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JOURNAL OF THE TRANSACTIONS 


fee veacwORTA INSTITUTE. 


VOL, XXXV. 


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AMLMAILE O1GTI 


JOURNAL OF 


THE TRANSACTIONS 


The Victoria Institute, 
Phuosophical Society of Great Hritamn, 


EDITED BY THE SECRETARY. 


VOR 7 XXXY. 


LONDON: 
(Published hy the Institute, 8, Adelphi Terrace, Charing Crogs,'UU.C.) 


ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 


1903. 


LONDON: 
HARRISON AND SONS, PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY, 
ST. MARTIN’S LANE. 


CONTENTS, 


PAGE 

THe ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING HELD [N THE HOUSE OF THE 
Society oF Arts, Monpay, June 15, 1903. Sir JosEru 
Farrer, Bart., K.C.S.1., M.D., F.R.S. (Vick-PRESIDENT), IN THE 
CHAIR» .:., sais site shi bs es ays Baia ity 9 


THIRTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT nen Seay ee eats Sosa) ee 


THE ANNUAL ADDRESS, ON “THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATION OF Eeyprt.” 
By Proressor W, M. Fuinvers Pertriz, D.C.L. ... Sis ie: Ue 


SPEECHES BY— 


THE CHAIRMAN. 
Likut.-CoLoNEL MAcKINLAY. 
Dr. THEOPHILUS PINCHES. 
THE Rev. Joun TUCKWELL, 
AND THE SECRETARY. 


SKETCH OF THE CAREER OF THE LATE PRESIDENT, SIR GEORGE 
GABRIEL STOKES, Bart., F-R.S., D.C.L., LL.D. .... ue oye LA 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. By THEUPHILUS G. 
PincHEs, Esq., LL.D., M.R.A.S. __.... fs seed eae Shey el OY 


Tue Discussion. REMARKS BY— 


THE CHAIRMAN, Davip Howarp, Esq., D.L. 
Mr. W, St. Cuap Boscawen. 

Mr. Martin L. Rouse. 

PRoFEssoR LANGHORNE ORCHARD, B.Sc. 
Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D. 

Rev. Joun TUCKWELL. 

THe AvutTHor’s REPLY AND NorTE. 


THE Future oF ISLAM. 


D.Litt. 


CONTENTS OF VOL. XXXV. 


Tue Discussion. REMARKS BY— 


THE CHAIRMAN, Rev. Dr. WALKER. 
PROFESSOR ORCHARD. 
Lirut.-CoLONEL MACKINLAY. 

Mr. J. Hitt Twice. 

Dr. HERBERT LANKESTER. 

Mr. MITCHELL. 

Mr. Martin Rouse. 

THE SECRETARY. 

Mr. CHARLES ODLING. 


CoMMUNICATIONS FROM— 
Rev. CHANCELLOR Lias. 
Rev. G. F. WHIpDBoRNE. 
Dr. THomas CHAPLIN. 
AND Mr. S. T. Kien. 


THE AryA SamaJ. By Rev. H. D. Griswoip, M.A., Px.D. 


Tuer Discussion. REMARKS BY— 


THE CHAIRMAN, GENERAL J. G. HALLIDAY. 
THE SECRETARY. 

GENERAL ROBINSON. 

Proressor L. ORCHARD. 

Mr. Martin L. Rouse. 


PAGE 


By Prorrssor D. 8S. MARGOLIOUTH, 


eece 


DEATH OF THE PRESIDENT, Sir G. G. StokgEs. RESOLUTION OF 
CoNDOLENCE BY THE COUNCIL ve sees Sp ais 


On THE UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GROWTH. 
By Prorsssor Lionet S. Beauz, F.R.C.P., F.R.S. roe 


THE Discussion. REMARKS BY— 


Tue CHAIRMAN, Davip Howarp, Esa. 
Rev. Dr. WALKER. 

Dr. Woop-Smy nu. 

Rev. A. K. CHERRILL. 

Mr. Martin Rovse. 

Rev. JoHn TucKwEeELu. 

PROFESSOR ORCHARD. 


57 


92 


108 


110 


CONTENTS OF VOL. XXXV. Vil 


PAGE 
THE FUNERAL OF THE LATE PRESIDENT. STATEMENT OF THE 


SECRETARY ae Ha sae “as re he sind OE 


THE CHEESEWRING, CORNWALL, AND ITS TEACHINGS. By Proressor 
Epwarp Hott, LL.D., F.R.S. (Secretary) sin ona nxe LAO 


THE Discussion. REMARKS BY— 


Dr. Logan Jack, F.G.S. 
Mr. Davip Howarp. 
Rev. Dr. WALKER. 
REPLY BY THE AUTHOR. 


Tre New PREsIDENT—THE LoRD CHANCELLOR nee see icon boo 
STATEMENT BY THE SECRETARY .... bes site Le 2 sth ee ee 


RESOLUTION ELECTING Davip Howarp, Esq., D.L., F.C.S., Vicz- 
PRESIDENT IN THE ROOM OF THE EARL OF HALSBURY .... . 1b6 


THE Gtorious REVELATION TOUCHING THE CREATION OF THE 


Wor.tp. By Cavauizre G. Jervis, F.G.S. (ABSTRACT)... sin 156 
THE WATER SuPPLY OF JERUSALEM. By Mr. Ernest W. G. 

MASTERMAN. LETTHR TO THE SECRETARY aes a in LD 
REPLY BY GENERAL Sir C. W. Witsox, K.C.M.G. .... fee oe GM 


THE Discussion. REMARKS BY-— 


THE CHAIRMAN, Mr. Davip Howarp. 
Mr. Martin Rouse. 
Mrs. Finny. 


THE SECRETARY. 


MopERN THEORIES CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY Scrip- 
TURE. By Rev. Joun TuckweE.1, M.R.AS. _..... a te LOT 


THE Discussion. REMARKS BY— 


THE CHAIRMAN, Rev. CANoN GIRDLESTONE, M.A. 
Mr. Martin Rovse. 

Dr. THEOPHILUS G. PINCHEs. 

Dr. A. T. SCHOFIELD. 

Proressor F. J. Canny. 

THE SECRETARY. 


ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIP OF THE VOLCANOES OF THE 
West Inpies. By Prorrssor J. W. Spencer, M.A., Pu.D., 
F.G.S. No. I. (Wits Mar or THE West Inp1An IsLAnps).... 198 


‘Vill . CONTENTS OF VOL. XXXV. 


PAGE 
Voucanic ACTION AND THE West InpIAN Eruptions oF 1902. 
By Prorsssor J. Logan Losuey, F.G.S. (No. II.) .... one 208 


Discussilon—REMARKS BY THE SECRETARY. 


REPORT ON THE CONGRESS OF ORIENTALISTS HELD AT HAMBURG IN 
SEPTemMBER, 1902. By Turopuitus G. Pincuss, Esq., LL.D., 
MARJASSi ONO. Ty ae RU gee merino fee Oy Uae et 


Laws oF THE BABYLONIANS, AS RECORDED IN THE CODE OF 
Hammurasl. (No. II.) By tHe same AUTHOR... ser vas \Ot 


Discussion. AND REMARKS BY— 


THE SECRETARY, Proresson Epwarp HULL. 
Dr. T: CHAPLIN. coe 
Sir Henry Howorrn, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Mr. Martin Rouse. | 

Rev.'S. STEPHAN. 

Rev. Joun TUCKWELL. 

PROFESSOR ORCHARD. 

REPLY OF THE AUTHOR. 


LECTURE ON EXPERIENCES IN SourH AFRICA DURING THE WAR. 


By Rev. W. H. Frazmr, D.D. oe aba men oe Mera 13.2 
A DiscussioN ENSUED 1N WHICH THE CHAIRMAN, COL. 
MACKINLAY, AND OTHERS TOOK PART sie oe ess wren BOO 


Tue Livine Gop or Living NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE SIDE. By 
Proressor LioneL 8. Breas, F.R.C.P., F.R.S. .... tees wee 268 


THE Discussion. REMARKS BY—- 
THe CHAIRMAN, Rev. G. F. Wuipsorne, M.A. 
Mr. Martin Rouse. 
BRIGADE-SuRGEON J. RoBinson. 
Rey. J. TuCKWELL. 
THE SECRETARY. 
CoMMUNICATIONS FROM— 
Lorp GrimtHorPE, LL.D. 
Rev. J. Ratt, M.A. 
List oF Orricers, MremBerrs, ASSOCIATES, ETC. ee me eee 


*,* The Institute's object being to investigate, it must not be held to endorse 
the various views expressed at its meetings. 


PREFACE. 


ao ee 


N the preparation of this Volume of the Journal of 
Transactions, I have to express my acknowledgments 

to the Authors of the papers for the pains they have taken 
to render the published matter as free from inaccuracies as 
possible. I would also esteem it a favour if Members and 
Associates would not only send communications on subjects 
they think interesting and suitable for bringing before the 
Institute, but also suggest titles of such subjects, and the 


names of persons they consider qualified to deal with them. 


EDWARD HULL, 


Secretary and Editor. 
August 1st, 1903. 


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ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. 


HELD AT THE HOUSE OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, 
MONDAY, JUNE 15, 1903. 


Sir Josepn Fayrer, Bart., K.C.S.1., M.D., F.R.S. (Vice-President), 
IN THE CHAIR. 


The CHAIRMAN.—Ladies and gentlemen, I think my first duty is 
to apologize to you for being here, but the demand upon the time of 
the recently elected President, on important matters in the House of 
Lords, has prevented him from attending. The accident of my being 
the senior Vice-President here, has placed me in the position of 
having to perform a duty for which I feel very unfit. However, I 
must ask you to accept me, as graciously as you can, as a substitute 
for the very distinguished noble Lord who was to have addressed 
you. 

I will now call upon the Secretary to read the last Annual 
Report. 

The SECRETARY (Professor Epwarp Hui, LL.D., F.R.S.).— 
Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, before I proceed to read the 
Report, I have to communicate to you a letter of apology which I 
have received from our President, the Lord Chancellor, through his 
Secretary, for his absence on this occasion: ‘“ Dear Sir, the Lord 
Chancellor desires me to say that he would have wished very much 
to have occupied the chair as President of the Victoria Institute on 


2 ANNUAL MEETING. 


this occasion, at the Annual General Meeting on Monday next, but, 
unfortunately, he will be prevented from doing so by the fact that 
he has to take his seat on the Woolsack in the House of Lords at 
that very hour, yours faithfully ; R. C. Norman (Secretary).” 

While regretting the absence of his Lordship, we must take care, 
on a future occasion, to make the hour convenient for him to be 
present. 

I have also letters of apology from Professor Lionel Beale, 
Dr. Chaplin, Sir Fowell Buxton, and Mr. David Howard, Vice- 
President, who is on the Continent. 


The SECRETARY then read the Report, as follows :— 


1. In presenting the Tutrry-SeveytH Annuat Repor7, the 


Council have the pleasure of stating that the Institute has had, 
on the whole, a successful session, and that the financial eon- 
dition is satisfactory. We entered the year 1902 with a balance 
of £6 3s. 1ld.; whereas we commenced the present year with a 
balance of £33 1s. 9d., all claims having been paid. This 
satisfactory position of our finances is due to the plan which has 
been adopted of paying all bills as they fall due, and to the 
exercise of economy in management. 

2. As regards Membership. The Council regrets a falling off 
in the number of annual members and associates, probably due 
to the severe monetary pressure of the past year; while there is 
a slight increase in the number of life members and associates. 
This decrease is more apparent than real, as it had been the 
practice in past years to allow names to remain for a long time 
after the subscriptions had ceased to be paid, with the hope that 
the subscribers would renew their subscriptions in the future 
year—a hope sometimes happily realised. The list now 
presented may be considered as approximately correct. The 
following is the statement of the numbers of the constituency 
of the Institute at the end of May last :— 


Life Members rhe ae ... 46 in number. 
Annua! ia Pr: Poe 2352) ALGh ss 
Life Associates or id el 69 - 
Annual Associates ... = wus 400 fs 
Hon. Corresponding Members and 

Associates ih mA oe lene, * 


Total 884 


ANNUAL MEETING. > 


3. The following is the new list of the Officers and 
Council :— 


President. 
The Right Honourable The Earl of Halsbury, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. (Lord Chancellor). 


Vice- Presidents. 


Sir T. Fowell Buxton, Bart., K.C.M.G. 

Sir Joseph Fayrer, Bart., K.C.S.I., M.D., F.R.S. 

Professor Lionel S. Beale, F.R.C.P.. F.R.S. 

W. H. Hudleston, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Alexander McArthur, Esq., D.L., J.P. 

The Ven. Robinson Thornton, |).D., F.R.Hist.S., Archdeacon of Middlesex. 
David Howard, Esq., D.L., F.C.S. 


Honorary Correspondents. 
The Right Hon. Lord Kelvin, Past P.R.S. 


Professor A. Agassiz, D.C.L., F.R.S. Professor Maspero (Paris). 
Professor Etheridge, F.R.S. Professor Fritz Hommel, Ph.D. 
Professor E. Naville (Geneva). Professor A. H. Sayce, D.D., LL.D. 


Honorary Auditors. 
J. Allen, Esq. | Lieut.-Col. Mackinlay, late R.A. 


Honorary Creasurer. 
Edward Stanley M. Perowne, Esq. 


Secretary and Editor of the Journal. 
Professor Edward Hull, M.A., LL.D., F.B.S. 


Council. 
(In Order of Election.) 

Rev. Principal James H. Rigg, D.D. Lieut.-Colonel Mackinlay, late R.A. 
Maj. Kingsley O. Foster, J.P., F.R.A.S. Theo. G. Pinches, Esq., LL.D., M.R.A.S. 
Ds eHoward,)Esq:,, DLs, B:CiS:, E.1-C., f-c: Ven. Archdeacon W. M. Sinclair, M.A., D.D. 

(Trustee). Gerard Smith, Esq., M.R.C.S. 
Rey. Dr. F. W. Tremlett, D.D., D.C.L., Ph.D. Commander G. P. Heath, R.N. 
Very Rev. Dean Wace, D.D. (Trustee). Rev. Canon Tristram, M.A., D.D., LL.D., 
Rey. Chancellor J. J. Lias, M.A. F.R.S. 
Gen. G. S. Hallowes, f.c. (H.S.). Rev. G. F. Whidborne, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.. 
Rev. F. A. Walker, D.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Lieut..Gen. Sir H. L. Geary, K.C.B., R.A. 
Capt. E. W. Creak, C.B., R.N., F.R.S. Walter Kidd, Esq., M.D., F.Z.S. 
Thomas Chaplin, Esq., M.D. Edward Stanley M. Perowne, Esq. 
Rev. Canon R. B. Girdlestone, M.A. Martin Luther Rouse, Esq., B.L. 
General Halliday. Rey. R. Ashington Bullen, M.A., F.G.S. 


Rey. John Tuckwell, M.R.A.S. 


Lieut.-Colonel G. Mackinlay has been appointed Hon. 
Auditor in succession to General G. S. Hallowes, who for 
several years generously gave his services in this position, and 
to whom the thanks of the Council and Members are hereby 
accorded. 


4, Deaths. 


The Council regret to have to record the death during the 
past year of the following supporters of the Institute :— 
Rev. J. Angus, D.D. (Member of Council), Rev. Canon J. Baker, J.P., 


F.L.S., J. Hall Gladstone, Esq., D.Sc., F.R.S., Very Rev. Dean E. A. 
Hoffman, D.D., Charles Meldrum, Esq., C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., 


4, ANNUAL MEETING, 


Rev. Canon.G. F. Maclear, D.D., Fleet Surgeon J. L. Palmer, F.R.C.S., 
Rev. A. C. Rowley, M.A., H. M. Simons, Esq., Major-General James A. 
Steel, Lieut.-Colonel A. R. W. Sedgefield, M.B., Prof. R. Virchow, Sir 
George Gabriel Stokes, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S. (President of the Institute). 

The most severe loss to the Institute in the above list of 
deceased Members, all of whom were distinguished either in 
Church or State, has been that of our late President, Sir George 
Gabriel Stokes, who for eighteen years presided over the 
counsels ot the Institute, and as long as health and other 
engagements permitted, took an active and personal interest 
in its affairs. As a short account of our late President’s career 
will appear in the forthcoming volume of the Transactions, it 
is unnecessary to add anything further here on the subject of 
the Presidency of the Institute, except to say that it is a 
matter of great gratification to the Council to announce the 
acceptance of the office. cf President by the Lord Chancellor, 
the Earl of Halsbury, whom we had hoped would be our 
Chairman on this occasion. 


dD. Finance. 


The income of the Institute for the past year was 
£865 10s. 6d., and the expenditure £832 8s. 7d., leaving a 
balance of £33 1s. 9d. to come into this year’s account. The 
interest on the Gunning Fund no longer forms an asset to the 
income of the Institute. 


6. MEETINGS. 


The Meetings of the Institute have been well attended, 
and the subjects dealt with have been of the usual varied 
character, and may be arranged under the following heads :— 


1. History. 


“The Babylonian Story of the Creation.” By TuHropnitus G. 
Pincuss, Esq., LL.D. 


2. GEOLOGY. 


1. “On the Cheesewring of Cornwall, and its Teachings.” By 
Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S. (Secretary). 
. “On the Geological Conditions of the West Indian Volcanoes.” 
By Professor J. W. SpENcER, Ph.D., F.G.S. 
3. “On Volcanic Action, with special reference to the recent 
eruptions in the West Indian Islands.” By Professor J. Logan 
Losey, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 


3. BIBLICAL. 


1. “On Modern Theories concerning the Composition of Holy 
Scripture.” By Rev. Joun Tuckwe tu, M.R.A.S. 


i) 


ANNUAL MEETING, 5 


4, BIOLOGICAL. 

1. “On the unseen Life of our World, and of Living Growth ; 
Design Human and Divine.” By Professor Lionet §. BEALE, 
ELE.S. E.B.C-P. 

2...“ The Living God of Living Nature from the Science side.” By 
the same author. 

5. SclENCE AND RELIGION. 


1. “The Future of Islam.” By Professor D. S. Marcoxiouts, 
D.Litt. 

2. “The Arya Samaj, or the Reform Movement in India.” By Rev. 
H. G. Griswoup, M.A., Ph.D. 

3. “Report on the Congress of Orientalists held at Hamburg.” 
By Tueo. G. Pincues, Esq., LL.D. 


6. GENERAL. 


1. “On the New Water Supply of Torino. By Dr E. W. 
GuRNEY MASTERMAN and General Sir C. W. Witson, F.R.S. 

2. “Experiences in South Africa during the War.” By Rev. W. H. 
Frazer, D.D. 


7. The Journal of Transactions. 


The thirty-fourth volume of the Journal of Transactions 
has been circulated to almost all parts of the world; 
certainly to all countries under the British Empire, and 
frequent expressions of the value in which it is held have 
been received. Of persons connected with our Society, about 
74 belong to the United States of America, 40 to India, 14 to 
Australia, 12 to Canada, about the same number to New 
Zealand and South Africa. It is hoped that as this last-named 
dependency returns to conditions of tranquillity under the 
Crown, that the Journal will be more widely circulated there. 


8. Conclusion. 


The balance sheet for the year ended 31st December, 1902, 
is herewith appended; and the Council desires to record its 
thanks to the contributors of papers, and to its supporters, 
trusting that they will endeavour to enlist the sympathy and 
support of their friends. ‘The Council feels satisfied that it 
only requires such efforts to increase the numbers and extend 
the influence of the Institute. 


Signed on behalf of the Council, 
HALSBURY, 
President. 
A resolution confirming the appointment of Lieut.-Colonel Mackinlay 


as Hon. Auditor in succession to General Hallowes was then put to the 
Meeting from the Chair and carried unanimously. 


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ANNUAL MEETING. 7 


The CHAIRMAN.—Ladies and gentlemen, I am sure you must have 
listened with great interest to this terse, but very expressive Report. 
It is most satisfactory to know that this admirable Institution is 
making such steady progress. Its objects are so excellent that 
everyone must sympathize with it, and it is very gratifying and 
satisfactory to know that so eminent and distinguished a man, from 
many points of view, has now undertaken to be its President. He, 
indeed, has succeeded others of equal eminence in different walks of 
life, but it is desirable and it is very satisfactory that he should have 
accepted the office, and I hope, under his auspices, that the Institute 
will increase and continue to increase and to develop for the useful 
purposes for which it was founded by the late Earl of Shaftesbury. 

I need not attempt to make any further remarks at present, for 
there is a matter of much more interest to you, viz., a paper to be 
read by Professor Flinders Petrie. (Applause.) 

General HALLIDAY.—I am asked to propose, Mr. Chairman, ladies 
and gentlemen, that the Report which has now been read and which 
most of you have in your hands, be adopted and printed and 
circulated amongst the members and associates of the Institution. 
It is, after all, but a formal motion and. yet there is value even in 
what is but formal. What we do desire and what we want everyone 
present to do is to help us to spread a knowledge of what is being 
done by this Institution, and to increase interest in it. Therefore, I 
think I may appeal to all here present to signify their approval of 
the Report as it has been read, so that it may be widely distributed ; 
and, friends, you can all help us in increasing the interest which I 
feel, and I suppose most of you here feel, to be due to the work 
which is undertaken by this Institute. 

The Rey. Canon GIRDLESTONE, M.A.—Sir Joseph Fayrer, ladies 
and gentlemen, I am very glad to second this resolution that has 
been moved by General Halliday. 

I think we have reason to congratulate the officers of the Society 
upon the healthy condition of the Institute. 

I think there is one sentence which is most healthy—I mean the 
sentence which has in it a remarkable air of novelty in the first 
paragraph : “‘ This satisfactory position of our finances is due to the 
plan which has been adopted of paying all bills as they fall due.” 
There is such a sweetness and novelty in the phrase of paying bills 
directly they are due! Iam glad the Institute has adopted that 

B 


8 ANNUAL MEETING. 


course and perhaps, in our domestic financial arrangements, we may 
do the same. 

The resolution was then put to the Meeting and carried 
unanimously. 

Colonel ALvES.—I have been asked to move and I have much 
pleasure in moving the following resolution :— 


“That the thanks of the members and associates be presented 

to the members of Council, their officers, and auditors, for 

their efficient conduct of the business of the Victoria 
Institute during the year.” 


I have nothing to say, and I would not take up your time by 
saying it if I had, but I have very great pleasure in moving the 
resolution. 

Professor ORCHARD.—I have much pleasure in seconding this 
resolution—not, indeed, that it requires any seconding, for it speaks 
for itself. Every Society must be very much dependent, necessarily, 
on its Council, honorary officers, and auditors ; but a Society of this 
kind is, I suppose, especially so. It arranges for a course of papers, 
such as will be acceptable, and at the same time useful and beneficial, 
to those who hear them, and a course of papers which connects 
science and philosophy with the Christian religion is not, I take it, a 
very easy task. It requires a knowledge of science and theology— 
it requires, also, a knowledge of men ; and it requires, also, wisdom 
not only theoretical but practical. How far the Council and 
honorary officers have succeeded in this I think you will not have 
much difficulty to determine if you refer to the last paragraph of 
page 4 of the Report. Certainly those who have had the pleasure 
of hearing or reading these papers will have had no difficulty 
whatever in giving their most warm and sincere thanks to those 
who have arranged the list of papers. I would, if I might be 
allowed, congratulate the Society on the succession of Lord Halsbury. 
At the same time I must say we all regret, exceedingly, the occasion 
that has led to his being President. I would ask you all to join with 
me in the tribute of admiration (which has been already expressed) 
to our late President, Sir George Gabriel Stokes, as a scientist who 
recognized the Creator of the universe, and was not ashamed to 
declare his convictions. No man stood higher than Stokes as an 
investigator of Nature—and our regard and affection has been 


ANNUAL MEETING. g 


enhanced by the fact that he was a Christian who was not ashamed 
to acknowledge Christ. (Applause.) 

I have much pleasure in seconding this resolution. 

The resolution was put to the Meeting and carried by 
acclamation. 

The CHAIRMAN.—I will now call on Dr. Kidd. 

Dr. WALTER Kipp.—On behalf of the Council and officers I beg 
to thank you for your resolution. 

The CHAIRMAN.—It is now my pleasant duty to call on 
Dr. Flinders Petrie for hisaddress. (Applause.) You will probably 
anticipate the nature of the subject on which he is going to address 
you. 


The Annual Address (illustrated by lantern slides) was then delivered 
by Professor W. M. Furnvers Perris, D.C.L., as follows :— 


THE ADDRESS. 


IntRopucTion.—The essential difference between medizval 
thought and modern thought is that the medieval scholar 
dealt with what ought to be according to the premises and 
convictions with which he started; the modern student deals 
with what 7s, having learnt by bitter experience the fallacies 
and hopelessness of trusting to systems of theory however 
beautiful. The further we go with Nature the more we learn 
that @ solution need not be the solution, that a deduction which 
may seem certain enough for the known facts, may be modified 
or even reversed by unknown facts not yet even imagined, 

Hence we must carefully separate between the physical facts 
that we have to deal with, and the framework of theory into 
which they may be fitted. The facts must remain, however 
much our appreciation of them may be modified by new facts, 
which may contradict our suppositions. The man who argues 
that there can never be any solution of the facts but that 
which seems inevitable to him is as truly a medievalist as 
Cosmas Indicopleustes. 

And repeatedly we find that new materials and new views 
which seem to have led us completely away from the old 
ground, only bring us back to a different side of the past 
battlefield. Freewill and fatalism are likely to be just as 
severely felt, as harshly dominant in debate, when reached by 

B 2 


10 ANNUAL MEETING. 


aggressive materialism in the twentieth century as when fought 
over by aggressive Calvinism in the sixteenth. 

We must then never think that we have got rid of an 
essential question by turning to a fresh ground of research with 
new materials and outlooks. 

Fully recognizing this limitation of our deductive powers, 
and knowing that no root-questions are avoided by opening a 
new field, it is in this spirit that I would state as simply as I can 
the new facts which have to be taken in account concerning man. 

The view of man’s nature as a scientific study can only be 
reached from observation; and the longer a series of obser- 
vations are, the more we can draw from them. Again, the less 
complex the causes are, the more truly can we see the results. 
For both these reasons that course of civilization which is the 
longest and the earliest is the most valuable as material for study. 

Till ten years ago we knew nothing of early civilization. In 
Egypt and in Greece, thousands of years of changes were 
entirely hidden from us, which we can now follow and compare. 
There has never been such an extension of the knowledge 
concerning man as in the last decade; for the opening of 
prebistoric man to our view fifty years ago gave no such 
complete picture, capable of joining at all points with our’ 
existing order of things, and carrying back an unbroken view of 
detail over nearly ten thousand years. 

To clear our position it may be said that I do not attempt 
now to enter on arguments on chronology. That alone is an 
immense subject, and I cannot at this point deal with the 
reserves of those—if there be any present—who can conceive of 
all historic and geologic man being limited by 4004 B.c. or by 
5503 B.c. To all who realize that such limits are the expression 
of partial knowledge, I would say that it is as serious to exceed 
the deductions from the Septuagint by a century as it is to 
stretch to myriads or millions of years. It is Just as much a 
sacrifice of truth to take the shortest possible periods as the 
longest possible; and the only true course is to follow what 
seems to be nearest to the facts. Without then going into any 
detail, I may say that we know by records of observations the 
dates at 1500 B.c. within very close limits. Before that we 
have the skeleton of history recorded back to about 4700 B.c. ; 
and the recent discovery that the detailed yearly annals of a 
thousand years were engraved in 3700 B.c. shows what a solid 
basis there was for writing the early history. Before the 
historic times all we can say is that in a large district that we 
have studied, the graves are certainly more than half as 


ANNUAL MEETING. ll 


numerous as those belonging to the 5,000 years of history ; and 
therefore to allow 2,000 years for this much less civilized 
period is the least that is likely. 

The illustrations which were shown at the Annual Meeting 
dealt with four divisions of the early civilization. The 
mechanical ability was illustrated by the working of vases of 
the hardest stones, the brilliant skill in flaking flints, the 
pottery and its succession of forms which enable the graves 
to be classified into different ages, and the rise of stone 
working for masonry in the historic times. The artistic skill 
was shown from the earliest age of rude drawing which has 
no features, through the ivory carvings of the prehistoric age, 
down to the incoming of the dynastic race whose slab carvings 
show a far higher power which culminates in the figure of 
an aged king of the first dynasty lately found, a figure which 
has never been excelled in Egypt. The ideas and _ beliefs 
were illustrated by the great amulets of the sacred serpent to 
hang in the houses, and by the prevalence of four antagonistic 
theories of the future which belonged to different races. The 
power of recording was demonstrated by simple marks of 
ownership on, pottery in the early prehistoric age, the 
abundance and variety of such marks, and their continuity 
through the later ages, until they were crystallized into an 
alphabetic system by the Phcenician numeration for trade 
purposes. Probably they were first personal,then expressed ideas, 
then words, and lastly syllables and letters. This system on the 
Mediterranean shores is far older than the hieroglyphs, which 
were brought in by the dynastic race ready developed, probably 
from the east. The hieroglyphic writing was first used only to 
label pictures, and during the first dynasty it develops from 
mere titles into a more structural form of language. 

On each side of man’s activities we can now trace continual 
fluctuation of advances and stagnations, which gradually lead 
from the man clad in goat skins up to the powerful rulers of a 
highly organized kingdom, full of technical skill and artistic 
powers.* 


* The remainder, and principal portion of the address, consisted of a 
description of a large number of lantern slides thrown on the screen, 
illustrating the results of Professor Petrie’s operations in Egypt during 
the past season ; the most interesting, perhaps, of the antiquities being a 
statuette of Cheops carved in ivory with the name legibly engraved on 
the statuette itself. This great monarch, it will be recollected, was the 
builder of the Great Pyramid, and the face of the statuette indicates that 
of a man of strong will, capable of carrying out so colossal a work. 


12 ANNUAL MEETING. 


The CHAIRMAN.—Ladies and gentlemen, it is my duty now—and 
a very pleasant duty it is—to call on Colonel Mackinlay to offer to 
the lecturer our thanks, as I know you will all desire, for his 
extremely interesting and charming lecture in which he has taken 
us, in this short time, through a period of some 8,000 years. I will 
not say anything on the subject, but will call on Colonel Mackinlay 
to do so. 

Lieutenant-Colonel MAcKINLAY.—-It is my pleasant duty to 
propose the following resolution, that “the best thanks of the 
Institute be offered to Professor Flinders Petrie and to those who 
have read papers during the session.” You have already heard of 
the papers that have been read, and I think I may justly say they 
have been splendidly crowned by the lecture we have just heard. 
We have been told it is only during the last ten years that this 
subject has been investigated, and we have had the pleasure of 
hearing some of the very oldest history from one of the foremost 
leaders of this branch of research. I have, therefore, much pleasure 
in moving this resolution, which I am sure we shall pass with the 
greatest unanimity. 

Dr. THEOPHILUS PINCHES, on rising to second the resolution, said : 
It is needless for me to say that I have very great pleasure in 
seconding the vote of thanks which Lieutenant-Colonel Mackinlay 
has proposed. As one who knows something of the subject, I must 
say that I found this lecture most interesting and instructive, and 
whilst listening to it and to all the wealth of information it brings, 
I cannot help thinking that the subject which I represent 
(Assyriology), with all its wealth of inscriptions, cannot furnish, by 
any means, the same amount of information, and, naturally, one 
looks forward and asks oneself whether Assyria and Babylon will 
ever be so fruitful. The climate, undoubtedly, was against the 
preservation of objects in Babylonia, but still it is possible that 
something may be found. These lessons that we get from such 
simple things as household utensils and pots—it is quite a revelation 
when one sees them depicted in succession of time on the screen ; 
and when speaking of these simple things to which Professor Petrie 
has referred us, I certainly think of all the theories which have been 
brought forward, that concerning the origin of the alphabet is the 
most promising. We do not know, it is true, the value of these old 
marks which he has thrown on the screen; but I fully expect that 


ANNUAL MEETING. 13 


when their value is known we shall find that they confirm the theory 
that he has brought forward. (Applause.) 

The resolution having been put to the Meeting by the Chairman, 
was carried by acclamation. 

Rev. JoHN TUCKWELL.—It would not be becoming to separate, I 
think, without returning our very cordial thanks to the Chairman 
for presiding over us this afternoon. He came to fill a gap—not 
always a very enviable position to occupy—and he has helped us 
out of a difficulty, and I beg to move that our very hearty thanks 
be given him. 

The SEcRETARY.—I have much pleasure in seconding that 
resolution. I think we are all indebted, and certainly I am, 
personally, to Sir Joseph Fayrer for so kindly consenting to occupy 
the chair at this critical time. 

The resolution was carried unanimously. 


THE LATE PRESIDENT. 


BRIEF SKETCH OF THE CAREER OF SIR GEORGE GABRIEL STOKES, 
Bart., 'F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D., late President of the Victoria 
Institute. 


It is fitting that a brief sketch of the career of our late President 
should appear in this volume of the Transactions, and to those of our 
members who were only acquainted with this accomplished man by 
reputation the following biographical record will not fail to be 
acceptable. Sir G. G. Stokes came of a family which has produced 
several men of high reputation in various departments of literature, 
science, and art, amongst whom may be specially mentioned the 
late Dr. William Stokes, Regius Professor of Medicine in Dublin 
University, whose statue adorns the hall of the Royal College of 
Physicians in that city,* and his son Dr. Whitley Stokes, C.S.L, 
formerly Secretary to the Government of India in the Legislative 
Department, and subsequently law adviser to the Council of the 
Indian Government, happily still surviving amongst us. Nor ought 
we to omit to mention his sister, the late Miss Margaret Stokes, 
~ well known for her researches into the Celtic history of her own 
country, Ireland, and that of the Continent. 

The late President was the son of an Irish clergyman, and was 
born at Skreen, co. Sligo, on August 13th, 1819. He was educated 
at Dr. Wall’s school, in Dublin, and afterwards at the Bristol 
College. Having graduated at Pembroke College, Cambridge, 
taking his B.A. in 1841, as Senior Wrangler, he was elected to a 
Fellowship.- Cambridge University henceforth became the scene of 
his future labours, which were chiefly in the field of high mathe- 
matics and physics ; and he was a frequent contributor of papers to 
the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions. In 1851 he was elected a 
Fellow of the Royal Society, of which he was chosen in 1854 one of 
the Secretaries, and afterwards its President, on the retirement of 
Professor Huxiey ; thus attaining to the highest position open to 


* The statue is life size in marble, by Foley. 


BRIEF SKETCH OF SIR GEORGE GARRIEL STOKES. 15 


men of science in this country. At the meeting of the British 
Association at Exeter in 1869 he was elected its President, and 
during this period of his career he was elected an honorary member 
of several foreign academies, and received the Prussian order Pour 
le Mérite. He also was awarded honorary degrees from the 
Universities of Oxford, Dublin, Edinburgh and Aberdeen. On the 
death of Mr. Beresford-Hope in 1887, he was returned as one of the 
representatives in Parliament of Cambridge University, and sat till 
the session of 1892, but from his retiring disposition seldom took 
part in debates in the house, though generally voting with the 
Conservative party. In 1886 he accepted, with the hearty approval 
of the members, the position of President of the Victoria Institute, 
in succession to the Earl of Shaftesbury. Nor was this a purely 
honorary office, for he took a warm interest in the affairs of the 
Society, and when his engagements at Cambridge permitted, was a 
regular attendant at the meetings of the Council and of the 
Institute ; coming up to town in all weathers—sometimes at much 
personal inconvenience—until increasing years and infirmity made 
it impossible. To his wise counsel and conciliatory bearing the 
Institute largely owes its present prosperous position; and on 
several occasions he contributed to its proceedings. Those who 
were present at the Annual Meeting in 1898, will not soon forget 
his lucid exposition of the action of light on the organs of the eye, 
and the marvellous arrangements for the perception of colour.* It 
was on this occasion that Lord Kelvin gave expression to his 
admiration for his friend and fellow-worker in the domain of 
physical investigation when he exclaimed in reference to previous 
experience, ‘‘ Whenever we found ourselves in difficulties we said, 
‘send for Stokes,’ ” or words to that effect. 

Within a year of his decease Stokes was elected Master of 
Pembroke College, the highest honour it was in the power of the 
College to confer, and on Sunday, January 4th, 1903, Stokes entered 
into that ‘“‘ Rest, which remaineth for the people of God,” at the good 
old age of 84 years, having by his great talents and unfailing industry 


* Delivered July 18th, 1898. 


16 BRIEF SKETCH OF SIR GEORGE GABRIEL STOKES. 


raised himself from the position of a son of a country clergyman in 
a remote part of Ireland to the very highest position in the World 
of Science. That he had an unblemished reputation, and that he 
was a sincere Christian need not be said. His character was known 
and read, of all men, and of him we may use the words of 
Longfellow :— 


“ Lives of great men all remind us 
We can make our lives sublime, 
And, departing, leave behind us 
Footprints on the sands of time ; 
Footprints that, perhaps, another 
Sailing o’er life’s solemn main ; 
Some forlorn and shipwrecked brother 
Seeing, shall take heart again.” 


A Psalm of Life. 


The following are the more important communications read 
before the Institute by its late President :— 


Special Address to the Institute. June 18th, 1885. 

Annual Address. Trans. Vict. Inst., vol. xx. Ibid., vol. xxii. 

“On the Perception of Light,” the Annual Address for 1895. Jbid., 
vol. xxix. 

“On the Rontgen Rays,” Annual Address for 1896. Jbzd., vol. xxx. 

“On the Perception of Colour,” Annual Address for 1898. Jbid., 


vol. xxxXi. 


K. 


ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.* 


Davin Howarp, Es@., D.L., F.C.S., In THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed, and the 
following candidates were elected :— 


Lirg Associate :—Rev. R. Ashington Bullen, M.A., F.G.S. 


AssociaTEs :—Rev. Prof. A. Barton, Ph.D.; George A. Manwaring, 
Esq., C.E.; Rev. Oswald J. Hogarth, M.A.; Rev. William E. 
Emmet, M.A.; The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of Honduras, D.D. 


The following paper was then read by the author :— 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION, 
INCLUDING BEL’S FIGHT WITH THE DRAGON. 
By THeEopuitus G. Princuss, Esq., LL.D., M.R.A.S. 


PRELIMINARY STATEMENT. 


I HAVE to make a short statement before beginning my paper, 
partly touching on the delay referred to by the Secretary, but 
principally to show how it was that I wrote the paper. 

Having given a short description of the Creation story of the 
Babylonians in my book which has just been published—TZhe 
Old Testament in the light of the legends and records of Assyria and 
Babylonia, I thought it would be a good thing to make a 
complete translation of the tablets, including the two principal 
versions of the Creation story. This I began last year and finished 
it early this year, and here is the result. I then decided that it 
might, perhaps, be well to write a paper on the subject instead of 
giving a translation, word for word (as in the book), giving 
simply a paraphrase. 


* Monday, December Ist, 1902. 


18 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


This I proceeded to do, and wrote rather more than half the 
paper, z.¢., almost the complete story of the Semitic version of the 
Creation. Then I communicated with Professor Hull, our Secretary, 
and he said it would be very acceptable to the Institute. Later 
on circumstances occurred which caused an interruption of the 
work, and afterwards it was decided that it was to be read to-day. 
In the meanwhile another book, containing much new material, had 
been announced, and I have been waiting for it. I had to go on with 
my paper to prepare it for this evening, and I found that if I incor- 
porated all I could from that book which was issued only a few days 
ago, I could not finish my paper. That is the position in which I was 
placed, and I therefore decided to finish my paper and to ask your 
indulgence for its not containing an account of all those latest 
discoveries of which our Secretary has spoken. Those will be 
inserted in the paper in full, I hope, when it is finally printed in 
the Journal of the Society* ; but I trust that you will nevertheless 
find the paper in its present state sufficiently interesting. 


ANY years have passed since the late George Smith, who 
first discovered the nature of the tablets referring to the 
Creation, published, in his Chaldean Genesis, translations of 
all the inscriptions of the series then known to him, and since 
that time the study of these tablets has attracted the attention 
of a large number of students, each of whom has added his quota 
to the elucidation of the text. Among those who have worked 
at it may be named the late Fox Talbot, Professors Sayce, 
Oppert, Delitzsch, Hommel, Jensen, and many others, among 
whom Professor Zimmern, though one of the last, is not the least, 
his examination of the text in Gunkel’s Schopfung und Chaos 
having been well received, and attracted much attention. 

It is not the intention on the present occasion to traverse all 
the ground covered by the scholars who have written on this 
interesting subject, but simply to examine the legend, in its 
present comparatively complete state, detailing its contents, 
and stating the results of my own researches, combined with all 
the essential elucidations of the text by those who have 
preceded me in the work. Certain other documents bearing on 
the subject, which have come down to us, will receive special 
attention. 


* This promise has been duly fulfilled. 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 19 


The Babylonian Legend of the Creation, as far as it is at 
present known, is supposed to have been inscribed on seven 
tablets, each containing asit were a chapter of the work. None 
of these documents are preserved in a perfect state, but as, 
in most cases, one or several fragments of duplicates exist, 
wanting parts can frequently be restored, and the sequence 
of the narrative is, in consequence, fairly well preserved. 
The number of the fragments, including the duplicates, 
amounts to about fifty, and though’many of them (there 
are forty-nine exhibited in the British Museum) come from 
Assyria—from the royal library of AS88ur-bani-Apli at 
Nineveh—the largest and most solid pieces were found in 
Babylonia. When in a complete state, these tablets measured 
probably from 7 to 9 inches long by 34 or 24 inches wide, their 
thickness in the middle being about an inch—more or less. Asa 
rule the obverse or page 1 is flat, whilst the reverse or page 2 is 
somewhat curved. It will thus be seen that to describe them 
as “bricks,” as is often done, isincorrect. They rather resemble 
tiles, and were they of the same thickness throughout, this 
would be a very good name tor them. The smaller tablets are 
very much like cakes of soap, but as those of the Creation 
series are all large, this description can naturally not apply to 
them. 

