coast, a description is given of the gravid uterus of N. indica, which
contained a yellowish milk-like secretion. The entire inner surface is
densely covered with spathulate villi-like trophonemata (198 on a square
inch), which closely resembled those of Torpedo ocellata. J. A. T.

Irritability of Selachian Embryo. — P. Winteebekt {Gomptes
Rendus Soc. Biol, 1920, 83, 1029-;-;i). The very young embryo of
the dogfish {Scylliorhiiins canicida), when only 5 mm. in length and
aneural, shows great irritability in response to mechanical stimuli
applied directly to the muscle. The stimulus may be passed along a
myotomic chain, and always acts as an accelerator. Excitation of a
tissue at a distance from the muscle has no effect. J. A. T.

Leptocephalus Stage of Conger.— E. Foed {Journ. Marine Biol.
Ass., 1920, 12, 249-52). Note on a specimen of LeptocepMlus congri
vulgaris (L. morrisii) from a depth of 31 fathoms, captured (September
17, 1919) near Eddystone. It was between 115 and 120 mm. in length,
and eighteen days after its transference to the aquarium the normal
retrograde metamorphosis hud resulted in a reduction to 30 to 90 mm.,
and its former "ribbon" shape was being superseded by the eel-like
form, with a considerable loss of transparency. Its age at capture was
certainly well over one year, with a possibility of eighteen months. A
summary is given of previous captures of congei" larvse around the
British Isles. J. A. T.

Pelagic and Early Bottom Stages of Teleosteans. — Pt. S. Claek
{Journ. Marine Biol. Ass., 1920, 12, 159-240, 9 figs.). An elaborate
report on 10,400 stages of well-known Teleostean fishes, referable to
twenty-four families, thirty-nine genera, and seventy-one species.
Attention is directed to the adaptive post-larval characters and the
taxonomic value of the number of vertebrae and fin-rays. J. A. T.

Blood-formation in Bony Fishes.— J. Jolly {Oomptes Rendus
Soc. Biol, 1920, 83, 848-50). In Selachians, Sauropsia, and Mammals
the blood appears first outside of the embryo on the surface of the yolk
or in connexion with the yolk-sac. In Teleosteans the first blood-cells

164 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

are formed within the embryo, and the appearance of the vitelUne
reticuhim is delayed. Previous investigators have found the seat of
blood-formation in a mesodermic mass between the notochord and the
gut, and Jolly confirms this. Later on, when the mesodermic mass (the
intermediate mass) is dissociated, blood-cells appear singly or in little
groups at the expense of extra-embryonic mesoderm. This is a primitive
mode of development, of secondary importance in Teleosteans. It is
suggested thai the peripheral extra-embryonic seat of formation has
become incorporated in the body of the eml3ryo to form the median
primordium. J. A. T.

Life-history of the Angler. — Alexander Bowman {Scient. Inves-
tifjations Fishery Boards Scotland, 1920, 1-42, 6 pis,, 2 charts). A study
of the eggs and larvae of Lophius piscafoi-ius. The eggs, after expulsion
from the ovary, are found floating in the sac enveloped in a ribbon-
shaped mass of light violet-grey mucus, many feet long. They are
arranged in a single irregular layer, each free in a polygonal com-
partment, oil-globules uppermost. The isolated egg is pelagic, large,
and transparent, with a,, homogeneous yellowish yolk. It is typically
oval in shape, with a variable number of oil-globules like burnished
copper or amber. The newly-spawned egg is entirely free from
pigment, but even before the embryo begins to assume definite form
dark dendritic pigment appear on the surface of the embryo and on
the yolk near the embryo, and this pigment spreads rapidly. The
embryo does not extend round the whole egg before it is ready to hatch
out ; the tail remains quite free from pigment.

The newly-hatched larva, 4'5mm. long, is a striking object. It
floats with the yolk uppermost ; the head, being heaviest, is lowest ;
thus the larva in still water assumes an oblique position, with the tip
of the tail just touching the surface film. The yolk is still relatively
large, its diameter being more than half the length of the larva. The
body and the gut are richly pigmented. The pigment-free tail is short
and fleshy. The mouth is closed.

Even the seven to eight days' old larva floats yolk uppermost, the body
lying obliquely to the surface film. As the pelvic fins get shunted
forwards till anterior to the fan-shaped pectorals, the larv* gradually
sink towards the bottom of the aquarium. In the summer months the
absorption of the yolk is completed in about fifteen days. At this stage
there was still no depression of the head or body, but a superficial
tadpole-like appearance. The mouth is now open and well formed.
The pelvic fins are long, simple, filamentous rays.

A post-larval form, about 10 mm. long, with tliree well-developed
first dorsal rays and the beginning of the second dorsal and anal fins,
shows the first signs of the change which leads to the adult shape.
The pelvic fins develop subsidiary lobes, and their rays become very
long. The changes on to the time when the young fish takes to the
bottom are described — e.g. the changes in the form and in the relation
of the paired and unpaired fins, the enormous lateral expansion of the
head behind the eyes, the shifting of the eyes from their original
lateral position to the top of the head, the multiplication of seaweed-like
taffs of skin.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 165

The fact that Loph/uft piscatorius has a prolonged pelagic period is
now made clear. Insufficient data led to the view that the pelagic
period was very short. The specific gravity of the eggs and the loose
binding together in a gelatinous matrix of extended surface ensure for
the large eggs a prolonged period of flotation, first at the surface, and
afterwards in the upper layers. Later on the power of flotation is
increased by the extraordinary length and spread of the membranous
pelvic fins of the larvre ; and there are other interesting adaptations.

The remarkable sheets of spawn are discussed at some length. The
spawning period in the northern parts of the North Sea extends from
February or March to July. It begins at least as early as January in
the Mediterranean. A careful study of the records points to the con-
clusion that the main spawning area in the North is beyond the limits
of the North Sea, and that the Atlantic itself may be the main spawning
area. The sheets of spawn probably drift for great distances. J. A. T.

Secondary Sex Characters of Elasmobranchs. — W. Haeold
LeiCtH-Shakpe {Journ. Morphologt/, 1920, 34, 247-65, 12 figs.). In
the male Elasmobranchs the basal element of the pelvic fin is prolonged
to form a stout backwardly directed skeletal rod supporting a portion of
the fin specially modified to form a copulatory organ, called the clasper.
It is rolled up in a manner resembling a scroll, so as to form what is
practically a tube along which the spermatozoa pass, injected in sharks
and dogfish by a very muscular apparatus, the siphon. In the skates
the place of the siphon is taken by the clasper gland contained in a sac
which it completely fills. Other accessory structures may be present on
the claspers, such as the spurs and the like in Acanthias and the fan-
like terminal expansion (the rhipidion), most developed in skates, whose
function is to spray the spermatozoa in all directions in a radiating
manner. The author describes the clasping apparatus in Scyllmm
catulus, S. canicula, Acanthias vulgaris, and Raia circularis. In
8. catulus there is a pair of accessory sacs (parasiphons), smaller than
the siphons, and nearer the median line, dorsal to the skeletal rod.
They are accessory to the siphons. In 8. canicula the parasiphons are
vestigial. The clasper groove or tube is filled with spermatozoa by a
gradual flow through the apopyle (anterior proximal opening). Copula-
tion ensues, and the claspers are bent forward so that the apopyle is
closed. Muscular contraction of the siphon-wall follows, and the
spermatozoa are ejected by the flush of sea-water into the oviduct of
the female. The posterior end of the ovyiuct is naturally dilated to
admit of the inclusion of the claspers. In young females it is closed by
a hymen. The roughened rhipidion, with backward pointing denticles,
passes anterior to this dilation and serves for close and secure attach-
ment. In S. canicula the rhipidion is vestigial. The siphon of the
living animal contains sea-water. The siphons arise in development
apparently as invaginations of ectoderm. The siphon wall consists of
an internal membrane of stratified epithelium, a broad layer of circular
muscles, a ventral band of longitudinal muscle, and, dorso-lateral in
position, a longitudinal muscle-band external to the whole. In Acanthias
vulgaris the apopyle is considerably removed from the cloaca, the
actually closed portion of the clasper tube is short, the rhipidion is

166 SUMMARY OF CUKKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

pronounced, and there is a short straight thorn-like spur, a brief
distance anterior to the hypopyle (the posterior distal exit). This spur
is worked by a powerful muscle, so that while it normally is kept in a
relaxed coudition against the side of the clasper, once the latter has
entered the oviduct of the female it can be erected, forming an
important organ of attachment. The extreme tip of the clasper,
posterior to the hypopyle, is also provided with a very small much-
curved claw, likewise movable, perhaps serving to rupture the hymen.
In the ocellated ray {Raia clrcularis) there are many differences. The
claspers are almost smooth ; the apopyle exists rather in name than in
reality, and is removed a considerable distance posterior to the cloaca ;
the clasper has a groove, not a tube ; the rhipidion is a fan ; the siphon
sac is filled with a remarkable gland somewhat like a date stone. Each
of the two lobes of the gland is compound and the components open by
papillae in a longitudinal groove of the gland. The siphon tube, which
forms the ultimate duct of the gland, does not debouch at the apopyle,
but is continued as a completely closed passage to a separate aperture
posterior to the hypopyle. In this case the muscular walls of the siphon
sac do not serve to propel spermatozoa ; they serve to inject the secretion
of the clasper gland into the female. The claspers have a minimum of
skeletal support, but they are very erectile, it may be to four times their
natural size. Such an erection is not needed in SeijlUum and Acanthias,
which are provided with dermal denticles and spurs, respectively ; Raia
relies on erection and on a relatively larger rhipidion for fixing purposes
during insemination. • J. A. T..

Developmental Rate and Structural Expression. — Charles E.
Stockard {Amer. Journ. Anat., 1921, 115-277, 6 pi. 32 figs.). A given
animal species passes through its embryonic stages at a specific rate of
development, probably dependent upon the rate of oxidation in the
protoplasm of the species. This developmental rate varies within
certain normal limits ; should variations in rate extend beyond these
limits, the developmental result frequently becomes modified and dis-
torted. The rate is not uniform throughout, but periods of rapid pro-
gress alternate with moments of slow rate or almost quiescence. But
development in most forms is continuous, though stopping completely
is universal among birds and, is known in several mammals. Dis-
continuity may be induced by temporarily lowering the surrounding
temperature and thereby rtducing the rate of oxidation, and by directly
cutting oft' the supply of oxygen. The effect varies with the moment,
for some moments are critical, especially when marked inequalities in
rate of cellular proliferation are taking place in different portions of the
blastoderm or embryo. Slowing does not have the same abnormal
results as stoppage, for the normal inequalities of rate are reduced in
the same proportion. Practically any deformity recorded in the litera-
ture, other than those due to germinal mutations, can be induced by
lowering the temperature. Duplicities are easily induced in the sea-
minnow, Fundulus heteroditus, and in the trout, by arrest or stoppage
before the process of blastopore formation has begun. Double chick
embryos are probably due to the eggs being laid (in a minority of cases)
l^efore the gastrulation has begun. The fall in temperature following

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. MICROSCOPY, ETC. 167

laying gives rise to two points of gastrulation instead of one. Polj-
embrjony in the armadillo is probably due to delayed implantation of
the blastocyst in the wall of the uterus. The stop here is not due to a
temperature change, since none has occurred, but is very probably due
to an exhaustion of the original oxygen supply derived from the ovarian
lilood. The degree of duplicity in double individuals depends on the
original distance apart of the embryonic buds on the blastoderm. The
degree of deformity in the small component of two varies directly with
the extent of difference in size between tlie two components. As the
large component reaches adult size the lesser component may be repre-
sented by a nodular mass or by a twin inclusion. The*primary action
of all factors inducing deformity is to inhibit the rate of development.
Both monstra in defectu and monstra in escessu may exist in the same
specimen, being due to a common cause. Species may be lost by
failure to find environments in which harmonious development is
possible, but birds and mammals have partially succeeded in controlling
their own developmental environment. But in no sense is the regula-
tion constantly perfect, and this fact is the underlying cause of frequent
malformations and monstrous productions. J. A. T.

Influence of Parental Alcoholism.— E: C. MacDowell {Proc. Soc.
Exper.Biol and Med., IDIO, 16, 125-6). Training records of the off-
spring and grand-offspring of a pair of rats heavily alcoholized daily for
two months before the birth of the young. Habit formatipn was tested
on a Watson maze and a Yerkes multiple choice apparatus. The
criteria were the average time per trial, the number of '• perfect " trials,
the number of wrong turns or errors. The rats that received alcohol
and then- unalcoholized descendants were less successful than the con-
trols in meeting the situations presented. J. A. T.

&• Histolog-y.

Fibrillar Reticulum of the Human Spleen. — G. Dubreuil
{Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol, 1920, 83, 1098-1100). There is a fibrillar
reticiihtm throughout the spleen,* except in certain Malpighian cor-
puscles. It is seen in the white pulp in the form of collagenous, pre-
collagenous and elastic fibres. It is seen in the red pulp in the form of
precollagenous fibres in the strands jof Billroth and of ill-diflferentiated
elastic fibres round the special endothelium of the venous sinuses. This
fine supporting reticulum is attached to the capsule and to the fibrous
framework of the spleen. It is useful to distinguish this fibrillar
reticulum from the cellular reticulum which forms narrow meshes
enclosing free elements. J. A. T.

Islets of Langerhans and Blood-formation. — M. Aron {Comptes
Rendus Soc. Biol, 1920, 83, 1119-22). The hasmatopoietic islets of
the pancreas seen in a few mammals result from the transformation of
some of their elements into red blood corpuscles. This transformation
is cytologically identical with what occurs in the case of the " cellules
troubles " of the pancreas in the embryo pig. J. A. T.

168 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Minute Structure of Lang-erhans's Islets. — S. Saguchi {Anier.
Journ. Anat., 1920, 28, 1-57, 6 pis., 4 figs.). An account of the
different types of islet cells, their nuclei, granules, mitochondria, lipoid
corpuscles, the urano-argentophile apparatus, pigment granules, division,
development, and distribution in the pancreas. There is a transforma-
tion of the acinus cell into the islet cell, whereby not only the cell-body
and the nucleus change shape and position, but the intra-cytoplasmic
structures also undergo a series of definite alterations. There is also a
transformation of islet cells into acinus cells. The theory that the islet
is an organ for internal secretion, giving certain substances to the blood-
stream, is the most probable theory as to function. Most of the islet
cells are, at one or both ends, in contact with distended capillaries, and
the islets have no lumina that are continuous with the pancreatic duct.
The lipoid corpuscles and urano-argentophile apparatus must be looked
upon as specific secreted matter of the islet, and it is probable that,
after having undergone a certain chemical alteration, these constituents
pass into the blood-capillary. J. A. T.

Smooth Muscle Fibres of Central Suprarenal Vein. ^ Jean
Peindarie {Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 958-60). From the
enveloping capsule of the suprarenal body, as Stilling has shown, delicate
bundles of muscular fibres spread into the connective partitions of the
glandular stroma, and act on the capillaries and parenchyme cells. The
secretion is thus passed into the central collecting vein. This has a
remarkably developed system of smooth muscle fibres, sometimes regarded
as indicative of endophlebitis. A careful description is given of what
Peindarie regards as quite normal. The experiments of Stewart and
Kogoff show that animals without a suprarenal body react like the
others to psychical stimuli, the phenomena being vaso-motor. GMandular
hyper-secretion may not be the primary cause of the immediate change
following emotion ; what happens may be due to the compression and
emptyins: of the collecting vein by the powerful musculature in the
walls. ^ J. A. T.

Musculature of Central Veins of the Suprarenal Body in Man. —
G. DuBREUiL {GompUs Rendus Soc. Biol, 1920, 83, 1096-8, 1 fig.).
The striking development of smooth muscle around these veins as
described by Peindarie is confirmed. It is not found in sheep, rat,
or rabbit. In man the musculature is nne(|ually developed on diiferent
sides of the vessel. The fibres are seen only on the large branches.
Most are longitudinally disposed, but some are oblique, so that a plexi-
form distribution results. J. A. T.

Minute Structure of Human Lung^. — Ch. Ogawa {Amer. Journ.
Anat., 1920, 27, 315-32, 8 figs.). The alveolar ducts divide two to nine
times to reach the air-sacs, at various angles from wide to acute, showing
both monopodial and dichotomous ramification. Diverging planes of
alveolar ducts frequently cross each other. The alveolar ducts branch in
frequent succession ; the decrease in diameter is not marked. The
mouths of the alveolar ducts consist of alveolar septa, but usually the
mouths are enclosed partially by the wall of the alveolar duct itself. The

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 169

namber of alveoli contained in one air-sac is estimated to be from one to
twenty, eleven in average. The alveolar walls, other than the' base, are
formed usually by both the protruding wall of the alveolar ducts and the
alveolar septa. . J. A. T.

Histology of Vertebrate Lung. — Ch. Ogawa {Amer. Journ. Anat.,
l'.)20, 27,> 833-93, 28 figs.). A comparative study in Amphibians,
Reptiles, Birds and Mammals of the respiratory epithelium, the muscle
fibres, the elastic fibres, and the reticular fibres. The respiratory
epithelium of reptiles is intermediate between that of amphibians and
that of mammals. It seems to be absent in birds, mole and bat. The
muscle fibres are entirely absent in all parts of the alveolar ducts in the
bat lung, and they are usually absent from the alveolar walls. The
distribution of the elastic and the reticular fibres is described in detail,
but we cannot do more than indicate the general nature of the investi-
gation. J. A. T.

Paranucleus of Pancreatic Cells. —P. Pt. Chaves {Gomptef^ Rendiis
Soc. BioL, 1920, 83, 8S1-4). Methods of technique may cause sudden
coagulations and the like in the cytoplasm, and some of the resulting
lamellar or fibrillar products have been called Nebenkerue or paranuclei.
Others are due to nucleoli which migrate into the cytoplasm. These
usually show a central and a peripheral substance, differing in their
reactions. The precise mode of expulsion and migration of the nucleoli
is ol;)Scure. They begin to exfoliate into a number of lamellae, and
probably dissolve"^ in the cytoplasm. Thus, besides the lamellar para-
nuclei arising as artefacts from the condensation of ergastoplasmic
filaments, there are true paranuclei of nucleolar nature and origin.

J. A. T.

Transformations of Hepatic Cell in Hedgehog.— P. E. Chaves
(Conij)tes Rendus Soc. Biol, 1920, 83, 879-81). During embryonic life
the hepatic cell becomes vacuolated, increases in size, and accumulates
fat which subsequently disappears. The chondriosomes, at first very
small, are transformed into large rodlets and granulations. The vacuoles
become confluent and increase in size, forming a secretion which
disappears in the sucking young. After birth the transformations
continue, those of the chromosomes being remarkable. During the
lactation the fat reappears. J. A. T.

Giant-Cells of Bone-Marrow. — H. E. Jordan {Amer. Journ. Anat.,
1920, 27, 287-313, 27 figs.). The red bone-marrow of the rabbit and
the guinea-pig contains three chief varieties of giant-cells : (a) Mega-
karyocytes, the mononucleated forms derived by excessive growth from
the ha^moblast ; (Jf) polymorphokaryocytes, the forms with polymor-
phous or lobulated nucleus derived from the megakaryocyte by incomplete
direct division of the nucleus ; and (c) polykaryocytes, the multinucleated
forms derived from forms with lobulated nuclei by completion of the
constrictions in the complex nucleus to produce separate smaller and
-spheroidal nuclei. Certain giant-cells of the multinucleated variety,
chiefly hi- or quadri-nucleated, retain to the small degree the power of
producing ultra-cellular erythrocytes. The giant-cells in normal marrow

N

170 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and in the yolk-sac are devoid of phagocytic function ; and they do not
undergo mitosis, either complete cytoplasmic or incomplete nuclear.
Once the hgemogenic giant-cells of the red bone-marrow have passed
beyond the stage with features characteristic of the hfemoblast, their
further history only leads through progressive steps toward disintegra-
tion, involving terminally in some cases nuclear appearances simulating
multipolar mitotic figures. J. A. T.

Dental Star in Horses and Cattle. — E. Retterer {Conijjtes
Rendus Soc. Biol., 1020, 83, 1069-72). The teeth of horses and
cattle continue to form ivory, even after the layer of odontoblasts
has disappeared. The ordinary, rounded or stellate, cells of the papilla
preside at this formation of ivory. The dentine thus formed exhibits
some of the characters which pathologists have described under the
name of secondary dentine. It is traversed by calcified globular
masses, interrupting the course of the canaliculi. No cells were visible.
In man's teeth the secondary dentine is formed by large osteoblasts ; in
horse and ox the ordinary tissue of the papilla forms the secondary
dentine. Mechanical factors influence its development ; where there is
strong pressure it turns into enamel ; where it is sheltered it turns
yellow or black and begins to show disintegration. The dental star is
ivory at the beginning of caries. J. A. T.

Retina of Alligator. — H. Laurens and S. R. Dbtwiller {Jomn.
Exfer. Zool, 1921, 32, 207-34, 13 figs.). The eye of Alligator
mississippiensis shows a well-developed retinal tapetum in the dorsal
and posterior portions of the retina to within 1 • 5 mm. of the entrance
of the optic nerve. It is due to the inclusion of guanin in the cells of
the epithelial layer. The pecten is a slightly raised pigmented cap
covering the entrance of the optic nerve. Typical rods and cones
occur, the ratio differing in different regions. The rods are all of one
type. There are thick and thin cones, none with oil drops. The
authors discuss the change in the length of the rods and cones, and the
change in the position of the pigment between light and darkness. A
theoretical consideration of photomechanical changes and of the duplicity
theory from the comparative point of view is appended. J. A. T.

Oviducal Glands of Chelonia. — R. Argaud {Comptes Rendus Soc.
Biol., 1920, 83, 828-9). There is a double equipment : («) mucus-
making unicellular glands due to a temporary transformation of ciliated
cells, and {h) definitive glands in the form of ramified tubes. The
very granular cells of the tubular glands are differentiated at sexual
maturity, and probably serve to secrete protective membranes for the
ovum. J. A. T.

Grunhagen's Spaces. — M. A. Herzog {Revue Suisse Zool., 1920,
82, 99-113). The spaces below the villous epithelium of the intestine
have been studied experimentally and histologically, with the result that '
the investigator is quite convinced as to the artefact nature of Griinhagen's
spaces. J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 171

Minute Structure of Choroid Plexus in Frog. — R. Collin and
J. Baudot {Gomptes Rendus Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 1143-5). The
epithelial covering of the thalamencephalon consists of a club-shaped
nodule (the paraphysis or superior choroid plexus) and two bunches of
digifciform villosities (the median and inferior choroid plexuses). The
epithelial cells of the villosities are prismatic ciliated cells, in contact
basally with a collagenous zone resting on the endothelial wall of capil-
laries. Their minute structure is described. The paraphysis proper is
formed of endothelial capillary tubes covered with cubical cells, which
have no cilia. J. A. T.

Hiwatari, Kazuo. — " Uber das Wesen des Trachoms nebst einem
Beitrag zur normalen Histologic der Conjunctiva " (Actfe Scholae
Medicinalis, Kioto, 1919, 3, 31-48). The substantia propria of the
conjunctiva consists of a layer of connective-tissue containing fairly
numerous histiocytes of Kiyona, and smaller numbers of Marschalkos'
plasma cells and lymphocytes — contrary, therefore, to the wide-spread
assumption that the Tunica propria shows no adenoid condition.

Lymph-nodes are absent from the normal conjunctiva ; they are pro-
duced when the tissues react against external irritation of different
duration and vigour. Only two other points come under consideration
in the formation of follicles in the conjunctiva. These are general
bodily health and a local disturbance of the tissue. These two points
depend firstly on age, and secondly on the anatomical structure of the
conjunctival parts. Now and then variation in the cell-abundance of
the sub-epithelial tissue and the form of the epithelial cells (cylin-
drical or flat) are specially emphasized.

In trachoma early luxuriance of fibroblast occurs, without the forma-
tion of lymph-nodes or any increase of histiocytes, lymphocytes, or
plasma cells, so that a peculiar granulated tissue is formed in the sub-
epithelial layer, making the trachoma a kind of chronic granular inflam-
mation. Excessive granulation and the formation of lymph-nodes are
important in the pathology of trachoma, as they represent the reaction
product of the tissues against the trachoma virus. Granulation always
occurs in the scars caused by trachoma, whereas the follicle may be
missing if the local tissue-arrangement be imperfect — e.g. in conjunctiva
bulba and in pannus — hence the latter formation is less important than
the former. The question of the occurrence of follicles in pannus has
previously been answered in the affirmative. This is incorrect, however,
as is also the assertion that the trachoma process alone produces follicles.
Their scarcity is another point against it. Only an occasional con-
genital anatomical variation in the limbus is favourable to the formation
of follicles, a variation sometimes marked by an excess of cylindrical
cells in the epithelial layer. J. E.

Nishikawa, Y. — " Zur vergleichenden pathologischen Morphologic
der chronischen Miltztumoren " (Mitteilungen aus der Medizinischen
Fakultat der Kaiserlichen Universitat zu Tokyo, 1919, 21, 1-215, with
bibliography). The author records anatomical, micrometrical, and com-
parative histological experiments on seventy-seven different kinds of

N 2

172 SUMMARY OF CURKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

chronic splenic tumours, directing his attention chiefly to the enlarged
spleen which must be regarded as the primary locus morbi in Banti's
disease.

Banti's fibro-adenoma, in the opinion of Chiaris, is due chiefly to
the growth and thickening of the fibres — i.e. hyperplasia of the reticulo-
endothelial cells — though the connective-tissue of the capsule-trabecular
system and the separation of its vessels may also have effect. The
question of the resulting severe reticulum enlargement is still undecided.
The author agrees with Kozumis that the reticulo-endothelial cells, in
the production of the reticulum fibres, show large, blistered nuclei,
poor in chromatin, with phagocytic power, but shrunken pyknotic nuclei.
Banti's fibro-adenoma is, briefly, characterized by marked out-standing
of the elastic fibres from the thickened capsule-trabecular system in
the pulp ; excessive increase and intrapulpal growth of the periarterial,
elastic, collagenic, and interlaced fibres, with partial collagenic meta-
plasia and hyalin degeneration ; regular enlargement and thickening
of the intersinal reticular cords and the reticulum formation of the
ring fibres, with partial coUagenization and sometimes even hyaliniza-
tion ; partial strong decrease in the sinus lumina and marked reduc-
tion of the free-cell elements ; diminution, atrophy, and fibrous altera-
tion of the Malpighian corpuscles by increase and intrafollicular growth
of the periarterial, elastic, and collagenic fibres, as well as of the real
follicular fibres, with partial collagenic metaplasia and sometimes even
hyalin degeneration of the Kosten cell elements.

The so-called collagenic metaplasia of the interlacing fil^res fre-
quently occurs in the spleen in liver cirrhosis, schistosomiasis, and
Morbus banti, and has been specially noted in chronic myelocytic leu-
kgemia. It is nearly always associated with increase and thickening of
the fibres. Elastic necrosis of the capsular system with its hemo-
siderin-lime impregnation is very marked in liver cirrhosis, schisto-
somiasis, and Morbus banti, and it is interesting to note that elastic
fibre increase "occurs in both the capsular and arterial systems together.
Its origin appears to be due chiefly to the chemical action of some toxic
product ; it is very doubtful whether it can arise from healthy enlarge-
ment alone — at any rate, this is of much rarer occurrence.

The plasma cells in the spleen are so important that it is doubtful
if they may be regarded as a pathological appearance as in other organs,
for it is quite clear that the spleen as a filter for free and corpuscular
degeneration products already contams a relatively stronger physiological
stimulus for plasma-cell production. They are scanty in the healthy
enlarged spleen and in simple antemia, but are plentiful in syphilis,
malaria, abdominal cancer, as well as in chronic and sub-acute infective
disease ; are fairly numerous in liver cirrhosis and schistosomiasis ; and
are not rare in Morbus banti. J. E.

Hiwatari, Kazuo. — " Zur Histologic der Gegeud der Corneaspler-
algrenze" (Acts Scholar Medicinalis, Kioto, 1919, 3, 277-86).
Coloration of the epithelial cells of the conjunctiva corneaUs is of
common occurrence in Japanese, though showing many variations,
whereas only one-third of the European cases examined were pigmented.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 173

Children of all nationalities are less strongly pigmented than adnlts. In
some cases it is stronger in the part covered by the eyelids than in the
exposed part.

The author raises two points as quite new. 1. Coloration of the
epithelial cells sometimes spreads as far as the junction of the limbus
and the cornea. 2. Chromatophores are constantly present in the propria.
Several variations of epithelial cells are found in the limbus, e.g. a
mucus membrane cell with modified columnar epithelium and epithelium
with goblet cells. The former was found in 2 '5 p.c. of 120 cases
investigated, the latter only in one case out of another series of fourteen.

Swelling of the tunica propria of the limbus does not occur as
papillae but as ridges, which are most defined in the upper sites, while
they are missing from the temporal and nasal sites. The ridges are
arranged regularly, but differ in size with the case ; in forty-day-old
babies they are missing altogether. In the cell elements of the tunica
propria four kinds of cells must be distinguished : — Lymphocytes,
plasma cells, histiocytes and chromatophores. J. E.

c. General.

Avoidance of Objects by Bats in Flight. — H. Hartridge (Jouni.
Physiol., 1920, 54, 54-7). Bats flying at night, or in experimentally
produced darkness, avoid obstacles. It has been suggested that they
have very keen sight, but the capacity remains when eyes are covered.
It has been suggested that they have exquisite tactility, but they can
perceive objects at some distance away. " Bats in full flight and in what
appeared to be absolute darkness can not only steer round a room and
avoid one another, but they can also avoid obstacles such as threads.
Further they can tell whether a door is shut or open wide, or just
sufficiently wide open to allow them to pass." Bats have acute hearing,
and they emit short wave-length sounds near the audible limit of man,
and above that of some people. The hypothesis is advanced that their
flight is diverted by a specialized sense of hearing, since the sound
waves of short wave-length which they are known to emit are capable of
casting shadows and of forming " sound pictures." One may ask if
this would apply to the avoidance of threads. J. A. T.

Susceptibility to Growth of Transplanted Tumour. — C. C. Little
{Joum. Exper. ZooL, 1920, 31, 307-26, 1 fig., 2 diagrams). Analysis
of certain factors underlying susceptibility and non-susceptibility of
mice to implants of a sarcoma of the Japanese waltzing mouse. The
factors underlying susceptibihty are definite inherited units, and certain
of them find their active expression as favourable agents in supporting
growth of the tumour implants in female animals, at the onset of sexual
maturity. J- A. T.

Pulmonary Evolution in Mammals. — George S. Huntington-
{Amer. Joum. Anat., 1920, 27, 99-201, 15 figs.). The search for the
elusive hypothetical pro-mammalian ground-plan of bronchial architec-
ture has terminated somewhat like the hunt for the philosopher's stone.
The mechanistic concept of a definite and crystallized archeal bronchial

174 SUMMARY OF CUKKENT KESKAKCHES RELATING TO

tree, from which all the extant mammalian types are derived by modi-
fication of the pattern through migration, does not exist in the commonly
predicated form of a concrete and fixed morphological entity. It had
no reality in any definite ancestral structure, save in the sense that the
primitive reptilian lung and its phyletic derivative, the mammalian
endodermic primordium, both retain the potency of development by
selection into the type demanded by the environment. In place of the
mythical common ancestral bronchial tree appears a living plastic
organization, responsive to the changing demands of biological evolution
and replete with answers to the modern problems of morphogenetic
enquiry. J. A. T.

Transitory Polydactylism. — J. A. Pires de Lima (Gomptes
Rendus Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, ] 190-2). Attention is called under
this title to the occurrence in new-born children or infants of digitiform
nodules which do not last, being attached only by a filiform stalk. The
author thinks that they are often overlooked, and that their occurrence
increases the number of cases of hyperdactylism. In some cases they
bear a distinct nail, but Httle is said in regard to their internal structure.

J. A. T.

Temperature of New-born Camels. — E. Sergent and A. Donatien
{Gomptes Bendus Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 1062-3). P'or some weeks
after birth the average rectal temperature of healthy young camels is
SS° C, not varying more than a fifth of a degree up and down. Bat,
as in adult camels, if there is illness, e.g. due to injection of trypano-
somes, there may be fluctuations of 5° in a few hours. The temperature
may rise to 40^ and sink to 34° when the animal is in a pathological
state. J. A. T.

Reactions of Amphibian Cells to Croton Oil.— Eliot R. Clark
and Eleanor L. Clark {Amer. Journ. Anat., 1920, 27, 221-53,
15 figs.). A study of the reactions and changes of cells of the tail in
Amphibian larvas in response to injections of minute globules of croton
oil. It is a study of aseptic 'inflammation. Connective-tissue cells
manifest all grades of injury, depending upon their nearness to the oil.
Non-pigmented leucocytes move toward the globule and at a certain
distance become stationary, sending out many fine processes, which are
withdrawn and renewed continuously. Pigmented leucocytes are
more resistant and may touch the globules without losing motiUty.
Blood capillaries near the globule show thickening and vacuolization of
the endothelium, and, subsequently, narrowing of the lumen, with, in
many cases, retraction of the endothelium. Lymphatic capillaries also
show vacuolization of the endothelium, and their lumen may become
much distended, particularly if an oedema develops. Throughout the
inflammatory reaction each type of cell maintains its specificity, and
■ there is no evidence of transformation from one kind to another.

J. A. T.

Lipoid Content of Kidney Tubule.— Christianna Smith {Amer.
Journ. Anat, 1920, 27, 69-97, 2 pis.). Lipoids are characteristically
present in normal kidney cells either masked or free, and are shown

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 175

after a dichromatic fixation with the appHcation of heat. In certain
species, e.g. cat, different portions of the tubule have characteristic
Hpoid formations which may indicate a difference in function. The
mitochondrial rods of the ascending limb of the medullary loop are by
nature strongly lipoid and are resolved into lipoid granules under
certain conditions. The presence, distribution, and, in some cases,
characteristic distribution of lipoids in kidney cells suggest that they
may be intimately connected with metabolic processes, besides perhaps
having the function of influencing the physical state of the proto-
plasm. J. A. T.

Pyloric Caeca of Herring. — E. Ford {Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc,
1920, 12, 325-31). An examination of 475 females and 600 males
showed that the general variation in the number of c^eca is from 14 to
28, the most frequent number being 21, that there is no appreciable
difference between the sexes, and that although the mean of the number
is greater in the longer fish, the successive increases are not sufficiently
great to be of much significance. In another sample of 197 the
commonest occurring number was 22, in a general variation from 16 to
34 (two specimens over 30). J. A. T.

Deg-eneration of Pancreas during Pregnancy. — M. Aron {Comptes
Rendus Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 1122-5). Description of curious de-
generative changes in the pancreas of bats, goats and various other
mammals during pregnancy. There is more or less intense autolysis
of the pancreatic acini. It may be that some toxin from the peritoneal
serosa passes into the wall of the pancreas where it is in contact with
the peritoneum. J. A. T.

Function of Lymphoid Tissue.— J. Jolly {Comptes Rendus Soc.
Biol., 1920, 83, 1209-12). It has been usual to regard lymphoid
tissue as the seat of the formation of blood cells. In the lymphoid tissue
of the spleen and the marrow red blood cells and leucocytes suffer dis-
integration and are replaced. The cells in lymphoid tissue have well-
developed nucleoplasm and little cytoplasm ; there is a reserve of
nucleo-proteins as well as of blood-corpuscles. J. A. T.

Function of Embryonic Kidney. — J. Firket {Compies Ptendus Soc.
Biol., 1920, 83, 1230-1). In tlie embryo cat it has been possible
to show that as soon as the glomeruli are developed the embryonic
kidney is able to eliminate crystalloid salts (ammoniacal citrate of iron
and ferro-cyanide of sodium). J. A. T.

Adsorption of Hydrogen Ions by Living Cells. — J. Gray {Journ.
Physiol. , 1920, 54, 68-78). Under normal conditions the egg of the
trout lives in water containing a very low concentration of electrolytes.
The egg itself, on the other hand, has a much higher ekctrolytic content.
It is shown that when the living eggs are exposed to dilute concentra-
tions of hydrochloric acid, the hydrogen ion is taken up, but the
concentration of chlorine ions in the external solution remains practicidly
unchanged. To replace the hydrogen ions removed from the solution,
a kation (possibly potassium) is given up by the Q%g9. The uptake of

176 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the hydrogen ion by the cell follows the laws of adsorption. The
equilibrium between the external solution and the cell is apparently
established by means of the outer membrane of the cell. This process
constitutes lioeb's " membrane effect." J. A. T.

INVERTEBRATA.

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

Pulsating- Organ in Hyalin lucida. — G. Meraiod {Revue Suisse
Zool., 1920, 28, 119-24, 1 fig.). In this carnivorous snail there is a
small pulsating organ, visible with the naked eye, situated in the sub-
terminal region of the ureter, close to the opening of the shell. In a
snail with a shell a centimetre in diameter the pulsating organ is about
a millimetre in length by half a millimetre in height. There is no
regularity in the pulsations ; while the heart had .50 pulsations in a
minute, the organ had 76, 80 or 100. The body of the organ consists of
a loose network of connective cells and darkly pigmented cells ; its
root is in the circular vein of the pulmonary cavity. It may be a sort
of secondary heart, facilitating the return of the blood from the circular
vein. Or it may be an organ that drives excreted particles into the ureter.

J. A. T.

5. Lataellibranchiata.

Nutrition in Lamellibranchs. — D. Carazzi {Rassegna Sci. Biol.,
192u, 33-5(), 2 figs.). A discussion of the mode of nutrition in oysters,
with an account of experiments. In 1896 the author came to the con-
clusion, afterwards re-affirmed by Piitter (1908), that oysters absorb
nutritive material in absorption in the water. To this he firmly adheres.
The main mode of nutrition in Lamellibranchs is by absorption of
substances in solution in the water. The absorption is by means of
the epithelium of the intestinal mucosa, the labial palps, the branchial
lamellae, and the edge of the mantle. According to Carazzi, is is only
in a secondary way that Lamellibranchs feed on plankton organisms.

' J. A. T.

Animals Associated with Spondylus. — Charles Perez {Comptes
Rendus Soc. Biol, 1920, 83, 1027-9). On the pearl banks of the
Persian Gulf there is a frequent occurrence of Spondyhis gaederopus.
This bivalve always contains either the Pontomid crustacean Anchistus
niiersi (a pair) or the Pinnotherid Ostracotheres spondyli (invari-
ably a female). The Pinnotherid harbours two parasitic crusta-
ceans, usually one or the other — namely, a new Bopyrid, Rhopcdione
uromyzon (both sexes), fixed under the abdomen, and SaccuUna ostraco-
theris. But the Sacculina harbours a group of Cryptoniscids — several
adult females, numerous males, and some transitional forms between

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 177

male and female. The Cryptoniscid seems to be new ; it is named
Enthfilarus trivinctus. It appears that Spondylus gaederopus is an
immigrant from the Mediterranean, but the Indian Ocean commensals
above noted have found it quite. suitable for their purpose. J. A. T.

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Oog-enesis in Hymenoptera. — Lancelot T, Hogben {Proc. Roy.
Soc, Series B, ] 920, 91, 26S-;»3, 6 pis.). Studies of the oogenesis in
Cynips kollari, Rhodites rosse, Synergus rheinhardii, Orthopelma Meolator,
Las ills tiara and Formica rufa. All three types of cells (oocytes, follicle,
and nurse cells) in the ovary originate from germ cells. The divisions
of the oogonia are apparently equipotential, and no .distinction exists
between nurse cells and oocytes until after synapsis. After synizesis
the haploid number of pachytene threads appear, and in Rhodihs split
lengthwise. Daring the growth period there is a diffuse or confused
stage. At the termination of the growth period the diploid number of
chromosomes reappears, and they pair end to end, so that a temporary
separation of the diplotene threads is intercalated between synapsis and
the first polar mitosis. This confirms Agar's account of a double
syndesis. The restoration of the diploid number by the lengthwise
splitting of the haploid pachytene threads permits the inference that
the first conjugation is of the type described as parasyndesis. Immedi-
ately after this an abortive maturation spindle appears— an interrupted
mitotic process. In Rhodites and Cynips there is a reduction of the
number of chromosomes in the young oocytes. Secondary nuclei are
transitory structures arising from ejected nuclear particles, as Hegner
concluded. The oosoma or so-called germ-cell determinant is not of
nuclear origin, as believed formerly by Hegner and Silvestri, but arises,
as Gatenby affirms, from cytoplasmic granules which are not mito-
chondrial. J. A. T.

Striped Muscle of Wasp.— H. E. Jordan (Amer. Journ. Anat.,
1920, 27, 1-67, 48 figs.). The comparative histology of the leg and
wing niuscle of the wasp, with special reference to the phenomenon of
stripe reversal during contraction, and to the genetic relation between
contraction bands and intercalated discs. The contraction is associated
with a genuine reversal of striations as regards a deeply staining substance
of the dark disc of the sarcostyle. This reversal of striatiorjs results in
the formation of contraction bands in the contracted fibre. A contrac-
tion band is composed essentially of the fused opposite halves of two
adjacent dark discs. The striping of the striated muscle fibre results
from the segregation of darker and lighter (chromatic and achromatic)
substances in alternating dark and light discs. The segregation of
anisotropic materials (conditions) in strata alternating with" isotropic
levels, and corresponding more or less sharply, under certain conditions,
with the dark disc, wotild seem to find its explanation in the relatively
more fluid consistency of these dark discs. Anisotropy and the deep-
staining character of the dark disc are two essentially distinct phenomena.

178 SLFMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEA.RCHES RELATING TO

Reversal of striation concerns only the deeply staining substance of the
dark disc, not at all the phenomenon of anisotropy. The contraction
band is a genuine new structure, consisting essentially of the dark
staining (chromatic) substances originally segregated within the dark
disc of the relaxed fibre. The intercalated discs of striated muscle
(cardiac and skeletal) are essentially modified irreversible contraction
bands. J. A. T.

Shape of Hive-bees' Cell. — G. Cesaro {Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique,
l'J20, 109-15, 2 figs.). The cell is a rhombododecahedron of which
three surfaces form the apex, and six surfaces, parallel to a diagonal of
the cube (a diagonal which is the axis of the cell), form the hexagonal
body ; the rhombododecahedron is cut by an octahedral surface normal
to the axis and forming the hexagonal base. The cell corresponds not
only to minimum of surface but to a minimum of perimeter. J. A. T.

Action of Centrifugal Force on Silkworms. — Hugues Clement
{Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol, 1920, 83, 1045-6). It is found that
centrifuging considerably retards (for about a month) the onset of
the pupal metamorphosis, which normally sets in five or six days after
the commencement of the cocoon. J. A. T.

Circulation in Sphinx convolvuli.— F. Brocher {Arch. Zool.
Exper., 1920, 60, 1-45, 20 figs.). The blood circulates in the body of
this moth as the result of two aspiratory forces. The activity of the
dorsal vessel draws the blood into the abdomen. The activity of the
thoracic pulsatile organs pumps the blood into the currents produced
by the dorsal vessels and makes it circulate in the wings, .the legs, and
the muscles of the thorax. The pulsatile thoracic organs have been
found by Brocher in all orders of insects except Hemiptera. But in
the Hemiptera there are special pulsatile organs in the legs. In Sphinx
convolvuli the pulsatile organ of the mesothorax is very large and it is
easy to see it working in the living insect. In the somnolent insect
it beats 10 to 12 times in a minute ; in the disturbed insect 75 times ;
in the active insect the pulsations are too rapid to be counted. The
metatergal pulsatile organ, on the other hand, is very minute, and it
does not communicate directly either with the dorsal vessel or with the
aorta. In some other insects (ants ?) it is probable that both the
mesothoracic and the metatergal pulsatile organs are independent of
the dorsal vessel and the aorta. J. A. T.

Immunity in Caterpillars of Wax-moth. — S. Metalnikow {Comptes
Rendus Soc. Biol, 1920, 83, 817-20). The caterpillars of Oalleria
meUonella show a remarkable immunity to virulent microbes, such as
those of tuberculosis, diphtheria, tetanus and plague, but they are very
susceptible to others which are only slightly pathogenic. There is
very active phagocytosis, and the phagocytes agglomerate into co-opera-
tive capsules. The toxic substances produced by certain microbes set
the phagocytic activity agoing, while in other cases, as in the case of
saprophytic bacteria and species like Bacillus coli, there is little or no
activation. Paillot has made caterpillars of Ayroiis immune to Bacillus

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 179

■melolonthise, and Metalnikow has done the same with the caterpillars of
OalJeria into which were injected Bacillus perfringens, B. siibtiUs,
B. proteus, and Pneumococcus. In these cases of acquired immunity a
chaiio'e is produced in the activity and sensitiveness of the phagocytes.

J. A. T.

Two Parasites of Blow-flies. — A. M. Altson {Proc. Zool. Soc.
London, 1920, 195-243, 20 tigs.). A Braconid Hymenopteron, Alysia
maiiducator Panz., oviposits in the larvse of several carrion-feeding
Diptera. Only one parasite emerges from one host puparium. Over-
parasitism kills the larva. The mean-average of the life-cycle is 52 days,
the shortest is 25. Both sexes are capable of sustained flight, and they
lived over a month in captivity. Another Hymenopteron, a Chalcid,
Nasonia brevicornis, oviposits in the puparia of several species of
stercoral and carrion-feeding Dipterous larvae. From 1 to 62 have been
found in one puparium. The length of the life-cycle varies from
11 to 22h days in different countries. Only the females can fly, and
then only for short distances. They can live, whilst ovipositing, for
4 to 6 weeks, but for a considerably less period without host puparia.
The males remain near the place of emergence, fighting and matiog. If
and when puparia containing .1. jnanducator are within reach of Nasonia,
the latter may act as an accidental secondary parasite on the former.
Both parasites when hil)ernating as full-grown larvte can withstand over
6 weeks at 2'' C. Both check flies — Alysia more effective against tlie
Blow-fly, Nasonia more effective against the House-fly. J. A. T.

Eg-g-laying- Reactions in Pomace-fly. — Edward F. Adolph
{Jovrn. Exi^er. Zool., 1920, 31, 327-41). Single stimuli do not call
forth any considerable amount of egg-laying in Drosophihi. When
odours and textures are properly combined, the fly may lay nearly as
many eggs as in natural conditions. The presence of moisture charac-
terizes all conducive complexes. The most stimulating substances are
known to occur in the natural food material of the fly, e.g. odorous sub-
stances. A slight amount of egg-laying takes place under the simplest
conditions, but a large amount requires a complex. The only intei'nal
condition of importance is sexual maturity, but mating, nutritive
condition, and internal periodicities seem to have some influence upon
the production of eggs. J. A. T.

Bristle Inheritance in Drosophila. — Edwin Carleton MacDowell
[Joura. Exper. Zool., 1920, 30, 419-60, 8 figs.). The early generations
of a race of Drosophila that was continuously selected for increased
bristle numbers during forty-nine generations show higher correlation
coefiicients than any others. AVith the greatest uniformity of the en-
vironment, the last thirteen generations show no correlation at all A
final test of the germ-plasm of the selected race was made by raising
four more generations without selection. In generations 52 and 58,
31,000 bristle counts indicated that the higher-grade parezits did not
■produce higher-grade offspring. No evidence of sex linkage was found.
The difference between the sexes is interpreted as due to general
developmental conditions initiated by the sex chromosomes, rather than
to the linkage of a specific gene. The correlation method supports

180 SUMMARY OF CUKRENT llESKARCHES RELATIJJG TO

previous conclusions : there were genetic differences present among the
original flies with extra bristles ; these were entirely independent of the
main factor that occasioned the monohybrid ratios in crosses ; selection
propagated the more homozygous flies, so that a race with uniform germ
plasm was soon secured. There is no indication that any genetic change
occurred during the course of the experiments. J. A. T.

Crossing-over in Drosophila. — J. A. Detlefsen and E. Roberts
(Jourii. Exper. ZooL, 11)21, 32, 333-.54, 2 figs.). The question studied
was whether the percentage of crossing-over in Drosojjhila melanogaster
can be modified by selection. It was found that cross-over values are
very variable, and that part of this varial)ility is due to genetic causes.
Low selection has been effective in two entirely independent series. The
low cross-over stock bred true to about 0 • 6 p.c. (almost zero) for nine
generations in one of the series. Tlie low cross-over stock bred true to
about 6 p.c for twenty-two generations in the other series. High
selection probably induces double crossing-over. Crossing-over in the
various regions of the sex chromosome (and other chromosomes ?) is
probably controlled bv multiple incompletelv dominant factors.

J. A. T.

Effect of Temperature on Crossing-over in Drosophila. — Harold
H. Plough {.lonm. Exper. ZooL, 1921, 32, 187-201, 3 figs.). In
Drosophila melanogaster a temperature of 31*5° C. has little or no
effect on crossing-over in any part of the sex chromosomes, nor is there
any significant variation with the age of the female. Crossing-over in
the " sepia-spineless " region of chromosome III. is increased by a
temperature of 31*5^ C, the etfect being most marked between
" dichaete " and " spineless." The same region shows a variation in
crossing-over according to the age of the female parent. Crossing-over
in the remainder of chromosome III. is influenced neither by tempera-
ture nor age. The chromosomal regions which are " sensitive " to
temperature and to age all give a very high ratio of .double to single
crossing-over. This is interpreted as indicating that the effects of
environment cause observable differences in crossiny'-over onlv where
crossing-over occurs least freely. It is shown that the view that
temperature and asfe act on crossing-over in different wavs is not
established. ^ ' J. A. T.

Rectal Papillae of Panorpa. — L. Mercier (Oomptes Remlus Soc.
JJiol, 1920, 83, 758-60). The rectal " gills " of some aquatic larvfe are
represented in some adults by rectal papillaj, which may be functional
or vestigial. In Panorpa commtmis and P. germanica the rectal
papilla3 of the adult are hemispherical caps 250 to 300/x in diameter,
covered by polygonal epithelial cells, fibrillated externally (probably for
support) and enclosing the ends of trachege. .These papillae appear
during the pupal state as six cellular proliferations, much in the same
way as the rectal papillae in Calliphora ergthrorepliala and other
Muscidee. J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 181

fi, Onychophora.

West Australian Onychophora. — W. J. Dakin {Froc. Zool. Sor.
London, 1920, ;-567-89, 5 pis.).' There are two West Australian varieties
of Peripatus, sub-genus Peripatoides. The northern form, Peripatoides
occldentalis, has always sixteen pairs of legs : the southern form, P. occi-
dentalis var. (jUp.sH, has only fifteen pairs. It appears that P. occidentalis
approaches most closely to P. leiickartii, but it stands apart from other
species, e.g. in the presence of extraordinarily long crural glands opening
on the first pair of legs. Among the most important general results of
the paper are the following, probably applicable to most Onychophora.
The cells of a certain part of the so-called nephridium, that which opens
into the coelomic vesicle, bear long and well-developed cilia. So these
are not confined to the reproductive organs. Crural glands sometimes
occur in the female, but do not seem to have any ducts. The tracheae
of Peripatus possess a characteristic spiral supporting fibre (disputed for
many years). The trachea, although running a separate course for
some distance from the tracheal pit, eventually branch. As GafFron
discovered, the spermatogenesis does not occur in the testis but in the
seminal vesicles. J- A. T.

y, Araclinida.

Malformations in Ticks. — L. E. PiObinson {Parasitology, 1920,
12, 175-9, 5 figs.). Description of a number of malformations in
Dermacentor atrosignatus (deformity of hypostome), AmUgomtna hebrseum
(absence of left eye and deformity of scutum and spiracle), A. cajennense
(fusion of coxffi (I. and II.) and suppression of normal coxal armature);^
Hgadomma segyjjtium (oblique curvature of body axis, and in another
case suppression of spiracle and adanal shields on the right side of the
body). Snch malformations are probably the result of some mutilation
of the tii^k during the course of the preceding nymphal phase. In the
course of engorgement, particularly as the state of repletion is approached,
the chances of injury to which a tick is exposed are numerous, owing
to the intentional or accidental scratching and rubbing of the infested
parts of its body by the host, and the remarkaljle power of regeneration
of damaged or lost appendages, which the ticks, in common with other
Arthropods, have developed, must ensure the survival of many individuals
which otherwise would perish. J. A. T.

Regeneration of Mouth Parts and Legs in Ticks, — Geoege H. F.
NriTALL {Parasitology, 192o, 12, 7-2G, G figs.)- The mouth parts of
larvae of Argas persicus were mutilated shortly after the larva abandoned
the host fully gorged. The various structures were differently affected
in the first-stage nymph. The palps are not regenerated, but appear as
stumps, occasionally with an article or two regenerated. The hypostome
is perfectly regenerated when amputated at any point short of its base.
If cut at its base the regenerated hypostome may be slightly deformed.
The digits of the cheliceras are usually deformed to a varying degree,
but considerable regeneration occurs. As the tick develops towards
maturity the power to regenerate palps and digits increases. In

182 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Amhlyomma hehrseum and Hyalomma segyptiiim. regeneration takes place
equally well after operations on larv^and nymphs, and perfect regenera-
tion of hypostome, palps and digits occurred after most amputations.
When freshly gorged larvte of Argas persicus had their legs amputated,
the corresponding limbs were not regenerated in the first nymphal
stage, but when these nymphs were fed and allowed to undergo a further
moult without operative interference, they regenerated these mutilated
limbs perfectly. When first-stage nymphs, under like conditions, were
similarly mutilated, they gave rise to second-stage nymphs with well-
formed legs of subnormal size. Leg amputations in Amhlyomma and
Hyalomma were followed in all cases by regeneration. The regeneration
of mouth parts is important in immature ticks, because in nature they
are frequently injured through their forcible removal from the host, the
hooked hypostome and digits of the chelicerse being particularly liable
to breakage, especially in Ixodid ticks. J. A. T.

Habits of Argas reflexus. — R. Lienhart and P. Remy {Gomptes
Rendus Soc. Biol. 1920, 83, 1155-6). Living adults were found
at the University of Nancy in a dove-cot vacated since 1914. They
must have been fasting all that time, for the dove-cot was quite closed.

J.A. T.

S. Crustacea.

Heart of Euphausid. — G. Colosi {Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, ]920,
55, 51-62, 4 figs.). A histological study of the heart of Nematoscelis
megalops Gr. 0. Sars. The cardiac wall shows an external, connective-
tissue, continuous layer, and an internal, muscular, and discontinuous
layer. There is no endothelium. The movements of the heart are due
to the parietal muscles, and especially to the muscular trabecul^e which
cross the cavity in various directions. The contractions are mostly
dorso- ventral. The ostial lips are purely muscular. The ostia open
and shut by the action of the special muscles which traverse the cardiac
cavity. The cardio-arterial valves are purely muscular ; they open and
shut according to the pressure of the blood, mainly or perhaps wholly. .
The walls of the arteries consist of a homogeneous internal intima and
an external connective adventitia. There are no muscle fibres and the
arteries are not contractile. The walls of the venous sinuses consist of
a homogeneous internal intima and an external connective adventitia.
There are no muscle fibres and the sinuses are not contractile. The
arterial valves and the ostial lips represent a continuation of the internal
muscular envelope of the heart. The walls of the arteries and veins
are continuous with the external connective-tissue tunic of the heart.

J. A. T.

Development of Calcareous Skeleton in Cirripeds. — Hjalmar
Bkoch {VidensTc. Medd. Dansk. Nat. Form, 1920, 72, 83-5). A pre-
liminary account of a study of the development of the plates in Mitella
{PoUicipes) polymerus. As in Scalpellum the first plates to appear are
the five primordial valves (carina, terga and scuta). They appear in the
pupa-stage as five chitinous plates of porous structure soon after the
pupa fixes. Very soon the calcification begins, and almost at the same

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 183

time the rostrum is seen, immediately followed by the Latus superius.
Then the upper row of Latera appear, and then the small scales of the
stalk begin to form. The growth of the animal, especially that of the
stalk, is almost entirely restricted to the narrow transition-zone from
capitulum to stalk. In all probability the ancestral form of the stalked
Cirripeds had only five thickened parts of the mantle, Darwin's
" primordial valves " — first chitinous and subsequently calcareous. From
this primitive type the pedunculated Cirripeds seem to have developed
along two lines. One leads to the extinct Archseolepas and Loricula,
and to the recent genera Jlitella (possibly the starting-point of the
sessile acorn-shells) and ScalpeJlum. The other line has given rise to the
other genera of stalked Cirripeds, which have retained the five primordial
valves or even reduced the number. J. A. T.

Melanin in Crustacea. — J. Verne (Gomptes Bendus Soc.BioL, 1920,
83, 7G0-2). In the epidermis of Brachyura there is a yellowish pig-
ment from which a melanin can be obtained experimentally. The
pigment is formed on a mitochondrial substratum by mesenchyme cells,
disposed in a perithelium around blood-vessels. These chromatophores
move to the surface, and in parts exposed to light their contents are
changed into insoluble melanin. The original yellowish pigment is of
the nature of amino-acid, and the transformation into melanin depends
on the presence of tyrosin. The chromatophores are amino-acidophores
physiologically. J. A. T.

Carotin of Crustacea. — J. Verne (Gomptes Rendiis Soc. Biol.,
1920, 83, 988-9). The carotins of Crustaceans oxidize very rapidly.
But Merejkowski's idea that this facile absorption of oxygen pointed to
a function like that of hasmoglobin is negatived by Krukenberg's
observation that carotin once oxidized does not readily part with its
oxygen as oxy-hfemoglobin does. The result of oxidation is a complex,
which includes a product like cholesterin. This may account for the
presence of cholesterin in Crustaceans. It is absent from the epidermis,
abundant in the hepato-pancreas, and occurs in small quantity in the
blood. The oxidation of carotin takes place very slowly in tissues pro-
tected by a thick integument. J. A. T.

Red Pigment of Crustaceans. — J. Verne {Gomptes Bendi/s Soc.
Biol., 1920, 83, 903-4). This pigment has received many names —
zoonerythrin (Merejkowski), vitellorubin (Maly), lutein or lipochrome
(Krukenberg, Heim, Newbigin). It is chemically and spectroscopically
like carotin. It is a hydrocarbon, with the carbon and hydrogen in the
proportion 5:7. The formula C^^^Hj^ is suggested. Like vegetable
carotin it forms along with iodine a characteristic violet-brown pigment.

J.A.T.

Annulata.

Australian Polychseta. — 'W. A. Haswell {Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
1920, 45, 90-112, 4 pis.). A systematic account of members of the
families Syllid*, Eusyllid^e, and Autolytidi£, including the following

184 SUMMARY OF CUREENT KKSEAKCHES RELATING TO .

new species : — SijUis {7)/posi/Uis) pectinans, S. (T.) truncata, S. (T.)
. punctulata, S. {T.)2)arturieiis (viviparous, like S. vivipara), S. {T.) augeneri,
and PionsylUs melsenofiephra. The memoir is very well illustrated.

J. A. T.

Nematohelminthes.

New Grenus of Nematodes from Elephants. — H. A. Bayliss
{Parasitology, 1921, 13, 57-66, 7 figs.). AVhat Baird took to be the
female of Sderostoma dathratum appears to be a worm of Spirnrid
affinities. To include both and Filar in smithii, the genus Habronema
is established. The diagnosis includes the following features : —
Polymyariau, paired lateral lips with papilla, six horseshoe-shaped
cuticular auricular appendages on the head, slender body, the tail of the
male coiled ventrally into a spiral and provided near the extremity with
lateral alar expansions, the spicules markedly unequal, the posterior
papillae complicated, the female considerably larger than the male, the
tail of the female short, conically pointed or blunt and characteristically
curved towards the dorsal side, the vulva near the posterior end of the
oesophagus, the uterus with immense numbers of embryos not enclosed
in a hard egg-shell. J. A. T.

Gnathostomid Nematodes. — H. A. Bayliss and Clayton Lane
(Froc. Zool. Soc. London, 1920, 245-810, 8 pis., 40 figs.). The chief
family characteristic is the possession of a pair of large, fleshy, trilobed,
lateral lips. Each lip is provided externally with three papillaj, while
internally its cuticle is thickened and frequently raised into tooth -like
prominences in the form of longitudinal ridges, which either meet or
interlock with those of the other lip. The oesophagus is a muscular club
with the usual valves where it opens into the intestine. A pair of
cervical papillge, usually not prominent, is always present in both sexes,
and the tail of the female is always provided with a small pair of lateral
papillae. The male has more or less well-developed caudal alas and two
spicules, usually with characteristic ornamentation. The parasites are
in the alimentary canal (of mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes), usually
anteriorly, often burrowing in the tissues, sometimes causing tumours,
sometimes merely holding firm. One genus {Gnathostoma) is a rare,
probably abnormal parasite in man, in the subcutaneous connective
tissue, not in the alimentary canal. The sub-family Gnathostominas
(with head-bulb, ballonets and cervical sacs) includes the genera Ta/iqua,
Echinocephalus and Gnathostoma ; the sub-family Spiroxyins (without
head-bulb, ballonets or cervical sacs) includes the single genus Spiroxys.

J. A. t:

Platyhelminthes.

New Tapeworms from the Ostrich. — F. J. Meggitt (Farasitology,
1921, 13, 1-24, 1 pL, 2 figs.). A description of Davainea heddardi sp. n.
from Struthio camelus, and i). linstotvis]). n. from Struthio molyhdophancs.
A revision of the genus Davainea, with a list of species and their hosts.
The genus may be defined : — Treniodea, scolex with simple rostellum
armed with a double row of very numerous and generally very small

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICllOSCOPY, ETC. 185

hammer- shaped hooks. Suckers armed or unarmed. A singula set of
reproductive organs in each segment. Genital pores unilateral or alter-
nating. Uterus persistent or transient : in the latter case the eggs
either enclosed in egg-capsules or scattered throughout the parenchyma.
Eggs with thin transparent shells. Adults in mammals or birds. Larval
stage a cysticercoid in molluscs or insects. J. A. T.

Extract of Tapeworm. — J. Parisot and P. Simonin {Comptes
Rendus ScL Biol, 1920, 83, 937-9, 939-41). Aqueous extracts of
the whole of Taenia saginata injected into the rabbit show relatively
marked toxicity, and bring about fatal circulatory and respiratory dis-
orders. A very specific effect is seen in the wall of the intestine, and
the histological changes are described. There is also abundant diarrhoea.

J. A. T.

Incertae Sedis.

Minute Structure of Tardigrada. — H. Baumann {Zool. Anzeig.,
1920. 52, 56-66, 5 figs.). Studies of JIacrohiotus, Hypsihius, Echiniscus
and 3Iilnesium, with reference to the spermatozoa (remarkable in show-
ing in immature stages a locomotor process from each end of a bent
spindle-shaped cell), the buccal apparatus with its musculature and
stilets, the pharynx with a characteristic disposition of the nuclei in the
component cells (there is a purely convergent resemblance to the
Nematode pharynx). It is interesting to find that the number of cells
in the pliarynx seems to be constant in Macrohiotus hufelandi, Hypsihius
and Echiniscus ; but in Milnesium the number is much greater.

J. A. T.

Remarkable New Species of Porocephalus. — W. N. F. Woodland
[Parasitology, 1920, 12, 337-40, 1 fig.). From the intestine of a
Nigerian cobra two specimens were obtained of a remarkable form,
Porocephalus pomeroyi sp. n., approaching P. annulatus, but with a very
long narrow " neck," and with the prosoma roughly three times longer
than it is broad, and the first annulus at least twice the size of the thii'd
or any succeeding annulus. The specimens represented the two sexes.
The white cylindrical body is divided into a large prosoma, a long
narrow neck, and a long annulated opisthosoma. The female was
64 mm. long, the male 12 mm. The prosoma of the female was 8 mm.
long and sac-shaped ; the neck was 7 mm. long and only 0*8 mm.
in breadth. Thus the total appearance of the animal is very curious.
The two specimens were found in sexual union. J. A. T.

Ccelentera.

Hydra oxycnida. — Ed. Boeckbr {Zool. Anzeig., 1921, 52, 97-100,
2 figs.). This species, apparently very rare, was established by
P. Schulze for a form of notable length and with a polar pointing of the
large pear-shaped cnidoblasts (penetrants). Boecker obtained a number
of specimens at Wittenberg on the Elbe. They were 18-20 mm. in
length apart from the tentacles, and very slender. The 6-11 tentacles

0

186 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

were about half the length of an elongated specimen. Budding was
observed in one case. The penetrant cnidoblasts are as Schulze
described. There are also volvents which Schulze was unable to find.

J. A. T.

Association of Tubularian and Sponge. — Ch. Perez {Comptes
Rendus Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 835-7). A new species, Tuhidaria
ceratogyne, from the Pas-de-Calais, where it lives under big tubular
rocks, was found to be alvsrays associated with the Crumb-of-Bi'ead
sponge (Halichondria panicea) which grew up between and united the
hydranths up to the distal ends. Modified hydrorhizse from the Tubu-
larian grow into the sponge. The association does not seem to be more
than topographical, or epizoic, but it was constant at two stations.

Genus Corallimorphus. — T. A. Stephenson {Froc. R. Irish Acad.,
1020, 35, 178-86, 2 pis., 2 figs.). A description of Gorallimorphvs
rigidus Moseley from off Ireland. It lives in deep water, and apparently,
in correlation with tbat, it has a very thick body-wall and seems
immobile. Moseley described it from living material, which appears to
have been rigid. What we cannot tell is how changed it was by leaving
the deep sea, and, if it was as rigid down there as it is now, how it fed.
Hertwig held it as primitive, because of its very weak generalized
musculature, but Stephenson emphasizes some characters which he
regards as the reverse of primitive. These are the thick body-wall, the
preponderance of diameter over height, and the large size : the numerous
perfect mesenteries, the specialization of tentacles into two sorts, and of
each of them into a head and a stem, and the large size of the nemato-
cysts. The generalized musculature is perhaps a survival of primitive-
ness, or a degeneration connected with the mode of life in deep water.

J. A. T.

Circulation of Water in Renilla. — G. H. Parker {Journ. Exper.
Zool., 1920, 31, 343-65, 1 pi., 1 fig.)- In its natural habitat Renilla
amethystina contracts and buries itself in the sand as the tide recedes,
and expands above the sand when the tide returns. In contraction its
volume may be diminished 83 p.c. by the discharge of sea-water. The
water enters through the lateral siphonozooids, and possibly in very
small amounts through the autozooids, which certainly serve for the
entrance of food. It does not enter through the axial siphonozooid or
the terminal pore of the peduncle. The water leaves the body by the
axial siphonozooid, which normally discharges from time to time. Under
high pressure water may also escape through the lateral siphonozooids.
the autozooids, or even the terminal pore of the peduncle. Within the
body the water that enters by the lateral siphonozooids collects in
the inferior canal of the rachis, and passes thence by very fine openings
of the peduncular septum from the inferior canal to the superior canal,
and thus less directly but more freely out at the axial siphonozooid, or
the water is drawn into the colony by the action, probably ciliary, of
the lateral siphonozooids and is expelled by general muscular contrac-
tion. J- A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 187

Protozoa.

Reactions of Amoebae. — Asa A. Schaeffer {Biol. Bulletin, 1917,
45-72, (; pis.). Amoebai sense beams of light of 20 microns diameter
that pass no nearer to them than 100 or 150 microns. In nearly all
cases nnder these conditions the amoeba moves directly towards the
beam. When the amoeba reaches the beam it either flows over it
indifferently, or it reacts negatively to the beam by changing its direction
of movement. Beams of spectral light and of white light have approxi-
mately the same general efPect. It appears, however, that spectral light
at the bine end is somewhat less attractive than that at the red end.
Beams of darkness are also sensed at a distance like beams of light, bnt
the amoeba usnally avoids them before coming very near them. No
explanation is suggested for the sensing of beams of light and of dark-
ness at a distance. It is the change of light intensity that determines
changes in reactions. Grains of globulin illuminated by perpendicular
beams of light seem, on the whole, to be at least as attractive as when
not more brightly illuminated than the field. But when globulin
grains are laid in dark beams, the amoeba frequently shows unmistakable
signs of a tendency to react negatively. An amoeba is positive, negative,
or indifferent to beams of light according to circumstances. J. A. T.

Supplementary Chromatic Body in the Ciliate Maupasella nova.
— D. IvEiLiN {Parasitology, 11)20, 12, 92-4, 1 pi.) In this Ciliate
parasite of the earth-worm's intestine there is often a ribbon-shaped
supplementary chromatic body, of variable position in the endoplasm,
and of variable shape. It is different in structure from the macro-
nucleus ; there is no continuity between the two bodies ; it does not
divide when the macronucleus does. It does not originate from the
niicronucleus, nor from abnormal conjugation. In short, it is a very
puzzling structure. It may be the result of a condensation of extra-
nuclear chromatin, produced by some environmental change. J. A. T.

Peculiarities of Nicollelidse. — E. Chatton and Ch. Perard
{Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol, 1920, 83, 1116-8). In the interesting
parasitic Ciliata of this family, found in the food canal of some rodents
and Hyraxes, there is a peculiar backward shunting of the mouth, and
this is associated with a perturbation of the transverse cleavage. Thus
in Golinella ctenodactyli one of the two individuals formed by division is
as long as tlie intact individual ; the other is a minute posterior frag-
ment. The state of affairs in Nicollela and Pymiothrix is discussed.

J. A. T.

Dinoflagellates and other Organisms causing Discoloration of
the Sand. — E. Catherine Herdman {Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc, 1921,
35, 1-5, 2 figs.). A study of variable greenish-brown patches on the
sandy beach at Port Erin. These were due to various Dinoflagellates
and Diatoms. The former were represented by at least three species of
Amphidiniiim, and one or more species of Gymnodinium and PolykriTcos.
There were also a few unidentified colourless naked Dinoflagellates
present. The diatoms were several species of Navimla, Pleurosigma,
and other genera, forming brown patches. Small dark green patches
were found to be due to species of Oscillatoria. J. A. T.

0 2

188 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Movements of Flagellates. — Jean Massart . {Bull. Acad. Roy.
Belgique, Classe des Sciences, 1920, 116-41, 32 figs.). A new littoral
form, Podomastix fahacea g. etsp. n., is somewhat intermediate between
Thecamoebas and Flagellata. It has long and delicate, sonletimes
branched, pseudopodia, and these beat the water like oars. Yet they
are quite transient structures. This interesting form may attach itself
to a foreign body, retract all the pseudopodia save in one front, and
glide along. In Gercohodo prlmitiva sp. n. there are permanent pseudo-
podic filaments, one in front and one behind. There are in this form
three modes of movement — free swimming, pushing along on a foreign
body, and an amoeboid gliding. Numerous illustrations are given among
Flagellata (1) of free swimming, usually accompanied by rotation of the
body ; (2) of swimming on a foreign body ; and (3) of amoeboid gliding.
Active change of shape, especially in relation to the medium, is also
discussed. The paper is generously illustrated. J. A. T.

Sporozoon of Grass Snake. — E. Guyenot and A. Naville {Gomptes
Rendus Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 965-6). A sporozoon, with some micro-
sporidian and some sarcosporidian features, occurs abundantly in
Tropidonotus nati'ix, in the dorsal musculature and in the connective
tissue. But the same parasite occurs abundantly in a species of
Distomum found attached to the mucous membrane of the snake's
stomach. It seems hkely that the sporozoon can pass through its
entire life-history in this fluke, and that the fluke is the agent in
infecting the snake. J. A. T.

New Coccidia from Cyprinid Fishes. — S. Stankovitch {('omptes
Rendus Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, S33-5, 5 figs.). Descriptions of Gousski,
legeri sp. n. in the intestine of young larvfe of Alburnus lucidus and
Scardinius erythrophthalmus. All the stages of sporulation were observed,
also macrogametes and microgametocytes. Another species, G. alhurni
sp. n., from the same fishes and also from Leuciscus rutilus, in the
intestine and in the adjacent fatty tissue. J. A. T.

New Species of Monocystis. — Hermann von Voss {Arch. Protis-
tenhunde, 1921, 42, 176-8). Description of Monocystis naidis sp. n.
found in abundance in the coelom of a species of Nais. It was of an
elongated spindle shape, narrowed anteriorly, more rounded behind,
usually solitary, sometimes in syzygia of two or three. The size usually
varied from 27 to 37 /x. in length, 6 to 7 /u. in breadth ; but some of
45 X 11 /A were found. A distinct pellicula epicyte shows longitudinal
ridges ; there is a well-developed sarcocyte ; no gelatinous layer was
seen ; muscle-filaments, though probably present, were not demonstrable.
The entocyte showed a finely granular or finely alveolar plasma. The
nucleus, with a distinct membrane, is spherical or ellipsoid, up to 10 /a
in diameter — a large karyosome with 2 to 4 chromatin fragments on a
linin framework. Attachment to the coelom wall suggests viscid attach-
ment, but there are also pseudopodic processes of the endoplasm issuing
through a gap in the anterior pellicula. The pellicula may also disappear
all over, and a coalescence of two or three somewhat amoeboid plasmo-
gametes is described. In such combinations a central aggregation of
the nuclei occurred. J. A. T.

ZPOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY. ETC. 189

BOTANY.

(Under the direction of A. B. Rendle, M.A., D.Sc, P.R.S., F.L.S.)

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Cytology,
Including: Cell-Contents.

Morphological Constitution of Cytoplasm of Plant-cells. — A.
GuiLLiERMOND {Rev. Geiur. ScL, 11)21. 32, 133-40, figs.). Contrary
to the opinion expressed by many writers, the author maintains that,
there is no essential difference between the structure of the animal-
and plant-cell ; both in morphological and chemical structure the chon-
driome of the plant-cell is the equivalent of that of the animal-cell,
but in chlorophyll-bearing plants the chondriome is affected by photo-
synthesis.

Fig. I. — Animal-cell (living), m, mitochondrias ; v, vacuoles.

Those authors who differ from this view have apparently based their
opinions upon either a too exclusive study of Phanerogams — in which
only one variety of mitochondrias can be(1istinguished in the embryonic
stage, and have therefore concluded that the plastids arise from the
undifferentiated mitochondrias of the meristem — or, having confined
their attention to the Muscinea3, have assigned to the plastids a signifi-
cance and nature apart from that of the mitochondrias.

The present work shows that there are two varieties of mitochondrias.
[n Phanerogams they are of the same form and dimensions in the
embryonic cells, and the difference does not become visible until the
adult stages, where photosynthesis is in active progress. In the Alg«
and Muscinea3, where photosynthesis is continued through the entire
life-history of the plant, the two forms of mitochondrias are easdy
distinguishable from the earliest stages of the embryo. In ferns they

190

SUMiMAEY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

can be distinguished in early embryonic stages by slight differences in
dimensions, and in certain Cryptogams mitochondrias of intermediate
forms between those of Algse and Muscinete have been seen. Work on

G«

:| V.

Fig. III.

Mm" ^'

Fig. II.

I

■>^ 4»..'-

■ M.

Fig. IV.

M P

II. Filament of Endomyces Magnusu. Gg, fatty globules ; m, mito-
chondrias ; V, vacuoles in various stages of development :
N, nuclei.

III. Very young cell.

IV. More advanced cell, mp, chondriosomes.

V. Gg. M. MP-

Fig. V. — Cell in last stage. The chloroplastids (mp) in their final
form ; the mitochondrias which have not assisted in their
formation take the form of typical chondriosomes (m).
V, vacuole.

certain fungi likewise confirms these results. In conclusion, it is shown
that the mitochondrias of plant-cells have elaborate functions in that
certain of them can produce starch, while the remainder of them develop
into the colour-bearing plastids ; this is in complete agreement with what

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 191

is known of animal-cells where the mitochondrias also have elaborate
functions and form the basis of colonring matter.

The quality of the mitochondrias in plant-cells appears to be con-
nected with the process of photosynthesis. S. Greves.

B

'■Qq

A

C

Fig. VI.

A. Epidermal cells of the white Tulii^ (living).

B. Chondriosomes of the same cell in process of alteration.

c. Similar cell, in which all the chondriosomes are transformed into
vesicles (v).

D. Cell, fixed and stained by Regaud's method.

E. Filaments of Saprolcgnia (living).

F. Chrondriosomes of same in process of development.

G. Filament in which all the chondriosomes have been transformed

into large vesicles (v).
H. Filament, fixed and stained by Regaud's method.

c, chondriosomes ; m, mitochondrias ; gg, fatty globules ; n, nucleus.

Cell-division in the Pollen-grain of Cobsea. — W. K. Faer {Bull
Torr. Bot. CI, 1920, 47, 325-38). A study of the pollen-mother-cells o

192 SUMMARY OF CUKKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Gobsea scandens var. alba indicates that in the formation of the micro-
spore no cell-plate is apparent during the division of the cytoplasm.
There is a general similarity to the process observed in Nicoiinna, and
the '.' hyaline areas " which accompany the cleavage of the cytoplasm
strongly resemble those seen during spore-formation in the fungi Pilo-
bolus and FuUgo . It is significant that similar cytoplasmic differentiation
occurs under similar conditions in such widely separated forms. In all
cases observed these " hyaline areas " are formed during cytoplasmic
division of a multinucleate cell in which cell-plates are not formed, and
they bound off a single nucleus and never a group of nuclei ; they may
also indicate a future cleavage in a uninucleate mass. It is probable
that the nuclei may control the orientation of the " hyaline area " or
fuiTows, and that the latter constitute visible expressions of the activity
of the nuclei. It has been suggested that soluble ions are diffused along
the paths of the fibres, and if this is so, the compounds formed by the
ions would be most concentrated around the fibres in the equatorial
planes, so that it is possible " that in these regions of highest concentra-
tion the substances may be in the necessary condition for the development
of the plasma-membrane, and that in this manner tliev determine the
position and direction of the penetrating furrows." ' S. G.

structure and Development.

Vegetative.

Anatomy and "Biology of Lathrgea.— E. Chemix {Ann. Sc. i\al,
1920, 10, No. 2, 125-27] , 88 figs.). The writer has studied the germina-
tion of the seed, and the development of the root, suckers, scales and
glands, of L. dandestina, and has compared his observations with those
of other writers upon L. squamaria. In both species the root-system is
mainly adventitious, but while in L. dandestina the roots are orange-
yellow with a thick lacunar cortex, which serves as storage-tissue, iw L.
squamaria the roots are whitish in colour, and have a thin cortex con-
taining very httle food-material, exfoliation being frequent. In the
former species the endodermis has lignified thickenings and functions as
an internal layer of the cortical tissues ; in the latter the cell-walls of
the endodermis are suberised, and the numerous cells retain their iudi-
viduaHty. The suckers are lateral swellings of the root— relatively
large and yellowish in colour in L. dandestina, smaller and whiter in L.
squamaria. They usually penetrate as far as the wood of the host ; in
L. dandestina they attach themselves to the conducting vessels, but in
L. squamaria they attain their greatest development in the phloem-
parenchyma. Hydrocarbons and nitrogenous compounds are obtained
by breaking down and digesting the adjacent tissues of the host ; starch
and allied carbohydrates by the solution and absorption of these sub-
stances. Usually the host forms a layer of growth which serves the
double purpose of isolation and renewal of the affected area ; no
permanent injury is caused to the main root-system, except when a
weakly plant is attacked. The scales of Lathrsea are not atrophied
organs, neither do they play any part in the nutrition of the plant ; they
are modified leaves which act as excretory organs, giving off excess of

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

193

water together with sulphates and phosphates of ammonia obtained
from the host-plant. When ripe the seeds are scattered to a consider-
able distance, but little is known as to the conditions necessary for

z a

L.

Pig. 1. — Lougitudinal section of a sucker of L. clandestina, and of
the root of Honeysuckle upon which it is fixed.

cc, central cylinder ; ntr, plr, tracheal cells showing nucleus ;
th, hyalin tissue ; j^ad, adhesive papillse ; zab, absorbent zone ;
zal, zone of the root-host altered by the parasite ; I, bark ; lib,
cortical parenchyma ; b, wood.

germination.

^ The food-reserve is sufficiently abundant to enable the

root and suckers to grow until they become attached to the host. The
present work proves that Lathrsea is a genus adapted to subteri;anean

vb.

V 0_

Fig. 2. — Sucker of L. clandestina upon the rootlet of Heracleum Sphondylium.

vo, extremity of penetrating cone in contact with a vessel with
undulating walls ; vb, vessel filled with a brown substance.

life, but which has preserved without reduction or degradation all the
complex organization of a flowering plant. Water, mineral salts, hydro-
carbons and nitrogenous compounds are derived from the host, but with

194 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the exception of the water and salts they are afterwards elaborated by
the parasite. The parasitic habit is accidental and partial, and has been
determined by necessary adaptation to the medium in which the plant
lives. S. ft.

Reproductive. '

Inheritance of Sug-ar and Starch Characters in Corn. — E. A.
Harper {BulL Torr. Bot. GL, 1920, 47, 137-86, 3 pis.). Four genera-
tions of plants, obtained by crossing a sweet with dent corn, were
studied in order to establish the facts as to the occurrence of inter-
mediates between starch and sugar corns and the behaviour of these
when grown and self-fertilized. The observations show that the
parental germ-plasms are separated in the reduction-division, and that
the recombination of the gametes so produced is in accordance with the
laws of chance assumed in Mendelian conceptions, Ijut intermediates
occur the characters of which are heritable to a considerable degree.
Selected intermediates give a higher percentage of intermediates than
pure parents.

The general occurrence of intermediates appears to be due not only
to the bringing together of divergent or contrasting pairs of charac-
teristics, but to the exigencies of sexual reproduction itself ; variability,
however, is more characteristic of the offspring of impure races than of
pure races. The very nature of the gametes and of the chromosomes
makes it improbable that the germ-plasms remain unaltered during the
reproductive processes. Constitutional differences in the gametes are
likely to be responsible for wider and so-called sudden variations known
as mutations, sports, monstrosities, etc., while the complex nature of
the reduction, fusing and pairing processes may be regarded as respon-
sible for those fluctuating normal variations which are often confused
with the not directly heritable variations due to external environment.
External conditions may, however, influence the complex of reproductive
processes.

The characters, sweet and starchy, are typically metidentical
characters. The presence of sugars and dextrin gums leads to shrinkage
of the cell, and the whole kernel becomes wrinkled, while the presence
of more solid starch-grains prevents this shrivelling and the kernels
remain plump and round. The fixity of type resulting from asexual
reproduction is sufficient to furnish a fairly stable product for the
market, but is not absolutely stable. Sugar and starch characters are
not due, as is often supposed, to a pair of fixed Mendelian characters.

S. G.

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

Old Red Sandstone Plants from the Rhynie Chert. Part II. :
Additional Notes on Rhynia Gwynne-Vaughani. with Descriptions
of Rhynia major and Hornea Lignieri. — Pi. Kidston and AV. H.
Lang {Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 1920, 52, 603-27, 10 plates).
A further account of the remarkably preserved structure of early

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 195

Pteridopbytes obtained from the silicified peat-bed at Rhynie in Aber-
deenshire. Rhynia major represents a new species, and Hornea Linnieri
a new genus and species. Rhynia w-as a gregarious, rootless and leaf-
less plant growing erect from a subterranean irhizorae and branched
dichotomously. It bore stomata ; and its stele consisted of a zone of
phloem surrounding a strand of tracheides. The sporangia were
cylindrical, without columella, and were terminal on aerial stems. The
spores were of one sort only, were developed in tetrads, and had a
cuticularized wall. Hornea was also rootless and leafless, its dicho-
tomous aerial stems growing up from protocorm-like rhizomes. The
sporangia were terminal on ultimate branches, having a basal columella
projecting up into the sporangial cavity, and the cuticularized spores
were developed in tetrads. The family Rhyniacea3 is placed in a
special class, Psilophy tales. The Rhyniacese were land plants, and may
afford some clue to the origin of the land-growing sporophyte, as
suggesting derivation from an algal ancestry comparable in habit with
FarceVariafadiyiaia. A. <tepp.

Old Red Sandstone Plants from the Rhynie Chert. Part III. :
Asteroxylon Mackiei. — R. Kidston and W. H. Lang {Trans. Roy.
Soc. Edmhuryh, 11)20, 52, 643-80, 17 plates). An account of the
structure of Asteroxylon, well-preserved fragments of which were found
with the remarkable plants Rhynia and Hornea in the silicified peat-
bed at Rhynie, which belongs to the geological horizon of the Old Red
Sandstone. All these genera are referred to the Psilophytales, a class
of the Pteridophyta ; and while Rhynia and Hornea constitute the
family Rhyniacefe, Asteroxylon (characterized by the stellate outline of
its cauline xylem in transverse section) represents a separate fumily.
Asteroxylon had a leafless rhizome, from which arose branched aerial
stems bearing numerous small leaves. The stele (xylem) of the
rhizome was cylindric, but in the stem was stellate and gave off leaf-
traces. The fertile region appears to have consisted of slender branched
leafless axes bearing pyriform sporangia of moderate size, with definite
dehiscence at the wider free encl. The tracheides of the metaxylem and
protoxylem have a peculiar type of spiral thickening. A. G.

Morphology of the Stele of Platyzoma microphyllum.— John
McLean Thompson (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinhuryh, 1920, 52. ,571-'.)5,
3 pis. and figs.). A discussion of the stelar problem of Platyzoma,
with a resume of the facts of stelar structure previously recorded for
the plant and of the theories founded upon them by Poirault, Jeffrey,
Boodle and Tansley. The author is unsatisfied as to the nature and origin
of the medullated stele, and describes the structure of a number of
recently acquired specimens, which levealed neither a soleiiostelic
condition nor evidence of degenerate stelar gaps or of inner phloem.
One small specimen showed interesting features which are illustrated in
detail. In this (examined from- the broken base upwards) the pith and
inner endodermis became narrowed to a vanishing point, and a
medullated protostele was locally established ; the pith then again
expanded and within it there arose de ?iovo an inner endodermis at first
irregular, then definitely tubular to the apex of the stem. L'pon the

196 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

evidence so far obtained the author inclines to the view that the tubular
medullated stele of Platyzoma is the result of upgrade development
from within of an original protostele; but the problem cannot be
solved until the " sporeling " stages have been investigated, and
solenostely and reduction are proved or disproved. A. G.

New Facts as to the Stelar Theory of Ferns. — J. McLean
Thompson {Trans. Roij. Soc. Edinhurgh, 1920, 52, 715-735, 4 pis.,
9 figs.). The writer has studied the anatomy of various species of
the Schizieaceae and Gleicheniace^ with special reference to the -stelar
theory. In the SchizEeaceae the author finds that (1) the stelar endo-
dermis is an unbroken cylinder without lateral connexions between the
cortex and the pith ; (2) the pith is of intrastelar origin, arising by
gradual increase of wood-parenchyma and accompanying decrease of
central tracheides ; (3) there is no marked increase in diameter of the
xylem cylinder or stelar area during transition from solid protostely to
the medullated state. In Schizsea dkhotoma the endodermal pockets
are intrastelar structures which arise by change of procambial destina-
tion within the stele. In the Gleicheniacea ontogenetic progression
from protostely to solenostely is seen in GUlchenia pectinata, Loxsoma
Cunninghamii and Acrostic/mm aureum, and the evolution of the
Lindsaya type can be traced in Lindsaya adiantifolia. Development
shows that both the inner phloem and the medulla are of purely
intrastelar origin, and there is no evidence of the intrusion of cortical
tissues into stele during medullation. Ontogenetic evidence for the
ferns appears to show that medullation and the solenostelic and
dictyostelic states arise by intrastelar readjustment, in which change of
destination is mainly operative. S. Greves.

Contributions to a Knowledge of the Anatomy and Cell-contents
of Ferns. — H. Martin (Dissertation (Gottingen : W. F. Kastner)
1916, 137 pp. ; see also Bot. Centralhl., 1918, 138, 154). During
microchemical investigation for tannic acid and other substances in
seventy-seven representative Filicales, the author paid particular atten-
tion to the anatomical structure .of the lesser known species, with the
following results : — Acjording to the development and the amount of
the thickening of the epidermis of the leaf-.^alk, three groups may
be distinguished. Some ferns have a hypodermis. A sclerenchyma-
ring is always present, but not a " stiitzscheide." The cells of the
main parenchyma are thickened and brown. Idioblasts occur in certain
Cyatheacege ; mucilage-canals in the Marattiaceee ; capitate glandular
hairs, wbich become less abundant towards the apex of the leaf-stalk
{As2Jidii/m Filix-mas). The endodermis entirely surrounds the fibro-
vascular bundle of the Osnmudaceae, despite Thomae's statements, as is
clearly revealed by Berthold's method of preserving the material. The
stele of ferns does not always contain parenchyma in the xylem.
Collateral vascular bundles occur in Geratopteris. The protoplasm cells
are always collenchymatous. Conducting cells are never present in the
phloem, as is easily shown by the method of preservation employed.
In Aspidiuni falcatum the sieve-tubes adjoin the tracheides. Theproto-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 197

xylem cells mostly disappear with age. Sclerencliymatous elements
seldom occur in tlie stele. Rhizome and root were not examined in
anatomical detail. Angiopteria evecta is remarkable for its polyarch
bundle. According to the development of the frond, ferns fall into
three groups : — 1. The epidermis and mesophyll are almost similarly
developed. 2. The mesophyll is a typical spongy- and palisade-
parenchyma, quite different from the epidermis. 3. The mesophyll is
very thin-walled and large-celled, and quite different from the ejoidermis.
In some ferns there is a hypodermis in the frond. Only those forms
of frond that are more than eight layers thick are mechanically stiffened
along the margin.

As regards cell-contents, chlorophyll rarely occurs in the epidermis of
the leaf-stdk, not as a rule in the sclerenchymatous ring, never in the
endodermis, but it does occur in the stele, and still more in the main
parenchyma. The amount of chlorophyll increases from the base
upwards. Tannin occurs everywhere, and mostly dift'used : in the
" stiitzscheide " it is more abundant than in the main parenchyma ; it
is nearly always present in the stele, but in the endodermis it is as
often absent as present. Tannin is never found in the sieve-tubes,
and the tannin-ideoblasts are not very frequent in the outer layers, nor
in the stele. Tannin, like chlorophyll, increases from below upwards.
Accumulations of tannin occur in certain parts of undeveloped or
dying leaf-stalks. Starch is rare in the epidermis and in the scleren-
chyma-ring ; is always present in the main parenchyma, sometimes in
great quantity ; but never occurs in the endodermis and protophloem.
The amount of starch either diminishes or increases from the base up-
wards. Oialate has been found in four cases only. In the /ronrfthe
distribution and occurrence of chlorophyll, tannin, starch, and oxalate
is similar to that in the leaf-stalk, and the same applies to the rhizome
and root. A. G.

Further Note on the Ecology of Phyllitis hybrida. — V. Vouk
{Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., 1916, 66, 3!)7-99 ; see also Bot. CentraVbl.,
1918, 138, 138). This species is regarded by the author as a meso-
phyte with well-developed xerophytic adaptability ; in • contrast to
Morton, who regards it as a typical hygrophyte with great capability of
adaptation. Phyllitis hybrida and Ceterach are considered euryphotic
plants, while P. hemionitis is stenophotic. P. hybrida and Ceterach
could also be called euryxerophil, and P. hemionitis stenohygrophil.

E. S. Gepp.

Bryophyta.