As may easily be imagined, the large number of fragments of 
duplicates implies that this legend was exceedingly popular not 
only among the Babylonians, but also among the Assyrians, 
who, speaking the same language as the Babylonians, naturally 
regarded the literature of “the land of Merodach ” as their own. 
Judging from some of the mythological tablets originating in 
Assyria, Merodach was generally identified with their national 
god Assur, so that the story of the conflict with and the defeat 
of the Dragon, with the account of the creation of the world, 
interested both nations equally. As a literary composition, 
moreover, it is not without its merits, and as it was probably 
well suited for recitation, the popularity which it enjoyed is 
not to be wondered at. 

The first tablet of the Babylonian story of the Creation, as 
far as it is preserved, begins as follows :— 


1 


“When on high the heavens were unnamed, 
Beneath the earth recorded not a name: 
The primzeval oceau was their producer ; 
Mummu Tiamthu was she who begot the whole of them. 


20 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


The waters in one then united themselves. 

The plains were not outlined, marshes were not to be seen. 

When none of the gods had come forth, 

They bore no name, the fates (had not been determined). 

There were produced the gods within the h[eaveus?] : 

Lahniu and Lahamu went forth (as the first ?) 

The ages were great (the times were long ?). 

Ansara and Kisara were produced over th[em 7] . 

Long grew the days, extended (was the time of their existence ?) 
The god Anu their son. Sra ice Rite os soe a ee 
Ansara, the god Amu.”-..\ ai fotes® see ee ec cat 2s 1a eee 
Nudimmud, whom hisfathers beget 2-1. 5°... 2 Sab see 

It is unfortunate that this introductory portion, though 
completed from different fragments, is so very imperfect 
Notwithstanding this defect, however, it contains some 
exceedingly interesting information as to the beliefs of the 
Babylonians regarding the earliest period of the Creation of the 
World, and the origin of the gods whom they worshipped. A 
very noteworthy point about it is, that just this portion has 
been made known to us by the old Syrian writer, Damascius, 
who communicates to us its substance in the following words :— 

“ But the Babylonians, like the rest of the Barbarians, pass over 
in silence the one principle of the universe, and they constitute 
two, Tauthé and Apason, making Apason the husband of Tauthé 
and denominating her the mother of the gods. And from these 
proceeds an only-begotten son, Moymis, which, I conceive, is no 
other than the intelligible world proceeding from the two 
principles. From them, also, another progeny is derived, Daché 
and Dachos; and again a third, Kissaré and Assoros, from 
which last three others proceed, Anos, and Illinos, and Aos. 
And of Aos and Dauké is born a son called Bélos, who, they 
say, is the fabricator of the world: the Creator.” 

It is needless to say that, in this interesting inscription and 
the Greek paraphrase, we have not only a remarkable parallel 
account, but also a noteworthy proof of the correctness of the 
translation, as far as the text is complete, and a proof—it proof 
be needed—that we have the key to these inscriptions. This 
proof, it will easily be recognized, hes principally in the likeness 
in the names, which agree excellently, all things considered. 
Tiamthu, or, rather, Tiawthu, is naturally the Tauthé of 
Damascius, and means “the sea.” Apason, her husband, is the 
Babylonian Apsu, which I have rendered “the primeval ocean,” 
i.e, the waters which were supposed to lie under the earth, 
later regarded as the abode of Ka, the god of the deep, to whom 
reference will be made later on. In this part of the legend 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 21 


there is no real statement that Apason was the husband of 
Tiamthu, though this may be regarded as implied, and the fact 
comes out more clearly—though not so clearly as might be 
wished—in the second tablet, In the succeeding tablets of the 
series, however, the husband of Tiamthu bears an entirely 
different name, but whether this indicate the same or a different 
mythological personage, is not known. 

In Daché and Dachos, it is easy to see that there has been 
a confusion between the Greek letters Delta and Lambda, which 
so closely resemble each other. Daché and Dachos should 
therefore be corrected to Laché and Lachos (as has been often 
pointed out by the Assyriologists who have preceded me) the 
Lahmu and Lahamu (better Lahwu and Labawu), of the 
Babylonian text. These deities were the male and female 
personifications of the heavens, and are mentioned, in the lists, 
with Anu and Anatu, the god and goddess of the heavens, 
though in what these two groups of names differed (for they 
must have differed in some way) 1s at present uncertain. 
Angara and KiSara are the Syrian author’s Assoros and 
Kisaré, the meaning of which, according to the bilingual 
inscriptions, should be “ Host of Heaven ” and “ Host of Earth ” 
respectively. The three proceeding from them, Ano, Illinos, 
and Aos, are Anu, the god of the heavens, Ellila, the god Bel in 
Akkadian (afterwards identified with Merodach), and Aa or Ka, 
the god of the waters, the deep, and of unsearchable wisdom. 
This deity was the husband of Damkina (better, perhaps, 
Dawkina), the Dauké of Damascius. From these last, as he 
says (and the tablets confirm this statement), Belos, 2.e., Bel- 
Merodach, was born, and if this last deity did not “fabricate 
the world,” he at least ordered it anew, after his great fight with 
the Dragon of Chaos, as we shall see when dealing with the 
other tablets of the series. 

What will in all probability strike many of my audience is 
the remarkable correctness of the statements of the ancient 
author whom I have quoted. Evidently he was quoting a 
document with which he was well acquainted. It forms part 
of the mass of material contained in his work entitled Doubts 
and Solutions of the first Principles. As this author, who was 
a Syrian of Damascus, lived at the end of the fifth and the 
beginning of the sixth century of the present era, the question 
as to the source of his information is not without interest. It 
is stated that the well-known temple tower at Borsippa, near 
Babylon, was as late as the fourth century still a place of 
Babylonian worship, the old rites and ceremonies being even at 


De THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


that late date carried on there, and this being the case, it would 
seem to be by no means improbable that people were in the 
time of Damascius yet living who were well aware of the 
teachings of the ancient Babylonians concerning the beginnings 
of things, and there may have been even professors of their 
schools of philosophy. With these Damascius probably became 
acquainted when on his way to or from Persia, or when staying 
there, he having fled to that country on the closing of the 
heathen schools of philosophy at Athens by Justinian— 
Damascius was, in fact, one of the last of their professors. 

After describing the creation or production of the gods, com- 
paring their intelligence apparently with that of Tiamthu and 
her companions, the narrator goes on to describe the origin of 
the conflict which took place between the powers of good and 
evil, as typified by the divine and eternal beings introduced to 
the reader in the preceding lines. It was at first thought that 
Tiamthu herself was the originator of the conflict, but from the 
fragments recently identified by Mr. King, this would seem to 
be doubtful, as Apst (and Mummu) seem to have stirred her 
up. The first view, however, had some justification, for in more 
than one place it is stated that it was she who had conceived 
hatred for the gods her children, and there is no suggestion that 
her first spouse* and her son were the first instigators. It has 
also been supposed that the cause of the quarrel was the creation 
of light, which prevented Apsu from having rest, either by day 
or by night. For this, however, there is no justification—it was 
evidently the doings of the gods, whose ways were not the ways 
of Tiamthu, Apst, and Mummu, which caused the desire to bring 
about their destruction. It would seem that the mother of all 
things, as Tiamthu is called, conceived hatred of the gods her 
children on account of what had been reported to her concerning 
them, and gathered together all the deities who sided with her. 
Among these last, strange to say, were some who had been 
created by the very gods whom she desired to destroy (appa- 
rently there were prototypes of the pro-Boers even at the 
Creation). Storming, planning, chafing, and raging, not resting 
night nor day, they took up the conflict, and meeting together, 
“prepared hostility” to those gods whom the Babylonians 
regarded as the sources of all that is good and noble. 

“ Mother Hubur,” as she is in this place poetically named, in the 
meanwhile busied herself in making preparations to annihilate 
her descendants, producing irresistible weapons, giant serpents, 


* Her second consort, as will be seen further on, was named Kingu. 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 23 


sharp of tooth, unsparing with their stings, and filled with poison 
as if it were blood. Fierce dragons then she clothed with 
terrors, and surrounding them with dazzling splendour, left them 
on high in order that their monstrous aspect might of itself 
annihilate those whom she deemed her foes, whilst their tower- 
ing forms remained undismayed. To these she added other 
monsters, which may be rendered tentatively by the expressions 
cockatrice and basilisk, and there were likewise some which 
resembled in form the god of the heavens, Labamu, with other 
great monsters, raging dogs, and scorpion-men. Then there 
were certain swift-moving monsters, fish-men, and mountain- 
rams. All these wielded unsparing weapons, and feared not 
the conflict, being pledged to obey her powerful, irresistible 
commands. Altogether, the number of the different kinds of 
monsters which she created was eleven. 

These were naturally quite independent of the gods, some of 
whom were her offspring, and who, it is noteworthy, are described 
as her firstborn. These, too, prepared for the fray, and over 
them she set Kingu, whom “she made great among them, (among) 
those going in front before the army (as) leaders of the host,” 
who excited their followers to the strife. Having delivered the 
chief leadership into Kingu’s hand, and set him on the rampart, 
she is represented as reminding him how she had set firm his 
word, and made him great in the assembly of the gods, delivering 
the rule of the gods, “all of them,” into his hand. She exhorts 
him then to be “exceeding great,’ and, apparently as an addi- 
tional inducement to act up to his exalted position, she calls him 
“her only spouse.” Delivering to him the “Tablets of Fate,” 
which she places in his breast, she informs him that, for the 
future, his command shall not be changed, and shall stand firm 
—a power which was apparently regarded as due to the posses- 
sion of the documents in question. “Now,” continues the 
Babylonian bard, “is Kingu raised on high, assuming Anu’s 
dignity, among the gods (who are) her sons, he holdeth the 
command.” This apparently means, in other words, that the 
position now occupied by Kingu among the powers of evil, was 
similar to that of Anu among the gods of heaven, and that he 
would occupy this place in the case of Tiamthu’s success. Kingu 
now seems to address to his followers a short exhortation to act 
valiantly—to be fearful in the fight, and let resistance be laid 
low. But the passage is a difficult one, and the meaning of the 
lines therefore not altogether certain. 

At this point the first tablet of the Semitic Babylonian legend 
of the Creation comes to an end, and from the parallel passages 

C 


24 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


of the other inscriptions we see that the account of the revolt 
of Tidmthu and her followers also terminated here. It is an 
appropriate place for the conclusion of the first chapter. 


tT: 


Naturally these preparations could not long be kept secret 
from the gods, and Ka, the wise one among them, was the first 
to hear about it, and it was he who carried the news of the revolt 
of Tiamthu and her followers to his father Ansara, the deity 
apparently representing the heavenly host, and to his divine 
companions. The succeeding lines of the tablet therefore give 
the words of the messenger in announcing his news, and he tells 
the whole history of the uprising of the goddess of the watery 
waste exactly as it is related in the first tablet. Though such 
repetitions are exceedingly tedious, especially when at such 
length, they nevertheless serve to carry on the narrative, and 
their variants enable us to control the text, and sometimes form 
a valuable aid in explaining it. ! 

Having heard what had taken place, AnSara gave way to 
despair, striking his breast and biting his lps (such is the 
restoration suggested here). With a loud ery, he called out to 
Anu, his son, whom he urges to join him in resisting the enemy ; 
and judging from what remains, Anu is instructed to attack 
Apsu, the son of Tiamthu, whilst AnSara occupies herself with 
the mother. For this restoration of the passage, however, I am 
not responsible, the rendering here adopted being that of 
Delitzsch and Jensen ; and there is no doubt that the suggestions 
of these scholars are at least very probable.* | 

A gap occurs here, after which another fragment takes up the 
story, and from this piece it would seem that, in the end, it was 
decided that Anu should undertake the task of defeating the 
Dragon alone. The conversation between Ansara and Anu 
apparently ends with a final word of instruction, in which the 
latter is told to speak to her, giving the message of them both, 
so that, should she be defiant, and not hear his voice (at first), 
she might at least be appeased afterwards. Anu then set out, 
but seeing Tiamthu’s snarling face, and finding himself powerless 
to do anything against her, he turned back and reported his 
non-success to his father Ansara. 


* King has a different rendering, but as the text is defective, I allow 
the above to remain for the present. 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 25 


At this point there is a further gap in the story, but it is clear, 
from the context, that another deity, namely, Nudimmud (the god 
Aé), likewise undertook the task of defeating her, but was not 
more successful than Anu. The heavenly powers then decided 
to ask Merodach to be their “avenger,” as the legend has it. 
This commission was at once accepted with eagerness by the 
chief of the Babylonian pantheon, as the fragment referring to 
this portion of the legend indicates: 


** Rejoiced then the Lord at the word of his father— 
His heart was glad, and to his father he said : 
‘Lord of the gods, fate of the great gods, 
If then I (am to be) your avenger— 
(If) I bind Tiaémthu, and save you. 
Convene an assembly, cause to be great, and proclaim ye, my fate. 
In Upsukenaku sit ye then joyfully together, and 
When my mouth opens, let me, like you, the fates decide ; 
(Then) whatever I do, even I, shall not be changed— 


Let the utterance of my lips nor turned nor altered be.’” 


Here Merodach is represented as receiving his commission 
joyfully, but, whilst accepting, asking for a reward, as if of 
opinion that the gods would be under an obligation to him—as 
is, In fact, implied farther on, where AnSara is spoken of as 
having sent Merodach, or having urged him to undertake the 
task. There is then no doubt as to how the championship of 
Merodach was thought to originate. 

This time, fortunately, there is no gap in the text, the lines 
translated above being the last of the second tablet, the third 
following immediately on. 


TEE 


Without wasting time in words of thanks or rejoicing, AnSara 
immediately gives instructions to his messenger Gaga to go to 
Labmu and Lahamu, the two deities of the heavens, to invite all 
the gods to a feast in the place of assembly (UpS8ukenaku), 
where, having eaten bread and prepared the wine, they may 
decide the fate “for Merodach their avenger.” The words of 
the message are then given, Gaga being told to say to Lahmu 
and Lahbamu that AnSara, their son, had despatched him to 
announce to them the desire of his heart; the description of 
Tiamthu’s revolt, and the preparations which she had made for 
her conflict with the gods being then repeated in the same words 
as in the first tablet, where the story of her iniquities is intro- 
duced. Two lines suffice, however, to relate the powerlessness 

Cc 2 


26 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


of Anu and the fear of Nudimmud (the god Ea) in the presence 
of the terrible foe. Then comes the request made to Merodach, 
and his answer, also given in the original terms. Having 
received this long message : 


“Gaga went, he betook himself to his path, 
In the place of Lahmu and Lahamu, the gods his fathers, 
He stood, and kissed the ground beneath them— 
He advanced, stood still, and spoke to them.” 


Here follows again the whole of AnSara’s message, with 
which Gaga, the divine messenger, had been intrusted— 
Tiamthu, her revolt, Anu’s failure, Nudimmud’s fear, the request 
made to Merodach, and the answer of the last named. In fact, 
this portion of the legend reminds one, in a measure, of a certain 
classic of our youth, though on a lengthier scale. 

On hearing the account of the danger which threatened the 
gods, Lahmu and Lahamu cried aloud, and all the Igigi, or gods 
of the heavens, groaned bitterly, announcing, at the same time, 
their inability to understand Tiamthu’s acts. The great gods, 
all of them, then went to An§Sara’s place, where the feast was to 
be held. There they “ made tongue,” whatever that may mean— 
perhaps it signifies that they discussed the matter, and having 
eaten wheaten bread and prepared the wine, that sweet must 
which was to do away their sadness and refresh their minds and 
bodies : 


“For Merodach, their avenger, they decided the fate.” 


And with these words the third tablet—or chapter, if that be 
thought a good alternative term—ends. 


EV. 


We now come to the fourth tablet, which, after the first, is: 
one of the most interesting. In this the honours which were 
conferred upon Merodach by the other gods—“the gods his 
fathers”—are recounted. They founded for him a princely 
chamber, and he stood there to rule “in the presence of his. 
fathers.” The gods then address him in the following words :— 


“Thou art now the honoured one among the great gods, 

Thy destiny is without rival, thy command is (that of) Anu. 
Merodach, thou art the honoured one among the great gods, 
Thy destiny is without rival, thy command is (that of) Anu. 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. at 


From to-day shall thy command not be changed, 

To raise and abase, let it be thy hand 

Let the utterance of thy mouth stand firm, unfailing (be) thy command. 
None among the gods thy boundary shall cross ; 

Care is the requirement of the chamber(s) of the gods, so 

May thy place be the place of their desire. 

Merodach, thou art our avenger, 

We have given thee the dominion—the universe of all complete : 
Sit (?) then in the assembly, let thy command be high ; 

May thy weapon not fail, may it destroy thine enemy. 

O Lord, who trusts in thee, protect thou his life ; 

And he who takes up evil things, pour thou his life away.” 


They then set a garment in their midst, and telling Merodach 
that destruction and creation were in his power, asked him to 
speak, commanding its destruction, and to address it again, 
commanding its re-creation. This he did: 


“He spoke then with his mouth, the garment was destroyed ; 
He spoke to it again, and the garment was reproduced.” 


Having thus tested his powers successfully, the gods rejoiced, 
and did him homage, saying “ Merodach is king.” They then 
transferred to him sceptre, throne, and emblem of reign, and 
giving him an unsurpassed weapon, “destroying those who 
hate,” they said : 


“Come then, cut off the life of Tiamthu, 
Let the wind carry her blood into hidden places !” 


“Thus,” the record continues, “did the gods, his fathers, fix 
the fate of Bel—a path of peace and goodwill they caused him 
to take as his road.” 

Then began Merodach to arm himself for the fray, testing 
(so it would seem) his spear or dart, raismg the divine weapon, 
which he placed at his right, and hanging his bow and quiver 
at hisside. In addition to these, he set the lightning before him, 
the well-known emblem and weapon of thundering Jove, whose 
Babylonian original and counterpart he was ; and moreover he 
filled his body with flashing flame, or, if another rendering be 
preferred, with the darting thunderbolt. Not least in his 
plentiful armoury, however, was the net which he had made 
wherewith to catch the great enemy of the gods, who, in the 
place where this is referred to, has an addition to her name, to 
wit, kirbis, which seems to mean “in the midst,” referring, 
apparently, to her dwelling under the earth. This net 
(which practically proves the identity of Merodach with 
Nimrod, “The mighty hunter” or “trapper” of Gen. x, 9) is 
described as having been held by the four winds, whom (as they 


28 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


are practically personified, we may use this pronoun) he also 
employed to bring the net, which was the gift of his father Anu, 
the god of the heavens. Other winds—‘ the hurricane (an evil 
wind), the storm, the gale, the four(fold) wind, the seven(fold) 
wind, the troubling (?) wind, the uncontrollable wind,’—seven 
in all, are described as having been made by him to be his 
helpers, and these, rising behind him to confuse Kirbis-Tiamthu, 
he took with him. Another of his means of defence was “the 
storm-flood, his great weapon,” but no clue as to the way in 
which he made use of this appears in the legend. 

Having thus prepared for the fray, he mounted his irresistible 
and terrifying chariot, with its fourfold yoke of steeds 
“unsparing, sweeping down, swift of flight, sharp of tooth, 
poison-bearing,’” such as knew how to overthrow and to dash 
aside, not fearing battle, dreadful in resistance, attacking right 
and left, and exceedingly steadfast. Nor did Merodach forget 
his own appearance. He covered himself with the cloak of his 
dreadful majesty, and placed his overwhelming brilliance on 
his head. Being now ready, he sallied forth to meet the foe, 
breathing defiance, grasping in his hand, as Jensen has it, the 
plant of incantation, for evidently he wished to leave no stone 
unturned in the accomplishment of his task. 

“Tn that day they clustered around him, the gods clustered around him— 
The gods his fathers clustered around him, they clustered around him. 
Then the lord advanced, the retreat of Tidmthu closely regarding, 
Noting the snarling of Kingu, her spouse. __. 

But whilst he looked, his mind (?) was troubled, 

His understanding cast down, and his intention wavered ; 


And the gods, his helpers, who went by his side, 
Saw their leader’s confusion—their glance was troubled too.” 


Tiamthu, Merodach’s opponent, stood firm and defiant, simply 
uttering words to all appearance scornful, but the mutilation of 
this passage does no more than enable one to surmise that she 
regarded them all—Merodach as well as his tathers—as rebels 
or conspirators. In his turn the god makes answer to the 
effect that she who was great and exalted had rebelled against 
the gods, raising Kingu to be her consort, giving him command 
of the “heavenly ones,” and seeking and setting evil against the 
gods of his fathers. Telling her to gather her host together, 
and bind on her weapons, he ends with the challenge : 


“Stand then—I and thou, let us make battle together !” 


Furious, shouting wildly, trembling with rage, uttering 
incantations and charms, whilst the gods of battle called upon 
their weapons not to fail them, Tiamthu and the wise one of the 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 29 


gods, Merodach, stood forward for the conflict and approached 
to do battle. At once Merodach spread forth his net, and 
caused it to enclose her, sending forth the evil wind which 
followed behind him. At that moment Tidmthu opened her 
mouth, and before she could close it, the wind entered, so that 
she could not shut her lips. The angry winds filled out her 
body, her heart was overpowered, and she lay with open mouth 
deprived of strength. With his spear then he killed her, cut 
asunder her body, split her open, cut out her heart, and overcame 
her. Her life having been destroyed, he threw her down, and 
stood upon her prostrate corpse. Next came the turn of her 
helpers, whose force was scattered and sundered, and the gods 
going by her side—apparently those sons of Anu who had 
joined her—turned and fled, each seeking to save his life. They 
found themselves surrounded, however, by an enclosure, unable 
to flee, and the god who had conquered their leader then shut 
them in, and broke their weapons. Being thrown into the net, 
and sitting in bonds, their groaning filled all the region where 
they were, and they found themselves obliged to bear the anger 
of Merodach, shut up in prison. 

After this came the turn of the eleven beings whom Tiamthu 
had created, and made so terrible—the troop of devils, as the 
original seems to say, going by her side. These Merodach set 
in bonds, deprived of their power, and trampled beneath him. 
Lastly, he is represented as turning his attention to Kingu, the 
spouse of Tiamthu, who, having been bound, was reckoned 
worthy to be the peer of Ugga, the god of death. Like unto 
the moment when Merodach overcame Tiamthu, this also was 
a period of supreme triumph to the god of heaven, for at last he 
was able to gain possession of the things which he desired above 
all, namely, the tablets of Fate, which Tiamthu had given to 
Kangu. These now being in his hands, he pressed his seal upon 
them, and grasped them to his breast. 


“ After he had captured and overthrown his opponent, 
The dreadful foe he completely (?) rooted out (?). 
He set up the power of AnSara over the enemy completely, 
And the mighty Merodach attained Nudimmud’s desire. 
Over the conquered gods be strengthened then his hold, 
Returned against Tiamthu, whom captive he had made. 
Trampled then the lord upon Tiamthw’s breast (?), 
With his unsparing weapon cleft he then her skull, 
Cut through the veins of her blood, 
And caused the north wind to carry it away to secret places. 
When his fathers saw him, they rejoiced, and were glad, _ . 
And caused gifts and offerings to be brought to him, even to him. 


30 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


Rested then the lord, looking upon her corpse ; 

He divided her trunk (?), making therewith clever things. 
He sundered her then, like a divided (?) fish, into two parts. 
Half of her he placed, and covered therewith the heavens, 
Pushed the bolt, set a watchman (there) : 

Her waters, those are not to be allowed to come forth, he bade. 
He traversed the heavens, examined the places, and 

Set the Abyss in front, the abode of Nudimmud. 

Then measured the lord the Abyss’s extent : 

An edifice in its likeness he set-—E-Sarra. 

The edifice K-Sarra, which he built, is the heavens : 

(As for) Anu, Bel, and Ea, he founded their strongholds.” 


Thus, according to the legend, did Merodach, who was called 
Bel, “the lord,” attain to the position of king over the gods, 
who, though throughout called “ his fathers,’ are represented as 
willingly consenting to be ruled by their son. This, as will be 
seen farther on, has a certain amount of importance, not only 
for the question of the composition of the poem, but also for the 
history of the Babylonian religion, upon which point—a point 
of exceeding interest—I shall touch, in the course of the 
present paper. Fortunately, the tablet above translated is one 
of the most complete of the series ; and it is well that it is so, 
for this portion of the story, with its fulness of incident and 
detail, contains many important and interesting facts, some of 
them closely connected with religious thought even during the 
Christian era. 


V. 


The fifth tablet of the series continues the account of 
Merodach’s acts after the destruction of Tiamthu, when he 
began his work of ordering the world anew. 

He erected the stations of the great gods, whose emblems are 
the stars; he set the Zodiac, designated the year, outlined the 
constellations, giving to each of the twelve months three stars, 
or, rather, groups—thirty-six in all, “from the day when the 
year begins ”—that is, from the month Nisan (March-April), and 
these were to be for signs, for such was one of the uses of the 
heavenly bodies, as is expressly stated in the first chapter of 
Genesis. Next 


“‘ He founded the station of Nibiru, to make known their limit, 
That none might err, nor go astray.” 


Nibiru means “the traverser,” and has been identified by 
Jensen with the planet Jupiter, Merodach’s own star, and so 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 31 


called by the nations of the ancient world on that account, for 
Jove and Merodach, as is well known, are one and the same, 
the former being his western, and the latter his eastern name. 
As Merodach was king of the gods, so was Jupiter, the planet, 
the overseer of the stars, traversing and crossing the heavens 
from end to end, and preventing them from leaving their paths 
or their stations in the celestial vault. 

His next work, according to the tablet, was to place with his 
own the stations of Bel and Ea, with the great gates on both 
sides, and the bolts right and lett, the zenith (such seems to be 
the meaning of the word) being set between. To all appear- 
ance this is a description of the heavens according to the ideas 
of the Babylonians, who thought of the great blue vault as pos- 
sessing these things; for through the doors which were opened 
for this at the beginning of each day, the sun came forth, “as a 
bridegroom coming out of his chamber, who rejoiceth as a strong 
man to run his course.” According to the hymn to the setting 
sun which was chanted at the Birs Nimroud, anciently called 
K-zida, and identified by tradition with the tower of Babel, the 
spouse of the sungod went to meet her lord at the close of the 
day, and the doors and the bolts of the high heavens gave 
him greeting, thus verifying what is stated in the Semitic 
Babylonian story of the Creation at this poimt with regard 
to the arrangement of the heavevs in Babylonian cosmology. 

First among the remaining heavenly bodies is mentioned the 
moon, in this place called Nannaru, which was caused to shine 
forth, and ruled the night. He was set as an adornment of the 
night, to make known the days (ze., the festivals and divisions 
of time). Monthly, without ceasing, he was provided with a 
crown, an expression which probably means that he appeared in 
the form of a narrow crescent. Appearing in the Jand at the 
beginning of the month, the horns are described as shining 
forth to make known the seasons, and the crown is said to be 
perfected on the seventh day, when the crescent, having become 
a half-disc, no longer had the form which the Babylonians were 
accustomed to regard as a crown. Considerable doubt exists as 
to the real meaning of the lines which follow, the inscription 
being very imperfect at this point, but there seems—merely 
seems—to be a reference to the luminary being full when oppo- 
site the sun, and if this be the case, there is just the possibility 
that the Babylonians had noticed that the moon shone with 
light borrowed from the sun. 

In this place, after an interval, Professor Jensen inserts a 
fragment which may well belong to this series. It seems, on 


32 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


the obverse, to refer to the temple E-sagila (probably the 
heavenly fane of that name), and afterwards speaks of Mero- 
dach’s net and his bow, the cunning work of which the gods 
admired. Anu, the god of the heavens, taking up the bow, 
kissed it, and proclaimed its names, “the long wood,” and “the 
star of ‘the bow,” fixing it afterwards in the heavens (which 
were his special domain), apparently under that name. It is 
not improbable that this is simply inserted in the legend to 
explain the name of the constellation of the Bow, which occurs 
in the list of the thirty-six constellations to which reference has 
already been made. After speaking of the setting of a throne, 
the fragment breaks off. 

Another broken piece which is supposed to come in here 
seems to refer to the frothy foam of Ti(amthu), but in what 
connection, does not appear. Farther on, the god AnSara speaks 
to the winds, evidently appointing them to their several places. 
After this, there is apparently a mention of the cutting 
through of the nostrils of Tiamthu, to pouring out, and to 
water-springs, probably a symbolical explanation of some 
natural phenomenon or other. 

The lines which follow refer to the troop (?) of the Abyss, 
and give a conversation concerning Ansara, who, as one of the 
gods of the heavens (his name means “the heaven-host”), 
speaks, seemingly, of the construction of the upper Abyss, oppo- 
site E-Sarra, as his work, and announces the production of other 
things—a house and a citadel, probably in the Abyss. After 
this, “ constant lamentation” is twice referred to, and it may be 
euessed that this was described as proceeding from the followers 
of Tiamthu, and it is not impossible that this portion of the 
legend was devoted to the description of the provisions made 
for their safe keeping. Next the things created by a deity 
whose name is wanting, but who was probably this same 
Angara, are spoken of. Of special interest in this part is the 
line referring to the city of Assur, here indicated by the 
characters Bala-swmun, with the prefix for city, the whole 
meaning, as indicated by Delitzsch long ago, “the city of the 
old realm,” or “ government.” It will easily be recognized that 
the mention of the city A8Sur in connection with Ansara is 
most natural, the name of the god being written with the same 
characters as that of the Assyrian god Assur. A _ further 
confirmation of the identity of the two names is furnished by 
Damascius, who does not write the name of AnSara as Ansaros 
or Assaros, but as Assoros, with 6 instead of a. Evidently there 
was a tendency to pronounce AnSara as Assora or Assor, the 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 33 


close similarity of which to A8Sur (Asshur) is evident. Should 
these inferences turn out to be correct—and there is every 
probability that they are so—then the reading of the Authorized 
Version for Gen. x, 11, “Out of that land went forth Asshur,” 
and not “He (Nimrod) went out into Assyria,” is the only 
possible rendering, as it seems, in fact, to be the more 
reasonable. 


NI. 


The following is the translation of the beginning of the sixth 
tablet, published by Mr. King a few days before this paper was 
read, and referred to on that occasion, though the translation 
was withheld until the final preparation of the paper for 
press :— 

“ Merodach, on hearing the words of the gods, 

[is] moved in his heart to make [cunning things ?] 

[He ope]ned his mouth, [saying] to [his father]. Aé— 

That which he thought i in his heart he ae to him :— 

Let me gather my blood, let me . . = (bone; 

Let me then set up a man, let the man 

Let me create then a man, dwelling 

May the service (or work) of the gods be established, and (as for) 
them, may they [construct ?] the shri[ nes]. 

Let me alter then the ways of the gods, let me chan[ge their gee ‘h 

As one may they be honoured, and to the two may : 


Here the speech of Merodach ends, and feats of the 
answer of Aé, too defective to allow any connnected sense to be 
made out, appear. This is unfortunate, as the text, if better 
preserved at this point, would undoubtedly have rendered what 
remains of the opening lines more comprehensible. Such as it 
is, however, it is a welcome addition to the legend, and it is to 
be expected that this portion will receive sooner or later such 
supplementary matter as will give it its full value. 

The story of the creation of man by Merodach, from hi 
own blood,is one of the most interesting of the statements con- 
cerning the god, though there is apparently but little in it 
which bears upon the creation of man as detailed in the first 
two chapters of Genesis. It confirms, on the other hand, in a 
most satisfactory way, the statements on the subject made by 
Berosus, who, as priest of Belus (Bel-Merodach), must have 
been well acquainted with all the teaching of his predecessors 
and contemporaries upon the subject. As will be remembered, 

the Babylonian writer (after the description of the destruction 


34. THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


of the woman Tiawthu) states that the deity (Belus) cut off his 
own head; upon which the other gods mixed the blood, as it 
gushed out, with the earth; and from that men were formed ; 
and it is on account of this that men are rational, and 
partake of divine knowledge. After this Belus divided the 
light from the darkness, separated the heavens from the earth, 
and reduced the universe to order. But the animals so recently 
created, not being able to bear the prevalence of light, died. 

All the inhabitants of the world being thus destroyed, other 
men and animals were again formed from the blood of Belus 
mixed with earth, in much the same way as the first creation. 
These were able to bear the light. There is hardly any doubt 
that some allegorical signification hes in this, ight not only 
standing for the physical rays from the sun by which things 
are made visible to us, but also for enlightenment and its 
kindred ideas, including religious fervour, which causes men to 
turn to their creator in worship. There is probably in these 
two creations some analogy to the “sons of god” and the 
“daughters of men” in the sixth chapter of Genesis, the 
former standing for the good and pious, and the latter for the 
indifferent or evil. The completion of the legend will be 
looked forward to by all, in the hope that further confirmations 
may result. The reference to “bone,” which occurs in the 
Semitic Babylonian legend at this point, and its possible 
analogy with the description of the creation of Eve, I leave for 
future consideration. The text is at present too imperfect. 

According to the copy published, this sixth tablet of the 
series contained 146 lines, of which, however, only those at the 
beginning and portions of the last eight are preserved. The 
latter refer to the further honours conferred upon Merodach 
by the gods. 


VIE 


There was some doubt as to whether the tablet, now known 
to have been entitled “The Tablet of the 51 names,” formed 
part of the Creation-series or not, but the catch-line at the end 
of the sixth tablet seems to prove that the opinion of G. Smith 
and all who have written upon the subject of the Babylonian 
legend after him was correct upon this point. This interesting 
text is a list of the names conferred by the gods upon 
Merodach as the creator. As we know from other inscriptions, 
the name of this deity expressing best his character of 
originator of all things is Tutu, a word in which a mystic 
charm was to all appearance regarded as residing. In con- 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 35 


sequence of this, it is placed on the left-hand edge of some of 
the copies of the seventh tablet of the series, at the head of 
certain of the paragraphs. 

In a list of divine names, many or all of which are 
Merodach’s, we find the explanation of this mystic reduplicate 
word, namely, mullid tlani, middis lant, “ begetter of the gods, 
renewer of the gods,” showing clearly in what way the ancient 
Babylonians thought of him. How Merodach, who is described 
in the earlier tablets of the Creation-legend itself as a 
descendant of the god Anu, grandson of the older Bel, and son 
of Aé, could be the creator of the gods, is difficult to explain. 
Perhaps this etymology of Tutu rests upon a play upon words, 
the Sumerian utw or tu, which are apparently shortened forms 
of utudda or tudda, meaning, according to the bilingual lists, 
“to bring forth,” “to beget.” The ordinary meaning of Tutu, 
however, as a reduplicate of the root tu, is “to cross,” and this 
may, in fact, be the real meaning, one of the names of 
Merodach, as the planet Jupiter, being (as we have seen) 
Nibiru, “the traverser,” so called, according to Jensen, on 
account of his movements upon the ecliptic. As the tablet 
says, he was to control the paths of the stars of heaven, and 
pasture (or, perhaps, shepherd) the stars, all of them, lke 
sheep. 

The following is a rendering of the principal part of this 
tablet, and will serve to show the style of the composition :— 

“ Asari, bestower of planting, [institutor of irrigation (‘)], 

Who has created grain and plants, causing [verdure to grow]. 

Asari-alim, who in the house of counsel is honoured, [who increaseth 
counsel |— 

The gods pay him homage, fe[ar besetteth them]. 

Asari-alim-nunna, the princely one, light of the [father who begot him], 

Director of the decrees of Anu, Bel, [and Aé] ; 

He is their patron, the announcer of . ...... 

Who maketh its* adornment, abundance, to grow. 

Tutu, the maker of their renewal, [is he] ; 

May he purify their desires, and as for them, let them [be at ease] ; 

Let him make then the incantation, may the gods [be at rest]. 

Angrily have they arisen, let him restrain [their opposition].+ 

Verily he has been made high in the assembly of the gods . 

None among the gods shall [forsake him]. 

‘Tutu (is) Zi-ukkina, the life of the peoplet [of the] gods. 

Who set for the gods the glorious heavens. 

Their paths they took, they instituted . . . . . .§ 

May the deeds [which he performed] not be forgotten among men. 

Tutu Zi-azaga, thirdly, they called—the possessor of purification. 


* Or his.” t Lit. “their breast.” je Or host,” 
§ Or “ He instituted their way, he ordained [their path ?].” 


36 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


Lord of the good wind (? inspiration), lord of obedience and favour, 

Creator of fulness and plenty, institutor of abundance, 

He who changes small things to great. 

In our dire need we scented his sweet breath— 

Let (men) speak, let them glorify, let them do him homage. 

Tutu (is) Aga-azaga, fourthly. May he make the crowns glorious, 

The lord of the glorious incantation bringing the dead to life, 

He who had mercy on the gods who had been overpowered, 

Who made heavy the yoke ‘laid on the gods his enemies, 

For their redemption created mankind. 

The merciful one, he with whom is the giving of life, 

May his word be established, and not forgotten, 

In the mouth of the black-headed ones* whom his hands have made. 

Tutu (is) Mu-azaga, fifthly. May their mouth make known his glorious 
incantation, 

Him who with his glorious charm rooteth out all the evil ones. 

Sa-zu—he who knoweth the heart of the gods, who looketh at the 
inward parts, 

He who letteth not evil-doers go forth against him, 

He who assembleth the gods, who appeaseth their hearts, 

He who subdueth the disobedient, es teh ae 

He who directeth righteousness and justice 

Who setteth aside injustice, : 

Tutu (is) Zi-si, he who bringeth about silence 

He who sendeth forth the stillness, : 

Tutu (is) Suh-kur, annihilator of the enemy, 

Dissolver of their ‘agreements, Ae Sake 

Annihilator of everything evil ve 


Here the obverse breaks off, and there is a gap of several 
lines, after which the inscription is continued on the 
reverse :— | 


oe . the constellation . . . (which shineth forth in the heavens) 

Then seized he the back part of the head, which he pierced (?) 

And as Kirbis-Tiaémthu he circumvented restlessly, 

Let his name be Nibiru, the seizer of Kirbisu. 

The paths of the stars of heaven let him control, 

Let him pasture like sheep the stars, all of them. 

Let him confine Tiamthu, bring her life into pain and anguish. 

In man’s remote ages, in lateness of days, 

Let him arise, and he shall not cease, let him continue (?) to the future. 

As he made the (heavenly) place, and formed the firm (ground). 

Father Bel called his name ‘ Lord of the world,’ 

The appellation (by which the Igigi, all of them, call him), 

‘A6 heard, and he rejoiced in his heart, 

Thus (he. spake): ‘He, whose renowned name his fathers have so 
glorified, 

Shall be like me, and Aé shall be his name. 

The total of my commands, all of them, let him possess, and 

The whole of my pronouncements let him, (even) him, make known.’ 

By the appellation ‘ Fifty’ the great gods 


* Mankind, or the Semitic and Sumerian races. 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. on 


Proclaimed his fifty names, and they caused his career to be great 
(beyond all). 

May they be accepted, and may the primeval one make (them) known, 

May the wise and the understanding together well consider (them), 

May the father repeat and teach (them) to the son, 

May they open the ears of the shepherd and the leader. 

May they rejoice for the lord of the gods, Merodach, 

May his land bear in plenty, and as for him, may he have peace. 

Firm is his word, unchanging is his command— 

No god hath yet made to fail that which cometh forth from his mouth. 

If he frown down in displeasure, he turneth not his neck ; 

In his anger, there is no god who can withstand his wrath. 

Wide is his heart, vast is the kindness of his f 

The sinner and evildoer before him are (ashamed ?).” 


A dupleate gives the remains of four lines which seem to 
have differed from the corresponding portion of the principal 
tablet here translated. These are couched in the same strain 
as the portions of the final tablet of the series which are 
preserved, and it may therefore be supposed that the remainder 
of this inscription, if we possessed it, would end with a poetical 
climax similar in form to the lines translated here. 

It is unnecessary to refer to the literary form and merit of 
this portion of the composition (especially the obverse), that 
being self-evident. Perhaps the writer noticed how monoton- 
ous his long poetical narrative was, and varied it by introduc- 
ing the Sumerian forms of the names bestowed upon Merodach, 
with a free translation, and expansions of the idea contained in 
them. I have said that the translation of these names of 
Merodach into Semitic Babylonian is very free, and this will 
easily be recognized by anyone acquainted with the two 
languages. Thus, though Zi-ukkina might easily be translated 
“the life of the universe,” or, rather, “of the people,” Zi-azaga 
cannot by any possibility be regarded as meaning “the 
possessor of purification,’ any more than Aga-azaga can mean 
““May he make the crowns glorious.” There is, therefore, 
hardly any doubt that the names given to him mean “the pure 
life,” “the glorious crown,” “the glorious incantation,” “ heart- 
knowing,” “the silent life,’ “annihilator of the enemy.” 
Perhaps, however, they are not intended as translations at all, 
but merely as amplifications of the ideas contained in the 
names, which are to all appearance mystic, and connected with 
the character attributed to Merodach. Ashe had saved the 
world from destruction at the hands of Tiadmthu, giving it 
thereby new life, he was “the life of the universe,” and as he, 
compared with her and her followers, was everything that was 
pure and holy, so he was “the pure life” for all to imitate. 


38 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


What “the glorious crown” refers to is doubtful, but there is 
every probability that Merodach is so named as the desire of 
all the faithful among his worshippers, who, on leaving this life, 
would go forth from earth to live with him. “The glorious 
incantation is easier to comprehend, Merodach being the lord of 
all such things, and one of them had, in the words of the text, 
rooted out all the evil ones. Just as the god Ninip is called 
“the supreme word,” so Merodach could be called in a similar 
way “tbe glorious incantation,” because of the efficacy of that 
which he had uttered when attacking Tiamthu. What “the 
silent life” or “spirit of silence” (either may be the translation 
of Zi-si) refers to is not known, but the completion of the 
inscription (when that happens) will probably make this clear 
tous. “The annihilator of the enemy” needs no explanation, 
as it is evident that Tiamthu is referred to. She, with her 
helpers, was the type of all evil, and it is doubtless his 
triumph over them which caused this name to be given to him. 

With regard to the rest of the inscription of this last tablet 
of the series, it is noteworthy that Merodach is said to have 
seized Tiamthu by the back part of the head, a statement which 
seems to differ from the account of her destruction in the 
earlier part of the legend. His creation of heaven and earth is 
also spoken of, but chiefest of all would seem to have been the 
formation of mankind, either in the room of the rebellious gods, 
or in lasting remembrance of their evil-doing. Throughout 
this part, the gratitude due to him, his mercy and goodness, his 
glory in having overcome the source of evil, and his renown in 
after ages among men on account of his glorious deeds, are the 
points especially touched upon. It is noteworthy that also 
here, as in the preceding tablets of the legend, the fixity of his 
word, the changelessness of his command, and the powerlessness 
of the other gods against him with regard to these things, are 
again stated. Worthy of special attention is also the statement 
that the other deities called Merodach by their own names, 
thereby conferring upon him, at the same time, their attributes, 
and making him as it were participator in their being. Whilst, 
therefore, he was the manifestation of the whole of them 
collectively, they were at the same time individually manifes- 
tations of him, as other tablets of a religious nature from 
Babylonia abundantly prove. 


VIII. 


Tn the absence of the account of the creation of man and the 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 39 


beasts of the earth in the Semitic .account of the Creation, 
of which an outline has just been given, this is probably the 
place to refer to the bilingual version, of which I published 
translations in 1890 and 1891. 

The second text is of an entirely different nature, bringing 
the work of creation before us with the intention of showing 
how, among other things, the great and holy cities of Babylonia 
came into existence ; and in this the origin of evil, as typified 
by the dragon of Chaos, and its destruction, are left entirely 
aside. If we may judge from one of the omen-tablets, it was 
the custom among the Babylonians to make pilgrimages to the 
holy places of the land, with the expectation of obtaining benefit 
therefrom, and there is no doubt that the cities founded by 
Merodach, and mentioned in this inscription, namely, Babylon, 
Erech and Ur, with Eridu, were classed as the chief among them. 
It is apparently on this account that the bilingual story of the 
Creation was written, for it is nothing more nor less than the 
introduction to an incantation, in which the temple of Nebo at 
Borsippa, now called the Birs-Nimroud, and generally identified 
with the tower of Babel, is poetically spoken of in a way which 
suggests that the writer of this text wished it to be regarded as 
of equal importance with the great shrines and cities created by 
Merodach, or existing from the period of the gods before him. 

It begins with a reference to the time when the glorious 
house of the gods (apparently the heavens) had not been made, 
a plant had not been brought forth, and a tree had not been 
created; when a brick had not been laid, a beam not shaped, a 
house not built, a city not constructed, and no human site had 
been formed. Niffer and its temple-tower E-kura, Erech and 
its temple-tower E-ana, the abyss or waters under the earth, 
and Eridu, “the good city,’ and the glorious seat of the house 
of the gods, had also not been made, and “the whole of the lands 
were sea.’ When within the sea there was a stream, at that 
time Eridu was formed, E-sagila, “ the lofty-headed house,” was 
constructed—E-sagila, which the god Lugal-du-azaga, “ the lord 
of the glorious abode,” had founded within the abyss. Then, 


too, the city of Babylon, and the earthly k-sagila within it, were 
completed; and in connection with this it is worthy of note 
that the word used allows it to be inferred that this fane, which 
Nebuchadnezzar calls “the tower of Babylon,” had been begun 
at an earlier date, but that the work had been interrupted. 
The word “ completed,’ however, may be simply due to the 
desire not to use the same expression too often. 
D 


40 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


It is at this point there is a reference, for the first time, to the 
creation of living things—not animals or men, but beings of a 
much higher station, namely, the gods and the Annunaki, who 
were made by a being unnamed, though it may be inferred that 
their creator was possibly the Lugal-du-azaga mentioned before 
in the text. The same deity (apparently) then “ proclaimed as 
supreme the glorious city, the seat of the joy of their hearts.” 
The god Merodach (whose name here appears for the first time 
in the narrative) now bound together a foundation before the 
waters, made soil (épiri ibnt), and poured it out with the 
foundation, in order that the gods might have a dwelling which 
should satisfy their hearts. 

Up to this point the narrative relates to the earth, the Abyss, 
and the gods, but here a change comes in, introduced by the 
single line, “He made mankind,” which is followed by the 
addition: ‘“ The goddess Aruru made the seed of mankind with 
him.” After this he made the beasts of the field and the living 
creatures of the plain, set the Tigris and the Euphrates in their 
places, and “proclaimed their name well”—a phrase which 
recalls that of Genesis, “and God saw that it was good.” The 
deity (it is apparently still Merodach who is referred to) then 
ereated grass, the plants of the marshes and the forests, the 
verdure of the plain, land, marsh, and thicket-grown tracts. 
This was followed by the creation of oxen and other large cattle, 
with sheep, and the meadows and thickets where they fed or 
dwelt. “Lord Merodach” then raised a bank (lit. “filled a 
filling”) on the sea-shore, produced water-plants and the place 
where they grow, and the things mentioned in the first few lines 
as being non-existent were then made by him—plants and trees, 
bricks and beams, houses and cities; Niffer and its temple 
f:-kura, Erech and its temple E-ana. 

There are many details of this inscription which are of 
interest, but it is impossible to touch upon them all in thecompass 
of a single paper. It would be important, for instance, to know 
whether Merodach was the creator, not only of men and things 
of the earth, but of the gods and the Annunaki, or “spirits of 
the earth” as well, as the lists of gods indicate was the belief. 
Noteworthy is the fact, that nothing existed until “there was a 
stream ” or “current within the sea,” pointing also in this version 
to the belief that the existence of life was somehow connected 


with the presence of water. At this time Eridu, the Paradise 


of the Babylonians, was made, and E-sagila, which the god Lu- 
gal-du-azaga had founded within the Abyss. As Lugal-du-azaga 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. AJ 
—the name means “the king of the glorious abode ” was one of 
the names of the god Aé, Merodach’s father, it is clear that he, 
and the “glorious “Abode” over which he ruled, were not cr eated 
by Mer odach. But if this be the case, then Babylon, Merodach’s 
own city, is in the same doubtful position. As it 1s certain that 
he was regarded as the founder of the city—there is no record 
of its existence being due to his father Aé, and it was, moreover, 
the beginning of N imrod’s (z.e., Merodach’s) kingdom—it would 
seem likely that the whole narrative is purposely invested with 
doubt in order to lead the reader to suppose that even the 
things about which no statement is made were the work of 
Merodach, as Babylon and the other cities of Babylonia, in the 
legends of the country, certainly were. 

The way in which Merodach made mankind is not described 
—there is mention only of the simple fact, that Aruru, the 
goddess of Sippar, made the seed of mankind with him. As the 
reference to this goddess comes in rather suddenly here, it is 
probable that the line was inserted simply because the 
inscription was a copy made for the city of Sippar, and just as 
Assur-bani-dpli had his own name inscribed in at least one 
bilingual inscription, and his scribes left out the references 
to Isin and Larag or Larancha in “the Lament of the Daughter 
of Bel,” in like manner also this text may have been edited by 
the scribe who wrote it out; the name of Aruru, who, possibly 
according to some legend of the city, had made the seed of 
mankind at the creation, being inserted here to fill up what he 
may have considered a regrettable omission. 

The incantation on the reverse, which calls down all kinds 
of blessings on the city of Borsippa, and h-zida, its celebrated 
temple-tower, implies that this foundation also desired to be 
admitted into the number of places regarded as holy, and on 
the same footing as Babylon, Ur, Erech, and Eridu—in fact, 
there is every probability that the prefixing of the story of the 
Creation to it by way of introduction is due to this circumstance. 

There is probably but little doubt that the Semitic story of 
the Creation is the older of the two. This is shown by the 
fact that, though Merodach is the central figure in each, larger 
space is devoted, in the Semitic version, to the divinities who 
preceded him in the rule of the universe. Of course it is not 
impossible that the actual composition of the legend was com- 
paratively late ; but everything points toa period preceding that 
when it assumed the form in which we now have it. In the 
bilingual account, on the other hand, the wording throughout 


D 2 


42 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


suggests that Merodach had long been recognized as chief of 
the Babylonian pantheon. 

The fact that there were other gods who exercised dominion 
in the kingdom of heaven before Merodach, seems to show that 
changes had taken place in the religion of the country, and it 
is not impossible that these changes are a reflection of its 
political history. Thus, from the first tablet of the Semitic 
story, we see that Anu, god of the heavens, was the chief 
divinity, and head of the pantheon. This is followed by a 
reference to the older Bel, and then to Aé, the father of 
Merodach. Farther on in the legend, where the revolt of 
Tiawthu is related, Anu and Aé are again spoken of, and this 
in such a way as to suggest that they had been failures in 
their mission, as it were. They both went in turn against the 
foe, but without success, being (at least in one case) terrified at 
her frightful appearance. The explanation of this would seem 
to be, that it is intended as a symbolical representation of the 
development of the Babylonian religion. First came Anu, the 
deity personifying the heavens, worshipped at Erech along with 
the goddess IStar, and also at other places in Babylonia. He 
would seem to have been the first of the great divinities, and 
this leads to the supposition that a state where he was adored 
as patron-divinity became, at some early period, predominant 
among the early kingdoms of Babylonia. The next one who 
failed to meet the Dragon of Chaos was Aé, the principal seat 
of whose worship seems to have been Eridu, identified with 
Abu-shahrein, near the Persian Gulf. Now the earliest period 
at which Erech came forward as chief state—or one of the 
chief states—of the Babylonian confederacy, was during the 
reign of Lugal-zag-gi-si, whose date is set down roughly at 
about 4,000 years before Christ; but, as far as we know, Eridu 
never had any great political predominance, though it may at 
some time have become the religious capital of the country. 
It would seem, however, to be certain that the adoption of 
Merodach as chief of the Babylonian pantheon was due to the 
rise of Babylon to the position of capital of the chief province, 
and the worship of this divinity continued in all probability 
until the decay of the city, when that of Anu-Bel took its 
place, that 1s, if we may accept the indications furnished by a 
tablet of the time of Hyspasines. Anu-Bel was worshipped at 
the well-known temple of E-saggil, which contained the great 
shrine of Bel at Babylon, and it may be supposed that, in con- 
sequence of a change in the teaching of the priests, Merodach 


} 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 43 


had at that date become identified with Anu, and worshipped 
under the double name. 

It may therefore be taken as an established fact, that Mero- 
dach, being the divinity of Babylon, had been generally 
adopted as the chief of the Babylonian pantheon on that 
account, for all would naturally recognize the claims of the 
great god of the capital of the new empire. It must not be 
thought, however, that his kingship was accepted by all 
without question. There were naturally many who would 
have none of these innovations, and among them the Baby- 
lonian Noah (whose name has been found to read Uta- 
na(v)iStim) seems to have been counted. When the patriarch 
asked the god Aé what answer he was to give when questioned 
as to why he was building the ship (the ark), he was instructed 
to answer as follows :— 

“Tt has been told me (that) the God Bel hates me, 

I will notdwellin . . . and 

[In] the territory of Bel I will not set my face— 

[I shall] descend to the deep, with [Aé] my lord I shall (constantly) 


dwell. 
[As for] you, he will cause abundance to rain down upon you.” 


As this is merely a legend, it may be supposed that the 
opinion here expressed, and put into the mouth of the Baby- 
lonian Noah, only reflects the attitude of a section of the people, 
who could not become reconciled to the new state of things, 
and remained faithful to the old belief in Aé as the head of 
the pantheon. 

Fortunately, we are not without independent information as 
to what the Babylonian believed with regard to the genealogy 
of the divine personages which were the foundation of their 
faith, and the important inscriptions for this are the lists of 
gods. These texts are, luckily, numerous, but on the other 
hand are often in a fragmentary condition, which naturally 
places the student at a disadvantage when examining them. 
One of the most important of these lists, for its bearing on 
what is stated in the Semitic Babylonian Creation-Legend, is 
that published in the second volume of the Cuneiform 
Inseriptions of Western Asia, Plates 55 and 56. It will be 
remembered that Damascius says that the Babylonians de- 
nominated Tauthé or Tiadwthu the mother of the gods, pointing 
to a time when she was not the evil genius she is represented 
in the inscriptions dealt with in the present paper. Ii my 
comparisons be correct, this is confirmed by the list of gods to 
which I have referred, for we find there, at the beginning, 


44, THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


forty-one names of a divinity called “the lady of the gods,” a 
goddess who is described in the recently issued fourteenth 
part of Cuneiform Teats from Babylonian Tablets, as having 
brought forth offspring on three different occasions. She was 
certainly not regarded as anything very evil, however, for this 
new text is described as a song concerning her—a song 
“better than honey and wine, better than grapes and apples 
(or something of the kind), purer even than butter” (which, as 
is well known, is clarified in the East), 

Though there are neither in the names of the “lady of the 
gods,” nor in those of her spouse Dun-sig-é, any which resemble 
(as far as they are preserved) the names of Tiawthu and her 
spouse Kingu, a few parallels at least occur, which make some 
sort of an identification possible. Thus the spouse of “the 
lady of the gods” has, apparently, two sets of names, each 
consisting of five—ten in all. Of these the second group is 
explained as bennu, a word used in the sense of “malady” in 
the recently discovered laws of King Hammurabi. The con- 
jecture that bennw in this list of gods means “evil principle,” 
or something of the kind, lies, therefore, very close. None of 
these names, to all appearance, contains any indication of the 
idea here suggested, except the third of the second group, 
A-ga-giga-dugga, which may be translated “the evil-speaking 
inundation ”—a not inappropriate name. Upon the exception 
here referred to I do not wish to lay any stress. The list may 
not have anything to do with Tiawthu and her consort at all, 
notwithstanding the seeming probability of it, but the two 
name-lists of the consort of “the lady of the gods” is followed 
by the names of three divinities who were possibly their 
attendants, and the third of this triad was, as it seems, called 
Tud-udda, “the offspring of Death.” The deity Ugga, 
“Death,” has already keen referred to in the description of 
the Semitic story of the Creation, and it is noteworthy that 
Tiawthu’s spouse Kingu was counted worthy, for his evil 
deeds, to be his companion. 

The above is immediately followed by the names of the 
deities belonging to E-mah, “the supreme temple,” but whether 
this be an earthly temple of that name, or one in heaven or 
elsewhere of which that in Babylon was the type, does not 
appear. This section of the list ends with the names of the 
fourteen sons of the goddess Mah (were they the overseers of 
the fourteen precincts of Hades which the legend of Nergal 
and Eres-ki-gala allows us to presuppose ?), and of her four 
porters or gate-keepers, and the question naturally arises 


| 
| 
; 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 45 


therefore whether she may not have been a form of the 
goddess of the underworld. It is noteworthy, in this con- 
nection, thet in the text published in Delitzsch’s Lesestiicke, 
ord ed., p. 104, and in the Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western 
Asia, vol. iii, Plates 67 and 68, Mah is likewise identified with 
. “the lady of the gods,” showing that all the text of the list IL 
have been describing, up to the point where the section men- 
tioning the goddess Mah ends, refers to her, her consort, her 
attendants, her court, and her servants. There would seem 
then, to be but little doubt that she is the same as Tiawthu in 
her earlier and probably more noble and beneficent form. 

With regard to the succeeding portions of this noteworthy 
list of gods, very little doubt can exist, the agreement with 
the Semitic story of the Creation being most striking. 
Immediately following the family and the train of the 
goddess Mah, comes the name of Aé, the second opponent 
of Tiamthu, and the king of the gods immediately preceding 
Merodach. He has thirty-six names, after which are given 
those of Damkina (Dawkina, the Dauke of Damascius), his 
consort, who has eleven. The next on the list is Merodach, 
eldest son of Aé, who had more than eight names (the text is 
unfortunately broken here, so that the exact number is doubt- 
ful). The members of his court follow, and probably included 
his consort Zer-panitum; his attendants, including the divine 
door-keepers of his temple E-sagila, and his four dogs, 
Ukkumu, Akkulu, Ik8uda, and Iltebu (“Seizer,” “Eater,” 
“ Grasper,” and “ Holder”). Next we have the names of the 
river-god, whom we see, farther on, to be none other than our 
old friend Aé, who, having abdicated the throne in favour of 
his son Merodach, was henceforth simply the divinity of the 
deep, the sea, rivers, and water in general, as well as lord of 
deep unsearchable wisdom. His spouse, messengers, attendants, 
and doorkeeper (or doorkeepers) follow, after which the text 
breaks off. That the god Aé should occur twice in this list, 
as detailed here, is significant, and may be regarded as in note- 
worthy agreement with the legend which forms the subject of 
this paper. 

How much we have still to learn about the religion of the 
Babylonians can at present hardly be estimated, but it must be 
something very considerable, our material, voluminous as it is, 
being in a rather fragmentary state. To mention only one 
document. The duplicate of the inscription giving the fore- 
going details is noted as being the largest tablet known, and 
its value, if complete, would be more than double what it is in 


4.6 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


its present condition, which is saying much. In all probability 
the series to which it belonged, if not the tablet itself, con- 
tained the names of the deities of the Babyionian pantheon as 
far back as Tiawthu, the first principle, herself, and it certainly 
contained explanations of the names of the gods under all their 
different attributes. . 

Other lists which exist give the Babylonian pantheon in 
another order, beginning with Anu and Anatu, the male and 
female personifications of the heavens. This is followed by 
other names, among them being Ansara and Kisara, “the host 
of heaven,” and “the host of earth,’ Lahma and Lahama, who 
were synonymous with Anu and Anatu, and many others, all 
identified with these. The children of Anu and Anatu follow, 
and afterwards come Anu’s messengers and attendants, including 
Gaga, who is stated in the Semitic story of the Creation to have 
taken the news of Tiawthu’s rebellion and Merodach’s under- 
taking to subdue her to Lahmaand Lahama. All these inscrip- 
tions seem, therefore, to be in agreement, though it is to be 
noted that there are others in which a different system is 
adopted. This, however, may be simply because they are 
extracts from larger texts, and not intended to give the names 
of the deities as they are supposed to have been created in 
chronological order. 

Yet further inscriptions bearing on this legend are the astro- 
nomical tablets, of which a very important one was published 
in the fifth volume of the Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western 
Asia in 1884. In this text are apparently given the names of 
certain constellations, among them being two which are described 

s “the weapon of the hands of Merodach,”’ namely, the gamlu 
or “finisher” (to all appearance this, or something similar, is its 
meaning), the star or constellation of the Ram being described 
as its head; and the imu/mulla, the name of which occurs in the 
account of Merodach’s fight with the Dragon of Evil, and is 
generally rendered “spear,” or something of the kind. In this 
text the “star of the king,” probably Regulus, is explained as 
Merodach, and recalls the fact that he had that title as one of 
his names, and was also really a king in the earthly sense of the 
word. Indeed, it is he whose kingdom’s beginning was “ Babel, 
and Erech, and Akkad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar,” 
Nimrod, to whom this domain is attributed in the tenth chapter 
of Genesis, being nothing else than a corruption of the name of 
Merodach, due to prefixing an 7 to the original form Amaruduk, 
taking off the last two letters, and changing the vowels. 
Another important inscription is that giving many of these and 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. AT 


other constellations, which I copied several years ago, and 
published in transcription in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
Society, 1900, p. 573 ff. This has the star or constellation of 
the bow, the long chariot (perhaps the great chariot in which 
Merodach went forth to fight the Dragon), the Star of Death, 
with whose divinity Kingu, Tiawthu’s spouse, was associated, 
the constellation of the raging dog, probably one of those 
creatures described as Tidwthuw’s helpers, and the Star of Mero- 
dach, “king of the Igigi,” or gods of the heavens. In all, there 
are thirty-six constellations, being three for each month, as 
stated in that part of the legend where Merodach’s creation and 
arrangement of the heavenly bodies are spoken of. From the 
fragments known to him, Mr. Robert Brown, jun., had already 
recognized this fact. 

But in the compass of a single paper it is impossible to touch 
upon all the details of these interesting legends, every section 
of which presents several points of interest. Many, unfortu- 
nately, are of a somewhat technical nature, but I trust that 
what I have said concerning those of which I have spoken will 
not have been thought too dry. I should have liked also to 
touch upon those interesting glossaries of the last tablet of the 
Semitic series, but this I think best to reserve for the notes 
upon these legends which I hope to write later on. At present 
it will suffice to say that these fragments, which have been 
known to scholars for many years, show the importance which 
the ancient Babylonians attached to the last tablet of the series, 
and also to the legend as a whole. There is also part of a com- 
mentary bearing upon the first tablet of the series, as well as 
some fragments of late date which are possibly copies of early 
glossaries and commentaries. It is true that other inscriptions 
also had similar critical apparatus and aids to study, but there 
were probably but few which were so well provided. It was to 
all appearance their holy book—their Bible, hence the care which 
the early Babylonians lavished upon it. Whether the glossary 
to the last tablet of the Semitic version bears upon the question 
of the origin of the legend is uncertain, but it probably points 
to a Sumerian, that is, a non-Semitic source for it. Like all 
other explanatory lists from Babylonia and Assyria, it is written 
with the non-Semitic words in the left-hand column, and the 
Semitic translations on the right. This probably points, as in 
the case of other bilingual texts, to the probability that the 
Semitic version (notwithstanding that it is the only one with 
which we are acquainted) is not the original one. If this be 
the case, the original language was the dialect of Sumerian, in 


A8 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


which language many texts were written, such as the hymns to 
Tammuz and other divinities, and that which I have called “the 
lament of the Daughter of Sin.” 

As many nations are engaged in the work of unearthing the 
remains of Babylonia and Assyria, there is every probability 
that we shall sooner or later obtain still further inscription 
bearing on the text, and probably many completions. Whatever 
one may write, it is therefore certain before long to be super 
seded. No Assyriologist can therefore at present hope to do 
much of real permanent value. It is on that account that much 
of what I have written to read before you this afternoon already 
needs change and supplementing, but when my paper is printed 
in the Journal of the Institute, I trust that it will be found, 
within its compass, up to date. 


DISCUSSION. 


The CHAIRMAN.—I am sure we have all listened with great 
attention to this very valuable paper. It is difficult to in any way 
measure or estimate the amount of profound research and infinite 
patience—“ that true mark of genius,” as Carlyle expressed it—that 
this paper shows. To those of us who remember the beginning of 
the reading of the cuneiform inscriptions, it is especially interesting 
to have these highly developed, if not fully developed, discoveries 
of the thoughts and ideas of those very ancient people. 

It may be a little perplexing to some of us to follow the thoughts 
in their minds, but one point presents itself to us, and that is the strong 
likeness we see in these people’s ideas to those of Agnostics of the 
present day, and it is very interesting to find them recurring after 
these thousands of years. | 

Mr. W. St. CHAD BoscAwEN.—I hope you will excuse me when 
I say that I think it is hardly fair to discuss this extremely 
elaborate paper until it is printed. It is a good deal hampered, 
too, by the work that has appeared within the last few days. That 
work is certainly most up-to-date. But there are one or two points 
to which I would refer in these traditions, as I believe I was the 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. AQ 


first person who brought them before the Victoria Institute.* An 
immense amount of material, dating back to the seventh century 
B.C., has been collected within the last few years, from the library 
of Nineveh and other sources, and the Babylonian series constitute 
essentially an epic poem. 

All must think, like the Jiiad of Homer, that it is not a work 
or composition of one period, but a work composed of materials 
gathered together from various sources fused and blended into a 
great religious whole. 

I think those who have read Dr. Pinches’ paper, and especially 
those who have read Mr. King’s valuable work on the subject, will 
see that, like the first chapter of Genesis, it contains material of 
more than one period. 

Dr. Pinches refers to the great prominence given to God in the 
early part of the poem and in the account of the deluge. Some 
years ago Dr. Pinches published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
Society the bilingual legend of the Creation. That legend, to my 
mind, is much more important than the story of the Creation, and, 
I think, if Dr. Pinches takes the trouble to look through it, he will 
see that is a document that has undergone a most clumsy sub- 
editing, and that if he takes lines sixteen and seventeen and possibly 
nineteen from the text, he will find portions that are clumsily made 
to connect themselves with the school of Babylon, a city that took 
no very prominent part in the affairs of the dynasty ; but as soon 
as the kings came into power there was a great change in 
government. The centralization of government and of law is 
shown by a series of laws which, curiously enough, were codified 
about 2200 B.c., and continued in use until about a century before 
the Christian era and were afterwards revived and handed on. 
During that period the epic was drawn up, and you find that both 
in the seventh tablet and during this bilingual period, the epithets 
of their gods have been taken and used for Merodach. Then, 
again, the epic seems to have undergone slight alteration at the 
hands of the Assyrian scribes, but not much—they were uneducated. 
There was no Assyrian literature really except the inscrip- 
tions. 


* “Cuneiform inscriptions as illustrative of the times of the Jewish 
Captivity,” Trans. Vict. Inst., vol. xviii (1884). Mr. Hormuzd Rassam 
has written on the same subject in vols. xiv and xvii.—Ep. 


50 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


The epic was probably drawn up during that period, but prior 
to that there was a story that had been associated with the god 
mentioned here. He is not only the god of water, but the god of 
agriculture, and the very open lines of the new portions of the 
seventh tablet all distinctly show how prominent the god of 
agriculture was. The account of the real work of the Creation 
does not begin until the middle of the fourth tablet. 

The composition of this legend shows that we have to go back 
prior to 2000 B.c. for the later portion of it, and that is clearly 
shown by this remarkable Semitic fragment which Dr. Pinches has 
referred to, and these remarkable hymns which have been 
published. Those hymns are really popular songs; but the 
interesting part of them is that their grammatical construction and 
peculiarities are the same as those found in the creation narrative. 
Go back to the creation week that appears in the first chapter of 
Genesis, in which everything culminates on the seventh day. We 
are constantly told by those who have been to Babylon (and I have 
been there myself), that the sabbath is a Babylonian institution. 
There is no proof of it. A sabbath applies to the seventh, 
fourteenth and twenty-first days ; but it only applies to the kings. 
The king would not wash or change his clothing, or ride on those 
days that were so set apart, otherwise all the functions of life were 
carried out on the seventh day, and the king being, e# officio, a 
priest, it was connected with the priests. 

I will close my remarks by saying that Dr. Pinches’ paper will be 
extremely valuable to us. I think almost all Assyriologists have 
had a turn at these tablets, and I suppose we have now the most 
complete and ancient poem in the world. 

Mr. Martin Rouse.—I would ask Mr. Boscawen if it is not the 
fact, as stated in Professor Sayce’s Higher Criticism and the Monu- 
ments, that the days of the week were named by the Babylonians ? 

Mr. BoscAwEN.—Professor Sayce says so, but I have never found 
it so. 

Mr. Rovuse.—Granted that is not correct, how is it that the 
king is told not to light a fire or drive in his chariot on a certain 
day, and that the day is called ‘‘the day of rest to the heart”; and 
further, that even the prophets were not to prophecy on that day ? 
It is a very remarkable thing. 

Mr. BoscAWEN.—It is nothing of the kind, sir. 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. ol 


Mr. Rousr.—It is so stated in Professor Sayce’s Higher 
Criticism. 

Mr. BoscAwEN.—No; an augur does not make an augury. 

Mr. Rousrt.—The so-called prophets of Babylon might not 
prophecy. An augur would be a priest, surely! 

I would ask why we are to suppose that the documents that 
Mr. Boscawen says are to be attributed to Babylon should be when 
the text itself is so unlike them ? 

Then as to the creation of man from the blood of Merodach, that 
is a little like man being made in God’s own image and being a 
rational spirit. Are we to suppose that the Jews borrowed it from 
the Babylonians ? 

Again, there is something in the Bible itself which looks as if the 
Jews had forgotten their language in Babylon, for we find that when 
Ezra, the scribe, read out the law of God, the Levites had to give 
the people the sense of it. I should think, decidedly, it meant that 
they had forgotten their own tongue. Therefore, how is it 
conceivable that they should invent those ancient Hebrew manu- 
scripts which are constantly referred to in other parts of the 
Bible ? 

I entirely deny that in any possible sense can that second 
chapter of Genesis be called “The Creation.” If we suppose that 
to be called the creation, then, according to that, man is created on 
the bare earth with not a single herb in the ground, and thena 
garden is made and he is put in that, and everything outside is 
waste and empty until God makes the herbs of the field after he 
goes out of the garden, for it is never mentioned until after. 
Therefore, if that be an account of the creation, it is an exceedingly 
poor one. | 

May I ask Dr. Pinches who is referred to by that writer, 
Damascius, as ‘‘the only begotten son” ? 

Dr. PincHEes.—Merodach. 

Mr. Rouse.—That I hold to be a remarkable fact that this being, 
whose ancestors, the dragons, emblems of light and evil, is called 
‘the only begotten son.” We all know that in Egypt there is 
Isis and Osiris and their son Horus, and we have, certainly, accounts 
in Babylon of Istar and the son she is to have. Whether that is 
Merodach or not I will get Dr. Pinches to answer. Then we have 
the tradition of a wonderful woman, and her son, who was to work 


D2 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


a great deliverance in the world. Istar, as Professor Sayce has 
shown, is no other than Eve. | 

There is another point about Merodach. Dr. Pinches has told 
us on a previous occasion,and now, that Merodach is the same as 
Nimrod. In Professor Boscawen’s lecture on ‘“ Discoveries made in 
Elam” he gives the actual name Namarandu as almost identical 
with Nimrod. 

Mr. BoSCAWEN.—The name means “Lord,” and “ Namarandu” 
‘‘ Lord of the City.” 

Mr. RousE.—So it may in the Bible. 

Mr. BoscAwEN.—Certainly, that is what I say. 

Professor ORCHARD.—I think we are all of opinion, on reflection, 
that this curious epic poem was founded on something in the 
nature of sober fact and history, and we shall, I think, be of opinion 
that the writer must have had before him the early chapters of 
Genesis. The imaginative point which has just been referred to 
(I may say painted on canvas and illustrated by nature), was 
doubtless founded on some very simple and unvarnished statement 
of facts. Those facts we find in the early chapters of Genesis. 
Who wrote those early chapters? We may think, I suppose, that 
Adam himself, or his immediate descendants, were those who first 
wrote them. 

With regard to Nimrod, I think he had mistaken the prognosti- 
cation of the promised Messiah who was promised to our first 
parents in the Garden of Eden. I have long been of opinion, and 
every day confirms me, that the more discoveries that are made, the 
more we shall find that the book of Genesis is, beyond all question, 
of Divine origin. . It is very well able to take care of itself, I think. 

The Rev. F. A. WaLkER, D.D.—Mr. Chairman, I shall not 
detain you long at this hour. I only ask leave to put to the 
learned lecturer one question, viz., in what nation, he thinks, the 
lament over Tamus, to which he alluded, originated. We know it 
is a wide-spread classical tale in the poems of old. Its local 
habitation was doubtless Assyria; but I would ask Dr. Pinches 
whether he thinks the Assyrians were the first inventors of the 
legend, or the Babylonians? It also finds an honoured place in 
Ovid’s poem and the “ Idyls of Theocritus.” 

The Rev. JoHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S.—I should like to add a 
few words to what has been said on this most interesting and 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 53 


valuable paper. We may congratulate ourselves that a very close 
investigation is being made at the present time of these Creation 
stories both in the Babylonian series of tablets and in Genesis; the 
more closely they are investigated the more we may be sure the 
truth concerning both will come out. 

I think we may come to the conclusion, already, that the 
Babylonian story is very largely legendary. But whenever we 
find a legend it is natural to inquire whether there may not have 
been some basis for the legend. Now if we look into the 
Babylonian legend, we shall find some prominent points of it that 
we must admit to be matters of fact. First of all there is a chaos 
of the primeval elements of creation, with no distinct discrimination 
between land, sea and clouds. Then you have an extraordinary 
intervention of the power of Merodach—a fight with the dragon 
of chaos and a description of the separation between land and sea, 
and clouds and water, and then there follows something of an 
astronomical nature, and you have the constellations referred to. 
Subsequently to that you have the creation of different animals, 
plants and man. 

Now both the story in Genesis and the story as described by 
modern science have arranged these facts in exactly the same 
order. You will remember that the geologist tells us about an 
universal ocean, and you have these words occurring in the 
Babylonian story, ‘‘ The waters of the sea were one.” Then in the 
first chapter of Genesis you have the account of the appointment 
of the sun and moon to regulate the day and night, and the 
appearance of the stars followed by the creation of plants, animals, 
and man. 

Now I beg to submit that we have a most important question 
before us—How did the Babylonian legend become framed if there 
were not some knowledge of the facts before the legend came into 
existence? And if the facts were known before the legend came 
into existence (and I take it there is no possibility of denying that 
they must have been), there is then this very pertinent and difficult 
question. How came those facts to be known? If you compare 
the first chapter of Genesis with the Babylonian story, you have a 
simple unvarnished account of facts as they were. I challenge 
any charge against that chapter of any single incorrect word in 
the light of the most modern science from beginning to end. 


D4: THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


Now where did that chapter come from? Mr. Boscawen may say 
that it came into existence in Babylon in the seventh century 
before Christ. I see no reason why we should say it came into 
existence then, rather 2,250 years before Christ. If the legend be 
based on the facts, they must have been known before the legend 
was composed, or as far back as 2,500 years B.c. But those facts 
could not have been known as the result of scientific investigation. 
They must have been supernaturally communicated. There was 
no known scientific investigation that could have revealed them. 
We are therefore brought, I think, to this conclusion, that there 
must have been a communication of these facts to mankind before 
they appeared, as Mr. Boscawen says, in Assyrian and Babylonian 
literature. So also with regard to the Hebrew account, there may 
have been editing ; but composing such narratives as those is quite 
another thing. Editorial touches here and there there may be, 
but there is not the slightest foundation for believing in the 
existence of any Jehovistic or Eliohistic documents. There is no 
trace of any such documents in all the literature of antiquity, and 
neither Jew nor Gentile knew anything about them until in 
recent years they were invented in the brains of the higher critics. 

Dr. PINCHES, in reply, said: Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, 
I do not think at this late hour I need address you at any length. 

The remarks on my paper have been rather more of the nature of 
comment than criticism, and here I may say that I thank all who 
have joined in the discussion for their remarks, and especially 
Mr. Boscawen for his fairness. 

It is a matter of great regret to me that I was unable to 
incorporate the discoveries of Mr. King in my paper in time to read 
it to-night, but I hope, as I have said, to make up deficiencies when 
my paper is in print. 

It is needless to say that I agree with most of what Mr. Boscawen 
has said concerning the date of the legend and many other points. 
I shall certainly examine the lines which he mentions of the non- 
Semitic story of the creation—lines 16, 17 and 19—in order to go 
over, if I can, to his point of view. 

Concerning the remarks of Mr. Rouse, I would mention the point 
of the week, and that I do without reference to any question as to 
the existence of the creative week. Certain days are mentioned as 
being unlucky days (the word used is hul-gal, “ evil-making”), and 


THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION. 55 


those days are said to be unsuitable for the king and other persons 
mentioned to do the things referred to. This is not quite what one 
would expect for the sabbath. The /ul-gal and the sabbath are 
apparently two different institutions. 

As to whether the Assyrian word Sabattu is connected with the 
Hebrew sabbath or not I leave to your individuai opinions, but it 
seems to me very probable that it is. The days with the Babylonians 
were not numbered from one to seven and then beginning again, but 
they began with the first day and went straight on to the 29th 
or 30th, as the case might be. In the lists there are certain 
days that have special names. Amongst other names quoted are 
hul gal and Sobat, which latter was the fifteenth day of the month. 
So we have this little difficulty. Perhaps there is a confusion of the 
two terms, and the Hebrews, borrowing the word sabbath, 
may have applied it to their development of the term /wl-gal which 
was evil in the eyes of the Babylonians. 

Mr. BoscAwen.—There is no trace of it in any ordinary 
document. 

Dr. PINCHES.—No, it only occurs in the list with the numbers of 
the days. 

Concerning Jstdr being the same as Eve. I leave that also to 
your individual opinions. 

I do not know whether there is really anything in the story of 
the flood where Anu is spoken of in connection with the rainbow. I 
should like to have more information from the Babylonian inscrip- 
tions on that point before I proncunce an opinion. 

Mr. Martin Rouse.—I have read it from the translations several 
times. 

Dr. PIncHEs.—Yes, I know it has been translated so. 

Then as to the question of Merodach and Nimrod, we must admit 
that Ninmarad is very similar to Nimrod, but I think, as I stated in 
my article in Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible, that certain names 
were manipulated by the Hebrew scribes simply because they were 
the names of Hebrew deities and because they were polytheistic 
they did not wish to commit them to paper. Of these Nimrod is one. 

I do not know that anything calls for an answer in the remarks 
of Professor Orchard. I am much obliged to him for his kind 
expressions, and I will now pass to Dr. Walker’s question concerning 
the lamentations for Tammuz. These go back certainly to 2,000 

E 


56 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S. 


years B.C.,or perhaps earlier. The inscriptions published by the British 
Museum lately are in the Akkadian language and have no Semitic 
translation at all. The probability therefore is, that they are very 
ancient indeed, and the earliest version of these hymns being in the 
Akkadian language, it is likely that they originated with those 
people. (I use the word Akkadian, but perhaps I should say 
Sumerian. ) 

I am much obliged to Mr. Tuckwell for his kind remarks. I do 
not think there is anything to answer there. 

The vote of thanks having been put and carried unanimously, the 
meeting adjourned. 


NOTE UPON THE NON-SEMITIC (BILINGUAL) STORY OF THE 
CREATION. (See pp. 33 and 38.) 


This text is treated of in Section VIII. of this paper. The lines 
mentioned by Mr. Boscawen, “sixteen, seventeen and possibly 
nineteen,” refer to ‘the glorious city,” the seat of the joy of the 
gods’ hearts, which Merodach had proclaimed as supreme; and 
speak of this deity binding together a foundation before the waters, 
in order that the gods might have a dwelling which should satisfy 
their hearts—‘‘a seat of joy of heart,” as the original text says. 
These lines, however, seem to me to belong so closely to the context 
that their elimination would impair the sense ; and I am therefore 
unable to follow him in his argument, however much I should like 
to do so. 


ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.* 
hey. aca, WALKER, DD. E.LS., IN THE CHAIR. 


The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed. 


The SECRETARY (Professor EDwarD HuvtL).—I have first to 
express the regret of the Council, in which I am sure you will 
all join, at the inability of the President to be here this evening. 
He is far from well, and he says it is quite impossible for him to 
come to London, which he much regrets. 


The following elections were then announced :— 


Lir—E Mremsers :—J. S. Phené, Esq., LL.D., F.S.A.; Miss Alice M. 
Whidborne. 

Members :—-John F. W. Deacon, Esq., M.A. ; Arthur W. Sutton, Esq., 
F.L.S. ; The Trustees of the Bermuda Library, per Lieut.-Gen. Sir 
H. Geary (Governor). | 

Lire Associates :—Rev. R. Ashington-Bullen, M.A., F.G.S.; Rev. 
Rupert 8. Strong, B.A. ; John Alexander Strong, Esq. 


Associates :—The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of Honduras, D.D.; Rev. Prof. 
G. A. Barton, Ph.D.; George A. Manwaring, Esq., C.E.; Rev. 
Oswald J. Hogarth, M.A. ; Rev. William E. Emmet, M.A.; Charles 
W. Odling, Esq., C.S.L ; Ronald Hamlyn-Harris, D.Sc., F.LS. 


Hon. CorrEsPponpDEnt :—Dr. Jon Stephansson. 


The following Paper was then read by the Author, entitled :— 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 


By Professor D. S. MArcotioutu, D.Litt., Laudian Professor of 
Arabic, Oxford University. 


HE eminent statesman and historian J. Bryce, in his recent 
Romanes Lecture,t expressed the opinion that Islam 
might perhaps last only a couple of centuries more; he 
regarded this not only as possible but probable. His opinion 
seemed paradoxical, and some persons even fancied that he 
had been incorrectly reported. For from a superficial view of 
the situation it would scarcely seem to be justified. The 
number of Moslems in the world cannot be precisely ascertained, 
but from such statistics as can be procured, it would appear to 
approach 200 millions.t Their religion is dominant in Africa,§ 
partly dominant in Asia, and not unknown in Europe or even 
America. Nor does its power of expansion appear to have run 


* Monday, January 5th, 1903. + Oxford, 1902, p. 45. 

t In the Statesman’s Year Book for 1902 about 150,000,000 are noticed 
in the lists; but some of the figures are too low, and many must be 
omitted. Krimskiy, Joc. citand., p. 108, says 300,000,000. 

§ A book by L. C. Barnes bears the title, Shall Islam rule Africa ? 


>) 
Ea 


58 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


dry, and, especially in the first three quarters of the nineteenth 
century, there were many movements in Asia and Africa which 
seemed to promise it new hfe and extended conquests. <A 
writer* who framed a careful survey of the Mohammedan 
world in 1888, declared that in India and China, Islam only 
develops, whereas the other native religions are in decadence, 
while those introduced from Europe barely exist. It was 
asserted by a leading Orientalistf that Islam must at some time 
become the religion of the whole of India; and great accessions 
of converts, said to have adopted Islam in order to be freed 
from the caste-system, were adduced as proof of this. A form 
of this prophecy appears as late as 1899, in the Asiatic studies 
of Sir Alfred Lyall,f who states that individual conversions are 
still frequent, though the extension of Islam has naturally 
slackened with the rapid declne and dilapidation of the 
political dominion with which the faith was at one time bound 
up; he holds, however, that it may yet be the destiny of Islam 
to provide India with a national religion, while acknowledging 
that it is fast losing the chance of doing so, which, if neglected, 
will not recur. In China the growth of Mohammedanism in 
recent years was such as to cause alarm to European observers, 
who feared that China might be the source of a fresh crusade 
against civilization in favour of Islam. Those fears have not. 
as yet been near realization; yet so recent a writer on China 
as A. Colquhoun] warns his readers that Mohammedan 
discontent in that country may break out into a blaze. In 
India, China, and the Dutch colonies, where Islam is also said 
to have made great progress,4 proselytism was in the main 
earried cn by peaceful methods; in Africa it was carried on 
partly by peaceful methods, but also in many places by force. 
Mohammedan progress on an enormous scale is reported from 
various parts of that continent; but since Lord Kitchener’s 
victories in the Sudan, that progress is said to have been 
checked, if not entirely arrested.** Yet other movements, even 
after the crushing of Mahdism by the British, seem still to 
continue, and are occasionally depicted in the language of 
alarm.ff Although then writers of very recent date declare that. 