Critical Revision of Carl Muller's Moss Genera. II. — Max
Fleischee {Heclwigia, 1917, 59, 212-19 ; see also Bot. Centralhl., 1918,
138, 153). A continuation of the critical examination of C. Miiller's
herbarium. A new genus, Pterogoniadelphus, is founded, between
Forstroemia and Pterogoniiim, with the species P. montevidensis
(= Cladomniimi montevidense C.M.). Leucodon levifoUus Broth, ined.
is placed in Hypnum sect. Pterogoniojjhyllum Flsch. (a new section). A

198 SUMMARY OF CUERKNT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

new species, CryptoU^Jtodon acuminatus, is formed, for Leptodon
Fliwini CM. YSiV.folns acmninatis CM. Miiller's Leptodon species in
his herbarium belong to four different genera, according to Fleischer.
He gives similar treatment to the genera Dusenia, Cladomnium, Le^jyro-
don, Leucodon, Erythrodontium and Pt&rigynandnmi. The drastic
treatment of the author threatens to leave very little of C. Miiller's
nomenclature intact. E. S. G.

Mosses of Papuasia. — Max Fleischer {Enqler''s Bot. Jahrh., 1917,
55, rJ-:37, 1 pi. ; see also Bot Centralbl., 1918, 138, 152-3). An
account of several noteworthy mosses from the islands of the New
Guinea group, including two new species. The principal interest of the
paper lies in the geographical notes, which fill in many gaps in our
knowledge of the distribution and mode of life of the Sphagnacea?,
Fissidentaceffi, Dicranacese, Leucophanacea?, Syrrhopodontacete, Splach-
nacea?, Rhizogoniaceffi, Hypnodendracege and Othotrichace^e. The
information is derived from personal observations of Papuan plants by
the author himself. A. G.

Remarks on the Contributions of J. G-ybrffy to the Histolog'y of
Ephemeropsis tjibodensis in Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg and else-
where.— Max Fleischer {Hedwigia, 1917, 59, 209-11 ; see also Bot.
Centralbl., 1918, 138, 152). By means of very detailed anatomical
studies of the sporophyte of Epimneroiisis tjibodensis, Gyorffy has ex-
tended the description of the species beyond the limits laid down by
Max Fleischer in his " Mosses of Buitenzorg." In certain points he
considered his view a correction and improvement on that of Fleischer.
In the present paper Fleischer answers Gyorffy, and maintains his own
point of view. E. S. G.

Third Contribution to the Moss Flora of the Erzgebirge. — J.
Roll {Hedivigia, 1917, 59, 285-300 ; see also Bot. Centralbl., 1918,
138, 153). A bryofloristic treatment of the central portion of the
Erzgebirge, principally of the places Reitzenhain and Sebastiansberg, on
the ridge of the mountains. Both are surrounded by great moorlands,
about 740 to 880 metres above sea level. The special features of the
district are described, followed by a synopsis of the mosses observed.
Among these are Dicranella squarrosa, Bryiim Davalii, and Dreiiano-
cladus hercynicus. Sphagnacete are the most abundant, and their
treatment occupies the larger part of the paper. Thirty-four species are
recorded as well as numerous forms. E. S. G.

New Hepatic for the Iberian Peninsula. — F. Beltran {Bol. R.
Soc. Espah. Hist. Nat., 1920, 20, 310-12). The species in question is
Ricciocarpus natans Corda, f . natans, which was found in the village of
El Saier, near Albufera in Valencia. It was growing in a short and
narrow canal intermixed with Lemna, which it closely resembles. Its
discovery was made by chance during a search among the Lemna for
larvte. The material was taken to the botanical laboratory of the
University of Barcelona, where it was successfully cultivated in spite of
the ravages of a larva. Antheridia were found on mature plants, but

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 199

no arcbegonia. The author suggests that the rarity of this widely-
distributed species is due to its having been overlooked, owing to its
great resemblance to Lenina, with which it grows. E. S. (r.

Mean Annual Thermal Life-Conditions of Webera nutans and
of Leptoscyphus Taylori in the Elbe-sandstone Mountains. — A.
ScHADE (Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., 1917, 35, 490-505; see also Bot
Gentralhl., 191S, 138, 153). An account of the temperatures recorded
by means of thermometers plunged in living tufts of the Bryophytes
under observation, controlled by synchronous observations of the
temperatures of the air and of the substrata upon which the plants
grew. In a sunny place the Webera tufts attained a temperature 20° C.
and more above that of the air, whereas the Leptoscyphus growing in
the shade had a temperature 8 ' 5° C. below that of the air. The highest
temperature recorded for a moss was-56*8° C, and that was in a Webera
tuft which had previously reached a minimum of - 9*7"C. This
species can therefore tolerate such a range of temperature as 66*5° C. ;
whereas the range recorded for the hepatic did not exceed 23' C. The
mean temperature for the year was, for the Webera 23'3°C., and for
the Leptoscyphus 6'2''C. The two plants grew but 50 metres apart,
and indicate two climates of marked contrast within a very narrow
area. A. G.

Thallophyta,
Algae.

New Species of Peridiniese. with Remarks on the Structure of
the Outer Membrane in Gymnbdinium and Glenodiniura. — J.
WoLOSZYNSKA {Bull. Acad. Sci. Gracovie, 1917, 57, Ser. B., 114-122,
3 pis.). All genera of Peridiniete, including OymnocUnium, possess a
more or less delicate outer membrane, which in the simplest forms is
composed of small hexagonal plates. In more highly developed forms
the arrangement of the plates is more complicated, reaching its highest
point of development in Feridimum, Geratlum and Gonyaidax. The
following points are characteristic of the simple structure of the outer
membrane : the minute size, the large and inconstant number of the
plates, and their regular hexagonal form. The alteration in the
arrangement of the plates generally begins first in the longitudinal
furrow, then spreads to the hypovalve, later to the epivalve, and iinally
to the transverse furrow. The number of the plates decreases markedly
in the higher genera, and remains constant. The structure of the
outer, membrane must always be taken into account in systematic keys.
The author gives a short diagnosis of the characters of the outer
membrane of all species of Gymnodinium and Glenodmium which she has
examined. Several new species and varieties are described, found near
Lemberg, Sphserodinium Umneticum Wol. 1917 is identical with
Glenodmium cinctum Ehrenb. E. S. G.

Asterocystis de Wildeman and Asterocystis Gobi.-^A. Pascher
{Beih. Bot. Gentralbl., 1917, 35, 578-79). Asterocystis Gobi 1879
is an alga ; while Asterocystis de Wildeman 1893 is an oomycete, for
which the author suggests the name Olpiidiaster . Asterocystis radicis de
Wildeman therefore = 0. radicis Pascher. E. S. G.

200 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

New Plankton Species of Raphidium, R. spirochroma. — L.

Reverdin {Bull. Soc. Hot. Geneve, 1917, 9, 48-51, fig. ; see also Bot.
Centralbl., 1918, 138, 262). The precision of the spiral chromatophore,
the visibility of the nucleus, and the form of the cell make a very well-
marked species, even among those species of Baphidiwn which have
pyrenoids. It may be necessary later to transfer it to the author's new
genus, Glosteriospira, and to form a new group of Raphidium comprising
species which possess pyrenoids and a well-defined spiral chromatophore.
In such a group several species of Spirotsenia would naturally find their
place. The name of Spiroraphideje is proposed for this new series in
the genus Raphidium. R. spirochroma was collected in the Lake of
Geneva, almost on the surface, between Ariana and Port Noir.

E. S. G.

Phytoplankton of the Inland Lakes of Wisconsin. Part I. —
G. M. Smith {Wisconsin Geoloy. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Madison, 1920,
Bulletin No. 57, Scientific Series No. 12,243 pp., 51 pis,). This volume
deals with the Mysophycea^, Phaeophycefe, Heterokontse, and Chloro-
phycese, exclusive of the Desmidiacete. Investigation was begun in the
autumn of 1913 and continued during the summers of 1914-15-16-17.
In the introduction the author discusses the geography and geology of
Wisconsin, chemical composition of the lake waters, methods of collection
and study, an^ lakes studied. Available data on location and size of the
lakes visited during the course of the investigation are given in tabular
form. The systematic treatment is preceded by a key to the genera
based upon the vegetating characters. Diagnoses are given for the
Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species, together with keys to the
genera and species recorded. Critical notes are appended to some of the
diagnoses, which, together with the references to literature and the
numerous figures made from living material, should eliminate errors in
determination, E. S. G,

Note on certain Species of Fresh-water Algae new to the
Spanish Flora, — C, C. Latorre {Bol. R. Soc. Espaji. Hist. Xat., 1920,
20, 333-6, figs, in text). The species in question were collected in
Portillo, Toledo, and include one new species, Gharacium setiferum, which'
much resembles G. apiculatum., but difPers in having a very long seta at
the apex of the mature plant, exceeding in length one-third of the cell.
The other species are Anahsena oscillarioides Bory (which has lieen men-
tioned as occurring in Northern Spain), Nostocrivulare Kiitz., Glosterium
lanceolatum Kiitz., Fediastrum Boryanum Turp., Gharacium strictum
A, Br,, and Vaucheria De-Baryana Woron. Figures are given of the
two last and of the new species. The extremes in size of Gharacium
strictum are shown. Intermediate sizes have been observed, which pro-
hibit separation into distinct species, E, S. G,

Cytology and Systematic Position of Porphyridium cruentum
(Naeg-eli). — M. Staehelin {Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., 1917, 34, 893-
901, fig. ; see also Bot. Gentralbl, 1918, 138, 262). The chromato-
phore of Porphyridium is figured as a closed capsule lying along the
periphery, such as has only been recorded hitherto for Cyanophycege.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 201

The refractive grains embedded in the chromatophore correspond to the
cyanophycin grains. A true germ is lacking, but a plasmatic central
body is present, which contains grains of anabffinin arranged in rosettes.
Hydrolysis transforms the anabseuin into glycogen, as in Cyanophyce^e ;
by autolysis it is entirely dissolved, leaving only the chromatophore and
the plasmic central body. P. cruentum must therefore be placed in
Cyanophycete, near to Aphanocapsa. E. S. G.

Contribution to the Study of Polymorphism and of Monstrosities
in DesmidiaceEe.— F. Ducellier {Bull. Soc. Bot. Geneve, 1916, ser. 2,
7, 75-118, figs. ; see also Bot. Centralhl., 1918, 138, 117). A fair
number of anomalies in connexion with the form and the method of
division are described, and many are figured. Nine new varieties and
forms of Euastnun didelta Ealfs are also described. E. S. G.

New Desmidiacese for Switzerland. — F. Ducellier {Bull. Soc.
Bot. Geneve, 11)16, ser. 2, 8, 282 ; see also Bot. Centralhl., 1918, 138,
119). Fourteen species are stated to be new records. Cosmarium per-
foratum Ld. var. Ranchii and C. alpestre Roy & Biss. var. ellipticum
(Delp.) are described as new varieties. E. S. G.

New Genus of Algae (? Desmidiaceae) Closteriospira. — L.Reverdin
{BulJ. Soc. Bot. Geneve, 1917, 9, 52-4, fig. ; see also Bot. CentralU.,
1918, 138, 262). A new genus between Spirotseiikmi and Glosterium.
Distinguished from the former " apicibus hyalinis corpusculis interjectis,"
and from Glosterium " chromatophoro spiraliter torto." The species is
G. lenumensis, and was collected between Ariana and Port Noir, on the
Lake of Geneva. E. S. G.

Occurrence of Diatoms on the Skin ofWhales. — A. G. Bennett,
with Appendix by E. W. Nelson {Proc. Roy. Soc, B, 1920, 91, 352-7).
A short account of the film of diatoms which frequently covers the blue
whale and the fin whale in Antarctic waters. The film is of a buff
colour, and occurs most commonly on very fat individuals which have
been feeding for some time on the abundant plankton of icy waters.
The author suggests that the buflf- coloured bands on icebergs may be
formed also of diatoms. In an appendix Mr. Nelson gives the result
of his microscopical examination of Mr. Bennett's three samples of the
film, mounted in slides, dried, and in a tube. The two former consisted
entirely of a new species, Gocconeis ceticola, here described and figured.
The third sample consisted of G. ceticola and Navicula viridis Nitzsch.
usually a fresh-water species, and here recorded for the first time as
living in salt water. A few specimens of Pinnidaria interrupta W. Sm.
were also found in the tube, but it is not quite certain that any species
except G. ceticola was really derived from the whale's skin. It is sug-
gested that the association of G. ceticola with the skin of the whale is
more than an accidental one, both on account of its enormous quantity
in a state of absolute purity and of the colour. The question of sapro-
phytism arises. Slides of the diatom are preserved in the British
Museum, where are also notes of the first observation of the phenomenon
made by the late Major Barrett-Hamilton. E. S. G.

P

202 SUMMASy OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Diatomiferous Deposits in the Valley of Toxi, Ixtlahuaca, Mexico.
— E. D. LozANO {Anal. Inst. Geol. Mexico, 1920, No. 9, 19 pp., 5 pis.).
The diatomiferous deposits occur in great abundance among the lacus-
trine sediments of the Toxi valley. The first half of this paper is
devoted to a geological account of the valley and the sedimentary
deposits. The second half deals with the diatoms, which are fully
discussed from the point of view of their systematic position and
structural details. The paper is in Spanish. • E. S. Gr.

Cambrian Geology and Palaeontology. IV., No. 5: Middle Cambrian
Algse.— C. D. Walcott {Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 1919, 67, 217-60,
17 pis.). A study of the algse preserved in the Middle Cambrian
Burgess shale of British Columbia. The habitat is described as a
deposit from relatively quiet muddy water in a small bay or lagoon in
close connexion with the shallow sea. The water was swarming with
life. The algse were probably washed into the lagoon by currents and
did not grow in situ. Their remains usually occur as shiny black films
on the surface of the hard dark siliceous shale. The species described
belong to Cyanophycese, ChlorophyceaB (doubtful), and Ehodophycese.
The genus attaining the greatest development in species, and abundance
of specimens, is Morania, which is referred to Hormogonese, and with
some uncertainty to the family Nostocacese. Both macroscopic and
microscopic characters are described for this genus. Seven new genera
and nineteen new species are described, as well as two new species of the
calcareous genus Sphserocodium Rothpletz. They are figured in good
photographic plates. E. S. Gr.

On the Occurrence of Structures like Walcott's Algonkian Algae
in the Permian of England. — 0. Holtedahl {Amer.Journ. Sci., 1921,
series 5, 1, 195-206). A comparison of the peculiar structures in the
Permian magnesian Limestone of the Durham district with those of the
Algonkian.Newland Limestone described by Walcott {Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., 1914, 64, No. 2). The structures of both types are described,
and the author points out that they are identical. He agrees with the
opinions of English investigators as to the inorganic nature of these
structures, which are regarded as being secondary formations through
alterations in the rock. Every transition between the various types is
present, and there is no end to the modifications. Some of the characters
suggest those developed by crystallization processes. The author does
not, however, exclude the possible presence of algse and bacteria in pre-
Cambrian strata, as reported by Walcott, since very delicate structures
are often preserved in concretions of lime or of silica. E. S. Gr.

Appendix to Notes on Oceanic Algology. — A. Mazza {Niwva
Notarisia, 1921, 32, l-4'8). A continuation, which includes notes on
species of RhodophylUs, Erythroclonium, Gelidiopsis, Curdiea, GraciJaria,
Hypnea, etc. Gracilaria lichenoides is treated in considerable detail.

B. S. Gr.

Remarks on Splachnidium rugosum Grev. — C. Skottsberg
{Svensh. Bot. TidsJcnft, 1920, 14, 277-87). A study of the structure
and development of this alga found in fresh material collected by the

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 203

author in th^ Juan Fernandez Islands, off the coast of Chile. The
plants were comparatively small, rarely exceeding 8 or 10 cm. in length.
The structure of the growing plant is described in detail. It is fila-
mentous, with a pseudoparenchymatous cortex, the filaments being
repeatedly branched, and sometimes ending in a hair of the Pheeosporean
type. Thus the structure is ectocarpoid, and essentially the same as
Chordariacete, although at maturity it resembles that of Fucus. The
" apical cell," so-called, is described and discussed fully, as the result
of an examination of numerous examples. No connexion with the other
cells was ever found ; its shape is quite peculiar ; its wall much thicker
than in all other cells. Though it generally occurs in the conceptacles
and is very persistent, the author has series of sections in which it is
lacking. He believes it to be a small epiphytic alga, possibly a Codioluni,
which is unable to penetrate the mature cortex, and thus starts by infest-
ing the meristematic region. It has been observed in almost mature
cortex tissue, and is generally found in old conceptacles as well. The
development of the conceptacle is described. SplacJmidium is acknow-
ledged as a unique type, and is regarded as representing a branch of the
Chordariacege, and not as alhed with either Laminariacege or Fucacese.

E. S. G.

EiFect of Unilateral Monochromatic Light and G-roup Orienta-
tion on the Polarity of G-erminating Fucus Spores. — A. M. Hurd
{Bot. Gaz., 1920, 70, 25-50, 2 figs.). The primary purpose of this
investigation was to determine whether all wave lengths of light, the
intensity factor being eliminated, are able to bring about this orienta-
tion and establish the polarity of the germinating spores of Fucus
inflatas. Subsidiary studies are (1) on the phenomenon here called
" group orientation," consisting in the orientation of the cleavage
plane and the establishment of the apical and basal ends of the dividing
spore by the direction of some other spore or group of spores in close
proximity ; and (2) on the phototropisms of the young rhizoids in
monochromatic lights of equal intensities. The author reviews briefly
the literature on biological experiments with monochromatic light,
describes her apparatus and methods, and deals with polarity, photo-
tropism, and group orientation. After a short discussion she summarizes
her results as follows : (1) A convenient method for obtaining mono-
chromatic lights of equal intensity is the use of the thermopile and
galvanometer to obtain the relative intensity of the light transmitted
by accurate colour screens, and the adjustment of the distances of these
screens from the light source such that the deflections of the indicator
on the galvanometer scale are equal for each exposure of the thermopile
screened by the light filters in turn. (2) The effective wave lengths in
the establishment of the polarity of Fucus spores, the result of whose
use for unilateral illumination is the same as that produced by white
light (the orientation of the first cleavage plane perpendicular to the
direction of the incident light with the cell on the darker side of the
spore becoming the rhizoidal cell), are, with the intensity of strong
diffused daylight, the shorte^' rays of the blue end of the spectrum of
approximately 4000-5600 Angstrom units. There is some evidence-
that ultra-violet light can produce the same effect. (3) The nes:ative

P 2 ^

204 SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

phototropism of the rhizoids in monochromatic light is also primarily a
function of the quality of the light, since, with equal intensity of
illumination, the wave lengths of the re(^ end of the spectrum are
without effect, while those of 4000-5200 Angstrom units produce the
same phototropism produced by white light. (4) The term " group
orientation " is suggested for the phenomenon of the orientation of the
first cleavage plane of a dividing spore with reference to the position of
adjacent spores, such that it is perpendicular to the direction of the
centre of a group or of a single spore within the effective radius, with
the subsequent development of the cell on the side towards the source
of stimulus as the rhizoidal cell. (5) This group orientation reported
' in other species is a conspicuous phenomenon in every culture of Fums
inflatus, the stimulus acting in such orientations being so strong that
when spores are separated by as much as 0*2 mm., and often more,
light stimuli as a rule fail to overcome it. (6) The chemical stimulus,
which orients the direction of the first cleavage plane and determines
which cell shall become the rhizoidal cell in group orientations, has no
power to cause a chemotropism of the rhizoids. E. S. G-.

Carbon Monoxide a Respiration Product of Nereocystis Luet-
keana.— S. C. Langdon and W. E. (tAiley {Bot. Gazette, 1920, 70,
230-1), figs, in text). The investigation was carried on during the
summer of 1918 at the Puget Sound Marine Station, Friday Harbour,
Washington. The authors give the following summary : (1) The
existence of a percentage of carbon monoxide in the gas contained in
the pneumatocyst of N. Luetkeana is confirmed. (2) The substance of
the kelp when ground and allowed to undergo autolysis and decay does
not form carbon monoxide by enzyme action or fermentation process.
(3) Kelp plants, in which the gas normally present within the float
(pneumatocyst) is replaced by air, form several per cent, of carbon
monoxide within a few days. (4) The formation of carbon monoxide
takes place only when oxygen is present as one of the gases within the
float. No carbon monoxide is formed when the float is filled with
nitrogen or hydrogen. (5) Light does not affect the rate of formation
of carbon monoxide. (6) The gas obtained from the cavities of various
other plants failed to show a similar occurrence of free carbon monoxide.
(7) The percentage of free carbon monoxide which occui's in the float
of N. Luetlceana is considered to be a respiration product for the
following reasons : It forms only when oxygen is present within the
float ; it forms as readily in the dark as in the light ; it is not formed
by enzyme or fermentation process when the substance of the plant
undergoes autolysis and decay ; and it is not formed in killed plants.

E. S. Gr.

Fungi.

Note on certain Variations of the Sporocyst in a Species of
Saprolegnia. — Maejorie L Collins {Proc. Linn. Soc. iV, S. Wales,
1920, 45, 2, 277-84, 11 figs.). Considerable variation in the develop-
ment has been observed in artificial cultures of Saprolegnia, as first
described by Lechmere in the New Phytologist, 1910. M. Collins has

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 205

repeated these observations on a SaproUgnia that grew on a beetle in a
laboratory tank. Lechmere had followed the development of five
different types of spore discharge which are characteristic of genera
other than SaproUgnia. Collins noted the same type of spore discharge
in her cnltnre ; she has also evidence that one condition is a further
stage of a previous condition. Thus in Didyuchus and in the Dictyuchns
condition the spores encyst within the sporocyst, then they enter on a
second motile stage, and pass out to the open. In Aplanes, which seems
to develop from that condition, mobility is suppressed and the spores
germinate within the sporocyst. Instances were noted in the culture of
both these conditions, and also of the two occurring in the same sporocyst.

A. LoRRAiN Smith.

Distribution of Swiss Peronospora Species. — Ernst CrAiJiiANN
{Jlitt. Naturf. Ges. Bern., 1920 [1919], 176-87). The author has
sought to determine if possible the causes affecting the distribution of
Peronosporese. Most of the hosts are culture plants or weeds, the
presence of few of them being independent of human agency. The
dispersion of the fungus is but little understood, whether it is by
oospores or by vegetative growth, but occasionally for no known reason
there occur severe epidemics of certain species. Some species spread
widely and quickly ; others, such as Peronospora lapponka, are confined
to narrow limits. Tables are given of the Peronospora species, with theii
hosts and their geographical distribution. A. L. S.

Soft Rot of Pepper Fruits. — S. G. Lehman {Phytopathology, 1921.
11, 85-7). The fungus causing the rotting was isolated and cultured,
and then again inoculated into healthy fruits. Antheridia, oogonia and
oospores were found, and it is believed that the fungus is Pythium de
Baryamun. It is probable that zoospores are splashed from the ground
by rain on to the fruits. A. L. S.

Massospora cicadina Peck. — A.. T. Speare {Mycologla, 1921, 13,
72-82, 2 pis.). This fungus, one of the Entomophthoales, is parasitic
on the periodical Cicada Tihicina cicada, and is confined to America. It
is chiefly male insects that are parasitized ; conidial and resting spores
never occur simultaneously in the same individual. The writer does not
consider that the fungus will prove to be of economic importance, as it
does not kill the larvas. A. L. S.

Methods of Direct Inoculation with Damping-off Fungi. — Annie
E. B.ATRBU-S {Phytopathotogist, 1921, 11, 80-J:, o figs.). As inoculation
experiments by placing fungi in the soil were unsatisfactory for various
reasons, the author explains in detail new improved methods of inocu-
lation. She placed the fungi on small pieces of cardboard (platforms),
and fixed them by means of tootiipicks pushed through the cardbuard at
any distance required above the soil and in close proximity to the plant.
The results were found to be very successful. A. L. S.

Crown-gall of Alfalfa.— 0. T. Wilson (Bot. Gas., 1920, 70,
.51-68, 4 pis.). The galls arise as branching tuberculate structures on
the larger secondarv roots of Medicago sativa. The organism causing

206 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RKLATING TO

the galls has been referred to Urophlydis, and the author of this paper
retains the name, though his researches have caused him to doubt the
classification and relationship of the fungus. Sporangia developed from
resting spores form zoospores — one large and many small are frequently
to be seen, and there is some evidence of fusion — presumably sexual
fusion — between the two forms. An amoeboid stage follows, and
Plasmodia are found in the galls of young seedlings of Alfalfa. Rest-
ing spores are formed in cavities within the tissues of the galls.
The cytoplasmic and nuclear contents of the resting spores in the
dormant condition correspond to those of the plasmodium in the stage
immediately preceding the formation of resting spores. The disease
has only recently appeared in the United States. It has been known
for some time in Europe, and may cause serious loss. A. L. S.

Sexuality in Mucors. — A. F. Blakeslke {Science, 1920, 51,
375-b2 and 403-9). The author makes a survey of the differentiation
of sex based on the results of his researches on JMucors. He discusses
imperfect hybridization, zygospore germination, environmental factors,
mutations, etc. He hopes that the study of Mucors may be of some
service in helping to solve the fundamental problems of sex. A. L. S.

Sexual Differentiation in the Bread Moulds. — A. F. Blakeslee
{Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Medicine, 1919, 16, lol). Blakeslee describes
shortly the sexual organs of the Mucorales : certain sexually primitive
forms are hermaphroditic with equal gametes ; from these forms
differentiation has proceeded towards inequality in the gametes and a
difference in the plants themselves. The male and female races remain
constant, though variations may occur in their sexual vigour. A. L. S.

Occurrence in Britain of the Ascig-erous Stage of a "Brown
Rot" Fungus.— H. Woemald {Ann. Bot, 1921, 35, 125-35, 2 pis.).
The fungus described by the author occurred on mummied plums, on
one such mummy as many as twelve sporophores were formed of the
usual ScUroiinia type ; these formed the apothecial stage of the grey
mould Monilia cinerea so frequently found on plums and cherries.
Culture experiments and inoculation experiments were carried out suc-
cessfully. A. L. S.

Occurrence in Britain of the Conidial Stage of Sclerotinia
Mespili Schell. — H. Wormald {Ann. Applied Biology, 1920, 7, 173-7,
1 pi., 2 figs.). Trees of 3Iespilus germcmica were observed for years to
be suffering from a form of brown rot. The cause was determined as
the Monilia form of Sclerotinia Mespili ; the Sclerotinia stage has now been
found in this country. Leaves, flowers and fruit are attacked by the
fungus. A. L. S.

Pectin Relations of Sclerotinia cinerea. — J. J. Willaman {Bot.
Gaz., 1920, 70, 221-9). In this paper the writer records his observa-
tions on the behaviour of the fungus towards various pectic substances ;
in fruit-juice cultures it coagulates soluble pectin to calcium pectate by
means of the enzyme pectase. When the fungus invades a fruit tissue
it follows the line of the middle lamella, dissolving it out by means of

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 207

the enzyme pectosinas§, and probably precipitating the pectin of the
lamella as calcinm pectate. This latter is strongly hydrophyllic, and
maintains the firmness of the frnit even after rotting, and, as it is an
imbibing " gel," it aids the fnngus in providing water supply. A. L. S.

North American Species of Discina. — F. J. Seaver {Mycolo(jia,
1921, 13, (i7-71, 1 pi.). The genus is distinguished from othev Fezizx
by the wide-spread apothecia and the apiculate spores. The writer
describes four species that have been found in the United States, all of
them also European ; they grow on the ground, mostly in woods.

A. L. S.

New DimorphomyceteaB. — Roland Thaxter {Froc. Amer. Acad.
Arts and Sci., 1920, 55, 211-82). This section of Laboulbeniales
includes those unisexual forms in which the male individual possesses one
or more compound antheridia ; there are four genera, Dimorphomyces,
Dimeromyces, Streblomyces, and Poly and romyces, the last a new genus,
with one species and one variety. The author describes the peculiar
sexual organs of this group. A great many new species are also described.

A. L. S.

Relation of the Health of the Host and other Factors to Infec-
tion of Apium graveoleus by Septoria Apii. — H. E. Thomas {Bull.
Torre.y Bot. Club, 1921, 48, 1-29). The writer discusses the relation
between the condition of the host and parasite, gives a historical
account of the fungus in question, and describes his methods of tackling
the problem — by culture experiments, effect of fertilizers, etc. He has
shown by his experiments that Septoria Apii, though it readily assumes
the saprophytic habit, has become so adapted to its host that it increases
as the host becomes stronger and better nourished, and he found also
that infestation of the host-roots by Nematodes inhibits the growth of
the fungus. Citations are made from workers on other fungi who came
to similar conclusions. A. L. S.

New Species of Phomopsis Parasitic on the Douglas Fir. —
Malcolm Wilson {Trans, and Froc. Bot. Soc. Edin., 1920, 28, 47-9).
Wilson gives here a diagnosis of the new species Fhomopsis Fseudo-
tsugse. It attacks the Douglas fir in two ways — either the leading shoot
is killed back for some distance, or the young tree is attacked a short
distance above the ground level. The pycnidia grow on bark or on the
leaves. They produce three types of spore, or rather spores in three
different stages of development occur in different pycnidia. A. L. S.

New Species of Uredinese. XIII.— J. C. Arthur {Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club, 1921, 48, 31-42). The writer publishes a number of new
species ; he adds also a number of name combioations. He revises the
names of three of his previous genera : Lysospora (a synonym of
Tranzschelia, and now replaced by Lipospora), Telospora (which becomes
Teleutospora), and Dasyspora (which becomes a synonym of Micro-
•puccinia Rostr.). Arthur gives the history of these genera, and the
reasons for alteration. A. L. S.

208 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

New Uredine of the Iberian Flora. — R. G. Fragoso {Bol. R. Soc.
Espan. Hist. Nat, 1920, 20, ;^>09-10). The new species was found by
Professor Caballero on leaves of Lamarckia aiirea near to Barcelona. A
diagnosis is given, and a figure showing the numerous swollen paraphyses,
a characteristic feature of Uredo Lamarckiae ; they surround the sorus,
curving inwards towards the centre. No alternate stage has been dis-
covered. A. L. S.

Observations on the Infection of Crataegus by Gymnosporangium.
—J. F. Adams {Mycologia, 1921, 13, 45-9, 4 figs.). The observations
were made on a shrubbery growth of hawthorns in Pennsylvania ; with
these were also growing Juniper us virginiana, the alternate host of two
species of Gymnosporangium. The infection by G. germinale results in
modified branches and abnormal hypertrophied buds ; partial defoliation
is caused by G. globosum. A list of the hawthorns affected by one or
the other of these rusts is given. A.L S.

Grametophytic Development of Blister Rusts.— J. F. Adams
{Bot. Gas., 1921, 71, 181-7, 4 figs.). The author considers the season
and the manner of growth of pycnidia and eecidia in these rusts. He
finds that there are three types of growth in Peridermium cerebrum.
1. The pycnidia appear in spring ; the following spring the fecidia are
developed ; in the third season pycnidia again appear. 2. The maturity
of the pycnidia precedes the gecidia in adjacent as well as overlying tissue
within a period of about six months. 8. The period of development is
completed within one growing season, the pycnidia preceding the a^cidia
by a varying short period. ' " A. L. S.

Infection Experiments of Pinus Strobus with Cronartium ribicola.
— G. P. Clinton {Report Conn. Agric. Exp. Stat., New Haven, Conn.
(1917-18), 1919, 428-59, 8 pis.). The disease, blister rust, due to this
fungus was first noted in Connecticut in a plantation of three-year-old
seedlings imported from Germany. The alternative host, a Ribes species,
was found to be rusted in 1912, also in Connecticut ; since that date it
has been reported from various localities. In the present paper Clinton
gives results of various culture experiments. He finds that infection of
the "pines takes place in the autumn ; pycnidia and pycnidiospores are
first developed in the spring ; ascidia are formed later. The tecidiospores
are conveyed to Ribes species, and uredo- and teleutosori are formed
during the summer. CHnton has also followed the results of infections
in the injury caused to the leaves, which become yellow and stunted,
and to the stems by producing swelling and discoloration of the tissues.

A. L. S.

Rusts on Ribes. — G. P. Clinton {Report Conn. Agric. Exp. Station,
New Haven, Conn. (1917-1918), 1919, 423-7). The writer examined
plants of Ribes in a number of Herbaria to decide the prevalence of
Ribes rusts. He failed to find evidence of the presence of C'ronartivm
ribicola, but other rusts were detected as not infrequent — jEcidivM
Grossularise was very common, being found on eleven different hosts ;
Coleosporium ribicola, a western rust, has been recorded on five species of

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. 209

Ribe^ from eight different States. Clinton determined it on eight
different hosts. Puccinia Ribis is uncommon with a northern distri-
bution ; in the Herbaria it occurred only once. A. L. S.

Behaviour of Telia of Puccinia graminis in the South. — H. R.
Rosen {MycoJouia, 1921, 13, 111-3). The writer made observations on
the teleutospores of this fungus on Elymus australis with a view to
studying the overwintering of the rust. In the North the alternate
host, the barberry, carries on the infection, but it is of rare occurrence
in the South. Rosen proved from cultures and observations that if the
teleutospores were fully developed they were capable of infecting the
following spring. A. L. S.

Preliminary List of the Uredinales of California. — Walter C.
Blasdale {Univ. Calif. Publications in Botany, 1919, 7, 101-57). In
the present paper the writer sketches previous work done on the group
in California, and gives a short account of the development of the
Uredinales. In the list, which includes 237 species, the genera are
arranged in alphabetical order. Most of the species have been already
described ; a few are new to science. A. L. S.

Rust of Onion followed by a Secondary Parasite.— J. C. Walker
{Phytopathologist, 1921, 11, 87-90, 2 tigs.). The rust, an gecidial stage,
was diagnosed as probably Puccinia Asparagi. The secondary organism
was Botrytis sp. ; it formed lesions round the rust pustules, and finally
girdled the plants. Experiments showed that the fungus gi'ew only as
a secondary organism ; no results followed direct inoculation of the
onion on areas unaffected by the rust. A. L. S.

Early Development of Inocybe.— Gertrude E. Douglas {Bot.
Gaz., 1920, 70, 211-20, 5 pis.). The WTiter found that the basidiocarps
developed from young buttons of fundamental tissue, the stem being
formed by progressive growth of the other tissues later. The gills
developed as in other Agaricacea3 (not of the Amanita type). A. L. S.

Polyporous dryadeus on Conifers in North-West America. — J. R.
Weir {Phytopathologist, 1921, 11, 99). This fungus is the cause of a
well-known heart-rot in various trees, especially oaks and poplars, and
has also been found at the base and on the roots of conifers. Collections
of the funous have been made in a number of States. A. L. S.

'&'

Clitocybe sudorifica as a Poisonous Mushroom. — J. W. Roberts
{Mycologia, 1921, 13, 42-4). The above fungus has been determined
as Clitocybe dealbata ; morphologically it is exactly similar. Specimens
were collected at Washington and were cooked and eaten, with very
alarming results. It has been collected in various localities, and all the
American authorities are agreed in pronouncing it decidedly sudorific
and unwholesome. A. L. S.

New Species of Exobasidium.— J. W. Hotson {Fhytopathol agist,

1921, 11, 106). The fungus attacks the young branches of Vaccinium

jmrvifolium, gaining access by some wound. The stem is slightly hj per-

210 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

trophied, and from the swelling spine-like processes grow out. Other
processes grow out later, and are white with the mycelium of the fungus.
Large basidiospores are formed and are very abundant. A. L. S.

Common Mushrooms of the United States. — Louis C. C. Krieger
{National Geographic Magazine, 1920, 37, 387-439, 16 pis. and figs.).
The author gives a popular account of the more common edible and
poisonous species, illustrated by a beautiful series of photographs and
coloured drawings. The species described are mostly abundant in
Europe as well as in America. A. L. S.

Light-coloured Resupinate Polypores. III. — W. A. Murrill
{Mycologia, 1921, 13, 83-100). The white species of Poria have
already been described by the author ; the present list deals with those
coloured lilac, red, purple, etc. — twenty-six species. A number of them
are new to science. A. L. S.

Genus Tinctoporia.— W. A. Murrill {Mycologia, 1921, 13, 122-8).
The author describes three species belonging to this genus of Polypores.
Two of these, American species, Timtoporia alhocincta and T. graphica,
stain the substratum ; the third, T. fuligo, does not leave any stain ; it
was originally described from Ceylon. A. L. S.

Mycological Notes.— C. G. Lloyd {Cincinnati, Ohio, 1920, N. 64,
985-1029, 16 pis.). .Lloyd gives portraits and short accounts of some
eminent mycologists — George, W. Clinton, Paul Hariot, Rev. L. J.
Grelet and Worthington G. Smith. The fungological notes range over
a wide field, being based on material sent to him from all countries.
Gasteromycetes, Hymenomycetes and Ascomycetes all come under
review, and the rarer specimens are figured and described. Among those
described are many Polyporese^hick were sent to him from Cuba, Africa,
Singapore, Australia, etc. Among other unusual forms he notes two
species of Ptyciiogaster, one from West Africa, the other from Japan.

A. L. S.

Two Species of Fuscoporia. — W. A. Murrill {Mycologia, 1921,
13, 119). Both of the Polypores described are American species, and
were originally placed in Polyporus. A. L. S.

Fermentation Organisms of California Grapes. — W. Y." Cruess
{Univ. Calif. Publications Agric. ScL, 1918, 4, 1-66, 2 pis., 15 figs.).
The author classifies the organisms found on grapes as — (1) budding
fungi, including moulds, true yeasts which form spores, and pseudo-yeasts
which do not form spores ; (2) fission fungi, including bacteria (non-
motile rods), bacilli (motile rods), the various forms of Coccaceaj, and
the fission yeasts. AH of these, except bacilli, Coccaceas and fission
yeasts, were found in California grapes. The various moulds, yeasts,
bacteria, etc., are described, tiie types are figured, and the species
enumerated with notes. Nineteen organisms in all have been studied,
the majority of them harmful in wine-making. The yeasts found on the
grapes should not be relied on for fermentation ; some of the grapes
contained no true wine-yeasts. Moulds occur mostly on the surface,

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC, 211

and they increase in storage. These, with the wild yeasts and bacteria,
can be eliminated by crushing the grapes and adding moderate amounts
of sulphurous acids. Good fermentation should be assured by the use
of pure selected yeast. A. L. S.

Endophytic Fungus of Lolium. Part I. — Ethel McLennan
{Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 1920, 32, 252-301, 9 pis., 8 figs.). The
presence of a fungus in the grains of Lolium has long been known ; the
present writer considers that it is probably a case of symbiosis, somewhat
similar to that of Calluna. In the latter plant the fungus — distinctly
symbiotic — is intra-cellular ; that it is also intra-cellular in Lolium has
now been demonstrated. The growth of the fungus keeps pace with
that of the plant ; the hyphag, however, are mainly restricted to the
growing apex. When the inflorescence is formed, they are abundant at
the base of the carpels, and are present in the embryo-sac at or immedi-
ately after fertilization On the formation of endosperm the

fungus is absorbed as a source of food-supply to the developing embryo.
" The fungus of Lolium perenne was unalile to fix nitrogen in the total
absence of external supplies of combined nitrogen." A. L. S.

New or Noteworthy Porto Rican Fungi. — F. L. Stevens {Bot.
Gaz., 1920, 70, o99-482, 4 figs.). The first species, AnLhostomella
Ehizomorphse B. & V., had been recorded on "coriaceous" leaves,
Stevens has now determined the host plant and gives a full description.
It grows on leaves and excites the tissues to gall-like outgrowths. One
new genus, Trahutiella, was discovered ; it is similar to Trahutia, but
with sixteen spores in the ascus. Several new species or forms are also
described. A. L. S.

Sequence of Fungi and Mycetozoa. — W. T. Elliott and J. B.
Elliott {Jouni. Dot, 1920, 58, 27;'5-4). The writers have kept under
observation an oak branch blown down in 1912. In the autumn of
1913, after lying on the ground in a conifer plantation for twelve
months, it was profusely covered with the black gelatinous ascocarps of
Bulgaria polymorpha. Gorym sarcoides appeared later, then Stereum
hirsutum and other forms. In the autumn of 1919 the first mycetozoon
appeared, a der)se growth of Physarum nutans spreading over an area
of about four square feet. Other fungi continued to develop, and in
July 1920 the second mycetozoon, Stemonitis fusca. The luxuriant
growth of Physarum nutans, with the disappearance of Bulgaria poly-
morpha and Goryne sarcoides, lead the authors to the conclusion that
Physarum must have lived on and exhausted the hyphae of the fungi.

A. L. S.

Some New Hampshire Fungi. — L. 0. Oveeholts {Mycoloyia,
1921, 13, 24-37). Collections in the above district had been made in
1884 by Dr. Farlow, who listed 107 species distributed through 03
genera. Overholt's collection furnished 195 species with about 77
genera, but only about a dozen species are duplicates of those collected
by Dr. Farlow. This is explained by the statement that while the latter
collected the smaller fungi, Overholts gave his attention more particu-
larly to Basidiomycetes. He notes as of special interest a fungus that

212 SUMMARY OF GUERENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

attacked and destroyed the heart-wood of Picea rubefis ; the sporophores
of the fungus were not found. A Hst of the fungi, with locality,
habitat and biological notes, is appended. A. L. 8.

Fungi of the Wilkes Expedition. — William W, Diehl {Myco-
logia, 1912, 13, 38-41). The fungi of the Expedition were named by
Berkeley and Curtis and published — 31 species, 8 of them new to science.
Since that publication they have fallen aside, but search has been made
and a number of specimens, including the types of the new species, have
been found in the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Bureau of Plant
Industry). Diehl publishes a list of the species, marking by an asterisk
those that are preserved in the herbarium. A. L. S.

Deterioration of Cotton in Wet Storag-e. — Nancy Fleming and
Aage Christian Thaysen {Biochemical Journal, 1920, 14, 21-8, 1 pi.).
It was found that cotton kept in store in damp conditions became
brittle and short-fibred, the damage done being often very considerable.
It was found that micro-organisms were responsible for the deteriora-
tion of the fibres, mainly bacteria and a Schizomycete, some form of
Streptothrix. These attack and decompose the cellulose, causing a
sfeneral weakening or a breaking up of the fibres to the condition known
as " fly." ' A. L. S.

New or Unusual Plant Injuries and Diseases found in Con-
necticut, 1916-19.— G. P. Clinton {Conn. Agric. Exp. Stat. Bull.,
1920, 222, 397-482, 24 pis.). The author discusses all diseases and
injuries of economic plants in the State of Connecticut, more especially
those caused by fungi. He gives first an account of two cases of fungus
trouble, not on living plants ; the first of these is dry-rot, which was
gradually destroying the woodwork of a house in the county. The
attack is described and the means used to eradicate the fungus and
prevent its recurrence ; the diseased wood was burnt, the new wood
creosoted where possible, and ventilation provided. The second
instance of trouble was the injury caused to butter by moulds — probably
infected from mouldy cheese. Five different moulds were isolated and
cultured.

The diseases of plants are described under the different hosts
arranged in alphabetical order from Apple to Willow. All forms of
trouble are included in the survey : fungi, soil troubles, smoke, etc.
Tlius under Potato some fourteen different forms of injury are described.
The illustrations are mostly photographic. A. L. S.

Development of Cyathus fascicularis, C. striatus, and Crucibulum
vulgare. -Leva B. Walker {Bet. Gaz., 1920, 70, 1-24, 6 pis., 3 figs.).
Pure cultures of the species were obtained by planting the peridioles on
agar media. Mycelium was transferred to sterile loam, old leaves, etc.,
in flask cultures. Light was necessary for the formation of the fruits
which begin as minute white mycelial knots. Development was followed
of the basidiocarps, the peridioles with their funiculi, and of the
peridium, etc.

All three species were easily grown, but specimens matured only in
Cyathus fascicularis. The mycelia of all are very similar except for

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSGOPY, ETC. 213

slight colour changes ; clamp connexions are abundant, and mycelial
stands are formed. The basidiocarps of Cyathus originate from strands,
while those of Grucilmlum may arise from mycelial strands, dense mats
of hypha3, or from the interior of old peridioles. A. L. S.

Lichens.

Thallus der Kalkflechten. — '^.BkQBM.k^^is {Nova Acta Ahh. Leop.-
Carol. Deutsch. AJmd. Naturf., 1919, 105, 1-80, 4 pis.)- In this paper
the author records results of his examination of a series of lichens living
on or in limestone. One of these, Verrucaria parmigera, is associated
with PJeurococcus algae, the other five species with Chroohpus. Among
the lichens of the latter group the algal threads penetrate along with the
lichen hypha deep down into the limestone in GyaUcta cupularis, G.
cucapsis, and Sagedia hyssophila. In Arthopyrenia saxkola and Acro-
cordia comidea the thallus is more superficial and the penetration is
not so great. Bachmann describes both algse and hyphse, their form,
etc., and their relation to each other. The occurrence of fat-cells is
noted. In other endolithic species {Petractis clausa and Xanthopyrenia
{Arthopyrenia) tichotJ tec io ides) he demonstrates the presence of Glceocapsa
(Xanthocapsa) gonidia. A. L. S.

Microscopical Structure of Lichens. — Egbert Paulson {Journ.
Quek. Micro. Glub, 1920, 14, 8 pp., 1 pL). R. Paulson gives a short
account of the general structure of lichens. He dwells more particularly
on the theories of parasitism and symbiosis. He himself brings forward
new proof of the symbiotic nature of the thallus in the condition of
the gonidia or green cells. These are entirely healthy and normal,
and at certain seasons they multiply very actively by sporulation within
the mother-cell. This condition of sporulation is found in many of our
familiar lichens, the gonidium being a species of Chlorella. In other
lichens are to be found other gonidia, but apparently all are healthy and
capable of increase. A. L. S.

The Lichen as Transmigrant. — ii. H. Church {Journ. Bot., 1921,
59,- 7-13, 40-6). Church presents a further contribution on the
origin of the lichen plant. He gives his views on the development of
the thallus from deteriorating green algte, saved from ultimate decay by
the intrusion into their tissues of minute green alg^e. He traces the
development of the ascocarp, the ascus having been elaborated in the
first place from a unilocular sporangium. He contrasts the perithecia
of lichens with the cystocarps of the Floridete. He considers that the
small ascocarps scattered over the thallus, as in lichens, is more primi-
tive than the large fruiting body of the Pezizee, and he notes in lichens
the suggestion of vestigial sextml organs, such as the trichogyne, etc.,
though he considers that there is no direct connexion between lichens
and Floride^e. He discusses the whole question of symbiosis in the
lichen and in other organisms. The lichen habit, he considers, could
not have been evolved in the open sea, but must be the product of sub-
aerial and transmigrant conditions. The stages of association are
sketched as a sequence of biological factors — {1) Failure of oxygen

214 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

supply in standing pools of sea-water ; (2) competition for substratum
of green intrusive algse ; (3) the greater success of the associated
organisms in subaerial conditions ; (4) the nitrogen problem keeping the
plants impoverished ; and (5) the water problem restricting their growth
to shorter seasonal periods. A. L. S.

New Portuguese Lichens. — Gonqalo Sampaio {Ami. Acad. Foly-
technica do Porto, 1917, 12, 1-4). Diagnoses of seven new species of
crustaceous lichens. A. L. S.

The Sulphur Lichens of Saxon Switzerland. — A. Sghade {Ahh.
Naturio. Ges. " Isis'" Dresden, 1916, 28-44; see also J^ww. Mycol., 1917,
15, 511). The yellow colour of the Sandstone rocks, due to the colour
of the vegetation, has been determined by the author as caused by the
growth chiefly of Lepraria chlorina, to a lesser extent by Biatora lucida
and others. A. L. S.

Lichens of Sardinia, — Giuseppe Colosi {Malpighta, 1919, 28,
458-71). The lichens here listed were collected by the author during
a stay at Cagliari. He gives a list of the places visited. He has added
two new varieties to science — Ramalina capitatavar.sardoasiTid Parmelia
tiliacese var. alba, so designated from the white under-surface. A. L. S.

NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS.

Critical Microscopy : How to get the Best out of the Microscope.
By Alfred C. Coles, M.D., D.Sc, M.E.G.P., F.R.S.E. 1921.
viii + 100 pp. and 3 pis. Published by J. and A. Churchill,
7 Great Marlborough Street, W.l, Price 7s. Qd. net.

Faune de France : L Echinodermes. By Professor E. Koehler. 1921.
210 pp. and 153 figs. Published by Paul Lechevalier, 12 Rue
de Tournon, Paris. Price 25 francs.

Faune de France : IL Oiseaux. By P. Paris. 1921. 474 pp. and
490 figs. Published by Paul Lechevalier, 12 Rue de Tournon,
Paris. Price 40 francs.

Supplement (1918-1920) to the Catalogue of Lewis's Medical and
Scientific Circulating Library, with List of Additions to
March 1921. 68 pp. Price Is. net.

Dictionary of British Scientific Instruments. Issued by the British
Optical Instrument Manufacturers' Association. 1921. xii +
334 pp. Published by Constable and Co., Ltd., London.
Price 21s.

215

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

AN ORDINAEY MEETING

or THE Society was held at 20 Hanover Square, W., on
Wednesday, March 16th, 1921, Professor John Eyre,
President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read, confirmed, and
signed by the President,

The nomination papers were read of five Candidates for Fellowship.

New Fellows : — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows of the
Society : —

Miss Mabel J. McFarlane, B.Sc.

Mr. Harold J. C. Mathews, F.C.S.

Mr. Harold Moore, O.B.E., B.Sc, F.I.C., F.Inst.P.

Mr. Barnard reported that, at a Special Meeting of the Council held
on March 2, it was unanimously resolved : —

1. That the President of the Board of Trade be asked to receive a

Deputation from the Eoyal Microscopical Society in reference to
the proposed Key Industries Bill about to be introduced.

2. That the Deputation consist of the President, the Treasurer, the

Secretaries, and two other Fellows, or such number of these as
may be expedient.

3. That the Deputation be instructed that the Royal Microscopical

Society represents a large number of British scientists who
require for their work the most efficient optical instruments aud
accessories that can be obtained.

4. That in cases where British Manufacturers are not yet in a position

to supply apparatus, similar to or of the same efficiency as that
manufactured elsewhere, it would be a serious handicap to scien-
tific workers if any prohibitive legislation were passed which
would prevent the free use of the most efficient types of instru-
ment, irrespective of its country of origin.

5. That the Royal Microscopical Society is fully conscious of the

necessity of rendering every possible assistance to British Manu-
facturers in the production of an adequate supply of optical glass
and of microscopical appliances of which such glass forms an
essential part, both for purposes of war and of peace. The
Society ventures to suggest that Government support with this
object in view may be best achieved by means of subsidies spread
over a term of years.

216 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

He further reported thafc as a member of a deputation from the
Optical Society which waited upon the Board of Trade on March 8,
he had fully explained the views of the Council of the Royal Micro-
scopical Society to the Board of Trade officials. The Board of Trade
had therefore asked that the proposed deputation from this Society
should not wait upon them unless it was desired to raise any new points.

The President moved the confirmation of the foregoing resolutions.
This was carried with one dissentient.

Exhibits were shown by Dr. Murray, Mr. E. J. Sheppard and Mr.
Whitfield, who were accorded the thanks of the meeting.

Donations were reported from : —
The City of Birmingham —

Metallurgical Specimens.
Mr. C. D. Soar—

A Wilson Pocket Microscope (1702) and Case of
Ivory Mounts.
This instrument is unengraved, but typical of those produced by
Culpeper. It is the pocket form without attachment for handle or
stand ; apparently it is an early model, as the later forms usually had
the under surface of the lens polished, so as to act as a Lieberkuhn.
The accessories accompanying the instrument are three object-glasses,
one box for talcs, one brass slide with glass concavities, and one brass
sHder, with ten ivory sUders in separate sharkskin case.
Mr. J. T. N. Thomas-
Slide of Astromma Aristotelis.
Mr. G. T. Harris—

A Collection of Slides of Alga^.
On the motion of the President, hearty votes of thanks were accorded
to the donors.

Mr. B. K. Johnson (Imperial College of Science and Technology)
read a paper on '• Polarizers for the Microscope."

Mr. John H. Pledge, F.R.M.S., read a paper on " The Use of Light
Filters in Microscopy."

On the motion of the • President, hearty votesi of thanks were
accorded to the authors of the papers.

The President announced that the next meeting would be held on
April 20, and that the Biological Section would meet on April 6, when
Mr. E. J. Sheppard would give a Demonstration on the Microtome.

The business proceedings then terminated.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 217

AN ORDINARY MEETING

OF THE Society was held at No. 20 Hanovee Square, W,, on
Wednesday, April 20th, 1921, Mr. D. J. Scourfield in
the Chair.

The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read, confirmed, and
signed by the Chairman.

The nomination papers were read of four Candidates for Fellowship.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows of the
Society : —

Mr. William R. Chappie.

Mr. Archibald A. Davis.

Mr. E. B. Miller-Williams, F.C.V A., etc.

Mr. Albert Norman.

Professor Gobind Singh Thapar, M.Sc.

A paper by the Rev. J. S. Pratt on " Mr. Fred Enock's Method of
Mounting Heads of Insects without Pressure," was read by Mr. Scour-
field.

Mr. F. Martin Duncan, F.R.P.S.. F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., read a paper
" On the Presence of two Spermathecte in the rare Mole Flea {Hystri-
chopsylla talpse), and the Flea as a Distributor of a Tyroglyphid."

Mr. Henry Crowther, F.R.M.S., read a paper on " A Coal-dust
Explosion as seen through the Microscope."

A paper by Captain Frank Oppenheimer, I. M.S., S.R., M.B., Ch.B.,
F.R.M.S., on "Some Suggestions regarding the Mechanical Design of
Microscopes," was read.

The best thanks of the meeting were accorded to the authors of the
foregoing papers.

The Chairman announced that the Annual Pond-Life Exhibition
would be held on May 18 ; that the Biological Section would meet on
May 4, when Mr. H. G. Cannon would make a communication on
" Some Experiments on Inheritance in Simocephalus vetuhis " ; and that
the Metallurgical Section would meet on May 11, when Mr. George
Patchin would make a communication on " The Application of Micro-
scopy to the Metal Industry."

The business proceedings then terminated.

Q

218 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

AN ORDINARY MEETING

OF THE Society was Held at 20 Hanover Square, W., on
Wednesday, May 18th, 1921, Professor John Eyre, Presi-
dent, IN the Chair.

The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read, confirmed, and
signed by the President.

The nomination papers were read of four candidates for Fellowship.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows : —
Mr. Charles H. Caflfyn.
Professor Ekendranath Ghosh, M.Sc, M.D.
Mr. Alfred Holt, F.C.S.
Professor Sakae Saguchi.
Donations were reported from : —

Messrs, J. and A. Churchill —

" Critical Microscopy." (A. C. Coles.)
M. Paul Lechevalier—

" Faune de France : I. Echinodermes." (R. Koehler.)
On the motion of the President, hearty votes of thanks were
accorded to the donors.

Pond-Life Exhibition. — The President then called upon Mr.
Scourfield to make some observations on the Annual Exhibition of
Microscopic Pond-Life which had been arranged by Fellows of the
Society and Members of the Quekett Microscopical Club.

Mr. Scourfield said that those who had been present at recent Pond-
Life Exhibitions would remember that he insisted again and again upon
the idea that such exhibitions might, and indeed should, have at least
one good effect — namely, that of encouraging the study of pond-life
organisms as living things and not merely as subjects for systematic and
morphological research.

Even limited in this way, however, there were so many problems
arising that it was quite impossible to deal adequately with them all on
any one occasion. Some had been briefly referred to at previous Pond-
Life Exhibitions, as, for example, the characteristic movements of different
fresh-water microscopic organisms, the correlation of their structure to
their mode of life, their colours and patterns, and so on.

The problems so far touched upon, however, had all been such as
could, in the main, be solved by simple direct observational
methods. But there also existed quite a number of biological problems
which demanded more or less experimental methods for their investiga-
tion ; and what he wanted to emphasize that evening was the fact that
many pond-life organisms lent themselves excellently to this experimental
treatment. He proposed therefore to call attention to two or three hues
of experimental work in which pond-life organisms had been used with
considerable success.

There was first of all the cultivation of the organisms under
somewhat abnormal, but, so far as possible, controlled conditions. The
main idea underlying this line of work was of course to discover the
influence of dift'erent elements in the environment, and if possible to throw
light on that very fundamental biological problem, the causes of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 219

variation. Much work had been done in this way, e.g., the cultivation
of diatoms and other algie in or on various media. In connexion
with the cultivation of diatoms the work of Dr. Allen, althouEfh dealina:
with marine forms, was p.irticularly referred to. Dr. Allen found that
in artificial sea- water the diatoms would not thrive, whereas if an extremely
small amount of actual sea-water was added they developed quite readily.
The explanation seemed to be that there was some unknown substance,
probably organic in origin and possibly comparable to the so-called
vitamines, present in ordinary sea-water which was essential to the proper
growth of the diatoms. The same might very well be done for fresh-
water organisms, and it would be very important if this matter could be
further investigated. Another case specially referred to as showing the
effect of particular kinds of food on structure was that of Prof. Agar's
curiously modified forms of Simocephalus, due apparently to their
being reared on a particular species of Oklamydomas.

Another line of experimental work was in connexion with problems
of heredity, and Prof. Agar's results with Daphnia and Simocephalus,
and Prof. Punnett's with Hydatlna, were mentioned in illustration of
this kind of work.

Yet another way in which living pond-life organisms lent themselves
to the expeiimental method was as subjects for intra-vitam staining.
Prof. Fischel's results with Daphnia were quoted as a good illustration
of what might be undertaken in this direction.

xiltogether it was evident that pond-life organisms offered a wide
field for experimental biological work, and it was to be hoped that many
already familiar with particular groups from the systematic and morpho-
logical standpoints would be induced to give some attention to the pos-
sibilities for experimental biological work which such organisms afforded.

Mr. Scourfield then called attention in detail to many of the exhibits,
which he thought were more varied and certainly more numerous than
had been the case for several years past.

On the motion of the President, a hearty vote of thanks was
accorded to the jMembers of the Quekett Microscopical Clul), and to the
Fellows of the Royal Microscopical Society who had kindly exhibited
specimens, and to Mi. Scourfield for his remarks.

The President announced that the next meeting would be held on
June 15 ; that the Biological Section would meet on June 1, when Mr.
F. Martin Duncan would make a communication on " Studies in Insect
Biology " ; that the members of the Biological Section, by the invitation
of the President, would pay a visit to the Bacteriological Laboratories
at Guy's Hospital on June 8 ; and that the Leather Industries Section
would meet on May 25, when Mr, Percy Hampshire would make a
communication on " ' Run ' Pelts in Sweating Process of De-wooling."

The following Objects were exhibited : —
Mr, S, C, Akehurst . . Larva of Gorethra plumicomis, showing air

sacs with polarized light.
Mr. A. J. Bowtell . . Larva of Gnat.

Miss M. H. Brooks, , Stephanoceros eichhornii.

Canon G. R. BuUock-AVebster Nitella mucronata, showing cyclosis.
Mr. C. H. Caflfyn . . Newly hatched hvvee of Tanyjms.

Mr. W. R. Chappie . , Young larva of Corethra plumlcornls.

220

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Mr. F. W. Chipps .

Mr. F. E. Cocks .
Mr. T. N. Cox
Mr. B. S. Curwen .
Mr. E. Cuzner

Mr. F. Martin Duncan
Mr. Gordon Fryer .
Dr. J. B. Gatenby .
Mr. C. E. Heath .
Mr. H. J. Lawrence
Mr. R. Ludford
Mr. A. E. McClure .
Mr. R. H. Marchment
Mr. E. R. Martin .
Mr. E. Maurice
Mr. H. H. Mortimer
Dr. J. A. Murray .
Mr. J. C. Myles .
Mr. E. R. Newmarch
Mr. C. H. Oakden .
Mr. J. M. Offord .

Mr. R. Paulson
Mr. J. Richardson .

Mr. W. Russell
Mr. D. J. Scourfield
Mr. R. S. W. Sears .
Mr. C. J. H. Sidwell

Lophopvs crysUilliiius, also Plumatella sp.
and Frederkella sultana.

Stephanoceros elchhoraii.

Nttella sp., showino- cyclosis.

Polyphemus 'pedicidus.

Laiva of May-Fly ; also Hydra fusca and
Ghara delieatida in fruit.

Hydra vulgaris.

Manotrachda qiiadricornifera.

Culture of Ammha prdteus by Miss M.

Clostermm sp. [Taylor's method.

FUvroslgma attenuatum.

Ciliated Trochosphere of Zimnsea aurku-

. Diatoms^various spp. [laris.

Daphnia pulex.

Mellcerta ringens.

Hydra viridis.

Euglena viridis.

Cyphoderia ampulla.

Hydra viridis.

Hydra vulgaris ; also Cristatella mucedo.

Scaridium longicaudwn.

Encyonema sp., a diatom secreting and
inhabiting a tube.

Prolococcus rufescsns var. sanguineus.

Vaginicola crystallina and Anabsena sp. on
ivv-leaved duckweed.

Chroniatium okeni.

Ley dig ia quadrangular is (male).

Vorticella sp.

Leydigia quadrangular is 9 ; also Sinio-
cephalus vetulus, showing circulation of
amoeboid corpuscles.

Larval Newt, showing circulation of blood.
Ditto ditto

Parasitic stage of a Water-Mite on Nepa

Carchesiuni sp. [^cinerea.

Volvox glflbator ; also Diaptomus castor.

Episiylis sp.

Clathrulina elegans ; also Floscularia tri-
loba and Nitella sp. in fruit.

Young larva of Anopheles plumbeus, one of
the mosquitoes capable of conveying ma-
laria. From tree-holes in Epping Forest.

Larva of May- Fly.

The following preparation was also exhibited : —
Mr. E. J. Sheppard . . Testis of Newt, showing characteristic

chromosomes of the meiotic phase, first
division. Double stained by E. J. Shep-
pard's process described in Journal R.M.S.

Mr. T. G. Smith
Mr. B. J. Thomas
Mr. C. Todd .
Mr. W. R. Traviss
Mr. E. E. Warr
Mr. H. C. Whitfield
Mr. J. Wilson

Mr. C. L. Withycombe

Mr. S. R. Wycherley

JOUENAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

SEPTEMBEE, 1921.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

IX.— SOME ABBE LETTERS.
Eead by Pkofessor Cheshire, C.B.E., F.Inst.P., F.E.M.S.

{June 15, 1921.)
Four Text-Figures.

Introduction.

SOiME time ago, my friend, Mr. Harrison Glew, presented me with
a number of letters (holograph) written by the late Professor Abbe,
and addressed to the eminent English microscopist, John Ware
Stephenson, who was as you know, an honoured Fellow, and at
one time Treasurer, of this Society.

The three letters which I propose to read to you to-night,
although written nearly half a century ago, deal with the Abbe
diffraction theory of microscope vision in such a clear and delight-
ful way, that I suggested to our late President — Mr. Barnard —
that they should be read at one of the Meetings of our Society,
and placed upon record in the Proceedings as a matter of historical
interest. To this suggestion he gave e cordial assent.

Xow these letters were written in December 1876, whilst
Abbe's theory was still hot on the anvil, and in fairness to Abbe,
this fact should be borne in mind. A man deals with his theories
in letters, the publication of which he does not contemplate, with
a freedom of thought and expression which he Avould scarcely
commit himself to in a paper written for a Society. This con-
sideration, however, I think it will be agreed, enhances the interest
of the letters.

I have gone through the letters very carefully, but beyond
correcting a few — singularly few — slips of the pen, and removing

R
256

222 Transactions of the Society,

underlines, the letters are to all intents and purposes presented to
you as written. The various diagrams have been carefully copied
in facsimile for me by my colleague, Mr. B. K. Johnson.

First Leiter.

Jeka,
December 2nd, 1876.

Dear Mr. Stephenson,

Answering your kind letter. I begin with your question
about the diffraction-experiment. The grating in form of alter-
nately long and short lines (fig. 1) gives two sets of diffraction-
spectra, if it is put beneath the objective so that the line a . . . .
is in the middle of the field. The upper part will give a set of
spectra, the distance* of which is double the distance of the spectra
from the lower part, because the lines in the former part have just
half the distances. After adjusting the illuminating flame and
the position of the grating on the stage, you take out the eye-piece
and look down into the tube ; you see now the two sets of spectra,
one after the other, if you bring the pupil of the eye alternately
on the air-image of part A and of part B. The aspect is as
follows (fig. 2). Now you bring in the stop with three holes,
adjusted as in the figure, so that besides the more distant spectra
of both sets, the spectra m and n from B are stopped off, the three
central diffraction pencils of A remaining unaltered. Therefore
the image of part A will appear just as before, because the external
pencils are not necessary for forming an image. But as the effec-
tive pencils from part B now are made identical with those from
part A the image of B will be equal to the image of A ; it has less
brightness only Ijecause there is only half the light passing through
the lines of part B.

You will get just the same effect with two holes (1 and 2) in
the diaphragm, because two different diffraction-pencils are quite
sufficient for forming an image, and two consecutive pencils in
every case give the normal image of the structure.

I found unexpected difficulties in getting the silvered glass in
the right condition of the silver for ruling fine lines, and I was
obliged' to make many trials for that purpose, though formerly
there never occurred any difficulty. From that reason I liave got
such preparations as I showed you only just now : and you will
receive one in the next days, together with a contrivance for
turning the diaphragms above the objective witliout altering the
focus. You will find, on one slide, the grating (fig. 3) mentioned
above, and on both sides of it gratings crossed at right angle and
at the angle of 60° (figs. 4 and 6), just as I used wdien I had the
pleasure to show you the diffraction-experiments. The distance of

* Abbe uses the word "distance " consistently for " distance apart." — F. C.

Some Abhe Letters.

223

the lines on the simple grating is 0*0073 mm. (part A), and
0*0143 mm. (part B). The crossed gratings have two bands of
lines each, one with the distance 0 • 0073 mm., the other band with
O'OllO mm. (2 : 3). Therefore each of those latter preparations
shows three different figures — quadratical and rectangular on the
one, rhombial and rhomboidivial on the other (figs. 4and 6). (The

CL-

/Ibbet's Letter- DEc.a^'^ 1876.

.-^^v^W-^^ y^**^

O O a o o

o

-</W^<tQ^

0

o
o o

.v.-v-,Aa«, (^'^■i^ JSuMfi-^ Fi&.S.

Fi<J. to

^^i1.

silvered and ruled faces of the glasses are cemented together with
balsam).

Those crossed gratings give a diffraction-spectrum in two
dimensions, and you will get a great variety of markings by
stoppng off various parts of it. You will easily command all
these effects if you remember what, in my theory, is the general

224 Transactions of the Society.

principle for explaining them : " any two pencils of light (i.e. two
spectra, the direct image of the flame there included) entering the
objective, give origin to a set of lines, the direction of which forms
a right angle witli the connecting line of the pencils, or spectra,
and the distance of which is (exactly) inverse to the distance of
the spectra (i.e. of corresponding points in them).

For instance, you will get diagonal lines on the quadratical
gratings, the distance of which is in the ratio oi 1 : yj'l narrower
as the distance of the real lines, by excluding (iig. 5) all the spectra
besides [except] a and h, or besides c and d, etc.

On the rhombical field (fig. 6) you will see a set of lines
parallel to the short diagonal, in the same distance as the real
lines, by the spectra (fig. 7) c and h (or a and e, or d and /) — and
another set of lines, parallel to the long diagonal and narrower in
the ratio 1 ; s/o, by the spectra a and d or e and/ — a, s, o.

You will rememljer, that I made the experiments with the
open flame of a petroleum lamp. I took the light from the narrow
side of. the flame, with the concave mirror, in observing the simple
grating, to show the duplication of the lines in part B, with the
two- or three-hole diaphragm, and to show the disappearance of all
the lines, by a single-hole diaphragm which only one pencil admits.
For the experiments with the crossed grating I took the light from
the broad face of the flame (in order to get a nearly circular image)
with the plane mirror, adjusting the distance of the lamp in that
way, that the different spectra appear separated. But 1 observe
that in all these experiments the different aspects of the object will
appear in the same way, if a broader beam of light is applied and
the spectra are superposed — provided that the diaphragms, i.e. the
holes in them, are exactly confoiiu to the distances of correspond-
ing points in the superposed spectra.

The preparation I am about to send you fits best to Zeiss'
Objective aa (ca 1^ in.) which you have got from Mr. Zeiss, or, if
you want, will find at Mr. Baker's shop, 244 High Holborn. But
anv similar lens of 1 in. to lA in. foCus will do as well, if you
adapt the diaphragms to the dimensions of the spectrum produced,
and bring it as near as possible to the back-lens of the system.
For settling the diaphragm, I send a ring with the society-screw,
which is to be screwed bet^^■een the objective and the nose-piece of
your microscope. Within this ring there is another ring, turning
from without by a prominent pin. On the under face of this ring,
which is just above the back-lens, you fix the diaphragms (made
in card-board) by some wax. Turning the diaphragm without
altering the focus will allow to pass at once from the artificial
image to the normal image (and vice versa) which will appear as
soon as the hole (or holes) get such a position as to admit consecu-
tive pencils or spectra, proving in that way that the abnormal
images are not caused by the diaphragms, but only depend on

Some Abbe Letters. 225 '

their positiou relating to tlie diffraction-phenomenon. In using,
with the crossed gratings, a broad beam of ■ light, which tills the
whole aperture of the objective and thereby, by superposition of
the spectra, makes them undiscernable, a diaphragm with a single
hole (slit) (fig. 8) of p p 1 mm. in breadth, gives, by simply turn-
ing it, the several sets of lines one after the other.*

T'rom my point of view the scientific interest of all tliese
experiments is to prove experimentally, what is the summit of my
theory of microscopical vision : that all microscopical images of
fine structures are not direct dioptrical images, such as those of
.the outlines of an object, but are secondary images, produced by
the interference of those pencils of light into which, by diftraction
in the structure, the incident beam of light is resolved — the normal
image of the structure as well as the artificial ones. My theoretical
proof of this assertion is based on the fact, which is a direct con-
sequence of the undulatory theory, that all corresponding points
in the spectra which are formed by the objective (i.e. sucli points
of those spectra which are derived from the same point in the
illuminating face) make their oscillation with equal phase — there-
fore must produce interferences among the rays which from those
points pass to the plane of the dioptrical image. The experimental
proof, in my opinion, is given by the fact which the experiments
mentioned illustrate : that there is no constant relation between
the microscopical image and the structure itself, but only a con-
stant relation between the image and the number and position of
the diffraction pencils, wdiich form the image, different structures
producing identical images, if those dift'raction-pencils are made
equal, and one structure producing different images, if those
diffraction-pencils are made different. My theorems' about the
functions of the aperture, the resolving power of an objective and
the limits of visibility, are directly derived from the doctrine
mentioned above.

You may repeat all the experiments with the rhombical grating
on Pleurosigna ang ulatum and show the most striking aspect of
longitudinal lines and new hexagonal markings on that diatom,
which my theory anticipates. For that experiment your Zeiss'
Immersion No. 1 in the short setting, you have got, is very con-
venient, if you apply the small tube of your binocular-apparatus
for fixing small diaphragms (in tin-foil) above the back lens. If
you bring to focus a good specimen of that diatom — flat and witli
distinct lines — using at first central light in a broad Ijeam, you
will see the diffraction spectrum in the following position within
the margin of the back lens (fig. 9) : a is the central incident 1 )eani
of light, b-f [g ?] the six diffracted beams which alone can be
observed with any objective.

* Every positiou of the diaphragm showing that set of lines which — among
the various possible sets — is at right angle to the direction of the slic.

226 Transactions of the Society.

The three sets of equidistant lines from which the hexagonal
headings of the scale result, correspond in direction and distance
of lines, to the various pairs, which may be formed with consecu-
tive pencils — as is indicated in the figure. Each set of lines can
be produced alone by any pair in which the connecting line is at
right angles to the direction of the lines, for instance the set (1)
by the pairs a and c a and /, h and g, d and e — in bright field or
in dark field. The seven pencils interfering together, give the
common image with the hexagonal markings, which I have calcu-
lated in all its detail as a pure interference -phenomenon, which is
quite independent of the real (quite unknown) structure of the
scale, only depending on the distance and position of the spectra
in relation to the axis. The calculated image is as follows
(fig. 10) : bright spots, representing the maxima of light, and
hexagonal figures around those representing the lines, in which
the interference produces minimum of light. A similar image,
with a somewhat different distribution of light, is, theoretically,
the result of the interference of say three pencils forming a triangle
(as a, b, c — or a, d, e)— as are effective in observing Pleurosiyma
with a dry lens in oblique light — quite in accordance with the
well-known aspect.

Now from the theory above follows that there must be visiljle
in dark field three new sets of lines, bisecting the angles between
the common lines — corresponding to the combinations of the
spectra —

g, c or f, d

i, f „ c, ^

b, d „ g, e

the distance of which must be narrower in the ratio of 1 : a^S :
and three sets of lines coinciding with the common sets — but
narrower in the ratio 1 : 2 — corresponding to the combinations —

b, e

c, f
d, g

The interference of three pencils as

g, c, c or I, d, f

lastly produces a new image with hexagonal markings, the hexagons
with their sides normal ( _L ) to the axis of the scale (not parallel
as in the common image) and smaller in the ratio 1 : \/S — both
combinations the same (dark field, of course).

All those phenomena you may observe in accordance with the
theoretical anticipation — hj stopping off the pencils which are to
be excluded. Most easily you will get the lines which bisect the

Some Ahhc Letters. 227

angles of the common rows, one after the other, and among those
one set parallel to the axis of the scale. For that purpose you
bring the beam of light oblique in the direction of the axis of the
scale, until the pencils h, f (or as well c, e) come nearly to the
diameter of tlie aperture — in order to get as much light as possible
— and stop off a and g. The red [dotted] lines in the figure
indicate the arrangement of the diaphragm.

As to your other question relating to the best position of the
diaphragm in your condenser, the principle for determining is very
simple (fig. 11). Let A be the objective, focussed to the plane E :
B the condenser beneath, D the diaphragm below the condenser.
Now the two systems A and B form together one system which in
every case will produce an image of the diaphragm. If D is out-
side the under focus of the combined system A and B, this image
will be a real and inverse image d, as assumed in the figure. Now
from the nature of optical images, all the rays passing from one
point of the diaphragm D, will cross in one point of the image d.
In your case, where it is necessary that the beams of light from
the different parts of the diaphragm (the different apertures) should
enter into different apertures above the objective, the image d
therefore should coincide with the edge of your prisms. If those
prisms with their lower edge, were exactly in the upper focus of
the objective A, the diaphragm D ought to be in the lower focus of
system B. Now in the higher powers the upper focus always will
be within the lenses : your prisms therefore, will be outside the
focus of A. The diaphragm therefore ought to be within, i.e. above
the lower focus of the condenser B.

I presume that it will not be possible to bring the diaphragm
near enough for getting the coincidence of d with your prisms, but
in every case you will find the best position in the following way
experimentally : you adjust the objective to the plane of the object
and look down into the tube, without eye-piece. In moving the
eye you will observe a parallax between the images of the apertures
in I) and the lower edge of your prisms seen by reflection. The
best position of the diaphragm will be found if the parallax is
brought to the minimum, which is possible with your apparatus.

I hope you will find intelligible my expositions and will
succeed in making all the experiments after having got the prepara-
tion announced. I will be very glad to hear from your results in
those experiments, and I shall take great pleasure in giving you
any further information you should want.

Yours truly,

(Signed) E. Abbe.

228 IVansactions of the Society.

Second Lettee.

Jexa,
2th December, 1876.

Dear Sir,

The preparation which I announced in my former letter
has been sent to your address. I have added one of Mr. Zeiss'
aa-objectives, because Mr. Z. was not sure if you would find such
a lens at Mr. Baker's shop. I wished to save you the trouble of
making the diaphragm, which must be exactly adjusted to the
focal length of the system. If you have used the objective, please
send it to Mr. Baker.

The diaphragms herein are marked with numbers : — No. 1 for
the duplication of the lines ; No. 2 for showing the disappearance
of all the lines if no diffraction pencil is admitted. The broader
slit makes disappear only the narrow part of the group, the smaller
slit both parts.

The same diaphragms serve for showing the secondary lines on
the crossed gratings — one set of lines after the other. The broader
slit fits to the fine groups. No. 3 gives hexagonal markings, alike
to those of Pleuro angulatum on the group [in which the lines are
inclined at 60°], and quadratical markings on the group [lines
crossing at right angles]— the wide aperture for the finer groups.
This effect depends on the stopping-off of all the diffraction pencils
except those which are next to the incident ray. With P. angu-
latum this condition is fulfilled without any artificial help in any
lens, as great as the aperture may be- — in consequence of the great
dispersion of the diffraction pencils.

From this point of view the experiment named is of some
interest. It proves that the markings on that diatom must not
necessarily be the image of a real structure of the same kind :
those markings have their sufficient reason in the admittance of
three (or six) diftraction pencils with exclusion of any other.

No. ,4 produces the same hexagonal markings on the finer
group [of crossed lines] — but only in three distinct positions of
the three holes, relating to the lines — only in those positions, in
which the three holes coincide with three pejicils of the diffraction-
spectrum.

Making the experiments on the crossed lines with a narrow
beam of light (from a distant flame) in order to see the spectra
separated, is somewhat difficult from want of light, by which deep
eye-pieces are excluded. All the experiments are much more
striking, and make no trouble at all, if you resign to see the
spectra and to compare their position with the position of the
holes. You will use now a broad beam of light, filling the apeiture
of the objective. Though the spectra are superposed in this case
and tliough direct rays will pass through all the apertures in every

So7ne Abhe Letters. 229

point, the effect must be the same — from the principle of my
theory. For every single ray in the broad incident pencil is dis-
persed, by diffraction, into separated rays distant one from another
in a definite angle. The image is formed, in every case, by the
interference of those rays, belonging together, i.e. derived from one
incident ray; as on those rays only the vibration is in equal phase.
Now if, by the diaphragm, some ray is stopped off, or admitted, in
one group, the same ray is stopped off, or admitted in every group
— provided the apertures are exactly adjusted. You will do
best to make the experiments at first in this manner, using a
full and strong illumination. All the effects are got by simply
turning the diaphragm.

Hoping you will find pleasure in these experiments,

I remain,

Yours sincerely,

(Signed) E. Abbe.

Third Letter.

Jena,
15th December, 1876.

Dear Sir,

You are too obliging a correspondent, and I am rather
ashamed of your praise. For I myself take pleasure in writing
about my microscopical interests, to a gentleman whom I know to
have a perfect understanding of those things by his mathematical
training — since microscopists in general, have no, or little, under-
standino-.

I add a few remarks which, I hope, will remove a difficulty
you have found in my explanation, perhaps.

In some passages of my letter I distinguish : the pencil of direct
rays and the diffraction-pencils. But this distinction does not
mean any principal difference in the function, or action, of these
rays. From a general point of view, the pencil of direct rays,
transmitted by a lined, or marked object to the microscope, is one
among the diffraction pencils : it is different from the others only
by its greater intensity of light ; but in its action, in the formation
of the images of structured objects, it is quite on the same range
with the others. (The outlines of any object, it is true, are
delineated by the direct rays alone, in l:)right field ; by diffracted
rays only in dark field.)

Therefore in the production of the image of Fleurosigma, with
oblique light, you have at least three active pencils, not two ; the
direct pencil a being the third (fig. 1). The three sets of lines
arise from the three combinations : a, h ; a, c ; and b c — every pair
producing one set, rectangular to the connecting line of correspond-

230

Transactions of the Society.

ing points. The image of P. angulatum, with straight [direct] light,
by an immersion lens, is formed by seven pencils.

As to Pleurosigma, whether there are three sets of lines or two,
the following will state my opinion.

Fi<V 1.

Abbe's Le:tt£R-T>e.c. /5- 187^.

o <3 o o

Fi^.a.

F(^.5

(-jiK-OCo)

rx^ • • • • • «ri • •

'<±^

F/6. f

The diffraction-phenomena, produced by three sets, crossing at
60°, or by two sets, or by isolated apertures of any form, arranged
[as in fig. laj, are not different one from another in the first row
of spectra around the direct pencil. Those diffraction-phenomena
are different only in the more distant spectra, which differ in
position and relative brightness.

Some Abbe Letters. 231

Now, with Fleurosigma, those more distant spectra are not
\dsible by any objective, from the great angular dispersion of the
diffracted rays off the incident ray — owing to the smallness of the
structure. (Those more distant pencils could be visible only in a
medium of considerably higher refractive index than air, or water has.)

The microscopic image, depending on the distance and relative
position of the diffraction pencils, which are effective in the micro-
scope, must be the same for all the different structures, named
above, as far as the first row of spectra is admitted only ; what
you see in that case, either on Pleurosigma or on the gratings, is
the typical image belonging to the inner part of a diffraction-
phenomenon of this kind (fig. 2). Therefore nothing can be
inferred from the microscopic image of P. angulatum, relating to
the detail of the structure. There may be two sets of lines, or
three sets, or isolated apertures in the scale, etc. — in every case
the known images will result.

That rhomboidal apertures, as on the grating [with two sets of
lines inclined at 60°], look as hexagonal fields, is not surprising, if
you consider my theoretical explanation : that the microscopic
images result from the interference of the different diffraction-
pencilswhich enter the microscope (the direct pencil there included).
From this point of view, the real forms of the structure have no
direct relation to the image — only an indirect relation, by deter-
mining the diffraction-phenomenon partially.

The microscopic image, which any structure will show, is the
more similar to the structure, the more all the diffracted light is
admitted to the microscope. The interference of all the diffraction-
pencils, which come from the object, produces a copy of the real
structure, alike to a dioptrical image. This is the keystone of my
theory. From this is to be inferred : the smaller a structure is
(the more dispersed therefore the diffraction-pencils) the less
similar the microscopic image will be, for any aperture of the
objective applied ; and those objects as the fine diatoms, give, with
any lens, only typical images (not copies of the real forms),
because any lens will admit only a few pencils of the diffraction-
phenomenon.

I am sorry not to have in my possession one single copy,
neither German nor English, of my paper, iu which I have stated
more precisely, though very briefly, the consequences of this theory
touching the interpretation of microscopical images. Perhaps it
will be possible to you to lend [borrow ?] the first volume of the
Bristol Naturalists' Society's " Proceedings," Part 2, in which you
will find Mr, Fripp's translation in extenso ; but you should
observe the table of " Errata " which Mr. Fripp has given some
time afterwards, because many sentences in the translation are
quite unintelligible by errata. The abstract which appeared in
the M. jNI. Journal is useless.

232 Transactions of the Societtj.

I add a few remarks about the mathematical side of the theory,
of which I have stated only the point of view in my paper. I
think you will quite understand the principle of my mathematical
deduction by considering the simplest case — one set of equidistant
lines — and observing the following notices : —

(1) Be h the distance of the lines in a microscopical object ;
\ the wave length for one definite colour (Fig. 3) ; be Uq the angle
of incidence, in which a ray meets the grating; U_2, U_i, Uo>
U+i, U+2, the angles formed by the several diffracted rays —2,
— 1, 0, 4-1, +2, the direct ray (0) included. The perpendicular
line taken as zero-direction ; there is

sin 0+2 — sin U + i = sin U + i — sin Uo = sin Uo — sin U_i = -^,

o

in which formula the case of normal incidence is included, of
course. If now the diffracted rays enter a microscope, the sines
of the angles' of any two consecutive rays with the axis of the

microscope have the same difference = -^ .

(2) If an objective is focnssed to the grating (Fig. 4), and if
this objective is perfectly* aplanatic for its focal point, any ray
forming an angle u with the axis below tlie objective is refracted
in such a way, that it will pass the upper (the back) focal-plane
of the lens in a linear distance from the axis

A = / sin u

if/ is the focal-length of the objective (by a theorem enounced by
me and by Mr. Helmholtz). From this theorem (2) in connection
with (1) is to be inferred : the linear distance of the diffraction-
spectra, which appear in tlie back-focal-plane of the objective, is

always = ^-/, if corresponding points in every two consecutive

spectra are considered — independent of the inclination of the
incident rays to the grating. If you go from central light to
oblique light, all the spectra move within the back-plane of the
system, without changing their relative position.

(3) All the rays, which result by diffraction, from one incident
ray, have their oscillations in equal phase, if points are compared
on these rays which are situated in the back-focal plane, where
the spectra are formed as images of the illuminating object ; all
tliose raya therefore most interfere within the plane, where they
meet — that is the plane, where an image of the grating is formed
by the objective (the conjugate focus to the microscopic object).

(4) (Fig. 5). If A be the linear distance of the two interfering
rays in the back-focal-plane, / the distance of the conjugate focus

* "Perfectly aplanatic" means: without spherical aberration not only for
the one point on the axis, but for the points aside the axis too.

Some Abbe Letters. 233

to the object ( = length of tube of the microscope) the maxima
and minima of light, resulting by interference in the plane C,

have a distance 8^ = - . Now if the two rays considered are

\ f
consecutive rays from a grating with the distance S, A = ^-,

o
therefore 8^ = 8 ^ — that is the same distance, in whicli the lines

of the grating would appear in a purely dioptrical image, under
the same circumstances. A, being eliminated from the expression
of 8\ the intervals in the interference-image must be equal for the
different colours ; this image must be achromatic, if the objective
is achromatic (constant for different colours).

If the two rays considered were not consecutive (as in the
experiment with the three-holes- stop), A would have double or
triple the value taken above ; 8^ would be ^, or ^ .... of the
distance, which corresponds to the real distance 8 in a similar
image.

This reasoning shows, that the interference of the diffracted
rays can give a similar image of the structure, but not must.

The want of mathematical exactness in the deduction above
(in 4) arising from the supposition, / infinitely great in relation to
/ and A, is perfectly removed by considering the dioptrical effect
of the microscope in a different manner, which I have stated in
No. VI. of my paper (page 213 in Mr. Fripp's translation).

The theses in (1) and (2) involve the determination of the
limit of visibility, as deduced from the fact, that two pencils must
enter the objective in order to get an image. If vj (Fig. 6) be the
semi-aperture of any objective, and 8 the minimum-distance of
visible lines in an object, there is for purely central illumination :

sin to =

and for the extreme oblique illumination, when the incident ray
touches the margin of the lens on the one side (Fig. 7), the next
diffracted ray on the other side :

2 sin vj = - ; 8 = h -.

6 sm w

as stated on p. 244 of Mr. Fripp's translation. I hope these
remarks will be sufficient to you for getting a clear notion of the
mathematical principles of the theory.

I shall be very glad, if you should like to show the experiments
to the Microscopical Society — especially if you should think it
convenient to produce them not as paradox phenomena but rather

234

Transactions of the Society.

as phenomena illustrating a distinct idea of the functions of the
microscope. For there is no want of optical curiosities among
microscopists ; and I take no interest in bringing forth more of
such. Please make any use of my explanations you like.

With my best regards, I remain,

Yours truly,

(Signed)

E. Abbe.

Note by Professor Cheshire.

By making use of a simple graphical method for determining
the angular distribution of the diffracted beams produced by a
grating, which I have used for many years, but which, so far as I
am aware, has never been published, the proof of the equation for
the resolving power of a microscope can be presented in a simple
and convincing way. The method is as follows : —

2«-^O.S.

/ii. o.s

3^»0.S.

Graphic method of determining the angular dispersion of the
diffracted beams produced by a grating.

. ' Let B be a grating, immersed in a medium of refractive index
n, upon which homogeneous light falls at an angle of incidence a.
With the point of intersection e of the direct ray with the grating
as centre, draw a semicircle with radius equal to unity, and from
the point of intersection of the direct beam with this semicircle

Some Ahhe Letters.

235

drop a perpendicular, and from the foot of this set oft' distances
0 1, 0 2, etc., in both directions, if possible, of the diameter equal

successively to —^, " — ^, etc., where \q is equal to

the

wave-
n.s n.s'

length of the light in air, and s the distance apart of the lines of
the grating. Erect from the points thus determined perpendiculars
intersecting the semicircle. Lines drawn through these inter-
sections from the centre of the circle give the directions of the
first, second, etc., diffracted beam.

Proof. — Draw dotted lines parallel to the incident and first
diffracted rays, making the distance ec = s; then the lines e h and
d c, drawn at right angles to the incident and diffracted rays,
represent respectively an incident and the corresponding diffracted
wave-front, and the retardation (K), which is equal to the wave-
length — for the first order spectrum (and ? for the mth order)

n n

is equal io h c — d e. But & c = 5 . sin a, and d e = s. sin (3, so that
•^ = (sin a — sin j3), but sin a = 0 1 + c 1, and sin /3 = e 1,

E =

71. S

thus finally

and for the mth order

0 =

Xq

n.s

0 m =

m.X-fl
n.s

Q.E.D.

Assuming with Fraunhofer that fine structure cannot be seen
unless the diffracted light produced by such structure is utilized
for producing the image ; and further, assuming with Abbe that

236 Transactions of the Society.

two consecutive beams only are necessary for tins purpose — the
direct beam and one of the two first diffracted beams, for example
— the formula of Abbe connecting the resolving power, say in
lines per inch, with the NA is very simply deduced with the aid
of the preceding diagram as follows : —

Let us suppose that the objective A takes up a cone of light
of semi-apical angle a from a grating B in a medium of refractive
index n. Further suppose that the distance between adjacent
lines — equal to s — and the direction of the incident light, are such
that whilst the direct beam just enters the objective at one end of
a diameter, the first diffracted beam similarly enters at the other
end of the diameter. Then if a circle be drawn with radius equal
to unity and perpendiculars be dropped from the points of inter-
section of the rays considered, with the circle, then the distance
between these two perpendiculars is equal, as shown, to the wave-
length of light in the medium divided l3y the interspace s. Thus
if Xo is the wave-length in air, then the wave-length in the medium

considered will be — , so that the distance in question is equal to

n

n.s

We have

then

sin

2 n.s ■

so that

1 _ 2 ?^ . sin a

s \o

NA

Xo/2

that is, the maximum number of lines per inch resolved with an
objective of given NA, is equal to that NA divided by half the
wave-length in air of the light employed. Thus in the limiting
case, when

a = 90° (sin a = 1) ; n = 1 • 5 ; and Xq = 43000 ^^^^^

- = 2 X 1-5 X 45000 = 135000 (lines per inch)

s

In air n = 1, so that - = 90000 (lines per inch),

O

F. J. C.

Some Abhe Letters. 237

A Note by J. Eheinberg, F.E.M.S.

By Professor Cliesliire's courtesy I have had an opportunity of
perusing the interesting unpublished letters of Abbe to Stephenson
— letters most interesting on account of the light they throw upon
Abbe's views at the time, and on the many controversies which
the Abbe diffraction theory led to.

To rightly appreciate things, we have to try and throw ourselves
back to the time these letters were penned. Abbe was thirty-six
years old ; he had been eight years with Zeiss, and had been
working on the bases of his famous theory for the last few years.
The diffraction theory, or the theory of secondary imaging as they
preferred to call it abroad, which he had evolved, largely as the
result of a series of careful and in many ways startling experi-
ments on Gratings, immediately led to the most important theo-
retical and practical results, and although that theory was frequently
challenged, in its foundations and in its chief and main aspects,
it has stood the test of time, and may, I think, rightly be termed
unassailable.

That, however, is not quite the case with all the deductions
that were made from the theory. Abbe himself drew certain
incorrect inferences from his own theory, notably that the use ot
wide-angled cones of light would not affect the image by yielding
a truer rendering of structure than the use of narrow-angled cones
would give, and Mr. E. M. Nelson did the greatest service to
microscopy by combating this particular opinion, and showing that
that was not so. Also in the early days, when Abbe brought out
his theory, a number of his partisans, who imperfectly understood
the theory, came out with positively fantastic statements — I will
only name one, viz. : that since the images were rendered by the
diffracted beams, in order to obtain the truest image it would
really be best to stop out the central or dioptric beam altogether.

That an idea like this never entered Abbe's mind is clearly
shown, for instance, in the passage of his letter read to-day, in
which he says : —

" In some passages of my letter I distinguish the pencil
of direct rays and the diffraction pencils, but this distinction
does not mean any principal difference in the function or
action of these rays. From a general point of view, the
pencil of direct rays is one among the diffraction pencils.
It is different from the others only by its greater intensity
of light, but in its action in the formation of images of
structural objects it is quite on the same range with the
others."

s

238 Transactions of the Society.

At all events, the main point which I think we want to bear
in mind is that, owing to false deductions which were prevalent
after Abbe brought out his diffraction theory, the theory itself was
largely misunderstood, and led to an inordinate amount of opposi-
tion and controversy.

What does the theory, looked at in a broad way, amount to ?
Abbe has shown that the microscope system is equivalent to a
telescope with an ordinary simple magnifying lens to parallelize
the rays of the object placed in front of it. Abbe then treats the
problems of microscope image formatian in two steps ; he investi-
gates firstlv the nature of the light distribution in the back focal
plane of the objective where the spectra produced by reason of tlie
diffractive action of the object on the light source are formed, and
secondly, he deduces the image of the object formed in the image
plane trom this. The diffraction phenomena "which he is able to
obtain by means of suitable objects, such as gratings in the back
focal plane of the objective, are so simple and striking, and the
results wliich follow from this particular mode of analysing image
formation are so easily demonstrable and lend themselves to so
manv experiments, the interpretation of which would have been
difficult by other means, that they led immediately, as is known,
to far-reaching results. He can, for example, immediately deduce
from this the important fact stated in the letter read this
evening : —

" The microscopic image which any structure will show
is the more similar to the structure the more all the diffracted
light is admitted to the microscope. The interference of all
the diffraction pencils which come from, the ohject produces a
copy of the real structure alike to a dioptrical image. This
is the keystone of my theory."

He goes on to infer from this that the smaller a structure is,
the more dispersed therefore the diffracted pencils, the less similar
the microscopic image will be, because the objective will admit
fewer of these pencils.

There is nothing in this theory which necessarily clashes with
any other well-grounded theory of the action of image formation by
optical instruments. I refer to the methods of Airey and Eayleigh,
for example. Long ago I tried to show that a common basis under-
lies all the theories of microscopic vision, and Professor Conrady,
who has gone into the matter of the Abbe theory deeply, has
sufficiently shown in his able papers how it suffices to cover all
the results which we obtain by observation, no matter whether we
use wide-angled cones of illumination, or narrow-angled cones, or
indeed any method of illumination which we please.

It is interesting to note on the subject of wide cones of light
that Abbe himself says in one of these letters : —

Some Ahhe Letters, 239

" ^wt I observe that in all these experiments the different
aspects of the object will appear in the same way, if a broader
beam of light is applied and the spectra are superposed, pro-
vided that the diaphragms, i.e. the holes in them, are exactly
conform to the distances of corresponding points in the
superposed spectra."

I think we may account for at least some of the difficulties
which people have had in following Abbe's theories by the fact
that his English was not always of the best, and his critics were
not always quite conversant with German. As a little illustra-
tion : What ought we to say to tlie amusing passage in the letter
this evening :—

" Since microscopists in general have no, or little, under-
standing " ?

'o

That certainly seems a trifle hard on the poor community of
microscopists, but if we turn it back into German* and read it in
connexion with the context we find it only means that they have
not in general a sufficient grasp of physical and mathematical
optics — a complaint which I am afraid we must put up with.

I will only refer to two more passages of interest in the letters
to Stephenson. One of them in which he says : —

" The outlines of any object are delineated by the direct
rays alone in bright field, by diffracted rays only in dark
field,"

is the sort of thing which is liable to give rise to a misconception,
which I believe actually took place at the time, viz. : that the
image formation of outline and structure of an object was produced
by a different species of mechanism of the light-waves. What of
course Abbe actually refers to is the fact that in ordinary or bright
field illumination, as he calls it, the direct rays to the exclusion of
the diffracted rays, suffice for the general, if somewhat hazy, out-
line of an object to be visible. In dark ground (or as he calls it
dark field) illumination he points out that the outline of an object
is seen by diffracted pencils only ; that of course becomes self-
evident when we bear in mind that dark ground illumination only
arises when the direct or dioptric beam does not enter tlie
objective.

The last point in the letters which I will call attention to is
the interesting passage saying he will be glad if Mr. Stephenson
showed some of his experiments, not " as paradox plienomena,"
but as phenomena illustrating a distinct idea of the functions of
the microscope, and again where he emphasizes that the scientific

[* The three letters read were written by Abbe in English. — F.J.C.]

s 2

240 Transactions of the Society.

interest of all these experiments lies in the experimental proof of
what he calls the summit of his theory of microscopical vision,
viz. : that all microscopical images of fine structures are not direct
dioptrical images, but secondary images produced by the inter-
ference of pencils into which, by diffraction in the structure, the
incident beam of light is resolved.

241

X.— THE TECHNIQUE OF CULTURING
AMCEBA PEOTEUS.*

By Monica Taylor, S.X.D., D.Sc, and Catherine Hayes, S.KD.
(Communicated by Professor J. Bronte Gatenby, F.E.M.S.)

(Read June 15, 1921.)

The desirability of placing our experience of four years' successful
work in some permanent and easily accessible form has been
insistently emphasized by our reception of many letters asking
for cultures, or for advice on the method of starting these, and
maintaining them under varying conditions. Hence this ISTote,
in which w§ have also endeavoured to give (in the subdivision,
" Some Exigeucies and How to Meet Them ") a general answer to
the questions most commonly asked of us in connexion with the
Technique of Culturing Anueba ])roteus.

For convenience of reference we give at the outset, in a some-
what tabular form, the following list of what is requii-ed for the
cultures : —

Glass vessels, rectangular (about 8 in. by 6 in. by 4 in.) or
cylindrical (diameter 8 in., height 4 in.) ; glass covers for these.

A supply of boiled wheat grains (boiled to kill the embryo,
which might otherwise germinate) ; 22 grains to a litre of liquid
is a rough estimate of the amount of wheat required.

A Zeiss binocular microscope, or a dissecting microscope, or a
mounted lens.

Boiled rain water, if the tap water is inimical. The cultures
thrive best near a window at a temperature of 54° F. to 60° F.

Establishment of a Culture.

With regard to the establishment of a new culture, the quickest
method for us, where our cultures have been thriving steadily for
years, is, obviously, to sub-divide an already existing one. When
despatching such a sub-culture to another laboratory we find that
the following instructions have proved of use to the recipient, who
in most cases has been successful in establishing permanent sup-
plies : — " Add three or four times its volume of water to the
enclosed quantity of the original, and a supply of wheat, this latter
to be regulated by the bulk of the culture.

* The species dealt with is A. proteiis Pallas (Leidy). See Literature List.

242 Transactions of the, Society.

" An addition of new wheat should be made every one or two
months. There must be an abundance of nageUate, and ciliate
life in a thriving amoeba culture. This is supported by the
decomposing wheat which feeds the countless bacterial and other
lowly organisms requisite for its upkeep.

" Other substitutes for wheat can be used successfully, e.g.
putrefying organic matter of any description provided it be
sufficiently diluted, but the wheat is easy to obtain, and the
quantities are easily gauged."

These instructions would be useful similarly to anyone desirous
of making laboratory cultures, and who is in the position of having
discovered a good yielding source of amoebae, or who can obtain an
initial supply from a dealer. Ordinarily it is a much more lengthy
business to establish a luxuriant laboratory culture from natural
sources. Indeed the process may occupy a whole year, unless
particularly good habitats be discovered, and these are rare, for
although A. proteus is of almost universal occurrence, it is seldom
that the combination of circumstances necessary for the production
of a good supply is found in nature. Moreover there are great
fluctuations in the yield from well-favoured sources.

Amoeba? are most likely to be found in places where a con-
tinuous supply of deca}'ing organic matter is being constantly
brought by the currents of water to a more or less sheltered place,
provided of course that this is not already over-run by animal
rivals of the amoeba. In addition to those enumerated below, fish
and frog tadpoles are inimical.

A pond containing much organic debris, and not inhabited by
amoeba enemies, may sometimes yield a good supply — especially of
the diatom-eating strain [i.e. A. protcus (Penard 19U2), A. dubia
(Schaeffei-), A. jjroteus (X. Carter)].

In searching the gatherings the binocular microscope is useful.
From the beginning the would-be culturer should accustom himself
to surveying rapidly a large" quantity of material under the low
power, or under a mounted lens, over a dark background, when
the amoebae stand out as irregular whitish specks. Where they
are scarce they are likely to be overlooked if sought by means of
a higher magnification. The task of discovering the amcebse is
made easier if the material to be examined be placed under a
gently dripping tap for a week or more. The device of adding
wheat water to a prospective source and allowing the whole to
stand for some time is also helpful.

Having then found some specimens the laboratory culture is
made by picking out the amceba? with a fine pipette, and putting
them into a test-tube containing one or two wheat grains, and the
necessary water. If the specimens are scarce they may be added
as they ^urn up. Other organisms are necessarily carried over in
this i^rocess ; the minute plants and filamentous algse oxygenate

The Technique of Culturinq Amoeba protcus. 243

the water. When the test-tube culture is well established, the
contents may be transferred to a larger vessel,* but more than one
attempt may have to be made before success is obtained. It is
unwise, however, to reject as useless any culture started in this
way until it has been given a year's trial, as it frequently happens
(especially if the inoculation be made in the summer or autumn,
when they are most plentiful) that the amceba? proceed to
" encyst," and signs of success may not be evident for six or nine
months.

The somewhat tedious method described above, especially if
the amoebai be derived from a variety of sources, results in the
formation of a steady culture. If, in addition, the culture has been
reinoculated at different times of the year, the resulting lahoratory
culture ivill possess the advantage of yielding continuous sujjplies
throughout the season, an advantage not possessed by a successful
culture derived from one gathering only. Such a culture will be
dormant during regularly recurring periods.

Another method of culturing out the amoebse from a natural
source is to collect water- weeds and debris from a likely place, e.g.
ditches, slow-running streams, ponds, etc., in autunm, and to store
these in a quantity of water during the winter. As the weeds die
down they give rise to an abundance of life. Eventually a mass
of debris is formed which may yield amoebae without further
treatment, or which, when added to fresh water and wheat,
eventually yields sufficient to start a laboratory culture. It is
often necessary to sub-culture from this, by the methods already
described, to get rid of oligochsete and other pests which are likely
to be present also.

Some Exigencies and How to Meet Them.

1. The wheat may be largely used up to produce a too luxuriant
algal growth. In this case it is well to start a new culture
carrying oif as many amoebse as possible, discarding the algaB.

2. From time to time it is a good plan gently to pour off the
top water from a culture and to add fresh aerated water. Where
it is safe to use tap water the culture may from time to time be
placed under a dripping tap. This revives the amoeba?. Theo-
retically the green weeds ought to oxygenate the water, but prac-
tically, on account no doubt of various metabolic products, the
cultures, even when well (stocked with green algte, are wonderfully
revived by a change of water.

3. Oscillaria of various species are troublesome. Where they
cannot be removed the culture should be frequently well stirred.

4. Hydra, especially Hydra vulgaris, is useful in keeping
down crustaceans, if they be present.

* See list of things required.

244 Transactions of the Society.

5. Ostracods quickly produce a " desert." When tliey appear
it is time to sub-culture.

6. We have discovered uo satisfactory method of keeping down
oligochffites except to sub-culture. They are very troublesome.

7. Except under artificial control the amoebae are scarce and
very small during the spring months of the year.

The following Literature List may be of use for reference : —

For a full discussion on the nomenclature of A.-2)roteus the
reader is referred to —

1. Note on the Specific and other Characters of A. protcus Pallas
(Lcidy), A. discoides spec, nov., A. duhis spec, nov., by A. A. Schaeffer,
Arch, tiir Protistenkunde, Siebeiiunddreissigster, Band 1916.

2. Some Ohscrvations on A. p>''''Jtc^'-s, by L. A Carter, S.X.D.,
Proc. Eoyal Phys. Soc, Edin., Vol. XX. Part 4.

Other references to culture methods —

1. A Method of Ohtaining a Supply of Protozoa, by J. B. Parker,
Science, N.S., Vol. XLIL Xo. 1090, p'. 727 (1915).

2. Journ. Exp. Zool., Vol. XXIV, No. 1, by Libbie H. Hyman.

3. Journ. Exp. Zool., Vol. XX, Xo. 4, by Asa A. Schaeffer.

4. Siipplics of Amcelm proteus for Laboratories, h\ J. Graham
Kerr, Nature, No. 2557, Vol. 102.

5. Proc. Eoyal Phys. Soc, Edin., Vol. XX, Part 4, by Monica
Taylor.

6. Aquarinrn Culitcres for Biological Teaching, bv Monica
Taylor, Nature, No. 2634, Vol. 105, p. 232.

245

XI.— ON THE PEESENCE OE TWO SPEEMATHECx^ IN
THE EAEE MOLE FLEA (HYSTEICHOPSYLLA
TALP^), AND THE FLEA AS DISTEIBUTOE
OF A TYEOGLYPHID.

By F. Maktin Duncan, F.E.M.S., F.E.P.S., F.Z.S.

One Plate and Theee Text-Figures.

(Read April 20, 1921.)

HystrichopsyJla talpie is one of the largest known fleas. It is
found parasitic on the mole, occasionally on field voles, but is by
no means a common insect on either host, and presents several
points of interest. Externally this flea presents a remarkable
appearance, for it has a denser covering of spines and bristles than
is found on any other species. The colour of both sexes is a fine
chestnut brown, and the males average 3-5 mm. in length, while
females attain a length of 5 to nearly 6 mm.

Curtis first described this flea (British Entomology, vii. p. 114)
in 1826, from a specimen taken by Dr. Leach in Battersea Fields,
and called it Fulcx talpse. This specimen, I believe, is still to be
seen in the National Collection at the British Museum (Natural
History), South Kensington. Eitsema found it in the nests of tlie
bee Boriibus subterranevs, and described it under the name Pvh.r,
ohtusiceps. As field voles are known to rob the nests of this bee,
it is probable that ihe fleas are carried there by these rodents.
Species of Hystriclioi^sylla are recorded from various parts of tlie
world ; H. dipiyici Eothschild having been obtained from British
Columbia and Alberta, the hosts being Pittorius loagicmulatus and
Lutreola cnergumenos. In Italy and Switzerland H. narhili has
been recorded as being found on Microtns nivalis ;. while from
Eome H. tripectinata tirahoschi is recorded as having been found
on the common mouse {Mus muscuh(s). Lastly, IT. talpc'e, the
subject of the present note, is recorded from Great Britain, Sweden,
Holland, Germany, Belgium, and France, on the common mole
and field vole.

Although the general external characteristics of Ily.strichojJSi/Ua
talptm have been described by several authors, its internal anatomy
does not appear to have received the same attention, hence the
reason for what must be considered a very remarkable and im-
portant feature having apparently been so long overlooked. Some
little time ago, a fine female soecimen of this flea came into mv
possession, and on examining it under the microscope with an

246

Transactions of the Society.

8 mm. objective I was greatly surprised and interested to find
that instead of one Receptacidum seminis, two were present. As
in all the published descriptions of this flea, where there is any

Head, 1st and 2nd legs, from below.

Ventral surface.

•>o^^^

Sucker-plate and anus.

reference at all to the reproductive organs, only one spermatheca
is mentioned, I was disposed to consider this as an abnoi-mal
specimen. I have, however, been able recently to examine
two or three more female specimens, including one belonging to

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC, 1921. Pi. VI.

Lower Part of Abdomen showing the Hypopial Nymphs

AND SPBRMATHEG^i;.

Hystrichopsylla Talp^ 9

Face p. 246

The Presence of Two Spermathecce in the Bare Mole Flea. 247

my friend Mr. Bacot, of the Lister Institute, and in all I have
found that two spermatheccB were present. As the shape of the
spermatheca varies in different species of the Siphonaptera, and
has sometimes been used as a point of distinction, it seems curious
that the presence of a pair should apparently have escaped notice.

A point of considerable biological interest in connexion with
H. talpse, which also seems hitherto unrecorded, is that this flea
occasionally acts as host for the hypopial nymphs of one of the
Tyroghj-phidse. One of my specimens has a number clinging to
the abdomen. There are three or four genera of these minute
mites which infest bees, and also at least three that are found on
the mole. Michael has described the complete life-history of two
out of the three found on the mole, but the hypopial nymphs do
not resemble those seen on this Ilea. Indeed, I have been unable to
find a figure or description in either Michael or Bank's works that
quite resembles these specimens, though I think they are near some
of the genera found in the nests of bees, perhaps near Ghjcyphagus
dispar.

As the hypopial nymph is the stage in the life-history of the
TjjroglyphidR', at which they are dispersed abroad, it is probable
that H. talpx acts as the natural distributor for this species, for not
only has this flea been taken in the nests of bumble bees, as well
as upon its regular hosts the mole a^d field vole, but the vole is a
regular visitor to and robber of the bees' nests. The larvse and
ordinary nymphs of these Tyroglyphid mites generally resemble
the adult in appearance, but hypopial or travelling nymphs often
exist, and these are quite different, having well-developed al)doniinal
suckers by means of which they cling to their temporary host.
They cannot be termed true parasites at this stage of their life-
history, for they are incapable of absorbing nourishment, the mouth-
parts not being fully developed.

J. G. Tatem, in the Monthly Microscopical Journal for 1872,
mentions having found a mite on a flea, but does not state if the
flea was found on a mammal or a bird, nor does he give any
description of the mite, though proposing the name Acarcllus
p^dicis for it. His rough drawing is obviously that of the hypopial
stage of a Tyroglyphid.

BiBLIOGKAPHY.

Curtis. — British Entomology, vii. p. 114 (1826).

Walkek. — Insecta Britannica, Diptera III., p. 4 (1851-6).

Taschenberg.— Die Flohe, p. 83 (1880).

Baker.— Eevision of American Siphonaptera, in Proc. U.S. National Mus.,

xxvii. (1904), pp. 364-469; xxix. (1905), pp. 121-70.

Canadian Entomologist, xxvii. (1905), p. 186,

Rothschild. — Entomologist's Eecorcl and Journ. of Variation, xii. (1900),

p. 257.

248

XII.— NEW HYPOTRICHOUS INFUSOEIA FEOM

CALCUTTA.

By Ekendeanath GtHOsh, M.D., M.Sc, F.E.M.S., Professor of
Biology, ]\Iedical College, Calcutta.

(Bead June 15, 1921.)
Two Text-Figures.

1. Balladinopsis nuda g. et sp. n., fig. 1.

The body is rigid and elliptical, somewhat narrow anteriorly, and
rounded and wide posteriorly. The dorsal surface is convex. The
ventral surface is slightly convex. The peristome is narrow and
extends along the entire anterior margin and the anterior one-third
of the left side ; it then curves inwards nearly to the median line,
reaching the junction of the anterior two-thirds and posterior oue-

/ f .

.,\^

./

^

/

Y

■yr

^'

Fig. 1.

third of the body-length. The membranelles are long and
numerous ; the first five menibranelles are stout and gradually
increase in length, while the last few gradually decrease in length.
The ventral cirri are three in number and are placed in an oblique
longitudinal row parallel to and near the right peristomial margin
anterior to the middle of the body-length. The anal ciiTi are long,
five in number, and are placed a little in front of and protruding

Neto Hifpotrichous Infusoria from Calcutta. 249

beyond the posterior margin ; three on the left side are arranged in
an oblique, and two on the right side in a transverse row. The
marginal cirri are long, and arise from the ventral surface just
inside the lateral margin ; those on the right side extend along the
entire margin, while those on the left side extend from the middle
and stop short of the posterior end. The macronuclei are two and
oval in shape, each with a micronucleus ; the anterior one is placed
anteriorly, while the posterior one is placed just behind the middle
of the body. One contractile vacuole is placed in the middle of
the body and near the right lateral margin. Lt. 0'063 mm. Br.
0-02 mm.

The animalcules were found in large numbers in vegetable
infusion.

The present animalcule undoubtedly belongs to the sub-family
Psilotrichinfe, in having a small body and in the great reduction
and irregular arrangement in the number of and irregular arrange-
ment of the cirri.

It resembles the two S]iecies of Balladina Kowalewski, in
having a rigid body, in elongated marginal cirri, in the absence of
frontal cirri, in the number and arrangement of anal cirri, in the
somewhat elongated membranelles, in the number of macro- and
micronuclei, and in having a single contractile vacuole. It, how-
euer, differs from them, B.parvula Kowalewski (Biol. Centralb., Bd.
Ill, 1883), and B. dongata Roux (Rev. Suisse Zool., T. VI, 1899),
in the absence of a single row of ventral cirri, not differentiated
into frontal and abdominal, and extending from near the anterior
end of the body to the anal cirri parallel to and at a little distance
from the right lateral margin (an important characteristic of the
genus Balladina), and in the absence of bristles on the dorsal
surface.

Aspidiscopsis hengalensis g. et sp. n., fig. 2.

The body is broadly ovate, narrow and tapering to a rounded
end in front, and broadly and obliquely subtruncate behind. The
riglit margin is evenly convex. The left margin presents a shallow
notch just behind the anterior end, but is uniformly convex behind
the notch. The notch is produced into a groove on the ventral
aspect. The dorsal surface is convex and presents six or seven
longitudinal ribs. The peristome is an obliquely crescentic area
occupying the posterio-lateral portion of the ventral surface abut-
ting on the left margin and extending about half its length.
There are about eight membranelles in the peristome. The frontal
cirri are four in number and are placed just in front of the notch.
The abdominal cirri are five in number. Of the first two cirri, one
is placed behind the notch and the other further behind and
median wise ; the next two are stout and lie side by side ; the fifth

250 Transactions of the Society.

one is placed behind the last two and on the left side. The anal
cirri are five in number. The four cirri on the right are long, stout
and are placed side by side ; the single one on the left is the
smallest of all, and is placed on the right side of the peristome,
being separated from others by an interval. The contractile
vacuole is posterior. The macrouucleus is bandlike, curved like a
bow, and is placed obliquely to the left of the median line. Lt.
0 0214 mm. Br. 0-016 mm.

Pig. 2.

Numerous animalcules were observed in the pond water kept
in the laboratory for a few days. They were brisk and capable of
rapid movements.

The presence of a small peristome at the posterior end of the
body and the absence of marginal cirri are sufficient characteristics
for referring the present infusorian to the family Aspidiscidse.

It differs from the only known genus of the family Aspidiscidee,
Ehrbg., in the presence of a row of frontal cirri, well-differentiated
from abdominal cirri.

251

XIII.~A GEEGAEINE PARASITE OF THE EARTHWORM.
By M. T. Denne, O.B.E., A.Inst.P., E.R.M.S.

(Bead June 15, 1921.)

I WAS led to clioose Monocystis agilis as the subject of tins paper
because its life-history has not yet been fully worked out, while
the further work necessary to complete our knowledge of this form
lies not so much in the application of the usual methods of in-
vestigation into structure and function, as in the direction of
experiments to determine the method of conveyance to new hosts,
coupled with the systematic breeding of the worms, and it is hoped
that this note will draw attention to the fact and result in the
work being taken up,

Monocystis agilis, the spore of which has not been observed
outside the sporocyst, first appears as a minute amoeboid tropho-
zoite in the seminal vesicles of the worm, embedded in a cell of
the sperm elements. In growing it leaves the cell and moves
freely in the contents of the vesicle, taking in food material by
absorption through its epidermis.

In this stage it consists of an elongated sac with a zone of
ectoplasm divided into three layers, the inner being contractile.
Its endoplasm is granular, with food material stored in reserve for
the reproductive process.

The association of two trophozoites may be abortive, but
generally results in spore formation, commencing with encystment
of the two individuals. No sexual union occurs at this stage, but
the nucleus of each commences to divide, the resultant daughter
nuclei being peripherally disposed, until a large number are present,
all arranged immediately beneath the surface of the cyst.

As has been observed by Brasil, there is now a small difference
observable between the gametes of the two associates, one group
being smaller than the other, and containing more darkly staining
material.

True sexual unions now take place, and the resultant zygotes
gradually assume the form of the mature sporocyst. During this
growth the nucleus divides to produce eight elongated spores with
extremely fine pointed ends in wdiich the darkly staining elements
are collected at one end, leaving the remainder clear, but slightly
granular with cytoplasm, very faintly stained. The eight sporo-
zoites are arranged in two groups of four in the cyst, which has
meanwhile developed a strong resistant envelope and taken its

252 Transactions of the Society.

final shape. The envelope consists of a comparatively thick
exterior shell in which is a delicate sac thickened at the ends,
loose in the envelope, and containing the sporozoites embedded in
granular cytoplasm.

The sporocysts remain in the vesicles during the life of the
worm, when they may reach the soil or may be eaten with the
host by a bird, but nothing is accurately known as to the subsequent
history.

Seminal vesicles were dissected out in normal salt solution,
fixed in picro-formol (Bouin), cut in paraffin at 4 jx, stained in iron-
alum-h?ematoxylin, Heidenhain, and mounted in Gilson's euparal.

An adaptation of Apathy's chloroform embedding method was
used to minimize shrinkage, in which the transference from chloro-
form to paraffin was very gradual, while the staining bath was
prolonged to 7-14 days. It was then found possible to differentiate
as usual in iron-alum, leaving the cyst walls nearly colourless,
while the contents were darkly stained.

253

I

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

EBDATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

f PRINCIPALLY INVERTEBRATA AND CRYPTOGAMIA),

MICEOSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Em'bryolog'y, Evolution, Heredity, Reproduction,

and Allied Subjects.

G-erm-cells of Brook Lamprey. — Peter Okkelberg {Journ.
Morphol, 1921, 35, 1-151, 12 pis., 4 figs.). In the American Brook
Lamprey {Entosphe/ms irilderi) the germ- cells are segregated very early
in the life of the animal, even before the germinal layers are definitely
established. They are first recognizable when the mesoderm separates
from the endoderm. The definitive germ-cells take their origin from
no other source than the primordial germ-cells, and the germ-cells take
no part in the formation of somatic structures. Numerous germ-cells
are produced which do not become functional. These degenerate and
disappear during the process of development. The germ-cells of each
gonad are usually of two kinds, those showing a tendency toward rapid
division (katabolic) and those showing a tendency for growth (anabolic).
The former are regarded as having a male, the latter a female potentiality.
The relative proportion of anabolic and katabolic cells determines
whether the larva becomes a male or a female individual. Observations
seem to warrant the conclusion that each larva of this species carries the
potentiality of both sexes, and that sex, therefore, is not irrevocably
fixed at fertilization. J. A. T.

Osmotic Pressure and Egg-membrane in Salmonidae. — J.

RuNNSTROM {Ada Zoologica, 1920, 1, 321-36). Unhke the eggs of the

* The Society does not hold itself responsible for the views of the authors
of the papers abstracted. The object of this part of the Journal is to present
a summary of the papers as actually publislied, and to describe and illustrate
Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have not been previously
described in this country.

T

254 SUMMAEY OF CUREENT EESEARCHES RELATING TO

frog, those of Sahno and Osmeriis develop iu a physiological salt solution
isotonic with the adult animal. Oviducal eggs of Sahno have the same
osmotic pressure as the blood of the adult. Fertilized eggs have an
osmotic pressure only a little lower than that of the oviducal eggs. An
isotonic salt solution greatly delays the disorganization of the cell-plasm
which occurs in fresh water. A thickening of the egg-membrane occurs
after contact with fresli water or distilled water. This does not occur in
Ringer's solution. In Einger's solution the eggs retain for at least three
days their capacity of being fertilized. The principal planes of the
embryo are pre-determined in the unfertilized egg. The larvae of
S. salvelinus are permeable for potassium chloride. The egg-membrane
greatly slows the diffusion of electrolytes. J. A. T.

Transplantation of Limbs in Amblystoma. — Ross G. Harrison
{Journ. Exper. Zool, 1921, 32, 1-136, 136 figs.). Experiments with
the fore-limb bud of Amblystoma punctatum, transplanted in various
ways. In various stages of development the transplanted buds grow
out in the direction of what was originally the posterior pole of the antero-
posterior axis. The asymmetry of the new limb is determined by two
factors, the polarization of the antero-posterior axis of the limb-bud, and
the orientation of the limb-bud with respect to the dorso-ventral polariza-
tion of its organic environment. Duplex and multiplex limbs frequently
arise from the transplanted buds. Limbs placed in abnormal places,
where the specific blood and nerve supply is lacking, are frequently
resorbed or are functionless or imperfectly functional if they do develop.
There are some regulative phenomena. The limb-bud is an equi-
potential system. Except for the circumstance that the dorso-ventral
differentiation of the limb-bud is a function of the orientation of the
bud with respect to its organic environment, the limb-bud is a highly
specific self -differentiating system. Its definitive form must, therefore,
be represented in the organic elements (intimate structure) of the limb
rudiment. One quality of these elements is their polarization. The
transplanted limbs show both regulation of form and functional adapta-
tion, but these do not necessarily go hand in hand. J. A. T.

Influence of Nerve on Taste-cells and Regeneration in Amiurus.
—J. M. D. Olmsted {Journ. Exper. Zool, 1020, 31, 369-401, 4 pis.).
The taste buds on the barbels of this fish are composed of one kind of
cell, sense-cells, between which lie nerve fibres. The small leucocytes
and larger wandering pigment cells included in the buds are different
stages of the same phagocytic cell, which is extruded from the surface of
the skin when filled with waste material. Within eleven to thirteen days
after cutting the branches of the seventh nerve leading bo the barbels, the
taste buds disappear. They degenerate, are phagocytized, and replaced
by indifferent epithelial cells. About the eighteenth day the nerve
begins to regenerate at the base of the barbel ; the taste buds begin to
reappear ; by the end of forty days the restoration is complete. New
barbels regenerate where old ones are removed, and become fully
equipped with taste buds. Barbels whose nerves have been cut do not

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC, 255

regenerate. The presence of taste bnds in a barbel is dependent on the
presence of a normal nerve in the barbel, since the taste bnds degenerate
and disappear when the nerve degenerates, and reappear when the nerve
has regenerated. Likewise, the power of a barbel as a whole to re-
generate a missing tip is dependent npon the presence of a normal nerve
in that barbel. The theory that certain chemical substances of the
nature of hormones are given out by the nerves, and that such substances
are necessary to the existence of taste buds and also for the regeneration
of the barbel as a whole, accounts for all the phenomena of degeneration
and regeneration in the barbel of Amiurus. J. A. T.

Development of Blood-vessels in Amphibia. — Tanzo Yoshinaga
{Acta Scholse Med. Univ. Imper. Kioto, 1920, 3, 401-39, 6 pis., 5 figs.).
The endocardium and endothelium and their caudal prolongation
(vitello-intestinal veins) are laid down as discrete mesodermic cells of
splanchno-pleural origin. The endoderm does not share in forming the
heart or vessels. The free cells that form the primordium of the heart
and vessels separate simply in loco from the splanchno-pleure, which is
thereby thinned. The free cells do not wander from their place of
origin. At an early stage the vascular system is- thus represented by
strands of cells. But these do not form indifferent cell-masses, but
definitive vascular strands which form the endothelium. The separated-
off cells which originate the primordia of heart and vessels should not
be called mesenchyme ; they arise as an histological differentiation of the
mesoderm. J. A. T.

Myotomic Contractions in Dogfish Embryos. — P. Wintrebeet
(Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 1-467-70). In aneural embryos of
Scylliorhinus canicula each of the lateral muscular bands acts indepen-
dently of the other and of other organs. The amplitude of the movement
remains the same for a definite period of growth, but changes of tem-
perature have a marked effect. In a uniform medium warmth accelerates
the rapidity of the movements and has still more effect in lessening the
duration of the pause. In a variable medium abrupt changes of
temperature disorganize the movements. Yan't Hoff's law does not
seem to apply, not in any case for minute changes of temperature. It
is probable that each animal has a specific irritability in relation to
warmth, and even different muscles of one and the same animal vary in
their reaction. J. A. T.

Exaggeration of Islands of Langerhans in Offspring of G-lyco-
suric Mother. — G. Dubeeuil and — • Andeeodias {Comptes Rpiidus Soc
Biol., 1920, 83, 1490-3, 2 figs.). In a new-born offspring, of abnormally
large size, surviving only a few minutes, the islands of Langerhans in
the pancreas were twenty to thirty times larger than the normal. This
hypertrophy is interpreted as a response to the excessive quantity of
sugar in the blood passing from the glycosuric mother through the
placenta into the offspring, and causing foetal hyperglycemia. J. A. T.

Nerve and Plasmodesma. — H. Y. Neal (Journ. Comp. Neurology,
1921, 33, 65-75, 5 figs.). One of the disputed points in the histo-

T 2

256 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

genesis of nerve is whether or not there exists previous to nervous
(neurofibrillar) connexion between neural tube and myotome a connexion
by means of undifferentiated protoplasmic threads or plasmodesmata.
In embryos of Sqiiahis, previous to the stage of 4*5 mm., there are no
protoplasmic connexions between tube and myotomes. Neurofibrillar
substance is present in the primary connexion between tube and
myotome. Within the plasmodesmata of Paton and Held may be found
in adequately stained Bielschowsky-Paton preparations deeply stained
neurofibrils which may be traced to bipolar neuroblasts within the
neural tube. The assumption of the Hertwigs, later supported by
Paton and Held, that neuromuscular connexions are primarily effected
by indifferent cells, and that the " plasmodesmata " thus formed are
utilized as " paths *' by the growing neuraxones, does not accord with
the observed facts. ■ J. A. T.

Influence of Sea-water on Myotomes and Heart of Dog-fish
Embryos. — P. AVixtrebert {Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol., 1020, 83,
1391-4). Sea-water or any saline solution different from the peri-
embryonic fluid (of Scylliorhmus canicula) affects the reactions of the
embryo, the influence differing according to the presence or absence
of lesions in the skin. The musculature is unequally affected, for in
aneural embryos with torn ectoderm the heart continues to beat while
the myotomes are arrested. At different stages of development the
skeletal movements are variably affected ; the neuromuscular functioning
continues in conditions in which the aneural contraction has stopped.

J. A. T.

Heredity of Twin Births.— C. B. Davenport {Proc. Soc. Exper.
Biol, and lUed., 1020, 17, 75-7). About 1 p.c. of human births are
twin births. But there are certain families in which the proportion
rises to 5, 10, or even 15 p.c. There can be little doubt that, as in
sheep, so in man, there are sti*ains having a special tendency toward the
production of twins. Twinning is due not merely to double ovulation,
but upon such a quality of sperm as shall result in a high proportion of
fertilization of eggs ovulated and a small proportion of fertilized eggs
containing lethal factors. J. A. T.

Carunculi in Uterus of Sheep and Goat. — Ed. PcETTerer and
S. Y oiio:so¥F {Co mj-ttes Rendus Soc. BioJ., 1021, 84, 187-90). If an ovary
is grafted into the cavity of the uterus, after removal of the ovaries,
carunculi appear. They are of connective tissue origin, they are hyper-
trophied, they become vesicular, and they disappear with the caduca.
Where there is little caduca, as in Ruminants, the cells in question
persist and are transformed into connective or epithelial cells. They
might be called pulp-cells. A hormone from the engrafted ovary
stimulates the formation of an epithelial syncytium in the uterine glands.
The deeper portion is transformed into pulp-cells, which persist and
take part in the reconstitution of the uterine mucosa. A more superficial
portion of the pulp-cells may undergo retrogression cind disappear.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 257

Ovarian Grafts in Goats and Sheep. — ED.RETTERERand S. Voron-
OFF (Comptes Reiulus Soc. Biol., 1921, 84, 104-6). In a goat ovarito-
mized on each side, one of the ovaries was embedded in the right cornu
and the other in the left cornu ; in another similar case a half of the ovary
of another goat was inserted in the right cornu, and half of one of its
own ovaries on the external surface of the uterus at the point of bifur-
cation. The grafts were wholly absorbed, but the presence of the
ovary in the cornu was followed by the development of a maternal
placenta. It looks as if the corpus luteum substance influences the
placental development of the uterine mucosa, but the peri-follicular
elements (interstitial cells, etc.) may also have their role in the produc-
tion of internal secretions. This is consistent with what happened in
the authors' experiments, where there was an absorption of all the
elements of the implanted ovary. J. A. T.

Placenta of Goat. — Ed. Retterer and S. Yoronoff {Comptes
Rendus Soc. Biol., 1921, 84, 296-8). The elements of the maternal
part of the placenta, due to the hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the
epithelial cells, constitute a complex into which the chorionic villosities
penetrate and which is absorbed in contact with them. J. A. T.

Ovotestis in Hermaphrodite Mammals. — E. Bujard {Comptes
Rendus Soc. i)W?., 1921, 84, 112-4, 114-6). According to the author the
mammalian ovary is a gonad with protandrous hermaphroditism more
or less latent. The male elements (medullary strands) may atrophy
completely as in the cat, or remain rudimentary ^as in mole and bitch,
or become foetal seminiferous tubules as in pig and man, leading
abnormally to an ovotestis. The teratogenic period is that of the
formation of the primitive cortical strands, which normally leads to a
thoroughly female gonad. The cause of a protandrous differentiation
of the medullary strands, leading to an ovotestis, remains obscure.

J. A. T.

Stages in Conjugation. — Jean Massart {Bidl. Glasse Sciences
Acad. Roy. Belgique, 1921, 7, 38-58). There are four stages : — (1) the
approximation of cells, (2) the union of cytoplasms, (8) the union of
nuclei, and (4) the union of chromosomes. In Coleochsete and other
green algge the four stages follow in close succession, without any
karyokinetic division between. In Metaphytes there is a long interval
between (3) and (4) ; the fused nuclei undergo numerous karyokineses
l:)efore their chromosomes are coupled. In Basidiomycetes it is the
interval between (2) and (3) that is inlportant. In a cell with fused
cytoplasm the nuclei remain distinct, and this dualism persists for a
long series of divisions. In Infusorians, Schizogregarines, Heliozoa and
Diatoms there is a long interval between (3) and (4), but the characteristic
feature is that the fourth phase does not occur unless it is prepared for
by phase 1. A preliminary cohabitation is necessary if the gametes are
to appear. In the Eugregarines there is furthermore a long interval
between (1) and (2) ; they are paired early, but the cytoplasm do not
unite till long afterwards. In many female animals a preparatory
cohabitation is necessary for the formation of gametes. J. A. T.

258 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

b. Histologry.

Taste-buds of Elasmobranchs. — Margaret H. Cook and H. V.
Neal {Jburn. Comp. Neurol., 1921, 33, 45-63, 29 figs.). Taste-buds in
Sqiialus acanthias are limited to the pharynx, where thej are distributed
over the floor, the roof, and the gill pouches. Their structure is liJse
that in other forms. They are groups of slender cells slightly raised
above the surface into a papilla. Each cell bears, externally, a hair-like
process, and is connected internally with a nerve ending. These taste-
bads are derived from the endoderm. They develop from the epithelial
lining of the pharynx which at all stages shows itself as endodermic.
There is no indication at any period of development of a migration
inward of the ectoderm, except the slight invagination which forms the
dental ridge. The pharyngeal scales arise in late embryonic stages.
They resemble placoid scales in structure, but are derived from the
endodermic lining of the pharynx. J. A. T.

Periodic Nuclear Division in the Cat.— C. E. Droogleever
FoRTUYN VAN Leijden {Proc. Section of Sciences R. Acad. Amster-
dam, 1917, IS, 38-44). In explanation of the small number of mitoses
usually seen in growing tissues, it has been suggested by Child and by
Paterson that this is because amitotic divisions occur. It is here noted,
however, that for the mesentery, the outer stratified epithelium of the
cornea, and the epithelial ceils of Lieberkiihn's crypts in newborn cats,
a periodicity occurs in the mitotic nuclear division. There is a maxi-
mum in the evening, the night, and the early morning hours. There
is a minimum in the later morning hours and the early afternoon. The
maximum number of karyokineses does not always occur at the same
time, but it is never in the daytime. The minimum is always in the
middle of the day. If this is a general fact it may explain why in
general in growing tissues few karyokineses are seen. For the fixing of
tissues is usually effected in the middle of the day. J. A. T.

. Striped Muscle of Pulmonary Veins of Rat. — F. Granel {Comptes
Rendus Soc. Biol., 1921, 84, 291-4). Stieda reported the presence of
striped muscle of a cardiac nature in the trunk of the pulmonary \eins.
Granel has studied this in Mus decumanus, and finds that in structure
and in development it is closely allied to cardiac muscle, of which it is
an extension. There is an internal longitudinal or oblique layer, and
an external circular layer, both striped. There is a delicate connective
lamella between the two layers, and the muscular sheath is rich in
vessels and nerves. J. A. T.

Parasomes in Pancreas of Tadpole of Rana temporaria.—
R. HovASSE {Conines Rendvs Soc. Biol, 1921, 84, 190-1). In a
tadpole developed parthenogenetically most of the cells of the pancreas
showed numerous parasomes, sometimes seven in one cell, either isolated
in the cytoplasm or grouped within a larger parasome near the nucleus.
Such parasomes have tc do with the formation of fats, but there was
little fat in the food. The significance of their occurrence in this case
is obscure. J. A. T.

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC, 1921. PI. VII.

aS^«;

t.iJS.

■'^..

t

TO

> > ' ■ ' ^ / ' ''

' .'?■«• (T

J ->

'i*^

t. , N^ '

F

^1

', V J J

/

vii.ces;

The pharynx of an adult spiuy dogfish laid open, it^i floor reflected to the left,
showing the distribution of the taste-papillae and pharyngeal scales.

Face p. 258

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 259

c. General.

•

Blood of Marine Animals. — Gr. Quagliariello {Puhl. Staz. Zool.
NapoU, 1918, 1, 21-9). With few exceptions the blood of marine
animals, both verteljrates and invertebrates, has a slightly alkaline
reaction. In Coelentera (Alojonium digitatum) the fluid in the canals
(it seems a pity to call it " blood ") has a much higher degree of
alkalinity. In Tunicates the reaction is slightly acid. Formulae are
given. J. A. T.

Luminous Animals. — G. Zirpolo {Rivista Sci. Nat. " Natura"
1919, 10, 60-72, 6 figs.). Following Pierantoni, the author calls
attention to the presence of photogenic symbiotic bacteria in various
animals, e.g. Sepiola intermedia, Ro?ideletia minor and iSej^ia officinalis.
He maintains that the " phosphorescence " of certain animals is due to

Photograph of branched culture of a photogenic bacterium from Sepia

(Bacillus sepise Zirpolo).

their symbions, rather than to themselves. He has found the bacteria
in the luminous organs of some Cephalopods, and he has injected the
bacteria into Carcinus msenas, causing luminescence for about ten days,
into Sepia officinalis, causing lumitiescence for three days, and into star-
fishes. J. A. T.

Endolymphatic Sac and Canal in Pigeon. — ^(Ieorges Portmann
{Oompfes Rendus Sac. Bioh, 1920, 83, 1488-90, 1 fig.). The endo-
lymphatic sac, the endolymphatic canal, and the sacculus really form
one cavity, elongated vertically, with the two ends slightly dilated.
The one end is the intra-cranial sac ; the other end is the intra-
vestibular saccule. The whole is distinctly separate from the adjacent
utriculus and cochlear canal, with which they communicate only by short

260 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

straight canals. The state of affairs is similar to that described by
Portmaim in gninea-pig, dog, Torpedo and Myliohatls aquila. J. A. T.

Endolymphatic Organ of Batrachians. — -Georges Portmann
{Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol, 1921, 84, 13;]-6, 1 fig.)- The endolym-
phatic organ of frog and toad consists of an intra-cranial sac of con-
siderable size and of a short wide Canal connecting the sac with the
saccule. Moreover the endolymphatic sac gives origin to a postero-
external diverticulum which traverses the cranial wall and comes into
intimate contact with the lagena. Contrary to what the author has
found to be the case in mammals and birds, the endolymphatic sac
of Batrachians is quite surrounded by the arachnoid spaces. As in
Selachians, birds and mammals, so in Batrachians ; the endolymphatic
sac does not communicate with the utriculus except by the intermedia-
tion of the sacculus. J- A. T.

Scales of Twait Shad as Indices of Growth. — Louis Roule
(Gomptes Rendus >Soc. Biol, 11»20, 83, 1542-4). From readings of the
markings of the scale of this fish (Glvpea or Alosa finta), it is concluded
that there are two annual periods, a period of summer growth and a
period of winter arrest. This alternation is marked by the rings on the
scales. It is also shown that the males are smaller than the females,
and are able to reproduce when two or three years old, whereas the
females are reproductive from the third to the fifth year inclusive.

study of Yellow Perch. — A. S. Pearse and Henrietta Achten-
BERG (^Bidl Bureau Fisheries Washington, 1920, 36, 279-366, 1 pi.,
35 figs.) The yellow perch {Perca ffavescens), studied in Wisconsin
lakes, is a versatile feeder, the favourite items being Chironomid larv«,
Cladocera, Corethra and other larv^, fish, amphipods and debris. There
are marked seasonal difPerences, and in general the favourite foods are eaten
in proportion to abundance and availability. An adult perch eats about
7 p.c. of its own weight in a day. Digestion is three times more rapid in
summer than in winter. Food varies with age. During youth there is
a change from Cyclops and other Entomostraca to Hyalella and insect
larvfB. At the end of the first season the food is much like that of the
adults. Perch may remain in oxygen-free water for two hours without
dying. When in water without oxygen they use part of the oxygen in
the swim-bladder. Perch may become sexually mature in two years.
Except during the spawning (in shallow water) most of the perch in the
large lake remain in deep water. There appears to be an upward move-
ment at night. They usually swim in school and move about. Pickerel
and Lota macidosa are important enemies. Small lakes have fewer
perch mainly because of the shallowness and exposure. J. A. T.

Neuromerism and Metamerism in Dogfish. — P. Wintrebert
{Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol, 1921, 84, 191-4). The head of the embryo
of Squalus acanthias shows obvious neuromeres, but it is difficult to
correlate these with the metameres of the head. J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY. ETC,

26 L

Tunicata.

A Rare Salp. — Asajiro Oka {Annot. ZooL Japan., 1921, 10, 1-14,
5 figs.)- A description of a fresh specimen of the very rare Salpa

Solitary form of Tratistedtia multitentaculata, seen from above
and from the left, x 0 • 2.

{Traustedtia) multitentaculata (Quoy et (4aimard). One of its remark-
able features is the possession of eight tentacles, which distinguishes it
from T. henseni with a much larger number. J. A. T.

IN VERT EBB, AT A.

Mollusca.
«• Cephalopoda.

Mediterranean Cephalopods.— Adolf Naef {PuM. Staz. Zool.
Napoli, 1916, 1, 11-19). A revised list, including fifty species, all but

262 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

three found in the Bay of Naples. To Jatta's thirty-eight species, some
of which require correction, twelve are added, nine of which are new
species. This brings the list up to fifty species. J. A. T.

New Sepiolidse. — -Adolf Naef {PiiM. Staz. Zool. Napoli, 1916, 1,
1-10, 2 figs.). According to Xaef the well-known Sepiola rondeletii of
the Mediterranean is not a true species at all, l3ut includes a whole
series of forms. He establishes a new genus Rondeletia, with one species
R. minor (based on about 8000 specimens), and a new genus Sepietta,
including S. obscura sp. n. (800 specimens), *S'. oiveniana Pfeffer (3000
specimens), and *S'. neglecta sp. n. (100 specimens). A satisfactory feature
is the abundant material available in most cases. J. A. T.

Posterior Salivary Glands of Cephalopods.— F. Botazzi {FvM.
Staz. Zool. ISfapoli, 1016, 1, 59-146, 33 tigs.). An elaborate investiga-
tion of the secretory activity of these glands, and of the nature of the
secretion. A very small quantity added to smooth muscle in Ringer's
solution provokes strong contraction, and the author discusses the bio-
chemistrv of the effect. J. A. T.

Liver Ferments of Sepia. — Aurel D. Graifaleanu {Publ. Staz.
Zool. Napoli, 1916, 1, 155-208). A study of the proteolytic ferments
of Sepia officinalis. They are capable of breaking down its own proteids,
during the post-mortem autolysis, by reducing them to soluble com-
pounds. The natural acid reaction of the liver accelerates the proteo-
lysis, but a proteolysis also occurs in alkaline media. The fact is that
there are at least two diilerent proteolytic ferments, one active in an
acid medium, and the other in an alkaline medium. The proteolysis is
more intense in the acid medium. J. A. T.

Luminescent Bacteria in Cephalopods. — Umberto Pierantoni
{PvM. Staz. Zool. Napoli, 1916, 1, 105-46, 3 pis., 3 figs.). The acces-
sory nidamental gland consists of variously ramified tubules due to
epithelial insinkings and surrounded by vascularized connective tissue.
They are not glandular, but they are full of living bacteria. There are
three kinds of tubules, red-orange, white and yellow, and in Cephalopods
with luminous organs {Sepiola, Rondeletia^ the yellow tubules are absent
from the accessory gland, but appear in the photogenic organ. Develop-
ment shows that the luminous organ arises as a diverticulum from the
accessory gland. The bacteria are handed on along with the ova —
hereditary symbiosis. The accessory gland is not nidamental ; it may
be a culture area for the bacteria. J. A. T.

7- Gastropoda.

Conditions Affecting Growth in Fresh-water Gastropods. — A.
Popovici-Baznosanu {Arch. Zool. Exper., 1921, 60, 501-21, 9 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 263

There are considerable individual differences among young specimens
of Lymn^ea. Of all the factors influencing growth nutrition is most
important. Of all the kinds of food the aiicrofiora is most favour-
able for growth. The volume and the surface area of the water have
only an indirect influence through the microflora. The number of
individnals pfeseut operates indirectly. The presence of excreta is
not injurious as Legendre maintained. In some cases it favours
arrowth bv favouring the multiplication of the elements of the micro-
flora. ■ J. A. T.

Granular or Basal Cells of Ovotestis of Snail. — Luigi Cognetti
DE Martiis {Atti R. Acad. Torino, 19] 9-20, 55, 353-60, 2 figs.).
These cells are nutritive and phagocytic. The nucleus contains a very
large number of minute chromosomes, sometimes twinned or in pairs.
The meaning of this pairing is discussed. Attention is also directed to
numerous pointed fusiform intra-nuclear bodies, tlie meaning of which
is uncertain. J. A. T.

Double Spermatozoa in Turritella communis. — Oh. Bataillon
{Gomptes Renclus Soc. Biol., 1921, 84, 219-22, 10 flgs.). The sperma-
tozoa are always in couples, united by a cytoplasmic pellicle around the
heads. This coupling is primitive and can be traced right through the
spermatogenesis. The cytoplasmic fission remains incomplete. But
there are two kinds of couples established in the first spermatocytic
division. They differ in the presence or absence of a heterochromosome.
They may be regarded as male-producing and female-producing. In
Turritella triplicata, studied by Schitz, the peculiarities above noted do
not occur. ■ • J. A. T.

S. Lamellibranchiata.

Experiments on Ovum of Cumingia. — L. Y. Heilbeunn {Biol.
Bulletin, 1920, 38, 317-39). The egg of this bivalve is surrounded by
a stiff vitelline membrane which tightly encloses the fluid cytoplasm. A
release from the restraint of this membrane is followed by maturation.
Such a release can be brought about in three ways— by membrane eleva-
tion, by membrane swelling, or by the removal or rupture of the mem-
brane. Substances which themselves have a low surface tension produce
a lowered surface tension of the membrane, and this results in its eleva-
tion from the egg surface. Acids, alkalies, and certain salt solutions
cause the vitelline membrane to swell. The membrane may be removed
from the eggs by shaking, or it can be made to rapture by immersion in
dilute sea-water. All these treatments produce polar-body formation.
All of them free the egg from restraint. Maturation in Gumingia
\> not dependent on an increase in oxidations. Cortical change in
Gumingia produces no increase in permeability either to dissolved
substances or to water. The essential features of cortical change
in Gumingia are the same as those which have been described in
Arhacia. J. A. T.

264 SUMMARY OF currp:nt researches relating to

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Wing-design of Mimetic Butterflies. — J. F. van Bemmelen
{Proc. K. ATcad. Wetenschappen Amsterdam, 1920, 23, 877-86). The
interesting suggestion is made that the pattern of mimetic forms belongs
to a stock of features characteristic of the genus, the family, or the
order. In some cases, and to some degree, mimicry may be explained
by supposing the resemblance between two or more non-related forms
to have started at an early period, when the ancestral types of different
butterfly-families looked more hke each other than nowadays, on account
of the primitive colour-pattern common to them all. This view is in
line with Haase's suggestion : " The mimetic transformation was
preceded in most cases by atavistic phenomena from the side of the
females, which in the beginning reached back to the patterns of the
nearest relatives, but as the process proceeded, passed over to those of
more distant forerunners, and in this way procured the material for the
mimetic adaptation." J. A. T.

Fat-cells of Insects during Metamorphosis.— Charles Perez
{Arch. Zool. Exper., 1920, 59, Notes et Revue, 1, 5-10). During the
metamorphosis there is no evacuation of urates nor extraction of them
by the Malpighian tubules from the l)lood. At the end, however, when
the Malpighian tubules begin again to function there is " une veritable
debacle unique," which results in the rectum being fllled with a sort of
meconium which the imago gets rid of immediately after hatching.
Now the appearance of urates in the lumen of the Malpighian tubes,
coinciding with the disappearance of the urates in the fat-cells (pseudo-
nuclei of the albuminoid inclusions), suggests that the urates pass from
the fat-cells to the blood and thence to the tubules. The cells in question
may be regarded as "accumulating kidneys." J. A. T.

Poplar Longhorn. — AValter Ritchie {Annals Applied Biology,
1920, 7, 299-343, 3 pis., 25 figs.). An account of the structure and
habits of Saperda carcharias, the Large Poplar Longhorn beetle, whose
larvte bore in the stems of poplars. There is considerable difference
between the sexes, e.g. in size, colour and tarsal claws. The eggs are
laid in the bast or the outer wood, and they resemble closely the
surrounding tissues. The larva is a soft, fleshy, legless grub ; the
shiny-white pupa becomes gradually dark grey. A description is given
of the reproductive organs of both sexes. After emerging from the
tree the adult beetles feed on the leaves, biting on the surface, never at
the margin. The males fly from tree to tree. In both sexes there is
stridulation produced by rubbing the hind margin of the pronotum
upon the central anterior portion of the prolonged mesonotum. Mating
occurs on the twigs and branches. The female selects the site for
oviposition with some care. The egg-bites, when newly cut, are very
narrow thin lines ; they gape afterwards into dark cracks. The

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

265

galleries of the larvae show horizontal, vertical, exit and pupal portions.
Locomotion is secured through the use of well-developed dorsal and
ventral ambulatory ampullae. By far the greater proportion of the

Typical larval gallery of Saperda carcharias.

a, horizontal or initial portion in outer sapwood ; b, vertical portion in
wood ; c, exit hole ; d, pupal portion.

wood is passed behind into the gallery and not swallow^ed. AYhen there
are many larvse there is cannibalism. The larva is parasitized by an
Ichneumonid larva. J. A. T.

Variability in Coloration of Elytra. — Gr. Teodoro {BuM. Soc.
Entomol. Ital., 1919, 51, 44-8). A brief discussion of changes in
colouring, distinguishing pigmentary and structural coloration, cuticular
and hypodermic colouring, colour due to waste-products and those
induced by ferments from the hypodermis. The coloration is influenced
by food, illumination, temperature, humidity, climate and sex. Nicolet
called attention to the movement of large corpuscles in the blood
circulating in the lacunae of the elytra, and an examination of this is
promised. J. A. T.

Spermatogenesis in a Fly. — Chaeles W. Metz and Jose F.
NoxiDEZ {Jourii. Exi^er. Zool., 1921, 32, 165-85, 2 pis,). The sperma-
togonial chromosomes in Asilus sericeiis are ten, in five pairs. The
sex chromosomes have not been identified. In the last spermatogonial
anaphase, as in preceding anaphases, the chromosomes go to the poles

266 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

associated in pairs. The paired association becomes more intimate in
telophase, giving rise to bivalent chromosomes in baploid number. A
brief diffuse stage (stage a) ensues in which the chromatin stains only
slightly. Then the double chromosomes reappear, apparently in the
same form and relative position as before, and condense into bivalent
prochromosome-like bodies (stage i). The ordinary leptotene condition
appears to be omitted entirely. The bivalent- bodies of stage b elongate
into diplotene threads that remain relatively condensed and clearly
separate throughout the entire growth period, giving rise to the bivalent
prophase chromosomes. In another species, A. notatus, the process
appears to be essentially the same, but is somewhat confused by a
spinning out and intertwining of the threads in the stage following
stage b. The usual synaptic process is entirely wanting in Asilus.
Synapsis is effected in telophase at the beginning of the growth period
by an intimate association of chromosomes that were already paired in
anaphase. Superficially the early growth stages resemble those of
Hemiptera and other forms, but the chromatic structures are bivalent
instead of univalent. Tetrad structures are not visible. The first
division appears to be reductional for all the chromosomes. J. A. T.

Simulium Larva from Mountain Stream in Java. — A. L. J.
SuNiER {Natimrkund. Tijdschr. NederJand-LuUe, 1919, 73, 26-44,
2 pis. ; and ihid., 1920, 79, 205-20, 1 pi., 1 fig.). In a mountain
current of the Gunung Pangerango, in Java, at a level of about
1000 metres, numerous larvas of a species of SimuUiim were found
clinging to a submerged stone or moving against the current. There
are hooked clinging-organs anteriorly and posteriorly, and threads of
silk issue from the mouth. The anterior fan -like structures act as
strainers which catch microscopic particles, which are brushed by the
mouth-parts into the buccal cavity. The gut contained fine vegetable
detritus, diatoms, a piece of the ectocyst of a Bryozoon colony, and
minute remains of some small Arthropod.

The larva presses its head against the substratum, secretes a silk-
loop, and fixes to this its anterior clinging-organ. The posterior
clinging-organ grips about the same p]ace, and then the anterior one
lets go. The newly-produced silk is colourless and transparent. The
clinging-organs are anchored exclusively to the silk-loops. In letting
loose its grip the posterior clinging-organ is invaginated. During this
process the rectal gills are completely retracted. They are protruded
again after the re-anchoring of the posterior clinging-organ. Then the
anterior organ is loosened and the body stretched forward. By alter-
nately fixing its gripping organs the larva can move against a very
strong current. The elaborate cocoon of netted silk-threads is described.

J. A. T.

Mutations in Drosophila.— H. J. Mijller (Journ. Exper. Zool.,
1920, 31, 44o-73, 3 figs.). Discussion of three new mutations of the
gene W in the X chromosome of Drosophila melanogmter. They have
given rise respectively to : {a) Ecru, causing the eyes to be of a light
straw colour, not much darker than white ; {h) ivory, causing a light
yellow eye colour, only slightly darker than ecru ; and (c) white pro-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY^ ETC. 267

diicing a colour identical with the original " white." Ecru appeared in
a single male, so that it is likely that the mutation occurred in a late
oogonial cell, oocyte, or egg of the mother. Ivory appeared in nine
out of one hundred and forty-one male off-spring of a single female,
and mnst have occurred in an early stem cell of the ovaries of the
mother. The new white appeared in a single male, which had one eye
red and one white ; this mutation therefore occurred at a stage corres-
ponding to early cleavage. There is no evidence that mutations are
more likely to occur in gametes or germ- cells near the period of
maturation than in cells at any other stage in the life-cycle. The fact
that mosaic mutants involving recessive sex-linked genes are always
males indicates that mutations occur in only one member of a pair of
chromosomes at a time. The event which produces the mutation is,
therefore, exceedingly localized. The mutations of W are not quantita-
tive variations of the whole gene. J. A. T.

&^

Saccharomycete in Dipterous Larva.^ — D. Keilin {Parasitology,
1920, 12, 83-91, 3 tigs.). The cavity of the body of a dipterous larva
{Dasyheha obscura), which usually lives in the thick brown sap filling
the infected wounds of elm or horse-chestnut trees, was found filled
with a Saccharomycete, Monosporella unicuspidata g. et sp. n. It is a
budding, yeast-like fungus, each cell a potential ascus, producing one
acicular spore. Metchnikoff's Monospora bicuspidata from Daphnia
magna should be referred to this new genus, and there seem to be other
species elsewhere, e.g. in Tylenchus as reported by Biitschli. The
dipterous larva, though filled with Monosporella, is still able to move,
but it finally dies and decomposes rapidly, thns setting free the resistant
forms of the parasite. • J. A. T.

Observations on Larvae of Corethra punctipennis. — Chaxcey
JUDAY {Biol. Bulletin, 1921, 40, 271-86). The number of these larvte
in the bottom population in the deeper portions of Lake Mendota at
Madison, Wisconsin, is 18,000-30,000 jDer square metre. The eggs, laid
in the morning, sink to the bottom ; they hatched in the laboratory in
48 hours ; the adults emerge at night. The young larvae migrate into
the upper water at night as the full-grown ones do ; they remain in the
lower water, instead of the mud, in the daytime. The full-grown larvas
spend the daytime in the mud. This may be a protection from some
fishes, as also is the disappearance of dissolved oxygen in the hypolim-
nion. The live weight produced is about 300 kilograms per hectare,
and the dry weight about 25 kilograms. The deep-water area of the
lake will produce 1,318 metric tons of living larvse, or 110 metric tons
of dry material. Crude protein and fat constituted more than 76 p.c.
of the dry material. This gives these Corethra larvae a very high rank
as a source of food for other organisms. J. A. T.

New African Gall-midges. — E. P. Felt {Annals Natal Museum,
1920, 4, 491-G). The gall-midge fauna of Africa is exceedingly in-
teresting and peculiar, but it is safe to state that only a very small pro-
portion of that fauna has come to the attention of entomologists. An
account is given of two new species of A'e?zA(?rm(?w//«« g. n., probably

268 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

related to Hormomyia, perhaps a connecting link between Asphondylarias
and Honididinariifi. It is marked by distinctly constricted flagellate
antennal segments of the male, the numerous low-looped circumfila and
the presumably narrowly oval lobes of the ovipositor. Another new
genus is Heterohremia, a peculiar type easily distinguished from Homo-
hremia by the two widely separated linear processes extending from the
posterior lateral angles of the ventral plate and reaching to the tip of
the style. The genitalia are very complex, and there are also marked
structural peculiarities in the antennee. J. A. T.

Antennae of Termites. — Claude Fuller {Annals Natal Museum,
1920, 4, 235-95, 1 pL, 14 figs.). An account of the post-embryonic
development of the antennte in numerous termites. All are funda-
mentally composed of a two-jointed scape supporting a fiagellum of a
variable number of joints. In a developing antenna the flagellum shows
an apical, an intermediate, and a basal zone, the last zone being forma-
tive. The internal metamorphosis is ordinarily in evidence inside the
" conventional " joint which composes the basal piece. This joint (III)
is a capsule enclosing a series of joint elements. The final number of
joints in the antenna is due to the abjunction of many or few new joints
in an acrogenous manner from joint III. The details of this are
described. Soldiers tend to have fewer joints than their corresponding
workers ; the smaller castes of a species tend to have fewer joints than
the larger ; and the smaller species fewer than the larger. Variability
in the jointing of the antenna is traceable to (1) a newer tendency to be
few-jointed ; (2) a fusion of joint elements ; (3) nutrition .(the well-fed
individual having more joints) ; and (4) a probable correlation between
the growth of the antenna and the development or degeneration of the
gonads in unfertile castes. The jointing cannot be utilized for taxo-
nomic purposes without thorough investigation of the community.

J. A. T.

Parasites of Blow-flies. — A. M. Alston {Proc. Zool. Soc, 1920,
195-243, 20 figs.). The Braconid AJysia manducator oviposits in the
larvae of several carrion-feeding Diptera ; one parasite emerges from
each host puparium ; over-parasitism kills the larva ; the mean duration
of the life-cycle was 52 days ; both sexes fly ; the average contents of
the ovaries was 366 eggs for 12 females. The Chalcid Nasonia hrevi-
coriiis oviposits in the puparia of several species of stercoral and carrion
feeding larva? ; from 1-62 were found in parasitized puparia ; the life-
cycle ranges from 11-22| days ; only the female can fly ; the male
remains near the vicinity of emergence, where its life is spent in fight-
ing and mating ; the average progeny was 133 per female. The Chalcid
can act as an accidental secondary parasite on Alysia, if and when
puparia containing the latter are within its limited reach. Both
parasites in their hibernating stage, as full-grown larvfe, can successfully
withstand over 6 weeks at 2° C. It appears that Alysia manducator is
the more important as a natural control of the blow-fly ; Nasonia hrevi-
cornis is more effective as a natural control of species which constantly
breed in permanent refuse and garbage heaps, such as the house-fly. /

J.A.T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 269

Blastophaga psenes of the Fig. — G. Grandi {Boll. Lab. Zool.,
Scuola Agric. Portici., 1920, 14, 63-204, 31 figs.). A detailed descrip-
tion of the structure of this Chalcid insect concerned in the caprification
of the fig. Both sexes are dealt with and the ova, larvae and pupie.
An account is given of the behaviour of the insects, the sex-relations,
the life-history, and the year's life. J. A. T.

Tracheal Air in Dragon-fly Larvae. — -Hans Wallexgren (Lunds
Universitets Arsskrift, 1915, 11, No. 5, 1-12). In larval dragon-flies
(Aeschna), breathing normally, the oxygen-content of the tracheal air is
always lower, and the COa-content the same as or a little higher than
that of the respiratory water. There is no reason to postulate any
special cellular activity. Diffusion explains adequately what takes
place. The composition of the tracheal air is directly dependent on
that of the surrounding water, but has a lower 0-content. From the
tracheal gills the oxygen diffuses into the large dorsal and ventral
tracheag. By the breathing movements, the body-movements, and the
contractions of the wall of the respiratory gut, as well as by diffusion,
the oxygen passes into the finer tracheal branches and is absorbed by
the blood, the tissue fluid, and the cells themselves. The COo given
off by the cells passes into the tissue fluid and the blood, but passes
only to a slight extent into the tracheal system. It diffuses from the
blood into the water through the body-wall, the tracheal gills, and the
wall of the respiratory gut. When the oxygen of the water sinks
2"5 c.cm. per litre, and the larvEe are in respiratory diificulties, they
ascend to the surface, where they take in oxygen to a degree far above
that in the ordinary tracheal air in sub-aquatic conditions. When it is
about 12 p.c. higher than the sub-aquatic normal the insects descend
again. J. A. T.

Larva of Rhinocypha ignipennis. — F. C. Fraser (diem. Dep.
Agric. India, 1920, 7, 13-4, 1 pi.). A single specimen of the larva of
a dragon-fly common in the rivulets about Shillong. The legs are of
great length, slim and spidery, adapted for clinging to weeds or roots.
The larva has no caudal gills, and it is not likely that they were lost.
Both Rhinocypha and Micromerus are thus apparently purely procto-
branchiate : the caudal gills being only rudimentary in the latter. It
is not known where the young insects hide themselves, for every con-
ceivable place was searched and only one was found. The larva is
interesting systematically in confirming the view that the Libellaginse
should form a distinct sub-family. J. A. T.

Rice Leaf-hoppers. — C. S. Misra {Mem. Dept. Agric. India, 1920,
5, 207-39, 4 pis., 9 figs.). These pests, Nephotettix bipunctatus and
A^ apicalis, recently did great damage in the Central Provinces, blight-
ing the rice-fields. Prior to 1913 nothing was known of them as
agriculturally important. Till then they were known as the " green-
flies " of cities like Calcutta, where they swarm in thousands around
the electric lamps in the streets as well as the bare lights in houses.
They illustrate insects which are considered harmless for a time, but

U

270

SUMMARY OF CQKRENT KESEARCHES RELATING TO

suddenly come into prominence, do considerable damage and wane
again. After winter is over, the lioppers breed in succulent grasses,
whence they move to the rice seedlings. They are small greenish
insects Avhich jump from plant to plant and suck the juices. The
young ones do not fly so actively and are not attracted to light. The

Rice Leaf-hopper, Nejohotettix apicalis. Enlarged 24 times.

yellowish eggs are laid in a line at the bases of sheathing leaves. They
are parasitized by a small pale yellow Chalcid, and turn black. The
pests may be counteracted by clean cultivation and by grazing cattle in
the grassy tracts. Bagging with cloth bags internally moistened with
kerosene is effective, and likewise kerosene spraying. The adults may
be caught in large numbers by lig^ht-traps. J. A. T.

Water-content and Metabolism in Grasshoppers.— J. H. Bodinb
{Journ. Exper. Zooh, 1921, 32, 137-64, 0 figs.). The percentage of
water a grasshopper contains decreases with age and increasing body-
weight, down to a minimum for the species. During the life-cycle of
Ghortophaga viridifasciata the water-content falls to a minimum during
" hibernation," rises again to a maximum when this is broken up, and

falls to a minimum again as the animal grows old.

These changes

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

271

seem to be due to the effects of temperature and advancing age. Water
and temperature are the controlling factors (in Ghortophaga) in the
emergence from " hibernation." Starvation results in losses of body-
weight, water and solids, the greatest relative loss being water. When
water only is supplied the losses are lower than with nothing. Larger
individuals tend to lose relatively greater amounts during starvation.
Lighter and younger animals have the higher rates of COg output, and
the possible relation of a surface law holding for grasshoppers is in-
dicated. Higher temperatures cause increased rates of CO2 output, and
lower temperatures seem to have the reverse effect. Starvation decreases
the rate of CO2 output ; feeding starved individuals increases it again.
A noteworthy point is that when exposed to low temperatures the
insects respond by a decrease in water-conterit and are thus prevented
from freezing and possible destruction. J. A. T.

Female of Cockroach AUuaudella. — F. H. Gravely {Records
Indian Museum, 1020, 19. 17-18, 1 fig.). The s;eneYa. AUuaudella and
Gardax contain minute cockroaches of such unusual forms that Shelf ord

Female of Minute Cockroach, AUuaudella himalayensis. x 15.

remarked when describing the latter, "It is difficult to discover the
affinities of a genus so aberrant as this ; ... it cannot be regarded as
closely related to any known genus." Hitherto only the males have been
described. Now Gravely describes the female of AUuaudella
himalayensis, from about 3,500 feet in the Darjiling District. Its

u 2

272 SUMMAEY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tegmina are small and its wings vestigial, so that it is obviously in-
capable of flight. But the tegmina presumably function as a protection
to the body, for they are sufficiently developed to show that the venation
is practically identical with that of the male. The total length is
2 • 5 mm. ; the colour dull yellowish. J. A. T.

Prothoracic Endoskeleton of Mole-cricket.— P. Carpentier {Bull.
Classe lies /Sciences, Acad. Roy. Belgique, 1921, 7, 125-81:). A careful
description of the prothoracic endoskeleton of this burrowing insect.
Although it is extraordinarily specialized it is not aberrant. The space
between the right and left pleural lamellas is much reduced by the new
formation of another space between each lamella and the reflected
external margin of the notum. This interpleural space contains the
relatively feeble muscles which draw the limb inwards ; the extrapleural
space contains the enormous muscle which forces the limb outwards in
burrowing. The other peculiarities are interpreted as adaptive to the
underground habits. J. A. T.

"■b'

Jura Protura. — E. Handschin {ML Schweiz. Entomol. Ges., 1920,
13, si-7). A description of Acerentulus tiarneus Berl., which Berlese
found in 1910 in the Trentino at a height of 1500 m., and Eosentomon
rihagai Berl., which Berlese found in 1909 in the same place. Both
were found by Handschin in moss from Jouxtal in the Jura, and their
special interest is in their geographical distribution, for the record links
together previously reported habitats. J. A. T.

/3. Onychophora.

Salivary Glands of Opisthopatus cinctipes. — 0. Duboscq {Arch.
Zool. Exper., 1920, 59, Notes et Revue, No. ?., 07-74, 4 figs.). In the
adult the glands have the structure of a differentiated nephridium,
showing a coelomic vesicle, a funnel, a descending portion with mucous
cells, and an ascending portion with ferment-cells. These two portions
are united by a common canal, forming a deep branch. The secretion
of the ferment-cells is like that of a mammary gland. The same is
true of the mucous cells, but the secretion is less active and the
" decapitation " of the secretion is less brusque. At the level of the
common canal there are blood-corpuscles along with the mucous and
albuminoid secretions, and these corpuscles have • doubtless some
diastatic role. In lactation there are leucocytes mixed with the
mammary secretion, especially in the colostrum. J. A. T.

PapillsB and Ventral Cerebral Organ in Onychophora. — 0.
Duboscq {Arch. Zool. Exper., 1920, 59, Notes et Revue, No. 2, 21-7,
6 figs.). The primordium of a tactile corpuscle in embryos of Opistho-
patus cinctipes consists of a little group of epithelial nuclei. Above this
the cuticle thickens into a disc, which becomes concave, and then
button-like. This becomes a tube with an axial perforation. The
nuclei at the base multiply and form a group of twenty or so at the
base of the cuticular projection. Below the brain there are two vesicles,

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

273

each with an intermediate ganglionic region. There is no hint of
sensory or glandular function. In the adult, as in the embryo, the

s

^^5ii^\

■ 0 m M-^ si'_^

^•/J

.^^iV

>r«'

1^

'T-

'e^'

Section of a ventral cerebral organ in Opisthopatus cinctipes.

C, the brain ; c, peripheral layer of fusiform cells with hyperchro-
matic nucleus ; g, intermediate ganglion ; n, group of young
nerve-cells with hyperchromatic nucleus.

ventral organ produces nerve-cells or neuroglial cells, which are perhaps
contributed to the brain above. J. A. T.

y, Arachnida.

New Australian Pycnog-onids. — T. Thomson Flynn (Papers a?id
Proc. R. Sor. Tasmania, 1919, 91-100, 2 pis.). Descriptions of Pycno-
gonum auriUneatum sp. n. from S.E. Tasmania, somewhat closely allied
to P. gaini from the Antarctic, and of the very minute Ammothea
austral iens is sp. n. from Shark Island, New South Wales, referable to
the group containing A. striata and A. glarialis. Its over-all length is

274

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

4"2f!mm., of which 1"12 mm. goes to the trunk; it is the smallest
known member of the genus, xippearances point to the Southern Polar

Pycnogontim aiirUineatujn sp. n.

1. Dorsal view of the entire animal.

2. View of right side with legs removed.

Regions being the headquarters of the genus Ammothea, from which
various species may have radiated northwards. J. A. T.

Movements of Heart and of Breathing in Spiders.— Y. Willem
(Proc. Sect. Science B. Acad. Amsterdam, l'J17, 19, 162-7, 2 figs.).
A spider {E^mra) fastened by the thoraxshows an oscillatory movement
of the abdomen and of the palps. The posterior point of the abdomen
moves upward and downward with a rhythm of 130 movements a
minute. This is due to (1) the tension' of the curved aorta under
increased internal pressure; and (2) the increased curve of the peri-
cardium during the systole of the heart when the pressure of the blood

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY. ETC. 275

in the pericardial cavity decreases. The contraction of the heart in
Pholcus phalangiodes was seen to be connected with a diminution of
pressure in the pericardial cavity and in the pulmonary vein, thus
influencing the lungs. The circulation of blood in the lungs is a
passive consequence of the systole of the heart. The blood-pressure of
the peripulmonary lacuna, which always exceeds the atmospheric pressure,
keeps the air-cavities of the lungs and the cuticular portions of the
lamellffi and of the vestibule compressed. Changes in the pressure due
to palpitations of the heart cause the air-cavities to become alternately
smaller and larger. The elasticity of the cuticular portions of the
lamella? is the intermediate factor in the movements of air in the lungs.
In special cases the movements of the muscles of the body may help.

J. A. T.
New Pycnogonid. — T. Thomson Flynn {Papers and Proc. R. Soc.
Tasmania, 1911), 11-15, 1 pi.). Description of a male specimen of
Halosoma haswelU sp. n., found among the mussels on Shark Island,
New South Wales. The genus differs from Anoplodacfylus in the
particularly small size, the crowded nature of the crurigers (hollow '
processes of the body wall to which the ambulatory legs are attached),
the tendency of the trunk segments towards coalescence, the feeble
development of the neck, the particular arrangement of the spines on
the legs, and the structure of the tarsus and propodus. J. A. T.

5, Crustacea.

Double-walled Sensory Setse in Oxyrhyncha. — ^R. Issel (PuM.
Staz. ZgoI. NapoU, 191^, 2, 147-58, 1 pi.). A study of sensory setae
with an outer and .an inner cuticular support, united by trabecule. In
Acanthonyx Ivmdatus, Pisa, Herhstia and Lissa the detailed architec-
ture is described. It may be that osmotic variations influencing the
outer layer affect the internal wall and the contained nerve through the
intermediation of the trabecule. The structures are peculiar to
Oxyrhyncha. J. A. T.

Crustacea and Pantopods of Oresund, — W. Bjorck {Limds Univ.
ArssJcrift, 1915, 11, No. 7, 1-9S, 1 map). A description of the
Malacostraca and Pantopods from this area. The whole fauna is a
llacoma-commnnitj. The littoral forms are almost without exception
present in at least the west part of the Baltic, several extending far into
that area. The sub-littoral forms inhabit the deeper parts (20-50 m.)
of the Sound, and consist of forms which seldom (and as a rule only in
solitary specimens) are met with in the west part of the Baltic. The
species Diastylis rathMi and Michtheimysis mixta, which occur abun-
dantly, are exceptions to this statement. The sub-littoral fauna
inhabits for the most part the clay bottom, and may be classified as a
HapJoops-commxmi'ij . The composition of the fauna lends no support
to the hypothesis, advanced by Lqnnberg, of the persistence of an
Arctic character in the fauna of the Oresund. J. A. T.

Crayfishes and Amphibolites. — Jean Couegnas {Arch. Zool
Exper., 1920, 59, Notes et Revue, No. 1, 11-13). In Limousin, a

276 SUMMAKY OF CUKKENT EESEAECHES KELATING TO

granitic region with little chalk, craytishes are of rare and very local
occurrence, e.g. near Sussac. It is interesting to find that the occur-
rence of crayfish in this region coincides very exactly with the
occurrence of amphibolites, which include 13-23 p.c. of chalk.

J. A. T.

Terrestrial Isopods of Natal. — W. E. Collinge {Annals Natal
Museum, 1920, 4, 471-90, 6 pis.). Descriptions of new species of Ligia,
Allonisciis and Guharis, and the establishment of a new genus Anchi-
cubaris, separated from Guharis on account of the form of the pleural
plates of the mesosome and the greatly produced anterior margin of the
cephalon. J. A. T.

Parcorophium excavatum in Brisbane River. — -Chas. Chilton
{Mem. Queensland Museum, 1920, 7, 44-51, 19 figs.). A note on the
occurrence of this New Zealand Amphipod in the Brisbane River,
Australia. A description is given. The genus, of which this is the
only species, comes close to Corophium, but the mandible has the palp
well-developed and three-jointed ; the second gnathopod of the male is
markedly different from that of the female ; in both sexes the second
gnathopod has the merus produced into a scoop-like process different
from that in Corophium ; the third uropods are two-branched. J. A. T.

Genetics of a Daphnia Hybrid during Parthenogenesis. — W. E.
Agar {^Journal of Genetics, 1920, 10, 303-30, 3 figs.). On the
hypothesis, now supported by a mass of indirect evidence, that segrega-
tion of hereditary factors is due to the segregation of homologous
chromosomes in meiosis, it is clear that there should be no such segrega-
tion in parthenogenetic reproduction uuaccompanied by reduction of
the chromosomes. A hybrid clone, derived from a cross between
Daphnia ohtusa and D. pulex, was bred for ten generations. Through-
out this period the hybrid clone was characterized by excessive produc-
tion of males and sexual eggs, complete sterility of the males, partial
sterility of the parthenogenetic eggs, and probably normal fertility of the
sexual eggs. The ten parthenogenetic generations of this clone fur-
nished no evidence of the occurrence of cegregation. This experiment
is complementary to Agar's former experiments on inheritance in ])ar-
thenogenesis in the Cladoceran Simocephalus, and indicates that during
the parthenogenetic reproduction of these forms, which is not accom-
panied by reduction of chromosomes, Mendeliau segregation does not
take place, nor does genetic diversity between parent and offspring
normally arise. J. A. T.

Swedish Silurian Cirripedia. — J. C. Moberg (Limds Universitets
ArssTcrift, 1915, 11, No. 1, 1-20, 2 pis., 2 figs.). Descriptions of some
new forms, e.g. Lepidocoleus suecicus sp. n,, and Plumidites dalecarlicus
sp. n., and a discussion of primitive Cirripedia. J. A. T.

Annulata.

Ciliated Crown of Trochosphere of Protula meilhaci. — A.
Soulier {Arch. Zool. Exper., 1920, 59, Notes et Revue, No. 1, 1-4,

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

277

4 figs.). The ciliated crown is traced back to a girdle of sixteen cells,
exclusively derived from the four trochoblasts that appear at the
equator of the blastoderm. The four cells known as intermediary do

J. A. T.

not share in forming the ciliated crown.

Larva of Ophryotrocha puerilis. — A. D. Peacock {Report Dove
Marine Laboratory, Gullercoats, 11)20, 9, 95-96, 3 figs.). Notes on
larvfe with one to six segments behind the head. The larva moves
forward and rotates on its long axis. The eyes by reflected sunlight

Ventral aspect of larva of Ophryotrocha •puerilis,
with three segments posterior to the head.

are red. The cilia of the anterior and posterior bands are strong,
coarse and long, but those of the middle band and those in the regions
of the mouth, anus and posterior segment are much finer. The
incipient stages of parapodia and cirri were noticed. J. A. T.

278 SUMMARY OF CUREENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Regeneration in Earthworm. — H. R. Hunt {Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool. Harvafd, 19] 9, 62, 571-81, 1 pi). Following the excision of
the anterior part of the nerve cord and digestive tube from a beheaded
earthworm, these parts may regenerate, restoring the normal structure.
The regeneration of the alimentary canal and nerve cord is independent
of mechanical stimuli or support provided by either the cicatrix or the
regenerating body wall at the anterior end of the worm. What may
have been an abortive attempt to regenerate a head on the dorsal side
of the body was observed in worms from which the anterior regions of
both nerve cord and digestive tube had been removed. The develop-
ment of a stomodaium is not contingent upon the presence of lirain and
connectives. The following structures can regenerate independently of
any mechanical stimulation or support furnished by the digestive tube
— stomodffium, connectives and brain, and a region of segmented body
wall containing longitudinal and circular muscles. J. A. T.

Genera of Enchytrseidse. — ^Paul S. Welch (Trans. Amer. Micro.
Soc, 1920, 39, 25-50). A revision of the sixteen genera (with
approximately three hundred and twenty-five species) of this family. A
diagnosis is given of each, followed by a discussion. Particular atten-
tion is paid to the penial bulb, which seems to be of much value in
classification. A useful key for identihcation is given. J. A. T.

Limnatis nilotica in Seistan and Afg-han-Baluch Desert. — N.
AxNANDALE and Amix-ud-Din {Records Indian Museum, 1920, 18,
135-6). A record of this leech on the borders and even within the
boundaries of the Indian Empire. Many were observed at Robat close
to the point at which the Afghan, Baluch and Persian frontiers meet,
and a specimen was got within the district of Seistan, "on the tongue of
a horse. It agreed in all essentials with specimens from Palestine.
Dr. Annandale and Dr. Kemp saw a member of an Indian labour corps
carefully skimming water from the top of a spring at Makki in Western
Baluchistan. When asked why he did so, the man replied that he was
afraid of leeches. This recalls the story of Gideon, separating men
who lifted water in their hands from those who drank Hke dogs.

J. A. T.
Bryozoa.

New Japanese Bryozoa.— Yaichiro Okada {Annot. Zool. Japan.,
1921, 10, 19-32, 7 figs.). Illustrated descriptions of the following new
species : — Flustra stolonifera, with curious antler-like spines ; Euthryoides
simplex, with a thin bilaminar zoarium ; Carbasea sagamiensis, with uni-
laminar zoarium, hexagonal zooecia, and with rib like processes on the
lower margin of the ooecia ; Brettia ijimai, the ooecia of which are the
first to be described for the genus. J. A. T.

Neniatohelminthes.

Sclerostomes of Donkey. — Charles D. Boulenger {Parasitology,
1920, 12, 27-32, 5 figs.). Nine species of Nematodes were obtained
from donkeys in Zanzibar and East Africa, including (1) Sirongglus
asini sp. n., in some respects intermediate between S. equinus and

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 279

S. edentatus ; and (2) Gylicostomum adersi sp. n., presenting much the
same appearance as G. insigne. J. A. T.

Development of Strong-ylacantha glycirhiza. — L. G. Seurat
{Gomptes Rendus Soc. Biol., 1920, 83, 1172-4). The ovum of this
Nematode, a parasite of the small intestine of Rhinolophus, is elliptical,
opaque, rich in jolk. It divides into a large clear anterior blastomere
(initial somatic) and a much smaller posterior blastomere, opaque, and
with much yolk (the primordial sex-cell). The latter divides into a
meso-endodermic-stomodffial cell and a primordial sex-cell. The larva
is remarkable in showing three distinct cuticles, a buccal cavity without
trace of the adult hooks, an excretory pore far from its final anterior
position, and a genital primordium of four cells. It does not feed ; it
moults twice ; it becomes encysted ; and in this state it passes from the
foul soil of the grotto into the definitive bat host. The intestine
remains very embryonic, consisting of two rows of very large cells with
a narrow central space between. J. A. T.

Revision of Gnathostomidae. — H. A. Baylis and Clayton Lane
{Proc. Zool. Soc, 1920, 24,5-310, 8 pis., 40 figs.). The chief charac-
teristic of this family of Nematodes is the possession of a pair of large,
fleshy, trilobed, lateral lips. Each lip is provided externally with three
papillffi, while internally its cuticle is thickened and frequently raised
into tooth-like prominences in the form of longitudinal ridges, which
either meet or interlock with those of the other lip. The oesophagus is
of a simple club-shaped type. There are two cervical papilla, usually
not prominent, in both sexes, and the tail of the female is provided with
a pair of small lateral papillge. The male has more or less well-developed
caudal ala? and two spicules, usually ornamented. Most species are
found in the anterior part of the alimentary canal, with a tendency to
burrow. One genus {Gnathostoma) has been found as a rare, and
probably abnormal, parasite of man, its habitat being the subcutaneous
connective tissue. The genera of the sub-families G-nathostominte and
Spiroxyinaj are dealt with in detail. J. A. T.

Platyhelminthes.

Studies on Bilharziasis. — Philip Manson-Bahr and N. Hamil-
ton Faieley {Parasitology, 1920, 33-71, 3 pis., 3 figs.). A discussion
of the differences in structure and life-history between the two species
of Egyptian Schistosomidje— Schistosomum hsematobium and S. mansoni.
The former has terminal spined ova which are deposited in both urine
and fffices. The ciliated miracidium hatched out in the watei' must
find the correct species of Bidlinus in thirty-six hours. It pierces the
soft parts, probably in the pulmonary chamber, and reaches the digestive
gland and the gonads. It becomes a morula, which is hollowed out
into an elongated finger-like sporocyst. This gives rise, by internal
budding of " germ balls," to cercarise ; and there may also be exogenous
budding resulting in secondary cysts. When mature, the cercaria^ are
ejected into water, and in the subsequent twenty-four hours must find
their way into their definitive host, usually man. After invading the

280 SUMMARY OF CUREENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tissues, either via the skin or the upper alimentary tract, they make
their way to the portal veins, where they become adult males and
females. In S. mansoiii the lateral-spined ova are excreted mainly in
the fa3ces, less commonly in the urine as well. The life-cycle is as
before, but the intermediate host is a species of Planorbis. In internal
structure the two species are markedly different, as is shown in detail.
Wherever Planorhis is the common snail there will be rectal Bilharziasis ;
wherever BuUinus abounds the urinary form of the disease will be most
prevalent. The prophylactic measures are destroying the ova in the
excreta, destroying the molluscs, and purifying the contaminated water
supplies. J. A. T.

Diagnosis of Parasites in Man. — Robert W. Hegner and
William W. Cort {Waverly Press, Baltimore, 1921, 1-72, 8 pis.).
The authors have prepared a very useful bulletin of the common
Protozoa and Worms parasitic in man. It is compact and clear, and
should be a great boon to students, as well as to physicians and public .
health workers. Rarities are of course left out, but all the very
important forms are dealt with in a way that should admit of identifi-
cation. The figures are careful and effective. We venture to suo'gest
that subsequent editions should include the most important ecto-
parasites. J. A. T.

Distome Larvae in Gut-wall of Dytiscus marginalis. — A. Ch.
HoLLANDE {Arch. Zool. Exper., 1920, 59, 543-63, 12 figs.). The
presence of numerous larval distomes does not seem very hurtful. The
excretory tubules seem able to get rid of the toxins. There are many
multiplying cells in the Malpighian tubes. The adipose cells are not
much altered, but some show hypertrophied and budding nuclei.
Around the encysted parasites considerable tissue changes are seen.
There is a thick mantle of phagocytes ; some peri-intestinal muscle
fibres partly surround the cyst ; a membrane is formed around the
cyst, and is probably due to the peritoneum. The surrounding of the
cysts, especially the phagocytic layer, may be regarded as arresting or
neutralizing the parasite's toxins. J. A. T.

Revision of Indian Species of Phyllobothrium. — T. Southwell
and B. Prashad {Records Indian Museum, 1920, 19, 1-7, 1 pi.).
Most members of this genus infest fishes, but one has been reported
from a snake, one from the dolpliin, and one from Sowerby's whale.
The bothridia are sessile, very mobile, with puckered edges. A note-
wortliy point is the presence of supplemental discs on the bothridia of
some species. The authors revise five Indian species. J. A. T.

Echinoderma.

Rare Anomaly in Astropecten aurantiacus. — Gr. Zirpolo {Publ.
Staz. Zool. Napoli, 1918, 1, 31-58, 3 pis. 10 figs.). Four specime'iis
with four arms, instead of the normal five. The occurrence of four
appears to be due to the loss of one arm with a considerable part of the
disc, for in this case the missing arm is not regenerated. A process of
cicatrization occurs. In the area of lesion the plates that are formed

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 281

repeat the size and symmetry of the plates found at the corresponding
place in the normal arm. The lost pyloric caeca are not regenerated ; a
cicatrization occurs. The inter-radial space is much reduced ; the
Polian vesicle is absent ; the gonads are reduced in number. J. A. T.

Hermaphroditism in Viviparous Ophiuroids. — Th. Moetensen
{Acta Zoologua, 1920, 1, 1-18, 1 pi.). No fewer than sixteen
out of the twenty species known to be viviparous are hermaphrodite.
As hermaphroditism is otherwise unknown among non-viviparous
Ophiuroids there must be some direct relation. In Ophiacantha vivipara,
OphiomitreUa clavigera and Amphiura horealis the hermaphroditism is
protandrous. In Ophiomyxa vivipara, Ophiacajitha imago and Ophio-
tjalfa vivipara the sexes are separate. Self-fertilization appears to be
possible in most of the hermaphrodites. It is striking that of the three
viviparous species of Ophiacantha, one has separate sexes, another is a
protandrous hermaphrodite, and a third is a true hermaphrodite. The
problem is left unsolved. J. A. T.