* Chatelier, Z’/slam au XI Xme Siecle. 

+ Von Kremer: see Krimskiy, Mohammedanism and its Future 
(Russian), Moscow, 1899, p. 106. 

itn ovale S Sell, Essays on Islam, p. 204. 

|| The Overland Route to China, 1900. “J Krimskiy, p. 107. 

** Atterbury, Jslam in Africa, p. 182. 

tt Saturday Review, Aug. 16, 1902, p. 193. 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 59 


{slam is still making gigantic strides,* it is probable that there 
is less evidence for the statement now than there was fourteen 
years ago. Still it would not appear that Islam had ceased 
to grow, or was (in numbers at least) beginning to decay. 

On the other hand, the paradoxical opinion which has been 
quoted is shared by many observers. A missionary who had 
worked for many years in Asia Minor, writing in 1870, 
prophesied that Mohammedanism would probably melt away 
like a frozen iceberg before the gradually increasing light of 
modern science, of civilization, and of Christianity ;f that its 
doom was fixed, and the wisdom of men will consist in 
executing the sentence without haste and yet without hesitation— 
whatever he may have meant by this last phrase. Some Arabs 
atiirmed, with complete indifference to the able Dr. Pruen,f that 
when the Turkish empire is destroyed Mohammedanism will 
become a thing of the past—and few persons give the Turkish 
empire a lease of 200 years. In the observations with which 
Lenz closes the narrative of his journey to Timbuctoo,§ he 
declares that Islam can subsist only when left to itself, and 
that contaet with European civilization means death to it. It 
would not be difficult to cite other passages to the same effect ; 
while it would be equally easy to quote opinions to the effect 
that Islam has an indefinite period of time before it. 

It is not my intention to criticize these opinions, nor indeed 
ean the course of events in the future be very well criticized. 
It is however admissible to comment on the opinions quoted, in 
the line of examining what is meant by the disappearance of 
Islam, and of analysing the elements of disintegration which, 
in the opinion of some observers, are so likely to lead at an 
early period to the destruction of the whole fabric. For this 
study I can use a few observations of my own, made in short 
visits to Mohammedan countries; but to a much larger extent 
those of Europeans whose residence in the East has been more 
lengthy. 

A certain ground for believing in the speedy disappearance 
of Islam would be found, if it could be shown that in the 
struggle for life the equipment which it provides is less 
efficient than that furnished by Christianity, Judaism, and 
some other religions. This is indeed asserted by some writers, 


* Krimskiy, l.c. 

+ Van Lennep, Asta Minor, 1870, i, 283. 
t The Arab and the African, p. 258. 

§ Timbuktu, 1892, ii, 376. 


60 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


and certain phenomena seem to bear it out. The author of a 
prize essay,* published in 1881, on the influence of Islam on 
the life of its professors, called attention to the fact that at 
Constantinople intellectual capacity, where it was required, 
was chiefly provided by Christians, whether native or 
European. “The steamship lines in the Levant belong to 
Greeks, Armenians, French, Austrians, Russians. The Osmanli 
fleet is under the direction of English officers. In the Turkish 
land-army Prussian, French, and English officers have im- 
portant posts. The railways are built by English, French 
and German engineers. The telegraph lines in Turkey are 
managed by Poles and Italians.” Twenty years later, 
Mr. Dwight,f writing in 1901, declares that the same 
condition prevails. ‘The Moslem masses are hewers of 
wood and drawers of water. They are bearers of burdens, 
they are donkey drivers, they are the smallest of small 
traders, they are artisans whose tools compete with their 
hands in clumsiness. The Turkish army depends on foreign 
Christians for its organization as well as for its arms and 
ammunition ; and to a considerable extent for the instruction 
of its officers. The treasury would go to pieces if Christian 
counsellors were not at the side of the minister of finance. 
Rarely does a wealthy Turk venture to keep up an establish- 
ment without a Christian to manage his accounts. A 
Mobammedan banking-house is almost unthinkable. The 
most important book-publishing houses for Mohanimedan 
literature are owned and operated by Christians.” The same 
probably holds good of the other cities of the Turkish empire. 
In the towns of northern Persia, where there is a native 
Christian by the side of a Moslem population, the Christians 
will undertake none of the lower forms of labour, and indeed 
require a higher rate of wages than the Moslems. In the 
villages of the same region those in which there is a majority 
of Christians are obviously the more prosperous. Mr. Dwight 
accounts for this fact by certain of the doctrines which he 
attributes to Islam. They give the reason for ‘‘the failure of 
Mohammedanism to progress in lines of effort which make for 
prosperity and benefit the world. In them is the explanation 
of the battered old houses and the dilapidated steamers, and 
the squalid swarm of incompetent labourers found in the 


* Pischon, Der Einfluss des Islam auf das Leben seiner Bekenner. 
+ Constantinople and its Problems, p. 50. 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 61 


city until the skill of non-Mohammedans is brought in to 
supply the lack.”* If this were so, 2z.¢., 1f the characteristic 
and essential doctrines of Islam led to inefficiency and 
incapacity, we might prophesy that with the struggle for 
existence constantly growing more acute, as the room for 
expansion becomes smaller, Islam must wholly change so as 
to become unrecognizable, or both ostensibly and _ really 
disappear. There are, however, reasons for thinking the 
question more complicated than the able writer who has 
been quoted supposes. In one part of the world, where 
neither Mohammedans nor Christians were subject to the 
influence of Europe, and where the former were subordinate 
politically to the latter, in Abyssinia, competent observers 
declared the Mohammedans both morally and intellectually 
superior to the Christian population. 

According to Riippell,t writing in 1838, the Abyssinian 
Mohammedans were more industrious, better educated, and, in 
consequence of their own exertions, far more prosperous than 
the Christians of that country. The same judgment was passed 
by the traveller Von Heuglin,f in 1868. The judgment passed 
on the Christian inhabitants of Mohammedan countries before 
the active interference of Europeans is often exceedingly 
harsh. 

It would be possible to adduce many other facts which 
render it improbable that the profession of a creed has in itself 
much to do with prosperity or efficiency—probably it has some 
influence, but there is a tendency to overrate it. Other causes 
must then be sought for the state of things described by 
Pischon and Dwight. And some of these are obvious. Com- 
munity of religion with the nations of the West brings resident 
Christians into closer relations with the dominant nations of 
Europe, and they prosper not as Christians but as Westerus. 
Similarly that accurate exponent of the affairs of Morocco, 
Budgett Meakin,§ assures us that the treaties assuring pro- 
tection in that country to the native agents of foreign officials 
and merchants have been taken greater advantage of by Jews 
than Moors; the Jews having ties with Europe which the 
Moors lack, and also being better acquainted with the necessity 
for those treaties than are the Moors. It is asserted that in 


7’ DO. 

+ Riippell, Reise in Abessinien, i, 368. 

{ V. Heuglin, Leise in Abessinien, p. 253. 

§ The Moors, p. 460, cf. Cunninghame Graham, loc. citand., p. 51. 


62 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


Persia fear of the European press assures the native Christians 
better treatment than is accorded to the Moslems, about whose 
wrongs the press of Europe cares not. Vambéry, writing in 
1875,* further accounted for the prosperity of Christians at 
Constantinople by their exemption from military service, and 
so being enabled to pursue their industries continuously, 
whereas the Moslem workers were liable at any time to be 
interrupted. 

Besides these explanations 1t may be remembered that during 
the history of the Caliphates of Baghdad and Egypt offices of 
trust and importance were frequently committed to Jews and 
Christians, partly on the ground that they were more under 
the control of their masters than co-religionists who could 
claim equality ; and partly because the disabilities under which 
they laboured had necessarily caused them to develop energies 
and talents which the ruling caste had no occasion to employ. 
This policy has never been altogether abandoned by Mohamme- 
dan rulers, as the most modern experience testifies ; but if the 
motive for their employment of Christians in offices of trust 
were examined, it is unlikely that even a dim consciousness of 
the superior business capacity of a Christian would be admitted ; 
at most they might grant that in times when business and 
- politics had gravitated to the West, those whose religion 
brought them in touch with Westerns were most likely to be 
intelligent and sagacious in their dealings with them. 

My own experience of Mohammedans, as I believe that of 
many travellers, tells of many honest and industrious workers, 
of men of high character and principle, with most of the 
qualities that succeed in the business life of Europe. The 
theory of Vambéry, who insists constantly on the difference 
between the European and the Asiatic, seems to me more in 
accordance with the facts than that which finds the difference 
in aptitude between the Moslem and the Christian; and there 
is much that is attractive in the view of Schuyler and others, 
according to which the difference between Eastern and Western 
capacity is one of development: the Moslems of the less visited 
countries standing on the level of Europe in the fourteenth or 
fifteenth century, when this country was still backward, but, 
unless we alter the meaning of words, was Christian. The 
chief evils of Moslem countries are ascribed by Vambéry to 
bad government, and bad systems of government, and this too 


* Der Islam im 19ten Jahrhundert. 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 63 


seems to agree with the facts. It is rather curious that those 
who find in the Moslem religion the source of Moslem incom- 
petence, often paint either the native Christians or the 
European residents in blacker colours than the Moslems; 
indeed the books which deal with modern Constantinople 
treat the European residents with no sort of charity or mercy ; 
and both travellers and missionaries in Africa and Asia are 
apt to describe the influence of the European as merely 
corrupting. Since these Europeans represent men of ordinary 
or average character, and by no means the scum of the 
communities whence they emanate, it seems hard to make 
islam responsible for the backwardness of the one class of 
the population, without making Christianity responsible for 
some, at least, of the peccadilloes of the other. While then 
the theory that Islam is to blame for the backwardness of 
Mohammedan peoples is not to be rejected entirely, the degree 
to which it is true is so exceedingly uncertain that it is 
difficult to be sure of the disappearance of the system in the 
struggle for existence. It may account in part for the 
dilapidated steamers of the Turkish empire; but there are 
other causes which contribute to their dilapidation. 

What, next, is meant by the disappearance of Islam? Many 
writers have asserted that Christianity must certainly take its 
place. The Christian powers, says Lenz,* represent civilization 
and progress. Islam is identical with stagnation and barbarism. 
Many other writers, especially, but not exclusively, missionaries, 
could be quoted to the same effect. Some, such as Schweinfurth,f 
appear to hold that Christianity is the only remedy for 
Mohammedan countries, but despair of its ever making way. 

It certainly seems unlikely that two or even three centuries 
will see the transformation of the whole Moslem world into a 
Christian world, whether we accept the evidence of facts or 
look to the working of principles. 

Of Christian missions to Mohammedans at present the most 
that can be said apparently is that they are not complete 
failures. Of those at Kashgar the eminent explorer Sven 
Hedini says, “ their energies are wasted, their labours fruitless, 
their lives empty, hard, and of none account.” Of the three 
missionaries whom he saw, one, who had laboured for ten years, 
had never made a single proselyte ; indeed, he had made no 


=: Loe. Cit. t The Heart of Africa, 11, 435. 
t Through Asia, i, 237. 


64. PROF, D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


serious attempt at conversion. Nor were the others more 
successful. A missionary in Syria, who recently published a 
narrative of adventures, left the impression that he had been no 
more fortunate.* On the other hand, it would appear that 
occasional conversions are known in Persia, even on a large 
scale; and of persons who were virtually Christians though 
professedly Moslems I heard a good deal; in some cases these 
would appear to be quite desirable accessions, though not in alk 
cases. Dr. Adamsf speaks of Bahism having in some cases 
served as an intermediate stage between Islam and Christianity, 
and there is no improbability in this. In India conversions 
appear to be fairly common, though perhaps not more than 
sufficient to counterbalance transference in the opposite direction. 
Of the effect of missions in North-West Africa we read rather 
contradictory accuunts. Atterburyt quotes the report of a 
missionary 1n Morocco to the effect that accessions had been 
constant, and that every one baptized had renounced Moham- 
medanism ; making it appear that the rule which makes apostasy 
a capital offence had been relaxed in that unprogressive country.§ 
The inference was drawn that Christianity had a better chance 
against Islam in a country which had no brilliant period of 
Mohammedan civilization to look back to than in countries like 
Syria and Egypt, or India, where the religion was associated 
with a rather glorious history. The evidence of other travellers 
makes it appear that this statement about conversions in 
Morocco on a large scale must have proceeded from momentary 
enthusiasm rather than from a calm survey of the facts. The 
talented lady who writes under the name of Frances Macnab, 
and who perhaps is rather wanting in sympathy with missions, 
decjares in her charming book on Moroccol| that not a single 
convert is ever made. Mr. Cunninghame Graham, in his 
interesting work on the same country, which bears date 1898, 
speaks in the style of Frances Macnab. “Christ and Mohammed,” 
he says, “never will be friends; their teaching, lives, and the 
conditions of the different people among whom they preached 
make it impossible; and even the truce they keep is from the 
veeth outwards, and their respective followers misunderstand 


* Spectator, Aug. 16, 1902, p. 231. 
+ Persia by a Persian, 1900, p. 467. 
{ Islam in Africa, p. 172. 
§ This is also attested by Meakin. 
|| A ride through Morocco, 1902. 
“1 Mogreb el-acksa, p. 25. 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 65 


each other quite as thoroughly as when a thousand years ago 
they came across each other’s path.” This writer is one of those 
who regard the effect of Christian agencies among Mohammedans 
as wholly injurious. From no quarter of the mission field 
does it appear that there is anything lke a turn of the tide in 
the direction of the adoption of Christianity on any considerable 
scale. And since in many regions agencies have been maintained 
for many years, it seems improbable, on the evidence of facts, 
that the merging of Islam in Christianity is to be looked for 
in the future. 

There are also certain @ priori grounds which make in the 
same direction. 

. The first of these is to be found in recent developments of 
Christianity, which are likely at some time or other to render 
missionary effort exceeding difficult, if indeed they do not 
either suppress it altogether, or absolutely remodel its character. 
Without doing more than allude to this subject, we may observe 
that the conception of conversion as the exchange of one system 
for another must be vastly altered if it be no longer possible 
for the missionary to hold in his hand a sacred book as a sub- 
stitute for the sacred book to which the Moslem professes 
allegiance: if the case of the Koran against the Bible, so far as. 
it is negative, be held by the missionary to be proved. What 
will exactly be meant by a proselytizing mission, when the 
growing aversion to dogmas and definite beliefs which is 
characteristic of our age has reached its climax, it will be hard 
to say ; hence the notion of the conversion of the Islamic world 
to Christianity would defy analysis if we had grounds for 
supposing the future of Islam to lie therein. 

In other words, the polemic between Mohammedans and 
Christians will of necessity assume a different shape to that: 
which is embodied in classical works of controversy, when the 
ageressive polemic of the Mohammedans has virtually received 
the assent of the Christian world ; and that this is likely to be 
the case would appear from the trend of opinion in Europe. 

But even before this radical change in the attitude of 
Christianity towards religious books and religious dogmas has 
become universal, the work of missionaries is seriously hindered 
by the competition of rival agencies, and the bickerings 
between antagonistic sects. At Urmi, besides the Nestorian 
natives, no fewer than four branches of European Christianity 
have established missions, at times at open variance with each 
other ; and both here and elsewhere the relations between the 
native Christian sects are apt to be anything but cordial—cases 


66 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


in which the intervention of the Mohammedan authorities is 
required are not uncommon. ‘The effect of these scenes on the 
Mohammedan spectators is detrimental to the Christian cause, 
since the Koran declares dissension to be of the essence of 
Christianity, and destined to adhere to it till the last day. On 
the other hand, the presence of rival missions at work among the 
native Christian communities is said to weaken their attachment, 
to the hereditary religion, and while raising their intellectual 
level, to be of little use for the maintenance of Christianity 
even among them. 

And thirdly, missionaries have ordinarily some difficulty in 
gaining access to Mohammedans at all. The agents stationed 
in Persia and Asiatic Turkey ordinarily abstain from all attempts 
to convert either, because their rules forbid them to make any, 
or because such attempts could only lead to the abandonment of 
their ostensible work, while failing to produce any effect on the 
Moslems. In several of the places where Mohammedans are 
subject to Christian governments missionary work is prevented 
or discouraged by the authorities; and this practice has the 
approval of some observers, who find that the absence of any 
endeavour on the part of the government to shake their faith, 
leads to the diminution of fanaticism and accomplishes auto- 
matically part of the work which the missionaries would 
endeavour to achieve. These and other considerations justify us 
in the opinion that the transference of large masses of Moham- 
medans to Christianity is not an operation at all likely to be 
realized in any space of time which it is reasonable to contemplate. 

Other writers speak of a general awakening of Islam, and 
twenty-five years ago Mr. Schuyler* declared that such an 
event seemed near, though he knew not whether it would be 
beneficial or otherwise to the human race. It might be 
asserted that this prophecy had come after the event; the 
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries had already seen 
awakenings of Islam on a great scale. Such were the 
Wahhabi movement which engulfed Arabia, and advanced 
as far as Damascust; the Babi movement, which threatened 
to overrun Persia; the Mahdist movement, from the effects 
of which the Sudan has just begun to recover. The home of 
many of these sects has been Arabia; some are professedly 
waves of the mystic or pantheistic doctrine which has 


* Schuyler, Turkestan i, 172. 
+ S. M. Zwemer, “The Wahabis,” Journ. Vict. Jnst., vol. xxxiii, p. 311 
(1901). 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 67 


repeatedly shaken Islam, whereas some have been free 
from it; the world has seen what they can effect when 
successful, and what becomes of them when they fail. In 
regarding their founders as re-incarnations of Mohammed 
these sectarians have a plausible case; for in the greater 
number of cases these organizers appear to follow the Ines. 
laid down by Mohammed with little variation. Instinctively 
or by study they have mastered that principle of Oriental 
statescraft in virtue of which men will not readily follow a 
leader who invites them to pillage and massacre directly, but 
will readily follow if they are invited to these acts indirectly, 
as acts whereby a religious doctrine can be furthered, or 
the true nature of the deity be generally made known. 
Wahhabism and Mahdism had a great run of success, and the 
consequences to Arabia and Africa are well known. ‘The 
restoration of pure monotheism which was the watchword 
of Wahhabism turned Arabia into a more howling wilderness 
than it had been before. From the brilhant narrative of 
Palgrave and the earnest pages of Doughty we learn enough 
about the character of its leaders and its results to know 
that it was merely a revival of savagery, containing no 
element of permanence, and in every way inferior to the 
Islam of established states. A whole series of authorized 
works paint Mahdism in its true colours; no greater service 
was ever done to the cause of civilization than when Lord 
Kitchener proved that the machine gun was more than a 
match for an Eastern prophet. The lfe of the founder of 
Mahdism in the Sudan, as told by Wingate, gives the stand- 
point whence the whole series of prophets from Mohammed 
onwards can be best appreciated ; the prophet commences as 
a saint; after a little success the mask is thrown off, and the 
career which the prophet’s ambition had anticipated in fancy 
begins to be realized. So soon as the plunder that is within 
reach has been exhausted, the leaders become divided, and 
nothing but misery ensues. 

Greater value has been assigned to the Babi movement in 
Persia, round which, owing to ‘the violent measures by which 
the Persian vovernment endeavoured to stamp it out, a halo 
of romance has arisen. Of the Bab and his followers many 
accounts have appeared in English, those by Dr. Sell in his 
Essays on Islam, and by Dr. Adams in his Persia by a Persian, 
being the latest. From these and other accounts it appears 
that Babism was no more than any other rehgious movement 
in the East dissociated from political ambitions; and the 


68 PROF. D. 8S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


Syrian last mentioned expresses the opinion,* which I know 
from other sources to be well grounded, that had Babism 
succeeded it would have been as rabidly persecuting as any 
other of the sects which have arisen in Islam. A Babi 
informed me that it would tolerate no religion besides itself ; 
and it. would seem that the Christians are taunted with 
blindness in failing to see that the prophecies of their Bible 
are realized in the Bab, just as they were taunted by 
Mohammed for their obstinacy in refusing to identify him 
with the Comforter promised by St. John. So far as the 
doctrinal content of Babism is concerned, even admirers in 
Europe acknowledge its puerile character; the fact that it 
gives a year of nineteen months is sufficient to show how far 
the founder was alive to the practical needs of mankind. 
The general character of the teaching does not appear to 
differ in kind from that of the Sufis or mystics who have 
enriched the literature of the Mohammedan languages almost 
from the commencement, and the lterary output of the 
existing sect seems decidedly outdone in originality and | 
depth by that of the mystics of the sixth and seventh 
centuries of the Mohammedan era. If their standard of 
conduct was at any time free from the chief evils attending 
the Mohammedan system, it is difficult to assert that the 
amehoration was either considerable or permanent in 
character; and at quite an early period in the history of the 
sect they took to settling their internal differences with the 
aid of the poisoned bowl and the dagger, the style in which 
Mohammedan dissensions have been settled from Mohammed’s 
time to that of the Wahhabis. Under the present ruler of 
Persia they exist as a sect that is tolerated provided that it 
keep in the background; and the errors committed by 
previous rulers in making it popular by too rigid persecution 
will probably be retrieved by this sagacious policy. 

In the work by Dr. Adams, to which attention has been 
called, there is a translation of an interesting correspondence 
between the Babi community in America and the headquarters 
of the sect at Acre, from which it would appear that acquain- 
tance with the New World is rapidly intluencing the sect, in 
such a way as to change it from a dangerous form of fanaticism 
to something like one of the comparatively harmless religious 
revivals, which, not unconnected with mysticism, have repeat- 
edly taken place in the States. One of the writers assures the. 


* Persia by a Persian, p. 467. 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 69 


Turkish government most earnestly that “the intentions of Our 
Lord and His followers are only religions and have not the 
least connection with politics.” But when in another document 
the same writer calls his master “the One into whose hands 
the kingdom has been delivered and the reins of government 
have been placed, and for this reason he who disobeys his 
commands disobeys the commands of God,” the Turkish 
authorities may be pardoned for mistaking their intentions. 
Both this writer and others, including such an authority as 
Lord Curzon, accept the statements made by Babis of their 
numbers, which according to them should include something like 
an eighth of the population of Persia. These estimates should 
be received with some caution, and it seems unlikely that the 
movement is gaining ground at the present time, even if it is 
not being displaced by something newer. Even in the East 
systems which are mainly mystic in character, though attractive 
to more minds than in Europe, rarely have any power of 
permanently interesting any number of persons whose approval 
is of importance; they resemble the rich food which the 
mature palate rejects for what is more homely, but more 
nourishing. The new systems which spring up within 
Mohammedanism are compared by Schweinfurth in a rather 
brilliant passage* to the showers which occasionally enliven 
the desert, but effect no alteration in the character of the soil. 
There is no trace of a movement within Islam having taken 
place in the nineteenth century which has not its exact 
analogue in the earlier history of Islam ; those movements have, 
according to circumstances, attained small or large dimensions, 
have led to much bloodshed or only occasional assassinations, 
have been forcibly suppressed, or have expired of themselves ; 
the utmost they have been able to effect is the production of 
some hterary monuments of interest, and those of the nine- 
teenth century appear to have been unable to effect even this. 
The point from which speculation on this subject should start 
is the well-known fact that the political ascendancy of Islam is 
fast disappearing. In 1870 it could be asserted that two-thirds 
of the Mohammedan world was governed by non-Moslem 
nations; in 1902 the proportion is nearer five-sixths. Great 
Britain governs about a half of the Moslem world; Russia and 
France account for a large slice of the remainder. The states 
that remain independent are in constant dread of being 


* The Heart of Africa, ii, 434. 


70 PROF. D. S. MAKGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


absorbed. The recent event in Fez, where the murderer of @ 
Christian was dragged from an inviolable sanctuary and 
publicly executed without delay, illustrates the fear felt in 
barbarous regions of Islam lest any provocation should 
accelerate invasion by the irresistible Frank. But though the 
date cannot be precisely calculated at which the last shred of 
political power is taken from Islam, the course of events seems 
to presage that it will not be distant. 

Such a state of matters was never contemplated by either the 
prophet or his followers. God had, they thought, determined 
that Islam should have the upperhand over all religions; the 
world was to be divided into a Moslem caste, who should rule 
the others ; a caste of adherents of tolerated religions; and a 
caste of unbelievers who were to be exterminated. The sacred 
war was to be maintained till Islam had engulfed the world. In 
out-of-the-way parts of the East this prophecy is supposed to: 
have been fulfilled. But even from early times there were 
exceptions to the rule that the Moslems everywhere should be 
the ruling section of the population; and in the present day 
the portion of the world in which there is any room for the 
development of Mohammed’s scheme is vanishingly small. _ 
Islam, if it is to exist, must learn, as Christianity has learned, 
to divorce itself from political ambitions; and the greater part. 
of its law has to give place to one based on the principle of 
treating all men as equal. 

A large portion of the Islamic code is of course abrogated at 
once—its unjust dealings, its barbarous punishments, its senseless: 
restrictions. If slavery be an essential part of Islam, that 
essential element is also doomed to destruction; each year 
finds the pursuit of the trade less practicable. The study of 
the portions of the code which deal with these matters becomes 
therefore an academic study, as harmless as the Jewish study 
of the four modes of execution which the Sanhedrim may order, 
where there is no Sanhedrim with any power of ordering them. 

But does it follow that the content of Islam left is insufficient. 
to constitute a religion when civil government has forcibly 
abrogated large portions of its code? Probably one who 
regarded a Mohammedanism that was shorn of slavery, 
polygamy, and fanaticism, as no Mohammedanism, would be 
justified in thinking that we are near the end of the system ; 
but one who looked only to historical continuity, and dis- 
regarded even vital alterations in an institution that was 
historically continnous, would fancy Islam has still a long life 
before it. For the results of present experience appear to show 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 71 


that even when shorn of its characteristic institutions it can 
retain enough to satisfy such need of religion as ordinarily 
enters into the life of an individual or a community ; ; and that 
the loss of some of the privileges of the system when it was 
victorious does not result in its followers either abandoning it, 
or adhering fanatically to the precepts that remain. 

Of slackness of nominal belief in Islam it is easy to quote 
evidence from many parts of the world. Mr. Schuyler* 
observed that owing to the exclusion of missionaries from 
Tashkent Moslem observance had become lax; and since, owing 
to the action of the Russian government, compulsory attendance 
at mosques has been abolished, attendance is rare. The 
customary ablutions and performances which are called prayers 
are getting into desuetude. Dr. Pruenf testifies the same for 
East Africa ; in Palgrave’s time it held good of Arabia itself, 
but there would appear since his time to have been some 
movements in the opposite direction. In Egypt and India it 
is not difficult to find Moslems who make no concealment of 
the low esteem in which they hold the rites that their 
ancestors prized, though they have no intention of leaving the 
Moslem community. 

The question whether the European standard of conduct and 
principle is making any way in these communities is of great 
importance, and it is especially of interest to compare the 
statements of modern observers with those made a generation 
ago by Vambéry, whose practical acquaintance with Moslem 
countries was unique. In his charming work on Islam in the 
nineteenth century he gave a history of the attempts that had 
till then been made to introduce European civilization into 
Turkey, Persia, and the Mohammedan East, and he told the 
reader not to condemn the Mohammedans prematurely as incor- 
rigible, because these attempts had in the main been failures. 
In spite of the gloomy character of the narratives in that work, 
and the author’s harsh condemnations of the methods and 
abilities of the Oriental reformers, the reader is less struck by 
their failure or their incompetence than by their number and 
their earnestness; if the Turkish and Persian rulers failed to 
make their countries European, it was clearly not for want of 
trying, though, like those who attempt to draw, they may have 
made many unsuccessful drafts in attempting to get a 
resemblance. In reading very recent works on Turkey the 


* Turkestan, i, 162. t+ The Arab and the African. 
iy 


12 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


reader finds that in some matters at any rate, which when 
Vambéry wrote no pregress had been made, the present condition 
exhibits very decided advance. Thus Vambéry declared that 
the ideas of Europe never got beyond the Salamlk, or reception 
room; that the Turkish womankind were absolutely unaifected 
by the reforms, and he supposed the reforms must always remain 
superficial, because the earliest years of the lives of the men were 
spent in the society of mothers who were rigidly conservative, 
and to whom all things European were objects of contempt and 
detestation. A lady “who wrote on Constantinople in 1895, 
Clara Erskine Clement,* testifies that Turkish ladies now study 
music, language, embroidery, and other feminine accomplish- 
ments; and the same is admitted by Dwight in the yet more 
recent work from which quotations have been made. In native 
Turkish novels the ladies are made to perform brilliantly on the 
piano, and to speak French with ease and discourse on 
Kuropean literature. A distinguisned Turkish authoress,f 
Fatimah Aliyyah, in the preface to one of her translations from 
the French, speaks of this style of work as a departure in 
accordance with modern ideas, and hopes that she may be imitated 
by her countrywomen. This lady has composed some novels 
of her own, and has also given her countrymen some more 
serious literature, including a biography of philosophers. 
Feminine authorship has at all times been more common in 
Mohammedan countries than would naturally be supposed; it 
is however interesting to be able to hit on a point in which 
Vambéry’s Constantinople was certainly behind the city of to-day. 
It would also appear that the literature in circulation among 
readers of Turkish, not only at Constantinople, but in the 
provinces, compares favourably with what we should find in the 
bookshops of a European capital or provincial town. From 
what I have been able to see of the works employed for 
instruction of the young, Vambéry’s severe criticisms on the 
unpractical and reactionary character of the instruction would 
not now be justified. 

For social regeneration I look to the working of one par- 
ticular evangelist—one that may appear strange in this con- 
text, but yet of considerable efficacy. That is the French 
novel. In Turkey it is well known that the French language is 
studied with enthusiasm, and those who obtain government 
appointments of any importance are ordinarily accomplished 


* Constantinople, p. 253. t+ Maram, A.H. 1307. 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. te 


French scholars. Hence some sort of acquaintance with French 
literature appears to be common in educated circles, and books 
of criticism mainly dealing with French hterature are pub- 
lished in Turkish and widely read. Such works assume an 
acquaintance on the part of the reader with the literature whose 
beauties they point out, or whose characteristics they analyse. 
French novels are also translated in masses into Turkish, some- 
what on the scale in which they are rendered into Italian: and 
owing to the cheapness with which books can be produced from 
Oriental presses they are widely read. Thus at a Turkish 
bookseller’s it is possible to procure not only translations of 
those works which are regarded as part of the literature of 
Europe, but also of works of fiction of ephemeral interest, which, 
as those who are acquainted with such works are aware, have a 
tendency to follow rather stereotyped lines. With the immediate 
moral ettect of these works I am not at present concerned ; nor 
with the taste which they represent. But what is important is 
the state of feeling on domestic matters which they assume ; the 
condition of the society on which they are based and which they 
doubtless faithfully portray. That condition is the outcome of 
centuries of Western civilization, absolutely distinct from the 
Mohammedan system, which, as instituted by the founder of 
Islam, differed only for the worse from that of idolatrous 
Arabia. The romance which fills the feawilletons of the Turkish 
newspapers, which provides the literature of entertainment and 
repose, is the romance as the European conceives it, of which 
the environment is the European family, with its ideas of 
women and men which differ so utterly from those which were 
realized in the capitals of the Umayyads and Abasids, and of 
the Osmanli’s before the introduction of French influence. 
When the Turkish stylist endeavours to imitate the same 
style, he is compelled to adapt himself to this European environ- 
ment; withoutit it is impossible to obtaim the motives by which 
scene can be made to foilow scene, and complication to lead to 
denouement. The institutions of Islam have in a way to be 
strained, ingenious combinations have to be devised, in order to 
permit of the construction of a romance in the French style at 
all. It must also be remembered that much of the French 
literature that is translated 1s from the prudish point of view 
absolutely unobjectionable: it is of value in respect of the 
morals which it is intended to inculeate, not only in virtue of 
the environment which it necessarily assumes. It is rare that: 
religious motives enter into this literature ; what it assumes is 
not somuch the standard supposed to be inculcated by a church, 
2 


74 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


as the standard which fashionable society at the great 
_ European capitals is thought to recognize. Hence we find 
original Turkish romancers introduce into their own eivilization 
such European inventions as the bride’s white satin dress or the 
wedding tour. The Turkish lady of these ideals is made 
to possess the accomplishments of the European lady of fashion ; 

the standard of etiquette is gradually transplanted from the 
West to the East. 

For several purposes what is fashionable is of greater con- 
sequence than what is right. It is possible that many of these 
books are what Horace would call peccare docentes historia ; but 
the standard from which they are intelligible is the European 
standard of what is right and wrong; whereas the state of 
society assumed in the native romances perpetuated by the Arab 
storytellers is the barbarous standard of the Caliphate. The 
French novel appears to be performing the tremendous service 
of revolutionizing taste in the Turkish empire, by representing 
the social conditions which we connect ordinarily with Tslam 
as barbarous and unknown to the fashionable world. In the 
Turkish and Arabic literature that proceeds from the pens of 
Mohammedans who have allowed themselves to be taught by 
Europe, the advance on the style of older times is as great as 
that which the English literature of the present day exhibits 
over that of the eighteenth century. Probably other European 
literatures are now exercising their influence besides that of 
France. Since the interest taken by the German empire in 
Turkey, German literature has begun to penetrate there also; 
and the works of English writers are also invading the East in 
Turkish or Arabic dress. The works by which the people .are 
morally educated are everywhere those which they read for 
pleasure, in which the instruction is conveyed without intellec- 
tual effort, and the perusal of which neither constitutes a study 
nor interferes with work. And from the education of the 
Mohammedan world by the novel literature of the West, radical 
reformation may be expected. 

Lastly, it remains to be seen whether Islam will be able to 
claim for its own what it derives from Europe ; whether, as has 
sometimes happened, the discoveries in ethics which are the 
product of experience, will be able to be represented as the 
outcome of the national religion. Mr. Schuyler, the excellence 
of whose judgment his readers have often occasion to admire, 
points out with justice that art and science, which we now 
associate with Christianity so closely, were at one time 
regarded as its enemies; and so seems to regard it as con- 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. vo 
ceivable that Islam may one day be not only reconciled with 
them, but even become their protector. We might similarly 
point to the insurance office being now regarded as an 
institution lkely to be found in a Christian country; and 
yet the notion of providing to the utmost of our ability against 
any contingency that could befall us on the morrow, might 
seem to violate essentially the precept which forbids us to take 
any thought for it. Ata recent Oriental Congress a Turkish 
centleman read a paper proving that religious toleration was 
from the first the watchword of Islam; ina popular hfe of 
Mohammed there is a chapter headed “ Islam not propagated 
by the sword”; and ingenious writers have made the prophet 
himself an advocate of monogamy. From the point of the 
student of history these propositions are indefensible; but 
where a biography is what is called dogmatic, where the actions 
of a man are regarded as the pattern for other men’s, and 
where reverence for a particular name constitutes a mass of 
political capital, it is more important for the race that his 
lite should be really exemplary than that it should be faithfully 
recorded. What shocks us about the earliest biographers of 
the prophet is that they are so truthful; they produce a 
picture that is entirely black, and fail to draw the obvious 
inference that such a man deserves little but reprobation. The 
newer biographer, who has learned from Europe what a pattern 
of conduct should be like, paints his prophet in a style that 
brings him near that pattern; he hopes to make him the 
patron of the newly-discovered virtues, just as moral and 
metaphysical speculators of earler times made Mohammed the 
patron of their business. These efforts at re-writing history 
are not to be discouraged, though with advaneing years men 
choose living models of conduct rather than those of which the 
traits are blurred by antiquity. 

If the transformation of Islam into a patron of purity, 
toleration, intellectual and artistic originality, be equivalent 
to the destruction of the system, it is an end which, though 
far from realization yet, by no means hes out of the direction 
which Islam in some places at least is taking. Yet the 
course of events so often stultifies the most careful forecasts 
that it can only be suggested as one of many possibilities, but 
probably as that which will require the smallest amount of 
violence for its realization. 


J 
oO 


PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.UITT., ON 


DISCUSSION. 


The CHAIRMAN.—Ladies and gentlemen, we have had the great 
privilege and pleasure of listening to a very able and learned 
address on the “ Future of Islam.” I think, by your applause, you 
have anticipated the proposal I was going to make—that we should 
give a hearty vote of thanks to the distinguished lecturer. 

Mr. Martin Rouse.—I beg to second that proposal. I think we 
have all been highly delighted with this ee -scholarly, thought- 
ful, and well-reasoned paper. 

[The vote of thanks was then put to the meeting and carried by 
acclamation. | 

The SECRETARY.—I have received several written communications 
on the paper. 

We have received communications from Chancellor Lias, the Rev. 
G. F. Whidborne, Dr. Chaplin, and Dr. Klein. It would be impossible 
to read them in extenso without unduly curtailing the time for the 
discussion. They will appear in the next volume of ‘“ Transactions.” 

Professor ORCHARD.—The learned author has, | am sure, put us 
all under an obligation by this valuable and thoughtful paper on a 
very important subject. 

I notice that he refers to the opinion of von Kremer, “ that Islam 
must at some time become the religion of the whole of India.” 
That may be the opinion of von Kremer; but I think it is not 
shared by those who have the opportunity of forming correct con- 
clusions on the subject. Certainly the Rev. G. T. Manley, by his 
mathematical training and also, still more, by his experience as a 
missionary, is entitled to be listened to on this point, and he does 
not share that view. Quite lately he has pointed out that the 
Hindus themselves do not fear the Moslems being so numerous ; but 
their belief is that the Christians, though comparatively a small 
community, are a real danger, and they look with apprehension 
to the possible spread of Christianity. Of course it is true that the 
number of converts is small. That, no doubt, is very much owing 
to the fragments of truthin the Mohammedan creed. ‘They have the 
grand truth of monotheism. That is one reason why it is so 
difficult to make converts from them. 

Then, again, I notice the author points out another cause which 
has had some effect, and that is, as he says, ‘‘in several of the 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 77 


places where Mohammedans are subject to Christian governments, 
missionary work is prevented or discouraged by the authorities.” 
That is undoubtedly the case; for instance, in the North-West 
Provinces of India, where a friend of mine is working, they are very 
much hurt by the action of the authorities in regard to missionary 
work. The authorities may mean well by it, but one cannot but 
think that they are making a great mistake. 

If you show to these Mohammedans that you are afraid to meddle 
with their false religion, how is it ikely that they will believe that 
you greatly estimate the truth and importance of your own? 
(Hear, hear !) 

I concur with the learned author in what he says about the so-called 
‘higher criticism.” If you have not a book in your hand—a book 
every whit as good as the Koran is to the Mohammedan—how can 
you expect that they will give up their cherished belief in their book ? 
If the Bible be not the Word of God, the power of the missionary is 
gone, for it comes not with Divine truth, supernaturally communi- 
cated, but merely as human opinion, which may be true or false. 
That sort of thing will never satisfy the heart and mind of man, 
which yearn for truth, and yearn for authority. 

Lieutenant-Colonel MACKINLAY.—Professor Margoliouth has told 
us of the changes in Mohammedanism, many of which have been 
largely brought about by the loss of political power. 

With the probable fall of Turkey and Morocco in the future, this 
loss of power will, as he says, ere long be greater still. It is not 
unnatural to suppose that the condition of the Mohammedan world 
in general will, in the future, follow the same general lines of change 
as those which have already appeared in Mohammedan countries 
(such, for instance, as India), which have been governed for 
years by alien rulers. In India it is found that the social progress 
of Mohammedans during recent years has been slow as compared 
with that of Parsees and Hindoos. The former have shown a relative 
inaptness to accustom themselves to new surroundings ; they have 
not taken so readily to the arts of peaceful progress, and education 
is backward among them; only a small portion of the young 
Indian students in England are Mohammedans. While Parsees and 
Hindoos are numerous on the Bombay ‘Town Council, the number of 
Mohammedans is very small. They still, of course, make excellent 
soldiers, Qn the other hand, during the last twenty or thirty years 


78 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


they have, it is believed, become less strict and bigoted in the 
observance of their religion, and Western ideas have influenced them, 
though not apparently to the same extent as has been the case 
among their co-religionists of the higher classes in Constantinople. 

With regard to Missions. Mohammedans in India have not 
hesitated to include the Christian religion among the subjects of 
their numerous public discussions. I remember thirty years ago 
meeting Imad-ud-deen in Umritsur in the Punjab; he had been a 
bigoted Mohammedan, and he was consequently chosen as a 
champion in a discussion with Christian Missionaries. He procured 
a New Testament on purpose to find fault with it ; but on reading 
it prayerfully by himself, he was convinced that the Lord Jesus 
Christ is the Son of God, and he became a Christian. A somewhat 
similar instance occurred some years later when another discussion 
took place at Umritsur ; a very earnest Mohammedan was again 
one of the champions of their cause. He was summoned from 
Afghanistan for the purpose, and was so strict in his religion that 
he had gone to live there simply because he wished to be under a 
Mohammedan ruler. As the discussion went on, the Mohammedans 
lost their tempers, but the Christians kept theirs. This difference 
of behaviour so impressed the Mohammedan from Afghanistan, that 
it led him to look further into the subject, and he too became a 
Christian. Such public discussions must have considerable influence 
on those who still retain the religion of the false prophet. 

It is interesting to compare the condition of things at the present 
time in such a country as India, with, say, Morocco, where Moham- 
medans still have political power. 

Probably there are those present who could give us facts from 
personal knowledge, and these facts would help in the formation of 
a forecast for the future. 

Mr. J. Hitt Twice.—There is a point on which the lecturer 
might give us some idea, that is, the degree by which Moham- 
medanism is kept back by extreme veneration for its classical 
Arabic, and the difficulty that a great part of a man’s life must be 
spent in learning the Koran. 

With regard to the extent to which conversion is progressing, 
I have never known a convert in my experience. I have met a 
missionary of twenty or thirty years’ standing, from Western India, 
and he told me the same thing. The distinguishing point which 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 79 
binds Mohammedans together is the unity of God, and they accuse 
the Christians of believing in the partnership of Christ, which they 
look upon with extreme contempt. Those are the main points of the 
religion, and they have, I suppose, a greater hold on the lower orders 
than the higher. They infuse a Mohammedan spirit that keeps out 
Europeans, and it is striking what immense military enthusiasm and 
power a man receives when he becomes a Mohammedan. 