Ccelentera.

Movements and Luminescence in Renilla. — ^G. H.Parker {Journ.
Exper. Zool., 1920, 31, 475-515, 1 pi, 12 figs.) Renilla shows two
forms of peristalsis : peduncular, with waves running distally over the
peduncle ; and rachidial, with waves running in the opposite direction
over both peduncle and rachis. Peduncular peristalsis is primarily
concerned with sinking the peduncle into the sand and thus anchoring
the animal. It is also the means of bringing about a complete with-
drawal of the animal under the sand and of a certain amount of locomo-
tion. It is secondarily concerned with the distribution of fluid within
the animal during distention. Eachidial peristalsis raises Renilla out
of the sand and distributes the fluids contained within its body. It is
not concerned with effective locomotion. In tlie activities of Renilla
the zooid as a unit is dominated by the colony.

Renilla is naturally highly phosphorescent at night but not by day.
At night the phosphorescence can be reduced by exposing it to light,
and by day the phosphorescence can be developed by putting the animal
in the dark. Renilla is excited to phosphorescence only by stimulation,
particularly by mechanical or electrical stimuli. Concentric waves
emanate from the spot stimulated. The impulses are temporarily
interrupted by magnesium sulphate. Phosphorescence is limited to the
upper surface of the rachis, and is produced by masses of whitish
material that surround the siphonozooids and the bases of the autozooids.
Peristalsis consists of muscular waves whose rhythm is probably
myogenic in origin. Phosphorescence, the withdrawal of autozooids,
and general contractions are called forth by impulses, often wave-like
in character, and probably neurogenic in origin. J. A. T.

Ciliary Movements in Beroe. — G. F. Gothlik^ {Journ. Exper.
Zool., 1920, 31, 103-41). In Beroe cucumis there occur conditions
when all the swimming plates are inhibited in their movements, beat
more slowdy, or remain stationary in a position of rest, without any
muscular retraction of the meridian rows. These conditions of primary

282 SUMMARY OF CUJ.'KENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

inhibition can be prodnced by mechanical, chemical and electrical
stimuH. Certain nerve poisons (chloral hydrate and atropin) abolish
the primary inhibitory effect of a galvanic cnrrent. There are "forma-,
tions " which serve as cilio-inhibitory nerves, and these are paralysed
by the poisons. The primary cilio-inhibitory mechanism probably
consists of receptors at the surface of the body, which transfer their
impulses to a set of nerves, which transmit them to end apparatuses
inhibiting the vibrations of the swimming plates, probably by blocking
the neuroid conduction between them. The mechanism for primary
inhibition also functions in specimens from which the statolith apparatus
has been removed. There is an intimate connexion between primary
and secondary (i.e. muscular) inhibitory mechanism in Bero'e. It is
probable that they both use the same receptors, but the primary
mechanism can be caused to function bv impulses of a weaker intensity.

J. A. T.

Two Japanese Ctenophores. — Taku Komai {An not. ZooL Japon.,
1921, 10, 15-18, 2 figs.). Descriptions of Lampetia pancerina Chun
and Bero'd ramosa sp. n. The latter may be distinguished from its near
ally Bero'e ovata by the presence of much more numerous side-branches
to the meridional and pharyngeal canals. J. A. T.

New Species of Sertularella. — Ar3iand Billard {Arch. Zool.
Eiper., 1920, 59, Notes et Revue, 1, 14-6, 1 fig.). A description of
S. singularis sp. n. from the Siboga collection. It differs from all
other members of the genus in the irregularity exhibited in the disposi-
tion of the hydrothecse, showing that much stress cannot be laid on
this character. In the same colony and on the same branch there are
alternate, opposite, and verticillate (three or four) arrangements. The
form of the margin and the nature of the operculum must be looked to
as more important thaa the arrangement of the hydrothecse. In
Sertularella the hydrothecse are usually alternate, save in S. tamarisca,
where they are opposite. J. A. T.

Silurian G-raptolites from Bornholm. — Assar Haddin& {Luncls
Universitets Arsskrift, 1915, 11, No. 4, 1-40, 4 pis., 4 figs.). Descrip-
tions of species of Diplograptus, CUmacograptus, Dicellograptus, Gorij-
noicles and other genera, along with some new Brachiopods and Molluscs,
from Dicellograptus beds at Bornholm. J. A. T.

Protozoa.

Flagellate Parasite of Euphorbias. — C. Fraxca {Ann. Inst.
Pasteur, 1920, 34, 432-65, 2 pis., 2 figs.). In the latex of various
species of Euphorbia, e.g. E. peplus and E. segetalis, there lives a
Flagellate, Leptomonas davidi, discovered by David, first studied by
Lafont. It is usually an elongated narrow form, twisted posteriorly
twice or thrice on its axis, with an elliptical nucleus and a spherical
karyosome, with a spherical blepharoplast bearing a delicate flagellum.
It divides longitudinally in the latex, and a new flagellum is formed for
one half. The nucleus and blepharoplast show in dividing the process
known as panmitosis or monopanmitosis. In the alimentary system of

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC.

283

Invertebrates three genera of Flagellates occur — LejJtomonas, Herpeto-
monas, and Crithidia, with pre-flagellate, flagellate, and post-flagellate

accident

forrne
Sdiivgire

Life-history of Leptomonas davidi.

phases. The differences between the three genera are discussed. In
Portugal the vehicle of Leptomonas davidi is, a E.emii>tevon, Ste)iocephalus

284 SUMMARY OF CUERENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO •

agilis, which feeds on the iatex of the spurge, especially Euphorhia
helioscopica. In the food-canal there is longitudinal division of the
Leptomonas and isogamous conjugation. Curious giant forms occur,
but their meaning is obscure. Very minute forms pass from the
mesenteron into the salivary glands, where they form big masses.
Encysted forms also occur in the rectum and the faeces. The Hemip-
teron is the primitive host and the life-history may be complete.
Several different forms, besides the narrow elongated type, occur in the
latex and fruit of the infected spurge. J. A. T.

Movements of Vorticella. — Faure-Fremiet (Cotnptes Rendus Soc.
Biol., 1920, 83, 1382). The myoneme is extremely long in proportion
to its diameter ; the thickening on contraction is minimal. The stalk
cannot be compared to a flagellum, though in the planktonic Vorticella
mayeri it functions like a giant flagellum. In electrical excitability the
stalk corresponds to that of rapid muscles in Invertebrates. The
coiling of the stalk differs in different species and depends on the
structure of the elastic sheath and the unequal contraction of the
myoneme. The muscular filament is a differentiation of the central
cord, which corresponds to the terminal portion of the body of the
Infusorian. J. A. T,

New Flagellates. — W. Conrad (Recueil Inst. Bot. Errera, 1920,
10, 65-79, 2 pis.). Description of the structure and life-history of two
new Chrysomonads. In 3Iallomonas mirahilis sp. n. there are amoeboid
and palmellar stages. The cell leaves its siliceous carapace and
becomes a very active amoeboid form, giving off short pseudopodia. It
lives holophytically and by engulfing. In a few cases there are very fine
pseudopodia. The amoeboid stages come to rest, round themselves off,
form a peripheral gelatinous layer, and pass into the palmella phase.
Chrysomonads multiply by longitudinal division and by forming zoo-
spores ; in Mallomonas mirahilis Conrad observed longitudinal division,
but no formation of free-swimming spores was observed. Endogenously-
formed resting spores occur. A description is also given of 31. calva
Massart, in which the carapace, instead of consisting of imbricated
scales, shows transverse rings bearing extremely short needles.

J. A. T.

Fresh-water Anaerobic Ciliate. — Chancey Juday (Biol. Bulletin,
1919, 36, 92-5). In many Wisconsin lakes more or less of the bottom
stratum (hypolimnion) and the muddy ooze at the bottom show no free
oxygen for a certain time (three to four weeks to three to four months)
during the summer stagnation period. AYhen the minimum is reached
for plankton Crustaceans they rise to a higher level where oxygen is
more abundant, and so do some insect larvte. But many remain, and a
Ciliate (Hke a species of Enchel/js) has been studied as illustrating true
anaerobic life. It disappeared promptly when the water became well
aerated. A definite correlation was proved between the occarrence of
the Ciliate and the lack .of dissolved oxygen. The stratum occupied
had at most a minimal amount of oxygen, and most frequently none
at all. J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 285

Spirocheetes in Phlebotomus perniciosus. — E. Pringault {Gomptes
Rendus Soc. Biol., 1921, 84, 209-10). Report of the abundant occur-
rence of Spirillum-forms in the intestine of this insect. The name
Spirochseta phhhotomi sp. n. is suggested. J. A. T.

Parasitic Protozoa in African Gastropod. ^Froilaxo de Mello
{Gomptes Rendus Soc. Biol, 1921, 84, 241-2). In Paclielabra
mocsfa there were found the following parasites : — Gristispira pachelabrae
sp. n., a large Spiroch^t from the digestive gland : Herpefomonas
pachelabrse sp. n., from the intestine ; Adelea parhelahrse sp. n., a
C'occidian from the digestive gland and free in the intestine. J. A. T.

Experiments on Verneuilina polystropha (Reuss). — ^^E. Heron-
Allen and A. Earland {Proc. R. Irish Acad., 1920, 35, 15;:}-77,
o pis.). An interesting and suggestive paper, finely illnstrated. The
normal T'. polystrophn. is a remarkably " constant " form, singularly free
from the variations and monstrosities which occur in ordinai-y circum-
stances among other Foraminifera. The species exhibits the phenomena
of dimorphism in {a) a long form, which is megalospheric, and (J)) a
sliort form, which is always microspheric. The primordial chamber of
the megalospheric form is sometimes divided into two by an internal
chitiuous septum. A short dwarf form sometimes occurs, which cannot
be confused with a young specimen. Experimental evidence is given
of the tendency of V. poJystropha to select and incorporate heavy
minerals among the normal siliceous sand grains. In a tank with a
mixture of ordinary sand and crushed gems a proportion of the
individuals had utilized gem-splinters of a size and shape utterly
disproportionate to the size of the tests. Another experimental result
nas the production of monsters in a tank with superlimed (hypertonic)
.sea water. It is argued that in a natural system of Foraminifera more
attention will have to be paid to processes of construction and habits of
growth and reproduction, and less to the material employed. J. A. T.

Protozoan and other Parasites in Man. — E,. AV. Hegner and
W^ "\Y. CoRT {Diagnosis of Protozoa and Worms Parasitic in Man,
Baltimore, 1921, 72 pp., 8 pis.). The authors have done a very useful
piece of work in preparing a succinct synopsis of the Protozoa and
Worms parasitic in Man. Much of the new literature is scattered, and
text-books get quickly out of date as regards parasitology. The diagnoses
are short and clear ; the illustrations are good. J. A. T.

New Gregarine from Sandhopper. — R. Poisson {Gomptes Rendus
Soc. BioJ., 1920, 33, lo96-8). In the intestine of Orchestia Uttorea
were found specimens of Didymophyes longissima Sieb. and of Gephalo'ido-
phora hrasili sp. n. The latter is intracellular in its young stages ;
when 20-25 fx. in length it emerges into the lumen. Solitary and syzygial
forms occur. The cysts are spherical, the spores likewise. There is a
general resemblance of the stages to those of G. talitri, but the dimen-
sions are smaller. J. A. T.

Spore of Thelohania. — Helen L. M. Pixell Goodrich {Arch.
Zool. Exper., 1920, 59, 17-9, 2 figs.). From the teased muscle of a

X

286

SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

prawn, Leander {PaJsemon) serrahis, infected with Thelohania octospora,
spores with three long tails were obtained. The tails are delicate
prolongations of the epispore. Inside the sporocyst they are curled
round the spores and take up a considerable amount of space. When

Spore of Thelohania drawn from the living at an approximate magnification of

2000, showing the three tails.

the sporocyst is only ruptured at one spot a tuft of tails from the
enclosed eight spores often projects through the fissure. When dilute
iodine solution is run into the preparation a polar filament is sometimes
shot out from the end opposite the tails. This is apparently the first

Spore of Thelohania after treatment with iodine and blue black ink, showing the
polar filament extruded from the opposite end from the tails.

recorded instance of a tailed spore in true Microsporidia, and furnishes
another point of resemblance between these parasites with minute spores
provided with a polar filament and the family Haplosporidiidte, many
members of which have tailed spores but never a polar filament.

J. A. T.

■»^-=^=-H*-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETG.

287

BOTANY.

(Under the direction of A. B. Rendlb, Isl.X., D.Sc, P.R.S., F.L.S.)

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiolog-y of Seed Plants.

Structure and Development.
Vegetative.

Xylem Tissue in Cycads.— H. B. Sifton {Bot. Gaz., 1920, 70,
425-34, 2 pis., 1 fig.). A study of the primaiy and secondary wood
of Cycads indicates that the reticulate, alternate and opposite pitting
all develop from the scalariform type. The grouped, uniserinte and
scattered pits found in higher types result from the elimination of pits.
The Cordaites have similar pits, but they are not of so fixed a character
as in the Cycads ; the latter, like the Araucariacea^, have the more
primitive form of pit at the ends of the tracheids, in contact with the
parenchyma. Some Cycads have tertiary spiral thickening in the xylem,
while both the primary and secondary wood have bars of Sanio similar
to those of the Araucariacefe, together with other bars of an elongated
type. S. Greves.

Morpholog-y of Cicer.— T. Holm {Bot. Gaz., 1920, 70. 446-.52,
3 pis.). An account of the mor-pholog j of Cicer arietinum ; the follow-

Camh,

Fig. 1. — Cross-section of young root of Cicer arietinuni. x 112.

Ep., epidermis; C, cortex; Ejid., eudodermis ; St., stereome ;
L., leptome ; Canih., cambium.

ing points are characteristic of this species. In the seedling stage the
cotyledons remain underground, the epicotyl is erect, and the first leaves

X 2

288 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

subtend branches ; the whole plant is glandular and pubescent. In-
crease in thickness of the root begins within the stele itself and not in
the pericambium ; the cambium develops as a circular band between
the secondary leptome and hadrome, so that normal increase in thick-
ness is brought about in exactly the same way as in a dicotyledonous
stem. The full-grown root has * numerous stereids. The stem has an
interfascicular cambium, and an endodermis is present in the epicotyl,

End.

St.

Fig. 2. — Part of same root.'* x 744.

\P., pericambium ; other letters as given under fig. 1, on
preceding page.

but disappears in the internodes above. Spherical crystals are found in
the cortex and pith, and especially characteristic are the glandular hairs
covering the surface of the stem. The mechanical tissues of the leaf
are very poorly developed, but there is a dense chlorenchyma, and a
parenchyma-sheath conbuning crystals. Stomata are distributed over
both surfaces of the blade. Thus the structure is that of a xerophilous
plant, which evidently originated in a warm dry climate, possibly Greece
or round the Caspian Sea. S. G.

Structure of Resin-secreting Glands in some Australian Plants.

— Marjorie I. Collins (Froc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 1920,
45, .329-36, 12 figs.). An account of the development of glandular
hairs found in certain species of the Sapindace*. Leguminoseaj, Compo-
sitae and Myoporinea3. In Dodonsea viscosa the hairs are similar to
those previously described for 21 el ano discus, being large in proportion
to the thickness of the young leaf, and showing a tendency towards a
radial arrangement of the peripheral head cells. The first sign of
growth is a projection from the epidermis of a papillose cell ; the
nucleus divides, and the first wall is formed in a vertical direction.
Either of the two cells thus formed may then divide, and the division
may be either in a vertical or oblique direction. The mature glands
are large peltate hairs which overlap and spread to a considerable
distance over the epidermis.

In Acacia riqncola, A. verniciflua, A. armata and A. pycnantha four
types of hairs were found, which have not been previously described.
In A. 7'upicola (Fig. 1) the gland consists of a uniseriate stalk of three
to six small cells formed from a single stalk-cell, surmounted by a large
bead-cell of active secretory character. In A. verniciflua (Figs. 2, o)
the stalk consists of one to four rows of four or more cells surmounted

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

289

by a shield-like head composed of a single layer of eight to sixteen
radiating cells. In A. armata the head is always vertically elongated
and never shield-like. In A. pycnantha (Fig. 4) the hairs are elon-
gated and clnb-shaped, and have probably arisen from the same type

FiG.-l. — Mature gland of Acacia
mpicola, showing uniseriate
stalk and inflated head-cell.
X 230.

Fig. 2. — Surface view of gland of A,
verniciflua. x 230. ,

Fig. 3. — Mature gland of A . verniciflua. x 230.

Fig. 4. — Glandular hair from base of
phyllode of A. pycnantha.
X 200.

Fig. 5.^Glandular hair of
Myopontmserratum. x 280.

as that of A. armata. They are restricted to the zone at the base of
the phyllode.

In the Composite the most common type of gland is shortly stalked
and has a head divided by a median vertical wall into two rows of cells.
Two methods of development are seen in Ixodea achiUeoides and
Helichrysum semipapposum .

290 SUMMAllY OF CUKKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Observations made by the writer on the two genera of the Myopo-
v'mQ2d—Myoporum and Eremophila — confirm Solereder's opinion that
the glands of this group are of an unstable, transitional form. The
most common type found in Myoporum is that seen in varieties of M .
i^erratum (Fig. 5). In Eremophila latifolia the general plan of develop-
ment resembles that of Myoporum, liut the head-shield is composed of
eight cells, and shows two distinct forms ; in one type the vertical
divisions are radial and form a sub-spherical shield of eight radiating
cells. In the other type two sets of approximately parallel divisions
meet the original vertical division at equal angles and form a shield
t)f eight cells arranged in two rows of four. All the gland-cells of
this species contain clustered crystals of calcium oxalate. S. G-.

Reproductive.

Embryo of Gnetum.— H. I. Haining {Bot. Gaz., 1920, 70, 436-44,
3 pis., 1 fig.). The earliest stage of the development of the embryo
was observed in G. fwiicuJare, wheve the pro-embryo consists of a single
cell giving off suspensors in different directions. In most species the
suspensors form a coiled rope-like structure in the cavity of the endo-
sperm, but in G./unicidare and G. Gnemo/i they branch through the
endosperm. In all species except G. Gnemon a peculiar cell at the end
of the true suspensor divides to form a long multicellular secondary
suspensor, and occasionally the tip of the secondary suspensor divides
into a number of branches. Polyeinbryony is the rule, aild usually the
secondary suspensors develop equally for some time, but ultimately one
separates out, while the others are abortive. The entire development is
typical of the gymnosperms except for the reduction in the amount of
free nuclear division in all species, and in the character of the suspensor
in G. Gnemon. S. G.

Flower and Seed of Hedyosmum — J. CI. Edwards {Bot. Gaz.,
1920, 70, 409-24, 3 pis.). An account is given of the development of
the seed in Hedyosmum ?iutans and H. arborescens, which constitute the
two chief subgenera of this genus of Chloranthacese. The male flowers
occur in two long-stalked ovoid catkins at the base of" the female
inflorescence, and each stamen has four microsporaugia. The female
flowers are in few-flowered panicles, and each has a single ovary
apparently formed from three carpels. The perianth, which arises
before the carpels, is attached to the ovary at its three corners and by
two bands of tissue connected respectively with the apex and base. The
perianth is persistent. The ovary is one-celled, with a wall which
becomes thickened into thi'ee distinct layers, forming a protective
covering for the seed. The ovule is pendulous and orthotropous, and
lias two integuments, the inner of which is the longer ; both are
thickened round the micropyle, but elsewhere are almost imperceptible.
The hypodermis of the nucellus gives rise to the primary archesporium,
which divides to form a tapetal cell and an archesporial cell ; the latter
divides into three or four megaspores. of which only the lowest one is
functional. The embryo-sac is of the type common among angiosperms.
The endosperm nucleus is formed from two polar nuclei and possibly a

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIUKOSCOPY. ETC. 291

male nucleus. It divides before the oospore and forms abundant
endosperm, but the cells immediately surrounding the embryo are devoid
of starch for some time. The ripe seed has a poorly developed suspensor
embedded in a globular mass of cells, and a thin seed-coat. At germina-
tion the cotyledons remain embedded in the endosperm until all the
starch is exhausted, when they assume their usual functions. S. G.

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

Size, a Neglected Factor in Stelar Morphology. — F. 0. Bower
{Froc. Boy. Soc. Edinhiirgh, 1920, 41, 1-25, figs.). An address upon
the correlation that may be observed between the size of a plant and its
internal structure. The relation of surface to bulk is discussed and the
effect which this would have upon the diffusion of gases and salts. The
endodermis is a living barrier placed between the stele and the surround-
ing tissues, and controls the diffusion of gases and solutions between
the outer tissues and the conducting system. The case of protostelic
ferns is first considered ; and it is shown how with increasing size the
cylindric stele becomes more and more deeply fluted, the area of the-
endodermis being thereby immensely extended. The solenostely, poly-
cycly, perforation, and dictyostely of the Leptosporangiate ferns are
then discussed ; the breaking up of the vascular tracts into meristeles,
each surrounded by its endodermis, leads to free communication between
cortex and medulla, and increases the proportion of endodermal surface.
Other instances are found in the tubers of Nephrolepis and Equisetum,
in the stipes and the root of ferns, in Selaginella, in the large prop-
roots of certain palms, in small Monocotyledonous stems. In plants
which possess secondary thickening, such as the Dicotyledons and
Gymnosperms, the endodermis soon becomes disorganized under the
stress of the growing cambium. It is suggested that by examining
the sheaths which surround the vascular tracts, their presence or
absence, their structure and permeability, and their approximate relations
to size, a better understanding of the vascular systems of plants, aiid
especially of the ferns, will be arrived at than by the most carefully
drawn comparisons of mere formal anatomy. Size must be considered
not only from the point of view of strength and external form, but also
from its tendency to modify internal structure and disposition of
tissues. A. Gepp.

G-rouping and Mutation in Botrychium. — Charles J. Chamber-
lain {Bot. Gaz., 1920, 70, 387-98, figs.). A discussion of the status
of Botrychium dissectum. While in Ophioglossum there is abundant
Vegetative propagation by branching of the rhizome, this is not the
case in Botrychium \ for in Botrychium reproduction is by means of
spores and prothallia of the subterranean tuberous type which need to.
be associated with an endophytic fungus. The plants always occur in
groups, and such groups have l:)een carefully studied and plotted on
charts for some years by the author. Plants of B. viryinianum are

292 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

much more numerous than those of B, obliquum, which again are far
more numerous than those of B. dissectnm. The distinguishing characters
of B. dissectnm and B. ohUquimi are indicated, the most suggestive
difference being, in the fertile spike, where in B. dissectum a large
number of abortive sporangia occur: Examination shows that B. dissec-
tum is partially, or probably, entirely sterile ; and the conclusion is
reached that this plant is a sterile mutant from B. obliquiwi. It never
occurs save in association with B. obliquum, and there is no evidence
that it reproduces itself. • A. G.

Gametophyte and Embryo of Botrychium obliquum Mtihl. —
D.H.Campbell {Anmds of Botany, 1921, 35, 141-58). The summary
of this paper runs as follows: — 1. The gametophyte and sexual organs
of Botrychium ohliquum do not differ essentially from those of other
species. 2. The embryo differs in several important particulars from
both B. Lunaria and B. virginianum, resembling the latter in having
the cotyledon well developed, but differing in the endogenous origin
of the root, in the bipolar arrangement of cotyledon and root, and
especially in the presence of a suspensor. The embryo is much more
like that of some species of Ophioglossum and Dansea than it is like
other species of Botrychium. ?>. The stem apex grows from a single
apical cell, which is much like that of Ophioglossom vidyatum. The
young cotyledon also has a single apical cell. 4. There is a single
primary vascular strand which extends without interruption from the
cotyledon into the root. There is no cauline stele, and the primary
vascular strand is augmented later by additions from the traces of the
second and third leaves. 5. The cotyledon has a ternate lamina with
dichotomous venation. The bundle of the petiole is collateral in
structure. 6. The root early develops a conspicuous tetrahedral apical
cell, and its development is much like that of the later roots. The
bundle is usually diarch, but may be monarch.

B. lunaria, B. obliquum and B. virginianum represent three types
of adult sporophyte which differ in a number of particulars — viz. form,
texture, and venation of the leaf ; size of sporangium ; position of
sporaugiophore ; character of leaf -base. The author believes ^. virgini-
anum to differ from other species sufficiently to justify the raising of
the sub-genus Osmundopteris to generic rank, and would restrict the
name Botrychium to B. lunaria and its near allies ; whereas, should
the other species of the Ternatum group agree with B. ohliquum in the
structure of the embryo, there would be ample reason for accepting
Lyon's genus tSceptridium. A. Gr.

Missing Link in Osmundites, — M. C. Stopes {Annals of Botany,
1921, 35, 55-61, 1 pi. and lig.). A description and discussion of a
waterworn fossil specimen of Osmundites from AVollumbilla Creek,
Queensland, described as probably cretaceous, and now preserved partly
in the British Museum (ISI'atural History) and partly in the National
Museum at Melbonrne. It represents a portion of a rhizome with the
surrounding leaf-bases, and is remarkable in possessing a solid stele and
normal, simple Osmundaceous meristeles in the leaf-bases. It is of

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. 293

importance as indicating the type of structure from which the vascular
systems of the Osmundaceas were derived. A. Gr.

Anatomy of Equisetum arvense.— A. Maillefee (.4/// Soc.
Elvetkd Sci. Nat. Lugano : 6-9 Settembre, 1919, pt. II. Aarau : 1920,
p. 110). The bundles of the leaf-sheath have a centripetal xylem placed
below a phloem bundle ; the anatomical arrangement in the leaf is the
excentric arrangement of Ghauveau (1911). In the stem the leaf-trace
is reduced to two vessels placed side by side so that the xylem is formed
neither in a centrifugal nor in a centripetal manner ; it should however
be regarded as virtually centripetal ; a lacuna is soon formed round these
vessels ; the metaxylem is also centripetal : one must not however
follow Owyune-Yaughau (1901) in regarding it as the analogue of the
cauline centripetal xylem of the Lycopodiaceas : for it is formed after
the leaf-traces (protoxylem), and is clearly in relation with the roots
formed at the base of the adventive buds, to which it bears the same
relation as the xylem of a branch does to itsradicels. One could explain
this carious anatomy of the Equ,ketum stem by saying that it is a
combination of a stem with an excentric arrangement and a root, or
again that the stem contains at the same time a siphonostele and an
actinostele : the vascular lacuna represents the xylem of the stem, and
the metaxylem the xylem of the root ; the phloem is in common. This
combination of the anatomy of a stem with that of a root is due to a
physiological cause — the fact that the stem is a rhizophore. A. G.

Further Notes on the Ecology of Phyllitis hybrida.— V. Vouk
{Oest. Jjot. Zeitsclir., 1916, 897-9). A continuation of the discussion
between the author and Morton on the subject. The former designated
FhylUtis hybrida as a mesophyte with well-developed xerophytic
adaptations. Morton describes it as a typical hygrophyte. In the
present paper A'ouk meets Morton's complaints of insufficient attention
to his argument, discusses the change of ecological conditions caused
by the felling of woodland, and maintains that though forest plants are
shade plants they are by no means always hygrophytes. Xerophyte
and hygrophyte designate ecological extremes, and the same species
cannot tolerate both conditions. Since P. hybrida is found in shady
damp clefts and hollows in limestone rocks, as well as often in open
sunny xerophil localities, Vouk regards it (as stated above) as a meso-
phyte with well -developed xerophytic adaptations. By no means is it a
hygrophyte. Its xerophytic characters are its compact, rosette-like
habit ; coriaceous, thick and ligulate leaves ; firm epiclermis : hairiness
(scales) ; the same characters as those of Christ's xerophytic form of
Elaphoglossum. The author maintains that the factors " shade " and
"damp " must be regarded as absolutely distinct, and proposes to carry
out experiments to prove his contention. As regards its ecology, P.
hybrida entirely resembles Ceterach officinalis, which is on the -^diole a
xerophyte, provided with all xerophytic characters; but at the same
time a dweller of clefts and hollows under a somewhat altered appear-
ance. Both species are capable of adaptation. Since the cardinal
points of light-requirement are very wide for both plants, they may be

294: SUMiMAliY OF CUEKENT EESEAKCHES EELATING TO

regarded as euryphotic, in contrast to P. hemionitis, which is apparently
stenophotic. They might also be regarded as euryxerophil, while P.
hemionitis is stenohygrophil. E. S. Gepp.

Ferns of Papuasia. — G. Brause (Bugler's Boi. Jdhrluch, 1920,
56, 31-160). An account of the ferns collected by C. Ledermann
during his Sepik River expedition in 1912-13, and of previous collec-
tions in Papua, together with an enumeration of all species hitherto
recorded from Papuasia. This includes some 550 species comprised in
43 genera, and provides by far the most complete list of the rich
Papuan fern-flora yet produced. A. G.

New or Interesting- Malayan Ferns. II. — C. R. W. K. van^

Alderwerelt van RosenburCtH {BuJl. Jardin Botan. Bnifenzon/,
1920, 2, 129-186). A supplement to the author's works on Malayan
ferns, with descriptions of fifty new species of ferns and ten new fern-
allies. A. G.

Bryophyta,

Gametophyte and Sex Organs of Reboulia hemisphserica. —
Arthur W. Haitpt (Bot. Gaz., 1921, 71, 61-74, figs.). An investi-
gation into the structure of this plant, with the following summary : —

(1) Reboulia comprises a single polymorphic species, R. hemisphserica,
belonging to the Operculatge division of the sub-family Marchantioidete.

(2) The thallus bears both smooth and pegged rhizoids and two-ranked
ventral scales without appendages ; it is differentiated into a dorsal and
a ventral region,- and grows by means of a single cuneate apical cell.

(3) Air chambers are abundantly formed, and develop by centripetal
splittings ; they are sub-divided by secondary partitions, but contain
no chlorophyllose filaments. (4) The air pores of the female receptacle
are barrel-shaped, while those of the thallus and male receptacle are
made up of a single layer of concentric cells. (5) Reboulia is monoe-
cious (autoicous). The antheridial receptacle is sessile, and several
may be produced during the growing season ; but the formation of the
archegonial receptacle terminates apical growth of the thallus and
represents a definite branch system, as among the higher members of
the order. (6) The antheridia develop like those of the other
Marchantiales. (7) In the development of the archegonium the three
vertical walls follow the appearance of a transverse wall in the initial
cell, and further development is typical ; eighteen to twenty neck canal
cells are formed, but only four are present at the time of division of the
ventral cell. (8) Several growing points are organized in the female
receptacle from segments' of the apical cell of the thallus, and each new
apical cell comes to lie in a receptacle notch. Only one (rarely two)
archegonium is formed from the immediate segment of each apical cell.

A. Gepp.

Variations of the Gametophyte of the CephaloziellacepB.—
C. DouiN {Revue Generale de Botanique, 1916, 28. 251-6, 257-88,
800-20, 329-49 ; see also Bot. GentraJbl, 1918, 138, 239). The aim
of this paper is (1) to show the variations of the several organs under

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 295

different ecological conditions ; (2) to indicate concisely the develop-
ment of the leaves with a view to deriving a practical and rational
method of measuring the cells : (3) to estimate the systematic value of
the organs of the gametophyte. The author made a great number of
cultures with a view to testing the variability of the species under the
influence of such external conditions as light, heat, moisture, soil ; and
gives his results. In the matter of cell-measurement he discusses such
questions as whether the mere lumen should be measured, or whether
half the thickness of the cell-wall should be included at each end of
the diameter ; whether extreme cells, the largest and the smallest, should
be measured, or whether the average of the cells measured provides a
better character ; whether both the length and the width of the cells
should be taken, or the width only ; which cells ought to be measured.
In summing up, the author finds it advisable to employ the characters
of the sporogonium for -defining the family Cephaloziellacea?, while the
yenera2kXQ based upon the characters of the involucre and the propagula ;
the suh-genera and groups of species upon the leaf -lobes, the insertion of
the leaves, the amphigastria, the involucre, the inflorescence ; the species
and varieties upon the size of the cells, the papillae, the inflorescence,
the width of the lobes, the denticulation of the perigonial leaves, the
perianth (whether cladocarpous or acrocarpous), the lateral and dorsal
denticulation of the leaves, etc. A. G.

New or Rare British Hepatics.— W. E. Nicholson {Journ. of
i>o/., 1921, 59, 202-4). Critical notes on the following species: —
Riccia Hueheneriana Lindenb., discovered at Horsted Keynes, Sussex,
and compared . with R. pseudo-frostii. Gephalozia spinifi.ora Schiffn.,
gathered on Ambersham Common, Sussex, and issued* in Schiffner's
exsiccatffi as G. macrostachya Kaal., but now shown to be distinct from
the latter species, and therefore constituting an addition to the British
Flora. Crphaloziella elachista (Jack) Schiffn. var. spinigera (Lindb.)
K. MiilL, discovered with well-developed perianths in the bogs of
Ashdown Forest : the affinities with G. striatuJa, etc., are discussed.

A. G.

Contribution to a Knowledge of the HepaticsB of Kataiiga
(Belgian Cong-o).— G. Gola {Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Italiaiio, 1920, 27,
24-4-O0, 1 pi.). An account of a small collection of hepatics collected
on the bark of shrubs on the pastoral savannah near Elizabethvillc by
Dr. Bovone. Descriptions of nine new species are given, belonging
chiefly to the genera FJagiochila and Lejeunea. A. G.

Influence of Water on submerged Mosses. -A. HAMMERScmrm
i^Mit. Bayer. Bot. GeselL, 1917, 3, ;;95-4:Ul ; see also Bot. GentraJbl,
1918, 138, 313). The upper part of Hypnum aduncum Hedw. { = H.
Kneiftii Schimp.), when submerged, becomes H. pseadojiviians, showing
that the latter is merely the waterform of H. aduncum. H.-fl.uiians
and H. subtiiersum stand in similar relation. H. rotse is the waterform
of H. exannulatwn, ?ind H.fallaz is the springwater form of H.filicinum.
Springwater acts very strongly on H. commutatum either by lengthening
the leaves or by a reduction ; while rushing water causes also a strength-
ening of the midrib. Hyyroamblysteyium crassinervium is probably

296 SIJMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

merely a waterform of H. commutatimi. Dichodontium flavescens is the
waterform of D. pellmidum. Fourteen other species are discussed in
connexion with waterforms, certain of which become specially modified
morphologically by dripping water, and form so-called " drip-forms."

E. S. Gepp.

New British Sphagna. — J. A, Wheldon {Journ. ofBot., l'.>21, 59,
185-8, 1 fig.). A critical account with diagnoses of new varieties and
forms of Sphagnum detected in Britain. The most interesting of these
is S. hercynicnm var Binsteadii, from Cefn Hill in Herefordshire, a
variety of a rare and local species only once found in the Harz
Mountains. The new British variety also approaches the common
S. inundatum, but is separated from it by some very distinct characters.

A. G.

Reports on Two Collections of Mosses from British East Africa. —
H. N. Dixon {Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, li)20, 72. Xo. ;'>,
20 pp., 2 pis.). The first collection, made by the Dummer-Maclennan
Expedition to Mount Elgon in 1918, contains nearly fifty specits, ten of
which are described as new, including interesting new species of
Holomitrium, Bryimi and Braunia. The second is small (eight species),
but contains the type of a new genus, Kleioweisiojms, which has the
habit of Astomum. A. Gr.

Bryological Notes.— H. N. Dixon {Journ. ofBot., 1921, 59, 132-9).
This seventh chapter of the author's Uiscetkmea Bryologica contains
critical notes on, inter alia, the misunderstood Hypnum repUcatmn
Hampe, which really is a Semaiophyllum of quite unusual habit.
Hypnum limatum Hook. f. & AVils. and H. australe C. Miill. from
Campbell Island are synonyms, and must be referred to Isotheciuni and
not to Ectropotheciam. A remarkable species of SchivetscliJcea from East
Africa has highly papillose leaves. Hypnum lithophyllum Hook. f. &
Wils. from Hermite Island is synonymous with H. secundifolium
C. Miill., and is certainly not a Rhaphidostegium, but should be placed
in the genus Drepanodadus. Porotrichum elegantissimum IMitt. from
Samoa is shown to be identical with P. kuhliana of the Bryologia
Javanica, and both have been placed in the genus Pinnatella by
Fleischer. A. Gr.

Distribution of Mosses in Sweden. V. Polytrichacese : Part I.—
Hjalmar Moller {Arhiv for Botanik., 1921. 16, No. 8, 84 pp., 2 pis.).
This part deals with the genera Catharinseu, Psilopilum, OUgotrichum,
Pogonatum. It is written in Swedish, and discusses the synonymy,
ecology and local distribution of each species and variety, including
critical notes, and, where necessary, a description. Valuable figures of
the lamella3 are given in plate 2, showing them as they appear when
detached from the leaf. A. G.

Thallophyta.

Aigee.

Phytoplankton of some Norwegian Lakes. — K. M. Str0m {Viden-
skap. Shift. I. Mat.-Nat. KL, 1921, No. 4, 51 pp. 3 pis.). The

ZOOLOGY A.ND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. 297

material of this investigation was collected at various times by H.
Huitfeldt-Kaas from lakes in all parts of Southern N'orway. A short
account of each lake is given, with details of the samples taken and the
species they contained ; followed by a tabulated list of the species and
their frequency in the various lakes, as well as theii- presence or absence
in British and Danish lakes. After a systematic account of the more
interesting species, the author gives a summary of the conclusions
resulting from the investigation. The Desmidiace^ are among the
very few fresh-water algte that have a really geographical distribution,
owing to the fact that they soon perish by desiccation in a vegetative
state, and they rarely produce zygotes. Geographical communities of
Desmids already differentiated are Caledonian, Indo-Malayan, Australian
and Arctic. Barriers are probably formed more efficiently by large
tracts of unfavourable localities than even by the oceans. The
Desmidiaceffi that have the most distinctive geographical distribution
are chiefly those that make the greatest claims on the pliysical resources
of the growing-places. The author considers that absence of lime is
the main condition on which the occurrence of Desmids depends, which
confirms the view held by Messrs. W. and G. S. West. The replenish-
ment of the Desmid flora in lakes is provided by the washing down of
benthos species from surrounding bogs, and those species that have
been most fit for the pelagic life have flourished and propagated there,
and developed into new species of plankton. Examples are given of
the process, which is in course of evolution. Three groups of plankton
Desmids are characterized as follows : — (1) Desmidiacete belonging to
the microphytic benthos, washed off into the plankton accidentally but
not propagating there; (2) Desmidiaceaj originating from the micro-
phytic benthos, but propagating under the pelagic conditions of life ;
(8) varieties or species only occurring in the plankton, specified by
Messrs. West as (Pv) and (P), in their " British Freshwater Phyto-
plankton,'-' 1909.

At present only one plankton formation can be clearly defined —
namely, the Caledonian — and this is frequently found in lakes in
Sweden, jSTorway up to71 N. Lat., the Faroes, Iceland, the British
Isles, etc. The Danish plankton has, on the other hand, a typical
Baltic character. The Desmidiacete constitute about one-half of the
plankton species and varieties in the lakes discussed in the present
paper. E. S. Gepp.

Phytoplankton from Lake Wig-ry near Suwalki in Poland.—
B. Schroder {Ber. DeutscJi. Bot. GeselL, 1917, 35, :^56-66 ; see also
Bot. Gentralbl, 1918, 138, 294). Material collected on Aug. 24, 1917,
contained a considerable quantity of Anabaena Jios-aquse, and a still
larger proportion of Microcystis seruginosa, Characium de baryanum,
Ceratium hiruncUneUa, Fragilaria krotonmsis, Eudorina eUgans, and
Spliserocgstis schroterL On the other hand, many species characteristic
of Baltic lakes were lacking. Possibly they occurred at other times of
the year. Ceratium hirundindla was present in three forms : with two
ant-apical horns: with two normal and a third rudimentary; and with
three normal ant-apical. The preponderating form in the Wigry lake

298 SUiMMAKY OF GUKRKNT KP:8EAKCHKS RELATING TO

is that with three horns, a form which in the Kochel lake has only a
7 p.c. representation. On the whole, these forms from the "\Yigry lake
resemble those from the Alpine mid-European or Northern lakes ;
which refute.s the theory of local variations of the organism. Tem-
porary variations in the formation of horns in the Wigry lake is con-
sidered improbable by the author. Special attention is drawn to the
occurrence of five plankton epibionts, which are enumerated.

E. S. G.

Notes on the Systematics of Fresh-water Algae. — E. Xaumann
(Ark.f. Bot., 1921, 16, No. 2, 16 pp., 12 figs.). A series of five notes
on algge of systematic interest, which have attracted the author's atten-
tion during years of biological study of fresh-water algse.

I. On SideroceUs, a nmv section of the genus ChloreJla {Beyer hicJc). —
This section is formed for the reception of a species which appeared in
a pond at Ugglehult in Smaland, Sweden, after befoulment with fish-
and flesh-meal. The cells, not exceeding 8 /x, are planktonic and round-
ish, having a green cup-shaped chromatophore, and are surrounded by
a brown warty membrane. Reproduction is by autospores. The warts
on the membrane consist almost entirely of iron oxide, and in considera-
tion of their chemical morphology they are placed in a special section
of Clilorella. Three species are described, two of which occurred in an
open-air basin in the Botanic Garden of Lund.

II. On some new species of the Helophil nannoplanJcton. — Formal
diagnosis of five new species and varieties formally submitted to
Lemmermann for description in a proposed work on Swedish plankton.
They are already known as forming constituents of " water-bloom."

III. Chrysococctis cordifonnis sp.n. — A description of an organism
occurring in the intestinal-contents of Entomostraceaj. Owing to a
failure to separate off living material by centrifugal action, the author
is unable to draw up a complete diagnosis, but he puts forward the
present account with a view to eliciting further information.

IV. Brachionococcus, a neiv genus of Chlorophyceae. — K description
of an alga found some years ago in an investigtition of the influence of
certain refuse matters on the biology of fresh water. It is fairly round,
not exceeding 7 • 5 /x diam., has one parietal chromatophore, and con-
tains starch. Reproduction is by autospores in the manner typical of
Chlorella. Occasionally the daughter cells remain connected by delicate
strands to the old remains of the shell, forming a kind of transitory
colony.

V. Nannochloris, a neiv genus of Chlorophycese. — The organisms in
question are very small, 2 ' 5 //.-3 • 5 fx. Each has one parietal chromato-
phore and an unsculptured, though in preserved material sharply
marked, membrane. Reproduction by simple division. No colonies.
Gelatine not present, or at the most in irregular scattered filaments.
Two species are described. The systematic position of Nannochloris is
probably near Nahnochloster Pascher. E. S. G.

Notes on the Biology of Fresh-water Alg-ss. — E.Naumanx (Ark.f
Bot., li)21, 16, No. 1, 11 pp., 7 figs.). The first of a series of notes. It
is entitled, " On the Occurrence of Iron Oxide in a Species of the Genus

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 299

Lijnyhijay After a shoi-t reference to previous work on the subject,
the author describes an active growth of a Z///e^%«-association, found
in the autumn of 1916 on a surface of mud which contained a consider-
able precipitation of FcoOg-gel, in an aquarium tank at Aneboda.
He identified the species as L. martensiana, although it differed in the
size of the sheath. Gradually a deposit takes place of granules of iron
oxide in irregulai' quantities on the sheath, attaining its maximum only
on dead individuals. The deposit is not connected in any way with tbe
activity of the Lynghya cells, but is purely chemical and mechanical.
Various stages of deposition and consequent malformation are figured.
A discussion on L. acliracm (Kiitz.) Thur. proves its identity with
Ghlamydothrix ochracea (Kiitz.) Mig., the latter name having the
priority. The author has not found his species of Lynghya again in
any of his further researches in localities where iron abounds, and be
concludes that it is a sporadic form. The formation of the well-known
forms of iron ore — ^' Bohnen " and " Gelderz " — are quite independent
of an algal substratum. E. S. G.

Alg-ological Notes. — K. M. Str0m {Nyt May. Nat.-videmlc, 1921,
59, 14 pp. 1 pi.). The first contribution to a series of short notes on
algfe and plankton,

I. Some Desmids from North Australia. — This is a list of species
of desmids found growing on algae, which themselves grew abundantly
on a tortoise from the lagoons near Daly River. Twenty-four species
are recorded, among them many rare ones, hitherto recorded only once
or twice. The collection is markedly of an Indo-Malayan and Austra-
lasian type.

II. Fresh-ivater alyse and plankton from Finmark. — The algje were
from Skj0tningberg and Oksef jord in the extreme north of Finmark.
Twenty-seven species are recorded, only one of which, Enastrum crassi-
colle, has an essentially northern distribution. The plankton was
collected in Nedre Oksef jordvand, a lake of considerable size, in .luly
1920. It was rich and varied, and was of a striking Caledonian type.
Mallomonas acaroides, Dinoiryon diveryens, Staurastrum lunatum var.
planctonicum, and *S'. paradoxum occurred in great abundance. Among
the desmids, Pleurotseniimi ehrenheryii was present in the form described
bv Messrs. West from Loch Fadaghoda.

III. The Germination of the zooyonidia of Stigeodonium temie.—The
process is described. The author finds that this alga very often survi^^es
the winter in a vegetative state, and her own experience is that perhaps

. the greater number -of algse pass the winter without producing resting
spores.

IV. Resting spores of Pediastrum. — These were collected in 1907 by
Dr. N. Wille at Lyng0r, a small fishing village in 8.E. N^orway. The
cells when dry looked like red sand, possibly owing to the presence of
hasmatochrom, and they contained a fat oil. The contents were sur-
rounded by a separate cell-wall. The resting form of Pediastrum must
therefore be regarded as an aplanospore, in the Wille sense. In Septem-
ber 1919 the material was • cultivated, and germinated into normal
Pediastrum colonies, after a lapse of twelve years. E. 8. G.

300 SUMMAEY OF CUKEENT KESEAUCHES RELATING TO

Contributions to a Knowledge of the Alg-al Flora of Litau. —
J. WoLOSZYNSKA {Bull. Acad. Sci. Cracovie, 01. math.-nat. ser. B, Set.
Nat., l'J17, 123-30 ; see also Bot. Centralhl, 1918, 138, 214).

I. Lake SwitBZ near Nowogrodek shows a poor developmeut of
plankton algse. Diatoms are entirely lacking. Flagellates almost
entirely : Dinoflagellates are only represented by a few common species ;
Schizophycete are not frequent. The commonest alga? are Proto-
coccace^e and Desmidiacete, belonging partly to the plankton, partly
to the shallow shore-zone. Scenedesmvs antermatus Breb. is cha-
racteristic of the shallow sandy shore exposed to strong wave-action.
Its coenobia attach themselves to the sand grains to avoid being
dragged down to deeper darker levels. The new var. tetrad esmifoi'mis
shows the characteristic cell arrangement of Tetradesmus Sm., which
genus might be regarded as a sub-genus of Scenedesmus. It would
then include T. ivisconsiiiensis Sm., *S'. antermatus var. tetradesmiformis
and Victoriella ostenfeldii Wol. The following species are shown to
be polymorphous : — Scenedesmus costatus Schmidle, S. armatus Chod.,
Oocystis soUtaria Wittr. with vars. asymmetrka and 2)achyderma,
Pediastrum horyanum, P. anyidosum var. acaneosum, P. integrum,
and P. tetras with var. lithuanka. Nine species of Desmids are
characteristic of the lake. The commonest Flagellate and Peridinian
are respectively Dinohryoii cylhidrkum Imh. var. palustre Lemm. and
Staszkella dinohryonis Wol. Cosmopolitan, mountain and northern,
and some endemic species are also present.

II. Jezioro Czarne near Bereza Kartuska has a rich plankton, par-
ticularly Pedkistrum, Scenedesmus, Aukistrodesmus, Glowtrkhki echinulata
("water-bloom"), and Lafferheimkt Ghodatl Bern., hitherto recorded
only from Java. For certain species of Scenedesmus a spiral curve of
the colonies (*S^. acuminatus), for others a wave-like one, is characteristic.
In many species of Pediastrum the processes curve towards each other
in the same way as in P. Tcawraiskyi. The sterile filaments, free of
heterocysts, of Aphanizomenon ftos-aqtise, resemble exactly OsciUatoria
ayctrdhii, and are possibly identical. E. S. G.

Some Algae from Hot Springs in Spitzbergen. — K. M. Strj^^m
{Bot. Notiser, 1921, 17-21). This list of twenty-four species of Myxo-
phycese, Diatomacea?, Chlorophyceae, Conjugataj, and Characea3 includes
all the alga3 known from the hot springs in Spitzbergen. Thirteen of
them are new records to the country, and were collected from the hot
springs Troldkilderne and Jotunkilderne in the vicinity of Bock Bay.
The temperature of the water varies generally from 20-25° C, but rises
occasionally to 28 '3° C Prof. Nordstedt determined the single Ghara
record as a new form, Spitshergensis, of Gh. aspera. From that species
it differs however conspicuously, and he suggests that it may when
cultivated change into a more common form. E. S. Gr.

Biological Investigations of the Thermal Water of Croatia and
Slavonia. — Y. Youk {Prirodoslov. istrcmvanj. Hrvatske i Slavonije.
Zagreb, 1919, 14, 127-42, 1 pi. ; see also Izvjesca {BuUetin) Mat.-Prir.
Razreda Zagreb, 1919, Sv. 11, 12, 49-56). ■ In this, the second instal-
ment of results, the acrothcrmal springs of Topusko and the euthermal

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 301

springs in Daruvar are principally considered. Notes are also given on
the thermal waters of Sv. Helena near Samobor ; Lesee near Generalski
stol ; and Podsused near Zagreb. Three springs of Topusko were
examined, the temperature of the water varying from 52-57" C. The
springs in the open meadows showed a surface encrusted with alg£e, and
layers of membranous green alga at the bottom of the basin. They
were both composed of two species, Mastigodadus kiminosus Cohn and
Phnrmidium laminosuin var. accernhscens, a new variety founded on the
absence of reaction with chlorzinc-iodine. Species of OaciUatoria and
Pliormidium, etc., occurred according to the lower degrees of temperature
in the waste channel, but no general marked effect in the vegetation of
the thermal area was observed which could be traced to the action of
the raised ground temperature. The Daruvar springs are next described.
Several of them show a remarkable dissimilarity of their algal flora.
Lynghya molischi was the principal constituent of one spring. The
three other thermal waters and their respective floras are briefly discussed.
In the original Czecho-slovak edition of this paper the Cyanophyceae
formations in the hitherto investigated euthermal waters are set forth
in tabular form, together with the temperature limits of each species.
The individuality of the various localities is there demonstrated, although
certain species, Mastigodadus la^ninosus, Phormidium laminosuin, Hypheo-
thrix thermalis, OsciJlatoria cortiana, and 0. Okenii are more widely
distributed. Desmids are entirely lacking, and Diatoms are very rare.
Chlorophyceffi barely reach to a temperature of 35° C, though in Asia
and America they are found in hotter waters. The Czecho-slovak hot
springs are almost entirely characterized by pure Cyanophycere-forma-
tions, E. 8. (t.

Chservations on Gloeotaenium Loitlesbergerianum Hansg. —
G. HuBER {Att. Soc. Elvetica >Sci. Nat. lOO" Congresso, Lugano,
1919. Part II. Aarau, 1920, p. 111). Matel'ial found in Canton Glarus
by the author in 1907 constituted the first record for Switzerland. An
examination of the morphology and development gives the following
results : — The " concrements " formed in the coenobial membrane and the
polar chambers are composed of calcium carbonate, a fact which was
the more difficult to establish since the contact with acid, either organic
or inorganic, produced no effervescence. This was owing to the
carl)onate being finely broken up and enclosed on all sides by colloids.
G. loitlesbergerianum was found in stages of one, two, three and four
cells, the four-celled tetrahedral coenobia being especially noteworthy. A
newly observed condition is the so-called Hemicoenobium, which must be
regarded as a completely developed two-celled coenobium which has arisen
through subsequent division. The girdle-shaped " concrements "
probably serve principally to keep the cells in position : any physiological
role they may play has yet to be discovered. Reproduction is carried
on exclusively by daughter-cells, which escape by dehiscence. The
very early foundation and development of the girdle-concrements and
of the polar chambers was observed and followed. A new variety, var.
irregulare, is described. The author records further the occurrence of
G. loitlesbergerianum in the Beetsee in N.E. Switzerland. E. S. G.

Y

302 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Contributions to a Knowledge of the Fresh-water Algse of
Croatia. — Y. Vouk {Prirodoslov. istraziva?ij. Hrvafske i Slavonije. Zagreb,
1919, 14, 145-50, 1 pi. ; see also Izvjesca {Bulletin) Mat.-Prir. Razreda
Zagreb, 1919, Sv. 11, 12, 57-60). The first note is entitled '' Lemanea
fucina Atk. and other algte from the neighbourhood of Gospic."
L.fucina was found growing in rushing water under a weir in the river
Lika. It did not correspond wholly with Sirodot's diagnosis, having
three to five or even seven to eight antheridial papilla, as against two
to three. Other differences are the abrupt narrowing of the stem at
the base and the extraordinarily copious branching of the almost pilif orm
branches. It generally begins first in the middle of the fruiting portion
of the thallus. Atkinson's diagnosis fitted the Lika plant better.
Unf ortunatelv no Chantransia stase was found. L. fucina is a well-marked
reikophyte, i.e. an inhabitant of rushing Avater. The reikophytic adapta-
tion is shown in the rich branching and in the copious development of
carpospores. The entire inner surface of the hollow fruiting thallus is
filled with sporangia which remain sheltered till maturity. After their
escape through the torn thallus, the large number of spores increases
the chance of survival. Another well-marked character of this reiko-
phyte is the unusually well-developed power of vegetative regeneration
of portions of the thallus. A short list of other species from the vicinity
of Gospic is given, including Hgdrurus fcBtidus f . penicillatus. The
second note in this paper records the finding of Thorea ramosissima
Bory in Croatia, in the brook Toplica near Sv. Jana, by Jaska. Small
plants were growing at the exit of the thermal spring from the basin,
while in the brook itself quantities of it were growing, reaching a length
of a metre. The nearest locality to this record is in the Danube near
Beograd. The Toplica material showed the short assimilators which
have been called monospores. E. S. G.

On the Ferruginous Cyanophycese. — Y. Youk {Rad Jugoslav. AJcad.
Zagreb, 1920, 223, 12S-H7). Records a new species of Lyngbya,
L. molischi, which has abundant deposits of ferric oxide in its sheaths-
It was found in the thermal waters of Daruvar. This discovery led to
an examination of preserved material of about fifty difl^erent species of
Cyanophycete, only eight of which gave a positive iron reaction. These
all had pectinous sheatbs and mucilaginous strata, but did not include
any species of Oxcillatoria. All pi'cserved material from the thermal
waters of Topusko and Daruvar reacted pusitively with potassium ferro-
cyanide ; but the author regards this infiltration of iron as a post-mortem
process. L. molischi alone shows marked deposits of iron in its sheaths.
Of all other algte investigated only three species have given the positive
reaction, Phormidium papyraceum f. lutescens, P. antliariwn, and
P. tinctorium. In all these the ferruginous deposit was in the mucila-
ginous layers and not in the pectinous sheaths. The distribution of
iron was irregular. Most was found in P. tinctorium. The author regards
them as belonging to Gaidukov's second group of iron-organisms, which
deposit iron only on the surface, and calls them "optional iron-organisms."
Lynrjbya molischi and probably also L. ferruginea, L. ochracea and
H ydrocoleus ferrugiiius belong to the first group of " obligatory" iron-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 303

organisms, like Trachelomonas and Glosterium. Iron is not however
absolutely necessary to them. E. S. G.

Desmid Flora of a Triassic District. — G. T. Haeris {Journ.
QueJcett Micros. Club, 192u, 14, 2G pp.). The district in question lies
in E. Devon, between the estuaries of the Exe and the Axe. The
object of this investigation was to compare the Desmid flora of this
district with that of Dartmoor, in order to estimate the influence of
geological beds in the species density of the Desmid flora. The methods
of collecting, the time expended in field work, and the number of
gatherings made were roughly the same for both districts. A compara-
tive table of the two floras is drawn up, which gives a total of 287
species for E. Devon (Triassic) and 282 for Dartmoor (Palaeozoic) :
indicating therefore that the factors influencing the richness or poverty
of Desmid floras must be sought for elsewhere than in the geological
beds upon Avhich the habitats stand. This conclusion is confirmed by
a recent investigation of the Desmid flora of a district on Eocene beds.
A census list at the end of this paper adds 122 species and varieties to
the Desmid flora of Devon, bringing it up to a total of about 500.
Zygospores are specially noted in connexion with their respective
species, principally because they occurred in the spring gatherings.
They appear to be freely produced in March and April, and were even
found in the winter months in a condition which indicated recent
conjugation. A description is given of the physical features of the
bogs from which collections were made, followed by special notes ou
certain of the species. E. S. G-.

Subterranean Algal Flora. — G. T. Moore and J. L. Karu'eu (Ann.
Minnesota Bat. Gard., 1919, 16, 281-307 ; see also Bot. Gaz., 1921.
71, 78). An account of the discovery of a subterranean algal flora, in-
dependent of the terrestrial flora and to a great degree of the character
and locality of the soil. An analysis was made of a variety of soils
collected in Missouri, California and Massachusetts. The samples were
collected at dift'erent depths under sterile conditions and in localities
where the soil had not been disturbed for a number of years. These
were placed in bottles containing an amount of sterile algal nutrient
solution and sterile sand. After several weeks alga? were found in small
amounts sufficient for study. It was thus shown that alga^ exist in the
soil to a depth of 1 metre at least, under conditions which preclude the
possibility of surface infection. A wide variety of species were found,
but of particular interest is the fact that Proioderma viride Kiitz.
occurred at all depths and in all the samples obtained in the widely
separated localities. E. S. G.

New Species of Laurencia from Chile. — G. B. de Toni, A. Forti
and M. A. Howe {Nuov. Noiar., 1921, 32, 149-53, 3 figs.). The species
here described, Laurencia chilevsis, was collected on the coast of Chile
and in the Magellan region by R. Espinosa. It bears some resemblance
in size, habit and consistency of the frond to L. heterodada Harv.,
L. forsteri Grev., L. Jiliformis Mont., and L. scoparia J. Ag., but
appears to differ from all in its brownish colour, in the irregularly

Y 2

304 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

thickened or often somewhat pitted walls of the epidermal cells, in the
heteromorphy of the epidermal cells of the main axes, and in the pro-
liferating habit of many of the ultimate ramuli. E. S. G-.

Some Marine AlgsB recently introduced into Danish Waters.
— L. K. EosENViNGE {Bot. Tidsskr., 1920, 37, 125-35). The four
species in question are Gigartina mamillosa J. Ag., TrailUeUa inlricata
Batters, Godium tomentosum Stackh., and G. muc7'onatuin J. Ag.
Gigartina mamiUosa was discovered in 1861) at Thisted in the Limf jord,
and was also found there in 1890 and 1893, but nowhere else in the
fjord. The isthmus separating the Limfjord from the North Sea was
broken through in 1825, before which date the salinity in that part was
very slight. It is now 29 p.m. The alga must have iDeen carried in by
a vessel on which it was growing. It is also recorded from Aarhus
harbour, probably introduced in the same manner. TraHJiella intricata
is now very common and abundant in the Western Limfjord, whither it
is supposed to have immigrated about 1900. It also occurs in the
Kattegat, but is always sterile in Danish waters. Godiwn tomentosum
was found in 1919 at Hirsholm, a harbonr never visited by foreign
vessels. Its appearance may perhaps be connected with a mine-field
at Herthas Flak during the war. G. nmcronatum appeared in the
Limfjord in the summer of 1920, undoubtedlv introduced by vessels.

E.8. G.

Botanical Results of the Swedish Expedition to Patag'Onia and
Tierra del Fuego, 1907-9. Marine Alg'ae : I. Phseophycese.— C.
Skottsberg {K. JSvensJc. VetenskapsaTcad. Handl., 1921, 61, No. 11,
56 pp., 20 figs.).' The original intention of the author was to make a
very detailed study of the large algal collections made on this voyage,
but, owing to various delays and the increased cost of publication, the
paper has been of necessity reduced to a list of the species with notes
on some of them. These notes contain information of great interest
and value, and clear up many doubtful points hitherto unsolved owing
to lack of living or sufficient material. Some of the Ectocarpacete and
Elachistaceaj had been handed over to Dr. Kuckuck for inclusion in his
proposed monograph, and after his untimely death his notes were
returned to Dr. Skottsberg, who embodied them in the present paper.
One of these notes treats of the two Falkland Islands species, Ectocarpus
pectinatus and Elachista (?) ramosa, which are placed in a new genus
Gononema. Two new species of Elachista pro\'oke a discussion on the
validity of species of that genus and of Myriactis. Further material of
Gsepidium antarcticum shows that it possesses a marked periodicity.
During the winter it consists of horizontal thalli, sometimes with small
cups, from which very short simple upright shoots arise. Later, these
upright shoots develop into large branched fronds like a typical Ghordaria
and with typical sporangia, which are here described for the first time.
The bladders or " colpomenia-sprosse " were found in all sizes, and
consist of hollow and swollen protuberances on the horizontal thallus.
Their development and structure are described and figured. They bear
gametangia in large irregular sori. The theory that the bladder-like
structures are " Golpomenia,''' and not an integral part of Gsepidium, is

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 305

here disproved. Cladothele Hook. f. et Harv. is lestored as a genus.
The characteristic papilhL' are well figured, and the difference between
this genus and Stktijosiphon is clearly shown. In Cladothele the termina-
tion of each branch shows an apical cell ; in Stictz/osiphon the growth is
trichothallic, each branch ending in a hair — a difference which implies
not only different genera but different orders, according to Kjellman.
Xotes are given on Adenocytis and Utriculidium, with figures of their
structure, and a discussion of their relationship and systematic position.
Additions are made to our knowledge of many other genera and species,
Myrionema, Stereocladon, Scytothamnus, Lessonia, Macrocysiis, Ascoseira,
etc. Two new genera and ten new species are described. The figures
are of value. E. S. G.

Biochemistry of Marine Algse. — H. Kylin {Zeitschr. Phys. Chem.,
1913, 83, 171-97; see also Bot. Centralbl., 1918, 138, 269-70). An
account of some important investigations made in the Medico-chemical
Institute at Upsala. Fucosan is that substance which is contained in
the fucosan-bases of the Fucoide^e, and is coloured red by vanilla-HCl.
Phycophacin is merely oxidized fucosan. When boiled in dilute HoSO^,
fucosan splits off no sugar, and therefore does not belong to the gluco-
sides. Mannite was found also in Laminaria cloustoni and Pylmella
litoralls, but not in the red alga Fnrcellaria fastiyiata. Ascophylhmi
nodosum, Fucus vesmdosiis, Laminaria saccharina and L. digitata con-
tain simple sugars — dextrose and levulose. Apparently the Floridete
contain only traces of these sugars ; but in the Fucoidege they are the
first visible products of assimilation. And in the four brown algfe
above-mentioned there is a dextrin-like polysaccharide called Laminarin,
which is a reserve-material formed by a condensation of the dextrose ;
physiologically it corresponds with the starch of the higher plants. As
regards Floridean starch, by hydrolysis with dilute acid it yielded
dextrose ; when made into a paste with warm water it is quickly con-
verted into sugar by malt-diastase, but raw unaltered grains are not
acted on by the ferment. Chemical investigations were made as
regards the precipitability of the mucilages — Algin, Fucoidin, also the
mucilages of Ceramiam (in G. ruhrum), of Furcellaria (in F. fast iy lata),
of Dumontia {D. fit if or mis). The three latter were all precipita,ted by
an acid " Leinlosung " (solution of linseed). The mucilages of Ceramiiim
and Furcellaria are very closely allied to one another (and probably also
to that of "Carrageen," Chondrus); while that of Damontia is the type
of another group of Floridean mucilages, which are not precipitated by
ammonium sulphate, and do not congeal on cooling. A. Gepp.

Some Plants from Tropical Sea Gardens. — M. A. How^e {Nat.
History, 1920, 20, 560-68, figs.; see also Gontr. New York Bot. Gard.,
1921, Xo. 226, 560-68). A popular and vivid account of the habit
and surroundings of marine alg^e in the subtropics of the Xorth
American coasts and adjacent islands. The richest areas visited were
Bermuda, Florida Keys, and the coast of California. The masses of
Siphonea3 which in many places carpet the sea bottom, the mats of Bryo-
thamnion triquetrum., the kelps and other brown algai, are picturesquely

306 SUMMAKY OK CUKKENT RESEAKCHES RELATING TO

described, together with their economic uses, and the importance of the
lime-secreting species in reef -building. Two of the figures show the
plants in situ. E. S. Gr.

Fungi.

Notes on the Genus Comesia Sacc.^^EENE Maiee {Bull. Soc.
Hist. Nat. Afrique du Xord, 1918, 9, l.s-19). The species Comesia
foUcitalus was transferred by Boudier to Epiglia, both genera of Pezizae.
A species found by Maire and referred to Comesia has now been recog-
nized by him as similar to the lichen Biatorella fossarum. That lichen,
he now decides, must be classified among fungi as Tromera fossarum in
the family Patellariaceffi. A. Lorrain S^iith.

Laboulbeniales of North Africa : 3rd Contribution. — Rene
Maire (Publications de VUniv. d"" Alger, 1920, 44 pp., 2 pis., 8 figs.).
The author here records and describes many species, a large number of
them new to science. The list for N. Africa now comprehends eighty-
one species ; he has also added three families of Coleoptera parasitized
by these fungi. Lists of the insects- affected are given with their
parasites. ' A. L. S.

Aspergillus flavus, A. oryzse and Associated Species. — Charles
Thom and Margaret B. Church (Amer. Journ.Bot., 1921, 8, 103-26,
1 fig ). The fungi experimented with are employed in fermentation
processes in the East. Other types of Aspergillus are frequently present,
but are probably contaminations. The authors have made a series of
cultural studies. The first two types, .-1. flavus and A. orgzse, are so
connected by bridging forms that they conclude there is only one species,
A. Jiavus-oryzse. The others chiefly concerned with food fermentation
are A. wentH and A. tamari. Many other forms were grown, and the
results are described in detail. A. L. S.

New African Species of Ustilago — Rene Maire (Bull. Soc. Hist.
Nat. Afrique du Nord, 1919, 10, 46-7). The new species Ustilago
hracJiypodii-distachyi was found by the writer in N. Africa ; it is related
to U. bromivora, but with larger, less densely warted spores. The
spores germinate only after one or two days in water, and at the time of
the autumn rains, that is after having passed the summer in the open.

A. L. 8.

Inheritance of Susceptibility of Sorbus Species to Gymno-
sporangia.— Ed. Fischer (Atii Soc. Elvel. Sci. Nat. (1919), 1920,
112-3). Fischer experimented with Gymnosporangium tremelloides and
G.juniperinum. He tested a number of F^ plants and was able to
deduce certain laws : for Gymnosporangiumi juniperiiivm all F^ plants
with free pinnate leaves were susceptible, while entire leaves were only
partly so. For G. tremelloides leaves that were entire or incised were
susceptible to inoculation, while pinnate leaves were only rarely sus-
ceptible. A. L. S.

Study of Puccinia Caricis. — Jakob Eriksson {Ark. Bot., 1921,
16, No. 11, 1-64). The Puccinia on Carex has been the subject of

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. 307

much research. Eriksson has gone over the whole groand and made
many cnltural experiments. He considers that even yet there have been
too few experiments with the Uredo stages, and some of his decisions are
only provisional. He has delimited three species : — (1) Puccinia caricis,
diffusa n. nom., the Uredo-teleuto stage of which is on eight different
Carices, the fecidinm stage on Urtica dioica {U. urens), and also on Eibes
grossuJaria {R. ruhrum, R. aureum) ; (2) Puccinia caricis-urticee on
eighteen species of Car ex, the t\3cidia on Urtica dioica (U. urens) ;
(3) Puccinia caricis-ridis, the ascidial form of which grows on species
of Eibes. He distinguishes here three sub-species : —Purcinia caricis-
ribis-difusa n. nom., and P. caricis-grossidariae n. nom., with a wider
range of ajcidial hosts within the genus Ribes ; lastly, P. caricis-ribes-
nigri n. nom. on Ribes nigrum, chiefly with three forms, according to
the Carex on which the Uredo-teleuto stages are developed. Full details
are published of the various cultures. A. L. S.

Indian Hymenomycetes.— S. R. Bose {Reports Ind. Assoc. Cult.
Sci., 1920 (191S), 136-43, 13 pis.). A series of Agarics and Polypores
illustrated by photographic slides has been published by Bose. A full
description of each species is given, with notes as to habitat and biological
data. ■ A. L. S.

Contribution to the Study of Fructicolous Fung-i in Belgium. —
El. and Em. Marchal (Bull Soc. Rog. Bot. Belgiqae, 1921, 54, 109-
39, 2 pis.). The investigation was conducted mostly on fleshy fruits.
The fungi found on these were isolated by cultivation, and an account
of them is given. The species determined belonged to Phycomycetes,
Ascomycetes and Fungi Imperfecta In all, sixty-seven different species
were identified ; twenty-four of these as species or varieties are new to
science, and twenty-one new to Belgium. Those known to be harmful
to fruit are indicated. The research is still being prosecuted, and
considerations affecting fruit preservation are attended to. A. L. S.

Schedse ad Mycothecam Boreali-Africanam. — Rene Maire {Bidl.
Soc. Hist. Nat. Afrique du Nord, 1917, 8, 242-61, 6 figs. : 1919, 10,
130-51, 3 figs., 1 pL). In these two papers the author records the
fungi of fascicles 10-12 and of fascicles 13-16. The numbers run from
251-400 ; the list consists mostly of records of species already described,
but with new localities and with habitats. A number of species, mostly
Uredinea, are diagnosed. The plate gives a fine representation of a
new Phurotus, P. guccse, which grew on dead or dying trunks of
Yucca ehpliantipes Reg., of which it is a wound parasite, killing the
tree in one to three years after attack. A. L. S.

Studies of Basidiomycetes. — A. Sartory and L. Maire {Saint-
Xicolas-de-Port, 1918). The authors have issued three pamphlets. The
first, " Synopsis du genre CoUgbia " (226 pp.), gives diagnoses, sviionymy
and critical notes of the species found in France. Synoptic tables are
drawn up and a few figures are used to interpret difficult points. The
second, on Tricholoma (158 pp.), follows the same lines. Habitats, and
in some instances localities, are included in both monographs. The

308 SUiMMAKY OF CUKRENT KESKAKCHES KELATINCi TO

third paper deals with Bolton's History of Fumjusses. The authors
discuss each plate and give their interpretation of the drawings. In
most instances they change the name : thus Agaricus campestris becomes
PsaUiota jJrato^s^s ; Agaricus latus, they find, represeots Pluteus
cervinus, etc. Tables are given of the old and the modern names.

A. L. S.

Development and Dispersion of Spores in Coprinus sterqui-
linus.— A. H. Reginald Buller {Jahr. Wiss. Bot., 11)15, 56, 2i)'.)-
329, 2 pis., 2 figs.). The author finds that the sporophores of Coprinus
sterquilinus in the formation and dispersal of spores are similar to
those of C. comatus. There are no cystidia present, but thickened
projecting cells at the edges of the gills keep the lamellaj apart. There
are two tyj^es of basidia — long and short — and the spoies of the former
mature first. Stout paraphyses which separate the basidia occur in all
Coprinus species. A comparison is uiade with other Agarics aud with
other fungi. Spore liberation in Fuccinia, for instance, is not unlike
spore liberation in Hymenomycetes. A. L. 8.

Thelephora terrestris, T. fimbriata and T. caryophyllea on Forest
Tree Seedlings. — James E. Weir {FhijtopiatlioJogy, 1921, 11. 141-4,
1 pi.). It has been known for some time that Thehphora terrestris
overruns and kills conifer seedlings by smothering them. During damp
weather the fungus grows quickly, and may envelop a small seedling in
a comparatively short time. It is not parasitic. The other two species
are also reported as causing the same trouble. A. L. S.

Influence of Light on the Fructification of an Agaric in Pure
Culture.— Rene Maire {Bull. Sac. Hist. Nat. Afrique du Nord, 1919,
10, 94-lu(j, 1 pi.). The author gives a list of Hymenomycetes that
have been successfully cultivated. The Agaric he experimented with is
a Mediterranean plant, Fholiota cylindracea. He gives the results of
his various cultures of the fungus. It develops perfectly in complete
darkness. Direct white light prevents spore germination. Other lights
were also experimented with. Carpophores were formed in the laboratory
at seasons when none grew in the open. As transpiration and desicca-
tion have consideralile influence on development, these factors were
strongly influenced by the laboratory environment, and explained the
unseasonal growths. A. L. S.

Rare Phalloid, Pseudocolus javanicus (Penzig) Lloyd. — Ch.
Bernard {Ann. Jard. Buit., 1921, 31, 93-lul, 4 pis.). The occur-
rence of a number of specimens of this " very rare Phalloid" at Tjiater,
in a forest of bamboos, enabled Bernard to make a thorough study.
The plant is so fragile that it disappears within a few minutes of its
birth. The volva is Itrown, sometimes very clear, and almost white, but
oftener a deep shade above ; the receptacle is red, and of a very bright
colour at the summit of the three or four arms, rose at the base ; the
gleba like that of other FhaUoidsse was greenish or almost black and
viscous ; the odour was strong and repulsive. Bernard gives a detailed
accouut of the tissues and reproductive parts, noting the points of dis-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 309

tinction from other allied fuiig-i. The fuugus measured up to G5 mm.
from the base of the arms to their tips; the " foot " varied in size, the
largest recorded being 60 x 25 mm. A. L. S.

AgaricaceBB of Michigan.— C. H. Kaufpman {Michiqan Geol. and
Biol. Surveij, Publ. 2G, Biol. Ser. 5, 1918, 1924 pp., 2,172 pis.). The
first volume, containing the text, gives a very detailed account of gilled
fungi ; a general account of the group, instructions for collection and
examination ; a complete classification with keys to genera and species ;
a chapter on mushroom poisoning ; finally, a bibliography, glossary and
index. The plates, which form the second volume, are photographic
illustrations of a representative series of plants. A. L. S.

Mycetes Boreali-Americani.— P. A. Sacoardo {Niwvo Giorn. Bot.
ItaU 1920, 27, 7.V98). The fungi were sent by Dr. J. R. Weir, of
Spokane, Washington, to Saccardo, and the work was completed in 1919,
though now published posthumously. The list of 98 species, a number
of them new to science, includes only two Basidiomycetes and one
Mycetozoon, the others belong to Uredineag, Ascomycetes and Fungi
Imperfecti, all of them more or less microfungi. A. L. S.

Heterothallism and Similar Phenomena. — E. M. Cutting {Neiv
Phytologist, 1921, 20, 10-16). The author of this paper gives an im-
portant summary on the behaviour of varying strains of mycelia as
represented in researches on very different fungi. He cites Burgeff' s
work on Phycomyces nitens, where neutral strains were secured from
spores formed after grafting a + and a — mycelium. The sporangia
formed contained + and - as well as neutral spores. Work on
Zygorhyncus by several authors is quoted. Atkinson considers that this
fungus is a lowly form of Ascomycete. In Glomerella, an Ascomycete,
the conjunction of difPerent mycelia produces an increased number
of ascocarps. Work on Oomycetes and on Basidiomycetes is also
described and criticized. A full bibliography of papers dealing with
the subject is given. A. L. S.

Mycological Studies. I. On the " Spotting '" of Apples in Great
Britain.— Arthur S. Horne and Eleanor Violet Horne (^Ann.
Appl Biol, 1920, 7, 183-201, 6 figs.). The authors give a sketch of
work done on this subject by students in America, the causal agents of
spotting including a considerable number of fungi. They record and
describe the various fungi formed on spots in this country. These
include a new genus of Phormatales {Polyopeus) and nine new species,
one of which, Ploospora pomorum, is capable of parasitizing apples. None
of the fungi recorded on apple spots in America were found on British
apples. A. L. 8.

Spotting in Apples.— A. S. Horne and E. V. Horne {Gard.
Chronicle, 1920, 68, 216-7, 4 figs.). The authors give an account of
the spotting, of the fungi that cause the trouble, the districts affected
and the varieties of apple that have been affected. They consider that
the fungi attack the apples through the lenticels, and after gaining an
entrance they follow the air-spaces and hinder respiration. The sur-

310 SUxMiMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

rounding cells are killed and a brown area is formed. The writers
recommend spraying by Bordeaux mixture towards the end of July and
careful fumigation of the store rooms. A. L. S.

Observations on Wheat Scab in Pennsylvania and its Patho-
logical Histology.— J. F. Adams {Pfujtoimthology, 1921, 11, 115-24,
2 pis., 1 tig.). The disease known as wheat scab is due to the fungus
Gihberella sauMnetii, and " everything which tends to weaken the plant
or retard its ripening renders it more subject to attack." The writer
discusses the opinions of previous workers as to the causal organism and
its development. Generally the head of wheat is affected, though under
favourable conditions the fungus may become a virulent parasite of
seedlings. It has been noted that scab is more prevalent in fields that
have been previously planted by corn, probaljly from the fungus growing
on dead corn stalks. The prevalent type of infection occurs after the
flowering staije, and the developing embryo is completely destroyed.

A. L. S.

Resistance to Citrus Canker. — Forman T. McLean and H.
Atherton Lee {Phytopathology, 11)21, 11, 109-14«, 1 fig.). The
authors comment on the resistance to this, the bacteria canker, a disease
which affects the foliage and stalks of the Citrus trees, causing pustules
and blisters. The research has proved that on the horticultural varieties
of Citrus nobilis var. deliciosa (mandarin orange) the infections are
largely wound infections. They conclude that penetration cannot take
place through the epidermis of that plant, and by graft hybrids (peri-
clinal chimeras) with other species of Citrus resistant characters might
be transferred. A. L. S.

Experimental Data on Losses due to Canker of Rose. — L. M.

Massey {Pttytopatholoyy, 1921, 11, 125-34). The disease is due to the
fungus Cylindrodadium scoparium which causes cankers at the crown of
the plants. Infection takes place from the soil, and losses are due to
diminished yield of blossoms and not to the death of the host. A
decrease of about ten blossoms per plant (amounting to one dollar)
represents the annual loss to the grower. , A. L. S.

Lotus Leaf-spot caused by Alternaria nelumbii sp. n.— Ella
M. A. Enlows and Frederick V. Eand (Phytopathology, 1921, 11,
135-40, 1 pi., 1 fig.). The disease appeared in summer 1913 at Kenil-
worth D.C. and in the autumn of the same year at the New York
Botanical Gardens on leaves of Egyptian lotus {Nelumhium speciosum)^
causing spots which in time may coalesce, the leaf gradually drying and
curling from the margin inward. ilorphologically the fungus was
similar to Alternaria brassicee-nigrescens, l)ut no cross infections could
be obtained between that species and the lotus plant. No further stage
of growth was developed, but the conidia were viable after two years in
the laboratory, and the fungus can thus be carried on from season to
season by conidia alone. A. L. S.

Notes on Species of Colletotrichum and Phoma in Uganda. —
W. Small (Kew Bulletin, 1921, 57-67). Colletotrichum coffeanum is

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIUROSGOPY, ETC. 311

the cause of a troublesome disease of leaves of the coffee plant ; it also
attacks the twigs and the berries. It has been proved by methods of
cross inoculation that it is the same species as ColJetotrichiim theohromi-
coJum. The perfect fruiting stage is Glomerella cingulata. Another
species, (JoUetotrklmm Gamellise, grows on tea ; though morphologically
similar to the above species, inoculations were unsuccessful on coffee
leaves. The same type of fungus has been found on some garden
plants and on cotton. Plwma is also a frequent parasite on coffee
branches, etc. The writer concludes from his experiments that the
spores are introduced into the softer tissues of the plant, by the Yariated
Bug. Surface inoculations were singularly ineffective. A. L. S.

Phoma sp. parasitic on Cupressus in South Africa. — A. M.
BoTTOMLEY {8. African Joiirn. Sci., 1919, 15, 613-7; see also Bull.
Agric. TnielJ. PI. Diseases, Rome, 1920, 11, 401). A severe disease of
young plants caused by the Phoma was first noticed in March 1915.
Other fungi had invaded the leaves, but culture and other experiments
identified a Phoma of unusual shape and large fusiform spores as the
causal organism. The disease is recognizable by the discoloration,
withering and death of the leaves and stems attacked. Wounded
plants were easily infected, unwounded plants with difficulty, and only
after some weeks. Moisture is essential for the development of the
disease. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is recommended. A. L. S.

Mildew Disease on Prunus Laurocerasus. — Ed. Fischer {AtU
Soc. Elev. Sci. Nat. (1919), 1920, 112). The tree on which the fungus
(Podosjjhsera Oxijacantkse) was detected had been destroyed by frost
down to the base during the winter. New shoots made their appear-
ance, and the young leaves were attacked and deformed by the mildew,
while the older leaves seemed to be immune. A. L. S.

Pier Andrea Saccardo. — G. B. Traverso {Nuovo Oiorn. Bot. Itah,
1920, 27, 89-7-4). In an address to the Italian Botanical Society,
Traverso gives a sketch of the life and labours of the renowned
mycologist, P. A. Saccardo, who was born in 1<S45 and died iuFeln-uary
1920. A love of plants was shown by him at the early age of thirteen,
when he had already collected a herbarium of 230 plants. His first
contribution to Mycology was the Mycologise venetae specimen in 1873, a
list of fungi found in the neighbourhood of Venice. From that time
onwards Mycology became his chief study. Traverso touches on the
various aspects of his work, and on the great service he rendered to the
science. A list of his published works occupies nearly seventeen
closely printed pages of this memoir. A. L. S.

Lichens.

Lichen Life-cycle.— -A. H. Church {Joum. Bot., 1921, 69, 139-45,
197-202). Dr. Church has resumed his study of the lichen plant, and
in this contribution he resumes his previous views on the general
development of lichens, then discusses Basidiolichens with reference to
their symbiotic or intrusive algge. These instances he concludes " grade

312 SUMMAKY OF CUERENT RESEAKCHES RELATING TO

biologically from such cases as that of the indigenous Polyporus uiniarius
on trees which are green with intrusive Cystococcus and to similar cases
of Stereum, etc." The author then traces the reproductive development
in Ascomjcetes and notes the divergences from fungi. In the second
issue (pp. 197-202) he discusses the origin and development of Laboul-
beniacea3, noting their morphological and reproductive likeness to
Floridea3 and to Lichens, their marine origin and their adaptation to
dry conditions, and to the short life of the host. Church traces back
the origin of LaboulbeniaceEe and Lichens to alga3 of older structure
than existing Floridefe, but with the same reproductive mechanism of
trichogvnes and spermatia. A. Lorrain Smith.

Cultures of Lichen-gonidia. — H. Waren (Akad. Abh. Helsingfors

und Ofvers. Finsk. Vet.-Soc. Fork., 1920, 61 ; see also Zeitschr. Botanik,
1921, 13, 182-8). The author cultivated carefully isolated gonidia
from twenty-one different species of lichens. He tested their nutrition
by growing them on different nitrogenous media and found that they
grew most freely on amino-acids. Further, he finds that the alga in most
lichens is Cystococcus, which he divides into two sections, Eucystococcns
and Eleuterococcus, which differ in the formation of autospores. The
former is characterized by the vegetative division into autospores, the
latter by the formation of rounded autospores. The results seem to
indicate that each lichen species has its own peculiar species of gonidial
alga. An exception was found in XanthoriaparieUna, of which specimens
from two different localities enclosed a different type of gonidium.

A. L. S.

Different Forms of Lichen Symbiosis in Solorina saccata Ach.
and Solorina crocea Ach. — M. et Mme. Fernand Moreau {Rev. Gen.
£ot., l'..)21, 33, 81-7). The authors discuss chiefly the internal
cephalodia of these two lichens. They trace the development of
these bodies and their subsequent fate in the tissues of the thallus. In
some instances the intruding alga3 are so surrounded by a plectenchyma
of hyphee that their development is circumscribed, and they may finally
disappear. In other instances, as in /Solorina crorea, the foreign alga
extends and forms a second gonidial zone. The authors consider from
these observations that their view of the pathological nature of the
lichen symbiosis is confirmed. A. L. S.

Systematic Researches on Lichen Parasites and Lichenoid
Fungi.— Karl von Keiszler (Wien) {Bech.Bot.CentndbJ., 1920, 37,
263-78). A careful examination of a number of fungi, many of them
jon the border-land between lichens and fungi. Descriptions are giv^en
and citations of literature with critical observations. Two new species
are described, Leptosphseria galligena on Parmelise and Ovvlaria peltlgeras
on the thallus of PeUigera rvfescens. A. L. S.

Handbook of British Lichens.— A. Lorrain Smith (British
Museum, 1921, 158 pp., 90 figs.). The book (of pocket size) has been
issued for work in the field as well as the home. Many lichens can be

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSUOFY, ETC, 313

identified with or without a hand lens ; others require a microscope.
The booli is arranged to meet both classes of work. There is an
introduction of general information about lichens. The systematic part,
which includes all British lichens, consists of descriptions of families and
genera, with keys to the species. A. L. S.

Mycetozoa.

New or Rare Species of Mycetozoa. — G. Lister {Jouni. Bot.,
1921, 69, 89-93, 1 pi.). Several new species are recorded, and along
with these, forms and varieties now deemed worthy of specific rank
are described, mostly from this country or from the Continent. A note
is published concerning Physarum gyrosum from Japan. In that
country the plasmodium changes from white to clear blue, and K.
Minakata has suggested that an old tradition in China that the blood
of a murdered victim reappears year after year as sky-blue on the spot
where the murder took place may be explained by a growth of the
Plasmodium of Fhysanmi. A new genus found by Minikata on bark
and lichen in Japan has been determined, and named Minikatella in
honour of the finder. A. Loerain Smith.

Mycetozoa on the Midland Plateau. — W. T. Elliott {Journ.
Bot, 1921, 59, 19S-6). The district included in the Midland Plateau
embraces a radius of about fifteen miles from Birmingham as the
centre, including portions of Warwickshire, Worcestershire and StaflFord-
shire. The altitude varies from below 300 feet to just above 1,000 feet.
The geological character of the area receives special attention, and the
gathering grounds are noted. Elliott records 121 species and varieties,
many of them new to the district ; there are 89 for Warwickshire, 100
for Worcestershire, and 63 for Staffordshire. In the latter county the
principal collecting district was Hamstead Park. There is a wider
range of localities given for the other counties. The writer has marked
with E the Mycetozoa collected by himself : there are very few that
have not the letter appended. A. L. S.

314 SUMMARY" OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, etc.

A Projection Spectropolariscope. — F. J.Cheshire {Trans. Optical
Soc, li)ll)-20, 21, No. 3, 102-3). A projection spectropolariscope
specially adapted for class and lecture work, as shown intiunre on p. 315,
consists of a triangular metre-bar upon which t-he necessary fittings are
mounted. The fitting A consists of a rotatable disc with a num])er of
diiferent sized holes. The fitting B carries a douljle-image prism which
can be rotated through 180". The end of the prism casing next to the
diaphragm A is fitted with a lens, the focal plane of which coincides with
the diaphragm A. A second lens, at the reduced end of the casing,
serves to condense the light upon an adjustable slit C. This slit is
focussed upon the screen by the projection lens D, the light passing
through a double-image prism, or it may be an analyser E and a bottle
prism F. In use an arc light is focussed by the usual lantern condenser
upon a suitable aperture in the disc A. In this way the light source
becomes virtually a sharply defined circular disc. The collimated beam
of light passes through the double-image prism in B, one of the result-
ing beams passing direct along the axis of the instrument, whilst the
second beam is deflected through a sufficient angle to throw it out of
the apparatus. In virtue of the sharply defined light source there is
practically no intrusion of one beam on the other. The direct beam of
plane polarized light (vibrations vertical) is focussed upon the slit C.
When therefore a crystal plate, cut parallel to the axis, is placed against
the slit with its extinction directions at 45°, and the double-image prism
is turned to transmit vertical and horizontal vibrations, two vertically
superposed images of the slit are projected upon the screen in the
absence of the dispersing prism F, In one of these images the light is
polarized in a vertical plane, whilst in the other the light is polarized in
a horizontal plane. When the prism F is inserted, these images are
drawn out horizontally into spectra, which are seen to be crossed by
absorption bands corresponding to the retardation of the plate, one
spectrum being complementary to the other. In the case of a plate of
axis-cut quartz, the rotation of a Nicol in the fitting E results in a
spectrum on the screen with dark absorption bands travelling con-
tinuously to the right or to the left according as the particular crystal
is right- or left-handed. The apparatus lends itself to the performance
of a number of very interesting experiments. The placing of the
crystal immediately against the slit results in much sharper definition of
the bands than is obtained with the more usual apparatus. (The illus-
tration on p. 315 is inserted by the courtesy of the editor of The
Transactions of the OjJtical Society.)

A Spectrometer (made by Messrs. E. R. Watts and Son). — L. C.
Martin (Trans. Optical Soc, 1919-20, 21, No. 3, 104-5). This instru-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPE, KTC.

315

ment is designed on lines at once simple and strong. While the present
arrangement includes only such parts as are strictly necessary for the
performance of the simpler goniometric measurements, yet the construc-
tion is such that verniers of greater sensitiveness and telescopes of
greater magnifying power could well be used, and such indeed could be

provided if called for. The verniers of the telescope move in the plane
of the main divided circle which is fixed to the base, and w'hich is 8 in.
in diameter. A smaller divided circle and verniers are provided for
the table.

The telescope axis appears to be longer than is usual in the majority

316

SUMMARY OF CrRRENT RESEARCHES RELATING I'd

of spectrometers and it is well counterbalanced, features which will
doubtless make for long wear and freedom from shake.

Both telescope and collimator may be eiven small altitude and
azimuth adjustments on tbeir supports, and these adjustments do not
necessitate any deformation of the tubes, a grievous fault of design in

many of the inferior instruments of this class. Both telescope and
collimator also have rack focussing, while the eye- piece of the telescope
has helical focussing with a diopter scale. The slit is of a very simple
nature and is easy to clean.

Tested in the Optical Engineering Laboratory of the Imperial

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 317

College, the instrument has shown itself to be satisfactory as regards
the accuracy of construction of circle and verniers, and the optical
definition is good ; while the design is generally convenient in use. It
has been incidentally found that fixed magnifiers for reading the lower
circle are desirable, but as the dividing in the present instrument is
very clear and easy to read these magnifiers could have a longer focus
than usual, thus preventing the usual shadowing of the circle by the
head of the observer. No doubt such lenses could be provided very
easily by the makers.

Owing to this clearness of dividing of the circles, also to the
simplicity and great strength of the design, the instrument is likely to"
be very useful for teaching purposes. It should also find a sphere of
usefulness in the testing laboratory, especially if a micrometer fine
adjustment similar to that of the Pulfrich refractometer and to those of
certain old Steinheil spectrometers were given to the telescope. Results
fo]' the dispersions of prisms could then be obtained with an accuracy
comparable with that of the value for absolute refractive index — an
impossibility when the ordinary vernier measurements are alone possible.

If a more elaborate instrument were desired, micrometer microscopes
for the main circle could doubtless be provided, and, as was previously,
indicated, a larger telescope and collimator could easily be carried by
the same supports.

This is surely a praiseworthy principle of design that the workman-
ship of even the simpler types of instrument should be the very best.
Any improvements or additions later found to be necessary will not be
wasted on the original. The illustration shows one of the earlier trial
models. Verniers are now supplied to the table circle in addition to
the main circle. (The illustration on p. 316 is inserted by the courtesy
of the editor of The Transactions of the Optical Society-)

B. Technique.

Suggestions for Methods and Apparatus, by N". A. Cobb, United
States Department of Agriculture '"' : —

Systematically Examining Large Series of Microscopical Objects. — •
There are various methods of recording the position and character of
each member of a large series of objects mounted on a microscope slide.
One of the commonest methods involves the use of a recording,
mechanical stage. Each object on the slide receives a record-number
consisting of two separate readings from scales engraved on the
mechanical stage. The following method, however, is successful with-
out a mechanical stage or finder of any sort, and is characterized by
simplicity and expedition. It may be called the method of charting.

The method consists in making a camera lucida drawing or chart,
at low magnification, of all the objects of which it is desired to make
record. The chart is diagrammatic ; each object is represented on the
chart by a simple, characteristic diagram, and the diagrams are then

* This article was contributed to thg Transactions of the American Micro-
scopical Society, October, 1920.

Z

318 SUMMAEY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

numbered in series. The sheet that carries the chart may also carry
a series of printed numbers with corresponding spaces for records.
(See fig. 1.) Where the objects belong to a few great groups, such as
land-inhabiting, fresh-water, and marine, the printing of the blank
sheets in correspondingly assorted colours is an advantage.

The chart is made by using a camera lucida and an objective of
about 5-in. focus.* In order to reduce the magnification, the objective
may be screwed into the end of the draw-tube of the microscope barrel.

jjOi 7 3Doryl. styraatuxus - 28 l' . v

1,11 4Aoli?oniaclora. bra.zU _ 29 '.' . '.' \ .

5Horyl.. .caudatua?_ . 30 Mononchua minor- - -i

6ElaBspnem& .- ,two_ . 31 '.' . fragment alaM -

6, J ©TylenchuB, p^rjfactua SSRhatditlK

K e. ' '*■ *■ * SDoryl. additl.cius . 33YjDpryl..pxo,tru4ea6.

^ ^^'^ :>i j^ 9 " protrudens 34 See 11

r -,-^-— --,.— u 10 .". .'. ..".... 35^1 Poryi.. . ; . . .

-^' 7* ^"' -'s c -^ 14 - '^ - 36Aohromadora. ....

£y *)it \' "• ^ +^Troplconeoia. t.enjJlcoiaeSTsee.ll

7^ ^/S. %x ''*" ^ M^^®-'"'^ -^^^ ... - SSRhabditis. . . , . .

, ; ^. ... i^ 14Achromadora-p.ap.illae?39Elas8Dnfima . . . *.

^5^ "a C* li V iBPitre 40 Y. BoryL. . . . ^ .•

«i w/ 4.* l6Mqnonchu8 41 See. 11 .......

•srC<'"'^ 'hr^ *VJ4i 17Achromadora .... 42 pure -

--.-'?.& ISRhatditjls. ..... 43See.ll . ^ - -

•??\ %i ^* IQlrof'^.s ...,-.... 44Doryl.. po.or. ^ . , 1.

20Elassoiiema .... 45 Rbabditia. ......

21 . .!' ,. 46 . . ".

22Rhai)d.itjls. 47 Doryl. al. -tl-. - - -

^ Tylen.oh.ug. ^ .2

24 Monon_ohus_ minor . . ftBDerylj mX.. Bgga . .
25RJiatdit_ls] __ ...50

Fig. 1. — Record chart used in tabulating large numbers of micro-
scopic objects arranged on a series of slides. As printed the chart
was 5 in. by 8 in., and carried only the two columns of figures 1 to 50
inclusive. At the left is seen the camera lucida drawing, or chart,
recording the form, size, and relative position of forty-nine micro-
scopic objects — in this particular case, nemas. Immediately above
the chart are seen the data relating to the particular slide charted,
which was No. 7 in a series of eleven slides (1-11), and which carried
a collection of forty-nine nemas gathered from soil attached to the
roots of plants imported from Brazil. Names and other notes with
regard to the nemas were typewritten opposite the appropriate
numbers. Nos. 2, 7, 12, 13, 14, 23, 48 and 49 were encircled to
indicate that these specimens were of especial interest. One-half
size.

A low power eye-piece is used with the objective, so that all the objects
on the slide can be seen at one time. A chart having a magnification
of five diameters is of convenient size. The suitable illumination is
secured by using a concave mirror without sub-stage condenser. The
light may be direct, in which case the objects are seen as dark bodies
on a light background, or a dark-ground effect can be produced by
insertiug between the concave mirror and the objects a small opaque
disc. A suitable disc may be made by stripping the barbules from a

* A very strongly magnifying spectacle lens will serve the purpose.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, iMICROSCOPY, ETC. 319

dark-coloured 6-in. wing or tail feather so as to leave only a small fan-
shaped tip at the end, from h in. to f in. across. With scissors, this
is trimmed so as to have a somewhat rounded contoui'. While the
right hand is engaged in making the chart, the left hand can flirt this
little disc in and out between the objects and the concave mirror and
so produce a dark-ground effect as desired. To do this the feather
"disc " must be materially smaller than the mirror.

The charts are nothing more than rude camera lucida drawings of
the objects, and with practice can be made with great rapidity. A
lot of fiifty nemas mounted under a J -in. round cover-glass can be
drawn in two to three minutes with sufficient accuracy to make a very
useful chart. (See fig. 1.) Each nema-diagram on the chart has four
very distinct properties : (1) position ; (2) form ; (3) size ; (4) orienta-
tion. For the most satisfactory work, it is desirable that a certain
optimum number of objects exist on the slide. This optimum is deter-
mined by the nnmber of them that will appear in a single field of the
lens afterward used in searching. Suppose a 16 -mm. objective is nsed
as a searching objective, and a 4-mm. for the examination ; then the
optimum number of objects under the cover-glass is that nnmber which
brings into each field of the 16-mm. objective one to three objects.

After the chart is made, the short, crooked lines, representing' the
nemas, say, are numbered in transversely arranged groups. Each
transverse group of the series constitutes a band of nemas running
across the mount and having such width as comes fairly well within
the scope of a single field of the 16-mm. objective. These imaginary
bands are illustrated in fig. 1. It will be seen that there are four such
bands. The nemas are numbered more or less consecutively. Pro-
ceeding in this manner, on reaching the end of the first band, one
numbers the second band, also more or less consecutively, and so on to
the end.

In recording, begin with No. 1, placing it in the field of the 16-mm.
objective. It is recognized by its size, form and orientation. Having
recorded No. 1 and examined it with the l-mm. objective, a glance at
the chart will indicate at what distance, and in what direction. No. 2
lies from No. 1. Revolving to the 16-mm. objective and looking
through the microscope at Nema No. 1, the slide is moved in the
indicated direction until No. 2 is found and recognized. After record-
ing No. 2, No. 3 is found in the same way, and so throughout. The
novice will be surprised to find how easy it is, with a little practice, to
follow the series through without error.

The drawings should be so made and numbered that the chart and
the objects as seen under the microscope will resemble each other.
If no care be taken in this respect, the chart may be found to be " left-
handed." Securing a " right-handed " chart is merely a matter of
properly arranging the paper at the time the chart is drawn. Diagrams
should be so made with reference to the printed matter that when it
is right side up, the objects as viewed through the microscope will have
the same orientations as the diagrams.

This completes the description of this method, except to explain
that in the example illustrated, the numbers encircled are so marked

z 2

320 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in order to indicate that tliose particnlar specimens present noteworthy
features.

The method may be elaborated in a variety of ways for the record-
ing of nemas, rotifers, protozoa, desmids and a vast array of other
microscopic objects. If the charts are of card-system size, say 5 in. by
8 in., they lend themselves to all sorts of convenient methods of filing.
By using thin paper, carbon copies can be made at the original draft.

•The charts can he made and used by a grade of assistant that might
hardly be entrusted with the use of a recording mechanical stage, and
who may lack training in the accurate reading of scales and the record-
ing of numbers. Floating of the objects, of course, disarranges them,
Newly made slides are sometimes subject to this disadvantage. The
difficulty is avoided by keeping the slides always in a horizontal
position.

Objpci Suppoji for a Freezing Microtome. — ^In this freezing microtome
attachment, the object is to reduce the metal parts to a minimum and
to concentrate the effects of the freezing mixture as much as possible
upon the object to be frozen. To this end the object is placed on a
thin metal plate, only about one to three thousandths of an inch thick,
to which the necessary rigidity is imparted either by soldering it to a

radiating framework in the form of a flat wheel sawed from somewhat
tliicker metal, or, preferably, by giving to the metal the form of a dome.
These metal supports are illustrated in fig. 2 and fig. 3, in which they
are shown full size. A six-spoked wheel, having a hub-hole one-eighth
of an inch across, is sawed from a sheet of German silver about one
two-hundredth of an inch thick. The edges of the central aperture
are bevelled so that the mixture frozen on it becomes dove-tailed to the
plate. In a similar way, the small, washer-shaped piece of German
silver fastened to the top of the dome, as shown in fig. 3, r, is also
bevelled.

The German silver wheel is soldered throughout to a round sheet
of exceedingly thin brass or German silver. Then into six marginal
perforations in the German silver wheel, brass pins are soldered, giving
to the whole affair the appearance of a six-legged table. The heads of
pins are filed off so as to give clearance for the microtome knife. The
pins serve to fasten the plate to a perforated cork, being thrust into the
cork as shown in the illustration. The rim of the dome of thin sheet
metal is somewhat similarly stiffened Ijy soldering to it a ring of German
silver which is perforated and supplied with six brass pins in the
manner just described.

Though the dome form is somewhat more difficult to construct than

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIGROSCOPY, ETC.

32i

the flat, it is more efficient for three reasons : It is more rigid, it gives
a better clearance for the microtome knife, and it contains less material.

In the case of small and moderate sized objects of which only a
few sections are reqnired, the method is extraordinarily expeditious.
Objects of such a size that they can be embedded in a few drops of the
freezing mixture placed on the control part of either of these metal
supports can be frozen in a few seconds by applying an ordinary ether
spray to the under side of one of these thin metal supports. The
exceeding rapidity of the congelation gives rise to a consistency favour-
able to section cutting.

To obtain an End Vieic of a Nema, Rotifer, or other similar Small
Object. — Suppose the object is a nema of which an end view of the head
is required : decapitate the nema behind the pharynx with the aid of
an eye knife, or similar very small tool having a very slender, thin blade.

Fig. 3. — Perspective view aud lougitudinal section of a freezing-
microtome object-holder mounted on a cork cylinder. The holder
is made of metal only about two thousandths of an inch thick. The
edges of the ring (r) are beveUed so that the embedding mixture
when frozen is dovetailed to the holder.

The smallest and most slender-bladed knife used by oculists in opera-
tions on the eye is a very suitable tool, and it must have the degree of
sharpness characteristic of surgical instruments in good order. Bring
the nema by appropriate methods into glycerine ; the decapitation
should be done in a drop of glycerine placed on the surface of a trans-
parent piece of celluloid. Push the nema to the bottom of the glycerine
and against the celluloid ; decapitate by pressing the edge of the knife
against the nema as the latter rests on the celluloid. The celluloid is
sufficiently soft so that the edge of the knife will not be dulled. If the
knife is sharp, the cut will lie clean, and the object satisfactory. If
the knife is dull, the nema will be more or less crushed at the point of
section and the preparation may prove unsatisfactory.

Mount the head in melted glycerine jelly, using sufficient jelly so
that the object may stand on end after being covered in. Place the

322 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

mount ou the stage of a microscope, bring the object into focus, and
with a dissecting needle gently shove the cover-glass slightly back and
forth until the object is seen to be on end. Allow to remain on the
stage of the microscope until the jelly sets, watching from time to tiuie
to see that the object maintains the desired position.

According to my experience, this is a better method of obtaining
end-on and sectional views of the heads of free-living nemas and other
similar small organisms than that of sectioning and embedding. The
trouble with the method of sections is that the microtome knife very
seldom cuts the object to advantage. It is quite likely to cut in the
wrong place. If the ends of the setse or the surfaces of the lips are
removed in the first cut, it is a very troublesome matter to oljtain a
good view or good sketch of the structures. Even if some of the parts
should not be lost or offer difficulty in mounting, there are so many
chances that the microtome blade will cut through at a disadvantageous
place that, as a rule, a very considerable number of nemas will have to
be sectioned before a good preparation is secured.

The method of sections has the further disadvantage that the
following of such small objects through the various dehydrating and
staining fluids, and the final orientation of them, is a tedious and diffi-
cult matter. Moreover in the case of nemas, there is considerable
difficulty in properly embedding the object. The cuticle of nemas is so
impenetrable that unless special precautions are taken, the paraffin will
not thoroughly penetrate the tissues, and the results will be unsatis-
factory.

End views may be obtained by mounting the nemas in a microscopic
well made from a thin section of thermometer tubing. The tubing
should be like that used in the most delicate medical thermometers,
that is to say, with the smallest aperture procurable. This tubing may
be bouo'ht under the name thermometer, or barometer tubino-. It is
well to have on hand ground sections of varying thickness, from one-
quarter of a millimeter thick to one millimeter or more. The discs
are cemented to a glass microscope slide at the time of using by means
of smoking hot was or other suitable cement. Before cementing the
disc to the slide, fill the capillary aperture in the disc with mounting
fluid. This may he easily done by placing on the slide a very tiny
drop of the mounting fluid, and laying the disc on to the small drop.
The mounting fluid will enter the aperture by capillarity. If it be
desired to look at the head end of a nema, it is placed in the microscopic
well, tail down. If the nema is too long for the well, it may be cut
to fit it. The point is, to see tliat the object has about the same length
as the depth of the well, so that the end portion of the object it is
desired to view will come close to the under side of the cover-glass
when this latter is placed on the top of the well, or rather on the disc
of the glass containing the well. In. placing the nema in the well, a
suitable tool is a small, curved hair cemented to the end of a dissecting
needle. Human eye-ljrow hairs are suitable for this purpose. Using
this method, the specimen can be examined in clove oil, cedar oil, or
any mixture of these or any other similar thin mounting fluid. Oedar
oil, having the same refractive index as the glass composing the well.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPV, ETC. 323

has advantages in connexion with ilhimination. The illumination in
aqueous media is less satisfactory.

"When the glass discs are not in use, it is best to keep them in
absolute alcohol in a glass-stoppered bottle. They should not be
allowed to become dry with mounting fluid in the capillary orifice,
otherwise they will be very troublesome to clean out.

De>itaining of Nemas or other Small Objects in the Differentiator. —
In handling a mass of small organisms by the differentiator method,
there is sometimes considerable difficulty in securing satisfactory
destaining. There is little difficulty in getting a mass of organisms
thoroughly impregnated with the stain, no matter how varied they
may be in species and in size ; it is simply a matter of time. The
trouble comes in destaining. If the destaining process is carried on
until the largest of the objects, or the most impenetrable ones, are suf-
ficiently destained, it will generally happen that smaller specimens, or
those more easily penetrated, are deprived of too much of their colour.
It is therefore a matter requiring considerable experience and judg-
ment to successfully destain such a miscellaneous collection. The
difficulty is considerably increased by the fact that when enclosed in
the differentiator tube, the specimens are not very easy to examine
critically l)y any ordinary method. If the differentiator be held toward
a strong light, the organisms may be examined by the aid of an ordinary
pocket lens, but not very critically. The most satisfactory piece of
apparatus for this work is what is sometimes known as the chemical
microscope, in which the objective is below the stage and the light that
passes through it from above is reflected by a prism placed below so as
to pass obliquely upward through a barrel carrying an eye-piece. If
the differentiator tube containing the destained nemas is laid on a glass
stage over the objective of such an inverted microscope, and a little
water, or still better, cedar oil, be placed between the differentiator tube
and the glass stage, it will be found that the nemas or other objects
will sink to the bottom of the fluid in the differentiator tube so as to
come as near as possible to the ol>jective of the microscope. If the
glass stage is thin, there is no difficulty in using a one-half to two-thirds
inch objective. In this way, the nemas may be examined more critically
with regard to the extent of the destaiuiug.

If it is desired to use a lens of higher power, it is sometimes possible
to do so by resorting to another method. Place a cover-glass on a
horizontal surface, and on the cover-glass a good-sized drop of cedar
oil. Lay the differentiator tube into this drop of cedar oil in such a
way that the nemas come opposite the cover-glass. It will now be
found that the cover-glass will adhere to the differentiator by capil-
larity, so long as the differentiator is held in a horizontal position. If
the chemical microscope stage has a large aperture, it will be possible
to lay the differentiator across the stage, cover-glass downward. In this
way, if the differentiator tubing is thin, it will be possible to use even
<iuarter-inch objectives of long focus.

^Yhere considerable work is done with differentiators, a chemical
microscope used in this way is a valuable accessory.

Compressor ium for Chromosomes. — When chromosomes or other

324

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

similar minute bodies are so massed together that one lies iK'hiud
another and is thus liable to be missed in counting, the compressorium
described below may prove useful in overcoming the difficulty, which
none of the ordinary compressoria will do.

AVhen such a mass of chromosomes is flattened out by pressure, the
individual chromosomes behave somewhat as would the seeds of a pulpy
fruit under similar circumstances. They appear to be of a different
consistency from the material in which they lie, and behave under
pressure as if harder and more compact than the surrounding matter.
Under moderate pressure they do not show much tendency to break in
pieces, but rather to accommodate themselves to the narrower quarters
by rearranging themselves more nearly in one plane. So far as enumera-
tion of the chromosomes is concerned, this new arrangement has two
advantages : 1st, they may all be more readily brought into a single

Fig. 4. — Two curved, perfor-
ated, steel springs made from
thin, safety-razor blades, as de-
scribed in the text. These two
forms, while of the same length,
nearly 1 in., are of different
degrees of springiness ; that at
the left beinsr the weaker.

Fig. 5. — Portion of a 3 by 1 in. glass
microscope slide enwrapped with thin metal
as described in the text, a, thin metal
wrapper ; h, one of the springs phown in
fig. 4, placed in position on the slide so as
to press the small round cover-glass, c, against
the slide, e\ d, aperture in the back of the
metal wrapper, a. The ends of the spring, b,
enter through the notches on the edges of the
wrapper, a, so that in being applied the spring
does not need to be rotated more than a few
degrees.

view, that is, all brought into focus at one time ; 2nd, in the flattening-
out process, they slip one over another somewhat, and recede from each
other — for instance, as the seeds inside a grape will do, when similarly
pressed.

The compressorium I have devised to secure this effect is constructed
as follows : Take a safety-razor blade — one of the thinnest kind, liaving
perforations an eighth of an inch in diameter — and soften it by heating
it to a red heat. With shears, cut a somewhat diamond-shaped piece
from the softened blade, so that tbe " diamond " is about three to four
times as long as wide, and has one of the round apertures in its centre ;
bend this elongated " diamond " into a symmetrical bow whose depth is
•| in. or more. (See fig. 4.) Heat the bow in a flame to a cherry-red
and plunge it into cold oil or water to harden it. This will result in a
springy piece of metal that can be utilized to exert pressure on a small
cover-glass under which are mounted cells containing the chromosomes

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIUKOSUOPV, KIG. 325

it is desired to scatter. Tlie length of the piece of springy steel may
conveniently be made to be about 1 in., so that it will just reach across
an ordinary 8 by 1 in. glass microscope slide. Bind the slide in a piece
of thin metal having a |-in. perforation at the back— that is to say, so
bend a piece of thin sheet metal that an ordinary slide will slip into it
through grooves along the two sides of the folded piece of metal. (See
fig. 5.) This metal should simply pass around the edges of the slide
and lap over about a sixteenth of an inch at each edge leaving one face
of the slide uncovered. The grooves should be a little wider than the
thickness of the slide — at least enough wider so as easily to admit the
thin i^erforated metal spring. Place the cells, the chromosomes of
which are to be studied, on the slide opposite the middle of the f-in.
aperture. Use very little mounting medium ; cover the cellular tissue
to be treated with a- small round cover-glass. Tuck the ends of the
bowed piece of springy perforated steel under the edges of the metal
slide-case or holder, holding the spring against the small cover-slip in
such a way that the cells to be compressed lie opposite the centre of the
small perforation. Press and lock the spring in the same way as in the
case of the springs at the back of an ordinary photographic printing
frame. The cells will now be under pressure at or near the centre of
the perforation in the steel spring. The entire contrivance will differ
but very little in form and size from an ordinary microscope slide, and
can be placed on any microscope stage iu the same way as a slide. The
piece of springy steel is so thin that it in no way prevents the use of
a high-power immersion objective. Needless to say. it is for this reason
that it is made from such thin metal. The spring may be manipulated
with the aid of matches or wooden toothpicks.

Ordinary slides and cover-glasses are almost never perfectly flat.
Better results will be obtained by this method if the slide has its
convex surface up and the cover has its convex surface down, so that
the cellular tissues to be treated lie between two very slightly convex
surfaces. It will be found that in this way very compact groups of
chromosomes and other similar objects can sometimes be scattered so
as to be counted, when otherwise they could not be counted.

There seems to be comparatively little danger of exerting too much
pressure. The beginner's tendeucj at first is to exert, if anything,
too little pressure. The greatest difficulty arises from sliding the
glasses on each other, since much of this ruins the preparation. To
overcome this difficulty, a series of three or four notches, close together,
may be filed in the edges of the metal holder before it is folded about
the slide — or rather about the metal core on which it is bent, or
formed, and which naturally has a little greater width and thickness
than the slide. If now the bowed string has a length a little less than
the distance between the bottoms of the notches in the edges of the
slide-holder, it will be found when it is pressed down that the pointed
ends can be tucked through the notches and under the edges of the
holder without materially sliding or rotating the spring. The accom-
panying illustrations will assist in understanding this simple and
effective device.

The particular cells to be compressed are prepared and searched

326

SrMMARY OF CUERKNT RESEARCHES,

out in the usual way, then dissected out together with as little of the
surrounding tissue as possible, an operation performed with the aid of
an ordinary dissecting microscope. It may be advisable to look at
the group of chromosomes from both sides. To do this, the metal
holder, instead of having a three-quarter inch perforation, should have
a much smaller perforation, say about one-eighth of an inch. Instead
of using a 8 by 1 in. glass slide, cement to the inside of the metal
holder a thin cover-glass several sizes larger than that to be placed

i'a"

1)

Jk

%J9

/f

,16^'

1 \j\j\f\j

Fig. 6. — A metal holder for clamping a microscopic object between
two thin cover-glasses, a, metal holder; h, steel spring as illus-
trated in figs. 4 and 5 ; c, small round cover-glass ; d, rectangular
cover-glass imderneath the round cover-glass ; e, notches in the
metal holder for the reception of the spring. This holder enables
the microscopist to look at the object vfith an immersion lens from
either direction.

over the object. As the metal holder, in order to be stiff enough, has
to be several times thicker than the bowed spring, it may be advisable
to bevel the edge of the round aperture in the holder, so that it will
interfere as little as possible with the use of an immersion objective.
On a slide constructed in this manner, the object is held between two
cover-glasses,^ and hence may be viewed from either side with equal
ease. Such a slide furthermore permits the use of an immersion lens
as a condenser, a proceeding that has advantages.

327

PBOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

v/^+CTw-

AN ORDINAEY MEETING

OF THE Society was held at 20 Hanover Square, W., on
Wednesday, June 15th, 1921, Professor John Eyre, Presi-
dent, IN the Chair.

The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read, confirmed, and
signed by the President.

The nomination papers were read of five Candidates for Fellowship.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows : —

Mr. William Ewart Hall.

Mr. Lancelot T. Hogben, M.A., D.Sc.

Mr. Ernest Channing Matthews, F.R.G.S.

Mr. Ernest A. Mignot.

Mr. Conrad Beck, for Messrs. E. and J. Beck, Ltd., exhibited a
High-Power Dark Ground Illuminator and an ^th-in. Oil Immersion
Objective.

The thanks of the meeting were accorded to Mr. Beck.

The following papers were read : —

Dr. Charles F. Sonntag, F.R.M.S.--

" Some Points in the Histology of the Three-Toed Sloth."

Mr. Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.—

" On Ostracoda, Foraminifera, and some Organisms related
to Calcisphgeree, from the Devonian of Germany."

Mr. G. T. Harris—

" A Note on Mounting in Glycerine Jelly."

Dr. Monica Taylor and Miss Catherine Hayes —

" The Technique of Culturing Amoeba Proteus."

Mr. M. T. Denne, O.B.E., F.R.M.S.—

" A Gregarine Parasite of the Earthworm."

Professor E. Ghosh, M.Sc, M.D., F.R.M.S.—

" New Hypotrichous Infusoria from Calcutta."

The thanks of the meeting were accorded to the authors of the
papers.

328 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Professor Frederic J. Cheshire, C.B.E., F.Inst.P., F.R.M.S.,
read a number of holograph letters written about 1876 by the late
Professor Abbe to J. W. Stephenson, on the subject of Abbe's diffrac-
tion theory of microscope vision ; and exhibitions of interference
and diffraction experiments were given by Mr. J. E. Barnard, Mr. J.
Rheinberg, Dr. Clay, Mr. H. Emsley, Mr. L. C. Martin, Mr. F. Harrison
Grlew, Mr. B. K. Johnson, and Professor Cheshire. Mr. Fredk. W.
Shurlock, B.A., B.Sc, F.Inst.P., Principal of the Derby Technical
College, exhibited in the form of lantern projections some of his
diffraction photographs.

As the President had to leave at this stage, the Chair was occupied
by Mr. Earland and afterwards by Dr. Murray.

Professor Rama, Mr. Rheinberg and Mr. Conrad Beck took part in
the discussion that ensued.

A hearty vote of thanks was accorded to Professor Cheshire and to
those gentlemen who had assisted him with exhibits.

Thanks were also accorded to Mr. H. C. Whitfield for his kindness
in operating the lantern.

It was announced from the Chair that the next meeting would be
held on October 19, and that the Rooms would be closed for th&
Summer Vacation from August 15 to September 10 inclusive.

The business proceedings then terminated.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DECEMBER, 1921.

TBANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

XIV.— ON OSTKACODA, FORAMINIFEEA, AND SOME

OEGANISMS RELATED TO CALCISPHiER^

EEOM THE DEVONIAN OF GERMANY.

By Feederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S., etc., Palaeontologist

to the National Museum, Melbourne,

Lecturer in Palaeontology, Melbourne University.

(Bead June 15, 1921.)

One Plate.

Inteoduction.

Being naturally interested in the question of the rarity of Forami-
nifera in the Devonian Limestones of the world, I have continually
looked for opportunities of discovering additional occurrences to
those recorded by Terquem.

During the writing of a paper on the Devonian Foraminifera
of the Tamworth District, New South Wales,* I had occasion, a
few years ago, to re-examine f Terquem's evidence for Devonian
Foraminifera recorded by him from Paffrath in the Eifel.J At
that time I sliced several pieces of Devonian limestone carrying
other fossils, specimens of which are in . the collection of the
National Museum, Melbourne. These gave some good results
which I promised to record at a future date. Hence the present
paper.

* Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, vol. xliii. pt. 2, 1918.
t Op. cit., p. 386.

X " Observations sur quelques fossiles des epoques primaires," Bull. Soc. G6ol.
France, s6r. 3, vol. viii. 1880, pp. 414-18, pi. xi.

2 A
257

330 Transactions of the Society.

The Foraminifera desci'ibed from Tamworth, in the paper just
referred to, comprise representatives of the genera Psammosphc'era,
Valvulina, and Pulvinulina. In alluding to my discovery of
micro-organisms in the De^^onian of Silesia and Bavaria, as well
as that of Paffrath, I there mentioned* that I had found, amongst
other remains, those of Eadiolaria. From a further study of these
and additional examples, I have concluded that they are not of
Eadiolarian affinities, but are most probably of vegetable origin, and
related to Galcisphsera, Sj^oroccayon, and Traquairia.

The Ostracoda.

In thin sections of the Silesian and Bavarian limestones
numerous Ostracods are seen, cut through in all zones. No attempt
is made here to indicate their generic relationship. The limestone
of Paffrath. Rhenish Prussia, being of a more friable nature, was
readily amenable to crushing, whereby the separate carapaces were
liberated from the matrix.

In the paper already alluded to,t Terquem states % that he also
found " monies d'Entamostraces." He does not figure any of the
specimens, but says they belong "propres aux Bairdia, Cy there, et
Gytherella." These genera have all been found in the present
series, with the addition of Bythocythere.

Section PODOCOPA.

Family Bairdiid^,
Genus Bairdia McCoy.

Bairdia curta McCoy. (PI. VIII, fig. 11.)

Bairdia curtus McCoy, 1844, Synopsis Charact. Carbonif. Fossils Ireland,
p. 166, pi. xxiii, fig. 15.

B. curta and vars., Jones and Kirkby, 1879, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol.
XXV. p. 567, pi. xxviii, fig. 8. Jones and Kirkby, 1896, Sci. Trans. E.
Dublin Soc, vol. vi. ser 2, p. 196, pi. xii, figs. 21a, b.

Observations. — The present specimens belong to a narrow,
elongate variety. Jones and Kirkby (op. cit., 1896), remark that this
Carboniferous species is not known as coming from anywhere
abroad ; found in the Carboniferous Limestone of England, Scotland
and Ireland. We are inclined to look on the present Devonian
specimens with a certain amount of reverence, seeing they are

* Proc. Linn. N. S. Wales, vol. xliii. pp. 386-7.
t Bull. Soc. G6ol. France, 1880.
X Op. supra cit., p. 418.

On Ostracoda, etc., from the Devonian of Germany. 331

micestral to one of the most abundant Carboniferous Ostracods,
and hitherto restricted to that and the succeeding Permian forma-
tions. The Paffrath specimens show some likeness also to Bairdia
'pleheia, which ranges into the Permian, and is a broader or higher
form. B. curta has also been recorded * by McCoy from the
Carboniferous of Dun vegan, Xew South Wales.

Ditnensions. — Length, 1 mm.; height, 0*4 mm.

Occurrence. — JMiddle Devonian ; Paffrath. Several specimens.

Range. — Middle Devonian to Permian.

Family Cytherid^.
Genus Cytlicre Miiller.

Cythere intermedia Mnnster. (PL VIII, fig. 13a, b.)

€y there intermedia Mlinster, 1830, Neues Jahrb. ftir. Min., p. 65, No. 22.

C. subreniformis Kirkby, 1859, Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field Club, vol. iv.
p. 154, pi. xi, fig. 23.

C intermedia Miinster, Jones and Kirkby, 1865, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, ser. 3,
vol. XV. p. 409, pi. XX, figs. 9a-e.

Observations. — The formerly known range of this species was
Carboniferous to Permian. The specimen here figured is generally
typical of the species, having an elongate-ovate outline seen
laterally, broader anteriorly, and with moderately compressed sides.

Occurrence. — Middle Devonian [Stringocephalus Limestone) ;
Paffrath.

Range. — Middle Devonian to Permian.

Genus Bythocythere G. 0. Sars.
Bytliocythere eifeliensis sp. n. (PI. VIII, figs. 14a, b.)

Descriytion. — Carapace seen from the side, subrlinmboidal,
oblique. Hinge-line straight ; ventral border gently concave,
sloping away to the posterior. Anterior, obliquely truncately
rounded to the dorsal margin ; posterior, acuminate at the dorsal
angle, the margin being fringed with denticles. Carapace com-
pressed ovate, with a depressed marginal flange. Surface distinctly
pitted or areolate.

Dimensions. — Length, 1 mm. ; height, 0 • 4 mm. ; thickness of
carapace, 0*33 mm.

* Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xx. 1847, p. 229.

2 A 2

332 Transactions of the Society.

Observations. — There is a Carboniferous species which somewhat
resembles the present form in a general way, viz. Bythocypris
antiqua * from the Lower Carboniferous of Northumberland. That
species, however, has a more ovate carapace seen from the side,
with a discontinuous marginal flange, and an arched, rather than
straight, dorsal line. The surface in both forms is pitted.

Occurrence. — Middle Devonian ; Paffrath. Two specimens.

* Jones, Kirkby and Brady, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, xviii. p. 263, pi. ix,
figs. 5a, b.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIIL

Fig. 1. — Sporocarpon aculeatum sp. n. Upper Devonian : Ebersdorf, Silesia.
X 26.

,, 2. — (?) Sporocarpon clentalum sp. n. A fragment of the wall. Upper
Devonian: Ebersdorf, Silesia, x 52.

,, 3. — Traqiudria tentaculifers sp. u. Upper Devonian : Schiibelhammer,
Bavaria. X 26.

,, 4. — Sporocarpon aculeatum sp. n. Upper Devonian : Schiibelhammer,
Bavaria, x 26.

,, 5. — CftZcisi^/iara spiwosa Williamson. Middle Devonian : Paffrath, the Eifel.
X 216.

,, 6. — (?) Calcisphxra from interior of Sporocarpon shown in fig. 1. x 216.

,, 7. — Polijmor2)hina archaica sp. n. a, side view; b, oral view. Middle
Devonian : Paffrath. X 26.

,, 8. — Cassidulina devonica sp. n. Middle Devonian : Paffrath. x 52.

,, 9. — Polymorphina seminis sp. n. Middle Devonian : Paffrath. x 26.

,, 10. — Truncakdina lobatula Walker and Jacob sp. a, inferior view ; b, peri-
pheral view. Middle Devonian : Paffrath. x 26.

,, 11. —Bairdia curta McCoy. Carapace seen from the left side. Middle
Devonian : Paffrath. x 26.

,, 12. — Cytherella preualida sp. n. a, seen from the left side; 6, edge view.
Middle Devonian : Paffrath. x 26.

,, 13. — Cy there intermedia. ]\Iunster. a, carapace seen from the left side ;
b, edge view. Middle Devonian : Paffrath. X 26.

,, 14, — Bythocythere eifeliensis sp. n. a, carapace seen from the left side;
b, edge view. Middle Devonian : Paffrath. x 26.

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC. 1921. Pi Vlli.

^ //

Kiice p. 332

On Ostracoda, etc., from the Devonian of Germany. 333

Section MYODOCOPA.

Family Cytherellid.*;.

Genus Cytherella Jones.

Cytherella prevalida sp n. (PI. VIII, figs, 12a, h.)

Description. — Carapace seen from the side, bean-shaped or
elongately ovate ; ventral margin gently incurved, dorsal widely
arched; anterior broadly rounded, posterior narrowly rounded.
Edge view depressed ovate, median area compressed.

Dimensions. — Length, 0*78 mm.; height, 0"44 mm.; thickness
of carapace, 0 • 3 mm.

Observations. — This form is fairly common in the small amount
of residue from the limestone. In general form it resembles the
Carboniferous species Ci/fherella valida, Jones, Kirkby and Brady,*
but is smaller, more compressed, and broader anteriorly.

Occurrence. — Middle Devonian ; Paffrath.

The Foraminifera.

Family Lituolid.e.

Genus Ammodiscus Reuss.

AmmodisGus incertus d'Orbigny sp.

Operculina incerta d'Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Cuba, p. 49, pi. v, figs. 16, 17.

Trochammina incerta d'Orbigny sp., Brady, 1876, Carboniferous and
Permian Foram., Pal. Soc. Mon., vol. xxx. p. 71, pi. ii, figs. 10-4.

Ammodiscus incerttis d'Orbigny sp.. Chapman and Howchin, 1908, Mon.
Foram. Permo-Carb. N. S. Wales, Pal. Mem., No. 14, Geol. Surv. N. S.
Wales, p. 10.

Ohser rations. — A minute test of this species was seen in one of
the thin sections of the limestone, consisting of several convolu-
tions, and having a fine sandy test. I have found this species in
the Silurian of Lilydale, Victoria, and it ranges upward to recent
times.

Occurrence. — Upper Devonian {Clymenia Kalk) ; Schiibel-
hammer, Bavaria.

* Pal. Soc. Mon. 1884, Mon. Brit. Foss. Bivalved Entom. of Carbonif. Form. ,
pt. 1, No. 2, p. 70, pi. vi, figs. 2a-e.

334 Transactions of the Society.

Genus Endothyra Phillips.
Endothyra bowmani Phillips.

Endothyra bowmani Phillips, 1845, Proc. Geol. Tech. Soc. West Riding,
Yorkshire, vol. xi. p. 279, pi. vii, fig. 1. Brady, 1876, Men. Carb. and
Perm. Foram., p. 92, pi. v, figs. 1-4. Chapman and Howchin, 1905,
Mon. Foram. Perm. Carb., Pal. No. 14, Geol. Surv. N. S.Wales, p. 12,
pi. i, figs. 13a-c.

Ohscrvations. — Several tests were found, which represent a
rather tumid variety of this otherwise typically Carboniferous
fossil.

Occurrence. — Middle Devonian (Stringocephalus Limestone) ;
Paffrath.

Family Textulariid^.

Genus Cassidulina d'Orbigny.

Cassidulina devonica sp. n. (PI. VIII, fig. 8.)

Description. — Test very minute, apparently arenaceous, and
thus differing from the typical Ccmidulinse ; in all other respects
similar. Ovoid or roundly oblong, with numerous sub-tumid
chambers and slightly incised suture lines. Aperture, subcircular,
bulimine. Length of figured specimen, 0 • 3 mm.

Ohscrmtions.—'^Q\QV!A examples, of faiiiy uniform size, were
found in the washings. The form of the test resembles C. suh-
glohosa Brady,* but tlie aperture is more centrally placed.

Occurrence. — Middle Devonian (String ocephalus Limestone) ;
Paffrath, the Eifel.

Family Lagenid.e.

Genus Folymorj^hina d'Orbigny.

Polymo7-phina archaica sp, n. (PI. VIII, fig. 7.)

Description. — Test sub-globose, compressed on two sides.
Chambers few, lageniform. Aperture phialine and corrugated on
the margin. Surface slightly granulate. Colour pale brown.

Dimensions. — Length, 0'99 mm.; greatest width, 0*99 mm.;
width on axis of compression, 0'66 mm.

Observations. — In its general shape this species resembles
Polymorplmia gihba d'Orbigny,t but has a more exsert aperture,
less tumid chambers and a sub-granular surface.

Occurrence. — Middle Devonian (String ocephalus Limestone) ;
Paffrath, the Eifel.

* Rep. ChalL, vol. ix. 1884, p. 430, pl. liv, figs. 17a-c.

t Polymorphina (Globulina) gibba d'Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 266, No. 20 ; Modele, No. 63.

Oil Ostracocla, etc., from tlie Devonian of Germany. 335

PolymorpTiina seminis sp. n. (PL VIII, fig. 9.)

Description. — Test ovate, apiculate at the aboral end ; oral
aperture prolonged, tubular. Surface rough or acerate, with
short blunt prickles. Sutures few, test not compressed.

Dimensions. — Length, 0*74 mm.; breadth, 0"48 mm.

Observations. — This species shows some resemblance to P. sororia
Eeuss,* but is rather shorter than typical specimens of that form ;
moreover it is distinguished by the prickly or acerate surface and
tubular orifice.

Occurrence. — Middle Devonian (String ocephalus Limestone) ;
Paffrath, the Eifel.

Family Rotaliid^.

Genus Truncatulina d'Orbigny.

Truncatulina lohatula Walker and Jacob sp. (PI. VIII, figs. 10a, h.)

Nautilus lohatulus Walker and Jacob, 1798, Adams' Essays, p. 642, pi. xiv,

fig. 36.
Truncatulina lohatula W. and J. sp., Brady, 1884, Rep. Chall., vol. ix. p.

660, pi. xcii, fig. 10 ; pi. xciii. figs. 1, 4, 5 ; pi. cxv, figs. 4, 5.

Observations. — -The specimen figured here is a typically shaped,
though somewhat starved example. It has a comparatively high
test, fairly numerous chambers, and the re-entrant oral region is
conspicuous.

Dimensions. — This Devonian specimen measures 0*52 mm. in
width, whereas living examples can be found with a width of more
than 2 mm.

Range. — This appears to be the oldest recorded occurrence of
Truncatulina lobatula. Other palaeozoic representatives of the
genus are to be found in the Carboniferous of Belgium,! the Carbo-
permian of Pokolbin, New South Wales,| and the Carbopermian
of Collie, W. Australia.§

Occurrence. — Middle Devonian {String ocephalus Limestone) ;
Paffrath, the Eifel.

The CALCISPHyERiE AND OTHER RELATED ORGANISMS.

Whilst searching over thin sections of Devonian Limestone for
any evidence of Foraminifera or Ostracoda, I came across numerous

* Polymorphina (Guttulina) sororia Reuss, 1862, Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg., ser. 2,
voL XV. p. 121, pi. ii, figs. 25-9.

t Truncatulina carbonifera Brady, Mon. Carbonif. and Perm. Foram. Pal. Soc.
Mon., vol. XXX. 1876, p. 138, pi. vi, fig. 10. T. boueana d'Orb. sp., Idem, ibid.,
p. 139, pi. vi, fig. 11.

X Truncatulina haidingeri d'Orb. sp., Cbapman and Howchin, Mem. Geol.
Surv. N. S. Wales, PaL No. 14, 1905, p. 18, pL in, figs. Ba-c.

§ Truncatulina haidingeri d'Orb. sp., Chapman, Bull. 27, Geol. Surv. W.
Australia, 1907, p. 17, pi. ii, figs, la, b.

336 Transactions of the Society.

minute organisms which at first sight seemed to be Eadiolarians.
Upon sketching them I was struck with their comparatively large
dimensions. Their average diameter was about 1 mm., whereas
the Spumellarian Eadiolaria generally measure one-sixth of that.
Moreover the bent and twisted appearance of some of their spines
seemed to point to a flexibility seen in spores, but not so strikingly
exhibited in the Eadiolaria.

The late Dr. W. C. Williamson made a special study of small
bodies in Carboniferous rocks, which he named Sporocarpon and
Zygosporitcs, and also referred to the genus Traquairia of Carruthers.
These organisms are generally spherical and with radiating spines.
The spheres frequently enclose smaller rounded bodies, and were
consequently regarded by Williamson as megaspheres having
Lepidodendroid affinities.*

The present examples are about twice the diameter of those
found by Williamson in the Carboniferous of Yorkshire and else-
where, but in every other way resemble them. Other smaller
bodies, often numerously represented in the Carboniferous Lime-
stone of Britain, were termed by Williamson Galcisphmrm. They
were regarded by Professors Sollas and Judd as true Eadiolaria,
with which they compare both in size and shape, and in having in
some cases slender spines. The ornament of the GaUisphierx, is
moreover, often like the meshwork of a Eadiolarian, but as a rule
much finer in texture. The chief objection that has been raised
against their Eadiolarian affinities is the fact that they are now in
the form of calcite ; but in view of the calcified Eadiolaria in the
Chalk this difficulty is not insuperable.

The chief argument against their being siliceous Eadiolaria
replaced by calcite is that they are invariably calcareous, so far as
I am aware, whilst other, siliceous, bodies in the same rock are not
replaced by calcite. At present I am inclined to think that the
balance of evidence is in favour of these minute bodies bearing a
relationship to certain calcareous algai such as the RhaMospheres
and Coccospheres, which are so abundant in modern calcareous oozes.f

Seeing the present rock samples are marine limestones (Orthis,
Stringocephalus and Clymenia faunas), to find the spore-like bodies,
here referred to Sporocarpon and Traquairia, may seem anomalous.
But it is just as feasible as it is to discover drifted wood in Chalk
(Purley, England), or in the EoUing Down Limestone (Queensland),
for these apparently difficultly destructible organisms may easily
have survived the ordeal of drifting by streams flowing into a clear
deep sea.

* See Williamson, W. C, "On the Organization of the Fossil Plants of the
Coal Measures," pt. 10, Phil. Trans. R. Soc, vol. clxxi. pt. 2, 1889, pp. 493-539,
pis. xiv-xxi.

t This was also reservedly suggested by Williamson, Phil. Trans., 1880, vol.
clxxi. p. 525.

Oil Ostracoda, etc., from the Devonian of Germany, 337

The genera Sporocarpon and Traqnairia were actually found in
situ in the strobils of Lcpidodendron, so that in their case the
relationship is certain. As regards the Calcisphsern?, if these are
the microspores of Lepidodendroid plants — and the similarity of
one occurrence in the present series seems to point in that direc-
tion (PI. VIII, fig. 6) — one difficulty would be their extreme
abundance in some limestones, as in the Devonian " Corniferous
Limestone " of Kelly's Island, U.S.A., cited by Williamson.*

Desgeiption of the Organisms.

Genus SjJorocarpon Williamson, 1878.t
Sporocarpon aculeatum sp. n. (PI. VIII, figs. 1, 4, 6.)

Description. — Body spherical. The surface covered with a fine
reticulum, and having a fairly close ornament of short and long
spines. The longer spines are slightly flexed, the shorter spines
apparently rigid. Under a high magnification the interior is seen
to contain small spherical bodies which resemble the Calcisjyhserse
of the Carboniferous Limestone. These small bodies are roughly
orbicular, and have fairly thick walls supported by radial partitions,
and sometimes with a central rounded nucleus.

Dimensions. — Diameter, 1 • 07 mm. ; length of longer spines,
0'42 mm. ; length of smaller spines, 0*15 mm.

Observatio7is. — These bodies might easily be mistaken for
Eadiolaria of the genus Heliospluvra, as indeed the writer did at
the outset. They are, however, about six times as large, and the
cortex has a dilfeient appearance from that of the Iladiolarian
structure, giving the impression of a ihin chitinous or calcareous
investment. The genus is clearly of Lepidodendroid affinities, as
shown by Williamson.

Occurrence. — Upper Devonian; Ebersdorf, Silesia. Upper
Devonian ; Sclmbelhammer, Bavaria.

(?) Sporocarpon dentatum sp. n. (PI. VIII, fig. 2 )

Description. — The capsule wall is never complete in the sec-
tions, only fragmentary arcs being preserved. The wall is
extremely thin and the exterior covered with short denticles.
This form differs from Sporocarpon, as described by Williamson,
in the thinness of the wall.

Dimensions. — Diameter of an average completed sphere, about

1 • 3 mm.

* Phil. Trans., vol. clxxi. 1880, p. 523.
t Phil. Trans., vol. clxix. p. .347 (footnote).

338 , Transactions of the Society.

Observations. — In Zyyosporites * the spinules on the exterior are
short and sparse, but usually blunt or expanded at the tip.
Sporocarpon, sensu stricto, has a thick and even cellular wall.

Occurrence. — Upper Devonian; Ebersdorf, Silesia. Also Schiibel-
hammer, Bavaria.

Qenus Traquairia Carruthers, 1872.t
Traqiiairia tentaculifera sp. n. (PL VIII, fig. 3.)

Description. — The body of the (?) megasporeis roughly spherical,
with numerous depressions between the bases of the flexuous
spines. The irregular shape of tlie sphere suggests a thin cortex
which has shrunk. The larger spines number about 12 to l-i on
the entire surface. Smaller spines more numerous.

Dimensions. — Diameter of body, 1'27 mm. ; length of primary
spines, 0'92 mm. ; length of secondary spines, 0'23 mm.

Ohservatio7is. — This form might also easily be mistaken for a
Hcliosp)hxra. Its large size and shrunken body with very flexible
spines mnkes its plant origin more certain.

Occurrence. — Upper Devonian ; Scliiibelhammer, Bavaria.

Genus Calcisphxra Williamson, 1880.J

Calcisplixra spinosa "Williamson. (PI. VIII, fig. 5.)

Calcisjohssra spinosa Williamson, 1880, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. clxxi. p.
522, figs. 70-77 (especially figs. 74 and 75).

Observations on Pr'esent Specimens. — Body spherical, inner sphere
about one-fourth the diameter of the outer. Connected to the
outer sphere by numerous slender radii. Wall of outer sphere
with about five blunt processes showing in one plane.

Dimensions. — Diameter of outer sphere, 0*08 mm. ; diameter of
inner sphere, 0*022 mm.

Occurrence. — Middle Devonian {String ocephalus Limestone);
Paffrath, the Eifel.

Calcisphsera within a Sporocarpon. (PI. VIII, fig. 6.)

Description. — A spherical body, one of many less distinct in
appearance, seen under a high magnification resting within the

* Phil. Trans., vol. clxxi. pt. 2, p. 516, pl. xix, fig. 55.

t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci , n.s. vol. xviii. 1872, p. 397. Also Rep. Brit. Ass.
Adv. Sci. Brighton, 1872, p. 126. See also Williamson, W. C, Ibid., Dublin, 1878.
p. 534. Note. — The original spelling is correctly given as Traquairia, but later
references have it written Traq^iaria.

X Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. clxxi. p. 521.

On Ostracoda, etc., from the Devonian of Germany. 339

cortex of Sporocarpon aculeatum (see fig. 1), from the Upper
Devonian of Ebersdorf. The dimensions of this example are
almost exactly that of the typical CalcUi^hsera spinosa Williamson,
being 0 092 mm. in diameter. In tliis specimen the central
sphere usually present is reduced to a mere junction of the radii.

Eemarks on the Affinities of the Genera Treated.

Traquairia. — This genus was referred to in the original note in
the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science (ref. antea) as a
Kadiolarian rhizopod, by Carruthers. In the discussion on that
paper, Prof. Tliiselton Dyer thought they were not related to
Xanthidia, but were probably the resting stage of some animal
organisms.

From the cellulose appearance of the outer covering or '' capsule
wall," and the frequent inclusion of smaller spore-like ])odies, it
seems highly probable that they must be referred to plant struc-
tures, and indeed there seems quite satisfactory evidence in support
of this, given by Williamson,* who found Traguaii^ise in a crushed
strobilus of Lepidodcndron from the CarlDoniferous of Yorkshire.
It is quite easy to conceive how such megaspores, showered in
myriads and drifted by the wind into tidal lagoons, might float
into a deep-water area, and so become included in the moderately
deep-water marine limestone of the Carboniferous and Devonian
sea-beds.

Sporocarpon. — It is of much interest to note that the organisms
referred to this genus by Williamson had the assumption of their
plant origin well supported by the presence of little microscopic
bodies within the capsule. Should the specimens here figured as
Sporocarpon be rightly assigned to that genus, the little Calcisplidera-
like bodies found within one of them seem to point conclusively
to the relationship and even identity of those and the true Ccdci-
sphmrse of the Carboniferous Limestone. Both the free and included
forms were found in the Devonian Limestones examined during
the writing of this present notice.

Calcisph.vra. — In these, mostly minute bodies, the outer capsule
is usually of considerable thickness, and the form regularly
spherical. The Carboniferous Limestone examples generally have
a fine spinose covering, but sometimes with stronger radii, as seen
in a similar form figured here in tig. 5. The figure 6, from the
interior of a Sporocarpon from Ebersdorf, is so like the typical
Ccdcisplimrse, both in shape and structure, that their relationship
seems apparent. If of the nature of the Coccosplieres, as Williamson

* Phil. Trans. Boy. Soc, vol. clxxi. pt. 2, 1880, p. 532.

340 Transactions of the Society.

suggests,* but with a complete capsule instead of a platy one,
what is the nature and function of the enveloping capsule-wall as
seen in Sporocarpon ? On the other hand, there is some ground
for thinking with Williamson, that they are the reproductive
capsules of certain marine vegetable organisms. In both cases we
would therefore assume that in regard to the included bodies found
in Sporocar2Jon they are only similar in form, but widely different

m origin.

* Phil. Trans., vol. clxxi. 1880, p. 525.

341

XY.— A PKELIMINARY ACCOUNT
OF THE SPEEMATOGENESIS OF SPHENODON".

By Lancelot T. Hogbkn,

M.A.(Cantab.), D.Sc.(Lond.), F.Z.S., F.E.M.S.,

Lecturer and Huxley Curator, Imperial College of Science.

{Read October 19, 1921.)

Eighteen Tbxt-Pigubes.

Seeing that the Tuatara is rapidly becoming extinct, the ojipor-
tunity of making some observations upon the chromosome com-
ponent of the germ cells merits record ; and it is the first duty
of the author to tender cordial thanks to Prof. Dendy, who
generously placed the material for the research at his disposal.
Hitherto no publications dealing with the cytology of Sphenodon
have appeared ; and our knowledge of gametogenesis among
Pteptilia as a whole is remarkably limited. The only data available
refer to two Chelonian and two Lacertilian genera. Jordan (1914)
issued a brief note on the first spermatocyte mitosis in Chrijsemis
and Cistudo, indicating the presence of an X-element in the
former. Trinci (1908) gave an admirable account of the synaptic
phenomena of Anguis, but was unable to furnish accurate data
respecting the diploid complex. Teilyesnicsky (1897) in an early
memoir on the histology of the testis quotes the number twenty-
four for dividing spermatogonia in Lacerta ; and Mile. Loyez in a
monograph on vitellogenesis mentions the same figure for the
oogonial chromosomes of Anguis and Lac&rta. There is thus no
complete study of gametogenesis in any reptile available at present.
Yet judging from the illustrations of Trinci and the phenomena
observed in Sphenodon the lleptilia should provide a most profitable
field of enquiry for those interested in chromosomal heteromorphism
and its bearing upon the theory of synapsis.

The material here described consisted of a series of sections
7 to 10 mm. in thickness from the testis of a single individual
preserved by Prof. Dendy with aceto-bichromate ; though the
gonads were fixed in situ the microscopic detail proved on exami-
nation to be remarkably good ; and, while some of the more elusive
stages were not adequately treated, for most purposes the prepara-
tions were quite satisfactory. It would appear that the strength
of the reagent chanced to be approximately appropriate to the
osmotic pressure of the tissue fluids ; and owing no doubt to the
paucity of adipose tissue in any part of the organ penetration was
not unduly impeded in the outer layers upon which all the obser-

342 Transactions of the Society.

vations recorded were founded. For staining Prof. Dendy's assis-
tant, Mr. Biddulph, employed iron brazilin with excellent results ;
a few preparations, however, were restained with iron-hsematoxylin.
In view of the limited amount of material available for study and
certain intrinsic difficulties which made further confirmatory data
desirable, I should not have ventured to place on record the fruit
of my studies were it not for the fact that Sphenodon is now very
rare ; and that some acquaintance with the gametogenesis of the
sole surviving member of an extremely archaic stock may prove
of considerable interest when our knowledge of reptilian cytology
has been further extended. The work of E. Browne Harvey in
collecting an exhaustive index of the chromosome numbers of the
Metazoa raises possibilities of such signal genetic and systematic
interest as to encourage this expectation. In any event, the facts
cited may stimulate others to undertake further investigation,
should the author be unable to renew the study of this species.

Owing to the confused state of the terminology employed with
reference to the reduction divisions, etc., at Prof. Dendy's sugges-
tion the following glossary notes are introduced. The premeiotic
phase of nuclear history (Farmer and Moore) comprises all the
cell generations characterized by the diploid number of chromo-
somes, including thus the oogonial and spermatogonial as well as
somatic mitoses. For the different stages in nuclear division
Strassburger introduced the terms pi'o-, ineta- and ana^ihase
(1884); Haidenhein (1894) added telophase for the processes
immediately antecedent to the resting stage, for which Bolles Lee
(1912) proposed spiroijhase or interphase. The meiotic phase
(Farmer and Moore, 1905) in animals includes the series of
nuclear phenomena betw^een the last spermatogonial or oogonial
telophase and fertilization or the inception of cleavage ; Flemming's
terms for the first and second reduction divisions, the heterotypc
and homotype respectively, are still in use. The nomenclature of
synapsis, or the means by which the reduction of the chromosomes
is effected in preparation for the heterotype mitosis, is entirely
modern. Moore originally defined synapsis as the contraction of
the chromatin content of the nucleus from the nuclear membrane
in the primary spermatocyte or oocyte ; but as the belief has gained
ground that this contraction synchronizes with numerical reduction,
the term has been used by later writers for the actual pairing of
the univalents, although McClung (1905) and Hacker (1909) have
since distinguished the former from the latter as respectively
synizesis (contraction) and syndesis (pairing). Two interpretations
of synapsis have been put forw^ard by animal cytologists : parallel
conjugation {parasynapsis or parasyndesis), reduction by the
lateral approximation in pairs of the representatives of the pre-
meiotic chromosomes; and terminal union {telosynapsis or mcta-
syndesis), reduction by the adherence of the univalents end-to-end.

A Prelimmar!/ Account of the Spermatogenesis of Sphenodon. 343

Parasyuapsis and telosynapsis are used in an altogether different
sense by plant cytologists (cf. Farmer, Ann. of Bot., vol. 26).
For the events which occur between the last preraeiotic telophase
and the heterotype metaphase the system of de Winiwarter (1900)
is now generally employed • — viz. (1) leptotene stage, or leptouemci,
for the initial stages in which the nucleus is filled with fine
attenuated filaments, generally (a notable exception being Wilson's
Hemiptera) displaying a polarized or "bouquet" orientation.
Those who advocate parasyuapsis contend that the leptotene
threads are diploid in number and identify a succeeding zj/gotene
(Gregoire, 1907 = amiihitcne of Jannsens, 1905) phase, in which
they are seen to be assorted in laterally approximated pairs, con-
tracted from the nuclear membrane in very many cases. (2) pachy-
tene stage, or pachynema., in whicli the reduced number of thickened
and undivided filaments is present in the nucleus : when con-
traction (synizesis) occurs it attains its maximum at this stage.

(3) diplotene stage (also called strcpsitene), in which the reduced
chromatin filaments display a well-marked longitudinal cleavage

(4) diakinesis, in which the definitive heterotype chromosomes or
tetrads lie well separated upon tlie nuclear membrane, the term
tetrad being used descriptively whether the Ijivalents are quad-
rangular or not, and without any theoretical inq^lication as to
their constitution or mode of subsequent division. The reality of
synapsis is inferred from the existence of similar heteroraorphic
groups (diploid chromosomes) in different individuals of the same
species : in the interpretation of synapsis the difficulty of referring
the axes of fission in the reduction divisions to the plane of
cleavage in the diplotene filaments from which the tetrads are
derived is the centre of controversy.

The testes of Sphenodon consist of masses of tubules made up
of spermatogonia, spermatocytes, spermatozoa and sustentacular
cells, arranged as in Mammals except that there is only a very
small amount of vascularized connective tissue in their interstices,
and no signs of interstitial epithelioid elements are recognizable.
The spermatogonia constitute the outermost layer ; and as is
frequently the case, contiguous cells on the whole show similar
stages in nuclear history, so that mitoses commonly occur in groups.
The prophase chromosomes exhibit the same type of behaviour
that I have described in Lilelhda, appearing first as attenuated
convoluted filaments which progressively become shorter and
stouter in anticipation of the cleavage which is not manifest until
metaphase : at no stage is there anything suggestive of a con-
tinuous spireme. An insufficient sequence of well-preserved cells
in telophase were observed to provide critical data ; but a few
figures clearly indicated vacuolization and well-marked polarity
in the disposition of the filaments. The polarity of the telophasic
units has been emphasized again and again by botanical cytologists,

344 Transactions of the Society.

though with the exception of a very few, notably BoUes Lee and
Bonnevie, investigators of animal forms, have not directed attention
to it : its revelance to the interpretation of synapsis in animals I
have pointed out in a previous paper.

The estimation of the metaphase complex is rendered difficult
by the fact that the heteromorphic elements are closely packed
and to some extent always superimposed, so that mitoses in which
each individual chromosome is completely separate from its neigh-
bours, and any chance of confusing V-shaped elements with rods
that are contiguous at one extremity only is eliminated, are ex-
tremely rare. A more striking case of the differentiation of a
diploid complex into pairs of different sizes and shapes could
hardly be cited : not two pairs of chromosomes are precisely the
same size, and with respect to shape at least five distinct types are
recofjnizable. Of these three pairs may be stated to display sub-
terminal attachment to the fibres of the achromatic spindle ; two
of them are most conveniently described as J's, the other having
the form of a square root sign. The latter are well seen in text-
figs, 1 and 3. Of the remainder, which appear to 1)e uniformly
symmetrical, one pair is similar in shape to a horseshoe, and the
remainder, probably niue pairs, are straight or bent rods and
small arcs.

In most equatorial plates a varying number of minute granules
is seen, usually in the centre ; these are comparable to the cloud
of particles seen in the polar metaphase of the- oocytes of Phragma-
tobia by Seller. According to Seller they are chromatinic. I have
not had the opportunity of testing their reactions in the Tuatara,
since in differentiating nucleolar (plasmosome) material from
chromatin by such methods as that of Auerbach, previous treat-
ment with acetic acid must be avoided ; consequently I am not in
a position to be dogmatic as to the nature of these granules. But
I may at the same time add that I am not satisfied with the
evidence for Seller's interpretation.* They occur prolifically in
the heterotype mitosis of Hatteria, and are found clustered round
the polar ends of the spindle, as indicated in text-fig. 14. On the
whole they are reminiscent of the persistent remnants of the
plasmosome in Lihellula and Pcriplancta ; and in this connexion it
may be remarked that Jordan refers to the formation of chromidia
in the Chelonian genera. Owing to the confusion arising especially
from the binuclearity hypothesis, it has been of late the fashion to
disregard the existence of nuclear emissions, as Beckwith, and in
earlier work, Gattnby, have done; but the work of Dendy, Buchner,

* Shortly before his death the late Prof. Doncaster wrote to me stating that
on reinvestigation of similar granules to those of Seller in Abraxas, he was con-
vinced that they were not chromatinic. Since he was unhappily prevented from
publishing any results under this heading, as one of his pupils I take the oppor-
tunity of adding this footnote.

A Preliminary Account of the Spermatogenesis of Sphenodon. 345

Jorgensen and myself has amply established that the plasmosome
can both in the interpliase and the kinetic stages of nuclear history
discharge material into the cytoplasm. Altogether I have figured
seven out of a dozen fairly satisfactory metaphase sections, giving

;.

if id

7/f-K

•

>^'

A^

Figs. 1-9.

my own interpretation as to whether chromosomes in individual
cases are superimposed or split to make clear the nature of the
difficulty. Text-fig. 4 was in every way most satisfactory, and
taken with fig. 1 would suggest a complex of 28 units, including

2 B

346 Transactions of the Society.

a pair of m-chroinosomes : on the other hand figs. 2, 5, 6, 3 indicate
stages in the disintegration of the nucleolar remnant ; and other
sections showed many more granular bodies. In fig. 7 it is not
possible to recognize more than 26 elements with certainty.
Having made clear the possible sources of error, I should quote
this number tentatively for the diploid complex ; this is slightly
greater than the number characteristic of Amphibia, uniformly
found in the Urodela, and, according to Loyez, in Anguis and
Laccrta. As the last-named author gives no figures, and proffers
the observation quite incidentally to her main purpose, serious
importance is not due to it in view of the difficulty in estimating
heteromorphic complices of high number. One suggestion may
however be submitted — namely, that the three pairs of chromosomes
which show subterminal attachment to the spindle are compound.
It is not my purpose to discuss the possible value of studying the
heterotype division from this standpoint for the elucidation of
numerical chromosome relations in phylogeny. If the above specu-
lation is sustained by subsequent research, the correct diploid
number for reptiles would be primitively 26 -f- 6, or 32, for which
the haploid equivalent would be 16, that cited by Jordan for the
Chelonian Cistudo.

Close scrutiny of the mitotic figures given will reveal a clear
correlation in size and shape of the component elements of the
different complices. To appreciate this constancy it is of course
necessary to take into account the fact that the shape of any
element is conditioned by the plane in which it is viewed; and
when, as in the present instance, the number of chromosomes is
considerable, one rarely finds showing every member of the group
lying in the same plane without prolonged and patient searching.
Thus the estra pair of apparently J-shaped elements in fig. 2 are
seen on changing focus to be bent rods. Furthermore, comparison
must always be made at precisely the same stage of condensation
upon material, showing as far as possible identical condition as
regards preservation. Fig, 4, it should be noted, is an early
anaphase. Thus purely negative criticism of the constancy of
heteromorphic groups such as that of Foot and Strobell is of little
weight in comparison with the positive testimony of a large l)ody
of workers in the same field. 1 have considered the possibility
that the granular bodies referred to are supei'uumerary chromo-
somes such as were originally described by Stevens in insects and
in one vertebrate type, Necturus, by King. This is excluded by
their inconstancy. There does not appear to be an unpaired
element nor a chromatin nucleolus corresponding to such a
structure in the spermatocytes ; neither has the study of the
reducing divisions indicated the presence of X or Y chromosomes.
That the inconstant (? nucleolar) bodies are seen to pass to the
poles of the sjjindle is interesting in the light of Carleton's

A Preliminary Account of the Spermatogenesis of Spltenodon. 34T

demonstration of the continuity of an intranucleolar element.
Carleton's suggestive work makes it imperative that the whole
subject of supernumerary, and it may be added, many instances of
m-chromosomes, should be handled very carefully, particularly in
the absence of specific staining diagnosis of chromatin ; it would
be profitable to repeat such observations on material fixed by the
newer methods introduced for the study of the extranuclear cell
inclusions.

Tlie nuclear history of the first spermatocyte in Sphenodon so
closely resembles earlier meiotic stages of Anguis that Trinci's
excellent illustrations of the latter may be referred to as typical
of the salient features of corresponding phenomena in the former.
As in Vertebrates generally, the seriation of the various stages of
maturation roughly corresponds to the radial axis of each testi-
cular tubule ; but for practical purposes no assistance is afforded
by the structure of the testis in the study of individual stages in
the sequence of events which intervene between the last sperma-
togonial telophase and the first reducing division. The order of
these can only be recognized by the characteristic peculiarities of
the synaptic processes and actual continuity based on the study
of a large number of cells.

A few late spermatogonial telophase figures indicate as in
fig. 8, which is somewhat diagrammatic, that the telophase chromo-
somes spin out directly into the fine attenuated and convoluted
filaments of the earliest meiotic stage or leptonema without the
intervention of a diffuse condition. Since with the exception of
the interphase (resting nucleus) structure the leptotene threads are
more difficult to fix than any other stage in the history of chromo-
somes in the germ cell cycle, the value of the data obtained is
limited by the technique employed, and none of the preparations
examined were in such a perfect condition that the number of -
loops could be estimated in optical sections, as I have been able
to do in the study of Peri'planeta. Clearly the number of leptotene
loops is very much greater than in the succeeding stages, when
reduction has taken place ; clearly, too, the leptotene stage does
not partake of the nature of a continuous spireme such as is
described by those who advocate telosynapsis. In good sections
the leptone loops show the orientation so characteristic of this
stage, and, as I have elsewhere insisted, the reduction in number
of loops that retain their polarized disposition throughout the
synaptic processes can only be effected by lateral approximation.
The filaments at first lie peripherally in contact with the nuclear
membrane, contracting slightly in the succeeding phase. In
process of contraction they become more closely approximated,
and reduction in number of the loops is effected thereby ; in a few
cases it could be definitely seen that this does actually take place
by theii- lateral association in pairs. The slight degree of con-

2 B 2

348 Transactio7is of the Society.

traction in Anguis and Sphenodon as in Mammals (cf. de Wini-
warter and Federley) indicates that the Eeptiles should prove
specially favourable for the study of synapsis. That this process
of pairing actually constitutes syndesis or synapsis cannot be
strictly inferred, seeing that the actual numerical relations of the
loops were not actually estimated before and after the process ;
it can, however, be said that the whole course of events is entirely
characteristic of other forms where the correspondence of the
leptotene loops and telophase chromosomes has been established.

Previous remarks on the genesis of the leptotene loops indicate
that for Hatteria, as in the case of Libellula, I regard the polarity
of the telophase as affording the key to the interpretation of the
"bouquet" figure (fig. 9). I am aware that some of the most
competent animal cytologists who have investigated the meiotic
phase, as, for example, de Winiwarter and Agar, describe a diffuse
and tangled leptotene stage before the bouquet arrangement is
manifest ; but, since the arrangement of the leptotene filaments is
often so intricate that only when seen in a plane parallel to the
axis of the bouquet can its character be recognized, and since
moreover the susceptibility of the leptotene filaments to defective
technique is notorious, the interpretation that I have given in the
case of Libellula merits a renewed attention to the orioin of the
bouquet loops. Dr. Euggles Gates has pointed out to me as an
objection to a telophasic interpretation of centrotaxis that the
position of the attraction sphere with reference to the convergence
of the loops is different in the two cases ; but Morse's observation
on the position of the centrioles in relation to the synaptic pro-
cesses of Blattids weaken this contention. Further light on this
point should be obtainable from the study of meiotic nuclei from
cells showing spindle remains such as are frequently found in the
■ rosettes of oocytes in ovarioles of Hymen op tera.

The approximation of the contracted filaments to form the
thickened reduced pachytene threads is soon followed by a loosening
of the bouquet figure, so that the still polarized chromatin loops
become once more contiguous with the nuclear membrane, and
now display the marked longitudinal fission which defines the
diplotene stage and leads up to the elaboration of the heterotype
chromosomes. The uniformity which prevails in the meiotic
phase of animals is specially emphasized at this point, for the
diplotene stage is one that is universally present ; and this, it
appears to me, constitutes a formidable, if not indeed an impregnable,
objection to the view that conjugation of homologous chromosomes
is effected in some species by lateral association and in other cases
by a terminal union. The validity of the parasynaptic interpreta-
tion originally put forward in 1900 by de Winiwarter as applied
to those forms which have provided pre-eminently favourable
material for investigation (Felis, Batrachoseps, Tomopteris,

A Preliminary Account of the Spermatogenesis of Sphenodon. 349

Stenobothrus, Lepidosiren) may now be regarded as established,
and creates an overwhelming presumption in favour of the
applicability of the same scheme to a vast range of animal forms
showing similar features in general, even though points of detail
remain obscure. Nowadays, therefore, the field of discussion with
reference to the mode of reduction narrows down to the claim of
those who advocate telosynapsis that in certain cases a leptotene
stage is wanting. This purely negative proposition loses much
of the cogency it might otherwise possess for two reasons : first,
that the stage in question is very refractory to fixation ; secondly,
in many cases where earlier work failed to reveal such a phenomenon
subsequent study has shown that it does actually exist, as in the
case of certain Orthoptera and Platyhelminthes. Since it is the
concern of a scientific hypothesis to interpret phenomena in terms
of experience, it rests with those who advocate terminal conjuga-
tion to provide an alternative method of deriving the reduced
segments of the universally characteristic diplotene stage' from the
chromosomes of the spermatogonial telophase. The earliest theorists
made use of the conception of a continuous spireme in the normal
interphase, as introduced by Flemming's school, to envisage the
process ; but the more precise knowledge of the relation of meta-
phase chromosomes to the constitution of the resting nucleus
gained of recent years through the work of Bolles Lee, Bonnevie,
Digby, Gates and others dismisses from further attention the
adherence in pairs during the meiotic phase of chromosomes
formed by the segmentation of a continuous spireme. There is no
sound justification for entertaining the reality of synapsis, unless
definite evidence can be advanced in favour of the underlying
assumption of the persistence of chromosomes in the germ-cell
cycle as integral units ; and direct information on this point
involves a recognition of the fundamental discontinuity of the
elements in the so-called spireme (pro- and telophase) stages.
The objections of Meves, Pick and Duesberg, who, reserving a
sceptical attitude to the persistent individuality of chromosomes,
maintain that the character of the reducing division in certain
forms is incompatible with a belief in parallel conjugation, is
therefore more intelligible than the standpoint recently revived by
Nakahara. For while it may still provide scope for profitable
enquiry to elucidate the compatibility of the genesis and subsequent
fate of the heterotype chromosomes with the parasynaptic view as
a critique of the actual validity of synapsis, the hypothesis of
telosynapsis, it appears to me, will only necessitate reconsideration
(as applied to animals) when it is possible to rehabilitate it in
terms that are consonant with accredited facts respecting the
kinetic processes both in tlie premeiotic and meiotic phase.

The frequently very complicated metamorphosis which is
involved in the transformation of the diplotene segments into the

350 Transactions of the Society.

definitive chromosomes of the heterotype prophase has provided
more fruit for controversy than any other stage in the meiotic
phase ; but from the material examined the nature of the process
in Sphenodon was readily elucidated. Heterotype prophase nuclei
were abundant and well preserved. The point of unique interest
here concerned is the reference of the longitudinal cleavage in the
diplotene filaments to the axis of fission of the derivative chromo-
somes in the maturation division which ensues. In a large number
of animals the plane of division in both succeeding mitoses is
undoubtedly the same as that in which the long axis of the
diplotene segments lies — that is to say, the lieterotype chromo-
somes divide by the drawing apart of each half of the longitudinally
split diplotene filaments ; and the subsequent division is normal.
This fully coincides with the requirements of the parasynaptic
view, since the fission of the diplotene loops lies in precisely the
same plane as the interspace between the conjugating elements in
synapsis. In diakinesis (late heterotype prophase) the chromo-
somes assume the form of rings in the case of Sphenodon. The
annular type of bivalent according to the earlier telosynaptic view
was thought to be formed individually from a single diplotene
loop by the junction of its free extremities after the dissolution of
the bouquet ; and since the rings segment diametrically it thus
seemed that the segregation of homologous chromosomes could
only be effected on the assumption that the diplotene filaments
consisted of univalent halves united end-to-end. This view was
put forward by Meves for Amphibia, Farmer and Moore for
Pcriplaneta and Fishes, and by various workers on Orthoptera. Sub-
sequent study by Jannsens, Morse and other investigators has
however demonstrated that a much more intricate and elaborate
process intervenes with, in some cases, a rapidity that readily
explains the failure of earlier workers to obtain the entire sequence
of events. The diplotene loops are first abbreviated into stout
double rods, and then drawn apart along the line of cleavage to
form the rings, each half retaining contiguity with the other by
its extremities only. Sometimes in the process of division the
halves become detached by one extremity first, thus confirm-
ing the impression of telosynaptic junction, when previous events
have escaped observation. In any case the diameter of the ring
represents the actual line of cleavage in the diplotene stage. This
is precisely what occurs in Sphenodon, in which the heterotype
prophase is reminiscent of Amphibian spermatogenesis.

The actual course of events in Sphenodon is as follows : — After
a period of rest in the bouquet stage the diplotene loops become
detached, losing their polar orientation ; they become less curved
and progressively abbreviated, and finally assume, in anticipation
of the formation of the definitive bivalents of the first spermatocyte
mitosis, the form of straight rods or arcs. Many figures clearly

A Preliminary Account of the Spermatogenesis of Sphenodon. 351

showed twisting of the longitudinal halves as described originally
by Jannsens ; but whether they become untwisted subsequently,
or whether an actual chiasma is effected in Sphenodon, cannot be
affirmed. In the majority of these the interspace m the middle of
the rods first widens so that a more or less quadrangular element
is formed ; this assumes finally the characteristic annular form.
In other cases the separation of the two halves is asymmetrical —
i.e. the interspace widens first nearer one extremity than the other,
so that there is a conspicuous lug to the ring (fig. 10). There appear
to be three of these, corresponding it will be noticed to the three
pairs of chromosomes in the spermatogonial group which are
asymmetrical and display subterniinal fibre attachment ; one of
them is the largest element in the diakinesis stage, and it will be

remembered that the ^ shaped pair are the largest in the sperma-
togonial group. It must be added however in qualification of this
correlation that asymmetrical heterotype chromosomes occur both
in Periplaneta and in Lihellula, genera in which all the premeiotic
chromosomes are approximately alike.

The metamorphosis of the heterotype chromosomes of Hatteria,
as in Libelhda, takes place before the dissolution of the nuclear
membrane ; consequently it is not easy to refer the axis of division
of the symmetrical bivalents which show median fibre attachment
to the plane of fission in the diplotene stage. The conspicuous
lugs of the asymmetrical ones which display subterniinal attach-
ment does, however, make it possible to identify the two in
keeping with the parasynaptic view. This is illustrated in text-
figs. 10, 13, 14, 15. Text-figs. 11 and 12 show two series, the

352 Transactions of the Society.

asymmetrical and symmetrical type, the relation of the axes of
cleavage in the symmetrical type being inferred from the former.

Numerical estimation of the bivalents is rendered difficult by
the disintegration of the plasmosome in diakinesis and the presence
of nucleolar fragments in metaphase sections, as indicated in
figs. 1(3-18. There was no sign of an accessory element in the
material at my disposal.

The secondary spermatocyte division follows rapidly on the
first with intercalation of a short interphase ; such mitoses were
exceedingly rare in my material. The chromosomes show clumping
as Guyer and Cutler have recorded in Avian spermatogenesis ;
this may be an artefact due to defective technique. The recent
work of Hance and others on Diptera, as well as one or two
lateral views of anaphase in which the chromosomes seemed to be
well separated, would suggest that such is indeed the case. Con-
sequently the reduction divisions did not supply any critical data
for estimating the chromosome number of the species. The nature
of the reagent used for fixation excludes the possibility of adding
any significant observations respecting spermateleosis.

The descriptive part of this research was carried out in the
laboratory of Prof. E. W. MacBride, F.K.S., to whom acknowledg-
ment is made by the author for time placed at his disposal for
original work.

Eeferences.

Cutler (1918). — Journ. Genetics, 7, p. 155.
Federley (1919). — Act. Soc. Scient. Fennicae, 48, No. 6.
Guyer (1916).— Biol. Bull., 31, p. 221.
Harvey (1920).— Journ. Morph., 34.

HoGBEN (1920).— Proc. Roy. Soc, B. 91, p. 268; Ibid., p. 305. Linn
Soc. Journ,;, 35. Journ. Eoy. Microsc. Soc. (1920).

(1921).— Proc. Roy. Soc, B. 92, p. 60.

Jannsens (1900).— Anat. Anz., 17, p. 520.

(1909).— La Cellule.

Jordan (1914).— Science, 39, p. 438.
King (1913).— Anat. Record, 6, p. 405.

LoYEZ (1905). — Arch, d'anatomie microscopique, 8, p. 69.

Meves (1895).— Anat. Anz., 10, p. 365.

ScHREiNBR. — Arch, de Biol.

Seiler (1915).— Arch, fur Zellforsch., 13.

Stevens (1912).— Biol. Bull., 22.

Tellyesnicsky (1897). — Math. u. Naturwiss. Ber. Hungarn., 13, p. 303.

Trinci (1908).— Mem. R. Accad, Sc Bologne.

Winiwarter (1919). — Arch, de Biol., 30.

353

XVI.— MEEMIS PAEASITIC ON ANTS OF THE

GENUS LASIUS.

By W. C. Ckawley, B.A., F.E.S., F.R.M.S., and
H. A. Baylis, M.A., D.Sc, F.Z.S.

(Read November 16, 1921.)
Twelve Text-Figures.

I. Account of the Occukrence of the Worm and
ITS Effect on its Hosts.- — W. C. Crawley.

It was hoped to give in tliis paper a complete account of the
life-history of the parasite, but the evidence obtained after nearly
a year's continuous observation suggests that it may possibly be
longer than was anticipated, and we have therefore thought it
better to give the results already obtained, with the hope of adding
to them later on.

There is a fair amount of literature dealing with the infestation
of ants by nematode worms. W. Gould, whose little book, " An
Account of English Ants," published in 1747, contains many shrewd
observations on the habits of these insects, says, " Amongst other
incidents that tend to lessen and destroy Ant-Flies " (by this he
means the males and winged females) " it is observable that
abundance of them are demolished by a white and lonr>' kind of
worm, which is often met with in their bodies. You may
frequently take three from the insides of the large, but seldom
more than one from a small Ant-Fly. These worms lie in a spiral
form, and some of them may be extended half an inch." As will
be seen below, Gould's account, as far as it goes, is remarkably
accurate. By the " small ant-flies " he presumably means the
males, as he is speaking of the common yellow ant, Lasius fiavus,
but it is possil^le he may be mistaken here, as no Mermis has
since been found to be parasitic on the male ant of this species.
Gould's worm was subsequently named Gordius foi'tnicarum by
Diesing, but no description of it appears to exist. Forel (1874)
mentions having found nematodes in the abdomen of L. flavus,
and refers to Gould's account. A small worm was found in the
labial glands of Formica fusca by Janet (1893, 1894, 1897), and
in the pharyngeal glands of F. rufa and L. fiavus by the same
author, and this latter form was described by de Lacaze-Duthiers
under the name of Pelodera janeti, and later referred to Ehabditis.

354 Transactions of the Society.

W. M. Wheeler (1901, 1907) found in the gaster of the Texan ant
Phcidolc cmiitmitata a worm which he considered to belonsr to the
genus Mermis, with which we are here concerned. He concluded
that tlie worm lay in the crop of the worker ant, whose fat body
and reproductive organs seemed to have disappeared entirely. The
worms were 50 mm. in length, ten times that of the host, and one
host contained two worms. He says ("Ants," p. 420): —

" They enter the larva and appaiently by unduly stimulating
its appetite cause it to be fed excessively, so that it becomes
unusually large at the time of pupation, and produces a gigantic
worker form, wdth ocelli." Tiiis large form of worker he called a
" mermithergate." It is not clear how it was ascertained that the
worm actually entered the larva. Though it is fairly certain that
the parasite enters its host in the larval stage, the results of my
experiments so far do not sliow how and at what period this takes
place. Wheeler goes on to say that the parasitized ants were in a
constant state of hunger owing to the presence of the parasite.
This I have also noticed in the case of Lasius. Emery had seen
these mermithergates in 1890, but without realizing to what their
increased size was due until later, and he then also recorded their
presence in several other neotropical ants of different genera, and
concluded that the worm must enter the larva.

Mrazek (1908) appears to have been the first to write in any
detail of the parasitization of Lasius by Mermis in Europe, though
1 found the parasitized ants in 1898, and recorded them as
brachypterous forms (1910). Mrazek showed that the wings of
the host (in this case Lasius alienus), which are the most prominent
secondary sexual characters in most female ants, only developed
to about one-quarter or one-third of their normal size. Later, in
1910, Wheeler found small-winged females of L. neoniger, a closely
related form from Colorado, some of which contained worms from
53 to 55 mm. in length.

My first discovery in England of female ants parasitized by
Mermis (and known as mermithogynes) was in 1898 at Oddington
near Oxford. Along a road bounded on each side by a deep ditch,
wliicli for the greater part of the year contained water, had occurred
a marriage flight of the common yellow meadow ant, Lasius flavus.
This was towards the end of August, and alate and dealate females
were to be seen on tlie road for some days afterwards. Amongst
these I picked up several short-winged forms, which some years
later were found on dissection to contain Alermis. Two or three
days later in the same place I found some mermithogynes of
Lasiris alienus, the species wliich formed tlie subject of Mrazek's
paper ten years later. Again m 1900 and 1901 I found several
more parasitized females of both these species in the same locality.
These females are readily recognized by their abnormally small
but otherwise perfectly formed wings. I tested their powers of

Mermis Parasitic on Ants of the Genus Lasius. 355

flight by throwing some of them into the air, but in no case were
they able tc fly at all.

It was not until 1916 that I again met with mermithogynes, this
time in Somerset, in the marshes by the sea at Porlock, where examples
of both L. jiavits and L. alienus were abundant early in July
(Crawley, 1916). The proportion of parasitized to normal females
varied considerably according to the colony, Ijut it was only in a
small number of cases that the parasitized females outnumbered
the others. The colonies were all large and flourishing in
appearance.

Again, in July 1917, I came across many more mermithogynes
of both the above species in the same locality, but in every case
the normal females greatly outnumbered the mermithogynes, the
a\"erage proportion not being more than 1 to 12, and in one nest
only a single mermithogyne was found.

On my return home I placed these ants in " Janet " plaster
nests with workers, males and pupte.

At the end of the month two of the L. fiavus mermithogynes
became very restless, elevating their wings and curving their
abdomens as if disturbed by the movement of the worms. One
constantly bit the end of her gaster from which the head of the
worm could be seen to protrude. At night one of the ants, pre-
sumably this one, was dead, and the worm had emerged and was
lying dead among the worker ants, who were biting it. This
seemed to indicate that in nature the worm would not emerge
until the female had left the parent nest on the marriage flight.
As stated above, the parasitized females do leave the nest at this
period, though unable to fly, with the normal females. Within
the next few days three more mermithogynes had died, without the
parasites having emerged, and all had shown restless symptoms
previously. The movements of the worms could be distinctly seen
through the distended walls of the gasters of the dead ants. One
day after the death of a female the parasite pierced the integument
just below the anus and began to emerge. After attempting in
vain to force its head under the soil, it succeeded in getting clear
of its host's body in just over an hour. I then placed the worm
on a piece of turf, but it was unable to ])ierce the turf, and
eventually died.

By August 10 all the mermithogynes, except one L. Jiavas,
were dead, but in only one case had the parasite completely
emerged, and in one or two others it had partially done so. Some-
times the worm pushed its head through the anus itself, in other
eases it was between two of the ventral plates of the gaster tliat
the aperture was made by the parasite. It should be noted in
passing that the thoraces of all the mermithogynes I examined
were almost completely empty, and did not contain the large
wing-muscles of tlie normal female which are later on used as

356

Transactions of the Society.

food to support the insect during the long period (often many
months) occupied in rearing her new colony.

It now became clear that the worms could not satisfactorily
emerge from their hosts and continue their existence if left on
ordinary dry earth. I therefore varied the experiments as follows :
I took a L. alienus mermithogyne that had been dead for twenty-
four hours without the Mermu having emerged, and placed it in a
saucer containing a little earth covered with water. In less than
ten minutes the worm had emerged and was sluggishly lashing to
and fro in the water, keeping up these movements all day.

In the evening I drained off the water in the saucer, and the

Fig. 1. — Mermithogyne of Lasius alienus.

worm then spent hours trying to bore into the wet earth, which
was not deep enough to allow its whole body to be buried at one
time.

When the earth dried up the worm became motionless, but
flooding it with water was sufficient to arouse it to renewed
activity. On August 13 the remaining L. fiavus female died. I
placed the body, as before, on earth barely covered with water,
and the worm, a very small one, emerged with some rapidity, and
at once began burrowing in the wet earth. From this time till
the end of November, more than three months, this Mermis re-
mained alive, increasing somewhat in size. After the first few

Mermis Parasitic on Ants of the Genus Lasius.

357

weeks it spent most of the time out of sight under the soil, only
appearing when the earth became dry. War duties necessitated
my leaving home for some months, and the Mermis in consequence
died.

The size of the worms found in these two species of ant varied
considerably (see description). In more than one case an ant
contained no less than three worms. The illustrations show the
relative size of the host and the parasite, also the manner in
which the parasite is coiled up in its host.

My friend Dr. J. Bronte Gatenby very kindly cut a series of
excellent sections of the abdomen of a L. alicnus female with the

Fig. 2. — Normal female of Lasius alienus.

parasite in situ. These sections, and also the simple dissections
of the abdomens of the hosts, show very clearly how considerably
the ovaries are reduced in size compared with those of a normal
female. The sections also distinctly show the beginning of de-
generation of the nurse cells. Both these conditions are directly
traceable to the starvation ot the organ caused by the parasite.
Other conditions pointed out by Gatenby as caused by the parasite
are the hypertrophied tracheie and the almost entire absence of
fat-bodies in the host. The Malpighian tubules are normal.

A careful examination of the ant fails to reveal any external
modification except the reduced wings and the distension of the
abdomen caused by the presence of the worm. This distension

358

Transactions of the Society,

disappears after the emergence of the worm, and the ant has then
a normal appearance except for the small wings. The size of the
latter varies to a certain extent, a series of L. flavus showing a
variation in the upper wing of 4" 6 mm. to 5*3 mm., and one of
L. alienus of 5 • 0 mm. to 6 ' 2 mm., whereas the normal wing of
the first species measures 9 • 0 mm. in length and that of the latter
10-0 mm. The variation in L. niger is 5 '3 mm. to 6'0 mm.,
the normal wing being 10*0 mm.

Until 1920 the only two species of ant known as hosts of
Merniis in this country were L. fiavus and L. alienus, but in July
1920 my friend Mr. H. Douisthorpe found in Cornwall a colony
of L. nigcr containing numerous mermithogynes (1921). The

Fig. 3. — Mermithogyne of Lasius flavus.

habits of all three species are to a great extent similar. L. fiavus
throws up mounds which become covered with grass and may
reach a diameter of over 2 ft. and a height of 1 ft., and
these nests are generally in meadows. A certain amount of
moisture is necessary for these ants, and nests are often found in
damp situations, and stones, logs, etc., are often utilized as cover.
L. alienus, though equally a hypogieic species, rarely throws up
mounds, but is more fond of stones as slielter, and its nests are very
frequently in damp situations. L. niger has habits similar to
those of alienus, but lives more in the open air, and in damp places
will erect earth mounds. All three species have the following
important habits in common : they nest underground, preferably

Mermis Parasitic on Ants of the Genus Lasius. 359

in damp earth ; they rarely have more than one fertile queen in
each colony, the females are very much larger than the workers
and are reared in large numbers every year, and are therefore
specially suitable as hosts ; and, finally, the larvte hatched from egcrs
laid in spring and summer live through the winter and do not
complete their metamorphosis till the following summer. Thus
there are always larv;e in the nests of all three species all the
year round. Every colony that I have found to contain Mermis
(some 15 to 20 in all) was either in damp ground or near marshy
ground or standing watei-, and it is interesting to note tliat
Donisthorpe found his colony of nigcr near a stream running from
a marsh into the sea. These facts support the conclusion arrived at
from my experiments, viz. that water or marshy ground is
necessary to the development of the worm after leaving its host.
The behaviour of the worm when attempting to escape from the
ant's body in water and on moist earth shows that the emergence
is more easily effected in water. When the infected ant was
placed on moist earth, the Mermis first protruded its head and
attempted to burrow under the soil, but the movements of the ant,
always very agitated, usually prevented this. After a time the
worm succeeded in hooking itself round a projection of earth and
held tight until the ant by pulling in all directions drew it clear
from her body. This operation often took a considerable time, but
when the ant was placed on the surface of the water the evacua-
tion usually occupied but a few seconds, or at most a minute or
two. The ant after getting free from the worm invariably performed
a very complete toilet, and then seemed to take on a renewed
lease of life, which, however, in the majority of cases only lasted a
few days, and sometimes only twelve hours or so. A normal
female of these species after fertilization lives from five to ten
years and sometimes much longer.

It should be mentioned in passing that I brought back from
Porlock in May 1920 (i.e. before the winged females were present)
a colony of L.jiavus containing two queens, and among the females
when they eventually hatched was a single mermithogyne, proving
that at least one larva had been infected, though I was unable to
find any traces of the worms in numerous full-grown female larvae
that I dissected. This colony was used in a further experiment
later on.

The infected colony of Z. niger (the third species of this genus
whicli is a host of Mermis) referred to above was very kindly
handed over to me by Donisthorpe to enable me to continue the
study of the further history of the worm. These mermithogynes
are exactly similar, except for specific differences, to those of the
other two species, but there is one structural anomaly not present
in the former cases. In about nine-tenths of the L. nigcr mer-
mithogynes there is a hole in the anterior border of the mesonotum

360 Transactions of the Society.

at its junction with the pronotum. On dissection this aperture is
seen to consist of an invagination of the cuticle ending in a point
inside the thoracic cavity. The hole in a typical specimen is
situated 0 • 43 mm. from the anterior border of the mesonotum, with
which it is connected by a shallow groove, rather narrower than
tlie diameter of the hole itself. The actual aperture measures
0-21 mm. long by 0'12 mm. wide. Seen from the interior of the
mesonotum, the funnel-shaped invagination measures 0-68 mm.
from the border of the segment, and 0 • 32 mm. from the opposite
edge of the hole to the point. The point itself is generally rounded.
Several other specimens were examined and measured, the aperture

Fig. 4. — Worm in situ in abdomen of female ant.

and length of the point varying very slightly in different indi-
viduals according to their size.