Dr. HERBERT LANKESTER.—With regard to the question of 
conversion, we had at the Church Missionary Society’s Hospital at 
Quetta a lady missionary who went out five years ago. She told 
us that the only one woman then converted was a Parsee, and now 
they were twenty-nine in number, most of whom were brought to 
Christ through that hospital; and she said they were not mere 
nominal Christians, but were really striving to win their fellow 
women to Christ, and that some twelve or fourteen women were 
under instruction. 

Some time ago, when there was a rebellion in Uganda, some native 
troops were sent for to come to Quetta, and they asked for copies ctf 
the book. They went up through the different tribes till they got 
to Uganda. They saw there what an extraordinary change had 
taken place, and they were told it was through the book that the 
Christians could read; and they came to our Medical Mission at 
Quetta to ask for copies of the book. They saw so much difference 
between the tribes along the coast of Uganda and those they found 
in the country itself. 

Mr. MircHett (lay missionary of North Africa)—I think I 
might say there are hundreds of converts amongst the Moham- 
medans of Morocco, and yet such a traveller as Francis Macnab, or 
such a writer as Cunninghame Graham, might travel extensively 
through the country without coming in contact with them at all, for 
the reason that they are secluded to some extent. I will not say 
that they hide their light, but they keep it to themselves among 
their own people, and the missionary societies have to be very 
careful in publishing statistics or in mentioning any facts that would 
lead to the identification of those converts. Many of them are 
soldiers in the Sultan’s army. Some of them have already laid 
down their lives for Christ; one was not long since flogged to 
death for refusing to acknowledge Mohammed and to abandon 
Christianity. So both these statements may be honest, and 


80 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


My. Atterbury is correct.when he says that a missionary stated 
there were many who were converted from Mohammedanism to 
Christianity in Morocco, and yet you may travel in Morocco without 
hearing anything of them. 

Another thing—I believe that most of these converts are made from 
the Berbers, who speak a different language, and they would be very 
careful to hide anything from the Arabic-speaking people with 
regard to such a thing as the spread of Christianity in their midst. 

There is one thing I should like to say in regard to the future of 
Islam, and that is—we, as Christians, are inclined and glad to 
think that the political power of Islam is passing away, and to 
congratulate ourselves that a large part of the Mohammedan world is 
now under the dominion of Christians. But there is another side to 
that. Mohammedanism under native rule is decaying rapidly. I 
have been a missionary for many years in North Africa. In the 
twelfth century the population of the province of Tunis was some 
17 millions. Now, under Mohammedanism, without any rival, and 
with considerable means of increasing their numbers through piracy 
and bringing up slaves from the Sudan, what has been the result ? 
With no native Christian church to oppose them, from 17 millions 
of people living in a rather prosperous country, the population of 
Tunis is reduced to less than 2 millions, decimated every few years 
by famine. That is the case in Morocco. I would like to say that 
Mohammedanism under European powers, such as India and Egypt 
and other parts, has the opportunity of progressing and has the 
opportunity of striking its roots deeper under European Christian 
powers than under native rule. | 

i cannot, of course, help regretting the action of the Government 
in Egypt in refusing to allow Christian missionaries to penetrate 
tarther into the Sudan. I think it is the worst thing that could be 
done from a political and religious point of view. I believe a 
Gordon Khartoum College might have been established deliberately 
as a missionary system to propagate Christianity in the Sudan, and 
that it would have met with respect from the natives.* 


* Since the above words were spoken it has been stated in the papers 
that Lord Kitchener and the Sivdar have allowed the C.M.8. Society 
to open Christian schools at Khartoum ; the rights of parents to prohibit 
their children receiving religious instruction being respected.— Ep. 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. Sl 


Mr. Martin Rousr.—To what Mr. Mitchell has just told as I 
think I might add a fact learnt from a lecture that I heard 
Mr. Mitchell give a few years ago, I think—that in Morocco a 
certain lady was the pioneer in one of the leading towns, and 
gathered young men around her and led about ten of them to 
Christ. Three of them went away into the mountain villages of 
Morocco ; and they preached with such real and hearty belief in the 
doctrines of the Bible, that the inhabitants of three villages 
renounced Mohammedanism and became Christians. But | 
remember that at that time we were told not to say much about 
these things, lest the Christians should become marked men. 

The SECcRETARY.—I have an extract from a newspaper of the 
19th December last, containing a statement regarding the spread of 
Christianity in India, drawn up by the Committee of the Calcutta 
Missionary Conference lately held. The whole article is exceedingly 
interesting, but I would just read one part which bears specially on 
that subject :— 


“The first impression left on the mind by its perusal is that of 
enormous and rapid success. In 1861 the Asian Christian com- 
munity in the Protestant Missions of India proper was 138,731 ; in 
1900 it had risen to 854,867, a growth of more than 600 per cent. 
in forty years. If we include Burmah and Ceylon, where the 
growth has been less rapid—in Ceylon, indeed, the Christian com- 
munity has fluctuated curiously—the total number of Native 
Christians in Protestant Missions has risen from 213,373 in 1861 to 
1,012,463 in 1900, a growth of 474 per cent. During the last 
decade the numbers rose from 671,285 to 1,012,463, or nearly 
51 per cent. Satisfactory in itself, this advance compares favourably 
with the general increase of Native Christianity. The Census of 
1901 is sufficiently near in date to afford a means of comparison. 
In that year the number of Native Christians in India and Burmah 
was returned as 2,664,313, as against 2,036,590 in 1891, a growth 
of about 31 per cent. If we disregard the small numbers in Ceylon, 
a simple calculation shows that whereas the Native Protestant com- 
munity has increased some 51 per cent. in the decade, the rest of 
the Christian community has only advanced about 22 per cent. In 
other words, the rest of the Native Christians, including members 
of the Syrian Church of Malabar, the remains of the old Roman 
Catholic districts, and the like, are comparatively stagnant. In the 
gross the numbers of Indian Christians are still insignificant, com- 
pared with the millions of Hindus, Mohammedans, Buddhists, and 
Animistic worshippers. The Mussulmen increased more than 
5,000,000 during the decade; the Buddhists, chiefly in Burmah, 


82 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


added over 2,000,000 to their adherents, though the number of 
Hindus and Animistic religionists have actually fallen. Compared 
with a total population amounting to 294,000,000, the increase of 
the Christian body seems trifling. But the accelerated movement 
towards Christianity is overtaking the natural increment of the 
population. In forty years’ time, even if the ratio of increase be 
not improved, Christianity will have surpassed all other religions 
but Hinduism and Islam, and will have taken its place as the third 
religion of India in point of number.” 


Mr. CHARLES OpiinG, C.S.I.—I would say, first, that a large 
number of the Mohammedans in India with whom I have been 
acquainted thoroughly believe in Mohammedanism, and are very 
good business men, as anyone who deals with them soon finds 
out! (Laughter.) 

The second point I would refer to is, that one element I find in 
India is not so much the unity of the God-head as the brotherhood 
of mankind. A man admitted to Mohammedanism is the brother 
of all other Mohammedans. 

Rey. G. B. DurrAnt.—May I say with reference to the paucity 
of converts from Western India, that may be due to the fact that 
there is no really determined effort ever made to bring over 
Mohammedans ; but in Northern India there are some of the best 
examples of conversion amongst the Mohammedans. It may not 
be known that in India, in connection with the Church Missionary 
Society, there are flourishing Christian Churches, ministered to by 
clergy, converts from Mohammedanism. 

The CHAIRMAN.—I was rather struck by the analogy given by 
the author, where he quotes a missionary as prophesying “that 
Mohammedanism would probably melt away like a frozen iceberg.” 

The author says, ‘“‘a Babi informed me that it [Babism] would 
tolerate no religion besides itself; and it would seem that the 
Christians are taunted with blindness in failing to see that the 
prophecies of their Bible are realized in the Bab, just as they were 
taunted by Mohammed for their obstinacy in refusing to identity 
him as the Comforter promised by St. John.” 

Professor MARGOLIOUTH, in reply, said, I have learnt a good deal 
from the speeches that have been delivered. I am rather glad to 
find that, as far as I am aware, no statement of mine has been 
actually controverted by speakers of experience. 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 83 


One observation was made on the subject of the Arabic language, 
and the difficulty of the study of the Koran. That interested me, 
because a short time ago I was talking to a man of experience, and 
he said he thought the reason why, in ordinary life, Mohammedans 
do not get the places they seek, was that a considerable part of 
their youth was spent in learning the Koran, and he thought it was 
an useless burden on them, as they did not understand it, to learn 
it merely by rote, and that that mechanical labour unfitted them for 
business habits. I have no doubt that what he said was based on 
correct observation. It seems to me, so far as | am acquainted with 
Mohammedans, that too much study of the Arabic language does 
injure them. It seems to be so in Persia, and Turkey, European 
and Asiatic, where profound knowledge of Arabic is not common. 
Even in Egypt and Syria the study among Mohammedans is often 
confined to committing to memory a few books. So I do not think 
the Arabic language is to blame; but, I believe, they are badly 
taught it, being taught to learn the words without their meanings. 

I understand from friends that great alterations are being made 
-in the way of a better course of study, which may develop better 
results. (Appiause.) 

The Meeting then adjourned. 


COMMUNICATIONS, 


The following communications have been received :— 


From the Rev. CHANCELLOR LIAs :-— 

The Institute is to be congratulated on the able paper by 
Professor Margoliouth which has been read before it. I send a few 
remarks by way of supplement. 

In the first place, as the late Professor Freeman was never tired 
of saying, one great reason of the social and political failure of 
Mohammedanism lies in the fact that it spread, not by discussion, 
but through the power of the sword. Though it was associated 
with rapid and remarkable intellectual progress among the races in 
which it originated, it aimed, not at the elevation of the peoples 
which it subdued, but at their suppression. With a military 


84+ PROF. D. 8S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


occupation it commenced, and after centuries had elapsed, a military 
occupation it still remained. This circumstance would alone account 
for its failure to civilize and to develop peoples as Christianity has 
done. 

Beside this cause, however, there is another ; I allude to polygamy. 
The ruling classes in Mohammedan countries are brought up in the 
atmosphere of the harem. Mohammedanism has no respect for 
woman, but degrades her into the slave of the lusts of man. The 
future ruler of men passes his infancy and childhood among women, 
who, as a rule, have neither minds nor morals, and around him he 
sees nothing but ignorance and intrigue, and from his earliest years 
he is accustomed to self-indulgence, which, as he grows older, is 
often of the basest character. He emerges from his seclusion 
without a single one of the habits which are necessary for a 
governing race: neither self-control, nor honour, nor honesty, nor 
justice, nor even mercy. Wherever he goes he is surrounded by 
parasites ; and peculation and favouritism dog his steps. 

The reason for the moral supremacy of Christianity is the 
grandeur of the moral ideal which it sets before mankind. Here, 
certainly, ‘the best is” not ‘‘ the enemy of the good.” Experience 
has proved that the nobler the moral ideal in a nation, the greater is 
its moral strength. Still more is this the case when, as in Christi- 
anity, religion not only provides the noble ideal, but supples the 
strength which enables us to approach to it. Even sceptics like 
Mill and Lecky have admitted the grandeur and beauty of the 
character of Christ. And when we add to the inspiring character 
of His example, the fact that in the case of those who put their 
faith in Him He inhabits them by His Spirit, we find the secret of 
the elevation of soul, the loftiness of spirit, which exist where the 
Christian Church is found. The devotion to duty, the absence of 
all low and selfish motives which the best men in every Christian 
State display, is the result of a religion which has for its basis the 
incomparable Sacrifice of Christ, and the fact of the outpouring of 
the Spirit of that Sacrifice into all who believe on Him. 


From the Rev. G. F. WHIDBORNE :— 

It appears to me that Professor Margoliouth’s paper is most 
important, in the view it presents of the outlook of Islam, and the 
more so because he rather presents facts than draws conclusions. 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 85 


I venture to think, however, that in comparing it with the 
endemic Christianity of such countries as, for instance, Abyssinia, 
he hardly gives sufficient weight to the decadent condition of those 
churches. Islam is itself largely the product of dead churches ; and 
until those churches are reformed and revivified it is not surprising 
that they do not show much greater vitality than Mohammedanism 
itself. But where we get a pure form of Christianity the case is 
different. In India the latest statistics show the rate of increase of 
Protestant Christianity to be 50 per cent. as against the 20 per cent. 
of Mohammedanism; while in Uganda, where the two religions 
started almost together, Christianity has beaten Mohammedanism 
completely out of the field. 

I venture to think, too, that he has underestimated the vital force 
of Christian missions. He quotes, as a sign of their comparative 
failure, cases where for years the Missionaries have not made a 
single proselyte. But the object of Missionaries is not to make 
‘“proselytes” as such, but to spread the Gospel. The work in 
Palestine is, I think, a good exemplification of this difference. There 
a formal proselyte is rarely made, but yet the Gospel is undoubtedly 
now permeating the land in a way that seems to predicate, ere long, 
surprising results. 

The dead weights of Moslem tyranny appear to bar the progress 
of Christianity at present. In the Turkish Empire there is the bar 
of Government tyranny. In India and Egypt, where that bar has 
been removed, the bars of social and family tyranny remain. But 
the spread of Western civilization (a product of Christianity) is 
distinctly weakening these hindrances. It has yet to be seen what 
the rate of Christian advance will be when it has “free course”: 
vital Christianity has a power of surmounting bars! 

I note with interest that the Professor remarks, “ of persons who 
are virtually Christians while remaining Mohammedans I have 
heard a good deal.” This seems by no means impossible. It is not 
impossible for human beings to hold at the same time two contra- 
dictory beliefs. It is by no means unusual for Christians to grasp 
the truth, while still professing a large amount of adverse error. 
And especially in the ill-trained minds of ignorant and child-like 
races, such as may be found in the East, it is not to be wondered at 
if the Gospel strikes home to the heart without always gaining 
logical ascendency over the intellect. 


86 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


No doubt this latter phase of mind would, as the Professor so 
forcibly points out on page 65, if it became widely developed in the 
Christian churches, produce a most serious paralysis of Missionary 
work. But the truths of the Bible seldom fail permanently to 
influence the minds and conduct of those who have opportunities of 
studying them in search of the truth. 


From Dr. THOMAS CHAPLIN :— 

The paper of Professor Margoliouth opens up a question of the 
highest importance and interest, whether regarded from a political, 
social, or religious point of view. As might be expected from a 
writer of the author’s great ability and attainments, he has treated it 
in a most lucid and masterly manner, and I could not venture to 
add anything to what he has said, were it not that daily intercourse 
with Mohammedans for a quarter of a century, and more or less 
association with them for nearly double that period, has enabled me 
to gain some insight into their thoughts, and aspirations, and 
expectations as to the future of Islam. 

About the year 1880 there began amongst Moslems of the upper 
class in Palestine and Syria a remarkable movement in the direction 
of Christianity. Young Effendis took to studying the New Testa- 
ment, and eagerly sought opportunities of discussing with European 
Christians the proofs and claims of Christianity. Opposition 
of course arose, aud anti-Christian feeling ran so high that the 
acting British Consul in Damascus was hooted in the streets and 
had to flee to the coast. The late Sir Richard Burton, who was 
then on a visit to England, took great interest in the movement, and 
it was from him I first heard of the strangling in the Great Mosque 
of a Mohammedan gentleman who was suspected of being a 
Christian—the Moslem account of the occurrence was that he 
committed suicide out of remorse. But the movement was not 
stopped. The unrest continued, until the revolt in Egypt under 
Arabi Pasha broke out. This was regarded as a defensive Moham- 
medan effort directed against the ruler of that country, because he 
was looked upon as being too much under the influence of foreign 
Christian powers, just as at this moment Bu Hamara is fighting 
against the Sultan of Morocco for a similar reason. Every strict 
Moslem was secretly or openly, partially or wholly, in sympathy 
with Arabi, and no Mohammedan dared let it be suspected that he 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 87 


had any tendency towards Christianity. Probably nothing that has 
occurred during the last fifty years has so much tended to hinder 
the acceptance of Christianity by Moslems as the revolt of Arabi 
and its suppression by Christian agency. 

And here we are face to face with what is perhaps the chief of 
all the influences which prevent the Moslem from embracing any 
other religion than his own. He believes it to be the destiny of Islam 
to dominate the world, not necessarily to convert it, and in his 
heart of hearts regards the world as in a state of war (Islam against 
the world), the progress of the Moslem arms being arrested for a 
time owing to the sins and unfaithfulness of the believers.* 

The simplicity and brevity of the Mohammedan confession of 
faith, and the absolute and indefeasible title to a place in paradise 
which it assures to those who adopt it, is another cause of the 
Moslem’s strong attachment to his religion, especially when he 
contrasts it with the elaborate and disputed creeds of the Christian 
Churches. Probably no religion ever invented makes the way to 
heaven so easy as the religion of Mohammed. 

Another strong point is that there is no order of clergy in the 
Mohammedan system. From a religious point of view one Moslem 
is as good as another, unless by his character, conduct, or learning 
one obtains a reputation for superior sanctity. The Imams, or 
leaders of public worship in the mosques, are often small shop- 
keepers, and in Egypt, in Lane’s time, received from threepence to 
fifteenpence a month for their services. They have no spiritual 
authority, and may at any time be dismissed and replaced by others : 
yet, if I am not mistaken, there are instances in which the office of 
Imam has continued for several generations in the samefamily. It is 
the proud boast of the Moslem that no man can come between his 
soul and his Lord ; that the meanest slave who has accepted the 
faith of Islam is spiritually on an equality with the highest and 
noblest. 

Doubtless also the indulgent character of the Koran with regard 
to marriage, divorce, and concubinage are themselves indirectly a 


* The famous Hatti-Scherif of Mustapha II, Sultan of Turkey, began 
with these words : “God, the supreme distributor of all good, has granted 
unto us, miserable sinner, the Caliphate of the whole world.” This was 
preliminary to making war upon Austria. 


88 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


hindrance to the Moslem who approaches the subject of Christianity. 
The strictness of the marriage laws of the Christian Church is 
regarded by him as a stumbling block opposed to the impulses and 
requirements of nature, and leading indirectly to unhappiness and 
sin. He shrinks from it therefore as, in his opinion, antagonistic to 
the best interests of humanity, and not necessarily because of his 
own greater tendency to sensual indulgence. According to my own 
observations, very few Moslems avail themselves to the full of the 
liberal laws of Mohammed. | 

These four things form a stupendous barrier to the progress of 
Christianity amongst Mohammedans, and have to be fully reckoned 
with in considering the question of the future of Islam. 

Of course other circumstances also have great influence. The 
unattractive character (to the Moslem) of much of the Christianity 
which he has opportunities of observing, especially the use, not 
to say worship, of pictures and images in churches, which he cannot 
distinguish from idolatry ; the traditions of the Crusades and their 
final failure; the fact that Christian Powers are constantly en- 
croaching upon Moslem domains; these all tend to foster in him 
opposition to and hatred of the doctrines and claims of Christ. It 
should be remembered that to the Mohammedan his religion stands 
in the place of patriotism. Few care for their country in the way 
that Christians care for their country, desiring its material 
prosperity and intellectual and social advancement. The Moslem 
only wants to be let alone, and live his own simple, but too often 
immoral and cruel life, to inhabit a region which he can defend 
against the hated Christian, with his civilization, and science, and 
intellectual activity. Nothing is so distasteful to a pious Moslem 
as any attempt at free inquiry into the grounds of his religious 
belief.* — 

Yet there is another side to the picture. Many educated young 
Mohammedans are questioning with themselves whether this 
religious system is not in process of decay; whether it is not too 


* A well-known writer has observed that Mohammed accustomed the 
newly converted Moslems to reflect, and accustomed their descendants to 
surrender their reason. The latter had to regard the doctrine and laws 
of their religion as for ever fixed. Sismondi, Chute de ?Empire Romain, 
3rd ed., Bruxelles, 1837, p. 308. 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 89 


much opposed to the progress of enlightenment to hold a permanent 
place. To them the ground seems slipping from under their feet. 
They are thinking, doubting, and fearing what the future may 
bring. 

It is perhaps difficult for us to examine this question with entire 
intellectual detachment. We are taught, and believe, that the 
kingdoms of this world shall become the kingdoms of our Lord and 
of His Christ. Possibly a sudden supernatural impulse from above 
may so influence the hearts and minds of the followers of 
Mohammed, that they may willingly yield themselves to the 
obedience of Christ. But this is hardly a subject for discussion at 
this meeting. 

PostscripT.—tIn these hasty and imperfect notes I have assumed 
that if large numbers of Mohammedans were induced to change 
their religion, it would be to embrace Christianity. Hinduism, 
Buddhism, or the native religions of China would hardly attract 
them. Ancestor-worship might have a certain charm for them, but 
could not constitute a religion. Mohammedans, especially those of 
Arab origin, have ever shown a remarkable tendency to revere 
fanatically and follow enthusiastically religious leaders, as in our 
time, Senoussi, the Mahdi, the Mullah, whom we are pleased to call 
“mad,” and perhaps Bu Hamara. If what is related be true, the 
reverence of the early Moslems for their prophet was almost 
idolatrous. ‘Is it Mohammed, or the God of Mohammed, you 
worship?” exclaimed Abubeker, in his anger: “the God of 
Mohammed liveth for ever, but the Apostle was mortal like 
ourselves, and is dead.” 

From Mr. 8. T. KLErN :— 

I have read Professor Margoliouth’s paper with great interest: it 
deals with a subject which is intimately connected with the spread 
of Christianity ; in fact, I believe it can be shown that Moham- 
medanism owed to a great extent its very existence to the zeal of 
early Christians. It may seem strange to look upon Mohammedans 
as themselves an offshoot from the ranks of Christians, and yet in 
their early days they were, in belief, quite as near as some of the 
other so-called Christian sects. It is not generally known that the 
reason why the Mohammedans removed their Kibleh from Jerusalem 
to Mecca was because they quarrelled with the Jews over their belief 


in Jesus Christ ; at this very time there is in Jerusalem a memorial 
G2 


90 PROF. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.LITT., ON 


of this in the Golden Gate, leading to the Temple area, which has 
been bricked up by the Mohammedans because they said “no foot 
shall cross over that portal until Jesus Christ comes to judge the 
world.” ‘This belief in Jesus Christ gradually gave way, and was 
supplanted by their belief in Mohammed, as he gained in power ; 
but I believe it more than probable that Mohammed would have 
had no considerable following had it not been that the promulgation 
of the dogma of the Trinity, and its being misunderstood by the 
masses, gave Mohammed the handle by which he drew hordes of 
Semites into his train, and gave them their battle cry, ‘“ There is but 
one God.” Iwas struck very much with this idea whilst looking 
through the old Moorish MSS. at the Escurial Library in Spain. In 
the account of their fights with the Christians the Moors do not 
refer to them as Christians, but they say, we, the true believers, 
fought a glorious battle and overthrew with great slaughter the 
Polytheists. It is not pleasant to contemplate how different civiliza- 
tion and religious thought throughout Europe would probably 
have been now but for the victory of Charles Martell over the 
Moors at the battle of Tours. 

As civilization spreads, and races become educated to think 
individually, the power of Islam must, I think, lose vitality, and in 
these days of telegraphs, steam engines, postal communication, and 
spread of knowledge throughout the world by the Printing Press, 
200 years does not seem too short a time to see approaching the 
vanishing point of Islamic perspective, the point where it once more 
comes into line with Christianity. The tendency of religious 
thought to become more liberal in the matter of enforcing dogmatic 
teaching seems to me to be in favour of Mohammedanism eventually 
being absorbed into Christianity ; for as the misunderstanding of a 
dogma helped to start the great wave of Mohammedanism, which in 
the sixth to ninth centuries overran the whole civilized world, and 
Islam became then the exponent of civilization, so Christianity, 
which has now become the great civilizing force in the world, may, 
by the better understanding of certain dogmas, become indeed a. 
light clear enough to lighten every Gentile race, and simple enough 
for every mind to understand. 


SEeconD PostscripT BY Dr. CHAPLIN.—It is a mistake to 
suppose that the religion of Mohammed has been wholly, or even 


THE FUTURE OF ISLAM. 91 


mainly, propagated by the sword. Islam as a power has indeed 
been so maintained and extended, and in every age semi-barbarous 
peoples have shown themselves more or less ready to embrace the 
religious system of their conquerors and rulers. The law of the 
Koran is that no force shall be employed in religion (Chapter 2), 
and although this law has not always been observed, especially as 
regards Arabia, for instance, the rule generally in force has been to 
offer to conquered peoples the alternatives of conversion, tribute, 
or death. 

Another misconception is that Islam does not treat women with 
respect, and regards them merely as slaves of the lusts of men. 
This is not so. ‘‘ Women’s rights” were safeguarded by the Koran 
more than a thousand years before they were much thought of in 
England. It is true that polygamy is allowed, and divorce permitted 
upon any or no ground except the will of the husband. But 
polygamy and facility of divorce had a legal existence under the 
Mosaic law, and indeed are still practised among those Jews who 
live in countries where they are free to follow their own social 
Rabbinical laws. Yet among both Moslems and Jews polygamy 
and divorce were (and are) hedged about with regulations which 
render them not so easy and desirable as might seem. 

I have known many Mohammedans who treated their wives with 
tenderness and respect, and were much influenced by them in 
domestic and even public affairs; the tenderness and respect shown 
being infinitely greater than is often received by wives in a certain 
class of society in our own country. 

In approaching Moslems with a view to influencing them in 
favour of Christianity the wise advice of Sale should ever be in 
our thoughts: “not to give them ill words, and to avoid all 
reproachful language, which never did good either from pulpit or 
press.” 


ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.* 


GENERAL J. G. HALLIDAY IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed. 
The following elections were announced :— 


ASSOCIATES :—Rt. Rev. Bishop Mitchinson, D.D., F.G.S. ; Brigade-Surgeon 
Robert Gray, M.D. ; Richard E. W. Goodridge, Esq., M. Hist. Soc. 
Manitoba. 


The following paper, by Rev. H. D, Griswold, M.A., Ph.D., entitled 
“The Arya Samaj,” was then read by the Secretary, in the absence of 
the Author :— 


THE ARYA SAMAJ. By Rev. H. D. GRiswo1p, 
M.A., Ph.D., Missionary, Lahore, India. 


° 


I. Introduction. 


HE Arya Samaj is a Theistic and reforming sect of Modern 
India. It is the child of Hinduism; but, unlike the 
mother, it aims at a universal propaganda. Hinduism, of 
course, is willing to absorb all the tribes of the earth and 
enrol them as separate castes, but the Arya Samaj is willing 
to accept and purify the zndividual and receive him into the 
Arya brotherhood, be he Mohammedan or Christian.t In this 
respect the attitude of the Arya Samaj is modern and 
cosmopolitan. The Arya Samaj has just been called “the 
child of Hinduism.” It would be more correct to call it the 
joint offspring of Hinduism and Western thought, scientific, 
religious and philanthropic. The word “Samaj” means 
society or assembly, and “ Arya” is an ancient Indian epithet 
meaning “noble,” a name applied to members of the three 


* Monday, January 19th, 1903. 

+ At the last anniversary of the Vegetarian Section of the Arya 
Samaj, held in Lahore, November 30th—December Ist, 1902, several 
Christians were purified and received into the Arya Samaj. 


THE ARYA SAMAJ. 93 


“twice born” castes. The founder of the Arya Samaj thus 
sought to glorify his society and make it attractive by bestow- 
ing on it a name of conspicuous dignity, and one, too, clothed 
with patriotic associations. 


Il. The Founder. 


The Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand Sarasvati, 
a Gujrati Brahman, who was born in the year 1824, in 
Kathiawar. He refused to give either his name or his birth- 
place during his life, lest he should be hindered in his work. 
After his death in 1883 it came out that his real name was 
Mul Shankar, son of Amba Shankar, a banker and revenue 
collector living in a village under the jurisdiction of the Raja 
of Morvi in Kathiawar. He was brought up in the Shaiva 
type of doctrine. For his home life and for the account of 
his early wanderings and studies, we are indebted to his 
Autobiography first published in the Theosophist (October and 
December, 1879, and November, 1880), and the only important 
fruit of the temporary union of the Arya Samaj and the 
Theosophical Society. There are three moments of religious 
interest in the home life of Mul Shankar, alias Dayanand 
Sarasvati—first, his revolt from idolatry owing to an 
experience on the night of his initiation into the mysteries of 
the Shaiva cult, when he saw mice running over the image of 
Shiva and defiling it; second, his determination to abandon 
the world and seek Mukti (salvation), the result of his profound 
erief on account of the death of his sister ; and third, his flight 
from home at the age of twenty-one, in order to avoid the 
entanglement of marriage into which his parents were 
determined he should enter. There is no reason for question- 
ing the essential truthfulness of the account of these early 
experiences. The sincerity of his revolt from idolatry, however 
it came about, is proved by the magnificent courage and vigour 
with which he afterwards attacked idolatry in its chief centres, 
such as Hardwar and Benares. In fact, in his attitude towards 
idolatry he was an ally of Christianity rather than a foe. 
After his flight from home he spent about eighteen years as a 
Sannyasi or religious mendicant, wandering from place to place 
and learning from a great variety of teachers. He first came 
under Vedantic influences, and for a time was convinced of the 
identity of the individual soul and the Supreme Soul. After- 
wards he became interested in the science of Yoga and deserted 
the Vedanta standpoint. Later on he studied the Vedas under 


94 THE REV. H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., PH.D., ON 


the tuition of the blind Swami Virajananda of Mathura. His 
religious development may be described as a movement from 
Pauranic Hinduism through Philosophical Hinduism to Vedic 
Hinduism. He successively deserted Shaivism and Vedantism, 
but clung to the last to the Sankhya- Yoga as the philosophical 
point of view from which, in his opinion, the Vedas ought to 
be interpreted. 

The last twenty years of his life may be called the period of his 
public ministry (1863-1883). His history during this period is 
a history of preaching tours throughout the length and breadth 
of India, from Bombay and Poona on the south to Calcutta and 
Lahore on the north, of public discussions with pandits, 
maulvies and missionaries, and of lterary work. In the great’ 
centres of idolatry his usual theme was, “Is there idolatry in 
the Vedas?” He founded the Arya Samaj in Bombay, in the 
year 1875, and visited the Panjab in 1877. He died in 1883, 
in the city of Ajmere, Rajputana, under circumstances which 
gave rise at the time to the suspicion that he had been 
poisoned. But of this there is no clear proof. 

Some account may here be given of the personality and 
character of the founder of the Arya Samaj. The earliest 
contemporary sketch known to me of the appearance of Swami 
Dayanand was drawn by Rev. T. J. Scott, D.D., at the 
Kurkora Mela, on the banks of the Ganges, October 29th, 1868. 
It was when the Swami had gone into partial “retreat ” for 
“further contemplation and perfection of character,’ as one of 
his biographers tells us.* 

The description reads as follows :—*“ In the afternoon I visited 
a fakeer down on the sand by the water’s edge, of whose learning 
and sanctity I had heard in the crowds of the bazaar. I found 
him sitting in a little straw booth; and a splendid-looking 
fellow he was, with his herculean frame and massive limbs, 
fine oval cranium and really benignant face. He was sitting 
almost entirely naked, and entered at once into pleasant 
conversation. JI found him to belong to a class of mendicants, 
who profess to have entirely abandoned the world, and are 
living in complete contemplation of the Deity. The conver- 
sation revealed in him a fine mind and well versed in the 
ancient lore of the Hindus. He talked only Sanskrit, and our 
conversation was conducted through an interpreter.”t 


* Dayananda Saraswati, by Arjan Singh, p. 23. 
+ Missionary Life among the Villages in India, p. 162. 


THE ARYA SAMAJ. 95 


Swami Dayanand from all accounts was a man of splendid 
physique, impressive personality and great strength of will. 
In a word, he was a born leader of men. His manuer was 
commanding and imperious, but he could also be gracious and 
suave on occasion. In debate his style is described as of the 
“sledge-hammer” sort. The epithet mahdmurkh (great fool), 
was often applied by him to the defenders of other faiths. In 
his criticism of other faiths, he was exceedingly unsympathetic, 
not to say unfair. There is a general impression that this 
characteristic of the master has descended to his followers—in 
other words, that the members of the Arya Samaj are not 
remarkable for courtesy and fairness in religious discussion. 
Happily, however, there has been some improvement in this 
matter. As regards moral character, the Swami in his 
autobiography is very frank and open in telling the world how 
he dissembled to his father after his first flight from home, and 
how he was accustomed to the use of bhang, an intoxicant, 
during his ascetic life. I do not mention these things by way of 
reproach. It is far healthier and more ethical to confess these 
things, than, like some other teachers in India, to claim virtual 
sinlessness.* 

At the same time, it must be admitted, I think, that Swami 
Dayanand’s naive way of referring to the duplicity which he 
showed to his father argues a defective sense of the “ ugliness 
of falsehood.”t The actual account of his meeting with his 
father after his first flight from home is as follows :—< No 
sooner had I met his glance, though then knowing well that 
there would be no use in trying to resist him, I suddenly made 
up my mind how to act. Falling at his feet with joined hands 
and supplicating tones, I entreated him to appease his anger ; 
I had left home through bad advice, I said; 1 felt miserable, 
and was just on the point of returning home when he had 
providentially arrived; and now I was willing to follow him 
home again” (Autobiography). Swami Dayanand has been 
charged with pursuing a path of expediency, that is, of holding 
the Jesuitical theory that a good end justifies questionable 
means. The episode referred to above tends to support this 
charge. 


* For example, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, who claims to be the 
** Promised Messiah.” 
t+ Cf. J.C. Oman, Jndian Life, Religious and Social, p. 106. 


96 THE REV. H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., PH.D., ON 


III. Doctrine. 


We come now to the doctrine taught by Swami Dayanand. 
It has already been stated that the Arya Samaj is the joint 
offspring of Hinduism and Western thought. As Swami 
Dayanand wandered up and down throughout India, he studied 
not only the past but also the present, not only the thought of 
India as embodied in Veda and Upanishad, Sutra and Epic, but 
also the thought of Europe as embodied especially in the 
devices of modern science, everywhere manifest in India, such 
as railroads, telegraphs and other mechanical inventions. He 
finally arrived at a scheme for reconciling the present with the 
past, the West with the East. It was something like this. 
The word “ Veda” means knowledge. It is God’s knowledge, 
and, therefore, pure and perfect. This transcendent and heavenly 
knowledge embraces the fundamental principles of all the 
sciences. These principles God revealed in two ways: (1) in 
the form of the four Vedas, which were taught to four rishis, 
Agni, Vayu, Siraj and Angira, at the beginning of Creation 
over one hundred billion years ago, and (2) in the form of the 
world of nature, which was created according to the principles 
laid down in the Vedas, somewhat as the Tabernacle is said 
to have been built according to the pattern shown in the 
mount (Exodus xxv, 40). 

Notice the ambiguity in the meaning assigned to the word 
“ Veda.” It is (1) God’s knowledge, the content of the Divine 
omniscience, which is one thing ; and (2) it is the collection of 
Aryan literature known as the Four Vedas, which is quite a 
different thing. One may believe in the Veda in the first 
sense, without accepting it in the second sense. The Vedas, 
then, being regarded as “the Scripture of true knowledge,” the 
perfect counterpart of God’s knowledge so far as “ basic 
principles” are concerned, and the “ pattern” according to 
which Creation proceeded, it follows that the fundamental 
principle of Vedic exegesis will be the interpretation of the 
Vedas in such a way as to find in them the results of natural 
science. As E. D. Maclagan remarks: “The bases of the 
Aryan faith are the revelation of God in the Vedas and the 
revelation of God in nature, and the first practical element in 
this belief is the interpretation of the Vedas in conformity 
with the proved results of Natural Science.”* In other words, 
there is involved the assumption that the Vedas as “the 


* Census of India, 1891, vol. xix, p. 175. 


THE ARYA SAMAJ. Q7 


scripture of true knowledge” must contain “the basic 
principles of all sciences,’ and accordingly that every 
scientific discovery and invention of modern times must be 
taught, germinally at least, in the Vedas. The science of the 
West, then, is but the realization of the scientific programme 
intuited by the seers of the East, over 100,000,000,000 years 
ago. To the ancient East belonged the faculty of seeing; to 
the modern West belongs the faculty of domg. The programme 
comes from the East; the realization from the West. Thus the 
West in realizing the principles laid down in the Vedas is 
following unconsciously the Vedic religion. A pamphlet has 
just come to hand, issued by the Arya Samaj, and bearing the 
title, The Source of the Christian Religion is Buddhism. 
Its fundamental thesis is that all religions have their source in 
the Vedas, and that diversities in religion are due to the 
influence of different environments upon the primitive Vedic 
revelation.* 

The principle that all the sciences have their revealed 
source in the Vedas is here enlarged by the further principle 
that all religions find their original and inspired source in the 
same early literature. In this way Swami Dayanand sought to 
render to the East the things which belong to the East, and to 
the West the things which belong to the West. It may 
readily be imagined what kind of interpretation is involved in 
the attempt to find in the Vedas the results of modern 
scientific invention such as steam engines and gunpowder, the 
electric telegraph and X-rays, cannon and ocean steamers. It 
is a highly subjective and fanciful interpretation, not recog- 
nized as legitimate by a single Sanskrit scholar, either Indian 
or European, outside of the Arya Samaj. It is an interpreta- 
tion which disregards at will the grammatical distinctions of 
mood and tense, number and person, active and passive. Ina 
word, it is interpretation in the interests of a theory, the 
theory, namely, that the Vedas teach a pure monotheism and 
contain “the basic principles of all the sciences.” It is as if 
one should attempt to find a pure monotheism and a complete 
programme of scientific inventions in Homer’s J/iad or Virgil’s 
Ajneid. Every historical allusion in the Vedas is carefully 
explained away on the ground that “the Vedas being Divine 
revelation, expound the laws of existence in its various 


* Compare the doctrine of “ primitive revelation” held by some 
Christians. 


98 THE REV. H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., PH.D., ON 


departments, which precludes the mention of persons and 
places.”* 

Thus the method of interpretation is dogmatic and a priori, 
rather than historical. Indeed, there can be no more vivid 
commentary on the lack of the historic sense among the 
Hindus than the fact that the membership of the Arya Samaj 
embraces a large number of English-educated Indians, many of 
whom are college-bred, and yet they accept as historical the 
date 100,960,853,000 years ago as the date of the giving of the 
Vedas, and regard as scientific that interpretation of the Vedas 
according to which they constitute a prophetic programme of all 
the scientific inventions of modern times. One remedy for this 
state of affairs must surely be along the line of the encourage- 
ment in the Indian universities of genuine historical study, 7.¢., 
the mastery of the methods and canons of historical research, 
instead of the passive memorizing of untested statements. 
Enough has been said to show that the doctrines of the founder 
of the Arya Samaj are based not on the Vedas themselves, but 
upon an wneritical and unscientific interpretation thereof. 

So much for the Arya doctrine of the Vedas, and of their 
interpretation. As in every religion, so in the Arya Samaj, 
the “doctrine of Holy Scripture” is of fundamental import. 
But while Swami Dayanand’s doctrine of the Vedas is 
exceedingly open to criticism, it is only fair to say at the same 
time that he has shown a sound instinct in excluding the later 
literature of India, eg., the Puranas and Tantras, from the 
canon of Sacred Scripture. If any portion of Indian literature 
deserves to be called sacred par excellence, it is the Upanishads 
and certain hymns found in the kg Veda, notably those 
addressed to Varuna. 

The theology of the Arya Samaj is the religious philosophy 
of the Sankhya-Yoga read into the Vedas and Upanishads. 
The fundamental principle of the Sankhya is the dualism of 
Prakriti and Purusha, matter and soul. The Yoga, or theistic 
Sankhya, takes one of the innumerable souls recognized by the 
non-theistic Sankhya and makes it the Supreme Soul. The 
result is a kind of trinity consisting of God, Soul (or souls) and 
Matter, each independent and self-existent. God is eternal, so 
also is each soul, so also is matter. Pandit Ralla Ram, the 
theologian of the Vegetarian section of the Arya Samaj, refers 
to this as “the universal trinity recognized by science and 


* The Arya Patrika, October 19th, 1901. 


THE ARYA SAMAJ. 99 


religion alike ” and as “the most important of the doctrines of 
the Arya Samaj.”* 

This doctrine of three separate, eternal, and self-existent 
entities is of course open to grave objections from the stand- 
point of philosophy. If God is eternally confronted by souls 
and matter, of which He is not creator, and for which He is in 
no way responsible, the absoluteness of His sovereignty must 
necessarily be very seriously impaired. God becomes logically, 
on this theory, little more than an umpire to preside over the 
inexorable processes of Transmigration, and Karma a personified 
moral order, the apotheosis of the principle of retribution. 
Karma, or the law of moral causality, was the God of Buddha. 
This law personified is the God of Swami Dayanand. While 
making these criticisms, one may cheerfully admit that the 
realism of the Arya theology has a relative justification as a 
protest and reaction against the extreme idealism of the 
Vedanta philosophy, with its exoteric doctrines of emanation 
and absorption and its esoteric doctrines of illusion and identity. 
There is also an attempt to do justice to the claims of both 
science and religion. As regards the freedom of the will, the 
Arya Samaj holds that “we are not free to will an act, if we 
were created by some one else. . . . In order to be free 
we must be believed to be eternally acting as we thought 
best, or as our previous karmas determined the course for us, 
receiving, according to God’s eternal laws, the fruits of our 
own good or bad deeds, and shaping in accordance therewith, 
and with our own hands, as it were, our future destiny.’’f 

Thus, as regards the soteriology of the Arya Samaj, the 
great means of salvation is the effort of the individual, and 
for this a sufficient sphere is allowed through the doctrine of 
transmigration, or repeated births. Salvation is conceived as 
virtually an eternal process. At the last anniversary meeting 
of the “ College” section of the Arya Samaj, held in Lahore, 
November 30th, 1902, the one sentiment in the address of one 
speaker which was vigorously applauded was the speaker’s 
conviction that at some time or other, sooner or later, perhaps 
in some cases after an unspeakable lapse of time, every soul will 
come to that knowledge of God which constitutes beatitude. 
In this way, the Arya Samaj is the advocate of the “larger 
hope.” 


* “Bearing of Religion and Morality on Final Causes.” The Arya 
Patrika, Lahore, December 14th, 1901. 
t+ The Arua Patrika, loc. cit. 