This condition may be, and probably is, connected in some way
with the parasitized state of the ant, but the hole is, at any rate
immediately after the emergence of the ant from the pupa, large
enough to admit a nearly full-grown larval Merniis which would
have been obliged to pass tlirough the minute aperture connecting
the thorax with the abdomen in order to take up its position in
the latter. The worm too would have been free in the nest previ-
ously, and, as has been seen, the worker ants kill an unprotected
worm. Other reasons also compel one to seek for another cause
for this aperture than the entrance of the worm, not the least of
which is the fact that a proportion of the infected ants were with-

a

Fig. 5.

a, Ovary of normal female of Lasius alienus.

b, Ovary of parasitized female to same scale.

ovd, oviduct ; ocy, oocyte ; n, nurse cells.

2 c

362 Transactions of the Society.

out the hole, and it does not exist in any of the more numerous
specimens from the other coLinies previously examined.

There is another case of malformation in this colony, occurring
in a normal female. It consists of a semicircular excision in the
apical border of the third segment of the gaster, and is probably
unconnected with the parasite.

I dissected a number of full-grown female larvae and also
several pupa? from this colony, but failed to find any trace
of the worm. These mermithogynes were very active, often
assisting callow ants to emerge from their cocoons, and were
also very ravenous, devouring Hies that I put into the nest, and
also crippled and damaged pupse and callow^s, besides always
asking the workers for food. Occasionally one would be seized
with a kind of paralysis, lie on its back with legs and antennee
extended and twitching, and a movement of the worm inside the
gaster could be seen at the same time. Such ants usually recovered,
but in one or two cases they died. After the emergence of the
worms the ants became very active, but their death was only
•deferred a short time.

By constantly placing each mermithogyne, as soon as she
became restless or died, on damp earth in a pan I succeeded in
obtaining thirty-seven worms, which I transferred to a larger and
deeper vessel with damp earth. At the beginning of November
they were all still in the larval stage, the outer skin being very
distinct, but the genital organs Avere beginning to develop. By
Nov. 20 four had cast their larval skins, the operation consisting
in piercing the skin a short distance from the head and then peel-
ing off the skin by burrowing into the earth. When the earth
became dry most of the worms came to the surface and remained
motionless, with about a third of the body projecting in a coil in
the air. A sprinkling of water invariably caused them to descend
below the earth again. The first egas were noticed in the uteri
on Dec. 5. The problem of keeping them alive began to be
acute about this time, mould making its appearance on the surface
of the soil. Sand was tried in place of soil, but rapidly became
matted with mould and destroyed the worms. Finally, the best
method was found to be to keep them in small flower-pots with a
layer of plaster of Paris at the bottom to close the hole. The
terra-cotta being porous allowed drainage to take place, so tliat
the earth remained very nearly free from mould, and the only
drawback was the necessity of frequent watering to replace the
evaporated moisture. Four or five worms had assumed a Ijrown
colour, but were quite healthy, though not so active as the others,
and on casting their skins they were again white.

The process of egg-laying was easily observed under a low
power. The eggs moved slowly down the vagina, and each egg
became slightly compressed as it reached the orifice, where it halted

Mermis Parasitic on Ants of the Genus Lasius. 363

a moment and then shot out to a short distance, but still remained
attached to the worm by a colourless gelatinous sul)stanco. When
a sufficiently large group of eggs had in this mauuer collected
round the orifice, it broke away by its own weight. "When laid
inside the larval skin, in which there appears to be no vulvar
aperture, the eggs assumed the form of a flat ribbon as wide as

a, Largest oocyte of normal female of Lasius alienus.

b, Largest oocj'te of worker of Lasius alienus.

c, Largest oocyte of parasitized female of Tjasius alienus.

All to same scale.

ov, ovum ; ovd, oviduct ; nc, nurse cells.

the diameter of the skin, each egg being separated from its fellows
by the gelatinous material. Almost all the cast skins were full
of eggs, the egg-laying going on before, during and after the casting
of the skin. It is possible that the skin forms a useful protection
to the eggs, but the uterus after the casting of the skin contained

2 c 2

364 Transactions of the Society.

about as many eggs as were left in the skin. Some of the later
eggs laid were already segmented.

I carefully counted the eggs in two typical cast skins. In the
first there were over 6,560 eggs, and in the second over 5,900.
Allowing for an equal number still in the uterus, this gives an
average of about 12,000 eggs for each worm. Probably the number
is even greater than this, as all the worms continued laying for
some weeks after castinfj their skins.

By the beginning of May 1921 all but three or four worms had
died, and I left them with their eggs in the flower-pots.

At the beginning of July T connected one of the pots with the
nest of L. fiavus referred to above, in the hope of tracing eventually
the method of infection. The ants readily took up their quarters
in the flower-pot.

Literature.

Crawley, W. C. (1910). — " Summary of Experiments with Fertile Females
of several Species of Ants." Ent. Rec, xxii. 7 and 8.

(1916).— "Ants and Aphides in West Somerset." Proc. Somerset

Arch, and Nat. Hist. Soc, Ixii. 2, 148.

DoNiSTHORPE, H. (1911). — " Myrmecophilous Notes for 1910." Ent. Rec,
xxiii. 15.

(1921).—" Myrmecophilous Notes for 1920." Ent. Rec, xxxiii. 2.

(1915).—" British Ants."

Emery. C. (1890). — " Studii sulle Formiche della fauna Neotropica." Bull.

Soc. Ent. Ital., xxii. 12.
(1904). — " Zur Kenntniss des Polymorphismus der Ameisen." Zool.

Jahrb. Supp., 590.
FoREL, A. (1874).—" Les Fourmis de la Suisse," 424.
Gould, W. (1747).—" An Account of English Ants," 63.
Jacobsox, E. (1910). — " Ameisen aus Java und Krakatau." Notes Leyden

Museum, xxxi. 233.
Janet, C. (1893). — " Sur les Nematodes des glandes pharyngiennes des

Fourmis {Pelodera).'" Compt. Rend. hebd. Acad. Sci., cxvii. 700.

(1894). — " Pelodera des glandes pharyngiennes de Formica rufa."

Mem. Soc. Zool. France, vii. 45.

(1897). — " Rapports des Animaux myrmecophiles avec les Fourmis."

Limoges.

(1904). — " Observations sur les Fourmis." Limoges, 53.

Mra'zek, a. (1908). — " Myrmekologicke poznamky." Act. Soc. Ent. Bohem.,

iv. 139.
Wasmann, E. (1878). — " Erster Nachtrag zu den Ameisengiisten von

Hollandish Limburg." Tijd. v. Ent., xli. 18.
Wheeler, W. M. (1901). — " The Parasitic Origin of Macroergates among

Ants." Amer. Nat., xxxv. 877.

(1907).—" The Polymorphism of Ants." Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,

xxiii. 18.
(1910). — " The Effects of Parasitic and other kinds of Castration in

Insects." Journ. Exper. Zool., viii. 419.
(1910).—" Ants."

Mermis Parasitic on Ants of the Genus Lasius. 365

II. Desckiption of Mermis myrmegophila sp. nov. —

H. A. Baylis.

General Characters of Adults and LarvsR.

The worms are colourless, with the exception of a slight tinge
of reddish-brown near the head in some specimens. The cuticle is
smooth externally, but provided with criss-cross fibres below the
surface. It consists of a thin outer and a thick underlying layer.
The subcuticular layer (fig. 10, sc}j is very thin, and gives rise to the
six longitudinal bands or " fields " characteristic of the genus
Mermis, sensu stricto. These consist of a pair of very broad and
conspicuous lateral fields, a pair of very slender subventral, a
broad ventral and a narrow dorsal field, the last-mentioned being
subdivided into three parallel portions (fig. 10, d.). The cells com-
posing the lateral fields are very conspicuous (fig. 9), consisting of
a row of large, tall, granular cells at the edges, fitting together
like pieces of a mosaic, and an irregular double row of smaller
cells in the middle, with clearer protoplasm.

The musculature of the body-wall (fig. 10, m.)is divided by the
longitudinal fields into six broad strips, each of which is composed
of a large number of narrow, ribbon-like muscle-cells with one
edge hanging freely in the body-cavity.

Almost the whole of the body-cavity is occupied by the " fat-
body," representing the degenerate intestine of the worm. This is
simply a sausage-like sac, blind at each end, consisting of a thin
membrane enclosing an accumulation of fat-like globules of reserve
food-material. As the worms increase in size and age, this reserve
material is gradually absorbed. In the earlier stages, however, it
is so abundant as to render the worms very opaque, and their
structures difficult to make out.

The mouth is subterminal, being situated towards the ventral
side of the head, in a shallow cuticular depression. The
oesophagus, as is usual in the later stages of Mermithidte, is
vestigial, being reduced to a long, narrow, cuticular tube. It is
doubtful whetlier it is connected with the fat-body at all. As
is the rule among Mermithidee, there is no anus.

The nervous system is of the usual kind, the central ganglia
being situated in a broad ring of nervous tissue which surrounds
the oesophagus at some little distance from the head. No excretory
organ has been made out.

We have no information as yet as to the earlier stages in the
larval history of the worm. It is probable that the young larvte
penetrate into the body-cavity of the larvte of the ants, and remain

366

Transactions of the Society.

in this position throughout the latter's metamorphoses. Our
account, for the present, must begin with the larva in the later
parasitic stage of its existence, when it lies coiled up in the body-
cavity of the imago of the ant, from which it presently emerges to
lead a free existence in the soil.

The larv?e grow to a length of 20 to 50 mm. before emercjing
from the host, and attain a diameter of 0 " 3 to 0 • 65 mm. During
the subsequent free existence some further grov/th may take place,
though the greatest dimensions here given for the larvse are greater
than we have actually observed in the adult.

The newly-emerged larva has few characters which enable it
to be distinguished from the larvae of other members of the genus.
It appears, however, to be exceptionally short in proportion to its

O! UlVh.

Fig. 7. — Merinis myrmecophila. Head of adult female ; dorsal view.
I., lateral organ; ces., oesophagus ; s.d.p., subdorsal papilla of right side.

thickness. The head- papillae characteristic of the adult are as yet
unrecoonizable. Of the internal organs little can be seen in
whole preparations owing to the great development of the fat-body.
In a series of sections through a larva still in situ in an ant it has,
however, been possible to establish the fact that internal genital
organs are precociously developed. This larva shows a long, strip-
like organ (fig. 10, t.) squeezed up between the fat-body and the
musculature on one side of the bod3^ and lying between the
lateral and tlie subventral fields. On examination with high
powers, this organ proves to be a testis, already containing numbers
of spermatozoa, apparently fully developed. The testicular tube
appears to be single, and, so far as can be judged from the sections,
it runs throughout nearly the whole length of the larva. A

Mermis Parasitic on Ants of the Genus Lasius.

367

similar organ has been seen in a stained whole preparation of a
newly-emerged larva. This is the only evidence we have been
able to obtain, up to the present, of the existence of males. No
adult males have been found among the individuals that we have
succeeded in rearing to maturity. The females, however, produce
numbers of fully-formed eggs capable at least of going through
the process of segmentation, and the question arises whether we
have here a case of protandrous hermaphroditism, or whether, in
the absence of males, the females are capable of reproducing
parthenogenetically. Instances of both these conditions are to be
found among nematodes, though we know of no record of them in
this comparatively little-known family. It should be mentioned.

Olmnv.

Fig. 8. — Mermis myrmecophila. Head of same individual as in Fig. 1 ; lateral
view. Lettering as in Fig. 1, with the addition of vi, mouth, and s.v.p.
subventral papilla of right side.

however, that in the present species no evidence is available of
the existence of both male and female organs or germ-cells in the
same individual ; while the evidence for the total absence of males
among the adults cannot yet be regarded as conclusive.

The larvte, which emerge from the ants during the month of
July, enter upon a period of free existence lasting for six or seven
months, during which they probably undergo at least two moults.
Our specimens completed their last moult during the month of
January.

It is a curious fact that the female organs are fully developed,
and contain many eggs apparently ready for laying, some time
before the last moult. That is, the worms are to all appearance
sexually mature and capable of reproduction while still in the

:368

Transactions of the Society.

last stage of their larval existence. If, therefore, the worm is
dicecious, copulation must take place during the larval stage ; but
the fact that no vulvar opening has been seen in the larval cuticle
is not in favour of this hypothesis.

Crawley has described how oviposition begins during the
shedding of the last cuticle, and the old cuticle itself appears to
act as a protecting cocoon for some of the eggs. The remaining
eggs are probably deposited later in the soil.

The following are the chief characters of the adult female : —
The largest specimen measured was 48 mm. in length and
0 • 6 mm. in thickness. The anterior end is somewhat more taper-
ing than the posterior, which is bluntly rounded. The cuticle at
the tip of the head is greatly thickened. Two pairs of small
cephalic papillae are present — one pair subdorsal, one subventral
(figs. 7 and 8, s.cl.p., s.v.p.) — the terminations of which are at the

O-l rtvrn

Fig. 9. — Mermis myrmecophila. Larva from Lasius flavus. Surface view of a
portion of the lateral field in a stained whole preparation.

bases of shallow conical depressions in the cuticle. A pair of
structures which appear to be the " lateral organs " (figs. 7 and 8, /.)
are situated laterally in the position usually occupied by the third
pair of papillfe (which, on this interpretation, appear to be absent
in this species). These lateral organs have the form of simple,
deep, tubular pits in the cuticle, with a papilla-like conical
structure, doubtless carrying nerves, rising to meet them from tlie
subcuticular layer. (It is, of course, possible to interpret these
organs as lateral papillfe, their only difference from the other
papillae being the greater depth of the cuticular depression. In
this case the missing organs would be the "lateral organs"
which are said to be always present in other members of the
family.) The diameter of the head at the level of the papillae is
O'l mm.

The oesophagus (figs. 7 and 8, ois.) is a long, sinuous, slender

Mermis Parasitic on Ants of the Genus Lasius.

369

cuticular tulie, which can be traced back alongside of the fat-body
for a distance of 12*5 mm. (more than a quarter of the length of
the worm), at which point it appears to end blindly. The outside
diameter of the tube is about 0-0125 mm. Close to the mouth
there is a slight thickening of the walls of the tube. The nerve-
ring is massive, and surrounds the oesophagus at 0 ■ 57 mm. from
the anterior end.

The vulva, in the form of a transverse slit, is situated a little
behind the middle of the body (at 21 mm. from the posterior end

Fig. 10. — Mermis myrmecophila. Larva from Lasius alienus ; transverse

section through the body,
c, cuticle ; d., dorsal field ; /., globules contained in the "fat-body";
I., lateral field ; m., muscles ; sc, subcuticular layer ; sv., subventral
field ; t., testis ; v., ventral field.

in a specimen 48 mm. long). The distal portion of the vagina, or
" vestibule" (fig. 11, ve.) consists of an invagination of the cuticle,
running slightly in the direction of the head. After passing
through the ventral longitudinal field it becomes a narrow duct
(" ovejector ") with thick muscular walls (fig. 11, o.). This describes
an S-shaped curve, and gives off at right angles to itself the two
directly opposed uteri. The uteri proper are very short (each not
more than 1 • 6 mm. long) and somewdiat club-shaped, expanding
gradually in diameter on passing further away from the vagina.

370

Transactions of the Societ]/.

Their walls are of moderate thickness, and have a layer of circular
muscles which is strengthened internally by annular thickenings at

Fig. 11. — Mermis myrinecophila. Lateral view of vagina and its con-
nexions in an adult female. The arrow points towards the head,
o., ovejector ; u., uterus ; v., vulva ; ve., vestibule.

regular intervals. Each uterus passes suddenly into a narrower
duct, about 0'3 mm. long and with thick muscular walls. After
forming a half-turn of a spiral, this duct in turn opens into a very

O'i 'mnt.

Fig. 12. — Mermis myrinecophila. Three adjacent ova as seen in position
when laid in the cast-off cuticle. The solid black circle represents
the actual shell of the egg ; the clear space outside it the hyaline
covering.

wide tube, about 5 mm. long and filled with eggs. This may be
regarded as the oviduct. Its walls are scantily provided with
muscles. It passes gradually into the ovary, which runs almost

Mermis Parasitic on Ants of the Genus Lasius. 371

straight, and maintains almost the same diameter, throughout its
length. The blind, rounded terminations of the two ovaries are
situated at 6 '5 mm. from tlie anterior and 1*5 mm. from the
posterior end of the worm respectively.

The fully-formed ova are of discoid or lenticular shape, with a
thin shell, measuring- 0* 045-0 -05 mm. in greatest diameter. At
the time of laying, the content of the egg consists of very granular
protoplasm, but is as yet unsegmented. When the eggs are laid
(fig. 12) they are surrounded by a coat of some clear secretion,
probably of an albuminous nature, which keeps each egg in the
mass apart from its neighbours, and prevents the shells from
coming into contact.

Specific Diagnosis.
Mermis myrmecopJdla sp. n.
(? = Gordius formicaruni Diesing, 1851 — nom. nud.)

Mermis : adult (female) up to about 50 mm. in length. Thick-
ness about 0*6 m.ni. Body tapering anteriorly, less so posteriorly.
Both extremities rather bluntly rounded. Head with two subdorsal
and two subventral papilhe, at the bases of slight conical cuticular
depressions, and two lateral organs, in the form of tubular depres-
sions in the cuticle, in the usual position of the lateral papillse.
Lateral fields wide, com^josed of two outer rows of large cells and
two inner rows of small cells. Mouth subventral. (Esophagus
at least one-quarter of the total length. Nerve-ring at about
0 57 mm. from the anterior end. Vulva slightly behind the
middle of the body. Uteri directly opposed. Ova colourless,
discoid, thin-shelled, 0-045-0 '05 mm. in greatest diameter,
surrounded at the time of laying by an external hyaline coat, and
with unsegmented content. The worms live in soil in wet places,
in the neighbourhood of nests of ants of the genus Lasius, in
tlie females of which the larva is parasitic.

The species of Lasius in which the larvee have been found at
present are L. aliemts, L. flavus and L. niger.

Among the nearest relatives of M. myrmecophila appear to be
M. pachysoma v. Linstow, 1905, recorded in Vespa germanica ; and
M. hrevis Hagmeier, 1912, recorded in Lulus sahUosus and in
various soil-inhabiting dipterous larvae, but also found in tlie free-
living stage under a nest of ants (Myrmica rubra). From 31. Irevis
the present species differs chiefly in its considerably greater size
and in the absence of the lateral pair of cephalic papillae in the
adult ; while there is little of diagnostic value in the description

372 Transactions of the Society.

of M. pachi/soma (of which only the late parasitic larval stage is
known), except the much greater thickness of the body (0'72-
1 '26 mm.).

In the recorded cases of infection of ants by supposed
MermithidsB, the worms themselves do not appear to have been
adequately described. In no case, we believe, have the larva? been
kept alive and allowed to reach maturity. It is not improljable,
therefore, that some of these cases may be referable to Mermis
tnyrm ecophila.

373

XVII.— NOTES ON EESOLUTION.
By Conrad Beck, C.B.E., E.K.M.S.

A. The Influence of Colour-Filters on the Resolution of
" Bark Ground " Illuminated Objects.

1 HAVE been devoting considerable time to working with dark
ground illumination under different conditions, and I have found
several interesting points which bear on microscope resolution.
Such work can scarcely be done without a focusing illuminator,
as it involves the examination of many different mounted
specimens.

It has been stated that the resolution by dark ground illumina-
tion is not equal to that of transparent illumination — I cannot
confirm this. Under some circumstances, if not all, I find it fully
equal and far more easily accomplished.

A good example is the resolution of Plcurosigma angulatum
into dots with an 8 mm. achromatic object glass with a N.A. of
only 0 • 5. Unless the zones of this lens were almost perfectly
corrected I doubt if it could be resolved with so small an aperture.
Carpenter mentions 0*65 N.A. as the smallest aperture with
which P. angulatum has been resolved.

With transparent illumination and a condenser with a cone
the full 0 • 5 N.A. and a X 50 eye-piece, it cannot be resolved with
red or orange light, rather faintly with green, and brilliantly v/ith
blue light.

Sucii an object is therefore on the limit of resolution of this
lens and on the theoretical limit of this aperture, and it forms a
good test of resolution by dark ground illumination.

The resolution with dark ground illumination is far more
brilliant than with transmitted light. With transmitted illumina-
tion I failed to get resolution unless the diatom was mounted in
realgar or dry. With the dark ground illumination the resolution was
also perfect with specimens in styrax or monobromide of naphtha-
lene. I could not, however, get any resolution with red or orange
light. It would therefore appear that dark ground gives equal but
no greater resolution, but much greater contrast, so that diatoms
practically unresolvable because of lack of contrast by transmitted
light are readily resolved by dark ground illumination.

A further example of resolution with dark ground illumination
with a high power object glass gives the following results : —

A 1/8 (3 mm.) oil immersion Beck achromatic object glass,
0*95 N.A., on Amphipleura pellucida, light " Pointolite," perfectly

374 Trmisactio'its of the Society.

corrected achromatic 1 * 3 N. A. condenser, soliil cone about 1 • 0 N".A.,
,L;ave no resolution wiili light of any colour on specimens mounted
in styrax or monobromide of naphthalene. With specimen in
realgar and dark blue light, resolution just glimpsed, but not
actually seen, but signs of structure are visible.

With dark ground illumination and specimens in either real_i;ar,
styrax or monobromide, resolution was thoroughly distinct with
blue and green light. In realgar it was thoroughly black with
blue light, good with green, and faint with white light, not visible
with red light.

The possibility of the application of these observations to
medical microscopy is evidenced by the examination of stained
slides of such every-day objects as anthrax, tubercle and malaria,
by dark ground illumination in combination with colour-filters.
Anthrax stained so that by transmitted light it appears blue, when
viewed by opaque illumination and a purple screen which transmits
only blue and red li^jht reflects red and appears of a blood-red
colour. Under similar conditions tubercle stained red appears by
reflected light a light green. The tubercle stands out much more
vividly than is the case with transparent specimens. Indeed, the
' way in which stained bacteria mounted in balsam stand out from
their surroundings, quite apart from their colour, suggests that
they have a very different refractive index to balsam. A specimen
of the signet ring form of malaria in a similar manner is very
distinctly differentiated from the blood corpuscle in which it is
encysted.

The question of contrast, glare and flooding in transmitted
illumination are subjects on which I am making a series of
observations, and I hope at some future date to report some
results.

B. The Influence of the Area of Illumination on the
Resolution of Grayson's Rulings.

Mr. E. M. Nelson has demonstrated that for the resolution of
diatoms and G-ray son's rulings with a solid axial cone of light, the
finest resolution was obtained when the illuminating cone of light
was not as large as the full aperture of the object glass, but was
about 1^ or I of the maximum angle. Amongst others, some time
ago I repeated and confirmed his experiment. In recent work
with an 8 mm. Achromatic and an 8 mm. Apochromatic. in both
of which all zones of the lenses were more perfectly corrected than
has generally been the case, I was unable to confirm the well-
known experiment, and I have made a large number of observa-
tions with lenses of different powers to investigate the matter.

These observations were made with a 100-candle power electric

Notes on Eesolution. 375

Pointolite lamp about 12 inches from the stage of the microscope,
ni) bull's-eye or mirror being used.

An adjustable pair of neutral glass wedges was placed imme-
diately in front of the lamp, by means of which the brilliancy of
the light could be varied to an almost unlimited extent, so that
different intensities could be used or the same intensity could be
maintained when the aperture of the substage condenser was varied
or colour screens were interposed in the beam of illuminating
light. Blue and green light were produced by the use of Wratten
filters C and B, giving moderately monochromatic light with pre-
dominant wave-lengths of about 4,600 and 5,200.

The substage condenser was as perfectly corrected as an oil
immersion object glass, sufhciently so as to resolve Navicula
rhomboides with a brilliantly black resolution. Aperture 1 • 3,
focal length 8 mm. The condenser was focused so that the
Pointolite tungsten ball was very slightly out of focus. Eye-
pieces used, X17, X25 and X50 compensating eye-pieces. In
some cases blue light was used in order to give greater resolution ;
in others green, on account of the unpleasant colour of the blue
light.

The Grayson's rulings emplo}'ed for low powers were bands
which increase in fineness in steps of 5,000 between 5,000 and
60,000 lines to the inch ; for high powers those which increase in
steps of 10,000 from 10,000 to 120,000 lines to the inch.

The following out of a number of similar observations are
sufhcient to illustrate the point. All the lenses were Achromatic
and Apochromatic lenses made by my Company, and with the
exception of the specially corrected 2 mm., had all their zones
very perfectly corrected.

1. 2 mm. Achromatic 1 ' 3 N.A.

Blue Liglit. — Iris diaphragm behind object glass 120,000
lines resolved full aperture — evidently finer lines, if
available, could be resolved. It thus formed no test
and the iris diaphragm behind object glass was, there-
fore, closed till only 80,000 lines could be resolved.
(This band was a very regular ruling, and was there-
fore selected for the purpose.) The iris diaphragm
under the condenser was then closed down till only
about seven-eighths of the full aperture of the object
glass was filled, and it was then found that the aperture
of the object glass could be further closed without
destroying resolution, and a point was reached where
the 80,000 band was visible with the illuminatinsr cone
about seven-eighths the aperture of the object glass,
and either increasing or decreasing the aperture of the
illuminating cone destroyed resolution. This entirely
confirmed Nelson's experiment.

376 Traiisactions of the Society.

2. 8 mm. Achromatic 0-5 N.A.

Green Light. — 45,000 lines well resolved.
Blue Light. — 50,000 lines well resolved. Full cone of
illumination. Cutting down illuminating cone damaged
resolution, and resolution disappeared when it was
below 0*45 N.A. Cutting down aperture of object glass
so as to only just resolve 45,000 lines, the least cutting
down of aperture of illuminating cone below full aper-
ture destroyed resolution. 30,000 lines, the same result.
2a. Green Light — Full aperture of object glass used. Ground
glass placed in front of lamp. Aperture of illuminating
cone 1 N.A. 30,000 lines faintly visible. Aperture of
illuminating cone 0 • 5 N.A. 35,000 lines faintly visible.
Aperture of illuminating cone 0*45 N.A. 40,000 lines
faintly visible.

3. 8 mm. Apochromatic 0"65 N.A.

Blue Light. — 60,000 lines well resolved with full aperture.
0*65 N.A. illuminating cone, resolution destroyed directly
aperture of illuminating one is reduced ; only 55,000
visible.

4. 16 mm. Apochromatic 0*35 IST.A.

Green Light. — 30,000 lines clearly resolved, but faint, full
aperture, 0"35 N.A. illuminating cone. The least
reduction of illuminating cone destroyed resolution.
Bhie Light — 35,000 lines resolved with full aperture cone,
but not if illuminating cone was reduced.
Observations 2, 3 and 4 are in direct contradiction to observa-
tions 1, 2a, and to Mr. Nelson's experiment, and I was inclined to
think that the perfection of the corrections of the different
portions of the oJojective for zonal aberrations might have some
bearing on the question. I therefore adjusted a 2 mm. object
glass so that it had a steadily progressive aberration from the
centre to the edge ; but beyond the fact that it had to be used
with different lengths of tube for lines of different fineness, and
did not reach so high a point of resolution, it gave no results of
interest.

It was, therefore, evident that the conditions in the different
observations were dissimilar in some respect, and the only condi-
tion that I could notice was that the area of light on the object in
observation 1 and 2a was of a larger proportion of the field of the
microscope. With a X25 eye-piece and 2 mm. objective it was
larger than the field of view, whereas in all other cases it was a
small brilliant patch in the centre of the field, the rest of the field
being almost black. Until the introduction of the Pointolite such
a condition had not been easy to obtain, and had not been the
condition of Nelson's test, where the edge of a lamp flame which
more than filled the field in at least one direction was employed.

Notes on Resolution. 377

There was a further difference in that the light from a lamp flame
more than half an inch deep may not produce the same result as
a source of illumination which is almost a surface at right angles
to the plane of illumination. This would not, however, explain
the discrepancy in my observations, and experiment 2a pointed
to the idea that the size of the area of object illuminated might
influence the question. I therefore placed a negative lens com-
bination of a focal length of about 1 inch in front of the lamp,
which reduced the size of the image of the Pointolite to about one-
quarter of its previous size, with the following result : —

5. 2 mm. Achromatic 1 • 3 N. A.

Green Light. — Aperture of object-glass reduced by iris
diaphragm at back till 80,000 lines could be just
resolved with full illuminating cone. The least reduction
of the illuminating cone destroyed resolution.

6. 2 mm. Achromatic 1 * 3 N.A.

Green Light. — All conditions exactly the same as observa-
tion 5, except that negative lens in front of lamp was
removed. No trace of the resolution of 80,000 lines
could be obtained with any aperture in the illuminating
cone.
The result of these observations appears to show that Mr.
Nelson's experiments and the conclusions he drew were correct
for an illumination which extended over a large area of the object,
and that under such conditions the full aperture of an object glass
can never be utilized ; but that with a small portion of the object
illuminated, the full aperture of an object glass can be utilized and
further resolution obtained. I am not at present putting forward
any explanation of these results. A great deal of research on the
question is required. In the meantime it will be interesting to
see if others will confirm the above results. In carrying out these
experiments one important condition is that both the iris diaphragm
and the optical portion of the substage condenser should be accu-
rately centred, as in the resolution of lines a spurious resolution
can be readily obtained by even a small obliquity of the light.

2 D

378

xviii.— a key for the identification of

bactp:ria.

By Joseph Kitchin, F.R.M.S.

In working on the culture and identification of bacteria in 190G,
the writer found great difficulty in comparing the characters of a
large number of organisms, and to assist in comparing and
differentiating them he then devised a system of index numbers
which is covered by the table given on page 379.

A numerical index for comparing the morphological and
physiological characters of organisms used by the Society of
American Bacteriologists is described by Mr. J. Percival in
" Agricultural Bacteriology," p. 60, and a modification of the
system was put forward by Mr. John Golding in the " Journal of
the Board of Agriculture," March 1912, pp. 1001-4 (noticed also
in the " Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society," of August
1912). It is suggested that the index described in this note is
simpler and easily memorized, so that characters can be read at
sight without need of reference to the index table.

The idea is to form an index number for the microbe examined,
consisting of eleven digits, of which the first two (which may con-
sist of any of the numbers from 1 to 9) indicate respectively the
kind of microbe and the colour of the colony. The remaining nine
digits, divided by commas into sets of three (as in ordinary
numbers), give the characters of the microbe, and as only one of
the numbers 1 to 9 occupies each space, one knows at sight (after
memorizing the index) what character is indicated by each num-
ber, and if the number is represented by 0 one sees at once, by
reference to the numbers to left or right, what character it is that
is absent.

The index need not be a rigid one, and the number of digits
can be increased or decreased, and different characters can be
assigned to the various positions. It may be useful both in
medical, botanical and industrial bacteriology.

A Kry for the Identification of Bacteria.

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380 Transactions of the Society.

Exam'ple.

An organism on examination gives the number 62,023,406,780.
This indicates : —

6 A bacillus.

2 Colour of colony — white.

0 Non-motile.

2 Stains by Gram.

3 Aerobic.

4 Pathogenic.

0 ISTon-liquefying.

6 Produces gas.

7 Produces acid.

8 Coagulates milk.
0 Non- sporing.

On reference to a prepared list of organisms represented by
such numbers one identifies the one under examination as Bacillus
'pneumoniae, the Pneumo bacillus of Friedlander.

381

OBITUABY.

HENEY WOODWAED, LL.D., F.E.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S., F.E.M.S.

1832-1921.

Dr. Henry Woodward, late Keeper of Geology in the British
Museum, and past President of the Eoyal Microscopical Society,
died on September 6th in his 89th year ; he had followed with
unabated interest almost up to the last the progress of the science
to which he had devoted the energies of a long life.

He was the youngest son of Samuel Woodward, the well-known
geologist and antiquary of Norwich, and was born in 1832. At
an early age he began to take an interest in natural history, which
was fostered by his eldest brother, S. P. Woodward, at that time
Professor of Natural History at the Eoyal Agricultural College,
Cirencester. Henry came to London in 1848 with his brother,
when the latter was appointed an assistant in the British Museum,
but, failing to find congenial employment, returned to Norwich
two years later, and for the next seven years held a clerkship in
Gurney's Bank. In 1858 fortune smiled upon him, and he became
an assistant in the Geological Department of the British Museum.
Here he utilized to the full the oportunities that offered for
scientific research, and from this time onwards made numerous
and notable contributions to palaeontology. In 1880 he was made
Keeper of the department, succeeding Mr. G. E. Waterhouse, and
held that office until liis retirement from the Museum in 1901.

Although Dr. Woodward's scientific interests were very wide
indeed, he had from the beginning devoted much attention to the
special study of the Crustacea, and his chief contributions to science
were in the form of detailed descriptions of fossil forms of this
group. The results of his work were published in the " Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society," and in the form of monographs
for tlie Palccontographical Society, of which Society he became
President in 1895 on the death of Professor Huxley. He retained
the Presidentship to the time of his death.

His influence on the progress of geology and palaeontology was
much extended when, in conjunction with T. Eupert Jones, he
founded the " Geological Magazine," of which he was sole editor
from the beginning of 1865 until the end of 1918. This monthly
journal provided a medium for the publication of results of much
valuable research, and the adequate presentation of much of this
work was due to the experienced guidance of Dr. Woodward.

Woodward joined the Geological Society in 1864, and was

382 Obituary.

President in 1894-96, receiving the Wollaston Medal in 1906 ; he
was elected F.R.S. in 1873, and received the honorary degree of
LL.D. from St. Andrew's in 1878. He was elected to the Fellowship
of the Eoyal Microscopical Society in 1880, and occupied its
Presidential chair during the years 1902 and 1903. It is interest-
ing to note that his first publication was a small pamphlet issued
in 1860 on "The Prize Microscopes of the Society of Arts, witli
Plain Directions for Working with them."

From an early date Dr. Woodward began writing semi-popular
articles for the " Popular Science Pieview," the " Intellectual
Observer," and other journals, thus making known to a wider
circle of readers the results of research in palaeontology.

For many years an actiAe member of the Council of the British
Association, he served as President of the Geoloo-ical Section in
188/. He was also President of the Geologists' Association
1873-1875.

A. W. Sheppard.

CHARLES FREDERIC ROUSSELET.
1854-1921.

It is with great regret we have to record the death of Mr. C. F.
Rousselet, who for over a quarter of a century was a familiar figure
at our meetings. He was born at Friederichsdorf in 1854, and
died on October 25, 1921, after a long illness of several years.

Rousselet came of an old Huguenot family, and his direct
ancestor, Esaie Rousselet, left his home at Perriere, near Soissons,
after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. He and several
others, some thirty families in all, founded a French settlement
afterwards named Friederich&dorf, from the Landgrave of Hesse-
Homburg — Friederich II. Here their descendants have continued
to live, speaking French as their mother-tongue, to the present
day. Mr. Rousselet came to London in 1873 and was naturalized
in 1889. During the years 1881-1902 he was the London repre-
sentative for the Bordeaux firm of A. de Luze et fils.

Even before the publication of Hudson and Gosse's " Rotifera,"
Rousselet's general interest in this group had given place to serious
study, and by unremitting research he soon became the recognized
authority on the subject. His contributions to the Journal of
this Society, as well as of that of the Quekett Microscopical
Club, embodying the results of his original observations, were as
valuable as they were numerous, and resulted in considerable
additions to the number of known species. His work was very
methodical and exact, and his descriptions w^ere always accompanied

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC, 1921. PI. IX.

Charles Frederic Rousselet.

Face p. 382

OUtuarif. 383

by accurate drawings representing both the species and the details
necessary for its determination. In this way Rousselet set an
excellent example to the band of workers he gathered round him.
His method of preservation and mounting is perhaps more widely
known than his descriptive work ; and the process of " narcotizing "
which he introduced, or some modification of it, is now practised
in all laboratories where biological work is in progress. His last
])aper, " Some Further Notes on Collecting and Mounting Eotifera,"
was published in Vol. 13, Journal of the Quekett jMicroscopical
Club, p. 321 (October 23, 1917), where a bibliography is given of
his various papers in this subject, in which he achieved such
marked success.

He was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Microscopical
Society in 1888, and served for many years on the Council. In
January 1898 he was appointed Honorary Curator, and in this
capacity his knowledge of the history of the microscope enabled
him to render valuable service to the Society in the preparation of
the Catalogue of the Collection of Instruments. He held office
until December 1918, when increasing physical distress compelled
him to relinquish the work. In January 1917 Mr. Eousselet
presented to the Society an extensive collection of reprints, etc.,
which he had received from his many correspondents in all parts
of the world. These papers, numbering about a thousand, form
probably the most valuable collection of papers on the Eotifera
available to workers for reference in this country.

A. W. Sheppard.

SUMMARY OF CUEIIENT EESEAECHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a.^EmbryoIog'y, Evolution, Heredity, Reproduction,
and Allied Subjects.

Effect of Hydrogen Ion Concentration and Oxygen Content of
the Water on Regeneration and Metabolism in Tadpoles. — Minna
E. Jewell {Journ. Exper. Zool, 1920, 30, 461-507, 24 figs.). The
optimum hydrogen ion concentration for regeneration of the tadpoles of
Rana clamata is neutrality or near neutrality. Unfavourable concen-
trations inhibit regeneration directly and indirectly. The direct effect
on the regenerating tissue is relatively independent of the size of the
tadpole ; the indirect effect is greater in smaller tadpoles. In water of
low oxygen content both the rate of regeneration and the total amount
regenerated are dependent upon the amount of oxygen present. Both
rate and amount decrease with decrease in temperature. Differentiation
in regenerating tissues, as indicated by the appearance of pigmenta-
tion, is not retarded by unfavourable conditions so much as growth or
elongation. It is suggested that unsuitable hydrogen ion concentra-
tions, insufficient oxygen, low temperatures, and toxic substances affect
development, regeneration, oxygen metabolism, and duration of life in
the same way and according to the same laws. J. A. T.

When does the Reducing Division Occur ? — Emile Guyenot
{Gomptes Rendus Soc. Phys. Hist. Nai. Geneve, 1921, 38, 53-5, 1 fig.).
In opposition to the usual view that the first maturation division is the
reducing division, halving the number of chromosomes, and that the
second division is an equation division, it is maintained that the real
reduction is effected by the second maturation division. In naturally
parthenogenetic animals there is no chromatin reduction, and that is
due to the suppression of the seco?id maturation division. In Daphnids,
Ostracods, Aphides and Rotifers there is a first polar body formed, but
no reduction. In Gi/clops strenuus and Artemia salina there is an

* The Society does not hold itself responsible for the views of the authors
of the papers abstracted. The object of this part of the Journal is to present
a summary of the papers as actually published, and to describe and illustrate
Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are either new or have not been previously
described in this country.

386 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCH KS RICLATING TO

abortive second division, but the chromosomes about to be rejected are
seen to return again to the ovum and re-unite with their former
neighbours. In the case of the bee's parthenogenetic ova (those that
develop into drones) there is a second maturation division, and the
number is reduced to half the normal. In the spei'matogenesis of the
drone the second matm'ation division is suppressed, and there is no
reduction. The author's conviction is that the first maturation division
is homeotypic, separating bivalent chromosomes, while the second is
heterotypic and reducing. J. A. T.

Dictyokinesis in Germ-cells. — R. J. Ludford and J. Brontk
GateJsBY {Proc. Roy. Soc, London, 1921, 92, 235-44, 2 pis.). Most
animal ctlls show two categories of cytoplasmic inclusions — the mito-
chondria and the Golgi apparatus. The latter generally takes the form
of an excentric juxta-nuclear system or network, composed of rodlets,
platelets or beads, arranged, in many cases, around and over the surface
of the centrosphere or archoplasm, in which lies embedded the centro-
some. In highly differentiated cells such as the oocyte or the nerve-cell,
the Golgi apparatus becomes dispersed into the fartliermost parts of the
cell-cytoplasm, and in most cases therefore loses its relationship to the
centrosome. The Golgi rods or dictyosomes are divided in mitosis,
but they are very elusive during the process. The authors have
followed the distribution or dictyokinesis in various types. It is some-
times very irregular, notably in mammals. In contrast with karyo-
kinesis it does not entail any sort of fission of individual elements as
occurs with chromosomes, but merely an unprecise sorting out of parts
of the Golgi reticulum between the two daughter-cells. Everything
indicates that the Golgi apparatus takes a part less precise and less
important, in the hereditary processes of the cell, than that fulfilled by
the chromosomes. J. A. T.

Transplanting Sections of Spinal Cord. — S. K. Detwiler (Froc.
Nat. Acad. Sci., 1920, 6, 695-700, 2 figs.). In Ambli/stoma embryos
the portion of the spinal cord from w^hich the normal brachial plexus is
derived (third, fourth and fifth .segmental nerves) was removed, and
there was transplanted into the excised area a more posterior portion of
the spinal cord of another embryo — the portion that normally gives
origin to the seventh, eighth, and ninth segments. These nerves, in
their normal position, are capable of producing but very limited move-
ments when innervating transplanted limbs. Now in the embryos
operated on the limbs performed normal adaptive and co-ordinated
movements in 50 p.c. of cases. A microscopic study showed the
presence of a perfectly developed brachial plexus with normal intrinsic
nerve distributions. Moreover, the nerves were larger than the normal
seventh, eighth and ninth. Even the cord itself and the spinal ganglia
showed distinct hyperplasia of the nerve-cells, thus indicating that the
hypertrophic development was due to excessive piroliferauon of the
neuroblasts rather than to a compensating increase in the volume of a
specific number of cell bodies and their axons. The factor involved in
the over-production of the motor-cells is the stimulus afforded by the
connexion with the central neurones (bulbo-spinal fibres). J. A. T.

ZOOLOCiY AND ItOlAMY. MlUKOSGOl'Y, KJ'U. 387

b. Histolog-y.

Eye of Alligator. — H. Laurens and S. R. Detwiler {Jouni.
Exper. ZooL, 1921, 32, 207-34, 13 figs.). The eye of Alligator
})u'!<sissippiensis has cMvell-developed tapetuiii in the dorsal and posterior
portions of the retina, formed by inclusion of guanin in cells of the
epithelial layer. The pecten is a slightly raised pigmented cap covering
the entrance of the optic nerve. Typical rods and cones occur through-
out the retina — one type of rods, two types of cones. The actual change
in position of the pigment in the visual cells between eyes in light and
in darkness is slight, but when combined with the change in the length
of the visual cells gives an effective migration equal to the sum of
the two. ' J. A. T.

Retina of Phrynosome. — S. R. Detwiler and Henry Laurens
{Journ. Compar. Neurol., 1920, 32, 347-56, G figs.}. The general
structure of the retina of Phrijnosoma cornutum bears a close resem-
blance to that of the chameleon. There is a prominently developed
area centralis in the form of a circular convexity above the point of
entrance of the optic nerve, with a maximally developed fovea at its
centre. K highly vascular conical pecten projects dorso-anteriorly about
1 m.m. into the posterior chaml)er of the eye. I'he retina possesses
only cones, resembling in this respect other diurnal sanrians. The
cones exhibit a considerable variety in size, shape, and structure. The
cones of the fovea are greatly attenuated and cylindrical in form as
compared w'ith the conical form in the extia-foveal region. No double
cones were seen. The pigment under ordinary conditions of illumina-
tion extends down over the visual cells, almost to the paraboloids, except
in the foveal region, where only the outer segments are covered.

J. A. T.

c. General.

Changes in Intensity of Oxidation. — W. E. Burge and E. L.
BurCtE {Journ. Exper. ZooL, 1!)21, 32, 203-6). The low rate of
oxidation in the unfertilized ovum (potato- beetle) is attributed to its
low catalase content. The increased oxidation in the fertilized ovum,
with resulting development, is attributed to an increase in catalase
l)rought about by the stimulation of the egg to an augmented produc-
tion of this enzyme by the spermatozoon. Similarly, the increase in
the respiratory metabolism or oxidation in youth and the decrease in old
age is attributed to the increase in catalase in the young animal, and its
decrease in the aged. J. A. T.

Eye-muscles of Eagle-Owl. — M. Bartels and CI. Dennler (Zool.
Anzeiger, 1020, 52, 49-55, 3 figs.). Although the eye of the eagle-
owl is not known to move during life, and cannot be moved after death,
the usually six muscles are present. There are two strong muscles
which draw the nictitating membrane downwards over the immobile
eye. J. A. T.

Recent Advances in Parasitology. — Ernest Carroll Faust
{Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc, 1921, 40, 75-8S). An interesting review

388 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and bibliography of recent progress. Attention is called to investiga-
tions like the following : — Dobell's stndy of amoeba and coccidia in
man, La Eue's monograph on Proteocephalidfe, Leiper's study of
Bilharzia, Nakagawa's unravelling of the life-cycle of Paragonimus
ivestermaiii, Magath's monograpli on Gamallanus anicricanm ("the
most significant work on a single nematode species since the researches
of Looss on Ancylostoma duodenaU "), and the work of the Rockefeller
Commission in connexion with hookworm. J. A. T.

Variations and Modifications. — Arnold Pictet (Oompfes Rendus
Soc. Pliys. Hist. Nat. Geneve, 1921, 38, 64-7). Greographical races of
Lepidoptera with hereditary characters must be and can be distinguished
from false races, with acquired modifications (or " somations ") similar
to the local peculiarities of the true geographical races, but not lasting.
On mountain plateaux there are found forms with the hereditary peculiarity
A B, due to a crossing of A and B forms which belong to different
sides of the mountain, but meet at the top. But there are likewise
absolutely similar A B forms, which are A's and B's that have migrated
to the plateaux and have been individually modified there. But the
A B peculiarity of these migrants is not hereditary. Experimental
results will be discrepant if two kinds of A B (variational and modifica-
tional) are confused. Pictet's experiments are quite against the
hypothesis of the transmission of somatic modifications. J. A. T.

Increase in Quantity of Anti-bodies. — A. Sordelli (Comptes
Rendus Soc. Biol., l'J20, 83, 1526). The presence of anti-bodies may
be due to placental transmission from the mother, or to the milk, or
they may be formed as a reaction to an intruding microbe, or they may
arise spontaneously. The author's point is that the quantity of an
anti-body increases as the animal grows older. This is seen in the
diphtheritic anti-toxin in man and in horse, in the cholera agglutinin
in the guinea-pig, and in the dysenteric agglutinin in the horse. The
author concludes in favour of the spontaneous production of anti-
bodies. J. A. T.

Secondary Sex-characters in Elasmobranchs. — W. Harold Leigh-
Sharpe {Journ. Morphol., 1!)21, 35, 359-80, 15 figs.). K study of the
structure and functions of the claspers, clasper siphons, and clasper
glands in various Elasmobranchs — Galeas vulgaris, Mustelus vidgaris,
Lamna cornuhica, and Rltina squatina. The functions of the clasper
gland, in the Lamna type at least, are comparable to those of the
prostate — e.g. (1) lubrication and provision of a vehicle for the sperma-
tozoa ; (2) control of erection ; (3) activation of the spermatozoa ; and
(4) providing nourishment for the spermatozoa. The clasper glands
are developed, however, as invaginations of the epidermis. On the
outer borders of the upper lip of Rhina squatina there is a patch of
cells of the same type and structure as the clasper gland ; it is evidently
a mucus-secreting gland and not an organ of special sense. The rectal
gland of Scyllium has a kidney-like structure, except that there are no
Malpighian bodies and the blood-supply is slight. It may be an
excretory organ, getting rid of poisonous substances not eliminated by
the kidneys. J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 389

INVERTEBRA.TA.^

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Scent-organ in Moth-flies. — Jacob Feuerboen (ZooI. Anzeiger,
102(t, 51, 279-85, 3 figs.). In certain PsychodidfB (e.g. Ulomyia
fith'(/inosa) there are in the males peculiar structures which look like
scent-organs. In Ulomyia there is under the tegula of the mesonotum,
beside the first stigma, a stalked vesicular body, with a thin-walled
folded surface and a papillary plate. No similar structure occurs in
Diptera, but it may be analogous with scent-secreting structures in some
Lepidoptera. Similarly, in some species of Pericoma there are on the
prothorax what look like scent- hairs. It is curious that these tiny
insects, which get their name moth-flies because of their moth-like wings
and hair.j, should also approach Lepidoptera in having scent-organs.

J. A. T.

Tachinid Parasite of Crane-fly. — J. Rennie and Christina H.
Sutherland {Parasitology, 1920, 12, 199-211, 1 pi.). Larvae of Bmentes
{Siphona) geniculata occur regularly as parasites inside larval forms of
Tipula paludosa and other specici'J, The winter months are spent as
larvae within the host ; pupation occurs in early spring ; the imagines
emerge during April and May ; a second generation appears in June ;
after a larval period of about three weeks and a pupal period of about
seventeen days the adult flies emerge towards the end of July ; infec-
tion of young Tipula larvre probably occurs in autumn. The larva is
always attached by a chitinous sheath-like structure to one of the main
tracheal trunks of the host. A description is given of the three different
stages of larva, and of the bucco-pharyngeal apparatus of the mature
larva. J. A. T.

Hancock's Gland in CEcanthus.— Arata Terao (Annot. Zool.
Japon, 1921, 10,41-4, 1 fig.). Hancock described (1905) a remarkable
alluring gland in the striped meadow cricket {(Pcanthus fasciatus).
Terao finds it in the Japanese CE. longicauda and describes its struc-
ture. It is a complex of hypodermal gland cells of two kinds, and of a
snb-hypodermal multicellular gland with a spacious central duct. The
unicellular hypodermal glands of the second type line two pairs of
depressions or fossse, and these depressions hold the secretion. There
is also a projecting nipple-like process, perforated by many openings,
and thin-w'alled at the top. It may serve as an object to be licked.

J. A. T.

New Mosquitoes and Filaria bancrofti. — Shinichiro Yamada
{Annat. Zool. Japon, 1921, 10, 45-81, 4 figs.). Descriptions of no
fewer than ten new species of the mosquito genus Aedes, found in
Japan. The mosquitoes of this genus are not generally able to serve
as intermediate hosts of Filaria bancrofti, but the investigator found that
Aedes togoi, which is very common in Japan, can act as such.

J.A.T.

390 SUMMARY OF OUHRENT KESEARGllES RELATING TO

5. Arachnida.

Critical Study of Sarcoptes. — Cecil Waeburton {Parasitology,
1920, 12, 26r)-;:)00, 1 pi.)- It is probable that Cnemidocoptes from
l)irds and Notmires from small mammals will be fomid to be generically
distinct from Sarcoptes, but it is necessary to revise the various form's
of Sarcoptes — e.g. as to clijfitotaxy and armature — to see whether there
are distinct species in the genus. These should be transferred from
one host to another to see what difference may be thus brought about.

J.A.T.

Capitulum of Psoroptes.— P. A. Buxton {Parasitology, 1920, 12.
234-(), 2 figs.). A careful description of the capitulum and mouth-
parts of Psoroptes equi. The mite carries its head tucked down between
the bases of the first pair of legs. The chelicera? are extremely small
and colourless. It may be assumed that the mite obtains a secure hold
on the skin of its host by aid of its ambulacra and tarsal claws, and that
it then steadies itself by applying the finger-like processes closely to the
skin. It would then bring the cheliceras into action, probably using
'■ setae 1 and 2 " as organs of touch. J. A. T.

f- Crustacea.

Eyes of a Cave Decapod. — W. Harms {ZooL Anzeiger, 1921, 52.
101-15, 7 figs.). A study of a Galatheid, Munidopsis polymorpJur
Koelbel, from a Lanzarote cave (Canaries). The colour is translucent
white ; the animal hides quickly under stones : the compound eyes are
difficult to see ; there are no corneal facets, and the cornea itself is
degenerate, and may be represented only by a few cells. There is
considerable individual variation in the eye, and two types — more or
less reduced — can be distinguished. The minute structure is described.
Tliere can be no vision, but doubtless a perception of light and shade.
Crystalline cones persist, probably in adaptation to some light that
enters by the f alien-in roof of the cave. The other species of Munidopsis
are in the deep sea. J. A. T.

Aunulata.

Nerve Cord and Spindle Muscle of Physcosoma. — ^V. Harms
{Zool. Anzeiger, 1920, 22, 67-7G, 8 figs.). In a species of this
Sipunculid, very abundant at Lanzarote, there is extraordinary power of
longitudinal contraction. In association with this there is a coiling of
the nerve cord into a close spiral, especially in the proboscis region.
The spindle muscle which runs freely from the posterior end of the
body, along the spirally twisted gut, to a point immediately in front of
the anus, is also adapted to the extreme contraction. The fibres assume
a remarkable corkscrew appearance. Both nerve cord and spindle muscle
retain their position parallel to the long axis of the body. An account
is given of the details of the contraction in both the nerve strand and
the spindle muscle, but the important point is the corkscrew disposition.

J. A. T.

ZOOLOIJY AND BOTANY, iMICUOSGOPY, ETC. 391

Nematohelminihe .

New Nematodes from Elephants. — H. A. Baylis {Parasitolo(jy,
1921, 13, 57-66, 7 figs.). Description of a new geuus Parahronema,
referalile to the Spirnrid*. The mouth is l)ordered by paired lateral
lips, external to which there is a dorsal and a ventral shield of cuticle.
Each lip bears one large, median lateral papilla and a pair of small
sublateral papillse. Each of the shields carries a pair of larger papilla?,
situated at some distance behind the extremity of the head. The cuticle
of the head is thick, and folded in a complicated manner so as to form
a circlet of six horseshoe-shaped auricular appendages, of which two are
lateral, two subdorsal, and two subventral. The open anterior end of
the horseshoe is partly tilled up by a vesicular swelling of the cuticle.
The edge of each of these appendages is further folded to form a groove
somewhat resembling the cervical grooves of the Acuaria group. Truly
a remarkable head. J. A. T.

New Species of Myzostoma. — Juta Hara and Yaichiro Okada
{Annot. Zool. Japon., 1921, 10, 38-9). Descriptions of two undoubtedly
new species of this interesting genus. The first, M. robustum sp. n.,
was found on the ventral side of the arms of Metacriims rotundus. It
is nearest M. cJarki, but differs in the following characters : the lack of
a pair of vestigial cirri at each end of the body, the absence of longi-
tudinal wrinkles on the dorsal surface, two main intestinal diverticula
instead of three, the situation of the mouth in a notch at the anterior
dorsal end of the body, and the position of the cloaca near the posterior
margin of the ventral surface. The second species, M. ijimal sp. n.,
was found in the subdermal tissue of the disc of Antedon macrodiscus.
As in many other cysticolous species, the body is very parenchymatous,
with feeble musculature and parapodia. J. A. T.

Classification of Ascaridse.— H. A. Baylis {ParasitoJogy, 1920,
12, 411-2G, 7 figs.). A discussion of the Polydelphis group, and an
account of other Ascarids parasitic in snakes. A new genus, Ophid-
ascaris is established alongside of Polydelphis. J. A. T.

Nematodes of Domestic Pigeon in Australia. — Vera Irwin-
Smith {Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1921, 45, 552-63, 19 figs.). The
only Nematode previously recorded from the domestic pigeon in
Australia was Ascaridia columbse. To this is now added Cephalo-
stronffT/lus quadriradinhis ( = Strongylus qimdriradiatus Stevenson), a
new genus being erected, differing markedly from Stronyylus, or Tricho-
stronyylus on account of the relative sizes and positions of the bursal
rays, the form of the spicules, and the inflation of the cuticle of the
head to form a vesicular enlargement. There is also added Gapillaria
columbse Kudolphi. J. A. T.

Distribution of Hookworms. — Samuel T. Darling {Parasitology,
1920, 217-33). The races of mankind living in tropical and sub-
tropical regions are infested with one or more species of hookworms
— Agchijlostoma duodonale, A. ceyloniciim, A. braziliense, and Nerator
americanus. In the migrations of peoples the immigrants have carried

392 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

their peculiar species of hookworms into regions occupied by people
having a different worm-species-coutent, and by an examination of the
intestinal worms of a people the geographical and ethnic origin of
their hosts can, within certain limits, be divined. J. A. T,

Classification of Ascaridse. — H. A, Baylis {Parasitology, 1920,
12, 253-64, 1 fig.)- Revised classification based on the characters of
the alimentary canal. Five types are distinguished : —

1. (Esophagus muscular throughout, opening directly into the
intestine without posterior ventriculus or distinct bulb ; with a forwardly-
directed caecum springing from the intestine ; with no oesophageal
appendix. Examples: Ascaris holoptera, A. colura.

2. CEsophagus slender, with a more or less globular bulb at the
base ; the intestine produced forwards as a long ca?cum ; with no
oesophageal appendix. Examples : Ascaris halichoris, Dujardinia
helicina.

3. ffisophagus with a posterior glandular portion, or ventriculus, of
elongate or oblong shape, and often bent in a sigmoid manner ; with
no oesophageal or intestinal ca^ca. Examples : A. rosmari, A. similis.

4. CEsophagus with a posterior glandular portion, or ventriculus,
often bent so as to open into the intestine laterally ; with an intestinal
caecum; with no oesophageal appendix. Examples: A. decipiens, A.
depressa, etc.

5. (Esophagus with a reduced posterior ventriculus, giving off a
backwardly-directed glandular appendix ; with an intestinal c^cum as
well. Examples : A. aucta, A. microcephala, etc.

In accordance with these differences a reclassification is offered of
the sub-families Anisakinae and Heterocheilinse. J, A. T.

Platyhelminthes.

Species of Fasciola. — Harold G. Jackson (Farasitolof/i/, 1921,
13, 48-56, 1 pi., 4 figs.). It is shown that Fasciola angiisia (Railliet)
and F. segyptiaca (Looss) are connected by intermediate forms, and that
they cannot be separated from F. gigantica (Cobb). A key is given of
the species of Fasciola, including the common liver-fluke, which have
been hitherto described. J. A. T.

New Trematode from Heron. — Eleanor E. Chase {Proc. Linn.
Sec. N.S.W., 1921, 45, 5u0-4, 1 pi., 1 fig.). A description of Holo-
stomum repens sp. n., from the intestine of the white-fronted heron.
In all the described species of Holostomum the oral sucker and the
pharynx are both well-defined structures, but in this new species only
one cavity with thick muscular walls is found in connexion with the
mouth. The probability is that the oral sucker is not represented.
The rather complicated clinging plug occupies a much larger proportion
of the body than in H. variahiU. . J. A. T.

Japanese Digenetic Trematodes. — ^Harujiro Kobayashi {Para-
sitology, 1920, 12, 380-410, 3 pis.). Descriptions of a number of new

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 393

species from mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and tishes. Three
new genera are established, Microhrema, Leptolecithum and Exorclm.

J. A. T.
Larval Flukes from Georgia. — Ernest Careoll Faust {Trans.
Amer. Micr. Soc, 1921, 40, 4'J-r)5, 2 pis.). A description of a number of
new forms of cercaria from the snails Goniohasis carinifera and Ancidosa
carinata. They are all Distomes and show interesting relations to
previously described forms. J. A. T.

Life-cycle of Echinostoma revolutum. — John C. Johnson (Univ.
California Publications Zoology, 1920, 19, 835-88, 7 pis., 1 fig.). The
stages in the life-history of this Trematode are described in detail
— egg, miracidium, mother-redia, daughter-redia, cercaria, encysted
agamodistome, and adult. Two hosts are necessary, the snail Pkysa
occidental is and a duck or goose. Apparently any duck or goose forms
a suitable host. J. A. T.

Tapeworms of Poultry. — F. J. Meggitt {Parasitology, 1920, 12,
301-9, 2 pis., 1 fig.). Descriptions of Cotugnia digonopliora (Pasquale,
1890) from chickens, G. fastigiata sp. n. from domestic ducks,
Hymenohpis columbse (Zeder, 1800) from pigeons, H. coronula (Dujardin,
1845) from ducks, and H. gracilis (Zeder, 1803) also from ducks.

J.A.T.

New Cestode in Hedgehog. — F. J. Meggitt {Parasitology, 1920,
12, 310-3, 1 pi.). Description of Oochoristica erinacei sp. n., and a
key to the genus. Five other Cestodes have been recorded from the
hedgehog. From all of these this new species is distinguished by its
possession of numerous testes, situated posteriorly to the female organs.

J.A.T.

New Tapeworms from Ostrich.— F. J. Meggitt {Parasitology,
1921, 13, 1-24, 1 pi., 2 figs.). Descriptions of Dcwainea bedclardi sp. n.
and D. linstowi sp. n. ; a revision of the genus Davainea and a key to
the species ; a list of species of Davainea with their hosts. The species
fall roughly into four groups, the division being based upon the armature
of the suckers and the position of the genital pores. J. A. T.

Echinodsrma.

Locomotion of Stichopus panimensis. — G. H. Parker {Journ.
Exper. Zool., 1921, 33, 205-8, 1 fig.). This Holothurian creeps on
its trivium by means of locomotor waves of a direct monotaxic type.
These waves progress over the animal at a rate of about 0*39 cm. per
second, and they enable the animal to creep a metre in about a quarter
of an hour. The part of the trivium moved forward is lifted well above
the substratum to which the remainder of the trivium is attached by
the tube-feet. J. A. T.

Reversal of Asymmetry in Plutei of Echinus miliaris. — Hiroshi
Ohshi.aia {Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 1921, 92, 1G8-78). Description of
a number of abnormal plutei which had the hydrocoele developed on the

2 E

394 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

right side instead of on the left. In other respects also the larva was
a perfect mirror-image of the normal larva. They developed normally,
and the young urchins were externally normal. Tlie interesting point
is the recovery of the left hydrocoele. MacBride and Ohshima attribute
the development of two hydrocoeles to a latent power in the right
anterior ccelom developing a hydrocoele, a power which is normally
inhibited by the development of the functional hydrocoele from the left
anterior coelom. MacBride regards the latent power of the right side
as an indication of ancestral bilaterality. Ohshima finds the explana-
tion in homocosis. J. A. T.

Ccelentera.

Luminescence of Renilla. — G. H. Parker {Pror,. Amer. Phil. Soc,
11)20, 19, 171-5). Louis Agassiz observed that Renilla reniformis
" shines at night with a golden green light of a most wonderful soft-
ness." This is also true of R. amethystma of southern California. At
night the stimulated colony glows with a wonderfully clear blue-green
light. There is probably a rhythm in the animal's metabolism, for the
luminescence induced by day never reaches the degree of brightness
seen at night. The luminescence is induced by mechanical or electrical
stimulation. Luminous ripples emanate from the spot stimulated (on
the upper surface) and spread out concentrically over the disc, like waves
on the smooth face of a pond into which a pebble has been thrown.
The luminescence is limited to light-coloured material surrounding the
bases of the zooids on the upper surface. This light-coloured material
consists of a whitish chalky substance and a light-yellowish one, the
former being the photogenic substance. The impulses that induce the
luminescence are profoundly influenced by such anajsthetics as mag-
nesium sulphate. It seems that the transmission of the phosphorescent
waves is neurogenic rather than myogenic ; its rate varies with the
temperature ; it is probably due to chemical rather than to physical
processes. J, A. T.

Porifera.

Irish Sponges. — Jane Stephens (Fisheries Ireland, Sci. Invest.,
1921, 2, 1-75, G pis.). An account of the Tetraxonida of the sub-order
Si2:matomonaxonellida found on the coasts of Ireland. There are
descriptions of thirteen new species, the majority of which have been
found growing on coral (chiefly Lojjhohelia prolifera) in deep water. In
one haul 37 species of sponges were obtained (5 Tetractinellida, 30
Monaxonellida, and 2 Euceratosa). All of these, with two exceptions,
were new to the Irish area, and six were new to science. Twenty-three
of the entire number were growing on coral, while a small piece of
sandstone had 6 species growing on an area of about 75 sq. mm.

J. A. T.

Protozoa.

Intestinal Protozoa from Lizards. — C. M. Wenyon {Parasitology,
1920, 12, 350-65, 2 pis., 2 figs.). A full description of a flagellate of
the Leptomonad type from the rectum and cloaca of the chameleon.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 395

The author also deals with Proivazekella lacertse from Lacerta agilis and
Agama stellis, besides species of Chilomastix and Entamaha from the
same two hosts. J. A. T.

Cytamoeba bacterifera in Red Blood Cells of Frog-.— R. W.
Hegner {Jouni. Parasitology, 1921, 7, 157-(;i, 8 fi^s.). An interest-
ing organism, which Labbe found in ampliibian blood and Grassi in
the red blood corpuscles of the tree-frog {Hyla viridis), has been
observed bv Hegner in the red cells of Rana damitans and R. cateshlana.
It is regarded as a stage in the life-cycle of a Protozoan parasite, and it
has living within it, either as hyper-parasites or in symbiosis, a bacillus
named by Laveran Bacillus krusei. J. A. T,

New Intestinal Amoeba in Man.— C. A. Kofoid and Olive
SwEZY {Univ. California Pnhlications Zoolog?j, 1921, 20, 169-98,
5 pis., 3 figs.). Description of Councilmania lafl.euri g. et sp. n. found
free and encysted in the human intestine. It is carefully compared
with aud distinguished from Entamaba coli. The free stage has
hyaline pseudopodia, abruptly formed, with endoplasm full of food
vacuoles aud even ingested red blood corpuscles. The resting nucleus
has a moderately-thin zone of peripheral chromatin ; the karyosome is
generally excentric, often with a small lialo, in premitotic stages com-
posed of dispersed particles and more nearly central in position. The
pseudopodia are broad, rounded, usually less than the diameter of the
cell in width, and generally there is only one. The cysts have one, two,
four or eight nuclei, rarely more. There is a thick wall to the cyst,
triple-contoured, spheroidal, ellipsoidal or asymmetrical, less frequently
spherical. The nuclei of the cysts have little peripheral chromatin and
large, excentric or central, spheroidal, renifcm, or lobed karyosome
often divided into scattered particles, eight chromosomes, and an
intradesmose joining polar masses seen best in the first and second
mitoses. The cysts form a chromophile ridge from which cytoplasm
emerges through a pore in the cyst wall as a chromophile bud. A
nucleus migrates into the bud, which is detached as an amoebula. The
process is repeated till the cyst is emptied of nuclei. Budding may
occur in the intestine. The dimensions of free stages are 65 by 35
microns to 20-35 microns when rounded up. The spheroidal cysts are
16-20, rarely 8-34, microns in diameter. J. A. T.

Plasmodial Parasite of Laminaria. — 0. Duboscq (Comptes Rendus
Soc. Biol., 1921, 84, 27-33, 3 figs.). A description of Labyrintlwmyxa
sauvageaui g. et sp. n., one of the Proteomyxa, wliich occurs as a
parasite in Laminaria lejolisii, in the form of fusiform bodies, small
amoeba?, large amoebae, small flagellates and large flagellates. Plasmodia
are also formed, spreading from cell to cell, sometimes in a network of
fusiform units united by delicate pseudopodia, sometimes in a network
of amoeboid units, similarly united. J. A. T.

Survival Value of Conjugation. — L. L. Woodruff and Hope
Spencer {Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Medicine, 1921, 18, 30;-!-4).
Experiments on Spathidium spathula indicate that conjugation in the

2 E 2

396 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

majority of cases increases the length of life of the exconjugant line'
In 80 p.c. of cases the total number of generations attained by the
exconjugant exceeds those attained by the parent from the date when
the exconjugant arose to the death of the parent. The fact is evident
that conjugation increases the number of fissions to a total which could
not otherwise have been reached. Over 80 p.c. of the exconjugant lines
attained more generations than their respective parent lines. By con-
jugation it has been possible to increase the number of fissions to more
than double that obtainable without conjugation. In short, the survival
value of conjugation is marked in the majority of cases — the exconju-
gant lines exhibiting a higher division rate than the non-conjugant
Hnes and outliving them. J. A. T.

Effect of Conjugation on Division Rate. — L. L. Woodruff and
Hope Spencer {Froc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and .Medicine, 1921, 18, 240-1).
Experiments with Spathidium spathida lead to the conclusion that the
exconjugant lines of a pedigree culture exhibit, in the great majority of
-cases, a higher division rate for the first fifteen days after conjugation
than the parent lines. Exconjugation lines which are derived from old
parent lines (i.e. from lines which have undergone many generations
since conjugation) show a relatively greater increase in the division
rate, during the first fifteen days, as compared with the parent lines,
than do exconjugant lines which are derived from young parent lines
(i.e. from lines which have more recently conjugated). J. A. T.

Amicronucleate Race of Didinium nasutum. — Mary W. Patten
{Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Medicine, 1921, 18, 188-9). From a micronucleate
parent race a single amicronucleate exconjugant appeared, and the
condition persisted for 652 generations. At various intervals during
the life-history of this culture there were periods showing a tendency
for encystment and conjugation, but the animals which encysted or
conjugated invariably died, a fact undoubtedly related to their amicro-
nucleate condition. There was no endomixis. The amicronucleate
state doubtless arose from some irregularity in conjugation. J. A. T.

Measurements of Trypanosoma diemyctyli. — R. W. Hegnee
[Journ. Farasitologij, 1921, 7, 105-13). Every one of seventy-eight
aquatic specimens of the newt Diemyctylus viridescens was found to be
infected with Trypanosoma diemyctyli Tobey. Measurements were made
of trypanosomes from ten newts, which showed differences in their
range of variation in total length exclusive of the flagellum, in the
length of portions, and in the width of the body, and in the averages of
length and width. Length and width show a positive correlation, and
on an average the longer the specimen the wider it is. Two different
types occur in one and the same host. Two different types obtained
from the different newts are probably races of one species that are
heritably diverse in size. They may, however, belong to different species,
or may be sexual phases of a single species, or may differ because
of chano;es due to the environment. J. A. T.

^&^

New Flagellate with Trichocysts. — W. Conrad {Bidl. Acad. Roy.
Belgique Classe des Sciences, 1920, No. 11, 541-55, 4 figs.). A de-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

397

sr;riptioii of Reckertia sagittifera g. etsp. n., a colourless Chloromonad,
belongiag to the series Vacuolaria, Trentonia^ Gonyostomnm, and
Tliaumatomastix. It is near the last in its general appearance, in its
pseudopodia, in its mode of nutrition, aud in its contractile vacuoles.
But it has a ventral groove and trichocysts. It was found in an
aquarium in the Botanic Gardens in Brussels. Below the cuticle the

W

Fig. 1. — Reckertia sagittifera
seen from the ventral surface.

Fig. 2. — Seen from the side.

av, anterior ; d, dorsal; v, ventral ; fa, anterior flagellum ; fp, posterior
flagellum ; s, ventral groove; vp, contractile vacuole; ,va, food-
vacuole ; n, nucleus ; li, droplets of oil ; p, pseudopodia.

ectoplasm shows a thick cuticle, a structureless hyaline layer, a striated
alveolar layer with trichocysts. There is a large vesicular nucleus which
divides by karyokinesis. There are numerous food-vacuoles in the
endoplasm, and reserve carbon-compounds are represented by droplets of
oil. The trichocysts are regarded as specialized vacuoles containing a
peculiar substance, perhaps a pectosic gel. J. A. T.

Experiments with Insect Tlagellates. — C. A. Hoaee {Parasitology,
1921, 13, 67-85). Experiments towards infecting various Vertebrate
types with Grithidia melophagia, HerpetomGnas jaculum, and H. calUphorse
yielded negative results. There seems no warrant as yet for believing
that the natural Herpetomonads in insects, especially in those not
associated with Vertebrates, may become pathogenic when introduced
into the latter. J. A. T.

398 SUMMARY OF CUKRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Hereditary Rickettsia-like Parasite of Bed-bug. — J. A. Ark-
WRiGHT, E. E. Atkix, and A. Bacot {Parasltologtj, l'.)21, 13, 27-3n,
2 pis., 1 fig.). The organism called " Rickettsia " are like very small
bacteria, but not motile and otherwise peculiar. They occur in very
large numbers in the gut and in some cases in other organs of blood-
sucking insects and in ticks. The supposed cause of typhus fever is
Rkkettsia prowazeki found in the louse. In the case of the bed-bug it
seems that the organism occurs in the undifferentiated egg mass, and
is thus continued from generation to generation. It is suggested that
they change from the form of minute granules to a long bacillary form
in suitable places such as the large cells of the Malpighian tubes of the
bed-bug, and that the long threads in turn release minute bodies.

J. A. T.

Structure of Cnidosporidian Spores. — R. Kudo (Trans. Amer.
Micr. Soc, 1921, 40, 51)-7-4). Discussion of structures characteristic
of cnidosporidian spores. The spore membrane of Nosema apis and N.
bombycis, taken as representative of the Microsporidia, is proved to be
composed of a substance similar to chitin in its chemical reaction.
The spore membrane of Henneguya saJminirola, taken as a representa-
tive of the Myxosporidia, is not so like chitin. The polar filaments of
cnidosporidian spores are not composed of glycogen as was suggested
by Erdmann. They consist of a mixture of a part of the nucleus and
a substance diflferentiated in the capsillogenous cell. There follows a
discussion of the methods which cause extrusion of the filament. The
so-called iodinophilous vacuole of the spores of the family Myxobolid®
contains a substance like glycogen in its reactions. J. A. T.

Fish Myxosporidia. — J. S. Dunkerly (ParasiMoyy, 1920, 12,
;^28-88, 6 figs.). Descriptions of Geratomyxa lata sp. n. from Gapros
sanglier, G. duhia from Coftiis bubalis, Myxidium iiiler medium sp. n,
from Pleurone'ies flesus, Sphseromyxa long a sp. n. from Oadus minvtus,
and S. ovata sp n. from Onos tricirratus. Reports of other Myxo-
sporidia, not new species, from many other hosts. J. A. T.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 399

BOTANY.

(Under the direction of A. B. Rendle, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S.)

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Structure and Development.
Vegetative.

Cuticle of Leaves in Conifers. — R. Florin {Arkiv. Bot. Stochholm,
1921, 16, 1-32, 1 pi., 9 figs.). The author has studied the structure of
the leaves in Tsuya, Sequoia, Taxodium, Saxegothsea, Podocarpus,
CephalotaxHs, Torreya aud Taxus in order to discover any features of
vsystematic importance. Three types of margin can be distinguished —
viz. (1) That most frequently seen in species of Podocarpus, Sequoia,
Torreya and Taxodium, where the margin is entire and with little
cutinization. (2) That found in Sequoia sempervirens and Tstiga
canadensis, where the marginal cells are papillose, sometimes protruding
like teeth, especially near the apex, and the outer cell-walls are strongly
cutinized. (3) That found in Saxeyothsea and Taxus, where the margin
is undulate and strongly cutinized. The first type is of no special
systematic importance. The second is specially characteristic of two
genera, and may prove to be of use in determining species, although it
will not be possible to lay much stress upon it when dealing with fossil
forms, since the relatively weak walls of the papillte render them very
liable to destruction. The third type will probably be of great use in
determining fossil species. The form, size and arrangement of the
marginal papillge, taken in conjunction with the strong cutinization of
the cuticle, will afford a ready means of identifying different species of
Saxeyothsea and Taxus.

An investigation of the stomata proved of great interest. In most
of the species examined they were confined to the under surface of the
leaf, but in Sequoia yiyantea, Taxodium distichum, Podocarpus eJonyata,
etc., they were also present on the upper surface, but this fact has no
systematic significance. There was a great similarity in the number of
rows or bands, which were usually parallel, with varying distances
between the rows and between the individual stomata. In Sequoia
sempervirens and in Taxodium distichum the rows are indistinct, while
their position with respect to one another aud to the direction of the
light varies. In the former the majority of the stomata are lengthwise
and never transverse, while the reverse is the case in the latter. These
characters have no systematic value, since similar irregularities occur in
Podocarpus and Torreya. The epidermal cells surrounding the stomata
have no special interest ; those between them vary in both size and
form, except in Torreya, where tliey are unusually long.

400

SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The two fossil specimens examined were Sequoia Langsdorfii and
Taxodium distichum miocenum. As a whole the investigation afforded
only negative resnlts, but two Interesting observations were made— viz.
the structure of the epidermis of the leaves confirms the previously
proved close relationship of Sequoia and Taxodium ; also, these genera
were represented in the tertiary polar flora, although probabl}' by other
species and forms than those of the present day. S. Greves.';'

Physiological and Morphological Correlations in Herbaceous
Angiosperms.— Jeffrey and ToRREY(i)0^. Gaz., 1021, 71, 1-31, 7 pis.,
4- figs.). Herbaceous dicotyledons appear to have developed from

Fig. 1. — Nodal region of Bumex
sp., showing fusions between
opposed strands of axis and
branch.

Fig. 2. — A lower plane of section
of same with a greater^ number
of amphivasal bundles.

Cf-S

Fig, 3. — Nodal section of Zea. The leaf base has just fused with the
[\i39a\ axis, and shows a very large number of bundles.

arboreal types by a development of storage rays about the leaf- traces.
In the more primitive types these rays are shallow longitudinally, but
deep in the radial direction ; in higher types these rays diminish in
i-adial dimensions, but show an increase in the vertical direction, often

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 401

through several nodes. As the leaf increases in eflRciency the leaf -traces
increase in number. Advanced types of dicotyledons show a progres-
sive disappearance in cambial activity in the leaf -traces, although these
are often of greater size than the bundles of the stem. The greater
number and importance of the leaf -traces, together with the relatively
greater importance of the secondary axes of higher types, result in a
crowding of strands at the nodes and a more scattered distribution of
the stem bundles, while at the same time amphivasal strands are formed.
Physiological advantage probably explains the disappearance of secondary
growth in leaf-traces ; this disappearance may extend also to the bundles
in the stem and results in a practically monocotyledonous structure.

S. G.

Leaf-structure in Nilssonia. — E. Florin {Tom. cit., 1-10, 1 pi.,
1 fig.). A study of the leaf-structure of Nilssonia polymorpha, with
special reference to its systematic position, confirms the results obtained
by Nathorst, Thomas and Bancroft as to the sunken stomata with
round, unthickened guard-cells, and the general structure of the cuticle.
The author supports their view that this genus differs in these points
from the more complex Bennettitales, but appears to be closely related
to recent Cycads. S. G.

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

Homosporous American Lepidostrobus.— John M. Coulter and
W. J. G. Land {BoL Gaz., 1921, 72, 106-8). Though the coalfields
of Europe have yielded perfectly preserved strobili of Lepidodendron,
showing heterospory, the coalfields of America have, with but two
exceptions, yielded nothing but casts. A fragment of a strobilus from
Iowa was cut and described by Coulton and Land in 1011 {Bot. Gaz.
1911, 51, 449-53). Further fragments of the same cone have since
been found, showing the strobilus to have been 22 cm. long and 5 cm.
wide. It is well preserved, but the sporangia are nearly all completely
empty. The few spores found average 27 /x in diameter. The evidence
is strong that this strobilus was homosporous, which is a matter worthy
of record and of consideration, since it simplifies the question of the
origin of the modern Lycopodiales, a homosporous group. A. Gepp.

Fourth Contribution to our Knowledg-e of the Anatomy of the
Cone and Fertile Stem of Equisetum. — Isabel M. P. Browne
{Annals of Botany, 1921, 35, 427-56, 1 plate, 12 figs.). A study of
the cones of Equisetmn stjlvaticum, E. debile and E. variegatum. The
results are as follows : (1) The vascular system of the cone of E.
sylvatmmi resembles that of E. maximum, but on a smaller scale, and
better developed. (2) That of the cone of E. dehih is much reduced
and forms a loose network ; and frequently many parenchymatous
meshes, originating below the cone, persist far into the cone, some even
traversing the whole cone. (8) The stele of the cone of E. variegatum
is also of reduced type. (4) On grounds of comparative anatomy the
separation of protoxylem and metaxylem in the internodes of the cones

402 SUMMARY OF CURKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of certain species of Equisetum, a condition most marked in ^. maximum,
is regarded as a derivative character, due chiefly to the reduction of the
radial extent of the metaxylem. (5) Parenchymatous meshes of the
cone probably first arose, in the phylogeny, at points vertically above
the departure of the traces of sporangiopliores, and were not true gaps
(in Jeffrey's sense) ; and in cases where meshes arise very close above
the departure of the trace, this approximation is probably due to reduc-
tion of xylem during the phylogeny. The primitive system was
probably siphonostelic. (6) In the anatomy of E. sylraticum the
following points support the view that the insertion of the annulus
marks the position of a vestigial node : {a) the numerous anastomoses
of the axial strands at this level ; (b) indications of anastomosis of the
protoxylem at the same level ; (c) the presence in the axis opposite the
annulus of cone B of an abortive trace that never becomes free ; (d)
the presence in this same cone at the level of insertion of the annulus
of tracheides somewhat resembling those of the nodal xylem of the
vegetative axis ; (e) the occurrence, according to Milde, of branches
below the annulus. (7) In one of the cones of E. dehile four small
groups of vascular cells were observed in the parenchyma of the
annulus ; though unconnected with cells of the axial bundle, they
possibly may represent vestiges of the traces of the annular node. In
this species, however, and still more in E. variegatum, there are but
few indications of the former presence of a node at the insertion of the
annulus. (8) In some specimens of E. deh'le the ring of nodal (or
supranodal) xylem is not complete at the level of the uppermost whorl
of leaves. A. G.

G-ametopliytes of Equisetum laevigatum. — Elda R. Walker
{Bot. Gaz., 1921, 71, 378-91, 2 plates and figs.). Prothallia of
Equisetum have rarely been found until recent years, but in August,
1916, large numbers were detected by R. A. Xesbit in Nebraska,
associated with Riccia on the mud belt of streams and rivers. The
investigation of numerous wild specimens gave the following results : —
The gametophytes are all of one kind. They consist of a flat circular
disc 1-10 mm. in diameter, bearing numerous upright green branches
on their upper surface, and surrounded by a band of meristem, which
continues the growth of the thallus and produces archegonia and
antheridia. They are typically monoecious, bearing some archegonia
and many antheridia, which are without order and often within a few
cells of each other and of sporophytes, and which may continue to
develop until one or more sporophytes have attained considerable size.
Antheridia all develop, as is characteristic of eusporangiate ferns,
whether in a massive tissue or on a slender br.snch. Archegonia de-
velop in manner characteristic of the group. Sporophyte development is
as described by authors. The leaves of the first shoot are three or four,
of the second shoot four or five. Gametophytes grow to maturity under
simple methods of culture. The germination of spores and raising of
young gametophytes under culture is quite easy ; but the spores must
be young and quite fresh. A. G.

Eusporangiate Ferns and the Stelar Theory. — D. H. Campbell
{American Journal of Botany, 1921, 8, ;!0o-14:, figs.). A summary

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 403

of the evidence which shows that Van Tieghem's stelar theory is not
applicable to the eusporangiate ferns, with the addition of further facts
derived from a recent study of BotrijcJUiim. The author's conclusions
are as follows : — The presence of a single cauline stele — " protostele,"
" siphonostele," " dictyostele " — is not borne out by the history of the
stelar tissues in the Ophioglossales and Marattiales. In all of these the
stelar system begins as a single strand common to the first leaf and
root ; the stem apex arises adventitiously in Ophioglossum moluccanum
and 0. pendulum, and is very insignificant in Boirychium and the
Marattiales. No procambium is developed in the stem region in the
young sporophyte. In the Ophioglossales the stelar structures of
the axis are built up exclusively of leaf-traces to which the bundles
of the roots are joined. This condition obtains also for the earlier
stages of the Marattiales, but is complicated later by the formation of
" commissural " strands, which are of cauline origin. The " dictyostele "
of Ophioglossum and most Marattiales is in no sense a monostele. The
"foliar gaps " are not breaks in a single tubular stele, but are merely
spaces between the coalescent leaf -traces, and the pith is part of the
ground tissue included within the cylindrical network formed by the
united bundles derived from the leaves. In short, the condition found
in the axis of the eusporangiate ferns is more in accord with the older
theory of " common " bundles traversing a ground tissue, and united
to form the woody cylinder of the axis, than with the assumption of a
true cauline stele. The condition existing in the eusporangiate ferns
by no means implies that the stelar hypothesis must be completely
discarded. There seems to be no question of its application to the
Lycopods, Conifers, and many Angiosperms ; but in all of these the
relative importance of stem and leaf is very different from the condition
of the ferns ; and it will not be surprising if, when the different types
of the Leptosporangiatse are subjected to a thorough examination of
the origin of the stelar tissues in the young sporophyte, it will be found
that in these, as well as in the Eusporangiatas, the axial stelar tissues
are largely, at least, of foliar origin. A. CI.

Young Leaves of Angiopteris Teysmanniana. — J. Malkowska
{Rosprawy wydz. mat.-przyr. Akad. umiej. Krakoivie, 11)14, ser. 3, 14,
189-1)4, pi. and fig. : see also Bot. Gentralbl, 1918, 138, 187). A
description of the frond development of plants in the Botanical Garden
of Cracow. The young frond (namely, the oldest leaf) is simply
pinnate ; the piniise are broad and either irregularly incised or entire
along the margin. The next frond is dichotomously divided, the
following ones are three to four times divided. The conrse of the
vascular bundle is traced by means of transverse sections. E. 8. Cepp.

Hymenophyllum tunbridgense (Sm.) in the Jura Sandstone Region
in Luxemburg. — E. J. Klein {Naturwiss. Wochenschr. N.F., 191G,
15, 646-8, 4 figs. ; see also Bot. Gentralbl., 1918,138, Ml). A record
of the occurrence of this fern in several new localities in the so-called
" Schliiffe" of the Jura sandstone ; it often grows in cushions in the drip of
water associated with mosses and liverworts and the lichen Sphserophorus
coralJo'ides Pers. ; and often in very inaccessible places. Oddly enough

404 SUMMARY OF CUKRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the fern does not occur in the Prussian territory on the Luxemburg
frontier, which is close to its habitats ; tlie artificial introduction of it
failed here. The plant has a rich spore production and flourishes only
on porous sandstone (not on the sandy debris from it). The patches
are orientated only between S.E. and S.W., most frequently S.E. A
diagram shows the frequency of the individuals. The dry N.E. and E.
wiuds are kept off the delicate plant by the walls of the " schliiff " :
where such a wind reaches it, the plant dries up. Presumably it spread
along the Atlantic coast to Luxemburg during the time when Great
Britain was connected with the Continent. E. S. G.

Keys to the Ferns of Borneo. — Edwin Bingham Copeland
(Sarmvak Museum Journal, 1917, 2, 287-424). An enumeration of
the fern flora of Borneo, with the distribution of the species and some
critical remarks, and with ample keys for the determination of the
families, genera and species. Of the Malay Islands Borneo is the
richest in ferns, and yet very few localities in it have been properly
investigated. It is to stimulate further research that the author
compiled these helpful keys. The number of species already known is
about 700 : and it is hoped, from experience gained in the Philippine
Islands, that 40 p.c. more may be found. In the introduction the
question of a natural classification is discussed. A. G.

Bryophyta.

Dissymmetry of Structure of the Leaf of Mnium spinosum. —
J. PoTTiER {Berne : Buckler & Co., 1917, 16 pp. 8vo, 7 pis. ; see also
Bot. Centralbl., 1918, 138, 353). The material examined was collected
at Kandersteg in the Bernese Oberland. Two leaves of different size of
the male plant were studied in great detail, 340 transverse sections being
made of one leaf and 230 of the other. Every section was drawn, and
25 were figured. The asymmetry was observed to vary 3-4 times
from right to left, and vice versa, in the same leaf, the change being-
more marked towards the apex than in the lower portion of the leaf.
The asymmetry corresponds with the sinuations of the costa, so that a
curve of the costa to the left corresponds with a left-sided asymmetry.
The cause of the asymmetry of the midrib is to be sought in the
sinuous character of the costa, which is always more marked towards
the apex. The cause of the sinuosity of the costa is to be sought in
the growth of the two-sided apical cell of the leaf. The greater the
intercalary growth, the weaker is the undulation of the midrib, and the
less marked is the asymmetry of the costa. E. S. Gepp.

Bryum veronense De Not. — C. Massalongo {Bull. Soc Bot. Itah,
1917, 33-36, figs.). A discussion of the specific rank of Bryum
veronense discovered by the river bank near Verona in 1834 by De
Rainer and described by De Notaris as a new species related to B. calo-
phyllum. It is a rare moss, known only in a vegetative state, and its
systematic position has been a puzzle to subsequent bryologists, as is
shown by the synonymy. It has been recorded also for Bavaria and
Styria ; and recently it was found again in its original locality. It is

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 405

HOW figured. Until fruiting specimens are found there must be doubt
as to whether it is a true species, or a state of B. argenteum or some
other species growing in an abnormal habitat. A. Gepp.

New Species of Aneura. — C. Massalongo {Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital.,
1917, 80-82). A description of Aneura crinita, a new hepatic found
among mosses in a damp wood in the province of Perugia. In habit
and size it approaches A. pinguis, but differs in its calyptra, which is
beset with numerous long radicle-like hairs. A. Gr.

Taxilejeunea ptero^onia and Certain Allied Species. — -A. W. Evans
{Bull Torrey Bot. Club, l'J21, 48, 107-36, 1 plate and figs.). A
detailed and critical description of four tropical American species of
Taxilejeunea, two of which are new to science. The genus belongs to
the section of Lejeunefe with bifid leaves, and contains large and con-
spicuous plants ; one of its most distinctive features is found in the
branches which bear the female inflorescences. These are short and
small-leaved, and on one or both sides produce short innovations termi-
nated by a female inflorescence. Thus a complicated branch-system of
cymose character is formed. A. G.

Further Additions and Rectifications to the Moss-flora of
Switzerland. — J. Amann [Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., 1920, 53,
p. 81-12.5, figs.). The first series of "additions" was published in
Bull. Soc. llurithienne du Valais, 1918-19. The present series is
founded on collections made in Valais, on the Alps of 8aas and Zermatt
by the author, on the Great St. Bernard by Bender, in Ticino by
Jaggli, near Basle, etc. A careful study of the high Alps has yielded
interesting results, and shown that the moss-flora is even yet imperfectly
known. The stunted and sterile condition of the plants makes them
difficult to study ; but they are the more interesting as ecological
adaptations to severe conditions. The following species are described
as new to science : Barbuda pmnma, Syntrichia gelida, Bryum appendicu-
latum, B. britannise. Milium amblystegium. Nine other species are
added to the Swiss flora ; and twenty-eight new varieties and forms are
described. A critical study is made of the European species of Mnium,
especially those of the M. orthorltynclium group, from the point of view
of cellular tissue. The sporophyte of Ptychodium pallescens Amann is
described. A synoptic table for the determination of European species
of Hygroamblystegium is provided, as well as a revision of the Swiss
species. A. G.

Mosses from the Kanara District. — H. N. Bixois {Journ. of Indian
Botany, 1921, 2, 174-8, 1 plate). A list of mosses collected by L. J.
Sedgwick in Western jMadras, partly in N. Kanara, partly in the drier
and more inland district of Dharwar. Ten species and a variety are
described as new to science, and figures of them are given. Critical
notes are appended to several other species. A. G.

Bahama Mosses. — Elizabeth G. Britton {Bryologist, 1921, 24,
17-9, 1 pi). A list of thirty-three species of mouses collected in the

406 SUMMARY OF CURKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Bahama Islands, including a new species, Hymenostomum Jlavescens, a
description and figures of which are given. A. G.

Hyophila subcucullata.— R. S. Williams {Bryologist, 1921, 24,
22, 2:3, 1 pi.). A description of a new moss species from the San Diego
river, Cuba ; it is allied to H. microcarpa. A. (1.

Thallophyta.

Alga3.

Investig-atioiis Concerning the Plant and Animal Life of the
High Seas. — H. Lohmann {Veroff. Inst. 3Ieeresk. Univ. Berlin Geogr.
not. Reilie., 1912, 1, 90 pp., 2 pis., 14 text-figs. ; see also Bot. Centralbi,
1918, 138, 185). A report on the biological work carried out during
the voyage of the " Deutschland " from Bremerliaven to Buenos Ayres,
May to September, 1911. The average density of organisms for the
entire area traversed was for the following depths : — U m. 95U0, 50 m.
5700, 100 m. 1500, 200 m 500, 400 m. 350 individuals per unit. The
superficial area is therefore not poorer than the 50 m. stratum, as was
also shown later by Schiller. The suiface of the cooler regions has a popu-
lation nine times greater than that of the tropics. The depths from
50-400 m. is at the most twice as thickly populated. The average
number of organisms was five times less in the tropics than in the
cooler waters, the protophytes predominating. Northern waters were
seven times richer than the tropics, and nearly twice as rich as the
south. The naked phytofiagellates attained their maximum (2600
individuals) on the surface, as well as all the other protophytes except
the Diatoms, Chroococcaceai, Coccolithophorids, SilicoflagellatEe, and
PeridinicEe (including Gymnodinieae). A new genus and four new species
are described in Coccolithophorida;. Tropical water is poor in net- and
centrifugal-plankton. E. S. Gepp.

Simple Method of Studying the Nannoplankton of Fresh Water.
— E. Naumann {Naturiv. Wochensclir., N. F., 1916, 15, 180-3, fig. ;
see also Bot. Centralbh, 1918, 138, 375). The author proposes to
make careful examinations of the intestines of fresh-water animals,
both as a means of obtaining easily nannoplankton, and of adding to
our knowledge of the nutrition of zoopkmkton. Tlie nannoplankton
obtained by him in the intestines of Bosiuia and Diapluinosoma would
pass through the smallest mesh of any net. Organisms possessing a
shell, such as Diatoms, are sufficiently well preserved as to be mounted
in Canada balsam, and the gelatinous and other algte {Trachelontonas
volvocina, etc.) in glycerine. Both methods supplement each other.
He found that Cydotetla is a main constituent of the food of Entomos-
tracge in the lakes of Southern Sweden, and he here records their occur-
rence for the first time in those waters. Larger Entomostracte of the
plankton feed largely on Diatoms. E. S. G.

Note on a " Blood " Lake. — H. Leber {Internat. Rev. ges.
Hydrohiol. Hydrogr., 1915-10, 7, 131-3 ; see also Bot. Centrcilbl.,

I

*

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 407

1918, 138, 184).* The lake, the Tovelsee, whose waters are coloured a
tine red by the peridinian Glenodinium pulvis-ehas Stein var. aculeatvs
Larg'., lies 11G2 m. high, at the foot of the Brenta group. Its greatest
depth is 50 m., and it is probably a stagnant lake. G. ptdvis-eleas
occurs in masses, but only in the comparatively warm parts, and only
in the warm season. In the morning the lake looked greenish ; and
the water was clear where it had been red the previous day. In these
parts the bottom was covered with a red sediment, formed by close
masses of Glenodinium in the lowest strata of water. As the lake
gradually emerged from the shadow of the mountains, so the organisms
rose in thick clouds to the surface and became very closely packed.
The cause of this vertical migration is at present unknown. E. S. G.

Polish Fresh-water Peridiniese. — J. Woloszynska {Bull. Acad.
Sci. Cracovie CI. sci. math. Ser. B., 1915, 260-85, 5 pi. : Cracowie,
1910; see also Bot. Centralbl, 1918, 138, 171). New genera are
described and figured. From a careful study of the fresh-water
Peridiniege the author finds that the plate-shaped structure of the
envelope is a far more common character throughout the whole group
than has hitherto been allowed. In Glenodinium polonicum, one of the
new species, the membrane is covered with many regularly arranged
small warts, developed more strongly on the hypovalve. Each of these
forms a thickening in the middle of a small plate of regular hexagonal
outline. This structure of the envelope is the original one. Adapta-
tion of the organisms to different conditions of life brought about a
change of the structure of the envelope, the plates combining into
larger ones of less regular outline. Glenodinium is certainly the original
type of many genera of higher Peridiniaceai. Many of the new species
here described are remarkable for their beauty of structure. Gonyaulax
polonica, a new species, and G. apiculata Penard, from the Lakes of
Geneva and Balaton, are the only representatives of the genus in
Europe. E. S. G.

Phytoplankton of the Dobrostany Ponds. — M. Kocz'wara {/Cosmos,
1915, 40, 2ol-75, 1 pi. 1 text tig. : Lemberg, 1916 : see also Bot.
Centralbl., 1918, 138, 181). The ponds in question are those of
Debrostany, Bialogorski, and Wolicki in Galicia. They were under
observation between 1912 and July 1914. The results are set forth in
tabular form and embrace Flagellates, Peridinieae, Cyanophycete, Chloro-
phycese, Conjugat^e, and Diatomacese. The ponds may be designated
Flagellate ponds. New species and varieties of Flagellates are described
and figured. E. S. G.

Investig-ations of the Phytoplankton and of the Progressive
" Gyttja " and other Mud Formations below the Pelagic Region
in certain Archaic Mountain Lakes of South and Central Sweden. —
E. Naumann {K.Svenslc. Vetenskap. Handl., 1917, 56, 165 pp., 7 pis.,
figs, in text ; see also Bot. Centralbl, 1918, 138, 200-3). The lakes
in question were situated in the primitive mountains, poor in lime, of
South and Central Sweden. The objects of the investigation were : —
(1) to use the planktology of these waters as an index of the general

408 SUMMARY OF CUERENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

lacustriue type, from a geographical and ecological point of view ; (2)
to see how far the structural peculiarities of the pelagically-f ormed mud
strata were dependent on the sediment-building factors, particularly the
plankton production, arising from their environment. The material
examined consisted mainly of net-plankton, though nannoplankton was
also obtained. The methods employed in the collection and examina-
tion of the material are described in detail. The results obtained are
fully and clearly set forth, but are too wide in scope and too copious in
quantity to be adequately reproduced here. E. S. G.

The Morpholog'y and Physiology of Form-variation (Develop-
ment, Reproduction, Fertilization and Heredity) of the Phyto-
monadineae (Volvocales). II. On the Continuous, purely Asexual,
Cultivation of Eudorina elegans and its Significance for the Pro-
blem of Fertilization and Death. — M. Hartmann {Sitz-Ber. kgl.
Preiiss. Ale. Wiss., 1917, 7G0-76 ; see also Bot. Centralbl, 191'J, 140,
108). The author puts forward the question whether plants, which in
a natural condition exhibit sexual and asexual reproduction, can be
permanently reproduced without any sort of cell-disturbances other
than those involved in the usual cell and nuclear division. Eudorina
elegans was chosen for experiment as being convenient for observation
with its colony of thirty-two cells. Each of these cells divides five
times in the course of a few days (in summer four to seven, in winter
twenty days). The author succeeded in rearing 550 individual genera-
tions without any sort of interference, and concludes therefore that this
experiment, which lasted two and a half years, proves the possibility of
permanently cultivating Eudorina asexually. Should this be the case,
however, the significance of fertilization is not to be found in rejuve-
nescence. Finally, the author discusses death and immortality in many
senses. E. S. CI.

Occurrence of Algae in the Tubes of Utricularia. — E. Lemmerjjann
(Vortrag Deidsch. Zool. Gesell. auf 23 Jahresvers. Bremen., 1913, 261 pp.,
fig. ; see also Bot. Centralbl., 1918, 138, 184). In the tubes of a
Utrindarla from Brazil the author found three Protococcacete, twenty-
seven Conjugate, two Flagellataa, one Heterokont. Species which
develop swarmspores wandered into the tubes while in a state of activity
and continued their development in situ. One-celled Desmids behaved
in a similar manner. Filament-forming Desmidiaceaj grew in the
opening of the tubes and drew other algaj in with them. The phototaxis
and the mucilage in the tubes play a part in the phenomenon. One new
species, Derepyxis ellipsoidea, and several new varieties are descril)ed.

E. S. G.

Contribution to the Paludine Flora of the Environs of Yverdon. —
A. Deglon {BuU. 8oc. Vatid. Sci. Xat., 1920, 53, 23-75, 2 figs.). A
description of the algal flora of three ponds, situated 1.8 kilom. S.W. of
Yverdon, Canton Vaud. The physical features of the ponds are described,
and their connection with former and present waters is shown on a chart.
The collections, which were made every fortnight from April 16, 1915,
to April 1, 1916, contain sixty-four genera and five hundred and eleven
species and varieties. These are all enumerated in a general list, which

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 40^

is followed by a separate discussion on each of the three ponds, with
the constituents and periodicity of their respective floras. Eucli contains
a small number of genera and species not observed in the others. Many
of the diatoms exist all the year round, a small numl)er showing a
maximum development either in cold or in warm water. The other
algte show in general a maximum from August to October. Intermediate
forms between several species and varieties of diatoms were observed.
Among the seventy-eight samples taken, one form occurs sixteen times.
It is here figured as a new variety minor, of Navkula cuspidata Kiitz.

E. 8. (J.

Study of the Cell-structure of Small Algae, with Special Reference
to Porphyridium cruentum Naeg. — F. Brand {Ber. Dmtsch. Bot. Ges.,
1917, 35, 4:54-9 ; see also Bot. Gentralhl, 1919, 140, 107). Although
single species of algae cannot as a rule be determined by cell-structure
alone, still it is possible to limit certain groups by means of this
character, aud then to determine its members by a study of the
physiological, biological and functional conditions. Certain important
points in a study of cell structure are indicated. Too much value must
not be placed on culture and chemical treatment, on account of th"
great variability of these algfe. In cultivated material pathological
deformities frequently arise. The only material suitable for delicate-
cytological investigation is that in Avhich the majority of the cells, on a
preliminary examination under a medium-power objective, appear fresh,
absorb a stain in a living healthy manner, and show their homogeneity
by the presence of all intermediate forms. These conditions are only
to be obtained as soon as possible after collection. The author then
proceeds to demonstrate the evil results of an exclusive use of cultivated
material, as exemplified by Staehelin's work on Porphyridium cruentum,
supposed by him to possess a Cyanophyceous nature. The severe
criticism of this work of Staehelin is due to a wish to prevent the
incorporation of serious errors in literature. The chromatophore of
Porphyridium differs from the external coloured protoplasm-layer of
Cyauophyce^e, which is almost unchangeable in form and position, not
only in its Floridean red colour, but also in the variability of its form.
Further, it can be displaced by the occasional appearance of sap-vacuoles.
Also there is no mistaking the pyrenoid of a normally vegetating living
cell of Porphyridium. Staehelin's view on the appearance of peripheral
grains is also corrected. E. S. Gr.

Results of a Study of the Myxophyceae. — A. Borzi (^Nuov. Giorn.
Bot. ltd., 19U. 21, 307-60 ; 191G, 23, 559-88 ; 1917, 24, 17-80,
65-112, 198-208, 209-14, 5 pis.). This paper embodies the mature
views of the author founded on observations made during the last
twenty-five years, during which time he has accumulated material for
adding to his notes published in the same journal, 1879-1882. The
work is divided into two parts. Part I. contains an Introduction in
which the gradual advance of the knowledge of Myxophyceae is described
up to the present day, aud an indication is given of the problems yet
to be solved. This is followed by a discussion on the general characters
of the group under the following headings :— Schizophyta and Myxo-

2 F

410 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

phyceBB (wherein the limitations of the latter are defined), Habitat, Cells,
Phycocyanin, Cellular Membrane, Teguments, Cellular Associations,
Cellular Scission, Growth and Ramification, Heterocysts, Propagation,
Fragmentation, Conidia, Planococci, Hormogonia, Hormocysts, Spores,
Polycysts. Then follows a systematic synopsis of the MyxophycejB,
drawn up with full recognition of the unstal)le value of genera and
species owing to their polymorphism under varying conditions. Diagnoses
are given of Orders, Sub-orders, Families, etc.

Part II. is devoted to a detailed consideration of Stigonemacete,
the highest type of Myxophycea^. This family is divided into Stigo-
nemeas and Diplonemese, according to whether the filaments possess
trm or spurious ramification. A conspectus of genera gives diagnoses
of fourteen genera for the former and five for the latter, three being
new to science. The genera are then treated separately in considerable
morphological and structural detail, most attention being paid to those
genera which are usually regarded as possessing many species, such as
Stigonema, Hapalosiplion , etc. The extraordinary adaptability of species
of Myxophyceffi has formed a special study of the author, and is here
discussed. About 200 species of Scytonema have been described, of
which only seven or eight are valid ; 300 species of Oscillator ia are reduced
to about a dozen ; for Stigonema only five species are recognized out of
fifty. The author states his intention of discussing the remaining
families of Myxophycete in the same detail in a later publication.

E. S. G.

Chondriome of a Green Alga, Coccomyxa soloringe Chod. [a
Correction].— M. et Mdme. F. Moreau [Comptes Rendus Sor. Biol.
Paris, 1916, 79, 211-2; see also Bot. Centralbl., 1919, 140, 89).
In a previous publication the authors have described, in the cell of
Coccomyxa solorinse (a green alga with a special chloroplast), granulose
formations which they likened to mitochondria. This opinion was
founded on a large number of experiments. In particular, the authors
then rejected the hypothesis of metachromatic corpuscles, whose
existence they had not been able to reveal in the Coccomyxa cell outside
the chromatophore. These first researches on metachromatic corpuscles
of Coccomyxa were carried out on thalli in which most of the gonidia
show metachromatic corpuscles limited exclusively to the chromatophore.
Recent observations have demonstrated, however, the existence of these
same corpuscles distributed generally all through the algal cell, outside
the chromatophore. Consequently the authors feel they can no longer
affirm the existence of chondriosomes in the protoplasm of the cell of
C. solorinse outside tlie parietal chloroplast which it contains. The
granules previously described by the authors as mitochondria seem now
to be metachromatic corpuscles. Consequently, C. solorinse does not
constitute, as the authors had supposed, an exception to the rule
formulated by Guilliermond, according to which green algie having a
special chloroplast lack a chondriome of the usual character. E. S. G.

Chondriomes in Chara. — A. J. Riker (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club,
1921, 48, 141-7, 1 pi). An investigation of the origin of the chon-
driomes or staining granules in the cells of Chara. The author states

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, KTC. 411

that chromatic granules (prochondriomes) appear on the central plate in
the anaphase of Chara ; these do not disintegrate, but migrate into the
cytoplasm and become chondriomes. These prochondriomes have their
origin in the nucleolus. Chondriomes are derived by fission from other
chondriomes, but they are also produced as nuclear extrusions. No
difference in the prochondriome contents has been observed in the
actively growing tip between the purely vegetative cells and those
which may produce gametes. Tlie extrusion of these prochondriomes
is apparently not connected with nuclear degeneration or differentiation
of the germ and vegetative cells. A. GtEPP.

Homology between the Male and Female Reproductive Organs
of Floridese. — N. Svedelius {Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., 1917, 35,
225-33 ; see also Bot. CentralbL, 1911), 140, 109). An attempt to
demonstrate the homology between the spermatium and the carpogonium
of Florideas. In the case of the male and female organs of Phaeophycere
the homology is very striking. Schmitz's investigations show that the
male organs of Florideas, spermatangia, are always to be regarded as
terminal cells in special systems of cell-filaments. The nature of the
terminal cells of the carpogonium had already been clearly demonstrated.
The author holds that there is now good reason to consider the trichogyne
as a metamorphosed cell. In Batr/tcUospermi/m, for instance, forms of
trichogyne occur in which the nature of the well-developed trichogyne,
as that of a special cell, is quite obvious. Several such forms are
figured. Also in Delesseri'i and Scinaiu the young trichogyne when still
in the bi-nuclear stage shows a distinct cell-form. In the Bano'iales, on
the other hand, the trichogyne is a later papilla-like growth. Possibly
the cfsrpogonia of the Bangiales and those of the trae Floridere should
be regarded as analogous rather than homologous. The two-celled complex
of the carpogonium is regarded as the homologue of the male sperma-
tangium mother-cell with the spermatangium. It is only in primitive
Floridea?, such as Batracliospernium, that the spermatangium mother-
cell shows no difference either in form or contents from the other
vegetative cells. In all the higher FlorideiB the difference in these
two particulars is obvious. The fact that in many cases the sperma-
tangium mother-cell gives rise simultaneously to two or more adjacent
spermatangia does not in the author's opinion invalidate the homology.
The tendency of organisms to increase the number of the male repro-
ductive bodies on the appearance of heterogamy is pointed out. Cases
are recalled of carpogonia with branched trichogynes, which might be
regarded as carpogonia with several trichogynes. E. S. Gr.

Life-history of Corallina officinalis var. mediterranea.— S.Yama-
NOUCHi {Bot. Gaz., 1921, 72, 90-6). Corallina should be placed
near the summit of the Cryptonemiales group of Red AlgiB. The
author, in studying its life-history, has used material from the Bay of
Naples. He summarizes his results as follows: — 1. The male and
female plants possess 21 chromosomes, while tetrasporic plants have 48.
2. During tetraspore formation the 4s chromosomes become reduced to
24. The tetiaspores on germination show 21 chromosomes ; and,
since 24 chromosomes appear in the vegetative mitoses of the sexual

2 F 2

412 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

plants, the inference is that the latter arise from tetraspores. 8. The
nuclei of the reproductive cells (spermatia and carpogonia) of the sexual
plants possess 24 chromosomes. The sporophytic or fusion nucleus,
as a result of fertilization, has 48 chromosomes. The sporophytic nuclei
give rise by division to the carpospores, which also possess 48 chromo-
somes. The carpospores on germination show 48 chromosomes ; and,
since 48 chromosomes appear in the vegetative mitoses of the tetrasporic
plants, it is inferred that the tetrasporic plants originate from carpo-
spores. 4. The male and female plants are gametophytic, while the
tetrasporic plants are sporophytic. The sporophytic generation begins
with the formation of the sporophytic or fusion nuclei, extends through
the formation of the cystocarp and carpospores, and finally terminates
with the formation of tetraspores on the tetrasporic plant. With the
formation of the tetraspores, the gametophytic generation commences.
5. Thus GoralUna is another clear example of the alternation of a sexual
plant (gametophyte) with a tetrasporic plant (sporophyte), the cystocarp
existing as an early phase of the sporophytic generation. (The paper
has been translated from the original Japanese in Tokyo Bot. Mag.^
]1»18, 27, 279-85, 8 figs.) A. G.

Spiral Arrang-ement of the Branches in Some Callithamniese. —
L. K. RosENVixriE (Z"^/. Dansli. Videnslcab. SeJskah. Biolog. Meddelelser,
1920, 2, 70). The results of a detailed examination of five species of
Callithamnieai, CaUithamnlon tetr(«jomi,m, 0. Ci)ryinhosum, 0. roseurn,
G. furcell arise, and Seirospora Griffilhsiana -. with a view to explaining
the discrepancies between the conclusions of Nageli and Kylin on the
subject of spiral branching. This paper shows these discrepancies are
due to variation of the ramification. Each of the five species examined
is discussed in considerable detail, and the variations of ramification
are shown in diagrams. A spiral arrangement occurs in all of them,
but with varying frequency and direction. The angle of divergence is
less constant than in the higher plants, and varies even in the same
shoot. In G. roseurn and S. Grlffitliskma the spiral was sometimes
interrupted by a shorter or longer stretch with irregularly arranged
branches. Change in the direction of the spiral was found in all the
five species, and usually takes place suddenly. The spiral arrangement of
the branches never begins at the very base either of the primary shoots or,
except very rarely, of the lateral shoots. In G. tetragomtm and C. corym-
bosmn the first step in the spiral takes place, with very few exceptions,
on the outer side of the shoot : this is due to a factor seated in or
emanating from the mother axis. This is cnlled by the author
'' ectoblastesis," A correlation between the direction of the spiral and
the position of the first branch of the second order on the members of
the spiral was found, and is here discussed. This correlation was
present from the beginning of the spiral, though with somewhat
diminished constancy. It is probably a result of the asymmetry of the
young axial segments. A detailed study of the division of the apical
cell and the shape and division of the young segments will throw light
upon the factors determining the spiral arrangement of the branches,
and the position of the first branches of the second order. E. S. G.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICUOSCOPy, ETC. 413

Developmental History and the Systematic Position of the
Tilopteridese.— H. Kylin {ner. Deutsch. Hot. Ges., l'.)17, 35, 298-
310 ; see also Bot. Gentralbl, li)ll), 140, 12;)). A critical review of
the literature on this subject, in which the light of modern research on
alternation of generations is brought to bear on past work. The more
important features in the developmental history of Tilopterideae are
summarized for the following species : Haplospora (jloboaa, Scaphospora
speciosa, Tilopteris Mertensii, Heterospora Vidovichu, Acinetospora pusilla,
and Christocarpus tmellus. The author recognizes only TilopUrh and
Haplospora as true Tilopterideaj, and regards the Acinutosporeas
{Heterospora and Acinetospora) as not closely related to Tilopteridefe.
The Acinetosporeae are for the present best ranged under Ectocarpacese.
Tilopterideaj have developed, according to the author, from Ectocarpacea^,
probably from such forms as Pijlaiella. The great differences in the
conditions of reproduction justify the conclusion that Tilopteridere is
separated off from the Ectocarpaceas, and therefore also from the
Phffiosporeai. Further, he believes that the monospore of Tilopteridese
is homologous with the four tetraspores of Dictyotacea;. The
relationships of the Orders of Pha3ophycea3 are shown in a diagram.

E. S. G.

Cystoseiras of Banyuls and of Guethary : Supplement (1). —
C. Sauvageau {Bull. Stat. Biol. iVArcachon., 1920, 17, ")2 pp.). A
study of the Mediterranean species of Gystoseira, and a comparison with
those of the Atlantic. In an Introduction, the author discusses the
various localities visited, with their idiosyncrasies of shore, tide, etc.,
both on the European and African coasts of the Mediterranean. As the
result of his investigations he gives his views on the phylogenetic
history of some of the Mediterranean species. G. ericoides, after
penetrating into the Mediterranean, gave rise to a series of species,
G. mediterranea, G. stricta^ C. amentacea, which differ but slightly from
it, and possibly also to G. csespitosa, which differs more markedly. The
Mediterranean species, G. se/fl'///yw^^(?s, is probably derived from G.granu-
lata of the Atlantic. No line of descent was discovered for G. discors,
nor for G. abrotanifolia . Their nearest oceanic allies are respectively
G.fmniculacea and G. myriophylloides ; and the history of the four species
seems to be the following : — G .faniculacea and G. myriophylloides entered
the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, formed respectively
G. discors and G. abrotanifolia, and disappeared ; while their two
representatives invaded the entire Mediterranean. Later on the two
latter emerged into the ocean, and are both found at the Canaries.
G. barbata, a widely spread Meditei-ranean species, has emerged and
reached Cadiz, but no further. Of the five littoral species of the temperate
Atlantic, G. fibrosa, G. ericoides, G. gramdatii, G. fainicidacea and
G. myriophylloides, only G. fibrosa has taken no part in the peopling of the
Mediterranean with sp>ecies. G. ericoides itself occurs in the western
part of that sea. The number of species increases from west to east,
but the differences between them are less than between the oceanic
species, and are sometimes very small. The new species G. selagiiioides
and a new variety are described ; and twenty-three species are discussed
at varying length, the matter being additional to that previously published
in the memoir on the sul)ject. E. S. G.

414 SUMMARY OF GURKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Heterogamic Sexuality of a Laminaria (Alaria esculenta). —
C. Sauvageau {Gomptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, I'JK), 162, S40-2 ;
see also £ot. Oentralbl, 1*J19, 140, 74). The genus Alaria belongs to
tbe tribe Costatse, which is mainly distributed in tbe Arctic and North
Pacific ; and one species alone, out of about a score, descends as far as
the coast of Northern France, where it grows at Roscoff on exposed
rocks only accessible in a calm sea. The author has succeeded in
growing cultures of A. escidenta, and has studied the development of
the protliallus from the embryospore to the young plantlet. The male
and female prothalli differ from those of Laminaria flexicaulis and L.
saccharina by the persistence and the eventual rdle of the embryospore.
Also, the female prothallia differ in the form of the oogonium, and by
the non-transformation of all the cells into oogonia. Thus the number

of plantlets formed is less than in the two species named. The demon-
stration of an alternation of generations, sexual and asexual, in A.
escidenta is particularly interesting as occurring in the only representa-
tive of Costatas, wdiich grows on the French coast. Yendo and Okamura
regretted that the absence of sexuality of Laminaria^ forbade the ex-
planation by hybridization of intermediate characters in Undaria
undarioides, a Japanese species of the same tribe, Costatse. This
explanation, now made possible, will doubtless apply to other cases and
throw light on certain obscurities in the specific distinction of
Laminaria. E. S. G.

Researches on the Exploitation and Industrial Utilization of
the Principal Laminarias of the Brittany Coast. — P. Freundler
and Y. Menager {Office Sci. et Technique d. Peches Marit. Notes et
Memoires, No. 5, Angers, 1921, 31 pp.). The object of this research
was : (1) to study in situ the conditions of the re-growth and reproduction
of Laminaria, in order to ascertain how far the present method of
exploitation is compatible with the preservation of the algal beds. (2)
The investigation, in the laboratory, of a practical and industrial pro-
cess by which to extract simultaneously iodine and tangic acid (algine).
(3) The distribution of the iodine and of the tangic acid in the
Laminarias, according to the region, season, species, age, and the
different parts of the alga. As regards the first point, the authors
describe the three methods of collecting Laminaria for use in the
factory of Plouescat : (1) gathering up of jetsam ; (2) cutting by hand
at low tide ; (3) cutting with long-handled knives from boats, down to
3 m. from the surface. The last of these causes most waste and
destruction. As regards the possible injury to plants by cutting, it is
found that if the stipes be cut through it dies oft". Tf the Laminaria
be cut at the base of the frond, the plant survives and continues to
grow. The rate of growth depends on the emersion or immersion, the
species, the region and the season. Details of a series of experiments
are given. As regards the second point, two methods are described of
determining the proportion of iodine in fresh or dried algfe, and also of
iodine in extracts of algse. The necessity is insisted on of an immediate
partial desiccation (40-50 p.c.) before packing and despatching to the
laboratory. As regards the third point, preliminary experiments of a

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 415

favourable character have been made in the simultaneous extraction of
iodine and of tangates. The proportion of tangates and the metabolism
of iodine are at present in course of investigation. E. S. G-.

Fucosan Bladders of the PhseophyceEe. — H. Kylin {Ber. Dentscli.
Bot. Ges., 1918, 36, 10-19; see also Bot. GentralbL, 1919, 140, 120),
After a review of past work on the subject by other writers and by
himself, the author emphasizes his own view that the substance in
question is related to tannin. It is not a first product of assimilation,
such as carbohydrate, but is probably an insignificant bye-product. It
has no connexion with Laminarin. The Fucosan bladders are said to
facilitate the escape of assimilation products from the chromatophores.

E. S. G.

Temperature Interval in the Geographical Distribution of
Marine Algae.— W. A. Setchell (Science, N.S., 1920, 52, 187-90).
A short preliminary account of the work described in stenothermy and
zone-invasion (see below). An instance is given of sharp division in
the distribution between the northern and southern species. At the
entrance to Vineyard Sound the surface temperatures in the summer
are slightly above, and the bottom temperatures are slightly below
20° C. ; and the southern species are found in the surface waters, while
the northern ones inhabit the depths. The isotherms, both isotheres
and isochrymes, of 10°, 15°, 20°, and 25° C. definitely limit the exten-
sion of particular floras of marine alga3. The author suggests possible
lines of research for determining the explanation, such as the varying
viscosities of the sea water, or its power to dissolve gases such as oxygen
or carbon dioxide ; or again, the activities of some particular enzyme
or group of enzymes which act effectively only within narrow limits of
temperature. E. S. G.

Stenothermy and Zone-invasion. — W. A. Setchell {American
Naturalist, 1920, 54, 3N5-97). An account of further investigations
by the author on the zonal distribution of marine algse. After a brief
summary of the work of former botanists, and of the papers by himself
on this subject, the author discusses the distribution of algse on the
coast of New England. He finds that the species may be readily
arranged in two categories — one, of the colder waters (20° C. or less),
and the other of the warmer waters (20° C. or over) ; and while some
species are found only north of Cape Cod and others only south of it,
the majority are found on both sides of the Cape, which is the natural
dividing point, and approximates closely to the position of the 20° C.
isothere. The temperatures for normal persistence of any particular
species of marine plant lie within narrow limits, and the favourable
interval is very little, if any, over 10° C. This leads to a discussion of
the terms " stenothermal " and " eurythermal " hitherto used mostly by
zoologists — the former indicating species having a limited range, the
latter a wide range. Eurythermal species are : Ascophyllum nodosum,
Rhodocorton Rothii, Monostroma GreviUei, Polysiplionia urceolata, and
Grinnellia americana. Stenothermal species are particularly character-
istic of the Tropical zone. The nature of the fundamental differences
between the eurythermal and the stenothermal species are considered

416 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

under " zone-invasion.'" Each species of marine plant is normal to
only one zone, and if the species invades any other zone it is because it
finds there the proper temperature conditions for its continuous exist-
ence. The proper temperature seems certainly to be that which is most
intimately connected with reproduction. Thus species of warmer zones
may esist spotwise in a warm spot or area in the midsL of cooler waters,
or vice versa : the extent of such invasions depending naturally upon
the intensity and duration of the unusual temperature. Details are
given of the respective ranges of the five species of marine algae men-
tioned above, and also of Zosfera marina, as instances of zone-invasion.
In conclusion, the author states that stenothermy is the rule both from
the point of view of distribution and of physiology, at least so far as
effective reproduction is concerned : eurythermy is largely, if not
entirely, a matter of endurance of a wide range of temperature, much
of which endurance is due to the power to enter into a condition of
rigor after certain extremes of temperature of either direction are passed.
A study of the various reasons for zone-invasion assists greatly in making
these facts apparent. E. S. G.

Fung-i.

Ocellus Function of the Subsporangial Swelling' of Pilobolus. —
A. H. R. BuLLER {Trans. Brit. My col. Soc, 1921, 7, 61-4). The
writer describes the mechanism of spore discharge in Pilobolus. Under
the influence of light — i.e. the sun striking on the swelling below the
sporangium — the stipe immediately below reacts by growing in length
most rapidly on the side nearest the spot of light, and thus bending as
a whole : the swollen portion moves about its base, till finally the
sporangium is directed towards the source of brightest light. Discharge
is secured by the rupturing of the wall below the sporangium, and the
cell-sap is squirted out at the top, carrying with it the sporangium to a
considerable distance towards the open — on to grass, etc., where cattle
feed. A. Lorrain Smith.

Isoachlya, a New Genus of the Saprolegniaceae. — C. H. Kauff-
MAN {Amer. Joarn. Bot., 19iU, 8, 231-7, 2 pis.). The genus is
characterized and distinguished in the main by the presence of the
cymose (or Achlya) mode of formation of secondary sporangia, coupled
with diplanetic zoospores. The author lists three species that exhibit
thef.e characters : — (1) Isoachlya toraloides Kauffm. & Coker sp. n. :
(2) 7. parndoxa (Coker) comb. nov. : and (3) /. monilifera (De Bary)
comb. nov. The new species was collected in a shallow pool over peat-
like organic remains and cultivated on the house-fly. Full details of
the cultures are ffiven. A. L. S.

Cordyceps in New Zealand. — G. H. Cunningham {Trans. New
Zealand Inst., 1921, 53, 372-82, 4 pis., 8 figs.). The author gives a
historical sketch of the genus, species of which are popularly known as
vegetable caterpillars, vegetable wasps, etc., the old idea being that the
genus represented the transformation of insects into plants. The dis-
tribution of Cordyceps is world-wide : not much is known of the life-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 4l7

history of the various species, but the author has hunted out the facts
ah-eady published, and has added his own experience of cultures. Five
.species are known in New Zealand — four of them being endemic— and
they attain to considerable size. The author gives the figures of these
species, with figures of the larvae and insects which are parasitized by
the fungus. A. Ij. S.

Notes on a New LophiostomacesB. — Gonsalez Fragoso {Bull.
Soc. Ml/col. France, 1920, 36, 103-0, 2 figs.). Fragoso places his new
fungus provisionally under Luphiostrema. It grew on withered fronds
of Pteris aqniUna. A description is given of the development of the
species. A. L. S.

Two Species of Pestalozzia. — Martino Savelli {Bull. Soc. Bot.
ltd., 1917, 0-7, 62-8, 8 figs.). Savelli describes two new species — onC;
Pestalozzia Lucse, grew on the living leaves of an oak : the other,
P. Feijose, v.'as found covering with mycelium and conidia the fruits of
Feijoa Sellowiana. The new species are compared with others, and their
development and spore-germination are described. A. L. S.

New or Rare British Discomycetse. — Carleton Re a {Trans.
Brit. Mycol. Soc, 1921, 7, 58-01). Here are described seven Discomy-
cetes, mostly new to the British flora. One species, Ascocorticium
anomalum, represents a genus new to the country. It was collected by
A. A. Pearson on bark of Finns at Weybridge. Another new species,
Ni])tera Taxi, was also collected by Pearson. Several of the species
were found by Menzies in the neighbourhood of Perth. A. L. S.

Studies in the Physiology of Parasitism : VL Infection by
Sclerotinia libertiana. — C. Boyle {Ann. Bot, 1921, 35, 387-47, 1 pL).
The author studied the early stages of infection of bean leaves by
hyphffi of the fungus. From the top of each hypha tliere arises a
special infection hypha, usually very narrow, which under appropriate
conditions penetrates the host. The rupture of the cuticle by this
hypha appears to be due solely to mechanical action. After penetration
the host tissue beneath rapidly becomes disorganized. A. L. S.

Geoglossacese. — C. G. Lloyj) {Cincinnati, 0/iio, May, 1910, 1 pi.,
figs. 782-807). Lloyd commends Durand's work on this group, though
he himself prefers to follow an older grouping with sis genera. Durand
has distinguished eleven genera in the family. Lloyd gives figures
of most of the species, and gives descriptions with habitats and localities.

A. L. S.

New Species of Yeast, Debaryomyces Klockerii. — A. GtUILLIER-
MOND and Pe.ju {Bull. Soc. Mycol. Frame, 1920, 36, 164-71, 8 pis.).
The yeast was isolated from the throat of a patient. It was cultivated
on various media, and giant cells, mycelium and asci were produced.
The authors discuss the affinity of the new yeast, and note the close
relationship to the Endomycetaceaj. They place it in Debaryomyces on
account of the Torala form of the budding cells, the heterogamic
copulation and the characteristic form of the ascospores ; the latter have
a fairly thick verrucose epispore. A. L. S.

I

418 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATIXG TO

Zygosaccharomyces pastori : New Species of Yeasts with Hetero-
gamic Copulation.— A. Guillieemond {Bull.Soc. MycoL France, 1920,
36, 20;)-ll, 3 pis., 1 fig.). The new yeasts occurred in a mucilaginous
exudation from a chestnut tree near to Lyons. The cultivation of the
yeast in all its stages is described. The ascospores resemble those of
the genus Willia. A. L. S.

New Thermophile Stocks of Asperg-illus glaucus. — Paul
YuiLLEMiN {Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, 1920, 36, 127-36, 3 figs.). The
writer recalls the work on this fungus of Louis Mangin, who had
isolated twenty-three different stocks, all of which formed perithecia.
Mangin designated fourteen of these stocks as Eurolium herhariorum,
seven as E. repens, with two new species E. amstelodami and E. Gheva-
lieri, the latter having been lirought from Chari-Tchad on the equator.
Vuillemin has taken up the study of four thermophile stocks isolated
from parasitic maladies of man in Europe. One of them belongs to
Enrotiam repens, the other three approach E. amstelodami. He gives
an account of his cultures of these fungi, their morphology and the
thermal conditions that affect their development. He discusses the
affinities of the various stocks. A. L. S.

Effect of Salt Proportions and Concentration on the Growth of
Aspergillus niger. — C. M. Haenseler {Amer. Jovrn. Bot., 1921, 8,
147-63, 6 figs.). The fungus was grown on three different salt solu-
tions. Details of methods and results are given. Yield in dry weight
of the fungus was approximately proportional to the amount of NO3
present in the culture ; with varying sugar concentrations, the dry
weights of the fungus were very nearly proportional to the sugar con-
centrations of the culture-media. A. L. S.

Aspergillus flavus, A. Oryzae, and Associated Species. — Charles
Thorx and Margaret B. Church {Amer. Jouni. Bot., 1921, 8, 103-
26, 1 fig.). These species of Aspergillus are closely associated with the
fermentation of food products in the East, but are really cosmopolitan
fungi. The several species concerned in the fermentation process have
been carefully contrasted and described by the authors, who have culti-
vated most of them. A. L. S.

Septosporium Ferrari sp. n. — Martino Savelli {Bull. Soc. Bot.
Ital, 1916, 6-7, 92-4, 4 figs.). The fungus grew on living leaves of
Ficusferrvginea, where it formed spots on the upper surface. A. L. S.

Three Fungi Imperfecti. — Jessie S. Batliss Elliott and Helena
0. Chance {Trans. Brit. Mycol Soc, 1921, 7, 47-9, 1 fig.). The fungi
described were found on dead twigs of Finus sylvestris at Oxshott,
Surrey. The first is distinguished by the spores and has been named
Gijtotriplospora Pini g. et sp. n. The spores are at first oval, but on
maturing they become elongate and curve over so as to become obliquely
attached to the sporophore, which continues to adhere to the spore
somewhat like a cilium. Another fungus, Kaemospora Strobi Allescher,

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIGROSCOrY', ETC. 419

is a new record for the British Isles. The third fungus, Fusicoccum
bac/llare, grows on the bark, while the slightly different variety acuvm
occurs on leaves. A. L. S.

New Species of Dematiee.— A. Duvernoy and R. Maire {Bull.
Soc. MyroL France, 1920, 36, 86-9, 1 fig.). The new fungus Endo-
phragmia mirabilis is distinguished by large pseudo-endogenous conidia
30-35 yn X 15-19 fx ; they are three-septate and brown, with the top cell
somewhat paler. The genus recalls Sporochisma, but the collai round
the conidiophore is of late development. It grew on dead branches of
Carpinus Betulus, in the Jura. The brown mycelium penetrates the
wood, and along with the spreading hyphse are numerous black
stromata which may be connected w^ith it. A. L. S.

New Genus of Adelomycetes. — L. Man(;in and P. Vincens
{Bi/U. Soc. Ml/col. Fn/nre, 1920, 36, 89-97, 7 figs.). The writers have
adopted the term Adelomycetes to replace Fungi Imperfecti {ftdelos,
uncertain). The new fungus Spirospora Castanese grew on decaying
chestnuts. It is allied to Mycogone. In all the cultures there was no
formation of ascosporus fruits. The conidia are formed from a terminal
spiral. There are also accessory forms of conidia of Mycogone and
Torula form. A. L. S.

Interesting- Tilletia on Aira capillaris. — A. Trotter {Bull. Soc.
Bot. ItaL, 1915, 7, 74-9, 1 figs.). The author gives an account of the
fungus which had attacked all the flowers on three heads of Aira, all that
were collected. He discusses the systematic positions of the fungus,
and decides that it is identical with Tilletia seimrata J. Kunze.

A. L. S.

Ustilaginese of Etruria. — Martino Savelli {Ball. Soc. Bot. Ital.,
1916, 2, 35-11). Savelli has listed thirty-one species belonging to
Ustilagineaj and Tilletieae. He appends habitat and locality, with
occasional notes. A. L. S.

Life-history and Morphology of Urocystis cepulae. — T. White-
head {Trans. Brit. Jlycol. Soc, 1921, 7, 65-71, 1 pi.). This fungus
is the cause of a destructive smut disease of onions which has recently
appeared in this country. Chlamydospores are formed in masses, each
one consisting of one, rarely two, fertile cells surrounded by sterile
vesicles. The spores give rise to promycelia which develop sporidia
laterally. The sporidia do not conjugate ; they may bud repeatedly.
Infection takes place probably by the root hairs in the collar region of
the host. The fungus within the host is mostly confined to the meso-
phyll between the vascular bundles. A. L. S.

Cytology of Tilletia Tritici.— Jehangir Fardoxji Dastur {Ann.
Bot., 192J, 35, 399-407, 1 pi., 9 figs.). The author has traced the
behaviour of the nucleus through all the stages of germination. The
nucleus of the spore passes unchanged into the promycelium : there it
divides until eight nuclei are formed. The sporidia also are usually eight,
though they vary from four to sixteen. Conjugation takes place between
the sporidia either while they are still attached to the promycelium or

420 SUMMARY OF CUKRENT RESEARCHES RELATING Tt)

after they fall ofF. Secondary sj)oridia are formed, after the fusion, and
these germinate and may develop tertiary uninucleate sporidia. The
hyphas in the early stages of infection of wheat seedlings are uninucleate
or multinucleate. A. L. S.

Contribution to the Knowledge of Tuscan UredinesB. — Martino
Savelli {Nuovo Glorn. Bot. Itiil., 1916, 23, 236-59). The author of
the list collected most of the plants himself, but he has also availed
himself of collections existing in herbaria. Localities and hosts of the
various life stages are given, and, in many instances, biological notes
are added. A. L. S.

Cultural Study of Puccinia Opizii. — Eug. Mayor {Bidl. Soc.
Mycol. France, 1920, 36, 97-100). Inoculation experiments to determine
the members of the Compositai that could function as host to Pucrinia
Opizii. The writer obtained necidia on four genera and thirteen species.
A list is given of species in which no infection took place. A. Li. S.

Genus Kunkelia. — Fernand Moreau {Bull. Soc Mycol. France,
1920, 36, 101-8). The genus was based by Arthur on a Uredine
which forms tecidia on Ruhus, and the spores of which produce directly
a promycelium and sporidia. Kunkel had considered this short life-
cycle as characteristic of southern forms of Uredines. Moreau takes up
the question and discusses whether it may not be merely a " shortened "
form of Gymnoconia interstitialis on the same host. Moreau along with
Madame Moreau have argued that Uredines with similar shortened cycles
(such as Endoplbyll am) are derived from those of normal development,
and that shortened cycle forms may be found in other genera in southern
regions. A. L. S.

■'o'

Experimental Study of Melampsora abieti-caprearum. — Eug.
Mayor {BaTl. Soc. Mycol. France, 1920, 36, 191-203, 5 figs.). The
study was undertaken to determine the hosts of this species. Mayor
found by inoculations, etc., that pycnidia and cajomata grew on Ahies
pectinata, A. Pinsapo and var. glavca, A. nomianmanaand A. ceplialonica.
Uredospores and teleutospores grew naturally on Salix Caprea, but he
was able to infect also S. aarita, S. cinerea, S. incana, S. purpurea and
S. viminalis. A. L. S.

Investigations of Cronartium ribicola in 1920. — L. H. Penning-
ton, W. H. Snell, H. H. York and Pehley Spaulding {Phytopatho-
logist, 1921, 11, 170-2). Investigations in the field were carried out by
the authors of the note. Two points were brought out which are
specially important. Ribes are often entirely killed out in a district,
and breaking of the quarantine has resulted in outbreaks of the rust.
Previous conclusions that a^ciospores may be blown an indefinite number
of miles and cause infection are borne out by the present investigation.

A. L. S.

Notes on the Uromyces of Astragalus and Cytisus.— F. Kobel
{Ann. Mycol., 1921, 19, ]-l(!, 3 figs.). The author made a series of
inoculation experiments with three species on Astragalus, native to

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 421

Switzerland. He has embodied the results in a series of tables. He
considers that there are a number of different forms or "lines" within
the limits of these species. On Cytisus he experimented with Uroinijces
Genistse-tinrtorise, and was al)le to detet'mine the ttcidium form on
Euphorbia Cyparissins. A. L. S.

Observations on Puccinia Pruni-spinosse Parasitic on Apple
and Uromyces Terebenthi on Pistacia Vera. — Ali Eiza {Bull. Soc.
Mi/col. France, 1920, 36, 125-7, 1 fig-.). The author noted the disease
of apple-trees at Halkali, and was able to identify the fungus as Pmrinia
Frimi-spiiuisse. He also gives anew host for Uroviyces Terebenthi \ he
gives a figure of the teleutospore. A. L. S.

Experimental Study of Puccinia Actaese-Elymi. — Eugene Mayor
{Bull. Soc. Mijcol. France, 1920, 36, l-JT-Gl). The author by numerous
inoculation experiments has proved that two species, both forming
a^cidia on the Helleborus group of Ranunculacea3, are included under
the above. The second he designates as F. ActaesR-Argopyri .

A. L. S.

Uromyces Airae-fiexuosae. — C. Ferdinandsen and 0. Winge {Bull.
Soc. Mycol France, 192 0, 36, 162-4, 2 figs.). The writers have iden-
tified the form-rust Uredo Airse-fiexnosse aH a stage of Uromyces Airae-
pexuosse sp. n. The latter was found in autumn at Copenhagen
growing along with the uredo. A. L. S.

New Lepiota from Brazil. — X. Patouillard {JjuU. Soc. Mycol.
France, 1921, 37, 81-::i). The new species Lepiota Fntteman&ii is dis-
tinguished from allied forms by the large size of the pileus (15 cm.),
and by the brown-black colour. A. L. S.

French Hymenomycetes (VII. Stereum). — H. Bourdot and A.
CrALZiN {Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, 1921, 37, 103-12). The authors
give a synoptic key of Stereum species based on macroscopic characters.
They publish a first instalment of descriptions of the species. A. L. S.

New Species of Polyporacese and some Polypores New to
Bengal.— 8. R. Bose {Ann. Mycol., 1921, 37, 129-81, 3 pis.). The
new species Fames rufolaccatus was collected in the Simla Hills, India.
It is closely related to Fomes pinicola, but differs in the large elongated
pores and the soft tissue of the pileus. A. L. S.

Two New Basidiomycetes. — H. Bourdot {Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc,
1921, 7, 50—1, 2 figs.). The fungi were collected by A. A. Pearson at
Weybridge, and submitted to the author for determination. The paper
opens with valuable notes on the early forms of resupinales, so
different in appearance from the mature stages. Gorticium Fearsonii
occurs as a ceraceous-pruinose efflorescence on a pine log. The second
species is also a delicate plant like a loose thin crystalline film of ice.
Bourdot places it in a new sub-genus of Heterochsete as Heterochsetella
rrystallina ; it also grows on pine wood, always in an advanced stage of
decay. The distinctive characters of these fungi are described and
figured. A. L. S.

422 SUMMAllY OF GURREXT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

New British Hymenomycetes.— A. A. Pearson {Trans. Jlrit.
Mycol. Soc, l'J21, 7, 55-8). Species of Exidia, Sebarina, Gorticiuni,
Feniophora, Hyporhnns and AhwronelJa new to this country are listed
and described. A new variety of Hypochnus roseo-griset/s var. lavan-
didaceus has been established on account of the colour, " without trace
of pink." A. L. S.

Critical Notes on New or Little-known Hymenocytes. — H.
BouRDOT and L. Maire {Bull. tSoc. Mycol. France, 11)20, 36, G9-85,
1 fig.). The authors' notes range over a large number of species and
over many points — on form, colour, development, type of spores, etc.
The species discussed are resupinates. A. L. S.

Cortinarius suaveolens Bataille et Joachim. — Frederic Bataille
(Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, 1920, 36, 85-6). A beautiful species
collected at Fontainebleau and distinguished from closely allied species
by a penetrating odour of orange flower. A. L. S.

Chlamydospores of Fomes officinalis in Nature. — ^\. H. Snell
{PliytO'pathology, l'J21, 11, 173-5, 1 fig.). These secondary spores,
colourless, globoid or ellipsoid, and rather small, are constantly formed
in cultures. They have now been found on a piece of timber rotted by
the fungus. Attempts to germinate these spores were unsuccessful.

A. L. S.

Fungi from Tonkin. — N. Patouillard {Bull. Soc. Mycol. France,
1920, 36, 17-4-7). The fungi are mostly minute forms'; several species
and varieties are new to science. Patouillard takes occasion to criticize
Atkinson's Eocronartium. typhuloldes. He considers it a member of the
senus Hellcohasidiuni. A. L. S.

&

List of Micromycetes from Spain.— Gr. B. Traverso {Bull. Soc.
Bot. Ital., 1915, 3, 22-G). The species were collected by Gonzales
Fragoso and submitted to Traverso for determination. There are twelve
in all, most of them new to science, and chiefly Spha^ropsidales.

A. L. S.

Polyporacese of Bengal, Part IV.— S. E. Bose {Bull. II. Garmichael
Med. Coll. Belgachia, 1921, 11, 1-5, 13 pis.). Bose has written clear
descriptions of fifteen species which he has found in Bengal — with one
exception. They are finely illustrated by photographic plates showing
both surfaces. A. L. S.

Fungi Parasitic on Scale Insects. — T. Fetch {Trans. Brit. Mycol.
Soc, 1921, 7, 18-40). The paper was given by T. Fetch as his
Presidential Address to the members of the British Mycological Society.
The earliest fungus recorded on a scale insect was by Desmazieres in
18'18, who instituted for it a new genus Microcera. It was the conidial
stage of a Sphserostilbe, several of which have been found on scale
insects. The writer describes these and the history of their occurrence.
He also gives an account of the fungi on the same insects — species of
Cordyceps, Aschersonia, Hypocrella, Myriangium, Scptobasidium, Fusarium
and other Hyphomycetes. When the fungi attack the insects they

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOrY, ETC. 423

destroy them quickly and completely, and attempts have been made
with some success to use them in combating insect ravages. The
majority of scale insect fungi are tropical, but there are a few in this
country which ought to be studied more thoroughly. Search should be
made for them during the winter. A. L. S.

*&

Mycological Notes.— C. G. liLOYD {Gincinnati, 11)20, 1029-1101,
16 pis.). The first plate in this publication is a photograph of
0. Mattirolo, a prominent mycologist in Italy, who has done important
work on hypogasal fungi. A photograph is also printed of the Rev. —
Theiszen, who died from an accident in the mountains in 1919. Lloyd
then discusses a very numerous and varied series of fungi that have
been sent to him ; most of them are photographed and reproduced on
the plates. Lloyd publishes some critical notes on the Myxomycetes,
with an expression of his views as to nomenclature. Several of the
larger forms of the group are constantly sent to him as fungi. He
also criticizes a paper by Mary E. Currie on Slime-moulds. A. L. S.

Obituary Notice of Emile Boudier. — L. Mangin {Bull. Soc. 3Iycol.
Fntnce, 1920, 36, 181-8, portrait). Emile Boudier was born in 1828,
and died in 1920 ; he was a Doctor of Pharmacy and lived most of his
life at Montmorency. He was an indefatigable and exceedingly careful
mycologist. One of his last and best known works is the Irones
mycologki, which are greatly admired on account of the fine scientific
descriptions and the beautiful reproductions of his drawings of fungi.
His publications were begun in 1866 ; the last, called by him Dernieres
etincelles myi:olo(jlques, was published in 1917. He founded, along with
Quelet and Mougeot, the Mycological Society of France in 1884. He
was an honorary member of the British Society. The list of his
published works occupies five closely printed pages. A. L. S.

Fungi from the Island of Malta.— P. A. Saccardo {Nuovo Giorn.
Bot. Ital. 1915, 22, 24-76). The fungi were collected by A.
Caruana-Gatto and CI. Borg during the years 1918-14, and were
determined and listed by the late Professor Saccardo in 1914. He
enumerated three hundred and two species or varieties, of which eighty-
eight species and eleven sub-species and varieties are ncAv to science.
Very little was known previously of the fungus flora of the island, and
the number of forms collected was surprising when the xerophytic
conditions that prevailed and the absence of natural woods are
considered. Saccardo notes the great abundance of Phospora herbarium
on many plants, and the large number of Sphccropsideas without the
corresponding perfect forms. As an example of the latter case species
of Phomopsis are fairly numerous, but only one Diaporthe, the perfect
stage, was collected. Many of the new species belong to the
Sphaeropside^e. A. L. S.

Ecological Character and Survey of the Mycological Flora of
Libya. — Prof. A. Trotter {jVuovo Giorn. Jhit. Ital., 1915, 22,
500-17 : 1916, 23, 5-33, 10 figs.). The mycological flora of Tripoli,
Trotter informs us, is undoubtedly a poor one, due to the relative

424 SUMMARY OF GUKRKNT RESEAKCHES RELATING TO

physical and biological uniformity of the territory and by unfavourable
climatic conditions. The lack of species is specially manifest in the
fungi that are more particularly humicolous and hygrophilous, such as
Hymenomycetes, Phycomycetes, Myxomycetes, etc. The prolonged
aridity of the climate favours the existence of species with a short life-
cycle and with a rapid development. Parasitic fungi are prevalent.
About two hundred species are recorded. A. L. S.

NotsB Mycolog'icge. — P. A. Saccardo {Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ttal,
1916, 23, 185-234). The author has enumerated 248 fungi submitted
to him for determination, of which 76 are new species, 13 new varieties.
The collections were made in New York State, the Philippines and
Erythrtea, while yet another list includes specimens from various regions
— Italy, France, Asia, Africa, Australia, etc. A. L. S.

Second List of Fung'i from Val S. Martino, or Valle della
G-ermanasca— B. Peyronel {Niwvo Giorn. Bot. ItaL, l'J18, 25, 146-
92). The list of fungi includes three orders, Hymeniales, Uredinales
and Ustihginales. The species, numbering 128. were collected by the
author ; 73 are new for the district; one, Bolettis h/ricinus, is new for
Italy. Localities are given with biological notes. There is appended
an index of the genera, and a second index indicating the habitat or the
matrix of the fungi. A. L. S.

^&'

Micromycetes of Val Germaiiasca. — B. Peyronel {Niiovo Giorn.
Bot. Hal., 1918, 25, 405-68, 76 figs.). The fungi of this list belong
to various groups. Many of them are parasites on the plants, and an
index of these is appended. The author does not claim that his list is
complete. He collected and determined 145 species, 67 of which are
new to the district, and 12 new to science. He has described three new
genera, Meringosphserea (Sphjeriaceae), Gladographium (Stilbacefe), and
Helicockndrwn (Mucedinace^). He also places in a new genus Erio-
ineneMa, the species recorded as Menispora Lib&rtiana Sacc. A. L. S.

Fungi from Val d' Aosta. — P. A. Saccardo {Nuovo Giorn. Bot.
Hal., 1921, 24, 81-43). A list of 97 species, most of them Micro-
mycetes ; 60 of the species determined are new to the district, and eight
are new to science, with one new genus, Nothodisrus (Phacidiacese),
found on living leaves of Veronica. Two species of Mycetozoa are
included. A. L. S.

Micromycetes from Piedmont. — Alberto Noelli {Nuovo Giorn.
Bot ItaL, 1921, 24, 183-97). The list is the third contribution by
the author to the fungi of Piedmont. He describes four new species,
parasites of the higher plants. One of these, Gladosporivm acerinum, is
akin to C. epiphyllum. The list also includes ten Mycetozoa. A. L. S.

Fungi of our Common Nuts and Pits. — Charles E. Fairman
{Proc. Rock. Acad. Sci., 1921, 6, 73-115, 6 pis.). The author describes
the fungi that he has found growing on chestnuts, various nuts, acorns,
and on " cherry pits " (stones) and " peach-pits." He has listed and

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 425

described 102 different forms, not all of them injnrious and some of
them on invohicres of the nuts, etc. A number of species are new to
science ; all of them have been carefully described, and the less known
species figured. A. L. S.

Mycolog'ical Notes. — Martino Savelli {Bull. Soc. Bot. Ifal.,
1917, 1, 15-111). The author discusses first the systematic position of
a Puccinia collected in the Caucasus on Iris Jiavescens, and determined
at the time as P. TricUs. Careful examination of the specimen and of
allied species have induced him to make a new species, P. caucaska.

In a second paper he gives an account of the Cystopodacese and
Peronosporacese of Tuscany. Most of the species belonged to the
genus Peronospora. A number of the species recorded are new to the
district. A. L. S.

Californian Bees. — J. Eamsbottom {Trans. Brit. UltjcoJ. Soc, 1921,
7, 86-8). This name and other designations, such as Palestine Bees,
Wine Bees, etc., are given to the organism which forms the ginger-beer
plant. It consists of solid white lumps about the size of a pea. The
lumps are composed of a yeast, Scrrharomyrespijriforniis, and a bacterium.
Bacterium vermiforme, vrhich live in symbiotic unison and together
cause the fermentation of ginger beer. A. L. S.

Inheritance of Disease-resistance in Plants. - F. T. Brooks
{Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc, 1921, 7, 71-8). Brooks discusses the inheri-
tance of disease according to Mendel's Law. He gives the results of
workers as regards plants, and he gives various theories as to the means
whereby plants secure immunity from the attacks of parasites. The
problem has been worked out most completely in the case of yellow
rust of wheat, the resistance of the wheat being a Mendelian recessive
character. A. L. S.

Audibility of the Spore Discharg-e in Otidea leporina. — R. B.
Johnstone {Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc, 1921, 7, 86). The spores were
found to be ejected from the asci with a hissing sound which was
distinctly heard 6 ft. away. The plants had been collected and placed
in a box. When the box was opened twenty-four hours later the
discharge became audible. A. L. S.

' to^

British Mycology. — J. Ramsbottom {Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc,
1921, 7, 1-12). An account is given of the annual foray for 1920
which took place at Minehead. During the meeting various matters
were discussed. The President, ]\Ir. T. Petch, gave an account of work
done by S. R. Bose on Indian Polyporacese. J. Ramsbottom described
the occurrence of mycorhiza in orchids ; he also exhibited pieces of
canvas attacked by fungi. The various outings are described and the
more important finds are noted. Finally, a list is printed of all the
fungi collected. A. L. S.

Notes on New or Rare British Fungi. — Malcolm Wilson
{Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc, 1921, 7, 79-85). Most of the species of
micro-fungi here described are new to Britain. A number of Uredinete
are included in the list. The fungi are all from Scotland. A. L. S.

2 G

426 SUMMARY OF CUERENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Poisoning by Fungi.— E. Chauvin {BuU. Soc. Mycol. France, 1920,
36, 212-3). A severe case of poisoning was reported from Nancy.
The fungi had been freshly gathered and cooked. Trouble arose about
seven hours after the meal. Nine persons partook of the repast and
seven of them died after great suffering. The symptoms suggested
Amanita phalloides as the cause, and that it had been probably mistaken
for a green Russida. A. L. S.

Coronilla nivea Crouan and Cunninghamella echinulata Thaxter.
— George Safford Torrey {Bull. Soc. If //col. France, 1921, 37, 81-99,
1 pi.). The author has made exact studies of these two fungi. He was
unable to induce a culture of the former, and concludes that he was
dealing with a race differing in some degree from the plants so easily
cultivated by other workers. He discusses fully the systematic position
of Cunninghamella, which has been considered as a reduced member of
the Mucorini. A, Ij. S.

Mycotheca germanica. — Sydow^ {Ann. Mycol., 1921, 19, 132-44).
A list is given of the fungi of seven fascicles (Nos. 1101-1800). A
number are new to science and have been described by the author.

A. L. S.

Mycological Research in Veterinary Medicine. — Brocq-Rousseau
{Run. Hoc. Mijrol. France, 1921, 37, 99-103). The author desires to
draw attention to the importance of studying the lower genera of fungi,
Microsporon, Sporotrichum, Streptothrix, etc., which cause disease in
animals. A. L. S.

Mycoiogical Notes, II.— F. Petrak {Ann. Mycol, 1921, 19,
17-128). The notes are concerned with a large number of species of
microfungi (Nos. 31-115). ]\Iany of them are new to science. Others
already recorded have been found by Petrak and have been subjected to
critical examination and discussion. He has established as new the
following genera : Scolecosporiella, Neohulgaria, Fhseocytostroma, Crypto-
ceuthospora, Amphicytostroma, Neosjihseropsls, Neoplacos'pliaeria , Fodopla-
co/iema and Cryptodiaporthe. A. L. S.

Attack of Poplar Canker following Fire Injury. — Alfred H. W.
PovAH {Fhytopatholoyii, 1921, 11, 157-65, 3 figs.). A disease of
poplars had been already diagnosed as due to Gytospora chrysosperma.
The same disease was found attacking and killing many trees in an area
more or less damaged by fire. The trees were not so seriously burned
but that they might otherwise have recovered. The surrounding trees
were not attacked. Valsa sordida was found on the trees, and is
presumably the perfect fruiting form. A. L. S.

Note on Cenangium Abietis on Pinus ponderosa. — James R. Weir
{Phytopathology, 1921, 11, 106-70, 1 fig.). This fungus has been recog-
nized as a parasite in Europe, but only recently has it been found causing
damage to the hosii tree. The specimen dealt with grew on Finns
ponderosa ; it caused a reddening of the needles and shrinking of the

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 427

bark during the winter months (December to February). Inoculations
were made, and the parasitic nature of the fungus was established.

A. L. S.

Method of Attack and Parasitic Contamination of Ivy (Hedera
Helix) Conditioned by Rain. — P. Bu&non {BuU. Soc. Mycol France,
1920, 36, 172-4, 1 fig.). The author discovered a fungus, later diag-
nosed to be Phyllosticta hedericola, tliat formed pycnidia on linear
patches along the edge of the ivy leaves. The position was due to the
washing down of dusts and spores to the lower region of the leaves by
rain. He found Cladosporium herhnrum on the same area. A. L. S.

New Disease of the Almond. — Ali Riza {Bull. Boc. Mycol. France,
1920, 36, 189-91, 1 fig.). The disease attacks the branches, and is
caused by the fungus Cerrospora Amygclali sp. n. A description of the
fungus is given. A. L. S.

Common Scab of Potatoes.— AY. A. Millaed {Journ. Agrlr.,l%-2\,
28, 4'.)-5o, 2 pis.). The author gives an account of work done on scab
disease at Leeds. It has been proved that American and English scab
are alike, and due to a fungus, Actinomyces scaiies. It was found that
manuring with green herbage lessened the attack, and it is suggested
that in such a case the fungus lives on the organic matter supplied, and
the potato escapes. A. L. S.

Leaf-spots on the Elm.— L. E. Miles {Bot. Gaz., 1921, 71, 161-96,
3 pis., 1 fig.). The principal American elm, Ulmus amerkana, is often
severely attacked by the fungus Gnomonia ulmea, which causes spots on
the leaves : it is apt to cause considerable damage to seedlings and
young trees in nursei'ies. The first growth of the fungus is found in
the living leaf early in spring : the young perithecium develops in the
palisade tissue beneath a sub-cuticular stroma. Germination of the
ascospores took place readily on living elm leaves, but was never induced
on culture media. A conidial stage was found constantly associated
with the Gnomonia, and has been determined as Giocosporium ulmewn
sp. n. The connexion between the two forms was proved by artificial
cultures. Other leaf-spots on the elm were examined and described.
An extensive bibliography is appended. A. L. S.

Lichens.

Lichens of the Minehead District. — H. H. Knight (Trans. Brit.
Mycol. Soc, 1921, 7, 16-18). Minehead proved a profitable gathering
ground for lichens. Arboreal species are abundant in Horner's Wood ;
at Selworthy and Porlock saxicolous forms were more prominent. A
very considerable number were found, and have been listed by the
author of the paper. A. Lokrain Smith.

Sporulation of Gonidia in the Thallus of Evernia prunastri. —
Pt. Paulson {Trans. Brit. Myrol. Soc, 1921, 7, 41-7, 1 pL). Paulson
gives an account of gonidial multiplication in Evernia, but the same type
of sporulation has been found by him in a large number of lichens. He

2 o 2

428 SUMMARY OF CUEEENT EESEAECHES llELATING TO

gives the date of collection and the methods of examination employed
in his research. He describes the mature gonidium. the breaking up
of the contents into two, four, eight, sixteen or more daughter gonidia.
He concludes that the gonidium of these lichens is a species of CfiloreUa.

A. L. S.

Review of Publications on Lichens. — G. Bioeet (Rev. Gen. Bot,
1921, 33, G3-76, 146-60, 214-20, 2G4-72, 328-36, etc.). The author
has discussed the many publications on the nature and development of
lichens that have been published since 1910. x\.n account of each
paper arranged under different subjects is given, with the criticisms of
the various works, and the author's own considered views. Finally,
Bioret has listed all recently published works under a series of subjects,
and geographically under the different countries where the papers have
been published. His work shows at a glance the v^ide interest in
lichens and the importance attached to the study of the group. A. L. S.

Lichens. — A. Lorrain Smith {Cambridge Botanical Handhoolcs,
1921, xxii and 464 pp., 135 figs.). The Avriter gives a connected
account of lichens from their earliest mention up to the present day.
Special stress is laid on the symbiotic nature of the lichen thallus, and
on the interaction of the symbionts, alga and fungus, and on the
structure formed by them. Other subjects dealt with are their reproduc-
tion, physiology, bionomics, ecology, and the economical value of the
plants. There is also a survey of classification, largely drawn from the
work of A. Zahlbruckner, the leading exponent of lichens, whose work
on systematy has been followed, as it is likely to hold the field for some
considerable time. Glossary, bibliography and index complete the book.
The illustrations are, manv of them, photographs of the living plants.

A. L. 8.

Ten Years' Progress in Lichenology in the British Isles. —
E. Paulson {Essex Naturalist, 1921, 19, 273-86, 4 pis.). The author
reviews recent work on British lichens, which he arranges under four
heads : Records, Ecology, Morphology, and Physiology and Symbiosis.
The largest number of papers deal with Records of Species. Consider-
able attention has been given to ecology, and symbiosis is treated from
different points of view. Connected with the latter subject is the
behaviour of the algfe that form the gonidia of the thallus. The author
gives results of his own discoveries of the healthy sporulation of the
lichen algte within the thallus. Dr. Church's views on the origin of
lichens ai-e also discussed. A very full biblio2:raphy is appended.

A. L. S.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIGKOSCOFY, ETC.

429

MICROSCOPY.
A. Instruments, Accessories, etc.

W. Watson and Sons, Ltd., 313 High Holborn, London, W.C.,
have recently issued a new edition of their Catalogue of Microscopes,
and in it are contained some new instruments, and modifications of
others.

Among the improvements we note they have abandoned tlie system
of suspending the substage or condenser carrier from the under side of
the stage of the microscope, the undesirability of which was urged
nearly forty years ago by Mr. John May all, Jun., and by successive
microscopists since.

The practice of extending the limb sufficiently far below the stage
for the frame of the substage or condenser carrier to be attached to it

Fig. ].— "Bactil/

seems to have been followed in all the Watson microscopes, and it is
certainly a move in the right direction.

A new microscope under the name of " Bactil " appears for the first
time in this catalogue. In the main its lines are those of the " Service "
microscope previously described in this Journal, but it is designed
especially for research work, and is fitted with a large body, 2 in.
diameter. The fine adjustment, which is worked by milled heads from
either side of the limb, has a drum with divisions upon it. The
mechanical stage, which is shown in position in fig. 1, and which is
known as the " Service" pattern, gives a range of 60 mm. horizontally

430

SUMMAKY OF CUKRENT RKSKA ROM KS RELATING TO

and 35 mm. vertically. As an alternation, the interchangeable Long
Range Mechanical Stage (fig. 2) may be fitted. It is claimed for this
type of stage that it is fully equal to the stage which is built as part of

Fig. 2. — Murray's Long Eange Attachable Stage.

tlie microscope. The method of attachment is a simple one, consisting
of two pins which pass through the holes usually occupied by the butts
of the object springs. These steel pins have screwed ends, and the
stage is secured by nuts which fit on these screws. The substage turns

Fig. 3. — Watson's " Speera " Magnifiers.

aside from the optical axis, which has centring screws and rackwork to
focus. It is altogether a massive and imposing instrument, and of a
design that finds favour in the laboratories of to-day.
^^ The Long Range mechanical stage (fig. 2) referred to in connexion

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC.

431

with the " Bactil " microscope is a new pattern of attachable mechanical
stage, designed by Dr. Murray for the examination of serial sections,
blood films, etc., and gives mechanical movements over 115 mm. by
85 mm.

The method of attachment to the stage is a new one. The design
is simple, but mechanically good.

Fig. 4.—" Physician's Outfit."

Special attention is called to the series of apochromatic objectives.
They are four in number, as follows : 16 mm., S mm., 4 mm., 2 mm.
(oil immersion) ; and there is a new | in. cil-immersion objective of
0 • 9 N.A.

The majority of workers on metal specimens with vertical illumina-
tion are in the habit of using both the prism and cover-glass patterns
of illuminator. A carrier has been designed into which the prism or

432 KU.MMAUY OF CUERENT llESEARCHES RELATING 10

the cover-glass holder can be placed and revolved freely. It obviates
the continual removal of one piece of apparatus with its objective, and
the screwing in of another in its place, and apparatus of this description
should simplify working, and is to be commended.

The " Speera " binocular magnifiers should be of interest to most
microscopists on account of the many occasions when a low magnifying
power is required. The lenses are mounted at slightly convergent
angles, so that one image only is seen at the focal point. The lenses
are achromatic and give a stereoscopic effect. The focal lengths of the
pairs of lenses are made 5 in., 7 in. and 10 in., giving magnifications of
about 3*5, 2*5 and 1*75 diameters respectively. The great advantage
lies in the freedom which is given to both hands for dissecting or
working when these spectacles are worn.

In " Critical Microscopy," by A. C. Coles, an illustration is given of
that writer's arrangement of instrument, lamp and accessories, which is
always available for reference in its working position. This has been
reproduced for commercial purposes as the " Physician's Outfit," and
is shown in tig. 4. To the busy worker an arrangement of this
description will readily appeal. If interrupted, it is only necessary to
cover the microscope with the glass shade and extinguish the lamp ;
everything is then left ready for continuing investigations when time
allows.

B. Technique.

Adjustable Dark Ground Immersion Illuminator. — The outstand-
ing characteristic common to all high power dark ground illuminators is
that if they are not accurately focused the object to be examined is not
illuminated at all. The light passes through a point and does not enter
the microscope unless the object is at that position to reflect this light.

This peculiarity necessitates the use of selected slips of the exact
thickness suitable to the focus of the illuminator. Apart from the
trouble involved in selecting the slips, this does not present any special
difficulty where living specimens are being studied in leisurely fashion,
but in a laboratory liable to " rush " periods, it frequently happens that
the additional information afforded by dark ground illumination is lost
owing to the specimens having been mounted upon an unselected slide
of unsuitable thickness ; and, moreover, this form of illumination can
seldom be used for mounted specimens. We therefore welcome the
novel high power dark ground illuminatory introduced by Messrs. R. &
J. Beck, which is so made that, by moving the lower lens while the
upper lens remains in immersion contact with the slip, any focus of
from h mm. to 1^, mm. can be obtained -a variation of sufficient range
to accommodate any ordinary slip ; moreover the focusing adjustment
will be found valuable even with slips of selected thickness, as a slight
variation of the focus gives somewhat different effects.

The method of adjustment is readily followed from reference to
fig. 6. AVhen the movable lens of the illuminator is raised or lowered
by means of the projecting lever handle (c), a ring outside the mount
also moves up and down, thus making a gap (b) that appears in the
upper part of the mount larger or smaller. The slide on which the

ZOOLOGY ANL) BOTANY, MICKOSGorY, KTC.

433

object to be exaniined is mounted may be inserted in this i^ap snid the
focusing handle rotated until it just closes on the slide. The illumioator
is now set at the correct focus for the particular thickness of the slide.

As the gap is just above the level of the substage this small opera-
tion may easily be carried out while the dark ground illuminator is in
place on the microscope, or, if necessary, the substage can be swung out
for the purpose and then replaced.

A Simple Method for Handling- Small Objects in Making
Microscopic Preparations.— Chas. W. Metz {The Anatomical Record,
21, lt)21). The following metliod of handling flies, especially Droso-
pkila and other small forms, has been worked out by the author and
proved satisfactory.

It resembles the well-known method of wrapping the objects in
some flat, transparent membrane like Gryptobi'anclius epidermis, but
utiHzes the thin transparent bag-like skin which surrounds the abdomen
of the Drosophila (fruit-fly, vinegar-fly, banana-fly) pupa under the

Pig. 5.

PlC4. 6.

chitinous pupa case — at about the middle of the pupal stage. This
skin is obtained intact by puncturing the pupa with a needle about a
third of the way back from the anterior end (end with the long
" horns "), then transferring to water and tearing it in two with dissect-
ing needles, after which the abdomen and the attached portion of the
thorax may easily be pulled or pressed from the pupa case and the
contents removed by gentle pressure with one needle while the apex of
the abdomen is held down with the point of another : there then
remains an oval, transparent bag with a constricted opening at the
anterior end representing the connexion between the abdomen and the
thorax. The small objects to be treated are passed through this orifice
into the pouch until the latter is nearly full and then the opening
closed l)y pressing or twisting the edges together with needles or
forceps and immersion in the fixative or alcohol. Olijects are usually
fixed, washed, and run up to f)!) p.c. alcohol before packing into the
pupa-skins. This avoids any long stay in the dissecting fluid during

2 G 5

434 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

dissecting and packing into the pouch. But with some objects such as
small eggs, etc., not injured by exposure to the dissecting fluid, packing
may be done before fixation.

Once a packet is made and the membrane has hardened in the
fixative or alcohol it may be handled readily without fear of losing
the contents. Reagents, including paraffin, penetrate the membrane
readily, so that dehydration and embedding may be done rapidly. It
is easy to secure species of Drosophila of various sizes around garbage,
decaying fruit, etc., and so obtain pupa-skins of sizes adai)table to
individual needs. By putting a few flies in a cotton-j^lugged bottle
with ripe banana (or something similar) and a httle paper, practically
any desired number of pupai may soon be obtained.

A supply of pupa-skins sufficient for months or years may be made
up at one time and kept in 30 p.c. or 50 p.c. alcohol until needed.

This method may seem tedious, but with practice it proves rapid
and efficient, and ensures —

1. Standardization of size of packets.

2. Convenience of size of packets.

3. Minimum amount of enclosing tissue together with close aggre-
gation of objects themselves, making it unnecessary to section a packet
much larger than the mass of objects themselves.

4. Transparency of the enclosing membrane at all stages, permitting
orientation or examination of the contents.

5. Cleanliness of membrane and freedom from dirt and grit such
as is often encountered in amphibian epidermis.

6. Relative freedom from extraneous tissue or material in the
sections.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 435

METALLOGRAPHY, Ere.

Crystal Growth and Re-crystallization in Metals.— Prof. H. C. H.
Carpenter and Miss C. F. Elam (Institute of Metals Meeting, Sept.,
1920). The facts ascertained as the result of experiments are : — 1. The
largest crystals are formed after the minimum amount of stress sufficient
to produce growth. 2. The lower the temperature, the greater the stress
required to produce large crystals. 3. The increase in size is not gradual.

F. L G. R.

Monel Metal.— Paul D. Merica {Chemical and Metallurgical
Engineering, February 16, 1921, 24, No. 7). A brief statement of the
physical properties of this natural alloy, and the commercial uses to
which it has been adapted. Its resistance to corrosion and strength at
high temperatures are perhaps the most useful properties.

Nickel Brasses. — {Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Feb. 9,
1921, 24, No. G). A summary of the work of Guillet, published in
"Revue de Metallurgie " of 1913 and 1920, on the important role
played by nickel in the manufacture of low-copper ternary brasses.

Chemical Properties and Metallography of Nickel.— Paul D.

Merica {Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, February 2, 1921, 24,
No. 5). Data on solubility and magnetic transformation of pure nickel.
Notes are also given on the effect of the common impurities such as
carbon, oxygen, manganese, sulphur, cobalt, iron and silicon upon
various physical properties.

Arc-fused Steel. — Henry S. Rawdon, Ed. C. Groesbeck and
Louis Jordan {Chemical and Metallurgiccd Engineering, October G,
1920, 23, No. 14). Tests cut from blocks of arc-fused metal gave
mechanical properties like an inferior, porous casting, notably deficient
in ductility, and determined entirely by unsoundness in the structure.
Carbon, silicon and other elements are lost from the welding pencil
during depositiqji.

Effect of Nitrogen on Steel.— 0. A. Knight and H. B. Northrup
{Ghemiccd and Metallurgiccd Engineering, December 8, 1920, 23, No. 23).
Work showing that at least five definite layers are produced on the
surface of low-carbon steel when it is exposed to ammonia at 650° C.
Excessive brittleuess in the outer zones responsible in part for gun
erosion.

Plastic Crystals of Ammonium Nitrate. — W. N. Bond {Phil.
Mag., 41, No. 241). Part 11. of this communication should be of
interest to microscopists, for it is shown that in bent crystals, ground
and mounted, the extinction lines seen when the specimen is examined

436 SUMMARY OF CUKRENT llESEAKCHES RELATING TO

between crossed nicols are not normal to the curved crystal. The author
considers the probability of a local rational atomic adjustment, which,
although the crystal has been distorted, causes it to remain in equilibrium.

F. I. G. R.

Progress Report of Research Sub -committee on Bearing Metals.
— (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, December, 1920). By
means of an 'instrument described as the micro-character, a tentative scale
of micro-hardness has been drawn up. Photo-micrographs of alloys,
ferrous and non-ferrous, are given, showing how the micro-hardness of
the constituents can be determined with great accuracy by this instru-
ment. F. I. G. R.

" Slip-lines " and Twinning- in Electro-deposited Iron. — W. E.
Hughes (Iron and Steel Institute Meeting, May, ]'J21). Photomicro-
graphs of etched sections, deposited under various conditions, are shown
which exhibit peculiar lines or markings. It is suggested that these
lines may be " slip-lines " produced in the grains of which the deposit is
composed by the forces of contraction which act in it during its
formation. F. I. G. R.

Solid Solution of Oxygen in Iron. — J. E. Stead (Iron and Steel
Institute Meeting, May, 1921). With the introduction of cupric
re-agents, evidence is accumulating that many solid solutions of iron
and every other element are electro-positive to pure iron. When iron
is heated in air or oxidizing gases, it appears that the surface layers
absorb oxygen which passes into solid solution, but when supersaturated
the oxide falls out of solution, forming separate globules of free oxide.
Photomicrographs accompany the paper. F. I. G. R.

Rbntgen Spectrographic Investigations of Iron and Steel. —
A. Westg-hen (Iron and Steel Institute Meeting, May, 1921). This
most remarkable paper confirms, V»y means of a method analogous to
that used by the Braggs in their work on crystal structure, the cubic
habit of alpha and gamma iron, and also that beta iron contains crystals
oriented in the same way as alpha. Hence the beta-iron theory is
opened anew. In martensite, iron is in the alpha form, which is also
the case for high-speed steel of ordinary composition hardened at
1275° C. F. I. G. R.

Cupric Etching Effects Produced by Phosphorus and Oxygen
in Iron.— J. H. Whiteley (Ii'on and Steel Institute Meeting, May,
1921). The author continues the work of Stead and others, and finds
that differences of less than 0 • 02 p.c. in adjacent layers of otherwise pure
iron can be readily detected by means of cupric etching re-agents ; as
the difference is increased up to about 0'15 p.c. the contrast becomes
more marked. Attempts to produce an unequal distribution of oxygen
to which cupric methods could bo ap]iliod have failed. AVhen oxygen
is present, white resist-Hnes are formed only at the vveld-j unctions, but
these resist-lines are not found when unoxidized iron is welded in dry

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 437

hydrogen. A number of photomicrographs accompany the paper, and
bring out very clearly these points in examining microscopically surfaces
etched with various cupric re-agents. F. I. G. R.

Constitution of Chromium-tungsten Steels. — {Chemical and
MetaJlurgiml Engineermg, May 4, 1U21, 24, No. 18). Recent Japanese
work throwing light upon the complex reactions giving self-hardening
and red-hardness properties to modern high speed steels. Edwards'
views on like subjects are also briefly given.

Structure of Tungsten Steels. — {Chemical and Metallurgical
Engineering, April '21, 1921, 24, No. 17). Review of Honda and
]\Iurakami's work, presenting their principal conclusions as to the
structure and constitution of tungsten-iron-carbon alloys. Reactions
between irou-tungstide and iron and tungsten carbides are responsible
for great complexity.

Crystalline Structure of Metals.— Zay Jeffeies and R. S.
Aecher {Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, May 4, 1921, 24,
No. 18). A brief definition of crystallinity ; a discussion of the
methods used in X-ray analysis of atomic spacing ; and a statement of
the results of such studies made up to the present time.

438

PEOCEEDINGS OF 1^HE SOCIETY

A CONVERSAZIONE

was held at the Mortimer Halls, Mortimer Street, London, W.l,
on Wednesday, October 5th, 1921.

A Reception was held by the President, Professor John Eyre, in
the Upper Hall from 7.45 to 8.15.

General Exhibits were shown by —

r. Addey, B.Sc. — Transverse Section of Leaf of Fittonia, showing ocelli
on Epidermis.

C. Baker. — Greenhough Binocnlar Microscope. New Model D.P.H.,
Student and other Microscopes.

R. & J. Beck, Ltd. — Binocular, Standard and Petrological Microscopes.
Rowley Metallurgical Attachment, etc. Rock Sec-
tions and other Specimens.

The Cambridge & Paul Instrument Co., Ltd. — The Cambridge
Rocking and Universal Microtomes and Accessories.

A. Earland, F.R.M.S. — Feather of Goldfinch, showing the orange-
coloured plates of Keratin.

G. T. GuRR. — Microscopical Stains and other New Preparations.

Hawksley & Sons. — Spencer Lens Microscopes and Microtomes.

C. E. Heath, F.R.M.S. — Diatom Arachnoidiscus, showing abnormal

drum-like development.
R. W. HiOGiNSON, F.R.M.S. — B. histolytica in Section from Intestine.

Amytrophic lateral and deseminated Sclerosis.

A. Gandolfi Hornyold, ]3.Sc., F.R.M.S.— Otolith of an Eel, showing
annual zones of growth.

A. MoRLEY Jones. — Diatomacere, showing some illustrations of methods
of growth.

Rev. a. F. Jones. — Saws of the Saw-fly {Trkhlosoma hetuhti).

Kodak Limited (Wratten Division). — Light Filters, Lamps, etc.

E. R. Martin.— Radula of Whelk.

Martin Melesi & Co. — Koristka Laboratory, Bacteriological, Medical
and Student Microscopes and Accessories.

Ogilvy & Co. — Leitz New High-Power Binocular Microscope with
Interchangeable Monocular Body. Akehurst Con-
denser Changers. Silverman Illuminator for Opaque
Objects.

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 439

Eheinberg & Co. — Framed Specimens of Graticules, Micrometers, etc.,

illustrating Processes of Grainless and of Filmless

Photography.
Rudolph & Beesley. — Latest Patterns of Reichert Microscopes and

Accessories.
T. J. Smith. — Sulphur Crystals, Isatine, Menthol, Tetramethyl and

Naphthaline under polarized light.
James Swift & Son, Ltd. — Standard, Portable and Petrological

Microscopes and Accessories.
C. TiERNEY, M.S., D.Sc, F.'RM.^i.—Amceba protms.
H. TiNSON. — Diatoms (various).
W. Watson & Sons, Ltd. — Metallurgical, Petrological, and other

Microscopes.
J. T. R. WILD3IAN, F.R.M.S.— Type Slide of Diatoms.

Dr. J. A. Murray gave Lantern Demonstrations on the Cellular
Structure of the Body.

Pond Life Exhibits were shown by the following Fellows of the
Society and Members of the Quekett Microscopical Club —

C. H. Bestow, F.R.M.S.— Rotifers (various).

D. Bryce. — Pliilodina erythrophthalma from the river Lea.

A. J, Bowtell, F.R.M.S. — Living diatoms (various).
C. C. Campbell. — Chlamydomonas sp.

F. W. Chipps. — Lophopus crystalUmis.
F. E. Cocks. — Free swimming rotifers {Notops hraclwmus).
R. F. G. Cole. — Heliozoa (Actinospherlum eichliornu).
T. N. Cox. — Spirogyra in conjugation.

B. S. CuRWEN. — Simocephalus sernilatus.

E. CuzNER, F.R.M.S. — PJumateUa repens.

Miss A. Dixon, F.R.M.S. — Actinospherium eklihornii digesting water
fleas.

F. B. GiBBARD. — Water mites (various).

H. Goullee. — Infusoria (various) from a flower-vase.

H. F. Green. — Cyclops sp. and Diaptomus castor.

H. Jewell.— Cyclosis in Vallisnerin.

H. J. Lawrence. — Desmid (Cosmarium crenafuni).

R. J. LuDFORD, B.Sc, F.R.M.S. — Early stages in development of
Limnsea stngna^is (common Pond Snail).

E. Maurice. — Hydra vulgaris.

E. K. Maxwell. — Conochiloides dossuarius, a free-swimming tube-
building rotifer.

H. H. Mortimer, F.R.M.S. — Hydra virklis and diatoms (various).

Dr. J. A. Murray, F.R.M.S. — Spirostomum and Parammclum bursaria.

J. C. Myles. — Eye of Dytiscus marginalis.

4:40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

E. R. Newmarch, F.R.M.S. — GristateJla mucedo ; also Daphnia longi-

spina with polarized light.
C. H. Oakden, F.R.M.S. — Water mites — Diplodontus despiciens,

Limnesia Icoenikei and L. marulatd.
R. Paulson, F.R.M.S.— >iS/e»/or igneiii:, showing zoochlorella^, green

algal cells, living sjmbiotically in the body of the

Stentor.

F. J. W. Plaskitt, F.R.M.S. — Chara vulgaris, showing oogonia and

cyclosis.
J. Pollard, F.R.M.S.— Volvox glohator.
J. Richardson, F.R.M.S.— Alga (Galothrix epiphylka on stems of

Anacharis).
W. Russell. — Infusoria (various)
H. A. St. George. —
1). J. ScouRPiELD, F.R.M.S. — SimocepJudtis vetulus, stained while alive

with neutral red and methylene-blue.
E. J. Summers. — Leydigia acimthocercoides from Richmond Park. (A

rare water flea.)

B. J. Thomas. — Caddis and Pond Snail.

G. Tilling, F.R.M.S. — Polyzoa, PlumaMJa repens with model ; also

Lnphopus crgstaUinus.
L. H. TiNSON. — Volvox glohator.
G. R. Titchener. — Rotifers (various).

C. Todd. — Hydrozoa, Gordylophora lacustris.

J. "Wilson, F.R.M.S. — Desmid, Gosmarium quadrifariiim ; and Lophopus
crystallinns.

Photomicrographic Exhibits were shown by the following Members
of the Photomicrographic Society —

W. R. Biss. — Photomicrographic and other Apparatus.

J. G. Bradbury and W. H. Baddeley.— Photomicrographic Trans-
parencies in Monochrome and Colour.

C. H. Caffyn, F.R.M.S. — Rock Sections and Photomicrographs of
same.

E. CuzNER, F.R.M.S. — Photomicrographic Transparencies illustrating
the Life History and Genera of the Hydroida.

E. A. PiNCHiN, F.R.M.S.— Photomicrographic Transparencies of
Diatoms.

A. E. Smith, F.R.P.S. — Microscopic Specimens and Photomicrographs.

The Nickolds Quartette, under the direction of Mr. A. H. Nickolds,
gave Selections in the Upper Hall during the evening.

i'i;OGKEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 441

AN ORDINARY MEETING

OF THE Society avas held at 20 Hanover Square, W., on
Wednesday, October 19th, 1921, Professor John Eyre,
President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read, confirmed, and
signed by the President.

The nomination papers were read of twenty-seven Candidates for
Fellowship.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows of the
Society : —

Mr. Alexander James Bowtell.

Mr. John S. Dankerly, B.Sc, Ph.D.

Mr. Richard William Higginson.

Mr. AV. 0. Humphery, M.I.M.E., P.A.S.I., M.R.San.I.

Mr. Reginald J. H. Hunt.

The President reported that three Fellows had died since the last
Meeting of the Society : —

Mr. B. L. Mestayer, who was elected in 1884.

Mr. C. F. Rousselet, who was elected in 1888 and had taken
a keen and active interest in the affairs of the Society
until failing health prevented him from attending the
meetings. His knowledge of early microscopes was
unique, and he had served the Society as Curator for
many years.

Dr. Henry Woodward, who was elected in 1880, and who held
office as President during the years 1902 and 1903.

Donations were reported from : —

Professor De Toni —

Collection of Autograph Letters.
British Optical Instrument Manufacturers' Association, Ltd.

Dictionary of British Sjientific Instruments.
Longmans, Green & Co. —

" Physical Properties of Colloidal Bodies."
Dr. E. Penard—

" Infusiores d'Eau Douce."
Dr. M. Langeron —

" Precis de Microscopie."
Clarendon Press —

" History and Method of Science." (Dr. C. Singer.)
Compte Rendu —

" Faune de France." Vol. II. (Oiseaux).
Professor AV. W. AVatts—

" Geological AVork of Charles Lap worth."

442 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

On the motion of the President, hearty votes of thanks were
accorded to the donors.

Mr. Conrad Beck exhil)ited and described a Standard Petrological
Microscope, and was thanked for his exhibit.

Dr. Lancelot T. Hogben, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.M.S. (Imperial College
of Science and Technology), read a paper : " Preliminary Account of
the Spermatogenesis of Sphenodon."

The President, Dr. Murray, Mr. Ludford, Mr. E. J. Sheppard and
Mr. Barnard took part in the discussion which followed.

Instructor-Commander M. A. Ainslie, R.N., F.R.M.S., read a paper
by Mr, Dan M. Stump, B.S. (State Microscopical Society of Illinois), on
" An Application of Polarized Light to Resolution with the Compound
Microscope."

The President, Mr. Conrad Beck, Mr. Capell and Mr. Rheinberg
took part in the discussion on the paper.

On the motion of the President, a hearty vote of thanks was
accorded to the authors of the above papers and to Commander Ainslie.

The business proceedings then terminated.

AN ORDINARY MEETING

OF THE Society was Held at 20 Hanover Square, W., on
Wednesday, November 17th, 1921, Mr. D. J. Scourfield,
Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the preceding Meeting were read, confirmed, and
signed by the Chairman.

The nomination papers were read of four Candidates for Fellowship.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows of the
Society : —

Mr. W. H. Baddeley.

Mr. A. J. Batchelor.

Ml-. John George Bradbury.

Mr. Francis Joseph Brislee, D.Sc, F.I.C.

Mr. Harold D. B. Cooke, B.Sc.

Mr. Cole Willard AVeeton Crowther, A.C.I.C.

Mr. Ganson Depew.

Mr. Herbert John Falkner.

Mr. Holly George Foster.

Professor P. N. Ghosh, M.A., Ph.D.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 443

Mr. Horace Clifford Gillings.

Mr. John Thomas Hall, L.D.8., R.C.S.

Rev. G. H. Hewison.

Mr. William Horton.

Mr. Leslie Ernest Le Souef.

Mr. John Drummond Pryde jMcLatchie, M.B., CM.

Mr. Edmund Maurice.

Mr. A. Subba Rau, B.A.

Mr. AVilliam James David Roberts.

Mr. ThomasE. Robertson, E.G. LP. A., A.F.R.Ac.S., A.M.I.E.E.

Mr. Edmund Arthur Robins.

Mr. H. AV. Reginald Room.

Mr. Leonard 8aclis, M.P.S.

Mr. Lolitmohan Hlen, M.B., D.P.H., D.T.M.

Mr. Dan M. Stump, B.8., M.E.

Mr. Willie Thomas Watkin-Brown, J.P.

Mr. Harold Wrighton, B.Met.