100 THE REV. H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., PH.D., ON 


Ethically, there is one doctrine taught by Swami Dayanand, 
and accepted by the Arya Samaj, which is most objectionable. 
This is the doctrine of Niyoga, which may be described as a 
virtual recognition of the principle of free love, sanctified by 
a temporary arrangement. At the very best it can only be 
characterized as temporary marriage. 


IV. The Order. 


Under this head will be given some information concerning 
the history, organization, government, worship, methods of work 
and statistics of the Arya Samaj. The history during the last 
decade is a history of diswnion, the Arya Samaj having split 
up into two sections. The ostensible grounds of the split are 
two-fold: (1) differences of practice with reference to the use 
of flesh for food, and (2) differences in theory concerning the 
proper policy to be pursued in higher education. From the 
point of view of the first difference the two sections are called 
respectively the “meat-eating” party and the “ vegetarian” 
party ; and from the point of view of the second, the “college ” 
party and the Mahdtmd, or old-fashioned party. Both 
differences run back into a still more fundamental difference 
of opinion, namely, concerning the degree of inspiration and 
authority to be assigned to the teachings of Swami Dayanand. 
In this matter, the position of the College party, as the party 
of light and culture, is liberal, while the attitude of the 
Mahdtmd party is conservative. The educational work of 
each section is carried on in harmony with its special theory. 
The “ Cultured” party has a college at Lahore, the Dayanand 
Anglo- Vedic College, which it administers on modern lines and 
with a considerable degree of efficiency. The Mahdtind party, 
on the other hand, has an institution at Hardwar known as 
the Gurukula, in which ancient ideals of education receive the 
emphasis. The past decade has also been fruitful in biographies 
of the founder of the Arya Samaj, no less than four having 
been written within this period, and one of them a very 
voluminous work. 

The organization of the Arya Samaj embraces the local 
samaj or congregation, the provincial assembly, and (under 
contemplation) a national assembly for all India. The con- 
ditions of membership in a local samaj are (1) implicit faith in 
the Arya “ Decalogue” or Ten Principles, and (2) belief in the 
canons of Vedic interpretation laid down by Swami Dayanand. 
The candidate for membership must have reached the age of 


THE ARYA SAMAJ. 101 


eighteen. There is no special ceremony of initiation for 
members of the “twice-born” castes, but outsiders such as 
Christians and Mohammedans must undergo a ceremony of 
purification. The members of a local samaj are of two kinds, 
probationers or non-voting and approved or voting members. 
The peried of probation is one year. The officers of a local 
Samaj consist of a president, vice-president, secretary, treasurer 
and librarian, elected by the voting members. It will be 
observed that the officers are those of an ordinary secular 
association. The Provincial assembly is a representative body 
composed of delegates appointed by the local congregations. 
Each affiliated samaj has the right to send one delegate for 
every twenty members. Delegates are elected for three years, 
and there is an annual meeting of the Provincial assembly, 
which has the oversight of all the congregations situated 
within a particular province, eg., the united Provinces or the 
Punjab. Thus the form of government of the Arya Samaj is 
clearly representative. It is not quite clear, however, whether 
its special type is Congregational or Presbyterian; in other 
words, whether the Provincial assembly is the analogue of a 
Presbyterian Synod or of a Congregational Union. 

The weekly religious service of the Arya Samaj is held on 
Sunday morning, since the Government offices are closed on 
that day. As it is the only religious service of the week, it is 
a long one, lasting three or four hours. Religious worship 
consists of the burning of incense (the Homa sacrifice), accom- 
panied by the chanting of Vedic mantras, exposition of the 
writings of Swami Dayanand, prayer, hymns, sermon and 
lecture. With the exception of the use of incense, the 
constituents of worship are those of an ordinary Protestant 
service. Thus the worship is non-ritualistic and Puritan in 
its simplicity. Long sermons are apparently enjoyed. 

In its methods of work the Arya Samaj follows the methods 
current among the various missionary societies working in 
India. It uses preaching, education, tract distribution, news- 
papers, etc., etc. Its methods of raising money are as follows: 
(1) Voting members must pay +4, of their monthly income. 
(2) Special appeals are made at the anniversary meetings. 
Much is made of such meetings as occasions for stirring up zeal 
and creating a spirit of self-sacrifice. At the last anniversary of 
the “cultured” section of the Arya Samaj held in Lahore at the 
end of November, 1902, there were “two remarkable incidents. 
The one was the surrender of a life policy for Rs. 10,000 to the 
sama} by one gentleman in the heat of the enthusiasm created 


102 THE REV. H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., PH.D., ON 


by the appeal for subscriptions that was made, and which 
brought forth donations to the amount of about Rs. 10,000 
besides this one offer. But the other was a much more 
remarkable incident, viz., the resolution declared by Lala Mehr 
Chand, B.A., to devote himself to the interests of the D.A.V. 
College and to work on bare subsistence, taking a vow of 
poverty. . . . A notable start in this direction was made 
by the example set by Lala Hans Raj, B.A., Principal D.A.V. 
College.”—Panjab Observer. 

There are two classes of preachers, honorary and paid. The 
honorary preachers are local, the paid are itinerant. The first 
class consists of men in regular employment as clerks, pleaders, 
teachers, physicians and other business men, mostly English- 
educated and many of them college-bred. On the other hand, 
the paid preachers give all their time to the work of preaching, 
and are, as a rule, educated only in the vernacular. The salary 
of a paid preacher ranges from Rs. 12 to Rs. 60. It is 
interesting to note that the “cultured” party emphasizes 
education, while the mahdtmad party emphasizes preaching. 
Each section of the Arya Samaj maintains a number of high 
schools and orphanages, and also several newspapers both in 
English and in the vernacular. 

We come finally to the statistics and future prospects of the 
Arya Samaj. According to the census of 1891, there were in 
India ten years ago 39,952 Aryas, including men, women and 
children, the United Provinces returning 22,0535 and the 
Panjab 16,275. For 1901 the census for the United Provinces 
returned 65,282 Aryas, an increase of 43,229 during the 
decade. This is aremarkable advance. The numerical increase 
has not been so great in the Panjab, the census for 1901 
returning 9,105 males over fifteen, not counting women and 
children. Thus the numbers of the followers of Swami 
Dayanand, including men, women and children, must at 
present amount for all India to 80,000 or 90,000. Such is the 
result of the first quarter of a century of work on the part of 
the Arya Samaj. Such is the monument which Swami 
Dayanand has secured for himself through his disciples. 

As regards the future of the Arya Samaj it is difficult to 
play the prophet. It is undoubtedly the most popular 
theistic and reforming movement in India to-day. In the 
matter of female education, emancipation of women, tem- 
perance and other reforms, it is in the line of progress. It 
also ministers to the patriotic spirit through its insistence that 
the Vedas are the original source of all the religion and 


THE ARYA SAMAJ. 103 


science of the world. It accordingly appeals strongly to 
“Young India” as the party of patriotism and progress. It 
contains many earnest and good men who sincerely desire the 
welfare of their country. It keeps in close touch with 
orthodox Hinduism through the fact that comparatively few 
members of the Arya Samaj have broken caste. Will it 
ultimately be reabsorbed into the abyss of Hinduism or will it 
advance to a more rational and enlightened position? The 
future alone can answer these questions. 


V. Select Lnteratwre on the Arya Samay. 


ae Bhashya. (Commentary on the Vedas.) 

Veda Bhishya Bhimikd, (Introduction to the above Commentary on the 
Vedas. 

Satydrtha ane (Exposition of the Vedic religion and refutation 
of all the modern faiths.) The three above-mentioned works (in 
Hindi) are all from the pen of Swami Dayanand Sarasvati, and 
constitute the authoritative literature of the Arya Samaj. 

Dayananda Sarasvati, pp. 167-182 of Professor Max Mueller’s “ Bio- 
graphical Essays,” vol. 11, Reissue, 1898. 

The Arya Samaj and its Founder, chap. iv of “Indian Life, Religious and 
Social.” By J, C. Oman, London, 1889. 

The Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj. By F. Lillingston, London, 
1901. 

The Arya Samaj: an Outline Study. By Wilbert W. White. 

The Arya Samaj, its Teaching and an estimate of it. By Rev. Henry 
Forman, Allahabad, 1889. 

The Principles and Teaching of the Arya Samaj. Six lectures by Pandit 
Kharak Singh and Dr. Martyn Clark, 2nd edition, Lahore, 1887. 
Eaposure of Dayanand Sarasvati’s Deliberate Falsification of the Rig Veda. 

By Rev. T. Williams, Rewari, 1893. 

The Dayanandi Interpretation of ‘the word “ Deva” in the Rig Veda. By 
H. D. Griswold, Lodiana, 1897. 

Pandit Dayanand Unveiled. By Pandit S. N. Agnihotri of the Deva 
Dharma. 

The Niyoga Doctrine of the Arya Samaj. By Ruchi Ram Sahni, M.A., 
Lahore, 1897. 

The Problem of the Arya Samaj. By H. D. Griswold in the /ndian 
Evangelical Review, January, 1902. 

The Arya Samuj: its History, Progress, and Methods. By Rev. B. A. 
Nag, in the Jndian Evangelical Review, October, 1901. 


104 THE REV. H..D. GRISWOLD, M:A., PH.D., ON 


DISCUSSION. 


The CHAIRMAN.—We have had an interesting paper; but, 
unfortunately, the writer of it not being present, it a little takes off 
from the point of the discussion that may follow. However, 
although he is not here, I suppose we can thank him for it and the 
Secretary for reading it and Mr. Rouse, who assisted him. 

In the meantime should there be any remarks to be made on the 
paper by any present we shall be glad to hear them. 

The SECRETARY.—I am sure we are all indebted to the Rev. Mr. 
Griswold for drawing up this paper for us. He has had great 
opportunities of noticing the rise and advance of this newest sect 
in India, and after the account he has given us of its rise and 
advance, I think we may, on the whole, feel thankful for the Arya 
Samaj and for the good it is doing in helping to enlighten the 
Hindu population, chiefly in bringing them more under the 
influence of western ideas for the emancipation of the women and 
the spread of culture. Of course we should all have rejoiced if this 
movement had really been more towards Christianity ; but it is 
evidently a step in that direction. Mr. Griswold, very properly, 
does not venture to take the réle of a prophet; still I think we 
may go so far as to say that it appears to contain the seeds of 
dissolution within itself. 

You will see that this movement depends on two factors—it 
resolves itself into two divisions. The view that the Vedas date 
back a billion years is a statement that the educated classes in India 
will ultimately realize to be absolutely absurd; and then the 
attempt to show that the great advance in art and science of the 
nineteenth and twentieth centuries have had their “ basic” founda- 
tion in the Vedas will also, in time, appear to the educated classes 
to be absolutely without foundation in fact. They will see that the 
Vedas, however admirable they are in some respects, moral and 
social, yet the demand upon the view of the cultivated classes that 
they contain the seeds and basis of all modern invention is that 
which cannot hold water for a moment and must, ultimately, be 
disproved. 

These reasons, and others also that I might add, such as that 
the movement itself, within a quarter of a century, has been split 
up into two divisions, not absolutely opposed, but divergent sub- 


THE ARYA SAMAJ. 105 


sects, seem to show that this movement, however popular it may be 
at the present day among the classes who are not prepared to accept 
Christianity as placed before them by the missionaries of India, 
has been adopted by them as a sort of half-way house which they 
think will bring them into a sort of concord with the progress of 
western civilization, and yet enable them to retain a good deal of 
the faith of their fathers. 

This seems to me to be the lesson which the paper places 
before us. 

General Ropinson.—Perhaps I might say a few words on this 
subject, having lived in India. 

Iam afraid what the Secretary has just said is not what we 
should wish. I am afraid there is a great tendency in reforming 
Hindus to avoid Christianity. The Brahm Samaj was a good 
thing which brought India much nearer to Christianity ; but Arya 
Samaj is an attempt to bring Hinduisin into line with modern 
science. Its adherents are very bitter against Christians and 
Christianity, and it is a great trouble to our missionaries in India. 

The Indian has learnt to despise his own religion, Brahmanism, 
and he sees that it is not a scientific religion. He wants, therefore, 
to make his religion a scientific religion. We see by this lecture 
how miserably he has failed, and we must trust that the result of 
this attempt will not in the end be a lasting one. Fortunately he 
is so very unscientific in his proposals that he will be left out by 
the modern Hindu who gains his teaching at Cambridge and Oxford 
and knows better. Therefore I trust something better will arise in 
India than the Arya Samaj. (Hear, hear.) 

Professor ORCHARD.—I am afraid I should be disposed to say 
that this faith shows no advance whatever in a religious or 
philosophical point of view at least. 

Dr. Griswold has brought before us a very remarkable man—a 
man whose mind was ethical rather than religious and _ practical 
rather than philosophical. This sage was undoubtedly a man of 
great natural shrewdness, sagacity, acuteness, and natural fore- 
sight. He no doubt thought when he brought western ideas into 
enlistment in his protest against idolatry, that by the simplicity of 
the worship he enjoined on his fellows, he was doing service to his 
country ; but this sect that he founded—this Arya Samaj—will, I 


think, not be remembered on the ground of any philosophical or 
HD 


106 THE REV. H.-D. GRISWOLD, M.A., PH.D., ON 


religious excellence. It is, no doubt, an interesting historical 
experiment to see how far you can introduce western civilization 
without introducing western religion. 

I cannot regard Mul Shankar as, in the highest sense, a great 
reformer.. His idea that ‘‘the bases of the Aryan faith are the 
revelation of God in the Vedasand the revelation of God in nature, 
and the first practical element in this belief is the interpretation of 
the Vedas in conformity with the proved results of natural science,” 
is not, I think, so very absurd from his particular point of view. 
He regarded the Vedas as the divine revelation. If they had been 
the divine revelation it is quite evident that the proved results of 
science must agree with that divine revelation; but where his 
argument fails is in his enormous assumption that the Vedas are the 
divine revelation—that they are the Word of God, and when he 
searched these Vedas and found, as one would think he must have 
found, that they were not in accord with science, it 1s, perhaps, — 
surprising that he did not begin to doubt whether these Vedas 
might not be rather the reverse of knowledge. 

With regard to the visionary character of his doctrine, I read, 
“As regards the freedom of the will, the Arya Samaj holds that we 
are not free to will an act if we were created by some one else. 

In order to be free we must be believed to be eternally 
acting as we thought best.” So he holds that man was not created 
if he has free will. If he has been created, argues Mul Shankar, 
he cannot be free in his will; but that he is free in his will and, 
therefore, eternal—that there was no time when he did not exist. 
Having affirmed that he is free, that is contradictory. 

As to whether the system will survive long, I apprehend that 
is much a question whether in fact the missionary effort in 
spreading the religion of Jesus Christ the Lord does, or does 
not, keep pace with mere secular civilization. 

Mr. Martin Rovuse.—I should like to ask General Robinson 
what has become of the Brahm Samaj. When I was a boy I 
heard something of it, and I heard of a certain Chunder Sund 
being received here in a very friendly way by Dean Stanley. 
He appeared to be a kind of Unitarian who had given up idolatry 
in his worship, and the Dean hoped he would be led on into 
Christianity. Whether it has faded away I do not know, but I 
have not heard of it since. 


THE ARYA SAMAJ. 107 


General Roprnson.—It is a long time since I was in India; but 
I am afraid that the Brahm Samaj is not advancing. I do not 
know that I ought to say “afraid,” for it has missed its mark. 
Round Calcutta and the lower part of Bengal is where you find 
the Brahm Samaj. As the last speaker said, it seemed to 
approach the truth, and it very nearly did so, and it got all its 
teaching from Jesus Christ. It accepts our Saviour as the 
Great Teacher, and it seemed very nearly as if its leader was 
going to accept Jesus Christ altogether as the Son of God; but 
just at last he failed. It takes the moral code of the New 
Testament as its code of morals, and it is hoped that through the 
teaching of our missionaries some of the Brahm Samaj may be 
led to accept Christianity, but at present, as I say, it has just 
missed its mark. So it has not advanced. I do not think it is 
dying out altogether, but it hangs about the neighbourhood of 
Calcutta and Bengal. 

The CHAIRMAN.—I am afraid my knowledge of India has led 
me first to this conclusion—that the Brahm Samaj, the Arya 
Samaj, and such-like doctrines, are all of them struggles against 
the advance of light and truth. I do not believe there is much 
vitality in any of them as far as I have been able to see; but 
it is a curious thing how the human mind will attach itself to 
what pleases it and will bring itself to believe it. What they 
make up their minds to believe (and let us take care that it is 
not the same, in some little measure with ourselves) they adhere 
to somehow. I think the root and offspring of them all has 
been the advance of western science and western religion, and a 
struggle against that advance. ‘Let us stop it and invent 
something else. We will take the emancipation of women, in 
theory at all events, but not much in practice. These westerns 
come and press these ideas on us; but we will hold tight to 
Hinduism somehow,” and they thus struggle against the light and 
knowledge of the voice of God and His Christ. As far as they 
can they will struggle against all advance of western knowledge 
and light, which is a great misfortune. 

The Meeting then adjourned. 


ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.* 
Davip Howarp, Es@., IN THE CHAIR. 


DEATH OF THE PRESIDENT, SIR GEORGE GABRIEL 
STOKES, BART. 


The CHAIRMAN.—I am sure all of you who have read your news- 
papers this morning will join with me in the profound regret with 
which we have heard of the death of our revered President. (Hear, 
hear.) He was one of those who might, if any man might, have 
been proud of himself. A man of the profoundest intellect and widest 
knowledge, he was yet one of the humblest men that ever lived. 

I cannot help thinking that those who, even from a distance, 
have watched his life, may learn a lesson of the true proportion of 
things. He was profoundly humble, because all his great intellect 
was brought to bear upon deep studies, made in the face of, 
and in the consciousness of, deeper and profounder realities—the 
realities of eternity. Great as he was in science, his Christian 
faith was even greater than his human knowledge. He was one 
who has served God in his day and generation, and he has now 
fallen asleep—or rather he has awakened to the realities of the 
beatific vision which is the true knowledge which even his great 
intellect could only grasp or discern as in a “glass darkly ”—the 
eternal verities! It has been our privilege to know him. God 
grant that we may follow in his steps. 

I will now ask the Secretary to read the Resolution of 
condolence. 

The SECRETARY.— 


“Ttis with the greatest regret that the Council have heard 
this morning of the death of their revered President, 


* Monday, February 2nd, 1903. 


DEATH OF SIR. GEORGE GABRIEL STOKES, BART. 109 


Sir GEORGE GABRIEL STOKES, BART., Master of Pembroke 
College, Cambridge, and formerly President of the Royal 
Society. That such an eminent man should have held the 
office of President is a high honour to the Victoria Institute, 
and affords to the world a standing testimony that, in the 
view of one of the most distinguished representatives of 
scientific progress, the relations between science and religion 
are entirely harmonious. 

‘“‘'The Members of the Institute desire to record the deep 
sense of gratitude and reverence with which the name of 
Sir George G. Stokes will be cherished amongst them. To 
the last year of his life, and notwithstanding his increasing 
infirmities, he attended the meetings of the Council when- 
ever he was able, and his advice was constantly at their 
service. Alike by the lustre he lent to the Chair, by his 
contributions to its proceedings, and by his constant support, 
he rendered incalculable service to the Victoria Institute. 

“To this expression of their gratitude the Members of the 
Institute desire to add the offer of their respectful sympathy 
to the members of Sir George Stokes’s family. 


es EDWARD HULL LEDs 
b) 
“ Secretary.” 


The CHAIRMAN.—I think I need hardly put that resolution to 
the meeting, but at the same time I would ask you to express your 
confirmation of it in the usual way. [Carried unanimously. | 

The SECRETARY.—It was not thought desirable, after due con- 
sideration, to postpone this meeting in consequence of the event to 
which your attention has just been called by the Chairman, because 
it would have been impossible to give notice either to the Members 
of the Council, or to the other Members in attendance here, that a 
postponement had taken place, in consequence of which you would 
all have been put to very great inconvenience, and, I venture to say, 
disappointment. I hope, therefore, you will approve of the course 
taken by the Council in holding our meeting, which, I believe, is the 
course that our late President would himself have approved. 


110 PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


The Minutes of the last Meeting were then read and confirmed, 


The following paper was then read by the Author :— 


ON THE UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF 
LIVING GROWTH. By Professor LioneL S. BEALE, 
F.R.C.P., F.RS., Government Medical Referee for England, 
Vice-President of the Victoria Institute. 


N the paper I am about to read, I shall venture to draw 

attention to some broad general questions of interest, which 

have an important bearing on recent doctrines lately very 

popular, in relation to our modern science, philosophy and 

religion, but considered and discussed from a scientific and 
rational point of view only. 

There is in my judgment evidence of an absolute difference 
between living matter and living growth, and every kind of 
matter that 1s not in the living state, including the enormously 
preponderating amount of matter of our world, in very different 
states, and of diverse composition and the matter of the universe, 
that cannot under any conceivable circumstances, live. The 
distinction of all life, from all non-life, rests upon facts of 
ordinary general observation, as well as on minute investigation. 
with the highest magnifying powers yet made. 

I shall maintain, that there is no reliable evidence of any 
eradual transition from any condition of non-life, to any 
condition of life whatever—that all matter that dives, has 
unquestionably proceeded from matter that lived before zt, and 
that to this truth, there has probably been no exception, since 
the time of the creation. 

The facts and arguments which so far have been advanced, 
against religious truth, and belief in God and Infinite Power, in 
living nature, are in my opinion unreliable, even if considered 
from the side of science only. Man is man from the earliest 
period of his existence as a structureless germ; and there 1s no 
proof or evidence, that man has descended from, or is or was, in 
any way specially related to, any other organism in living nature, 
through evolution or any other process, and that in support of 
all such conjectures concerning man’s origin, there is not at this 
time a shadow of scientific evidence. 


For little more than fifty years, has it been possible for man to 
study the minute structure of living organisms, or to investigate 
the wonderful phenomena of life and growth and vital move- 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GROWTH. I111 


ment, universal in living nature, and characteristic of all the 
living matter known in this world; but not of any other kind, 
state or condition of matter yet discovered, or to be made by 
any process known to science. For this short time only, have 
we possessed the required instruments, and other means of 
studying the great problems of life and living growth, such as 
very high magnifying powers with excellent definition, and 
more successful methods of minute research, than were at 
he command of ovr predecessors of the early part of the nine- 
teenth century. Recently many new and important facts have 
been ascertained, and we have been able even to realize to some 
extent the changes which probably occur during living growth, 
and those which result in the formation of tissue-structure, by 
particles of living matter in man, animals and plants, and in 
some living organisms of extreme minuteness, all of which have 
been formed from and by living matter only. 

I have already had the privilege of bringing before the mem- 
bers of the Victoria Institute several points of interest bearing on 
the general question of the nature of the unseen life, and when, 
and ‘precisely where, lifeless matter becomes living, and have 
endeavoured to ascertain exactly what happens, ‘when, from 
living matter, structures and substances are evolved, having 
wonderful properties and arranged in a manner not to be 
imitated, or produced artificially, or by means other than by 
life. Transactions of the Victoria Institute, vols. xxix; XXX, 
pales 32a, p: 33/5 xxi, p: 52;.and xxxiv, p: 216. 

Last year I ventured to draw attention to a broad fact of 
general application to the whole life-world, to which I do not 
think there is one single exception—the fact of the presence of 
a large proportion of water in all classes of living organisms and 
at every period of life. This fact in my opinion is established 
not only in regard of everything and every particle that is 
actually alive, but is also true of everything that lived in the 
past, or that will live in future time, as long as life shall exist 
on this earth. The idea of life, in my mind, is invariably 
associated with water; water as it seems to me being the first 
necessity ; life could not have existed before water. To con- 
sider therefore what sort of life may exist in the stars and suns 
and other infinitely distant heavenly bodies, and in cosmic 
vapour is surely needless. Cadit questio. 

Multitudes of the most minute and wonderful of living things 
in living nature, the Protozoa, consist almost) wholly of water. 
They increase and multiply at a great rate, and some will live 
even in distilled water, and when ‘the water evaporates scarcely 


112 . PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


a trace of solid matter remains. The germs of many of these 
living particles are so light that they are suspended in the air, 
and wafted long distances by the slightest current. Many such 
“low” forms of life, are however of complex structure, and their 
movements suggest a very elaborate arrangement of motor organs 
acting as perfectly as,and more quickly than, those of the higher 
animals which possess a complex nervous system, not a few of 
the movements of Protozoa being evidently under the control of 
the will. These minute organisms possess the power of 
choosing the direction in which they will travel, and have also 
the power of suddenly stopping at any moment. The air and 
the water seem to provide ail that is required for their existence, 
erowth, and increase in number. It seems not improbable that 
the living matter of these delicate organisms acts directly on 
their contractile tissues, as nerves act on the muscles of the 
higher animals, and that by this direct vital action their move- 
ments are effected. 

The proportion of water in all rapidly growing living 
particles, and also in tissues and organisms generally, during 
early growth, is so large that it is ditticult to believe that the 
water itself is only of mechanical service in development and 
formation, and not actually hving. Water and air seem to be 
the only necessary constituents of some of the lowest organisms 
and living particles, and I think we may regard them as being 
universally present in everything that lives not excepting the 
Bacteria. Death occurs in every particle of living matter, if 
the proportion of water be reduced below a certain point, but 
long before the matter can be said to be dry. My belief is that 
in all living nature there is not one instance of perfectly dry 
matter of any kind being alive, and that water is universally 
present in every part of our life world. 

Is it not probable that many of the lowest organisms in the 
beginning were created in water, perhaps from water and air 
which was dissolved in the water, that their successors were 
developed, grew, and multiplied in water, and without doubt 
lived and died in water? As to the origin of life, looking from 
the science side, nothing is at present really known. But can 
we ever forget what we learned in childhood that “the Spirit 
of God moved upon the face of the waters,’ or the command, 
“Tet the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature 
that hath life”; and is it not remarkable that the close relation 
between water and life, should have been affirmed ages before 
science or scientific research could have been thought of— 
“Water of Life »—“Living Water” ? 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GRowTH. 113 


Whenever and wherever the temperature is uniformly much 
below the freezing point of water, or much above its ‘boiling 
point, it is certain that there can be no human life, or life of 
the higher warm-blooded animals; and, say, one or two hundred 
degrees below or above the points indicated, that there could 
certainly be no life of any kind whatever. The idea therefore 
that any kind or form of living thing, or living matter of which 
we have any knowledge or experience, could have found its way 
on a fragment detached from some remote member of the 


—) . 
cosmos, which after having been whirled millions of millions of 


miles through space, at a velocity which would have destroyed 
life of any kind, and at last deposited here as the first living 
organism or particle—must I fear be regarded as a conjecture 
inadmissible under the conditions which probably ruled at the 
remote period of time suggested. This being so, is 1t unreason- 
able to ask whether it would not be wiser for us to postpone 
the further consideration of the nature and origin of species, 
and perhaps some other supposed evolutionary processes, and 
all discussion thereon, until we shall be able to claim a little 
more definite knowledge than we have, on the nature of the life 
and growth of some of the simplest living things around us, 
and perhaps also something more definite concerning the nature 
and origin of our own powers—vital, intellectual, moral and 
religious? And may we not hope that, as believers in science 
and truth, we may be permitted by physical authority to retain 
provisionally our belief in the creation of all life by the lhving 
God, and refrain from immediately accepting as true, purely 
physical doctrines of life, as well as the dictum that “the livi ing 
and non-living are one, which cannot in any sense be true ? 
The remark that during the past century the tendency of 
scientific thought has been towards a purely physical explana- 
tion of all life and vital action, is no exaggeration. Thought, 
and the action of the human mind have been included in the 
physical category, and have been held to be mechanical in their 
nature. Such conclusions are, however, contrary to the obvious 
distinction that exists between matter which is alive and 
matter which does not live—a distinction admitted by most 
people who think, and in some instances to be demonstrated by 
microscopical observation. A few modern teachers of physical 
science suggest that life has arisen in non-living matter in 
obedience to unchanging resistless physical laws; and that life, 
like energy, material forces and properties, 1s in ‘the domain of 
Physics, although no one has been able to point out a single 
particular i in which any physical or chemical action resembles 


114. PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.B.S., ON THE 


the changes which occur in every vital act and in vital growth. 
Others prefer to consider the infinite power of life as immanent 
in all matter whether living or non-living. In the second 
century of the Christain Era, was it not argued that “either 
Providence or Atoms rule the Universe,” but may we not now 
feel sure that atoms never did rule, and never will rule, 
anything in this world, and that ruling power in living nature 
has ever belonged, and will continue to belong, to Providence 
alone ? 

The wonderful advance in every department of natural 
knowledge and the unceasing improvements in the methods of 
investigation, including the preparation of all kinds of specimens 
for examination with high magnifying powers, during the 
Victorian age, have been unprecedented ; and our new knowledge 
of the nature, genesis, movements, composition and physical 
state, not only of the matter of our world, but of the distant 
stellar systems, suns and their satellites, and the far off nebule, 
visible and invisible—has reached far beyond anything dis- 
covered in all previous time. The more exact knowledge of the 
operation of the unchangeable physical laws, by which the 
lifeless parts of the eternal universe have been, and must 
continue to be governed, are but a few of the great and remark- 
able additions to the knowledge of scientific men now living. 
No wonder then, that these, and the results of other very recent 
investigations in several departments of Physics, should have 
led many thoughtful persons to conclude that all nature, lwing 
and non-living, belongs to one physical category, and that all 
worlds and all things in, or of them, are ruled by Physical law ! 
But the doctrine that all nature living and non-living belonged 
to one and the same physical category—that associated with 
the material Atom from the beginning, were promises and 
potencies of life—and that the power some of us called /ife, was 
evidence of the universal operation of unchanging physical law, 
and therefore subordinate to eternal matter and its forces and 
properties cannot be true. The enthusiasm of arbitrary law 
loving physicists has led them to see everywhere in nature the 
effects of universal energy only, and nothing indicative of vital 
power either in their own consciousness, or in the creation and 
maintenance of the life of the world. Geological research has 
however happily rescued us from the impending doom suggested 
by these supposed new physical revelations and such assurances 
as this :—Man is but a mechanism made and controlled, like 
the machines of which man is the maker, by physical law; and 
will and thought, and intellectual action, are but kinds or forms 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GROWTH. 115 


or modes of matter and motion, “sui generis or variously 
modified” ! 

But does not the geological record prove that through infinite 
past time—farther, much farther back, than the imagination or 
reason, at this time with the aid of all human knowledge, can 
penetrate, countless living things grew and multiplied in air and 
water, and lived and died according to the general principles 
which prevail in the existing life-world of to-day, in which man 
occupies the highest position, and is and has been, playing the 
most conspicuous part, though but during a comparatively short 
period of the incalculable time that has elapsed since the 
beginning of life ? 

Is it not of surpassing interest to reflect that all this very 
ancient unseen life-power, the effects and mode of operation of 
which, have only so very recently been revealed to us, by the 
wonders of the structual results of vital growth, do not essen- 
tially differ even in minute particulars, from the effects of the 
life-power and the living growth of existing living forms, and 
that there is no evidence to lead us to suppose that the 
principles by which our whole living world is now governed, 
have not been in operation from the very beginning ? 

Although ancient life-forms have been supplanted by many 
generations of new organisms and new types, living and growing 
under very different external conditions, their derivation from, 
and origin in, structureless living matter, the development and 
formation of their tissues and organs, the general arrangement 
and action of their nerves and nerve-centres, the contraction of 
their muscles, the circulation of their blood and other fluids, and 
even the development, nutrition and action of their sense organs, 
were conducted in those early days according to the vital 
principles governing things now living. Indeed, vital action 
generally, seems to have been designed, “created and carried out 
in primeval times and to have been governed and sustained by 
life power, like that which is in operation in the living organisms 
of to-day. In short, vital action characteristic of all life, simple 
and complex, past and present, seems to have continued without 
interruption or change in principle, from the very beginning, 
up to the present hour. Will any one from the science side, 
venture to suggest a limit to or change in, the design and 
power of Providence ? 

Facts of observation distinctly prove that life is, and has ever 
been, absolutely different and separate from all forces and 
properties of ordinary matter, and that the realm of life has ever 
been absolutely distinct from the realm of matter. Who shall 


116 PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


say that a time will come when death shall be universal, and 
that all life shall cease ? 

The idea of any relation having been established between 
non-living and living, by gradational advance from lifeless 
matter to the lowest forms of hfe, and so, onwards to the higher 
and more complex, is scarcely more than a vague surmise, and 
not the slightest evidence in its favour is supplied by the facts 
of any section of living nature, of which anything is known. 

The life of the very lowest organisms that exist, or that have 
ever existed, is Just as wonderfui, and in all respects just as 
inexplicable by fact and reason, from a physical stand-point, 
as are life, mind, and soul of man himself; and it is as 
impossible now, as it would have been in ancient time, to 
account for vital actions of the lowest simplest organisms in 
living nature, although our present knowledge is by comparison 
infinitely great. 

The lowest living particles now in existence cannot be 
regarded as in any sense higher or more advanced than the 
lowest simplest life of remote past ages, nor was the lowest 
simplest primeval life in any sense or degree nearer to the 
Inorganic ; and we can give no better account, say, of the 
vibration of the most ancient cilium of the lowest primeval 
protozoon, than of one of a molluse of to-day, or of a cilium 
that belongs to a single living particle detached from the 
mucous membrane of the air passages of man. 

Physical authorities do not appear to have considered what 
particular matter in various parts of a living organism, is the 
exact seat of those unseen vital actions characteristic of all that 
lives, or the real nature of the matter to which only the term 
living can be correctly applied; for, by far the greater part of 
any living plant or animal, is not alive, perhaps ceased to live 
months or years ago. The bulk of the bark and nearly all the 
wood of a living tree, for example, is as dead while the tree is 
growing, as it will be when the tree has been cut down. No 
living organism is alive in every part; and of many living forms, 
by far the greater part of each one has long ceased to live. 
Living Teen and matter that has ceased to live, indeed exist 
in every organ and tissue of man and animals at every period of 
time: 

The tissue already formed does not grow, cannot increase of 
itself, like living matter, nor does tissue form new tissue ; neither 
is tissue nourished, though permeated by constant slowly moving 
streams of fluid, circulating in its insterstices, which fluid 
contributes to its preservation in the normal state, and prevents 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GRrowTH. 117 


any degenerative changes. It is only the particles of living 
matter connected with tissue, and which were concerned in its 
formation, that cause the interstitial circulation referred to. In 
bone fluid flows towards, and from, the living matter in the 
lacuna, in those minute intercommunicating tubules, known as 
the “ canaliculi,” and in some other hard tissues the interchange 
of fluid is provided for in a very similar manner. But many 
tissues of man, animals and plants are, as already remarked, as 
dead and lifeless while still forming a part of the living body, 
as if they had been completely separated from it some time 
before. 

By this unceasing interstitial circulation alone, is the health 
and activity of the living particles in all the tissues and organs 
of the body ensured. In man and the higher animals, it is quite 
as important as in the lower forms of life, which are not 
provided with self-acting circulating organs, by which the 
nutritive fluid is propelled into the immediate vicinity of the 
living particles, and then caused to flow towards them by the vital 
action of each living particle. By any change in this natural 
vital process, either in excess or deficiency, or in departure from 
the normal composition of the fluid, as occurs in many 
derangements of the blood as in fevers and inflammations, or by 
the introduction of poisons into the circulating fluid, the health 
of the part of the body may be deranged by the establishment of 
local or general diseases of various kinds, and perhaps the 
inception and growth of tubercle or cancer or some other 
abnormal vital phenomena may be thus accounted for. Only 
by taking daily a fair quantity of water can this important 
interstitial circulation be provided for, and the health of the 
tissues and living matter of the body insured. 

By the “death ” of the whole or a part of the body, is really 
meant the death of these innumerable particles of living matter 
or bioplasm, which in fact constitute the only part of tissue, 
organ, or “living body ” that is really alive, and the only living 
matter which during life, hves or dies. Through these living 
particles of the body only, can it be said that we live and move 
and have our being. Vital power alone accounts for growth, 
between which process, and the lifeless aggregation as of par- 
ticles of sand, or other non-living matter, there is no analogy. 
Deposition of matter layer after layer is not growth. The 
formation of crystals and their increase, is not an example of 
growth. 

Between living growth—and the physical aggregation and 
deposition of lifeless particles of matter layer upon layer or the 


118 - PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


gradual increase of a crystal by matter being deposited on its 
outer surface from its solution, there is no analogy. In growth, 
the matter which is to contribute to any increase must be 
dissolved, and the solution must pass into the very substance of 
the matter that lives, where only can life-power be imparted to 
the new matter, and certain of its constituent substances be 
caused to live. To this mode of the production of living matter 
in all living nature, there does not appear to be an exception. 
The necessity of absolute contact between living and non-living, 
seems to be essential for the communication of life to matter, and 
thus only, does life of any kind become temporarily immanent 
in matter. I regret to say that by some eminent teachers 
having great authority, children and students have been taught 
that living growth is comparable with the addition of non-living 
particles layer after layer to non-lhving matter. Crystals grow, 
says Herbert Spencer, but neither crystals nor any things that 
do not live, grow. 

Increase, and growth are two very different processes, and the 
physical aggregation and deposition of non-living matter 
adduced as examples of growth, have nothing in common with 
that wonderful process, which occurs in the living world only. 
See Herbert Spencer, “ The Principles of Biology.” Revised and 
enlarged edition, vol. i, page 135, “Growth.” But neither the 
author nor one of his followers, nor any fellow of the Royal 
Society seems inclined to consider with me, this important 
matter. This question of the nature of growth being closely 
related to that of the nature of life, involves the consideration 
of the great principles by which all life is distinguished from all 
non-life. Growth as already stated, occurs in the living matter 
only. 

The action of all our sense organs and of the motor 
phenomena of all organisms from the very lowest simplest 
living forms, up to man himself—Touch, taste, smell, sight, 
hearing and the action of other wonderful sense-organs in nature, 
as well as all active movements in a living body, depend upon 
the health and growth of its living matter. These and many 
other questions of the kind, were beyond the means of investi- 
gation of the wisest and most thoughtful of the men of past 
time, and have not yet been adequately explained by contem- 
porary science. 

During the last century, very ancient doctrines of life were 
revived and advocated with more zeal than discretion. Not 
long since, we were again assured that modern scientific 
investigation had confirmed the doctrines of Epicurus and 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GROWTH. 119 


Lucretius, that we and all living things were but matter, 
“ variously modified,” by physical action “ sw generis,’ and that 
all living things were machines, working for a limited time, and 
like the machinery made by man, doomed from the first to 
deteriorate and wear out, and at last to be cast away. 

Though the structure of tissues and organs may appear 
complete, and on examination after death, nothing more than 
the tisswe can be discovered by dissection and ordinary investi- 
gation, it must be borne in mind that no eye could see, or ear 
hear, no tongue could feel or taste, no structure in the brain 
could take part in thinking, understanding and speaking, unless 
the minute living particles of Bioplasm or lhving matter 
connected with the several tissues, were intact, alive and 
active—living particles, in the absence of which, no tissues 
could have been formed or could act, or be preserved in a 
healthy state. 

Not one of the highly skilled confident advocates of physical 
doctrines of life, has yet succeeded in explaining .according to 
Physics or Chemistry, the difference between one particle of 
matter which is alive, and the very same matter when life has 
ceased, nor has any chemist or physicist been able to tell us 
why a living particle once dead, has never been resuscitated or 
caused to live again by any physical or chemical treatment, or 
its life been restored from the “ universal energy.” 

More than fifty years have passed, since, by repeated obser- 
vations of the living matter of plants and animals, and the 
careful study with very high magnifying powers of the move- 
ments of the living matter of the Ameceba, and especially that 
of very young Amcebe, colourless blood corpuscles or leucocytes, 
living mucus and pus corpuscles of man, and some animals, and 
many other living growing particles in heaith and disease, 
was rendered certain that vital movements of living matter, were 
in their nature distinct from all movements of non-living 
matter. As already explained, the formation of all tissue- 
structures and organs in living nature, also depends on such 
particles of hving matter or Bioplasm. The life-power being 
in its nature distinct from all material properties, forces or 
molecular phenomena, are inexplicable by any physical laws, or 
material properties yet discovered. In “Life Theories and 
Religious Thought,” and many other works and memoirs 
published between 1860-80, I gave reasons for my belief in 
Vital Power in all living matter of our life world, from the 
lowest simplest living particle in nature, to that which is 
concerned in reasoning and in other mental processes by which 

I 


120 PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S.. ON THE 


man is distinguished from all other living creatures. These 
and other observations connected with life and vital action 
were not in accord with the physical doctrines of life, then and 
indeed now very popular; but, as about the middle of the last 
century many scientific problems of profound importance were 
being settled by acclamation and the opinions of some who 
knew little of the facts, and could not discuss a purely scientific 
question such as the nature of life, from what they had seen, 
I could only publish my views, describe and illustrate by 
drawings what I had seen and shown to others, and give my 
reasons for entirely dissenting from the popular doctrines of 
contemporary evolutionists, monists, Rationalists, and Agnostics, 
here and abroad. Thousands of intelligent people have been 
persuaded to give up every religious idea, and to accept a 
number of vague general propositions, which are absolutely 
opposed to belief in Infinite Power, and living nature as being 
entirely and wholly due to the creative and sustaining power ot 
the Almighty. 

But is it not time that thoughtful and intelligent persons of 
all denominations and classes, had the general scientific facts 
of life and growth brought under their notice, so that they 
might judge whether these were really opposed to religious 
belief, as many have been led to suppose? My own conviction 
has long been that the more minutely living nature is studied, 
the more strongly will the reason be convinced otf the evidence 
afforded by science alone, of the Infinite Power, Wisdom and 
Goodness of God. 