The Donation of " Le Parasitisme et la Symbiose " by the Librairie
Octave Doin was reported, and the donors thanked.

Exhibits were shown by ]\h'. Conrad Beck (a Metallurgical Micro-
scope), and by Mr. E. J. Sheppard (Preparations showing Chromosomes,
etc.). These gentlemen were thanked for their exhibits.

Mr. Barnard drew attention to the fact that the Society had issued
a programme of jMeetings covering the whole Session. The present
state of industrial affairs had been responsible for the more or less
formal programme that had been submitted. The microscope was
taking a much more important place in industrial development than
heretofore, and the Royal Microscopical Society would hardly have been
fulfilling its purpose had it not done something to forward that develop-
ment. The Directors of the Industrial Research Associations were
written to and asked if they would be willing to communicate to the
Society some of the results of their work and experiences. The replies
were encouraging and the provisional programme was drawn up. It
was not complete, and further papers would be added. The two opening
papers dealing with the " Practical Use of the Microscope in Industrial
Research " to be read that evening would be devoted to the considera-
tion of the manufacture of glass and to a special branch of IMetallurgy.
He felt sure that the series of papers to be submitted would help the
Fellows of the Society to realize that the microscope had now become
the universal tool of Science and Industry.

Mr. George Patch in, A.R.S.M. (Sir John Cass Technical Institute),
read a paper : — " The Micro-Examination of Metals with Special Refer-
ence to Silver, Gold and the l^latinum Metals," illustrated by a number
of lantern slides.

444 PROCKEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

The Chairman, Mr. Webb and Mr. Gardner took part in the
discussion which followed.

Mr. W. C. Crawley, B.A., F.E.S., F.R.M.S., and Dr. H. A. Baylis,
M.A., D.Sc, F.Z.S., read a paper : — " Mermis parasitic on Ants of the
genus Lasiusy

Mr. Robert L. Friuk (Director of Research, Glass Eesearch Associa-
tion) read a paper : — " The Practical Value of the Microscope in Glass
Manufacture," illustrated liy a number of autochrome projections.

Mr. Wrighton and Mr. Caffyn took part in the discussion which
followed.

On the motion of the Chairman, a hearty vote of thanks was
accorded to the authors of the above papers.

The Chairman announced that the Biological Section would meet on
Wednesday, December 7, when Mr. Ludford would make a communica-
tion on " Recent Researches on the Golgi Apparatus."

The business proceedings then terminated.

^H a-^

445

INDEX

Abbe Letters, 221

Abyssal Animals, Large Size of, 33

Acaiithocephala, 50

Ackert, James E., Nematode Parasite of

Chickens, 49
Adams, J. F.. The Infection of Crataegus

by Gymuo.sporangium, 2()8

— Gametopliytic Development of Blister

Rusts, 2(18

— Wheat Scab in Pennsylvania and its

Patliological Histology, 310
Adelomycetes, New Genus of. 419
Adolph, Edward F., Egg-laying Reac-
tions in Pomace-fly, 179
Agar, W. E., Genetics of a Daphnia

Hybrid during Parthenogenesis. 276
Agaric in Pure Culture. Influence of Light

on the Fructification of an, 308
Agaricacese of Michigan, 309
Air a capillaris, Tilletia on, 419
Alaria eiculenta, 414
Alcoholism. Influence of Parental, 167
Alfalla, (.'rown-gall of, 205
Algae, Fresh-water Biology of, 298

from Caucasus and Turkestan, 75

from Tuddal in Telemark, 75

New to the Spanish Flora, 200

of Croatia, 302

of Devonshire, 74

Systematics of, 298

— from Hot Sjjrings in Spitzbergen, 300

— Middle (Jambrian, 202

— of the Adriatic, 77

— of the Zehlaubruch, 75

— Marine, 415

Birchf mistry of, 305

of Guernsey, 77

recently introduced into Danish

Waters, 304
Walcotl's Ai>;onkian, 202
Algal Flora of Litau, 300

Subterranean, 303

Algolou'ical Notes, 299
Algology, Oceanic, 202
Alligator, Eye of, 387

— Retina of, 170

Almond, New Disease of the, 427

Alternaria nelumbii sp. n., 310

Altson, A. M., Two Parasites of Blow-
flies, 179, 268

Aluminium, Difi"usion of Solid Copper in
Liquid, 97

Amann, J., Moss-flora of Switzerland, 405

Amblystoma Embryo, Transplanting
Limbs of, 28

— Larvae. Regeneration of Fore Brain in,28

— 'i'ransplautation of Limbs in, 254
Amiurus, Influence of Nerve on Taste-
cells and Regeneration in, 254

Ammann, H., The Slory of a "'Water-
bloom,'' 73

Ammonium Nitrate, Plastic Crystals of,
435

Amoeba, New Intestinal, in Man, 395

— proteus. Technique of C alluring, 241
Amoebae, Reactions of, 187
Amphibia, Blood-vessels in, 255
Amphibian Cells, Reactions of, to Croton

Oil, 174
Anders, Josef, Fruticose and Foliose

Lichens of Norfh Bohemia, 87
Anderson, Robert J., Difl'usion of Solid

Copper in Liquid Aluminium, 97

— Manufacture of Rich Copper: Alumin-

ium Alloys or Hardeners, 97
Aneura, 405

— pinguls Dum., Calyptra-formation on

the Sporogonium of, 69
Angiopteris Tei/smamiiana, Young Leaves

of, 403
Angiosperms, Herbaceous, 400
Angler, Life- History of the, 164
Animals. Luminous, 259
Annandale. N., and Amin-ud-Din, Lmna<j8

nilotica'ni Seistan and Afghan-Baluch

Desert, 278
Anti-bodies, Increase in Quantity of, 388
Antruphyum stmicodatum Bl., Gall-like

Formation on, QQ
Anura, I'i^mentation in Larvae of. 161

— Thyroid Gland of, 161

Aphids of Rose and other Plants, 42
Aphis pulmse. Maturation of Partheno-

gemtio Ova of, 42
A;pium graveoleus, Infection by Heptoria

A^di, 207

2 II

446

INDEX.

Apples, Spotting in, ;-{09
Arachnids, Sensory Setse of, 43
Aral, Hayato, Post- Natal Development of
Rat's Ovary. 158

— Hypertrophy of Remaiunig Ovary after

Semispaying, 159
Argas reflexus, 182
Argaud, R., Oviducal Glands of Chelonia,

170
Arkwright, J. A., and others. Hereditary

Rickettsia-like Parasite of Bed-bug,

3h7
Aron. M., Degenerative Changes of the

Pancreas during Pregnancy, 160

— Islets of Langerhans and Blood-forma-

tion, 167

— Degeneration of Pancreas during Preg-

nancy, 175
Arthur, J. C, New Species of Uredinese,

207
Ascaridse, 391, 392
Asellidffi, 46
Ashby, Edwin, New Chitons, 35

— New Auttralian Chitons, 35

— Revision or Genus Loricella, 35
Aspergillus flavus, A. oryzm and Asso-
ciated Species, 306,418

— Glaucus, New Thermophile Stocks of,

418

— niger, 418

Asplenium h'uta-murarialj. X septenrtionale

(L.) Hoffm., 67
Aderina gibboxa, 57
Asterocystix de Wildeman and Asterocystis

Gobi, 199
Asteroxylon Macldei, 195
Astropecteji aurantiacus, 58, 280

B

Bachmann, E., Thallus der Kalkflechten,

213
— and Fr. Bachmann, Lichens from Litau,

87
Bacillariales from Wiirzberg, 72
Bacillariese of tlie Jaszoe Fish-ponds, 72
Bacteria, Identification of, 96
Baelir, V. D. de. Maturation of Partheno-

genetic Ova of Aphis palmse, 42
Balantidium, New, 59
Bantu, A. M., and Mary Gover, Ai)pend-

age of Sex-intergrade of I'aphuia

longiKjAna, 46
Bartels, M., and G. Dennler, Eye muscles

of Eagle-Owl, 387
Basidiomycftes, 307, 421
Bataille, Frederic, Cortinartus suaveolens

Bataille et Joachim, 422
Bataillon, Ch., Double Spermatozoa in

Turriiella communis, 263
Batrachians, Endolymphatic Organ of, 260
Batrachospermuin mondi/orme, 76

Bats, Amnion-formation in, 24

— in Flight, Avoidance of Objects by,

173
Baumann, H., Minute Structure of Tardi-

grada, 1>5 i

Baumgartner, E. A., M. T. Nelson and

Wm. Dock, Development of Uterine

Glands in Man, 157
Bayliss Elliott, Jessie S., and Helena C.

Chance, Three Fungi Imperfecti, 418
Bayliss. H. A., New Genus of Nematodes

from Elepliants, 184

— Ascaridse, 391,392

— New Nematodes from Elephants, 391

— and Clayton Lane, Gnathostomid

Nemutodes, 184

Gnath"stomidse, 279

Beck, Conrad, Notes on Resolution, 373

Beck Micrometer Eye-piece, 92

Beck, R. anil J., Standard London Micro-
scope, 90

— Adjustable Dark Ground Immersion

Illuminator, 432
Bed-bug, Hereditary Rickettsia-like Para-
site of. 397
Beer, Rudolph, New Species of Melano-

tsenium, 80
Bees, Califtirnian, 425
Behaviour, I'hysiological Analysis of, 33
Beltran, F., New Hepatic for the Iberian

Peninsula, 198
Bemmelen, J. F. van, Wing-design of

Mimetic Butterflies. 264
Benedict, Ch., Calyptra-formation on the

Sfiorogonium of Aneura piriguis Dum.,

69
Bennett, A. G., Diatoms on the Skin of

Whales, 201
Bergman, E., Inheritance of Tremor, 25
Bergman. H. F., Internal Stomata in

Fruits. 65
Bernard. Ch., Rare Phalloid, Pseudocolus

javanicH" (Penzig) Lloyd, 308
Beroe, Ciliary Movements in, 281
Bilharziasis, 279
Billard, Armand, New Species of Sertu-

iarella, 282
Biological Section, Report of, 117
Bioret, G., Review of Publications on

Lichens, 428
Bishop, George H., Fertilization in the

Honey-Bee, 37

— Insemination of Queen-Bee. 37
Bittner, L. H., and others, Tropisms of

Earthworm, 48
Bjorck, W., Crustacea and Pantopods of

Oresun.l, 275
Blagaic-Zagreb, K., Boletus conglobatus

sp. n., 82
Blakeslee, A. F., Sexuality in Mucors,

206

— Sexual Ditferentiation in the Bread

Moulds, 206

INDEX.

447

Blasdale. Walter 0., Uredinales of Cali-
fornia, 209

Blister Rusts, Gametophytic Development
of, 208

Blood Fluke, Japanese, Cercaria of, 53

— Lake, 406

— of Marine Animals, 259
Blow-flies, Parasites of, 179, 268
Bodine. J. H., Water-content and Meta-
bolism in Grasshoppers, 270

Boecker, Ed., New Species of Hydra, 58

— Hydra oxycnida, 185

Boedyn, K., andC.van Overeera, Mycologi-
cal Contributions : I., Ascomycetes, 79
Boletus conijlobatus sp. n., 82
Bombinator, Grafting Eggs of, 162

— Grafteil Embryos of, 161

Bond, W. N , Plastic Crystals of Ammo-
nium Nitrate, 4o5

Bone-Marrow. Giant-Cells of, 169

Borzi, A., Myxopliycese, 409

Bose, S. E., PoiyporacesB of Bengal, 421,
422

Botazzi, F.. Posterior Salivary Glands of
Cephalopods, 262

Botrvchium, Grouping and Mutation in,
291

— ohllguum Miilil, Gametophyte and

Embryo of, 292
Botrytis cinerea as Parasite of Msculus

parviflora Walt., 85
Bottomley, A. M.. Phoma sp. parasitic on

Cupressiis in South Africa, 311
Boudier, Emile, 423
Boulenger, Charles D., Sclerostomes of

Donkey, 278
Bourdot, H., New Basidiomycetes, 421

— and A. Galzin, French Hymenomycetes,

421

— and L. Maire, New or Little-known

Hymenocytes, 422

Bower, F. O., Size, a Neglected Factor in
Stelar Morphology, 291

Bowman, Alexander, Life-History of the
• Angler, 164

Boyle, C, Infection by Sclerotinia liber-
tiana, 417

Brains, Eodent, 32

Brand, F., Porphyridium cruentum Naeg.,
409

Brass, Effect of Iron on, 97

Brasses, Nickel, 435

Brause, G., Ferns of Papuasia, 291

Britton, Elizabeth G., Bahama Mosses,
405

Broch, Hjalmar, Development of Cal-
careous Skeleton in Cirripeds, 182

Brocher, F., Circulation in Sphinx con-
volvuli, 178

Brocq-Roussen, Mycological Research in
Veterinary Medicine, 426

Brooks, F. T., Inheritance of Disease-
resistance in Plants, 425

" Brown Bot " Fungus, Ascigerous Stage

of, 206
Browne, I.sabel M. P., Cone and Fertile

Stem of Equisietum, 401
Bryan, G. H., A Polariscnpe for Dissecting

and Pocket Microscopes, 149
Bryan, Geo. S., Sporopliyte of Sphagnum

subseciindum, 68
Bryological Notes, 296
Bryozoa, New Japanese, 278
Biyum veronense De Not, 404
Buckley, W. D., New Discinella, 80
Buellise, New, 86
Bugnon, P.. Parasitic Contamination of

Ivy (Hedera Aelix), 427
Bujard, E., Ovntestis in Hermaplirodite

Mammals, 257
Bull, Lionel B.. Habronema in Horses, 48
Buller, A. H. R., Red Squirrel of North

America as a Mycophagist, 82

— New British Coprini, 82

— Development and Dispersion of Spores

in Ciiprinuff storquilinus. 308

— Ocellus Function of the Subsporangial

Swelling of Pilobolus, 416

Burge, W. E., and E. L. Burge, Changes
in Intensity of Oxidation, 387

Burr, H. Saxton, Regeneration of Fore-
Brain in Amblystoma Larvae, 28

Busch, Werner, E.Lrg-envelope in Centro-
pages hamdtus, 47

Butterflies, Mimetic. Wind-design of, 264

Buxton, P. A., Capitulum of Psoroptes,
390

0

Calkins, Gary N., Vitality in Infusorians^

61
CallithamniesB, 412

Camels, New-born, Temperature of, 174
Campbell, D. H., Gametophyte and

Embryo of Botrychium obliquum

Miihl, 292
— Euspnrangiate Ferns and the Stelar

Theory, 4" '2
Carazzi, D., Nutrition in Lamellibranchs

176
Carpenter, H. C H., and Miss C. F. Eiam,

Crystal Gmwtli and Re-cryotalliza-

tion in Metals, 435
Carpentier, P., Prothoracio Endoskeleton

of Mule-cricket, 272
Cast-iron, Microstructuie of Malleable, 98
Castle, W. E., Heredity in Rabbits, Rats

and Mice, 26
Cat, Periodic Nuclear Division in tlie, 258
Caterpillars of Wax-moth, Immunity in,

178
Celloidin Sections, Treating and Mount-
ing. 20
Cenlropages hamatua, Egg-euvelope in, 47

2 H 2

448

INDEX.

Cephalopoils, Luminescent Bacteria in,262

— Me literranean, 262

— Posterior Salivary Glands of. 262
Ceplialoziellaceae, Gametophyte of, 294
Cesaro. G., Shape of Hive-bees' Cell, 178
Chamberlain, Charles J., Grouping and

Mutation in Botrychium, 291
Cliapman, Freilerick, Ostraooda, etc., from

the Devonian of Germany, 329
Chara, Cbondriomes in, 410
Chase, Eleanor E., New Trematode from

Heron, 392
Chatton, E., and Ch. Perard, Peculiarities

of NicollelMa3, 187
Chaves, P. K., Paranucleus of Pancreatic

Cells, 169

— Transformations of Hepatic Cell in

Hedgehog. 169
Chauvin, E., Foisoninj;; by Fungi, 426
Chelonia, Oviduoal Glands of, 170
Chemin, E., Lathrsea, 192
Chesliire, F. J., Some Abbe Letters, 221

— A Projection Spectropolariscope, 314
Chickens. Nematode Parasite of. 49
Chilton, Clias . Parcorophium exeavatum

in Brisbane Eiver, 276
Chipp, T. F., Fungus Flora of Hevea
hriiziUf-nsis, 83

— Host Index of Fungi of the Malay

Peninsula, So

Chitons, New, 35

Chiamyilospores of Fomes officinalis in
Nature, 422

Chlorophycese, 78

Chondriome of Plants and Pigment-forma-
tion, 63

Chromium tungsten Steels, Constitution
of, 437

Church, A. H., Ionic Phase of the Sea, 70

— Lichen Svmbiosis, 88

— The Li<'iien as Transmigrant, 213

— Lichen Life-cycle, 311
Cicer, Morphology of, 287
Ciliary Motion, Effect ot Ions on, 31
Ciliati\ Anaerobic, Fresii-water, 284
Cirripedia. Swedish Silurian, 276
Cirripeds, Calcareous Skeleton in, 182
Citrus Canker, Resistance to, 310
Clark, Eliot R., and Eleanor L. Clark,

Reactions of Amphibian Cells to
Cmton Oil, 174

Clark, R. S., Pelagic and Early Bottom
Stages of Teleosteans, 163

Clavella, New Species of, 47

Cleave, H. J. Van, Life-cycle of Acantho-
cepliala. 50

Cleghorn, Maude L., Inheritance of Silk-
worm Characters, 38

Clement, Hughes, Action of Centrifugal
Force on Silkworms, 178

Clinton, (i. P., New or Unusual Plant
Injuries and Diseases found in Con-
necticut, 212

Clinton, G. P., Infection Experiments of
Pinus Strobus with Cronartium
ribicola, 2<l8

— Rusts on Ribes. 208
Clitorybe sudorijica, 209
Cnidosporidian Spores, 398

Cobsea, Cell-divisiun in the Pollen-grain

of. 191
Cobb, N . A., Suggestions for Methods and

Apparatus, 317
Coccidia, New, from Cyprinid Fishes, 188
CoccolilhophoridsB, 71
Coccomi/xd goloriuas Chad.. 410
Cockroach Alluaudella, Female of, 271

— Synapsis in, 41

Coles, Alfred C, Critical Microscopy :
Hiiw to get the Best out of tlie Micro-
scope, 214

CoUetotrichum and Phoma in Uganda,
310

Collin, R., and J. Baudot, Minute Struc-
ture of Choroid Plexus in Frog, 171

Collinge, W. E., Terrestrial Isopods of
Natal, 276

Collins, jM. I., The Sporocyst in a Species
of Saprolegnia, 2(i4

— Resin-secreting Glands in some Aus-

tralian Plants, 2-<S
Colosi, G., Heart of Enphausid, 182

— Lichens of Sardinia, 214
Coinesia Sacc. 306

Conger. Leptocephalus Stage of, 163
Conidi land Paraphyses of Pezicula tucrita

Karst., 80
Conifers, Cuticle of Leaves in, 399
Conjugation, Effect of, on Division Rate,

3s*6

— Stages in, 257

— Survival of 395
Conjunctiva, Histology of, 171
Conrad, W., New Flagellates, 284

— New Flagellate with Trichocysts, 396
Conversazione, 105

Cook, Margaret H., and H. V. Neal, Taste-
buds of Elasniobranohs, 258

Copeland, Edwin B., Ferns of Borneo, 404

Copper, Manufacture of Rich, 97

Coprini, New British, 82

Coprimis storquiiinus. Development and
Dispersion of Spores in, 308

Corallimorphus, 186

Corallina officinalis var. medilerranea, 411

Cordyceps in New Zealand, 416

Corethra puhcfipenms. Larvae of. 267

Corn, Sugar and Starch Ciiaracters in,194

" Corneaspleralgrenze, der Gegeud der,"
172

Coronilla nivea Crouan. and Cnnning-
hainella echinulata Thaxter, 426

Cort, William W., Cercaria of Japanese
Blood Fluke, 53

— Excretory System of a Stylet Cercaria,

53

INDEX.

449

Cort, William W., Eggs and Miracidia cf

Humnn ScliistdSomeB, 55
Cortinariuseudveolens Batuilleet Joachim,

•122
Costa, A. Celestino da, Amnion-formation

in Bats, 24

— Supra-renal Hody of Hedgehog, 160
Cotton, A. D., Lichens of New Caledonia,

87
Cotton, Deterioration of, in Wet Storage,

212
Cou^gnas, Jean, Crayfishes and Amphi-

bolites, 275
Coulter, John M., and W. J. G. Land,

Humospi irons American Lepiiostro-

bus. 401
Crab, West Indian Land, Respiratory

Orgsns of a, 45
Crabo cepUalotes, Ntst of, 38
Craifaleanu. Anriel D., Liver Ferments of

Sepia, 262
Crane-fly, Tacliinid Parasite of. 389
Crawley, W. V,., Mermis Parasitic on Ants

of the (lenus Lasius. 353
Crayfish and Snail, Permeability of the

Gut in, 45

— and Amphiholites. 275
Cronarthim rihicolu, 420
Cross- and Self-fertilization, 65

Cruess, W. V., Fermentation Organisms of

California Grapes, 210
Crustacea aud Pantopods of Oresund, 275

— Carotin of, 183

— Melanin in, 183
Crustaceans, Red Pigment of, 183
Cten<iph()res, Japanese, 282
Cumingia, Ovum of, 2t;3
Cunningham, G. H., Cordyceps in New

Zealand, 416
Cupric Etcldng Effects, 436
Cutting, K. M.. Heterothallism and Similar

Phc nnmena, 309
Cyanophycepe, Ferruginous, 302

— Hormogonial, of the Middle Saale

Valley, 73
Cyathux fascicularis, C. striatus, and

Crur.ihuluin vulgare, 21:2
Cycads. Xylem Tissue in, 287
Cystoseiraa of Banyuls and of Gu^thary,

413
Cytamoeba bacterifera in Red Blood Cells

of Frog, 395

D

Dahl. Friederich, Sensory Setae of Arach-
nids, 43

Dakin, W. J., West Australian Onycho-
phora, 181

Dalcq. A., Spermatogenesis in the Orvet,
158

Danforth, C. H., Polydactvl Negro Twins,
25

— Resemblance and Difference in Twins,

26

— Brachydactyly in Fowls, 27

— Hereditary Complex in Domestic Fowl,

27
Daphnia Hybrid, Genetics of, during
I'arthenogeiiesis, 276

— longi:<pina. Appendage of Sex-inter-

grade of, 46
Dark Ground Immersion Illuminator, 482
Darling, Siimnel T., Hookworms, 391
Dastur, Jehangir Fardonji, Cytology of

Tilletia Tritici, 419
.Datura, Microsporogenesis in, 64
Davenport, C. B., Hereditary Tendency to

form Nerve Tumours, 24

— Heredity of Twin Births, 256
Deaf-mutism, Genotypical, Inheritance of,.

25
Debaryoinyces Klocherii, 417
Decapod, Eyes of a Cave, 390
Deer, Growth and Shedding of the Antler

of the, 99
D6glon, A., Paludine Flora of Yverdon,

408
Delsman, H. C, Early Development of

Rock-barnacle, 46

— Scoloplos ariiiiger, 47
DematisB, New Species of, 419
Dendritic Structure and Ferrite Mesh, 98
Denne, M. T., A Gregarine Parasite of the

Earthworm, 251
Desmid Flora of a Triassic District, 303

of Switzerland, 74

(? Desmidiaceif) Closteriospira, 201

— New, from Switzerland, 2i»l

— Polymorphism and Monstrosities in, 73,

201
Detlefsea, J. A., and E. Roberts, Crossing-
over in Drosopliila, 180
Detwiler, S. R., Transplanting Limbs of
Amblystoma Embryo, 28

and their Innervation, 28

Sections of Spinal Cord, 386

Diatomiferous Deposits in the Valley of

Toxi, Ixtlahuaca, Mexico, 202
Diatoms, Common, 72

— on the Skin of Whales, 201
Dictionary of British Scientific Instru-
ments, 214

Dictyokinesis in Germ-cells, 386
Didinium nasutnm, Amicronucleate Race

of, 396
Diehl, William W., Fungi of the Wilkes

PJxpeditiou, 212
DimorphomycetesB, New, 207
Dinoflagellates, 187
Dioon, Stem-anatomy of, 64
Diptera, Minute Structure of, 40
Dipterous l.arva, Saccharomycete in, 267
Discina, North American Species of, 207

450

INDEX.

Discinella, New, 80
Discomycetae, British, 417
Division, Reducing, 885
Dixon, H. N., Mosses from British East
Africa, 296

— Bryological Notes, 296

— Mosses from th^ Kunara District, 405
Dogfish Embryos, Influence of Sea-water

on Myotomes and Heart of, 256
Myotomic Contractions in, 255

— Neuromerism and Metamerism in, 260
Dogs, Piebald Spotting in, 24

Domin, K., Flora and Plant-geography of
Australia: I., Pttridopliyta, Gymno-
speriuse, Mouocotyledonese, 67

Donkey, Sclerostomes of, 278

Douglas, Gertrude E., Early Development
of Inocybe, 209

Douin, C, Gametophyte of Cejjhaloziel-
lacese. 294

Dragon-fly Larvae, Respiration in, 42

Tracheal Air in, 269

Drosophila. 40

— Bristle Inheritance in, 179

— Crosising over in, 180

— melunogaster, 39

— Mutations in, 266

Duboscq, O., Salivary Glands of Opistho-
patus cinctipes, 272

— Papillae and Ventral Cerebral Organ

in Onychophora, 272

— Plasmodial Parasite of Laminaria. 395
Dubreuil, G., Fibrillar Reticulum of the

Human Spleen, 167

— Musculature of Central Veins of the

Suprarenal Body in Man, 168

— and — Auderodias, Exaggeration of

Islands of Langerhaus in Offspring
of Glycosuric Mother. 255
Ducellier. F.. Polymorphism and Mon-
strosities in Desmidiaci ae, 73

— Desmid Flora of Switzerland, 74

— Polymorphism and the Moustrosities

in De?midiaceae, 201

— New Desmidiacese from Switzerland,

201

Duncan, F. Martin, Presence of Two
Spermathecati in the Rare Mole Flea
Hydrichopsi/Ila tnlpie, and the Flea
as Difftributor of a Tyroglypliid, 245

Dunkerly, J. S., Fish Myxosporidia. 398

Duvernoy, A., and H. Maire, New Species
of Dcraatise, 419

Dytiscus mirginalis, 41, 280

E

Eagle-Owl, Eye-muscles of, 387
Earthworm, (^regarine Parasite of, 251

— Regeneration in, 278

— Tropisms of, 48

Echinodermes. 214

Echinof^tomn revolutum, 393

Edwards, J. G., Flower and Seed of

Hedyosmum, 290
Eel with Left Eye in Lower Jaw. 30
Eisenmann, Hanna, Eyes of Gastropods, 37
Elasmobranchs, Secondary Sex Characters

of, 165, 388

— Taste-buds of, 258

Elenkin, A. A., Note on a New Alga,
Leptobasis caucasica mild, followed
by a Critical Revision of the Genus
Microchsete Thur., 73

Elliott, J. S. Bayliss, and H. C. Chance,
Conidia and Paraphyses of PeziciUa
eucrita Karst, 80

Elliott, W. T., Mycetozoa on the Midland
Plateau, 313

— and J. B. Elliott, Sequence of Fungi

and Mycetozoa, 211
Elm, Leaf-spots on the, 427
Elytra, Variability in Coloration of. 265
Emoto, Y., Relative Eflectiveness of Cross-

and Self-fertilization, 65
Enchytraeidse, 278
Enlovvs, Ella M. A., and Frederick V.

Rand, Lotus Leaf-spot caused by

Alternaria nelumbii sp. n., 310
Enock, Fred, Method of Mounting Heads

of Insects without Pressure, 141
Ephevieropsis tjihodenxis, 198
Equisetum arvense, 293

— Ct)ne and Fertile Stem of, 401

— Isevigatum, Ganietophytes of. 402
Eriksson, Jakob. Puccinia carich, 306
Etlieridge, R., Jun., Cambrian Trilobites,

47
Euglenu sanquinea, 72
Euphausid, Heart of, 182
Euphorbias, Flagellate Parasite of, 282
Eustheuopteron, Pectoral Fin of, 32
Evans, A. AV., Taxilejeunea ptero<jonia,AQb
Evernia prunastri, Sporulation of Gonidia

in the Thallus of, 427
Exobasidium. 209

Eye Defects, Transmission of Induced, 23
Eye-piece. Micrometer, 92

F

Fairman, Charles B., Ascomycetous Fungi

of Human Excreta, 79
— Fungi of Common Nuts and Pits, 424
Falconidae, Female Reproductive Organs

in, 27
Familler, F., Bavarian Liverworts, 69
Farr, W. K., Cell-division in the Pollen-
grain of Cobaea, 191
Fasc'ola, 392

Fats, Formation and Utilization of, 65
Faur6-Fremiet, Movements of Vorticella,
284

INDEX.

451

Faust. Ernest C, Kecent Advances in

Parasitolog-y, 387

— Larval Flukes from Georiria, 393
Felt. E. P., New African Gall-mi.lges,267
Ferdinand-seu, C, and O. Winge. Uromyces

AiraB-flexuosse, 421
Ferns. Anatomy and Cell-contents of, 19G

— Eusporan.i^iate, 402

— Malayan, 294

— of Jiorneo, 404

— of Papuasia, 294

— Stelar Theory of, 196
Ferris, H. B., The Neurone, 31
Feuerborn, Jacob, Scent-organ in Moth-
flies, 389

Fig, Bl'istophaga psenes of the, 269

Filaria baiierofti. 389

Firket, J., Function of Embryonic Kidney,

175
Fischer, Ed., Inheiitance of Susceptibility

of Sorbus Species to Gymnoriporangia,

306

— Mildew Disease on Prunun laurocerasus,

311
Fishes, Bony, Blood-formation in, 163

— Motor Nuclei and Eoots in Brain of, 31
Flagellate, New, with Trichocysts, 396
Flagellates and Algae of Birmingham

District, 74

— Insect, 397

— Movements of, 188

— New, 284

Fleischer, Max, Carl Miiller's Moss
Genera, 197

— Mosses of Papuasia, 1 98

— Ephemera J j^ is tjibodensis, 198
Fleiiiing, Nancy, and Aage Christian

Tiiaysen, Deterioration of Cotton in

"Wet Storage, 212
Florid ese, 411
Florin, R., Cuticle of Leaves in Conifers,

399

— Leaf-structure in Nilssonia, 401
'Flukes, Larval, from Georgia, 393
Flynn, T. Thomson, New Pycnogonids,

27H, 275
Ford, Iv, Leptocephalus Stage of Conger,
103

— Pyloric Cseca of Herring, 175
Fortman, J. P. De Guay, Vertebral
Jf Column of Megalobatrachus, ;iO
Fowl, Domestic, Hereditary Complex in,

27

— Haematopoietic Processes in Gonads of
^' the, 160

Fowls, Brachydactyly in, 27
Fragoso, R. G., New Uredine of the
Iberian Flora, 208

— a New Lophiostomaceae, 417
Franca, C, Flagellate Parasite of Euphor-
bias, 282

Eraser. F. C, Larva of Bhinocypha igni-
pennis, 269

Freundler, P., and Y. Manager, Laminarias

of the Brittany Coast, 414
Frog, Choi-oid Plexus in, 171
Fuller, Claude, Antennae of Termites, 268
Fungi and Mycetozoa, Sequence of, 211

— Ascomycetous, of Human Excreta, 79

— British, 82, 42r)

— Dumping-off, Methods of Direct Inocu-

lation with, 205

— Imperfecti, 80. 418

— from Malta, 423

" Spotted " Apples, 85

the Polish Trenches, 84

Tonkin, 422

Val d' Aosta, 424

Val S. Martiuo, 424

— Fructicolous, in Belgium, 307

— New Hampshire, 2li

— of North Caledonia and the Loyalty

Islands. 85

our Common Nuts and Pits, 424

the Malav Peninsula, 83

Wilkes Expedition, 212

— Parasitic on Scale Insects, 422

— Poisoning by, 426

— Porto Kican, 211

— Red Mildew, 83

— Significance of Sex and Nuclear Fusion

in the, 82

— Wood-destroying, 82

Fungus, Endophytic, of Lolium, 211

— Sjiores, Polarity of Germinating, 203
Fuscoporia, Two Species of, 210

G

Gage, Simon Henry, The IMicroscope :
Microscopic Methods and Histology,
99

Galaetinia amethystina (Phill.) Wakef., 79

Gall-nudges, New African, 267

Gape-worm, 51

Gastropod, African, Parasitic Protozoa in,
285

Gastropods, Eyes of, 37

— Frush-water, Growtli in, 263

— ■ Spermatogenesis in. 37

Gaiimann, Ernst, Distribution of Swiss
Peronospora Species, 205

Genes, Modifying, 40

Geoglossaceae. 417

George, \V. C, and H. V. Wilson, Sponges
of North Carolina, 59

Ghosh, Ekendranath, New Hypotrichous
Infusoria from Calcutta, 248

Giesenhagen, K., Gall-like Formation on
Antrojihyum semico!<(atuin Bl., 66

Giolitti, F., Relationship between Den-
dritic Structure and Ferrite Mesh, 98

GlcBtaenium loitlesbergerianum Hansg.,301

Gnathostomidae, 279

452

INDEX.

Gnetum, Embryo of, 290

Goat, Placenta of, 257

Goats and Sheep, Ovarian Grafts in, 257

Gola, G., HepaticsB of Katanga, 295

Goodrich, Helen L. M. Pixell, Spore of
Thelohania, 285

Gordius, 49

Gothlin, G. F., Ciliary Movements in
Beroe, 281

Grandi, G., Blastophaga psenes of the
Fig, 269

Granel. F., Striped Muscle of Puhnonarj
Veins of Rat, 258

Grapes, California, Fermentation Organ-
isms of, 210

Graptolites, Silurian, from Bornholm, 282

Grasshoppers, AVater-content and Meta-
bolism in, 270

Grave, Caswell, Teat Vesicles in Tunieates,
34

Gravely, F. H., Female of Cockroach
Alluaudtlla, 271

Gray, J., Effect of Ions on Ciliary Motion,
31

— Adsorption of Hydrogen Ions by

Living Cells, 175
Greek Flora : C. lichenes, 86
Grove, W. B., Mycological Notes, 84

— and others. Flagellates and AlgSB of

Birmingham District, 74
Griinhiigen's Spaces, 170
Guberlet, John E., New Trematode from

Frog's Bladder. 51
Guillaume, C. E., Effect of the Addition

of other Metals on the Plasticity of

Nickel Steel, 98
Guilliermond, A., Chondriome of Plants

and Pigment-formation, 63

— Cytopla^^m of Plant-cells, 189

— Zugoaaccharomyces paslori, 418

— and Pejn, Debari/omyceg KlockerU, 417
Guy6not, Emile, When does Reducing

Division Occur ? :!S5

— and A. Naville, Sporozoon of Grass

Snake, 188

Guyer, M. F., and E. A. Smith, Trans-
mission of Induced Eye Defects, 23

Gymnosporangia, Inlieritance of Suscep-
tibility of Sorbus Species to, 306

Gymnosporangium, Inlection of Crataegus
by, 208

Gynamlromorphs, Origin of, 38

H

Haas, Paul, and T. G. Hill, Chemistry of

I'lant Products, 100
Habronema in Horses, 48
Hadding, Assar. Silurian Graptolites from

Bornholm, 282
Haenseler, C. M., Growth of Aspergillus

niger, 418

Haining, H. I., Embryo of Gnetum, 290
Hammerschmid, A., Influence of Water on

Submerged Mosses. 295
Handling Small Objects in Microscopic

Preparations, 433
Handschin, E., Jura Protura, 272
Hara, Juta, and Yaichiro Okada, Myzo-

stonia, 391
Haremann, M., Phytomonadiniese (Volvo-

cales), 408
Harms, W., Prolongation of Life and

Vigour, 34

— Eyes ot a Cave Decnpod. 390

— Nerve Cord and Spindle Muscle of

Physcosoma, 390

Harper, R. A., Inheritance of Sugar and
Stanch Characters in Corn, 194

Harris. G. T., Fresli-water Algse of Devon-
shire, 74

— Desmid Flora of a Triassic District, 303
Harrison, Ross G., Transplantation of

Limbs in Amblystoma, 2.')4
Hartridge. H., Avoidance of Objects by

Bats in Flight, 173
Haswell, W. A., Australian Polychaeta, 183
Hau^hwuut, Fr;ink G.. and Fe S. Horril-

leno, Intestinal I'arasitt-s in One

Hundred Sick Filipino Children, 50

— and Stanton Youngberg. Tiypanosome

associated with Fatal Disease in the
Caraboa, 61

Haupt, Arthur W.. CTametophyte and Sex
Organs of Rebunlia hemisphsen'Ga, 294

Haviland. Maud D.. Lygocerus Hyper-
parasite of Aphidius, 41

Hayes, Catherine, 241

Hedera Aelix, I'arasitic Contamination of,
427

Hedgehog, Development of Supra-renal
Body of. 160

— New Cestodf in, ;!93

— Transformations of Hepatic Cell in, 169
Hedyosmum, Flower and Setd of, 290
Hegner, P.. W., Cytamoeba bacterifera iu

Red Blood Cells of Frog, 395

— Trypanof^oma dieniyciyli. 396

— and W. VV. Cort. I'arusites in Man, 280
Protozoan and other Parasites in

Man, 2b5

Heilbrunn, L. V., Experiments on Ovum
of Cumiugia, 263

Henneberg, W., Volutin, or the Meta-
chromatic Bodies in the Yeast Cell, 80

Hepatic, New, from Iberian Peninsula, 198

Hepaticae Baumgartnerianse Dalmaticae, 69

— of Katanga, 295
Hepatics, British, 295

Herdman, E. Catherine, Dinoflagellates
and other Organisms causing Dis-
coloration of the Sand, 187
Heredity in Rabbits, Rats and Mice, 26
Hermaphrodite Mammals, Ovotestis in,
257

fNDEX.

453

Heron-Allen, E.,and A. Earland, Experi-
ments on Verneuilina polystropjia
(Reuss), 285

Herring, Pyloric Caeca of. 17o

Herzog, M. A., Griinliagen's Spaces, 170

Ueterodera scJiachtii, Hereditary Resist-
ance to, 4y

Heterothallism and Similar Phenomena,
309

Heuser, C. H., Development at Opossum's
Stomach and Intestine, 159

Heven brazilienms. Fungus Flora of, 83

Hive-bees' Cell, Shape of, 178

Hiwatari, Kazuo, " Ul>er das Wesen des
Traclioms nebst einem Beitrag zur
normalen Histologie der Conjuuc-
tiva," 171

— "Zur Histologic der Gegend der

Oorneaspleralgrenze," 172
Hoare, C. A., Insect Flagellates, 397
Hoche, L.. and R. Morlot, Pseudo-parthe-
nogenesis in Human Ovum, 157
Hodgetts, William J., New Species of

Spirugyra, 74
Hogben, Lancelot T., Synapsis in Cock-
roach, 41

— Ongi-nesis in Hymenoptera, 177

— Spermatogenesis of Splienodon, 341
Hohuel, Franz von, Fungi Imperfecti,

80

Hollande, A. Ch., Distome Larvas in Gut-
wall of Dytitrus marginalia, 280

Holm, T., 3Iorphology of Cicer, 287

Holtwhihi, O., On tlie Occurrence of
Structures like Walcott's Algonkian
Algae in the Permian of E^ngland,
202

Honey-Bee, Fertilization in the, 37

Hookworms. 391

Home, A. S., Diagnoses of Fungi from
" Spotted " Apples, 85

— and E. V. Home, Spotting in Apples,

309

On the " Spotting " of Apples in

Great Britain, 3l)9

Horses and Cattle, Dental Star in, 170

Horst, C. J. van der, Jlotor Nuclei and
Roots in Brain of Fishes, 31

Hotson, J. W., New. Species of Exo-
basidium, 209

Hovasse, R.. Paiasomes in Pancreas of
Tadpole oi Ranu temporaria, 258

Howe, M. A.. Some Plants from Sea
Gardens, 305

Huber, G., (Jlcetaenium loitlesbergerianum
Hansg.. 301

Hughes, W. E.. " Slip-lines " and Twin-
ning in Electro-deposited Iron, 436

Hunt, H. R., Regeneration in Earthworm,
278

Huntingford, D. B., 15

Huntington, George S., Pulmonary Evolu-
tion in Mammals, 173

Hurd, A. M., Effect of Unilateral Mono-
chromatic liight and Group Oriente,-
tion on the Polarity of Germinating
Fungus Spores, 203

Hyalin lucida. Pulsating Organ in, 176

Hydra, New Sitecies of, 58

— oxijcnida, 185

Hydrogen Ions, Adsorption of, by Living

Cells. 175
Hymenomycetes,New or Little-known, 422

— French, 421

— Indian. 307

— New British. 422

— Records of Surrey Resupinate, 81
Hymenophyll um tutibridgense (Siii.), 403
Hymenoptera, Oogenesis in, 177
Byophila subcwullcda, 406
Hypomyces on Lactarius, 83
Eystrichopsylla talpse, 245

Illuminator, Microscope, 93

Infusoria Hvpotriehus. from Calcutta, 248

Infusorians, Vitality in. 61

Inocybe, Early Development of, 209

Insects, Fat-cells of, during Metamor-
phosis, 264

Ionic I'iiase of the Sea, 70

Iron and Steel, Rontgen Spectrographic
Investigations of, 436

— Electro-deposited, "Slip-lines" and

Twinning in, 436

— Solid Solution of Oxygen in. 436
Irwin-Smith, Vera, Nematodes of Domes-
tic Pigeon. 391

Isoachlya. a New Genus of the Sapro-

legniaeese, 4l6
Isopods of Natal, 276
Issel. Iv., Double-walled Sensory Setae in
Oxyrhyncha, 275

Jackson, Harold G., Fasciola, 392

Janet, Charles, I'hylogeny of the Ortho-
biont, 33

Jeifrey and Torrey, Physiological and
Morphological Correlations in Her-
baceous Angiosperms, 400

Jeflries. Zay, and K. S. Archer, Crystalline
Structure of Metals, 437

Jensen, C. O., Thyroi I Gland of Anura
in Relation to Metamorphosis, 161

Jewell, Minna E., Effect of Hydrogen Ion
Concentration and Oxygen Content
of the Water on Regeneration and
Metabolism in Tadpoles, 385

Jolmson, B. K., Polarizers for the Micro-
scope, 147

454

INDEX.

Johnson, John C, Echinostoma revoluttim,

393
Johnson, Marie E. M., Biology of Farms

stypticus, 81
Johnstone, R. B., Audibility of tiie Spore

discliarije in Otidea leporina, 425
Jolly, J., Blood-formation in Bony Fishes,

163

— Function of Lymphoid Tissue, 175
Jordan, H. E.. Giant-Cells of Bone-
Marrow, 169

— Striped Muscle of Wasp, 177
Jordan, H. J., Permeability of the Gut in

Crayfish and Snail, 45
Juday, Chancey. Larvae of Corethra punc-
tipennis, 267

— Fresh-water Anaerobic Ciliate, 284

K

Kaburaki, Tokio, Placocephalus javanus in
Siam, 50

— Notes on Japanese Triclads, 50, 51
Kathariner, L., Development of Digenic

Trematodes, 56
Kauffman, C. H., Agaricacese of Michigan,
309

— Isoachlya, a New Genus of the Sapro-

legniacese, 410
Keilin, D.. Supplementary Chromatic
Body in the Ciliate Maupasella nova,
187

— Saccharomycete in Dipterous Larva,

267
Keiszler, Karl von, 'Lichen Parasites and

Lichenoid Fungi, 312
Kern, F., Moss-flora of the Pyrenees, 70

Salzburg Alps, 70

Keucheiiius, P. E., Minute Structure of

Diptera, 40
Kidney, Embryonic, Function of, 175

— Tubule, Lipoid Content of, 174
Kidston, R., and W. H. Lang, Old Red

Sandstone Plants from the Rhynie
Chert., Jiliipim Gwynne-Vamjliani. 194

Asteroxi/lon MacJciei, 1 95

Killeriiian. S., Rare Pezizucese from
Bavaria, 79

— New Locality for Sarcosnma qlohosum,

79

Record for Folyporus montanus

Qu61et, 81

— Fungi frojii the Polish Trenches, S4
Kitchiu, Joseph, Llentificationof Bacteria,

378
Klein, E. J., Hymenophyllum tunhridqense

(Sm.), 403
Knight, H. H.. Lichens of the Minehead

District, 427
Knight, O. A., and H. B. Northrup, Effect

of Nitrogen on Steel, 435

Kobayashi Harujiro, Japanese Digenetic

Trematodes, 392
Kobel, F., Uromyces of Astragalus and

Cytisus, 420
Koczwara, IM., Phytojilankton of the

Dobrostany Ponds, 407
Kodo, R., Cnidosporidian Spores. 398
Koehler. E., Faune de France : I. Echino-

dermes, 214
Kofoid, C. A., and Olive Swezy, New

Intestinal Amoeba in Man, 395
KoUmann, Max, Female Reproductive

Organs in Falconidse, 27
Komai, Taku, Two Japanese Ctenophores,

282
Krieger, Louis C. C, Common Mushrooms

of the United States, 210
Kunkelia, 420
Kylin, H., Batracliospermum mondiforme,

76

— Biochemistry of Marine Algse, 305

— TilopteridefB. 413

— Fucosan Bladders of the Phseophycese,

415

Laboulbeniales of North Africa. 306
Lacsny, I. L., Bacillariese of the Jaszoe

Fish-ponds, 72
Lamellibranchs, Nutrition in, 176
Laniinaria. Plasmodial Parasite of. 395
Laminarias of the Brittany Coast, 414
Lamprey. Brook, Germ-cells of. 253
Langdon, L. M., Steni-anatomy of Dioon,

64
Langdon, S. C, and W. R. Gailey, Carbon

Monoxide a Respiration Product of

Nereocy»th Luetlienna, 204
Lange, Dan de, Develojtment of Japanese

Giant Salamander, 29
Lange, Mathilde M.. Regeneration of Arm

of Octopus, 34
Langerhans. Islets of. 107. 168, 255
Latliraea, 192

Latorre. C. C, Certain Species of Fresh-
water Algai new to the Spanish Flora,

200
Laurencia from Chile, New Sjiecies of, 303
Laurens. H., and S. R. Detwiller, Retina

of Alligator, 170

Eye ot Alligator, 387

Retina of I'hryno.soiue, 387

Leder, H., A "Blood" Lake, 406
Lehman, S. G., Soft Rot of Pepper Fruits,

205
Leigh-Sharpe, W. H., New Species of

Clavelhi on Cod, 47
— Secondary Sex Characters of Elasrao-

branchs, 165
in Elasmobranchs, 388

INDEX.

455

Leijden, C. E. Droogleever Fortuyn van,

Periodic Nuclear Division in the Cat,

258
Lemmermann, E., Algse in the Tubes of

Utricularia, 408
Leon, Walfrido de. New Balantidium, 59
Lepid'istrobus, Homosporous American,

401
Lepiota, New, from Brazil, 421
Leplat, G., Lena Formation and Cyclopia

in Tadpoles, 163
Leptobasig cauoasica mihi, 73
Lettau. I. C, Swiss Lichens. 86
Leucochluridium probleiuaticum, 53
Leyden, C. E. Drooj^leever Fortuyn-van,

Eel with Left Eye in Lower Jaw, 30
Lichen as Transmigrant, 213

— Life-cycle, 311

— Parasites and Lichenoid Fungi, 312

— Relation between tlie Alga and Fungua

of a, 87

— Symbiosis, 88

in SoJorina saccata Ach. and Solo-

rina crocea Ach., 312
Lichen-flora of Dalmatia, 86

— of Lower Austria, 86
Lichen-gonidia, Cultures of, 312
Lichenographic Notes, 86
Liclienology, Ten Years' Progress in, 428
Lichens, 428

— British, Handbook of, 312

— from Litau, 87

— Fruticose and Foliose, of North

Bohemia, 87

— Llanberis, 86

— Microscopical Structure of, 213

— of New Caledonia, 87

— of Painswick, 87

— of the Minehead District, 427

— of Sardinia, 214

— Portuguese, 88, 214

— Spanish, 88

— Sulphur, of Saxon Switzerland, 214

— Swiss, 8ti

Lienhart, R.. and P. Remy, Habits of

Argas reflexus, 182
Life and Vigour. Prolongation of, 34
Lima, J. A. Pires de, Transitory Poly-

daeiylism, 174
Limbs, Transplanting, 28
Limnafi» nilotica in Seistan and Afghan-

Baluch Desert, 278
Lindemann, E., Feridinium Giidrowiense

sp. n. and its Variant Forms, 70
Lingelsheim, A., Pyronema Iselissimum

Schrot. from Silesia, 79

— Hypomyces on Lactarius, 83

Lister, G., New or Rare Species of Myce-

tozoa, 313
Little. C. C, Piebald Spotting in Dogs,

24

— Heredity of Susceptibility to a Trans-

plantable Sarcoma, 25

Little, C. C, Susceptibility of Growth of

Transplanted Tumour, 173
Liverworts, Bavarian, 69
Lizards, Intestinal Protozoa from, 394
Lloyd, C. G., Mycological Notes, 84, 210,

423

— Geoglossacese, 417

Lohmann, H. — Coccolithophoridse, 71

— Plant and Animal Life of the High

Seas, 406
Loman, J. C. C, Structure of Pantopoda,

43
Lophiostomacese, New, 417
Loricella, Revision of Genus, 35
Los Angeles, Sixto de, and Anastacia

Villegas, Case of Human Synoph-
thalmia. 24
Lozano, E. D., Diatomiferous Deposits in

the Valley of Toxi. Ixtlahuaca,

Mexico, 202
Ludford, Reginald James, Contributions

to the Study of the Oiigenesis of

Patella, 1

— The Behaviour of the Nucleolus during

Oogenesis, with Special Reference to
the Mollusc Patella, 121

— and J. Bront6 Gatenby, Dictyokinesis

in Germ-cells, 386
Lundborg, H., Inheritance of Genotypical

Deaf-mutism, 25
Lung, Human Minute Structure of, 168

— Vertebrate, Histoloiry of, 169
Lygocerus Hyjierparasite of Aphidius, 41
Lyle, Lilian, Marine Algse of Guernsey,
. 77

Lymphoid Tissue, 175

M

MacDowell. E. C, Influence of Parental
Alcoholism, 167

— Bristle Inheritance in Drosophila, 179
Macewen, William, Growth and Shedding

of the Antler of the Deer, 99
McLean, Forman T., and H. Atherton

Lee, Resistance to Citrus Canker, 310
MftLennan, Ethel, Endophytic Fungus of

Lolium, 211
McRae, W., Phi/tophthora Meadii sp. n. on

Hevea bniziliensis, 79
Magath, T. B., Leucochloridium proble-

maticum, 53
Maiilefer. A., Anatomy of Eqtiigetum

arvense, 293
Maire, Rene, Comesia Sacc. 306

— Labonlbeniales of North Africa, 306

— New African Species of Ustilago, 306

— SchedsB ad Mycotliecam Boreali-

Africanum, 307

— Influence of Light on the Fructifica-

tion of an Agaric in Pure Culture, 308

456

INDEX.

Malkowska, J., Young Leaves of Angi-

opteris Teysmanniana, 403
Mammals, Pulmonary Evolution in, 173
Man. J. (t. de, Nematodes of Clean Earth,

48

— Parasites in, 280, 285

Mangin, L., Obituary Notice of Emile
Boudior, 423

— and P. Vim-ens, New Genus of Adelo-

mycetes, 419
Manson-Bahr, Philip, and N. Hamilton-

Fairley, Billiarziasis, 279 j

Mm'a$miu8 catdicinalis, Si '

Marcliel, El. and Em., Fructicolous Fungi

in Bt Igium. 307
Marin, L. C., A Spectrometer, 314
Markowski, Alfred, Bairytis chierea as

Parasite of JEculus parviflora Walt.,

85
Martiis. Luigi Cognetti de. Granular or

Basal Cells of Ovotestis of Snail, 263
Martin, H., Anatomy and Cell-contents of

F(-rii8, 190
Massalongo, C, Bryum reronense De Not,

404

— New Species of Aneura, 405
Massart, Jean, Movements of Flagellates,

188

— Stages ill Conjugation, 257

Massey, L. M., Losses due to Canker of

Rose, 310
MassoKpora cicadina Peck. 205
MaupaaeHa nova, 187
May, G. H.. I'diiigordius varius, 50

— Gordius robusia, 49

Mayer. A , Bacillariales from the Neigh-
bourhood ot Wiirzbers, 72

Mayor,Eug., Melampsora Ahieti-caprearum,
420

— Pucchtin Opizii, 420

Actaem-Elymi. 421

Mazza, A., Oceanic Alsology, 202
Megalobatrachus, Vertebral Column of, 30
Meggitt, F. J., New Tapeworms from the

Ostrich, 184, :^93

— Tapeworms of Poultry, 393

— New Cestode in Hedgehog, 393
Melampsora Ahieti-caprearum, 420
Melanotsenium, New Species of, 80
Mello, Froilano de, Parasitic Protozoa in

African Gastropod, 285
Mellor, Thos. K., Common Diatoms, 72
Mercia, Paul D., Monel Metal, 4H5

— Clieminal Properties and Metallography

of Nickel, 435
Mercier, L., Rectal Papillae of Panorpa,

180
Meringosphiera, 71
Marl, E. M., Segmentation of Apical Cell

and Position of the Leaves in Mosses,

68
Mermis Parasitic on Ants of the Genus

Lasius, 353

Mermod. G., Pulsating Organ in Hyalin

lucida, 176
Merriraan, Mabel L., Conjugation of

Spirogyra ternata, 74
Metallurgicid Specimens, Report on, 118
Metalnikow, S., Immunity in Caterpillars

of Wax-moth, 178
Metals, Bearing, 436

— Crystal Growth in, 435

— Crystalline Structure of. 437
Methods and Apparatus, 317

Metz, CJhas W., Simple Method for Hand-
ling Small Objects in Making Micro-
scopic Preparations, 433

— and Jose F. Nonidez, Spermatogenesis

in a Fly, 265
Microfungi, New or Rare, 83
Micromycetes from Piedmont, 424

— from Spain. 422

— of Val Germanasca, 424
Microscope in the Mill. 100

— Resolving Power of the, 96

— Standard Lund on, 90

— The, An Introduction to Microscopic

Methods and to Histology, 99
Microscopes, Mechanical Design of, 134
Microscopy. Critical, 214
Miles, L. "E., Leaf-spots on the Elm, 427
Millard, W. A., Common Scab of P(jtatoe8,

427
Miltztumoren, Morphologic der chro-

nischen. 171
Misra, C. S., Rice Leaf-hoppers, 269
Milium spinoi^tim, Dissymmetry of Struc-
ture of the Leaf of, 404
Moberg, J. C, Swedish Silurian Cirripedia,

276
Mole Flea, Cricket, Prothoracic Endo-
skeleton of, 272

— Spermathecse in the, 245

Holler. Hjalniar, Mosses in Sweden, 296

Monel Metal, 435

Monocystis, New Species of. 188

Moore, G. T., ami .1. L. Karrtr, Subter-
ranean Algal Flora, 303

Moreau, Fernand, Genus Kunkelia, 420

Moreau, M. et Mme. F., Lichen Symbiosis
in Solorina mccata Acli. and Solorina
crocta A(^li., 312

Chondriome of a Green Alga, Cocco-

mi/xa solorinx Chad., 410

Morgan, T. H.. ]Modifying Genes. 40

— and C. B. Bridges, Origin of Gynan-

dromorphs, 38

Second-Chromosome Group of Mu-
tant Characters in TJrosophila melano-
gaster, 39

Morphology, Stelar, Size a Neglected
Factor in, 291

Morteiisen, Th., Hermaphroditism in
Viviparous Ophiuroid.i, 281

Moss Genera, MuUer's, 197
I Mosses, Bahama, 405

INDEX.

457

Mosses from British East Africa, 296

— from the Kanara District, 405

— in Sweden, 296

— of Papuiisia, 198

— Segmentation of Apical Cell and

Posiiion of tlie Leaves in, 68

— Submerged, Influence of Water on, 295
Mos8-floia of the Eizgebirge, 198

— of Switzerland, 405

— of tlie Pyrenees, 70

— of the Salzburg Alps, 70
Moth-flies, Scent-organ in, 389
Moulds, Bread, Sexual Differentiation in

the, 206
Mucors, Sexuality in, 206
Miiller, G. W., Gurdius, 49
Muller, H. J., MutatioDS in Drosophila,

266
Murl)eck, S., Fern- hybrid Aspletiium

Euta-muraria L. x septentrionale (L.)

Hort'm., 67
MurriU, W. A., Two Species of Fuscoporia,

210

— Light-coloured Resupinate Polypores,

210

— Genus Tinctoporia, 210
Muslirooms of the United States, 210
Mycetex Boreali-Aiuericnni, 309
Mycilozoa, 313

Mycological Flora of Libya, 428

— Notes, 79, 83. 21U, 423, 424, 425, 426

— Ke.-eiirch in Veterinary Medicine, 426

— Transactions, 81
Mycolngy. British. 425
Mijcotlieca germanica, 426
Myxophyceae, 409
Myxosporiilia, Fish, 398
My z. (Stoma, 391

N

Naef, Adolf, Mediterranean Cephalopods,
262

— New Sepiolidae, 262

Nageotte, J., Pigmentation in Larvse of

Anura, 161
Nanniiplankton of Fresh Water, 406
Narchie indica. Uterus of, 163
NationHJ Physical Laboratory Eeport,

1919, 89
Naumaim, E., Euglena sanguined, 72

— Brown Colouring of Pond Water at

Aneboda, 70

— SyHtematics of Fresh-water Algae, 298
■ — Biology of Fresh-water Algas, 298

— Naniioiilaiikton of Fresh Water, 406

— Pliytoplaiikton and Progressive

*-G>tija" Formations, 407
Neal, A. V., Nerve and Plasmodesma, 255
Neger, F. W., Red Mildew Fungi, 83
Nematodes, Free-living, from Mountain

Lakes of Peru, 48

Nematodes from Elephants, 184, 391

— Gnathostoinid, 184

— of Clean Earth, 48

— of Domestic Pigeon, 391
Aereocyxtis Luetkeana, 204
Nerve and Plasmodt sma, 255

— Tumours, Hereditary Tendency to

form, 24
Neurone, The, 31
Newt, Grafting Eggs of, 162
Nicholson, W. E., New or Rare British

Hepatics, 295
Nickel Brasses, 435

— Chemical Propertiesand Metallography

of, 435

NicoUelidfe, 187

Nilsson-Ehle, H., Hereditary Resistance
to Heterodera schachtii, 49

Nilssonia, Leaf-structu'e in, 401

Nishikawa, Y., " Zur vergleichenden
pathologischen Morphologie der chro-
nischen Miltztumoren," 171

Noelli, Alberto, Micromycetes from Pied-
mont, 424

Nonidez, dose' F., Haematopoietic Pro-
cesses in Gonads of the Fowl, 160

Nucleolus, Behaviour of, during Oogene-
sis, with Special Reference to the
Mollusc Patella, 121

Nuttall, George H. F., Regeneration of
Mouth Parts and Legs in Ticks, 181

Nutting, C. C, Re!^piratory Organs of a
West Indian Laud Crab, 45

O

Oberhoffer, P., Oblique Fracture in Steel,

and Segregation, 98
Objective Changer, 93
Octopus, Regeneration of Arm of, 34
(Ecanthus, Hancock's Gland in, 389
Ogawa, Ch., Minute Structure of Human

Lumr, 168

— Histology of Vertebrate Lung, 169
Ohshima. Hiroslii, Reversal of Asymmetry

in Plutei of Echinus miliaris, 393
Oka, Asajiro, A Rare Salp, 261
Okada, \ aichiro, New Japanese Bryozoa,

278
Okkelberg, P., Germ-cells of Brook

Lamprey, 253
Olmbted, J. M. D., Influence of Nerve on

Tastt -cells and Regeneration in

Amiurus, 254
O'Neal, C. E., Microsporogenesis in

Datura, 64
Oniscoidea, 45
Onychopiiora, West Australian, 181

— Papil'ae and Ventral Cerebral Organ in,

272
Oogenesis of Patella, 1
Ophryotrucha ptierilis. Larva of, 277

458

INDEX.

Opisthopatus cinctipes. Salivary Glands of,
272

Opossum's Stomach and Intestine, De-
veLipiuent of, 159

Oppeiihiiiner, Frank, Suggestions Regard-
ing the Mechanical Design of Micro-
scopes, 134

Optical Instruments, Report of the Inquiry
Committee on the Standardization of
the Elements of, 99

Orban, Grete, Sexuality of Phycomyces
nitunx, 78

Ores and Metals, Examination of, in Polar-
ized Light, 97

Polarized Light in the Study of,

97

Orthiibiont, Phylogeny of the, 33

Oshima, Masamitsu, Formosan Termites,
43

Osmic Acid, Reduction by Lipoids, 15

Osmundites, Missing Link in, 292

Obtracuda, Foraminifera, and some Organ-
isms related to Oalcisphserae from the
Devonian of Germany, 329

Ostrich, New Tapeworms from, 393

Otidea leporina. Audibility of the Spore
Discharge in, 425

Overeen, C. van, Mycological Contribu-
tions, 83

Overhults, L. O., Some New Hampshire
Fungi, 211

Ovum, Human, Pseudo-parthenogenesis
in, 157

Oxidation, Changes in Intensity of, 387

Oxyrhxncha, Double-walled Sensory Setae
in, 275

Oysters, Green, 72

Padina, Alternation and Parthenogenesis

in, 77
Paludme Flora of Yverdon, 408
Pancreas during Pregnancy, Degenera-
tion of, 160, 175
Pancreatic Cells, Paranucleus of, 169
Pannrpa, Rectal Papillae of, 180
Pantopoda, Structure of, 43
Panus xtypticus, 81
Paragordius vaiius, 50
Parasites, Intestinal, 50
ParasitDlogy, 387
Panisomes in Pancreas of Tadpole of Rana

teiuporaria. 258
ParcoropKium excavatum in Brisbane

Rivtr, 276
Paris. P., Faune de France : II. Osieaux,

214
Parisnt, J., and P. Simonin, Extract of

Tapeworm, 185
Parker, G. H., Circulation of Water in

Renilla, 186

Parker, G. H., Movements and Lumine-
scence in Renilla, 281

— - Stichopus panimensis, 393

— Luminescence of Renilla, 394
Parsons, Anthony Frederick, Death of, 156
Partington, J. R., and D. B. Huntingford,

The Reduction of Osmic Acid by
Lipoids, 15
Pascher, A., Green Marine Plankton Alga,
Meringosphsera, 71

— Composition of Marine Phytoplankton,

71

— Asterocystis de Wildeman and Astero-

cystis Gobi, 199
Patch, Edith M., Aphids of the Rose and

other Plants, 42
Patella, 121
Patouillard, N., New Lepiota from Brazil,

421

— Fungi from Tonkin, 422

Patten, Mary W., Amicronucleate Race of

Didinium nasutum, 396
Paul, D., Marasmius cauticinalis, 81
Paulson, R., Lichens found near Pains-
wick, 87

— Microscopical Structure of Lichens, 213

— Sporulatiou of Gonidia in the Thallus

of Everina prunadri, 427

— Ten Years' Progress in Lichenology in

the British Isles, 4i.8

— and SomerTille Hastings, Relation

between the Alga and Fungus of a

Lichen, 87
Peacock, A. D., Larva of Ophryotrocha

puerilis, 277
Pearse, A. S., and Henrietta Achtenberg,

Study of Yellow Perch, 260
Pearson, A. A., New British Hymeno-

mycetes, 422
Pectinatella, Larval Colonies of, 57
Peindarie, Jean, Smooth Muscle Fibres of

Central Suprarenal Vein, 168
Penard, E., Strombidium viride, 61
Pennington, L. H., and others. Investiga-
tions of Crunartium ribicola in 1920,

420
Pepper Fruits, Soft Rot of, 205
Perch, Yellow, 41
P6rez, C, Animals Associated with

Spondylus, 176

— Association of Tubularian and Sponge,

186

— Fat-cells of Insects during Metamor-

phosis, 2t)4
Peridinieae, New Species of, 199

— Polish Fresh-water, 407
Peridinium Giistrotoiense sp. n., 70
Peroiiospora Species, 205
Pestalozzia, 417

Petch, T., Fungi Parasitic on Scale
Insects, 422

Petersen, C. G. J., Green Oysters in Den-
mark in 1911-12, 72

INDEX,

459

Petrak, F., Mycological Notes, 426
Petronievica, Branislav, Pectoral Fin of

Eustlienopteroii, 32
Peyronel, B., Fun^i from Val S. Martino,

or Valle della Germanasca, 424

— ]\Iicromycetes of Val Germanasca, 424
Pezizacese from Bavaria, 79
Pha!0]3hyce8B, Fucosan Bladders of, 415
PMebutomus perniclosus, Spirochsetes in,

285
Phoma sp. Parasitic on Cupressus in South

Africa, 311
Phomopsis Parasitic on the Douglas Fir, 207
Phrynosome, Retina of, 387
Phyculogical Contributions, 78
Fhycomyces uitens, Sexuality of, 78
Phyllitis hybrida, 197, 293
Phyllobothrium, Indian Species of, 280
Physcosoma, Nerve Cord and Spindle

Muscle of, 390
Phytomonadiniese (Volvocales), 408
Phytophthora Meadii sp. n. on Hevea

braziliensis, 79
Phytoplankton and Progressive " Gyttja "

Formations, 407

— from Lake Wigry, 297

— Marine, 71

— of Dobrostany Ponds, 407

— of Inland Lakes of Wisconsin, 200

— of Norwegian Lakes, 29(i

Pictet, Arnuid, Variations and Modifica-
tions, 388

Pier Andrea Saccardo, 311

Pierantoni, Umberto, Luminescent Bacteria
in Cephalopods, 262

I'igeon, Endolympliatic Sac and Canal in,
259

Pilobolus, 416

Piiius pomhrosa, Cenangium Abietis on, 426

— Strobus infected by Cronartium o-ibicola,

2U8
Placocephalus javanus in Siam, 50
Planarians, Eyes and Orientation of, 51
Plant and Animal Life of the High Seas,

406

— Injuries and Diseases in Connecticut,

212

— Products, Chemistry of, 100
Plant-cells, JMorphological Constitution of

Cytoplasm of, 189
Plants, Disease-resistance in, 425

— from Tropical Sea Gardens, 305
Plant-world of Upper Swabia, 75
Platyzoma microphyllum. Stele of, 195
Pleuronectids, Eye Displacement in, 30
Plough, Harold H., Effect of Temperature

on Crossing-over in Drosophila, 180
Plutei of Echinus miliuris, Reversal of

Asymmetry in, 393
Poisson, R., New Gregarine from Sand-
hopper, 285
Polariscope for Dissecting and Pocket
Microscopes, 149

Polarizers for Microscope, 147
PolyclisBta, Australian, 183
Polyclads, New Japanese, 51
Polydactylism, Transitory, 174
Polyporacese, 421

— of Bengal, 422

Polypores, Light-coloured Resupinate, 210
Polyporus dri/adeus on Conifers in North-
West America, 209

— montanus Quelet, 81

Pomace-fly, Egg-laying Reactions in, 179
Poplar Canker, 426

— Longhorn, 264

Popovico-Baznosanu, A., Growth in Fresh-
water Gastropods, 263

Porocephalus, New Species of, 185
Porphyridium cruentum Naeg., 200, 409
Portevin and (Jarvin, Quenching of Carbon

Steels, 97
Portmann, Georges, Endolymphatic Sao

and Canal in Pigeon, 259

Organ of Batrachlans, 260

Potatoes, Common Scab of, 427

Pettier, J., Dissymmetry of Structure of

Leaf of Mniuni spinosum, 404
Poultry, Tapeworms of, 393
Povah, Alfred H. W., Attack of Poplar

Canker following Fire Injury, 426
Prankerd, T. L.. Slatocytes of Wheat, 64
Prashad, B., Uterus of Narcine indica,

163
Pratt, J. S., Mr. Fred Enock's Method of

Mounting Heads of Insects without

Pressure, 141
Prenant, A., Pigmentation of Tadpoles,

162
Pringault, E., Spirochsetes in Phlebotomua

perniciosus, 285
Procter, Joan B., Variations of Pit Viper,

32
Protula meilhaci, Ciliated Crown of

Trochosphere of, 276
Protura, Jura, 272
Prunus laurocerasus. Mildew Disease on,

311
Pseudocolus javanicus (Penzig) Lloyd, 308
Psoroptes, Capitulum of, 390
Pteridophyta, Gymnospermse, Monocotyle-

donese, 67
Pteridophytes from Baden, 67
Puccinia Actaeas-Elymi, 421

— caricis, 306

— grarninis. Behaviour of Telia of, 209

— Opizii, 420

— Pruni-spiHOsas Parasitic on Apple and

Uromyces Terebenthi on Pistacia Vera,

421
Pycnogonid, New, 275
Pycnogonids, New Anstralian, 273
Pyronema Isetissimum Schrot. from Silesia,

79
Pythium Disease of Ginger, Tobacco and

Papaya, 84

460

INDEX.

Q

Quagliariello, G., Blood of Marine

Animals, 259
Queen-Bee, Insemination of, 37

K

Kacovitza, E. G., Asellidse, 46

Kadau, Bruno, Wood-distroying Fungi, 82

Kamsbottom, J., Calitorniau Bees, 425

— Britisli Mycology, 425

Eansom, B. H., Life-iiistory of Gape-worm,

51
Kaphidiura, R. spirochroma, "200
Eat, Striped Muscle of Pulmonary Veins

of. 258
Ratljl)un, Annie E., Methods of Direct

Inoculation with Damping-off Fungi,

205
Eat'a Ovary, Post-natal Development of,

158
Eawdon, H. S., and others. Metallography

of Arc-fused Steel, 97

Arc-fused Steel, 435

Eea, Carleton, New or Eare British Fungi,

82

DiscoinyoetsB, 417

Beboulia hemisphxrica, (iametophyte and

Sf^x Organs of. 294
Reisinger, L., Eodent Brains. 32
Eenilla, Circulation of Water in, 186

— Luminescence ot. 394

— Movements and Luminescence in, 281
Eennie, .1., and Christina H. SutherLmd,

Taihmid Parasite of Crane-fly, 389
Eeport ot Biological Section, 1 17

— of Inquiry Committee on Standardiza-

tion of Elements of Optical Instru-
ments, 99

— 071 Metallurgical Specimens presented

by Dr. J. E. Stead, 118

Eeptiles, Anterior End of Notochord in
Eml)ryos of, 160

Eesin-seoreting Glands in some Austra-
lian Plants, 288

Eesolution, Notes on, 373

Eetterer, E., Dental Star in Horses and
Cattle, 170

— and S. Voronoff, Carunculi in Uterus

of Shcip and Goat, 256

— — < (varian Grafts in Goats and Sheep,

257

— — Placenta of Goat. 257

Eeverdin, L , New Plankton Species of
E.iphi linm, B. spirochroma, 20U

— New Genus of Algae {? Desnddiacete)

Clo'<teri(iiipira, 201
Ehiil)di)s|)ora Miill.-Arg., 85
RhiiKicypha ignipeiinis. Larva of, 269
Ehizopoda and Heliozoa, British Fresh-
water, lUO

Rhynia Gwi/nne-Vmtghani, 194

Rice Leat-hoppers, 269

Riker, A. J., Ohondriomes in Chara, 410

Ritchie, Walter, Poplar Longhorn, 264

Riza, AH, Fuccinia Pruni-spinosas Parasitic

on A.pple and Uromyces Terebenthi on

Pistacia Vera, 421

— New Diseases of the Almond. 427
Roberts, J. W., Clitocybe Kudorifica as a

Poisonous Mushroom, 209
Robinson, L. E., Malformations in Ticks,

181
Eock-barnacle. Early Development of, 46
EoU, J , Moss Flora of tlie Erzgebirge, 198
Rjse, Canker of, 310
Rose, S. R., Indian Hymenomycetes, 307
Rosen, H. R., Behaviour of Telia of

Fuccinia graminis in the South, 209
Rosenbaum, J., ftlacrosporium Foot-rot of

Tomato, ^4
Ro8ent)urgh, C. R. W. K. van Alderwerelt

van. New or Interesting Malayan

Ferns, 294
Rosenvinge, L. K., Blarine Algse recently

introduced into Danish Waters, 304

— Spiral Arrangement of Branches in

some CalliihaniniesB, 412
Roule, Louis. Scales of Twait Shad as

Indices of Growth, 260
Rousselet, Chailes Frederic, Deatii of, 382
Runnstrom, Osmotic Pressure and Egg-

membr.ine in Salmonidse, 253
Rust of Onion, 209
Rusts on Ribes, 208

S

Saccardo, P. A., Mycetes Boreali-
Americani, 309

— Fungi from Malta, 423

— Notre M yculogicsB, 424

— Fungi from Val d' Aosta, 424
Saguciii. S.. Minute Structure of Langer-

hans's Islits, 168

SalamaLider. Dovelopment of Japanese
Giant, 29

SalmoiiidsB, Osmotic Pressure and Egg-
membrane in, 253

Salp, a Rare, 261

Sampaio, Gonpalo, New Portuguese
Lichens, 88

— Spanisli Lichens from the Willkomm

Herbarium, 88

— Portuguese Lichens, 88

— New Portuguese Li«-hen8, 214
Sandhof.per, New Giegarine from, 285
Saproh gnia, Spurocyst in a Species of, 204
tiarcocy^tU tenella, 62

Sarcoma, Transplantable, Heredity of

Susceptibility to, 25
Sarcoptes, 390
Sarcosoma glvbosum, 79

INDEX.

461

Sartory, A., and L. Maire, Basidiomycetes,

307
Sauvageaii, C, Cystoseiras of Banyuls and

of Guetbary, 413

— Heterogamie Sexuality of a Lamiuaria

(Alaria esculenta), 414
Savelli, Martino, Two Species of Pesta-
lozzia, 417

— Septo!<p(irium Ferrari sp. n., 418
-- Ustilaginese of Etruiia, 419

— Tuscan Uiediuese, 420

— Mycological Notes, 425

Scales of Twait Shad as Indices of Growth,
260

Schade, A., Mean Annual Thermal Life-
Conditions of Webera nutans and of
Leptiisci/phus Taylnri in the Elbe-
sandstone Mountains, 199

— Sulphur Lichens of Saxon Switzerland,

214
Scbaeffer, Asa A., Reactions of Ama^b8e,187
SchedsB ad Mycotbecam Boreali-Africa-

num, 307
Scbiflfnur, V., Hepaticse Baumgartnerianse

Dalmaticaj, 69

— Algffl of the Adriatic, 77
Schistosomes, Human, Eggs and Miracidia

of, 55

Schitz, Victor, Spermatogenesis in Gastro-
pods, 37

Sclilenker, J., Plant-world of Two Moor-
land Areas in Upper Swabia, 75

Schiuid, G., Hormogouial Cyanophyceae
of the Middle Saale Valley, 73

Schroder, B., Phytoplaukton from Lake
Wigry, 297

ScientiHc Instruments, Dictionary of
British, 214

Sderotinia cinerea, Pectin Relations of, 206

— Uhertiana, Infection by, 417

— Mespili Schell, Conidial Stage of, 206
Sculoplo^ arrniger, 47

Scott, James, The Microscope in the Mill,

100
Scott, John W., Sarcocystis teneJla, 62
Sea-urchin, Regeneration of Arms in, 58
Seaver, F. J., North American Species of

Discina, 207
Selachian Embryo, Irritability of, 163
Selagiuella, Genus, Anatomy of the, 66
Semisi)aying, Hypertrophy of Remaining

Ovary after, 159
Sepia, Liver Ferments of, 262
Sepiolidfe, New, 262
SeptosjMrium Ferrari sp. n., 418
Sergent, E., and A. Donatien, Temperature

of New-bom Camels, 174
Sertularella, New Species of, 282
Setchell, W. A., Marine Algse, 415

— Steuothermy and Zone-invasion, 415

— and N. L. Gardner, Phycological Con-

tributions, 78
Chlorophycese, 78

Seurat, L. G., Stronqylaeantha glycirhiza,

279
Sheep and Goat, Carunculi in Uterus of,

256
Sheppard. E. J., A New Method of Treat-
ing and Mounting Celloidiu Sections,

20
Sifton, H. B., Xylem Tissue in Cycads,

287
Silkworm Characters, Inheritance of, 38
Silkworms, Action of Centrifugal Force

on, 178
Silverman, Alexander, A New Microscope

Illununator, 93
Simulium Larva from Mountain Stream

in Java, 266
Skottsberg, C, Splachntdium rugosum

Grev., 202

— Botanical Results of the Swedish Ex-

pedition to Patagonia and Tierra del

Fuego, 1907-9, 305
Sloan Objective Changer, 93
Small, W., Species of Colletotrichum and

Phoma in Uganda, 310
Snialley, O., Effect of Iron on Brass, 97
Smith, A. Lorrain, Handbook of British

Lichens, 312

— Lichens, 428

— and J. Ramsbottom, New or Rare

Microfungi, 83
Smith, Christianna, Lipoid Content of

Kidney Tubule, 174
Smith, G. M., Phytoplaukton of the

Inland Lakes of Wisconsin, 200
Snail, Granular or Basal Cells of Ovotestis

of, 263
Snell, W. H., Chlamydospores of Fames

officinalis in Nature, 422
Sokolowsky, A., Large Size of Abyssal

Animals, 33
Sordelli, A., Increase in Quantity of Anti-
bodies, 388
Soulier, A., Ciliated Crown of Trocho-

sphere of Piotula meilhaci, 276
Southwell, T., and B. Prashad, Indian

Species of Phyllobothrium, 280
Speare, A. T., Massospora cicadina Peck

205
Spectrometer, 314
Spectropolariscope, Projection, 314
Spermatogenesis in Fly, 265

— in Orvet, 158

— of Sphenodon, 341

Speyer, Walter, Pharyngeal Musculature

Larvae of Dyfiscus marginalis, 41
Sphagna, British, 296
Sphagnum subKecundum, Sporopliyte of, 68
Sphenodon, Auditory Apparatus in, 161
Sphinx convolvuli. Circulation in, 178
Spiders, Movements of Heart and of

Breathing in, 274
Spinal Cord, Transplanting Sections of,
386

2 I

462

INDEX.

Spirogyra, New Species of, 74

— ternata. Conjugation of, 74

Spitta, Edmund Jolmson, Death of, 153
Sphichnidium rugosum Grev., 202
Spleen, Human, Fibrillar Keticulum of
the, 167

— Mammalian, Development of, 158
Spondylus, Animals Associated with,

176
Sponges, 59

— Irish, S94

— of North Carolina, 59
Sporozoon of Grass Snake, 188
Squirrel, Red, of North America as a

Mycophagist, 82
Staehelin, M., Cytology and Systematic

Position of Porphijridium cruentum

(Naegcli), 200
Stankovitch, S., New Coccidia from

Cyprinid Fishes, 188
Starfishes. Abnormalities in, 58

— Anomalous, 57

Stead, J. E., Solid Solution of Oxygen in

Iron, 436
Steel, Arc-fused, 97, 435

— during Fabrication, Defects arising in,

97

— Effect of Nitrogen on, 435

— Nickel, Effect of the Addition of other

Metals on the Plasticity of, 98

— Oblique Fracture in, 98
Steels, Carbon, Quenching of, 97
Steinecke, F., Algse of the Zehlauhruch,

75
Steiner, G., Free-living Nematodes from

Mountain Lakes of Peru, 48
Steiner, J., New Buellise, 86
■ — Lichenographic Notes, 86

— Greek Flora : C. Lichenes, 86
Stenothermy and Zone-invasion, 415
Stephens, Jane, Irish Sponges, 394
Stephenson, T. A., Genus Corallimorphus,

186
Stevens, F. L., New or Noteworthy Porto

Rican Fungi, 211
Sticliofus pnnimensis, 393
Stockard, Charks R., Developmental Rate

and Structural Expression, 166
Stomata, Internal, in Fruits. 65
Stopes, M. C, Missing Link in Osmun-

ditcs, 292
Stotz, R., Microstructure of Malleable

Oast-iron, 98
Str0m, K. M., Fresh-water Algge from

Caucasus and Turkestan, 75
from Tuddiil in Telemark, 75

— Phytoplaukton of Some Norwegian

Lakes, 296

— Algological Notes, 299

— Algse from Hot Springs in Spitzbergen,

300
Stromhidium riride, 61
Stromjijlacantha ghjcirhiza, 279

Sturtevant, A. H., Inherited Linkage

Variations in Second Chromosome of

Drosophila, 40
Stylet Cercaria, Excretory System of, 53
Subramaniam, L. S., Pythinm Disease of

Ginger, Tobacco and Papaya, 84
Sunier. A. L. J., Simulium Larva from

Mountain Stream in Java, 266
Suprarenal Body in Man, Musculature of

Central Veins of the, 168
Svedelius. N., Florideaj, 411
Swedish Expedition to Patagonia and

Tierra del Fuego, 1907-9, 305
Sydow, Mycotliera germanica, 426
Synophthalmia, Human, 24

Tadpoles, Lens Formation and Cyclopia
in, 163

— Pigmentation of. 162

— Regeneration and Metabolism in, 385
Taliaferro, AV. H., Eyes and Orientation

of Planarians, 51
Tapeworm, Extract of, 185
Tapeworms from the < Jstrich, 184
Tardigrada, Minute Structure of, 185
Taxilejewnea pterogonia, 405
Taylor, Monica, "and Catherine Hayes,
The Technique of Culturing Anioebm
proteus, 241
Teleosteaus, Pelagic and Early Bottom

Stages of, 163
Teodoro, G., Variability in Coloration of

Elytra, 265
Terao. Arata, Hancock's Gland in

CEcantlius, 389
Termites, Antennae of, 268
— Formosan, 43

Terroine, E. F., Formation and Utiliza-
tion of Fats in Germination and
Matuiation, 65
Thaxter, Roland, New Dimorphomycetese,

207
Thallus der Kalkflechten, 213
Thelephom terrestiisa, T. fimbriata, and
T. caryophyllea on Forest Tree Seed-
lings, 308
Thelohania, Spore of, 285-
Thiel, G. A., and H. Downey, Develop-
ment of iNIammalian Spleen, 158
Thilo, Otto, Eye Displacement in Pleuro-

nectids, 30
Thorn, Charles, and Margaret B. Church,
Aspenjillus flavus, A. Onjzx and
Associated Species, 306
Thomas, H. E., Infection of Apium gravo-

leut< by Septoria Apii, 207
Thompson, John McLean, Stele of Flattj-

zuma mierophyllum, 195
— Stelar Theory of Ferns, 196

INDEX.

463

Thorn, 0., and Margaret B. Church,
Aspergillus flavus, A. Oryz,v, and
Associateil Species, 418

Ticks, Malformations in, 181

— Eegeneration of Mouth Parts and Legs

in, 181
Tilletia Tritici, Cytology of, 419
Tilopteridese. 413
Tinctoporia, 210

Tomato, Macrosporium Foot-rot of, 84
Toni, G. B. De, and others, New Species

of Laurencia from Chile, 30?)
Torrey, G. S., Goronilla nivea Crouaii and

Cunninghamella echinulata Thaxter,

426
Torry, H. B., Physiological Analysis of

Behaviour, 33

— Pier Andrea Saecardo, 311

Travers, G. B., Micromycetes from Spain,

422
Trematode from Heron, 392

— New, from Frog's Bladder, 51
Trematodes, Digenic, 56

— Japam-se Digenetic, 392
Tremor, Inheritance of, 25
Tridads, Japanese, 50, 51
Trilobites, Cambrian, 47

Trotter, A., Tilletia on Aira capillaris, 419

— Mycological Flora of Libya, 423
Trijpanosoma diemi/cti/li, 396

Try panosome associated with Fatal Disease

in the Caraboa, 61
Tubularian and Sponge, 186
Tumour, Transplanted Growth of, 173
Tungsten Steels, Structure of, 437
Tunicates, Test Vesicles in, 34
Turritella cuminunis, Double Spermatozoa

in, 263
Twin Births, Heredity of, 256
Twins, Polydactyl Negro, 25

— Eesembiauce and Difference in, 26

U

Uplioflf, J. C. Tb., Anatomy of the Genus

Selaginella, 66
Uredinales of California, 209
Uredine, New, of the Iberian Flora, 208
UredinesB, New Species of, 207

— Tuscan, 420
Urocystis cepulte, 419
Uromyces Aira;-flexuosa3, 421

— of Astragalus and Cytisus, 420
Ustilaginese of Etruria, 419
Ustilago, New African Species of, 306
Uterine Glands in Man, 157
Utricularia, Algse in the Tubes of, 408

Vein, Central Suprarenal, Smooth Muscle
Fibres of, 168

Verhoeff, Karl W., Oniscoidea, 45
Verne, J., Melanin in Crustacea, 183

— Carotin of Crustacea, 183

— lied Pigment of Crustaceans, 183
Verneuilina poly^tropha (Reuss), 285
Verrucariacese of Central Europe, 85
Viper, Pit, Variations of, 32
Viviparous Opbiuroids, Hermapliroditism

in, 281
Volutin, or the Metachromatic Bodies in

the Yeast Cell, 80
Vomer, The Urodele, 32
Vorticella, Movements of, 284
Voss, Hermann Von, New Species of Mono -

cystis, 188
Vouk, v.. Ecology of Phyllitis hybrida, 197,

293

— Thermal Water of Croatia and Sla-

vonia, 300

— Fresh-water Alga) of Croatia, 302

— Ferruginous Cyanophyceae, 302
Vuillemin, Paul, New Therniophile Stocks

of Aspergillus- Glaucus, 418

W

Wager, Harold, Significance of Sex and
Nuclear Fusion in the Fungi, 82

Wailes, G. H, British Fresh-water Pihizo-
poda and Heliozoa, 100

Wakefield, E. M., (Jalaetinia amethystina
(Phill.) Wake!'., 79

— Fungi of North Caledonia and the

Loyalty Islands, 85

— and A. A. Pearson, Records of Surrey

Resupinate Hymenomycetes, 81
Walcott, C. D., Cambrian Geology and

Palaeontology, Middle Cambrian

AlgjB, 202
Walker, Elda R., Gametophytes of Equi-

setum Ixvigatum. 402
Walker, J. C, Rust of Onion followed by

a Secondary Parasite, 209
Walker, Leva B., Cyathus fascicularis,

G. striatus, and Crucibulum vulgare,

212
Wallengren, Hans, Respiration in Dragon-
fly Larvse, 42

— Tracheal Air in Dragon-fly Larvae, 269
Warburton, Cecil, Nest of Solitary Wasp,

Crabo cephalotes, 38

— Sarcoptes, :!90

Waren, H., Cultures of Lichen-gonidia,

312
Wasp, Striped Muscle of, 177
Water, Thermal, of Croatia and Slavonia.

300
"Water-bloom," The Story of a, 73
Watson, W., & Sons, Ltd., Catalogue of

Microscopes, 429
Weber, A., Anterior End of Notochord in

Embryos of Reptiles, 160

4B4

INDEX.

Weber, A., Grafted Embryos of Bombina-
tor, 161

— Grafting Eggs of Bombinator, 162
of Newt. 1G2

Webera nutans and Leptosci/phus TayJori,

199
Weir, J. K.. Polyjjorus diyadeus on

Conifers in Nortli-West America, 209

— Tlielephora terrestris, T. fimbriata, and

T. caryophyllea on Forest Tree Seed-
lings, o08

— Cenangiuin Abietis on Pinus ponderosa,

426
Welch, Paul S., Enchytraeidse, 278
Weiiyon, C. M., Intestinal Protozoa from

Lizards, 394
Westgren, A., Eoutgen Spectrographic

Investigations of Iron and Steel, 436
AVheat Scab in Pennsylvania, 310

— Statocytes of, 64

Wheldon, J. A.. New British Sphagna,
296

— and W. Watson, Llanberis Lichens and

District. 86
Whitehead, T., Urocydis cepulx, 419
Whiteley, J. H., Cupric Etching Eflfects

produced by Phosphorus and Oxygen

in Iron, 436
Wilder, Inez Whipple, The Urodele

Vomer, 32
Willaman, J. J., Pectin Relations ofSclero-

tina cinerea, 206
Willem, v., Movements of Heart and of

Breathing in Spiders. 274
Williams. R. S., Hyophila subcucullata,

406
Williams, S. R., Larval Colonies of Pec-

tintaella, 57
Wilson, A. R., Defects arising in Steel

during Fabrication, 97
Wilson, H. v.. Sjiecies and Sponges, 59

— Genera in Sponges, 59

Wilson, Malcolm, New Species of Phomop-
sis Parasitic on the Douglas Fir, 207

— New or Rare British Funt;i, 425
Wilson, 0. T., Crown-gall of Alfalfa, 205
Wintrebert, P., Irritability of Selachian

Embryo, 163

— Myotomic Contractions in Dogfish

Embryos. 255

— Influence of Sea-water on Myotomes

and Heart of Dogfish Embryos, 256

— Neuromerlsm and Metamerism in Dog-

fish, 260

Wolfe, J. J., Alternation and Partheno-
genesis in Padina, 77

Woloszynska, J., New Species of Peri-
diniese. 199

— Algal Flora of Litau, 300

— Polish Fresh-water Peridinieae. 407
Woodland, W. N. F., New Species of

Porocepbalus, 185

Woodruff, L. L., and Hope Spencer, Sur-
vival of Conjugation, 395

— Effect of Conj ugation on Division Rate,

396
Woodward, Henry, Death of, 381
Wormold, H.. Occurrence in Britain cf

the Ascigerous Stage of a " Brown

Rot " Fungus, 206
of the Couidial Stage of Sdero-

tinia Mespili Schell. 206
Wright, F. E., Polarized liight in the

Study of Ores and Metals, 97

— Examination of Ores and Metals in

Polarized Light, 97

— Sensibility of Eje in Resolving Power

of Microscope, 96
Wyeth, F. R., Development of Auditory
Apparatus in Sphenodon, 161

Yamada, Schinichiro, New Mosquitoes
and Filaria bancrofti, 389

Yanianouchi, S., CoralUna officinalis var.
mediterranea, 411

Yeri, Megumi, and Tokio Kaburaki, New
Japanese Polyclads, 51

Yoshinaga, Tanzo, Blood-vessels in Am-
phibia, 255

Z

Zahlbruckner, A., Rhabdopsora Miill.-
Arg., 85

— Lichen-flora of Lower Austria, 86

of Dalmatia, 86

Zimmermann, W., Pteridophytes from

Baden, 67
Zirpilo, G., Regeneration of Arms in
Asterina gibbosa, 57

— Abnormalities in Arras of Asterina

gibbosa, 57

— Anomalous Specimens of Asterina

gibbosa, 57
Starfisiies, 57

— Abnormalities in Starfishes, 58

— Three Madreporic Plates in Astropecten

aurantiarus, 58

— Partial Regeneration in Astropecten

aurantiacus, 58

— Anomalous Yovvasoi Astropecten auran-

tiacus, 58

— Regeneration of Arms in Sea-urchin,

58

— Luminous Animals, 259

— Rare Anomaly in Astropecten auran-

tiacus, 28IJ
Zschacke, H., Verrucariaceae of Central

Europe, 85
Zygosaccharomyces pastori, 418

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