In the last number but one of the Jowrnal of the Royal 
Microscopical Society, October 1902, page 529, the reader will 
find an excellent photograph by Mr. F. E. Ives of the central 
part of one of the valves of Pleurosigma Angulatwm, magnified 
upwards of two thousand diameters. This successful represen- 
tation of the very minute and elaborate microscopic structure 
deserves very careful study, for it illustrates by its striking 
details a very remarkable arrangement, the mode of formation 
of which it is not at present possible to determine. Everyone 
familiar with the general microscopical characters of the large 
class of organisms to which the Pleurosigma belongs, will at 
least agree that the beautiful markings, which characterize the 
different species, cannot possibly be explained or reasonably 
accounted for by physical or chemical processes of any kind. 
The more carefully the well known organisms are examined and 
thought over, the more wonderful will the structure appear, 
and the more difficult to explain. If the student, skilful with 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GRowTH. 121 


pen or pencil, and very patient, will accurately copy a small 
piece of such a specimen, I think he will be convinced that the 
orderly deposition of the siliceous matter can only be regarded 
as resulting from the influence of that invisible undemonstrable 
factor to which I have adverted under the name of “ vitality.” 
{ claim this structure as one of many minute structures, the 
formation of which has never been explained, and must I think 
in reason be referred to the influence of life-power. 

Among insects there is a beautiful little moth, Botys hyalinalis, 
which can be made to deposit its eggs on the thin glass slides 
used for microscopic investigation. The small eggs are some- 
what flattened, and the thin membranous “shell” of very 
delicate structure, is as clear as the finest glass, and through 
which the changes of the germ can be well studied under a 
magnifying power of three hundred diameters, and watched 
from day to day, from hour to hour, without moving the slide, 
and at the ordinary temperature of the air, during the last week 
of July and the beginning of August. When, about three 
hundred hours shall have passed since the eges were laid, the 
fully formed caterpillar may be seen to eat his way through the 
delicate shell, and immediately begin to search for food. 

For the pleasure afforded me by this interesting investiga- 
tion, I am indebted to Mr. Jeffry of Ashford, who, several years 
ago, kindly sent me many specimens of the ova deposited by 
the moth on thin glass slides. These could be kept under the 
microscope during the whole period of incubation, about three 
hundred hours, and examined without any cover glass or any 
special arrangement. It is curious that in two consecutive 
years, the moths began to lay on July 27th. 

My. Jeffry published some notes of his observations in 1885 
in the ELntomologists’ Monthly Magazine, vol. xxi, p. 126, and 
a more detailed account in vol. xxii, p. 173. Dr. Osborne also 
published an article in Sevence Gossip in July 1885, but whether 
the phenomena of the development have been more recently 
fully worked out, as is probable, I am not aware. 

In these ova, we can see with the help of the microscope, the 
changes which take place from day to day, and register them 
by photography. 

To the thoughtful and attentive observer of living nature 
nothing can appeal more strongly, or increase his longing to 
know and to understand the vital changes which occur in every- 
thing that lives. He can see the very spots where the 
developmental phenomena proceed without interruption, organs 
appearing, muscles growing, and at length contracting under his 

Teo 


122 PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S.. ON THE 


eye, the alimentary canal forming, the air tubes or tracheew 
developing in many parts of the body, and its various segments, 
the legs, eyes and mandibles, and other structures of the 
caterpillar. 

But how, and exactly by what means, all these orderly and 
prearranged phenomena are caused and carried out, remains to 
science so far, an insoluble mystery of living nature. One sees 
the changes, and can as it were follow them, and they can be 
accurately represented in photographs and drawings; but how- 
ever closely we study and think about all that we have seen, we 
cannot get much beyond the knowledge of the fact of their 
appearing and continuing, while the germ is seen to grow from 
day to day. 

We know there are particles of living matter associated with 
every particle of tissue as it makes its appearence. The several 
structures appear, but they would not appear unless their 
appearance had been preceded by living matter. This is a fact 
—a truth throughout living nature, from the earliest moment of 
existence to death, in the case of every organ and tissue, and IL 
think was as true at the time of the first creation of life, as it is 
to-day. Structureless living matter is the only seat of action of 
that factor “life” or “ vitality,” between which and all energy, 
forces and physical agencies, the difference is absolute. 

“ Absolute” :— By this word used several times in this paper, 
is meant a distinction so wide that, as far as I can ascertain, 
there is no relation whatever between the changes which occur 
in living and non-living—that the state of the matter, its 
properties and energies while it is alive, cannot be compared 
with the state of the same matter, either before it began to live, 
or when it shall have ceased to live—that there is no analogy 
between the states of life and non-life—no gradation from one 
condition to the other, and that the coming of matter into life, 
is as sudden as its death. The cessation of life in any given 
particle of living matter however minute, whether derived from 
the lowest simplest particle in living nature or from man him- 
self, is also sudden. 

All the laws of matter are compensated or suspended as 
long as matter is alive, but come again into operation, the 
instant the living matter ceases to live. This distinction 
between life and non-lfe all through our world, is therefore 
correctly described as absolute. 

For the excellent photographs I have the pleasure of showing 
you, of the eggs of Botys hyalinalis from the day on which they 
were laid to the day of emergence of the fully formed caterpillar, 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GRowTH. 123 


{ am indebted to a friend of Mr. Jeffry’s, Mr. Hammond of 
Canterbury. 

Will anyone venture to regard this living organism which we 
see actually forming, or its organs of complex structure 
appearing in regular order and performing their several 
functions, as a lifeless machine, or as having been formed and 
caused to act by physical and chemical agency alone ? 

In these beautiful little imsect eggs, each with the food 
supply for its minute germ during the whole period of 
development, the evolution of a free and independent organism 
with eyes, locomotor organs, having the power of selecting, 
seizing, masticating, and digesting its proper food—with the 
sense of sight and other senses ; and which ere long will undergo 
another change, and after a short time will reach a very 
different and higher stage of existence. 

The structure and arrangement of the minute scales which 
protect the wings and body of the moth are also worthy of 
study, but the examination of one single scale is enough to 
convince anyone who reasons on what he sees, of design, 
prevision, infinite power wisdom and goodness, in this life world. 
is it possible to conceive, that each minute structural character 
could be produced by means, other than by the fat of 
Almighty Power ? 

Few among modern writers and thinkers on the philosophic 
and scientific aspects of living nature, appear to have formed a 
definite idea of what is to be discovered by studying the living 
growing matter of a developing organism at a very early period 
of its embryonic life. Their ideas of evolution for the most 
part have been founded upon the facts observed during the 
later period of developmental progress, when many tissues, even 
the bones are already distinct ; many investigators apparently 
not being aware that the early changes in the evolutionary 
process, are of great interest and importance. It is then, when 
no structure has as yet appeared, that the particles of living 
matter or bioplasts, of which at this time the embryo consists, 
are arranging themselves and are preparing for the structure- 
formation, and the development of organs which is about to 
occur, and which had been designed and foreseen from the very 
first. 

The unseen vital changes which precede all structure- 
formation in living nature are the phenomena from the 
knowledge of which alone can we hope to be able to gain a 
correct idea of the wonderful vital processes which result in the 
construction of tissues and organs, of which there is not a 


124 | PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


vestige in the early period of embryonic life. At this earliest, 
period, all is structureless, and of the substances resulting 
from the death of the living matter, water constitutes the 
largest proportion. It is at this time that the most important 
vital changes are in operation, the vital powers determining 
which, have been inherited from organisms preceding, and are 
transmissible to the germs of those which are about to 
follow. 

In development generally, and in each individual organism, 
progressing phenomena are recognized from the earliest period 
of the life of the germ, to the mature state of the living 
organism. In man, from early life, progressive vital action in 
the organism generally—is associated with advance in mental 
power, but which continues and increases, as youth leads on to 
adult life and maturity, and in some instances even in old age. 

The living matter of the embryo of man at an early period 
of development could not be identified or distinguished from 
that of animals, although the unseen changes and preparation 
for the formation of man’s organs so different in structure and 
power, proceed from the first ‘according to a definite but differ- 
ent plan. During these early, and all “important developmental 
changes, the living particles by which the several different, 
tissues and organs are formed, are without structure. their chief 
constituent being water. 

It is not in form, composition, material properties, colour or 
appearance, that the several embryos of the different classes 
and species of organisms in nature differ from one another, but 
in vital power which is undemonstrable—power which operates 
unseen and in darkness by which all growth and structure 
formation in the life world have been determined froin the first, 
beginning of life, up to the present time. 

Can anyone doubt that this wonderful life-power has been 
handed down from living particle to non-living particie, or that 
the capacity of forming structure has wninterruptedly proceeded 
through the ages without a break, modified in some cases by 
the influence of external conditions, and as I venture to think 
also in obedience to the original capacity of the vital power, 
and to change in potency after a certain time, with which the 
primordial living matter was endowed at the time of its 
creation. But from the early period of development of the 
germ, man is man—animal animal—and plant plant; each 
kind possessing its own characteristic life-power, inherited from 
its predecessors. 

J am sorry to differ very decidedly from the great majority 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GROWTH. 125 


of my scientific contemporaries in this matter, and cannot help 
remarking, that about the middle of the last century there 
seems to have been a determination on the part of many 
authorities to do their utmost to raise animal and to degrade 
man. Was not man called a machine, and was it not said, that 
all his actions were mechanical? The learned philosophers of 
that day did not insult the ape by calling 7¢ a machine, but only 
their contemporary equal, man. There is not one part, or 
particle of anything living that in reason can be considered to 
be a machine. Every living particle grows. But what machine 
—what mechanism is there which has not been designed, — its 
several parts constructed, by man ? 

Think of the preparations required for the construction of 
any machine—the forming and fitting together of its several 
parts ; and then think of the soft structureless living matter, 
and of the unseen preparatory stages, through which every 
living organism and all structures in living nature, must pass 
through, during their period of development and growth, as they 
gradually advance towards the short evanescent stage of 
completeness and maturity, which must be followed by death— 
most remarkable in insect life; where in fact we meet with 
three distinct phases of being, abruptly marked off from each 
other, but in each of which, special developmental changes, 
including the formation of complex tissues and organs, 
characterize grub or larva, chrysalis, and the complete, often 
winged, imago. Were it not for correct observation, the 
organism representing each of the three phases of existence, 
would have been regarded as a distinct creature, the latest 
phase, marking the highest and most advanced developmental 
form, as shown by its elaborate, and perfectly acting, tissues 
and organs, all foreseen from the first, although to this last 
stage, the nearest to perfection, death will soon succeed, and in 
some instances, even in a few hours. 

In the vertebrata, long preliminary periods of unseen changes 
pass, before there is a ‘vestige of structure-formation, during 
which the minute bioplasts are growing and grouping them- 
selves according to the size and character of the structure 
designed, and as if it had been foreseen from the earliest 
moment of the life of the germ, or before that. 

Living nature, it might be said, everywhere affords evidence 
of preparation for a futwre—promise of a living nature which is 
to be. And may not death itself be looked upon as a natural 
and necessary preparation for new life which is about to 
succeed 2 Just as in autumn and winter, do we not see 


126 PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


preparation and promise, in anticipation of the spring and 
summer that are to follow ? 

Few recognize the fact, that new living particles, sometimes 
with new powers, arise in the very substance of the living 
matter. These appear as very minute particles which 
gradually grow—and somehow acquire new powers which never 
come from the outside but always spring up from within. 
Growth never depends upon the apposition, aggregation, or 
collection of separate minute particles, being deposited on the 
outer surfaces of living matter. This vital movement from 
within occurs generally in the early developmental period of 
living matter. It also occurs all through life, and particularly 
in the living matter of the so-called “cells” in the cortex of the 
cerebral convolutions of man and animals, or on the brain 
surface, and in other nerve centres, from within living matter 
which already exists. This is all important; and, does it not 
suggest to the mind highly interesting possibilities, as to the 
precise seat of origination of new vital capacity, and of new and 
advancing mental power? Nor must we in this connexion 
forget the often sudden occurrence of new ideas, which seem to 
arise spontaneously in the mind, and even the “voice within ” ? 

Every one who has carefully considered what he has observed 
of the living matter of a vertebrate embryo during the early 
period of its development, and has tried to reason concerning 
the facts of observation, will I think feel compelled by the 
evidence, to acknowledge the unceasing operation of Infinite 
Power, throughout the whole life world—no other inference 
appearing reasonable to the mind of an observer, who has seen 
and made himself acquainted with the facts. The countless 
numbers of separate particles of living matter or Bioplasm of 
which every embryo at this early period entirely consists, the 
arrangement of these particles in many groups, and the 
composition of the substances which result from their death, 
the large proportion of water associated with them while living 
and growing, being also noted as well as the absence of all 
structure at this early period—will I think satisfy the observer 
that the influence of lfe-power must be admitted, and the 
arrangements. caused by life, recognized as the direct work of 
the God of Life—no other explanation having presented itself 
as possible, to the mind that reasons on the subject at this 
time. 

I have myself had an opportunity of studying the living 
particles of the human embryo at early periods of its develop- 
ment. A few of the minute bioplasts from the collections in 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GROWTH. 127 


different parts of the body representing the organs about to be 
formed, could not have been distinguished from one another, or 
from those of embryos of the lower anima Is; although the 
results of their development differ so widely. 

Think of the remarkable differences of structure and action 
which would exist in a few short weeks, and the new powers of 
the bioplasts, as series succeeded series, and the yet more 
wonderful potencies of structure-formation to be manifested at 
the appointed time—surely evidence of the unseen designing 
and sustaining power of Omnipotence—the only reasonable 
explanation that can be offered by the student of these 
wonderful vital phenomena up to this time (1903). The living 
particles not only possess the power within themselves of 
giving origin to new living particles—these growing and in 
turn producing others—the vital powers of each series being 
different from, and in nature higher and more advanced, than 
those of their predecessors. 

Shall we not place all these vital phenomena in a class by 
themselves absolutely distinct and separate from those of 
non-living matter, and the non-hving Cosmos? Development, 
growth, and the formation of structure, cannot in fact be 
mechanical molecular or physical, but must be regarded as 
having been directly determined, foreseen and ordained by 
Infinite Power. 

When I consider the general facts of life, whether from the 
point of view of the minute structure, composition and 
properties, of the tissues as formed in the various classes of 
organisms, from the lowly Protozoa up to man himself, or the 
early changes occurring during the development, particularly of 
man and the higher animals, from the collections of innumerable 
minute moist colourless structureless moving particles of living 
matter, each less than the one two-thousandth of an inch in 
diameter, I cannot but wonder at the general resemblance and 
simplicity of the appearance and constitution of the lying 
matter, which when dead and subjected to chemical analysis, is 
found to consist of but very few elements, all through living 
nature. The evidence that neither the living growth, nor the 
characteristic tissue-forming capacity, is to be accounted for by 
the chemical composition of the dead matter, but by life power 
only, is conclusive. 

From living matter alone can living matter of any kind be 
derived, and there is every reason to Delieve this has been so 
from the original creation of life; for it cannot be shown that 
Jife has been inherent in any atom or particle of non-living 


128 PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.B.S., ON THE 


matter yet discovered. There is no reliable: evidence that one 
single particle of living matter has ever been produced or made 
from matter that was not alive, and that did not itself proceed 
from matter that already lived; and, as all individual life has 
certainly ceased in death, leaving the matter and its material 
properties behind, must it not follow that life as we know it in 
this world, can never be proved to be due to physical changes, 
or to any inherent properties or qualities of matter or of its 
elements, which do not live, or to the operation of any physical 
laws, conditions, or circumstances, yet discovered by man ? 

Let us ask whether there is any law or property in nature, 
which indicates any necessary connexion between life, and any 
definite elements of matter found in this world—in which 
world alone, as far as we can learn, there are constantly 
countless living particles and living organisms, growing, 
multiplying and dying, and being replaced by their successors 
—the very same atoms of matter, thus living and dying over 
and over again—the matter with its forces and properties 
persistent and unchanged, remaining—the life which for a time 
controls and rearranges material atoms, according to the 
wonderful life-power with which each kind of life has been 
endowed, existing for its allotted time only and then ceasing for 
ever—A/atter, its physical forces and the laws by which it is 
governed apart from life—Lzfe, a power per se, the effects of the 
operation of which man sees, and to some extent may understand, 
but which must in a short time cease in every individual living 
particle, and without undergoing conversion into uny kind of 
energy. Life therefore must be a power, distinct from all 
material properties forces and agencies. | 

Can we then with our ceneral knowledge of living nature, 
and of the intimate changes i in life and growth, as revealed by 
minute research, give up our belief in God, simply because we 
have been assured by some recent scientific authorities, that we 
are but matter, and that we are animals; or believe that we 
are machines, formed by, and acting on the same mechanical 
principles, as those machines which man himself designs, and 
makes, repairs and improves? From all such doctrines, if 
guided by reason and facets of science and observation, we 
shall dissent, at least until the advocates of physical life bring 
forward stronger reasons for the acceptance of their conjectures, 
than they have yet been able to adduce. During the last 
century, physical doctrines of life were, in my _ opinion 
unreasonably and unjustly pressed upon the public: for 
acceptance. eas | ; 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GROWTH. 129 


When the discreditable opposition to religious thought by 
which the nineteenth century was distinguished from all 
previous centuries, shall have subsided, and the occasional 
undeserved personal attacks on some _ science-teachers 
belonging to eductional institutions which like King’s College, 
London, had been founded and conducted upon _ religious 
principles, shall have finally ceased, as before long they will cease, 
the soundness of our principles will be generally admitted, and 
the long hoped for reunion of religion and science will become, 
at least in England, an established fact. There will then be 
some prospect of educational peace being restored, and the 
unceasing progress of science-knowledge and learning resumed, 
and steadily develop among all classes without further interrup- 
tion, and the unmerited condemnation of those who perceive in 
matter that lives, something, not in any way connected with any 
kind of non-living matter, force, material properties, or blind, 
passive, irresistible physical laws, will be forgotten. 

Anyone who has seen and studied small particles of living 
matter growing dividing and subdividing in the fluid in which 
it lives, will certainly reject physical doctrines of life. No one 
can say how minute the smallest particle may be, that can 
divide and subdivide, inherit and transmit its special life-power. 
Many living particles that can be studied, being less than the 
setaath of an inch in diameter. 

Fifty years seems a reasonable time for a student and teacher 
of more than one department of living nature, to have waited 
for the criticism of intelligent contemporary critics, of 
inferences he has been compelled to draw in the course of 
minute research conducted in one of the most important 
departments of science and human knowledge, having direct 
bearing on our views of living nature, philosophy, and religion ; 
and therefore of the oreatest interest to every person of 
intelligence. 

The fact of being one of a rapidly diminishing number, I 
regret to say, of the Senior Fellows of the Roy al College of 
Physicians and of the Royal Society, as well as of those of my 
own college which was the scene of my being taught, and of my 
teaching others, in minute Anatomy and Physiology, Pathology 
and the Principles and Practice of Medicine, from 1837, almost 
up to the present time—will I trust be received as an adequate 
apology for again craving the attention of the members of the 
Victoria Institute, to yet another dissertation on the difficult 
problem, in regard of which there are irreconcilable differences: 
of opinion ;.and with their permission, of appealing to the: 


130 PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


thoughtful, and especially to the scientific members of my 
profession, who are necessarily much interested in this all- 
important question of the nature of life. May I hope that some 
of the general conclusions I have advanced, may at last meet 
with the free criticism of those who have studied the question, 
and may have drawn inferences different from my own ? 

The reunion of religion with that department of science 
which is of the highest importance to the health and well-being 
of mankind, in every part of this world, has been firmly 
established in our own time. I mean, the reunion of the science 
and practice of medicine and surgery, with religion, which has 
for many years been growing in strength as well as in the 
number of its advocates and supporters. May this reunion 
soon include all who recognize true science, and the importance 
of some knowledge of life and living nature! By further 
scientific investigation, it 1s certain that new truths will be 
discovered, which will probably show that advance in 
scientific knowledge is intimately connected with, if not — 
inseparable from, the progress and spread of religious thought. 

I look forward with confidence to the union of scientific and 
religious views of living nature, and hope for the support of the 
thoughtful of different religious opinions, and that many will 
join in acknowledging the evidence we now have of the infinite 
sustaining, as well as of the creating, power of the God of life, 
the living God of the kingdom of life; and of the absolute 
separation of all life from all non-life in creation, from the very 
beginning, of which beginning, nothing more has yet been 
revealed to us by modern research than we are taught in the 
first five words of the Bible. 

The life power of which probably most thoughtful students cf 
science are conscious, can only belong to human life. It is this 
alone by which man is enabled to investigate the phenomena of 
life and vital action of all kinds of living organisms and to 
appreciate the mighty differences by which man’s life power, 
has ever been distinguished from that of the rest of living 
organisms. 

By the “ living particle” so often spoken of, especially those 
particles belonging to man, I mean particles of soft structureless 
matter already described, and consisting principally of water, 
which are destroyed by the shghtest touch, and by being removed 
from their natural position, and also by being placed in water 
or exposed to the air for a very short time. Such are the living 
particles present in all our tissues and organs as long as we live, 
in truth by the agency of which alone we live and move and 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GROWTH. 131 


think. In many organs these living particles act together in 
groups of ee thousands, each individual particle being generally 
less than the s9!;pth of an inch in diameter, and there is no reason 
to suppose that ancestral life particles differed in character, 
or principles of vital action, from those of to-day. 

I have tried my utmost over and over again, to consider 
living nature from the point of view of modern Agnostics, 
Monists, Free-thinkers, and according to the doctrines of some 
who belong to parties and subdivisions, sections and subsections, 
old and new, high and low, broad and narrow; but I have failed. 
I have never been able to get the simple question of life and 
death, or the action of any one particle of hving matter 
adequately discussed, though it is familar to every Biologist ; 
because discussion on the fundamental questions bearing on the 
nature of life and the living world, has long been opposed. 

How then is it possible for me not to believe in Li fe Power as 
distinguished from the properties of matter—lhfe power which 
ceases, or which may increase and multiply, and by which new 
matter may be animated or caused to live—and matter left after 
the death of that which was alive ?—Life Power, and lifeless 
Matter. 

If this be true, must we not admit two very distinct states of 
matter, living and non-living—two states of nature—living and 
non-living—two realms, or kingdoms—one living, of Power,—the 
other not living, of Matter—one temporary, always changing— 
the other permanent and indestructible—one governed by the 
living God, the other by non-living law? Life power infinite, 
active, hving and dying—Matter passive, blind, powerless— 
governed by ¢ eternal unchanging law ? 

In this paper I have endeavoured to make clear what I 
believe to be the truth as regards the absolute distinction 
between all living and non-living; and have tried to prove the 
distinction of all life from non-life. 

As regards man, I could but express my very strong conviction 
that man is absolutely separate from all the lower animals : but, 
believe me, there are very strong facts and arguments against 
the doctrines now generally entertained, concerning man’s 
nature and origin, and his relation to the Infinite. I hope 
therefore we may have opportunity of discussing at greater 
length the important question of Design, human and divine, and 
man’s true position in living nature, from the science side, based 
on facts and observations ascertained in the course of studyi ing 
the structure growth and action of the living matter of his body, 
and the structure, mode of formation, and action of the highest 


132 PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


and most remarkable of his tissues, and particularly of the 
arrangement and action of those bioplasts and tissues belonging 
to man’s nervous system, not to be compared with anything else 
in nature, from which perhaps we may be able to deduce 
what is man’s true place, and his relation to his Creator. 

I regret to say that some intelligent writers of our Press, the 
most free and in some matters, the most reliable in the world, 
seem but too anxious not to offend their readers who may differ 
in opinions according to the parties, denominations, sections, 
divisions, or’ sub-divisions, to which they belong; and generally, 
in their occasional criticisms of scientific questions there are 
indications of a desire, not to express opinions that would be 
likely to offend their readers’ views; and so to study the 
tendency of the thought of the day, on questions of religion and 
science, as to avoid the discussion or criticism of serious 
questions bearing on the nature of life, and the relation of living 
nature generally, to Infinite Power Wisdom and Goodness. 
The general Press seems to take what it calls the secular view ; 
as if even the simple question of life and death of man could be 
secularly treated, without reference to its religious side, and 
to the question of the creating and sustaining power of the 
living God; andas if asharp distinction could be made between 
the supposed secular and religious aspects of Life power. 

For nearly a century very arbitrary assertions by high 
authorities of their time, erroneously supposed to be based upon 
new discoveries, have been thoughtlessly forced into popularity, 
and have so modified and weakened the foundations of religious 
belief, as to have led many intelligent persons who could not 
investigate and judge for themselves, to accept and spread 
doctrines, Incompatible with belief in God and the spiritual 
world,—doctrines which have tended to shake or destroy religious 
feeling in England—all this too, without serious discussion and 
proper deliberation, on the part of those who were well 
acquainted with the scientific facts. 

The life-power, mind, and intellect of man, have been placed 
in one and the same category with the life power and instincts 
of the lowest animals, although it is certain that man is a 
being apart, and absolutely distinct from all other organisms in 
living nature. 

Of those who agree with the so-called Freethinkers, Agnostics, 
Secularists, or Monists, and of those scientific men who support 
the views advocated by that eminently representative but 
disquieting author of “The Riddle of the Universe,” I beg to 
enquire :—what results of investigation, general or microscopical, 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GROWTH. 1383 


physical or chemical, and what known facts, or scientific 
opinions, arguments or reasons based on research, in any 
department of living nature or of physical science, can be 
advanced, which would justify an unprejudiced student of 
Physiology or Biology in defending the contention, that man 
cannot in reason, from a scientific point of view, be in any 
sense regarded as “ the child of God,” or as “ an inheritor of the 
kingdom of heaven”; for is not man the only living being who 
knowing God, can pray and worship ? 


DISCUSSION. 


The CHAIRMAN.—I am sure we have all listened with the deepest 
interest to this Paper (hear, hear), and we shall read it with the 
greatest interest when printed. 

It is most important that we should bear in mind this one funda- 
mental point which underlies this valuable paper—that life springs 
from the living and not from the non-living. It is true that there 
is a great deal of loose talking about it. So with growth, we may 
speak of the growth of a crystal, and no great harm is done if we 
recollect that we are using the word in an inaccurate sense ;* and so, 
in many cases, we get into a way of using words figuratively, and 
then supposing we have proved a thing; and I believe figures of 
speech, by way of illustration, to have been amongst some of the 
most fatal sources of error in scientific study. We use the word 
“life” in an inaccurate sense, but we must come back to those 
points which Professor Beale (and perhaps he is better qualified to 
speak than any man in England on these physiological questions) 
forces on our attention, that the living, though even a minute 
fraction, perhaps, of what we call living, contains in that minute 
fraction the secret not only of life itself, but all individual life. The 
charm of studying organisms led many to suppose, when I was a 
student, that in organization is the secret of life, whereas in life is 
the secret of organization. (Hear, hear.) 


* As Dr. Beale has himself explained, the growth of a living object is 
from within; the “growth” ofa crystal is by accretion from without.—Eb. 


134 PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


Now, the important proof in our investigations, to my mind, lies: 
in the absolute certainty, as I hope it does to yours, that there is 
something that we do not know. It is important, then, to come to 
that knowledge if it will save us from infinite mistakes. Our late 
distinguished President always impressed me, when speaking on a. 
scientific subject, by the absolute humility with which he said he 
did not know, and, therefore, it seems that until we are willing to 
confess our ignorance of what life is, from a scientific point of view, 
we shall know nothing of it. 

I most earnestly commend this paper to your careful attention. 
The conclusions that are drawn in it by the author are so entirely 
—perhaps I should not say what I agree with, for I am incapable of 
following all those masterly arguments—but I have felt, following 
them at a distance, that they show clearly there is nothing that can 
conceivably explain the mystery of life without the Living One 
outside. How can I express it? The Living One Who is not the 
living thing, but the source of the living thing. We come back to 
the words of Holy Scripture, where God is spoken of as Him in 
whom “ we live and move and have our being.” 

Let us hope that in the confession of our ignorance we may rise 
to higher truth—that we may rise from not knowing the difference 
between the dead and living, or the physical and spiritual, to the 
higher and deeper knowledge of the spiritual. 

Rey. F. A. WALKER, D.D.—If I might select one or two points 
out of the admirable and learned essay we have just listened to, I 
should be very glad to put to the author this question: What is 
the lowest degree of cold that he thinks living organisms can exist 
in, and the highest degree of heat ?* 

Dr. Woop-SMyTH.—This is the first time I have had the privilege 
of attending at the Victoria Institute, and it has been a great delight 
to me to hear Professor Beale on this subject, because the most 
exhaustive researches I ever made in my mie were made years ago 
on the lines of his work. 


I went over his experiments, one by one almost, and found them, 


* As Dr. Beale does not appear to have given a direct answer I may 
suggest—between the temperature at which albumen coagulates (165° I’.) 
and the zero of Fahr. for unprotected animals.—E, H. 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GROWTH. 135 


as he represented them, perfectly true. There was one drawing in 
his book that I remember well was open to grave suspicion. He 
represented germinal matter, spinning a fibre of muscle, much as 
a spider does his thread. But in the course of my research I came 
upon this very object. If anything, it was more clearly marked 
than the one illustrated in Professor Beale’s book. It is a most 
important discovery, and it is impossible for us to estimate its 
value. If you take the whole of Professor Huxley’s discoveries 
together they will not equal that one discovery, and yet nothing 
is thought of it on account of the wrong-headed attitude which 
men of science entertain towards this great subject. Let me say 
that there is a change of opinion. Herbert Spencer, in the last 
edition of his Biology, gives up generally, the chemical theory of 
life, and says it is an enigma. 

It may be slow, but the time will come when Professor Beale’s 
views will be accepted. It has taken a whole century for hypnotism 
to be admitted, as it is to-day, to be a potent influence and power 
in mind. All this is very useful to be brought before the 
Institute, and I hope it will tend towards a victory for Truth and 
for the Bible. 

The only explanation of life which we have is the one that is 
given to us in the Book of Genesis where it says, ‘‘ And the Spirit 
of God moved upon the face of the waters.” The Hebrew word 
there is a participle expressing continuity and intensity of vitalizing 
action. 

Rev. A. K. CHERRILL.—Professor Beale has given us so much, 
that I cannot help feeling inclined, like a certain well-known 
character in fiction, to send up my plate and ask for “more”! 

There are two points on which I would like to ask him a question— 
first, as to the structureless matter of life of which he has spoken. 
Are we to understand that what he refers to is actually structureless, 
or that we are unable to discover the structure ? In his description 
of the commencement of life he speaks of most elaborate structure, 
and it is difficult to see how this very elaborate structure can come 
out of no structure at all, 

Mr. MArtTIN Rovuse.—I was going to ask Professor Beale to 
reassure us, or to reassert, in terms that escaped me, whether the 
growth of matter within a cell was all performed within the cell— 


whether the whole growth takes place within the cell ? 
K 


136 PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


Professor LIONEL BEALE.—Yes, from within outwards. 

Mr. Rouse.—Whereas in all lifeless matter, the deposits are from 
the outside ? 

Then I would ask Professor Beale whether the chemical 
compounds of these bioplasts, that form man as well as other 
animals, are absolutely the same ? | 

Then I would say it is monstrous and absurd to speak of man as 
a machine, for the simple reason that a machine never grows, even 
regarding the cell itself as living matter, which we now know it is 
not, but even regarding a cell as living matter, it of course affords 
no analogy in the inorganic world. 

Then I would say, on the theory of development and complete 
evolution, why should all insects have exactly three stages? If 
this theory really had any true existence, one kind of insect would 
have two forms, another three, another four, and another five or 
six and so on, and they would be variously developed up to higher 
and higher perfection ; whereas there are innumerable thousands of 
species, each one of which has exactly three forms or stages. 
[ Hear hear. | 

Rev. JoHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S.—I should like to say how deeply 
indebted I feel to Professor Beale for that extremely thoughtful 
and splendid paper that he has given us this afternoon. No doubt 
in all our minds many questions have arisen, and I am sure there 
are many that cannot yet be answered. Professor Beale has told 
us how difficult many of those points are. 

I was particularly glad that he called attention, however, to the 
commencement of life. Our globe is said to have been at one time 
amass of molten matter, and it is always difficult to understand 
how, upon the materialistic ground, there can be any connection 
between the first germ of life and the moist ashes of a burned 
world. Professor Beale has, I think, rendered great service in 
calling attention to the extreme difficulty of accounting for the first 
germ of life on the theory of evolution. 

Another point I am very thankful for his calling attention to, is 
what I may refer to as the higher development of the higher species. 
If, as we are told, every germ of life that propagates itself can only 
result from similar life of the same form, or class, then the difficulty 
is to”’understand how, by any process of evolution, the bioplasm 
of the plant can ultimately become animal bioplasm, or how 


UNSEEN LIFE OF OUR WORLD AND OF LIVING GROWTH. 137 


animal bioplasm can ultimately become human bioplasm. If 
there is a vital principle in every particle of bioplasm that 
determines its future character, how are we to reconcile that 
principle with the development of higher species from lower ? 

Professor ORCHARD.—We have to thank Professor Lionel Beale 
for a very masterly and fascinating paper. 

Before I make any observations on the subject of the paper, 
which at this late hour must be very few, I wish warmly to 
associate myself with the tribute of affection that has been paid to 
our late President. 

He served his generation, by the will of God, and now the 
Christian philosopher has entered into that life which is above the 
brightness of the sun. While we sorrow over our own loss, we 
cannot but rejoice in his gain. 

It struck me while listening to Professor Beale’s paper, that 
its especial value consisted in its discriminating power. It dis- 
criminates between the assumptions and fallacies of evolution and 
the facts of science. It discriminates between regarding man as a 
machine, and the actual fact that he has a will and is a living 
growing creature. It discriminates, again, between growth and 
mere accretion. It is important that we should have these matters 
brought before us in contrast to mere speculative assertion. 

That life is distinct from mere mechanical force is, I think, 
generally admitted. You cannot translate mechanical forces to 
life ; nor can you translate life into the equivalent of those forces. 

Since Professor Japp gave his famous address, I think few if any 
(I do not know whether Professor Pearson still holds to his view) 
will dispute the tolerably strong evidence of those forces that life 
is an energy which testifies to a living God and His work. 

I thank Professor Beale much for his valuable paper. 

Professor LIONEL BEALE, in reply, said,—It would be difficult 
for me to enter into a consideration of the many interesting 
questions that have been asked, for it would occupy a great deal of 
time, but it suggested itself to my mind whether we could not, with 
the permission of the Council of the Victoria Institute, have a short 
conference in which one of those questions might be started amongst 
us ; when we should be able, probably, to unravel a great deal of 
difficulty and to come to some definite conclusion that might be of 
great use. Is it possible ? 


ky 2 


138 PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, F.R.C.P., F-R.S., ON LIFE. 


The CHAIRMAN.—It requires careful consideration. If it were 
possible it would be most interesting. 

Mr. MARTIN RousE.—Cannot that question be answered about 
chemical compositions ? 

Professor BEALE.— The chemical composition of bioplasm cannot 
be determined, because in the attempt you kill it. When you try 
to find out what it is made of, the first thing you do is to destroy it. 
It is a certain product that results from death. 

Mr. MarTIN RovusE.—I have heard you say that before; but I 
wondered whether the vital products of the dead matter that are 
introduced into the formation of man were the same as those that 
are introduced into the formation of animals 4 

Professor BEALE.—Pretty nearly. 

Mr. MArTIN RovusE.—If you were to select 20, or 100, or 1,000 
cells and test them chemically, in animals, would the result be the 
same ? : 
Professor BEALE.—Pretty nearly. It is the lwing power that is 
transmitted from one to the other, and so with regard to every word 
we speak. Probably thousands of “cells” are at work at the same 
time, and those cells come into existence certainly at the same 
time, and act harmoniously together although they are separate. 

All these questions are very interesting, and I should be glad to 
have the opportunity of meeting our friends to discuss them seriatim. 


ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.* 


COLONEL MACKINLAY IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed. 
The following elections were announced :— 
Memper :—Rev. George Sidney Streatfeild, M.A. 
Associates :—Rev. B. N. Switzer, M.A. ; Samuel A. Lawrence, Esq. 


DEATH OF THE LATE PRESIDENT, SIR GEORGE 
GABRIEL STOKES, BART. 


The CHAIRMAN.—I will ask the Secretary to state that the 
Victoria Institute has been represented at the funeral of our late 
President, Sir G. G. Stokes, by Mr. Martin Rouse and himself, who 
had been deputed by the Council for that purpose. 

The SECRETARY (Professor Epwarp Hutu, LL.D., etc.)—I may 
just state that in accordance with the resolution of the Council 
Mr. Martin Rouse and myself attended the funeral of our late 
distinguished President, which was conducted at the University 
Church, Cambridge. I need not say it was attended by the repre- 
sentatives of nearly all the Learned Societies of London, Cambridge, 
and Oxford, and by the representatives of the former University. 
The whole service was exceedingly impressive, and we were pleased 
to have the opportunity of representing the Institute on that solemn 
occasion. 

The CHAIRMAN.—We now come to the purpose for which we are 
assembled this afternoon, viz., to hear Professor Hull, our Secretary, 
read a paper. He has given us many papers in the past, and this, I 
feel sure, will be of interest. 


* Monday, 16th February, 1903. 


140 PROF. EDWARD HULL, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., ON 


THE CHEESEWRING, CORNWALL, AND ITS TEACH- 
INGS. By Professor EpwarD HULL, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 
(Secretary). 


EVON and Cornwall are remarkable for the number and 
- variety of objects of nature and art which are presented, at 
intervals, to the notice of the observer both along the coast and 
in the interior. In the former case, we have grand examples 
of cliffs and precipices hewn by the ceaseless waves from the 
Atlantic out of the hardest rocks, either plutonic or stratified, 
these latter being often contorted, folded and faulted, or 
pierced by caves and gullies; in the latter, we have numerous 
examples of prehistoric art in the form of stone circles and 
dolmens, such as the Trevethy Cromlech near Liskeard (Fig. 1),* 
and of early Christian art in the cases of stone-crosses, 
churches, castles, and fortresses, of which Tintagel, the 
traditional stronghold of King Arthur and his “ Knights of 
the Table Round,” immortalized by Tennyson,f is the most 
interesting example. 
But our task here is to deal only with a work of nature, long 
antecedent to the oldest of these monuments of bygone art, so 


* T use the general term “ prehistoric” for the stone circles, but it 
must be remembered that Fergusson maintains that there is no evidence 
of their existence either in England or France in the days of the Roman 
occupation. tude Stone Monuments, p. 20 (1872). 

t+ “The Coming of Arthur” (/dylls of the King). 


THE CHEESEWRING, CORNWALL, AND ITS TEACHINGS. 141 


remarkable in form and outline as at first sight it might be 
regarded as the work of man, a monument erected over the 
grave of some prehistoric giant by his brother “ giants of those 
days ” who have left their monuments in the stone circles and 
dolmens of Britain and Western Europe. But a closer 
inspection dispels this illusion; and we ultimately recognize 


Fic, 1.—THE TREVETHY CROMLECH, NEAR LISKEARD, 


that in the granitic pile of the Cheesewring and its companions 
around of lesser size we have noble specimens of natural 
monoliths the origin and mode of formation of which offer 
subjects worthy of the investigation of geologists and students 
of nature.* 

The Cheesewring.—Rising from the granitic moorland about 
seven miles north of Liskeard in the centre of Cornwall, is the 


* The Cheesewring is figured and described by the Rev. W. Borlase, 
F.R.S., under the name of ‘The Wringcheese,” and he gives its height as 
32 feet from the ground. He appears to have considered it as partly of 
druidical origin. (Cornwall, vol. 1, p. 165.) The Cheesewring is also 
figured (Fig. ”190) and briefly described by Lord Avebury, Scenery of 
England (1902). 


142 PROF. EDWARD HULL, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., ON 


remarkable pile of rock known by this name. It is the largest 
of several tors of similar granitic material, standing upon a 


platform about 20 feet above the general surface of the 


Fia. 2..-THE CHEESEWRING, NFAR LISKEARD, CORNWALL. 
From a photograph by Mr. W. H, Huddy, Liskeard. 


moorland, and owing to its form and position has given rise to 
much speculation regarding its origin and mode of formation. 


THE CHEESEWRING, CORNWALL, AND ITS TEACHINGS. 145 


It is mentioned in Woodward’s Geology of England and Wales 
as one of the tors near the granite quarry from which the stone 
used in the construction of the London Docks and Westminster 
and Waterloo Bridges was obtained.* 

To turn from the geological to the popular idea of the nature 
and origin of the Cheesewring, we have only to quote the views 
of the late Mr. Wilkie Collins in his entertaining narrative of 
Rambles beyond Railways, written half a century ago,f which is 
amusing and instructive as indicating the crude ideas which 
prevailed on such subjects at that time. JDiscarding the 
druidical theory advanced by “certain learned men,” to wit, I 
presume, Borlase and those who adopt his views, he proceeds to 
give what he considers to be the correct geological explanation of 
the origin and mode of formation of this natural monument. 
According to his view of the subject it is assumed that the 
Cheesewring and all the adjacent upstanding masses of stone 
“were once covered, or nearly covered, by earth, and were thus 
supported in an upright position; that the wear and tear of 
storms gradually washed away into the valleys all the earth 
from between the rocks, and then left such heaps of stones as 
were accidentally perfect in their balance on each other to 
stand erect, and such as were not, to fall flat on the surface of 
the hill in all the various positions in which they now appeayr.”’ 
In this account of the formation of the Cheesewring and 
sunilar tors we seem to have an illustration of the proverb “ne 
sutor ultra crepidam.” Myr. Collins was a writer and novelist, but 
not, I fear, a geologist; and hence the amusing attempt to 
explain on geological principles the origin of the Cheesewring 
and similar Cornish tors. In fact, it will be observed that he 
starts with the assumption that these isolated rocks were in 
existence before being “covered with earth”; but their origin 
still remains to be explained. Mr. Collins, however, deserved 
credit for recognizing that the Cheesewring is a_ natural 
monolith, and not to be classed with the dolmens, or cromlechs, 
such as that of Trevethy, which has been erected at a short 
distance to the southward, near St. Clair’s Well. 

It is now time that I should proceed to describe the Cheese- 
wring, and discuss its origin and mode of formation—a task by 
no means easy, and which cannot be done without taking a 


_* 2nd Edit. (1887), p. 575. De la Beche has omitted reference to it in 
his standard work, The Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and Somerset (1839). 
t R. Bentley (1851). 


144 PROF. EDWARD HULL, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., ON 


rather distant retrospect into past geological times. And 
first as to its form and composition. Inform it consists of five 
disconnected, or partially connected, slabs of tabular granite, 
large and massive in the upper part, while supported below as 
on a pedestal by slabs of much smaller dimensions. ‘The total 
height from the base is, as stated by Borlase; 32 feet, and it 
rises from a granitic platform, or flattened dome, elevated about 
20 feet above the general surface of the moorland. At its base 
he large blocks and slabs of granite, and at short distances, 
several similar monoliths of smaller dimensions. Thus the 
Cheesewring 1s conspicuous from a considerable distance over 
the moorland to the south; and just under the south side of the 
tor is the large granite quarry to which reference has been 
made above. In this country of remarkable works of ancient 
art, such as standing-stones, old crosses, druidical circles, and 
dolmens, the Cheesewring rises pre-eminent as a conspicuous 
work of nature. 

Composition and Mode of Formation.—In the endeavour to 
arrive at some theory regarding the mode of formation of the 
Cheesewring and similar isolated granitic masses, we get some 
assistance from a view of the face of the quarry which has 
been opened near its base. 

The whole mass consists of largely crystalline grey granite ; 
and on observing the wall of rock which has been cut back 
almost perilously near to the base of the Cheesewring, it 
becomes clear that the rock belongs, as regards its structure, to 
that variety known as “tabular granite.” In the upper part of 
the wall distinctly horizontal “planes of cooling” are seen to 
have been developed, giving the mass a stratified, or bedded, 
appearance. Granite with similar tabular structure is not 
uncommon. I have seen it myself in the Mourne Mountains 
in Ireland; but the planes of division are sometimes inclined 
to the horizon. Dela Beche and Dr. Boase have recognized 
the structure in other parts of Cornwall and Devon, and have 
pointed out how this structure gives rise to the formation of 
tors or carns as on Dartmoor.* Lord Avebury has also pointed 
to this structure in the Logan Rock on the Cornish Coast. 

Planes of Cooling in the Granite-—We have now to inquire, 
what do we mean by “planes of cooling and solidification in 


* Report, p. 163. Similar tcrs have been developed on Kinder Scout 
in the massive beds of millstone grit, which have a composition similar to 
that of granite, though of course of entirely different origin. 

t Scenery of England, p. 432. 


THE CHEESEWRING, CORNWALL, AND ITS TEACHINGS. 140 


granite” 2? Numerous observations amongst rocks of igneous 
origin have shown that when such planes have been developed 
they assume a position parallel to the outer surface of the mass, 
whether this has been the atmosphere, or an envelope of 
previously existing rocks into which the molten mass has been 
intruded. In the case of Devon and Cornwall the granite has 
undoubtedly been intruded amongst rocks of Devonian and 
Silurian age, and may not originally have reached the surface 
of the ground; or only at rare intervals. This is a point on 
which we cannot speak with certainty; but of this there can 
be no doubt, that such. a rock as granite, coarsely crystalline 
in structure, could only have been consolidated from a molten 
state with extreme slowness; which would be the ease if it was 
overlain by large masses of previously existing stratified rocks, 
or by outer portions of its own mass which have been removed 
from off its surface by denudation. Molten masses which have 
been extruded at the surface of the ground cool and consolidate 
with comparative rapidity, and are consequently vitreous, 
micro-crystalline, or granular in structure, although of similar 
chemical composition to granite itself. Of such we have 
examples in the “dolomite” of the Puy de Dome and other 
volcanic hills in Central France. This rock has cooled and 
consolidated at the surface of the ground ; and as a result it is 
micro-crystalline or granular, though containing small crystals 
of mica and other minerals. But it is owing to an original 
envelope, or covering, of solid material, whether of stratified 
rocks or of part of the eranitic mass itself, that the structure 
of the granites of Cornwall and Devon is coarsely crystalline, 
the crystals of felspar, mica, and quartz being well developed ; 
the quartz, however, generally occurs as the paste in which 
the other minerals are enclosed. 

Evidences of Denudation.—The evidence that denudation has 
taken place to an enormous extent over the Devono-Cornish 
area meets us at every step along the coast, and especially the 
north coast of this great promontory, Wherever we examine 
the coast-cliffs along the western shore fronting the Atlantic, 
we observe the strata rising from the waters, generally at high 
angles, or contorted and folded in a remarkable manner, as at 
Boscastle, Bude Bay, and Clovelly. But whatever may be their 
position, they invariably terminate upwards along a nearly 
horizontal or slightly inclined plane extending inland from the 
coast, and when viewed from a distance, looking almost like a 
horizontal line against the horizon. This upward truncation of 
the strata, bed over bed, means, of course, that they were once 


146 PROF. EDWARD HULL, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., ON 


continued into what is now the air; these vanished masses 
having been planed off the surface by the waves of an ocean 
which once swept over the existing land when at a lower level 
than at present, leaving an inclined plane surface known as “a 
plain of marine denudation.”* This term was first proposed by 
its author to the surface of the Silurian district of Cardigan- 
shire, which, though consisting of alternating hills and valleys 
formed of inclined Silurian slates and grits like those of 
Cornwall, terminate upwards along an imaginary plain surface, 
sloping gentiy from the interior to the sea-coast. (Fig. 3, p. 147.) 
To this subject we may well give our attention for a short time, 
as it 1s one of great physical interest. 

Plains of Marine Denudution.—Everywhere in the south and 
west of England and Wales we are confronted by plains of 
marine denudation, a term first employed by Sir Andrew 
Ramsay.f Let me illustrate what I mean by this term. 
Supposing the British Isles and Western Europe to be elevated 
from 100 to 200 fathoms above their present level as deter- 
mined by the surface of the ocean, they would be found to have 
a fringe of varying breadth consisting of a gradually sloping 
surface bounded inland by the coast cliffs and breaking off in 
the direction of the ocean, by an abrupt declivity (or escarp- 
ment) leading down to the abyssal regions. This gently 
sloping fringe, sometimes 20 to 100 miles in breadth, would, 
therefore, constitute a plain, and as it was formed by the ocean 
waves and currents, ever wearing back the coast, breaking 
down the rocks and reducing the surface of the land to that of 
the surface of the ocean, it would constitute a plain of marine 
denudation.{ This plain would at intervals be crossed by 
river-valleys descending froii the interior lands into the 
abyssal ocean below. Such plains are also represented on the 
land, wherever the land has been, at whatever period, below the 


* The name proposed by the late Sir A. C. Ramsay in his work, The 
Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain, 5 Edit., p. 497 (1875). 

+ Ibed., p. 497. This term in the abstract might be written “planes of 
marine denudation”; but in the concrete as applied to special features 
of the landscape the term appears the more correct. 

t The process of formation of this plain, constituting as it does the 
land margin of the Great Continental Platform, is admirably illustrated 
in the picture of Widemouth Bay, Bude, in Cornwall, given by Lord 
Avebury in his Scenery of England (p. 126), where the highly tilted and 
contorted strata of Devonian age, as seen in the coast cliffs, are planed 
down by wave action to a general surface sloping gently seaward, and 
laid bare at ebb tide. 


THE CHEESEWRING, CORNWALL, AND ITS TEACHINGS. 147 


surface of the sea; and, as, I have said, there are frequent 
examples of these once-submerged plains, as, for instance, in 
Cardiganshire, of which the accompanying figure taken from 
Sir A. C. Ramsay’s work is a representation (Fig. 3). What 


FIG. 3.—SECTION TO ILLUSTRATE STRUCTURE OF A PLAIN OF 
MARINE DENUDATION. 
Generalized Section across the Silurian Strata of Cardiganshire (after Ramsay). 
Phys. Geo. and Geog. of Great Britain, 5 Edit., p. 497. 


is specially remarkable is the fact that the plains are quite 
independent of the nature and position of the rocks; they are 
earried across hard rocks and soft, highly inclined or contorted 
as well as nearly horizontal strata; though of course the 
harder rocks have withstood the marine action better than the 
softer. Thus in the valley of the Avon at Bristol we see the 
solid beds of Carboniferous limestone rising in succession from 
below each other, but terminating abruptly at the sky-line in a 
flat surface or plateau, through which the river-valley has 
been eroded by the action of the river itself in the course of 
ages. The Carboniferous, Devonian, and Silurian formations of 
South Wales, generally highly inclined, terminate along a nearly 
level sky-line as seen from the Gorge of the Avon to the 
north. Further to the east we have the remarkable table-land 
of the Cotteswold Hills of Gloucester and Somerset, breaking 
off towards the west in an elevated escarpment rising above the 
vale of the Severn. Finally, when we come to Cornwall itself, 
the subject of more immediate interest, we find that the 
surface of the country resolves itself into a gently sloping table- 
land commencing in the coast cliffs, penetrated by numerous 
valleys descending into the sea, and composed of various 
strata of Carboniferous or Devonian age, which have been highly 
tilted, or thrown into numerous folds and flexures, but which 
break off along the sky-line, the once continuous portions having 
been as completely swept away as if they had never existed. 
But we have only to attempt to restore the vanished strata 
along the lines of dip and flexure to become convinced that 
thousands of feet have been denuded from off the existing 
surface of the country. 

It is clear from what has been said that this erosive action 
has been effected by some agent acting horizontally, breaking 


5 - 
down and carrying away the materials which once overspread 


148 PROF. EDWARD HULL, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., ON 


the existing surface ; and when we ask ourselves—what agent in 
nature is capable of such powerful action, we can only reply, 
the waves of the Atlantic Ocean, impelled chiefly by westerly 
winds, acting on a gradually subsiding land area, aided by the tidal 
and other currents which take up the fragmental matter and 
carry it away to the outer depths of the ocean to form new strata. 

Now, the granitic areas of Devon and Cornwall have, like 
those formed of stratified materials, been subjected to the agency 
of denudation, so that the present surface of these areas is 
altogether different from the original surface after consolida- 
tion. Much material has been eroded and carried away since 
consolidation at former periods, chiefly at the close of the 
Paleozoic or Primary period. During the cooling and 
crystallizing process there may have been portions of the 
mass protruding into the overlying rock further than others, 
or they may have been of firmer consistency, and such portions 
would (ceteris paribus) resist denudation to a greater extent, 
and remain conspicuous above the adjoining areas. All this is 
conceivable; but I do not pretend to precision in a matter so 
enveloped in difficulties and obscurity. It is permissible, how- 
ever, to suppose that on the retiring of the sea by reason of the 
elevation of the land, such more solid masses would be left as 
isolated pillars, or sea-stacks, to the action of the atmospheric 
agents, whether frost, rain or wind; disintegration would ensue, 
and decomposition along the joint planes. In the case of such 
granitic tors as the Cheesewring, where, as we have seen, there is 
a tendency to split along horizontal planes, the ultimate result 
would be to produce such natural monuments as_ the 
Cheesewring itself, and its companions of less elevation. 

Such is the explanation which I venture to offer for the 
formation of this fine granitic tor. Some of the points in the 
reasoning are inferential ; others are capable of demonstration, 
such as the extent to which denudation has acted over 
the surface of the country, removing perhaps thousands of feet 
of strata and rock which once were superimposed on those now 
forming the surface. Of this denudation we may say, when 
standing on the surface of the moorland in sight of the 
Cheesewring, “Si monumentum queris, circumspice.” Of its kind, 
few more noble monuments can be found in England. 


DISCUSSION. 


Dr. Locan JAck, F.G.S.—Professor Hull has given us a most 
interesting and suggestive explanation of this remarkable natural 


THE CHEESEWRING, CORNWALL, AND ITS TEACHINGS. 149 


monument. He has interpreted it to us by means of one of those 
“sermons in stones” of which we constantly hear, but of which we 
do not very often understand the language. Professor Hull is, 
however, an adept in that language, and his explanation, I need 
hardly say, is singularly clear and explicit. The great lesson which 
has been taught to us undoubtedly is that of ‘“ denudation.” 

Shakespeare’s great mind, I believe, grasped the whole subject of 
sub-aerial denudation when he wrote, ‘‘ Time makes mountains level, 
and the continent, weary of solid firmness, melts itself into the 
sea.” He saw the whole process going on—how a plain, subject to 
sub-aerial denudation, might become carved out and utterly worn 
away till the whole mass would be reduced, as it ultimately might 
be reduced, to the level of the sea, unless there were some 
compensating elevation. 

Very much has been said about the dependence of features of 
scenery upon geological structure, and no doubt those features do 
depend, in a remarkable degree, on geological structure ; but one of 
the most forcible lessons brought before us by this ‘‘sermon in 
stones,” which has been interpreted to us to-night, is, if | may say 
so, how independent scenery can sometimes be of geological 
structure. You would naturally suppose that these contorted 
strata (as drawn on the blackboard) would form, when they were 
bent into a saddle, a valley, and when they were bent into anti- 
clinal axes, a hill ; but there is a good example in the lower part of 
this small diagram of the reverse being the case, where a little valley 
is carved out on the top of the anticlinal axis. That exemplifies 
the independence of the scenery to some extent. At the same time 
there may be a deeper meaning in it, and there may really be 
dependence. For instance, it is well known that the tops of anti- 
clinal axes are more or less shortened, like the reefs of Bendigo and 
some of the Australian fields. These shortened anticlinal axes may 
have given direction to the forces which eroded the valley in that 
instance, though the contrary appears to be the case. 

Then, again, in the section of the Avon drawn on the board it is 
seen how the valley is carved out of the escarpment at right angles 
to the strike of the strata and the level summit of the cliffs which 
is made by the truncated ends of the strata of limestone. 

As to the Cheesewring, it is a very remarkable and picturesque 
example. There are many such, but in England there are, perhaps, 


150 PROF. EDWARD HULL, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., ON 


few that are more remarkable than this. The origin of them is 
always mysterious, but this explanation given by Professor Hull 
seems to be very reasonable and feasible. In general, though, I 
have observed, and it has been my business to observe, in Australia 
and the East a good many mining operations, and in_ those 
frequently tunnels are driven and shafts are sunk in the decomposed 
granite. Invariably it is found to be the case that decomposed 
granite always contains some harder portions which are met with in 
a way which I am quite unable to explain. 

I should like, before I sit down, to ask Professor Hull about the 
Logan Rock mentioned in his paper. My acquaintance with 
England is somewhat old, and I have forgotten some of the things I 
have read ; but my impression is that the Logan Rock was, for a 
long time, understood to be an artificial monument—that it was a 
rocking stone, in fact, balanced finely upon a point, and that it was 
dislodged from that point by some mischievous persons a good many 
years ago. I would like to ask Professor Hull if the Logan Rock 
to which he refers is the one of which I have a vague recollection. 

Mr. Davip Howarp.—I think that everyone who knows Devon 
and Cornwall will appreciate the extreme interest of this paper, not 
merely from the question of the particular Cheesewring it deals with, 
but the light that it throws on the whole geology of those counties, 
or, to use that dreadful expression, their “physical geography.” 
Nothing strikes me so much as the dulness or flatness of the upper 
level of Cornwall, and the wonderful beauty of the valleys cut out 
in the lower portion at a much later period. Denudation has been 
at work in two such totally different ways, a contrast which I think 
of great importance, because very often, without a special knowledge 
of geology (and a little knowledge of this branch of science, like others, 
is a dangerous thing), it leads one to suppose that we must look 
only for denudation which is at work at the present day. In Devon 
and Cornwall, and especially in Cornwall, there is an old sea-bottom, 
so to speak, and you see the rocks standing up by themselves, 
leaving a comparatively flat floor, and in the lower portion you see 
the effects of the rapid running water flowing down from a higher 
level and eroding the valleys on its way to the sea. 

As to why granites are sometimes harder and sometimes softer, 
we are met with the great problem how granite came to be granite 
at all. The construction of its crystals is due not only to cooling, 


THE CHEESEWRING, CORNWALL, AND ITS TEACHINGS. 151 


but, I think I am right in saying, the presence of the vapour of 
water. It evidently must have been brought about under pressure, 
or it would not have been granite at all. 

Rey. F. A. WALKER, D.D.—On one page of the paper the learned 
lecturer states, ‘ More solid masses would be left as isolated pillars, or 
sea-stacks, to the action of the atmospheric agents, whether frost, rain 
or wind.” JI suppose we have plenty of examples in the Scilly Isles 
and portions of Land’s End of those pillars as the result of centuries 
of atmospheric action and corrosion, and I would ask Professor Hull 
if he regards the brine as a potent agent in the decomposition of 
granite; because I know in very distant ages we have an old 
authority as to the decomposition of granite by brine. It occurs in 
Herodotus—aruyv éravOdovscav wWote Kai tas rupapddas éndecoOnu. 
Herodotus, Euterpe, Lib. II, chap. 12, “efflorescence of brine causing 
the very pyramids themselves to be corroded,”’—and he refers to 
the variegated Ethiopian stone (red granite) which forms a portion 
of the casing of the second and the whole of that of the third 
pyramid. I would say that I noticed some curious effects of that 
corrosion by brine in several objects I brought with me from 
Upper and Lower Egypt years after. The saltpetre crops up, and 
in the specimens I have brought this saltpetre was at work fora 
long time after, rendering the labels illegible and reducing the trays 
in which the geological specimens are placed to pulp, and it is 
indicated in this ancient massive monument by the Father of 
History. 

A Visttor.—May I ask if there is any law or regulation for the 
preservation of geological relics like these at all 2 

Professor Huiui.—I should hope that the local County Council 
will have the preservation of the natural and artificial monuments 
under their care. That is all I can say. Of course we know that 
Stonehenge has now, after many centuries of neglect, been put into 
a state of safety. 

The CHAIRMAN.—Before calling on Professor Hull to answer these 
questions, may I ask a question myself? May I ask whether a 
stone is made of exactly the same material as the ground underneath 
—1.€., as to a stone not brought from a distance—and are the planes 
of cooling in the Cheesewring parallel with those in the granite rock 
beneath it ? 

[The Chairman illustrated his meaning on the blackboard. | 

L 


152 PROF, EDWARD HULL, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., ON 


Professor HULL.—Very much so, yes. [am much pleased with the 
discussion, and I am especially pleased that Dr. Jack is able to 
coincide with the views I have put forth. 

What he says with regard to the dependence of natural physical 
features and independence is perfectly true, and it is sometimes very 
difficult to know why we have both. In such a case as the table- 
lands of Cornwall and Devon, the independence of the features is a 
matter which we know is very remarkable and originates from the 
enormously powerful action of the ancient ocean during the times of 
the subsiding and emergence of the land. On the other hand, we 
have features such as those of the Cotteswold Hills, not so very far 
off, in which the dependence of the features is capable of explanation 
by the character of the strata. For instance, in the case of the 
Cotteswold Hills, we have first the plain of Gloucester, and then it 
gradually rises in this way [explaining on the blackboard]. Beyond the 
escarpment of the Cotteswold Hills we have another plain, the upper 
plain being formed of Oolite limestone; the whole plain of 
Gloucester being formed of the Lias clay. So that the dependence 
of the escarpment of the Cotteswold Hills is clearly due to the 
superior hardness of this mass of limestone, which is about 250 feet 
and 300 feet in thickness, superimposed on the soft shales and other 
strata on which it rests. This limestone was originally covered 
over by newer strata to a height we do not know ; but what remains 
of this table-land is the result of a horizontal denuding agency when 
exposed to the waves of the sea and subsequent subaérial erosion. 

Then we have a second plain of marine denudation in this valley 
of the Severn and the plain of Gloucester, by which the strata of the 
Cotteswold Hills have been eroded back from their original margin. 
So in this case we have a repetition of the effect of the dependence 
of the conditions of the strata for their physical features and 
independence in such cases as those of Devon and Cornwall. 

Now Dr. Jack does, I think, very clearly indicate the difference 
between denudation which produces a plain surface and denudation 
which produces valleys, and I have been endeavouring for many years 
to maintain that you cannot have a great plain of strata, more or less 
elevated, without bringing in the action of the ocean. On the 
other hand, the valleys, as everyone admits, are the result of the 
erosive action of running water. but there are geologists in the 
present day who will not admit that these islands were submerged 


THE CHEESEWRING, CORNWALL, AND ITS TEACHINGS. 153 


under the ocean at any recent period at all, and they refer all the 
escarpments and table-lands and plains to the agency of running 
water. 

Lord Avebury, in his volume to which I have referred, and 
strongly recommend every one to read, goes very near holding the 
same opinions as myself ; but he does not go quite so far, I think. 
He puts, perhaps, more stress on running water in forming escarp- 
ments than I am disposed to do; but at any rate we are very nearly 
in harmony on that subject. 

Dr. Walker referred to the sea-stacks rising from the sea. Of 
course as we approach the coast of the British Isles from the 
outer ocean we can often, over the area formed by the Cor- 
tinental Platform, see these stacks. But sea-stacks and islands 
are really harder portions of the original strata which the sea had 
not had time to wash away. Ultimately, I suppose, the sea will 
level down most of the sea islands and sea-stacks that bound our 
coast ; but it must be a matter of time. 

Mr. Rouse and Colonel Alves referred to the existence of water in 
granite. I have examined under the microscope a good many 
sections of granite, principally from Ireland, and in almost all cases 
the silex or quartz of the granite was found to contain minute cavities 
filled with liquid. They are exceedingly small, and it is only in the 
quartz that these cavities occur, not in the felspar or in the mica. 
The explanation of this seems to be that the quartz is generally found 
to be non-crystalline in form. There is a crystalline structure (as it 
polarizes), but the form of crystal is not developed as in the case of 
mica and felspar ; and the explanation is that the quartz was the last 
of the three minerals to consolidate. It had been kept in a pasty 
condition by the presence of water, and, no doubt, water containing 
carbonic acid, which must have been in a state of highly super- 
heated steam at the time the granite was in the course of con- 
solidation. Thus the crystals of mica and felspar had time to form 
and were embedded in this paste of quartz (with fluid cavities) which 
ultimately, as time went on, became solid. 

That is the explanation I venture to offer for the remarkable 
phenomenon of the appearance of acid water in granite. 

Dr. Jack put a question about the Logan Rock near Land’s End. 
I have not myself been there, but the Logan Rock which is described 
by Wilkie Collins is a large monolith, so nicely balanced on its floor 

L 2 


154 ON THE CHEESEWRING, CORNWALL, AND ITS TEACHINGS, 


as to be easily moved backwards and forwards. Some years ago a 
daring ship’s-captain and his crew landed and displaced the block 
out of pure mischief, to the great indignation of the inhabitants, and 
the captain was obliged to replace the stone in its original position 
at his own expense, which was considerable. } 

I think, Mr. Chairman, I have now replied to the questions, as far 
as time and ability permit. 

The Meeeting then adjourned. 


ORDINARY MEETING.* 


GENERAL HALLIDAY, IN THE CHAIR, 
who retired, before the discussion, in favour of 


PROFESSOR ORCHARD. 


The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed. 
The following elections were announced :— 
Lire AssocraTE :—Rev. Ernest A. Wright, M.A., St. John’s, Hull. 


AssoctaTEs :—Mrs. Stovin, London; Rev. Prebendary W. Covington, 
M.A., London ; William Harris Best, Esq., L.R.C.P., London. 


NEW PRESIDENT. 


The SECRETARY (Professor EDwARD Hutt, LL.D.).—I have a 
very important announcement to make, and one that I feel sure will 
be gratifying to the Members and Associates of the Institute, as it 
has been to the Council, viz., that the Lord Chancellor, who was 
Vice-President for several years of the Institute, has accepted the 
office of President. I will read the Resolution that has just been 
passed by the Council, following a letter, dated the 23rd February, 
1903, from the Archdeacon of London to the Secretary, stating the 
result of an interview with the Lord Chancellor as requested by the 
Council :— 

“ Resolved, that the Right Honourable The Earl of Halsbury, D.C.L., 
F.R.S., Lord Chancellor, be hereby elected President of the 
Victoria Institute, in succession to the late Professor Sir G. G. 
Stokes, Bart., and the Council assures his Lordship of its unfailing 
support, and of its high appreciation of the interest which, for 
several years past, he has shown in the welfare of the Institute ” 


* Monday, March 2nd, 1903. 


156 CAVALIERE G. JERVIS ON THE CREATION OF THE WORLD. 


The following Resolution electing David Howard, Esq., Vice- 
President, was also unanimously passed by the Council on the 
motion of Professor Lionel S. Beale and seconded by Captain Heath, 
R.N. :— 


“Resolved, that David Howard, Esq., D.L.. F.C.S.. one of the 
Trustees, be elected Vice-President in the room of the Lord 
Chancellor, The Earl of Halsbury, who has accepted the position 
of President.” 


The thanks of the Council were passed to Archdeacon Sinclair for 
his services in the above matters. 


A paper was then read, entitled :— 


THE GLORIOUS REVELATION TOUCHING THE 
CREATION OF THE WORLD. By Cavaliere GUGLIEMO 
JERVIS, F.G.S., and member of the Italian Geological Society 
in Rome. Translated from the Italian by Mr. Martin L. 
Rowse, by whom also it was read to the meeting. 


The paper elicited a lively discussion. 

On consideration by the Council it was decided not to print 
the paper in the Journal of Transactions, chiefly on the ground 
that it had already been printed and published in Italy, and 
was, therefore, not an original communication. Its object was 
to give a geological interpretation, of a very literal character, to 
the Genesis account of the Creation of the World and its 
inhabitants, and the summary of the author’s conclusions may, 
perhaps, be best expressed in a passage from the preface to the 
paper, in which he says: “In the course of many long years 
devoted to the teaching of Science, the writer does not hesitate 
to affirm that he has not discovered that the study of Geology in 
the least degree conflicts with anything that the Author of every 
science revealed to man.” 

The paper in MS., together with the shorthand writer's report 
of the discussion which followed after the paper itself had been 
read, will be preserved in the office of the Institute for reference 
by any member who desires to consult it; and the Editor can 
only express his regret that he is unable to give it a wider 
circulation. The reader will find some interesting remarks by 
Chev. Jervis bearing on the subject of his paper in his letter 
addressed to the Secretary dated 26th April, 1902, in vol. xxxiv 
of the Transactions, p. 280. 

E. H. 


ORDINARY MEETING.* 


Davin Howanp, Esqa., D.L. (VICE-PRESIDENT), IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed, and 
the following elections took place :— 


MemBeErR :—James Christie Reid, Esq., F.R.G.S., Chislehurst. 


AssocraTE :—J. Martin Tilby, Esq., London. 


THE WATER SUPPLY OF JERUSALEM. By Ernest 
W. GurRNEY MAsTERMAN, Diploma in Public Health, 
Cambridge. 

The SECRETARY (Professor EDWARD HULL).—As you may 
recollect when a paper was read on the water supply of Jerusalem, T 
by General Sir Charles Wilson, which gave very full details of the 
recent operations carried on by the Turkish Government for the 
supply of the city, he took great exception to the work because it 
did not fulfil its object, z.e., of giving the people of Jerusalem a 
proper supply of water ; and when a copy of the paper was sent to 
Dr. Gurney Masterman, who was out in Jerusalem professionally, 
he took exception to Sir Charles Wilson’s views, stating that the 
supply was not unsatisfactory. This being so, as he was on the 
spot and Sir Charles Wilson was only writing from information 
that he had received, I thought it would be well to ask Dr. Master- 
man to state, in writing, his views on the subject, and in what 

* Monday, March 16th, 1903. 
+ Trans. Vict. Inst., vol. xxxiv, p. 11. 


158 ERNEST W. GURNEY MASTERMAN, ON 


manner they differed from those of Sir Charles Wilson; and, of 
course, when his paper arrived, it had to be submitted to Sir Charles 
Wilson for his comments thereon. We have both these communi- 
cations here and they will be read this evening. 


The following communications were then read :— 


JERUSALEM, 
September 22, 1902. 
To Professor Hull, F.R.S. 


My dear Sir, 

Thank you for your kindly note. When I first received your 
suggestion to write my all-too-late remarks, I more than hesitated. 
I decided not to do so, because I felt a criticism in one volume of a 
paper which had appeared in a previous volume would be of little 
interest. When, however, I came to talk over the subject of Sir 
Charles Wilson’s paper with others here who had read it, I found 
that the views I have now written are those generally held, and 
there can be little doubt but that Sir Charles Wilson is mistaken. 

As the work has now continued nearly a year, and if only completed 
(many parts of the pipes are even now not properly supported, 
and the greater part ought to be buried), I cannot see why it 
should not continue for long. I venture to send you a very 
amateur paper of mine which was published last February in an 
American magazine, as it may be of interest to Sir Charles Wilson’s 
learned address. If you think what I have written of any use, then 
read it and print it, but if you feel it is of no use, discard it, or, if 
you will, cut it down—I may be unnecessarily prolix. 

With kind regards, 
I remain, 
Sincerely yours, 
ERNEST W. GURNEY MASTERMAN. 


IR CHARLES WILSON, in a learned and most interesting 
KJ paper read before the Victoria Institute on May 26th, 
1902, has described the water supply of Jerusalem, with a 
knowledge and authority which no one, I imagine, could rival. 
With the greater part of his paper it would be a liberty for me, 


THE WATER SUPPLY OF JERUSALEM. 159 


a mere amateur, to deal: with, however, that part which treats 
of the new supply inaugurated last year, it is clear to me, as it 
is too to many of those who know Sir Charles Wilson in this 
city, that he has been misinformed. I do not believe any 
unprejudiced resident here would characterise the new supply 
as having “ended in a fiasco,” nor say that “ the sum expended 
may be regarded as practically thrown away.” Probably few of 
us are judges as to how much money should have been spent on 
the iron piping and other expenses connected with the new 
aqueduct. But residents here are rather concerned with the 
practical results, especially as the money has not come out of 
any of our pockets, nor have we been called upon to pay any 
water rate for the new supply ; it is all a free gift, provided by 
certain charitable endowments connected with the city. 
When in England would a new water supply be given, even if 
a poor one, without the consumers suffering financially ? 
Sir Charles Wilson considers the old aqueduct might, with much 
greater advantage, have been repaired. This may be, but we also 
know, he states it himself, that whenever this has been done, it 
has been wilfully broken. It may be repaired, but it cannot be 
protected either from malign treatment or from defilement on 
its route. The new aqueduct can; and is easily patrolled, long 
stretches being seen from the hills; and, what is more, it is far 
less easily injured by ignorant fe//ahin; and the water cannot 
be contaminated en route. There are one or two points, how- 
ever, in which some local correspondent must have quite mis- 
informed Sir Charles Wilson. 

He states (1) “ Feeble streams of water are delivered in the 
Haram esh-Shertf, where it is only available for Moslems.” “ No 
attempt has been made to supply water to any quarter of the 
city.” The “feeble streams” have so far been quite sufficient 
to keep the great reservoirs of the Haram replenished, so that 
all through this long dry summer water has been supplied 
eratis all over the city, the people only having to pay the cost 
of the water carriers, an item which has been | considerably less 
than in previous years. This supply is independent of race or 
creed. Further, for many months past one of the old Arabic 
street fountains outside the Haram has been supplied with a 
pipe of running water, and the poor, Jews, Christians, or Moslems, 
can fill their tins, ete., as they like. 

(2) “ The water running by day through iron pipes exposed to 
the direct rays of the sun arrives in such a heated state as to be 
unfit for drinking.’ * Tf Sir Charles Wilson’s informant took a 
cup down at mid- “day to the tapsabove the birket es Sultan, and 


160 ERNEST W. GURNEY MASTERMAN, ON 


tried a draught of water, then it is possible he may have been 
justified in his verdict ; but as the people here do not rely only 
on that method of quenching their thirst, they do not complain 
of this. On very hot days the water, if taken in the heat of 
the day, isa little warm, but not nearly so much as might be 
expected. The great reservoir is not far from the city, and the 
water starts from that quite cold and runs rapidly. But there 
are two simple remedies appled to meet this: either to take 
the water at night, as some I know do, or cool it down in the 
houses. We. in our house cool our water by letting closed 
bottles of it down into a cistern, when it comes out as cool as 
any one could wish; other people cool it in porous water 
bottles, but the water is at all times not only fit for drinking, 
but far superior to the water to which the people here have 
been accustomed. 

May I in conclusion briefly enumerate the details of the great 
boon which in my opinion this new supply is to people here, 
especially to the poor, who form our great majority. We have 
had two exceedingly bad “wet seasons” and the country has 
seldom been more dry and parched; many springs have dried 
up, others are much diminished; it has therefore been a time 
when suffering in this city at this season, ae. at end of the dry 
summer, would ordinarily have been acute. After far better 
rainfalls I have seen great distress through the actual want of 
water for domestic purposes, and at sucha time the drinking 
water used by the poor is filthy to a degree. 

What has been the case this season ? 

(1) The water sold by the water carriers has _ been 
considerably cheaper, and has been of a far superior quality, 
being fresh spring water, instead of being cistern water of most 
doubtful quality—often from cisterns not cleaned for years, and 
containing all kinds of horrible filth; or the brackish water of 
Bir Eyub. 

(2) Among those who have time and patience it has been 
possible for any one to fetch water for nothing at all, either at 
the taps at the Birket es Sultan, or at the public fountain near 
the Haram. 

(3) As good water has been more obtainable, the commoner 
water from doubtful cisterns has been freely used for watering 
the streets. Hence the greater part of the Jaffa road that has 
been incorporated into the town has been liberally watered night 
and morning, far more freely than in past years. 

(4) For the more well-to-do it has been possible, without any 
charge except the cost of carriage, to have house cisterns re-filled 


THE WATER SUPPLY OF JERUSALEM. 16! 


by means of water-carts, which carry the water from the 
supply at the Birket es Sultan to their houses. 

(5) My daily life takes me among the sick belonging to the 
very poor inside the walls of Jerusalem, and my experience has 
been that while malaria and ophthalmia have been prevalent 
this summer, the diseases we ascribe to bad water, dysentery 
and typhoid, specially the former, have been less than usual ; 
and as a medical man I have no hesitation in saying that the 
new supply has been greatly for the health of the community. 
To bring water from *“Ain Karem and other springs round 
Jerusalem at sixpence a small jar (such as is carried on a woman’s 
nead), or to send one’s servant several miles for it, is a luxury only 
possible to those fairly well off. But all can now buy for about 
one penny a large tin of pure water from the springs of 
Solomon’s Pools, and that has been made possible, at any rate 
for the present, by our iron-pipe aqueduct. 

With Sir Charles Wilson’s remarks of what ought to be done 
in the future, both with regard to construction of reservoirs on 
high ground, and even more urgently with regard to our most 


fo) 5 
disgraceful drainage, I am most. warmly in sympathy. Would 


that he were here with powers to carry out his reforms! 


REPLY BY GENERAL Sir C. W. WIitson, K.C.M.G. 


I have read Mr. Masterman’s remarks on my paper, and have 
found nothing in them that would lead me to modify the opinion 
which I expressed, that the work recently executed in connection 
with the water supply is an engineering fiasco, and that the sum 
expended upon it has been practically thrown away. I certainly 
never intended to dispute the self-evident fact that a small supply 
of water is better than none at all. I can readily understand that 
residents in Jerusalem are thankful for small mercies, but this does 
not prove that a bad system is a good one. 

The question from an engineering and financial point of view is a 
simple one. Water was conveyed from ‘“Solomon’s Pools” 
Jerusalem by an ancient aqueduct which, in regard to design and 
construction, shows a high degree of engineering skill. This aque- 
duct, when in working order, brought a good stream of water to the 
Haram esh-Sherif. It has been repaired several times, and could 
have been restored again at small cost; or it might have been 
replaced by earthenware or iron pipes. My experience in Turkey 


162 ERNEST W. GURNEY MASTERMAN, ON 


would lead me to characterize the suggestion that a Turkish 
Governor could not protect such an aqueduct from injury when it 
was either his interest or desire to do so, as simple nonsense. 
What I said with regard to damage to the old aqueduct on previous 
occasions has been misunderstood. 

Instead of utilizing the old conduit, the engineer entrusted with 
the improvement of the water supply, laid down iron pipes up hill 
and down dale at great cost, and delivered water at the same place 
with a considerable loss of volume and pressure. Surely in no other 
part of the world could such a fantastic scheme have been sanctioned, 
or have met, when carried out, with the approval not only of the 
municipal authorities, but of a gentleman who is unconnected with 
the local government. It is no excuse to say that the squandered 
money was taken from a charitable bequest and not from the 
pockets of the residents; and the fact that the Turkish Governor 
and the British Consul have been able to fill their cisterns, by having 
water carried up to them on donkeys, from the Birket es-Sultan, is 
no proof that the new system is a good one. 

It is said that with the new works the water cannot be con- 
taminated en route; but the aqueduct between “Solomon’s Pools” 
and Bethlehem is open, and through the whole of that important 
section the water is exposed to contamination before it enters the 
iron pipes. The expression ‘feeble streams” in my paper is, as 
most readers would see, used in contrast to the strong stream that 
would have been obtained by the repair of the old aqueduct. I am 
glad to hear that one of the old fountains has been restored, but it 
would appear that many have still to purchase water from the 
Haram esh-Sherif. Mr. Masterman, apparently, sees no objection to 
the delivery of warm water; but, in the name of common sense, 
why should Jerusalem be supplied with warm water when it could 
much more easily, and at far less cost, have been supplied with cold ? 
What would be said in this country of an engineer who, at an 
exorbitant cost, supplied water to a town by means of iron pipes 
laid on the surface of the ground with the least possible regard to 
its inequalities? Why Mr. Masterman should attempt to defend an 
engineering blunder, which will long delay the construction of 
properly designed works, is a mystery. It almost makes one 
despair of any effort to improve the condition of Jerusalem. 


Cree ANG 


YHE WATER SUPPLY OF JERUSALEM. 163 


DISCUSSION. 


The CHAIRMAN.—I do not know if anyone is here who can bring 
personal knowledge to bear. An engineering controversy is. rather 
difficult for one who is not an expert to decide. 

The chief thing which impresses one is the marvellous engineering 
skill of the old Jewish engineers, who could plan an aqueduct which 
fulfils so well its purpose, and it strikes me that we are not so 
superior, as we are apt to think, to those who have gone before us 
in these matters. The question now at issue is whether the 
arrangement was the best that could be done at the price, or 
whether it would not have been better to make another one. That 
is a very nice point for engineers. 

Mr. MARTIN RousE.—I thought certainly they would have made 
another one, for several offers were made to them, first by the 
Baroness Burdett Coutts, and then Sir Henry Lechmere, and they 
were asked to carry it out; but the Turkish Government did not 
accept it, as appeared on several occasions, because the governors 
themselves were not to be the executors of the scheme. 

We all know something of the principle on which the Turkish 
Pashas go to work, to secure as much as they can for themselves. 

We read that they have an average rainfall of about 25 inches, 
whereas in London it is 27 inches, with a much less degree of sun- 
shine, and therefore they must be surely in need of water in the hot 
season. 

Mrs. FinnN.—It so happens that it fell to my lot to repair this 
very aqueduct of which Sir Charles Wilson speaks. When I was 
living in Jerusalem I had the pleasure of helping in some operations 
in connection with Solomon’s Gardens, where the tenure of the land 
was practically on condition that we kept that aqueduct in repair ; 
and therefore from year to year I had to see that that small 
aqueduct from Solomon’s Palace to the Temple in Jerusalem was 
kept in repair. The portion the Secretary alluded to between 
Bethlehem and Solomon’s Pools is generally in excellent repair. It 
is just after it leaves Bethlehem that it is likely to be broken; but 
when we were all living there the Governor did twice think it worth 
while to repair it. Once in 1858 the then Governor put it into 


164. ERNEST W. GURNEY MASTERMAN, ON 


complete repair, and we had the pleasure of taking Sir Moses 
Montefiore and Lady Montefiore to see the Temple area, and the 
Governor handed us, with pleasure, a cup of water from that 
aqueduct ;—but it was broken afterwards, and left broken. But I 
think, with Sir Charles Wilson, that it could easily be kept in 
repair. 

The SECRETARY.—Mr. Vice-President, ladies and gentlemen, I 
think, on the whole, we may satisfy ourselves that things are better 
now in the way of water supply in Jerusalem than they were when 
Mrs. Finn lived there, and when I passed through it in 1884. We 
had then to depend on one single supply for drinking water. That 
was a spring down at the foot of the wall in the valley of the Kedron, 
but now I think it is a great encouragement to those who contem- 
plate, as I hope many people do, a visit to the shrine of Jerusalem 
(Christians as well as Jews), that they will now have an opportunity 
of drinking pure water. You may not be able to get such a supply 
as you have in London for your “ ‘Turkish bath,” sponge, or English 
bath, but at any rate you get a supply of pure water, and you would 
be less liable to maladies from the water supply than you would 
have been a few years ago. 

No doubt Sir Charles Wilson is perfectly right—that this recon- 
struction of the old aqueduct by some engineer, whose name I do 
not know, but who was employed by the Turkish Governor, did not 
carry out his work as it would have been done by an English 
engineer, or the English Government. But if it gives half the supply 
of pure water that was formerly delivered to the inhabitants, they 
may consider themselves fairly well off. I should only regret if, 
as Sir Charles Wilson seems to think, this infinitesimal improvement 
should have the result of delaying to a distant date a more complete 
reconstruction of the wonderful aqueduct and supply that was made 
in the time of Solomon from Solomon’s Pools. 

I do not think anyone has satisfactorily answered the question— 
Where does this water come from that supplies Solomon’s Pools ? 
It is really a most remarkable spot. There are two or three Pools, 
I think, Mrs. Finn 2 

Mrs. Finn.—Three pools, and they all have a different supply. 
They are not all supplied from one source. 

The SEcRETARY.—I thought they were all supplied from the 
head. 


THE WATER SUPPLY OF JERUSALEM. 165 


Mrs. Fryn.—Not at all. The one that supplies the aqueduct 
does not supply the Pools at all. 

The SECRETARY.—Then I am quite mistaken ; but I suppose that 
those supplying the Pools issue from a fissure in the solid limestone 
rock. Of course the whole of that country is made up of beds of 
cretaceous limestone. You go down a few steps and come to an 
underground channel through which flows a stream of beautiful cold 
water into the uppermost of the three Pools. I thought that was 
the Pool that gave the supply to the aqueduct at Bethlehem. 

Mrs. Finn.—The old fountain is at the corner of a steep place, 
and the water from that runs into Bethlehem and on to Jerusalem. 

The SECRETARY.—I am glad of it, for I do not think the water 
coming out of the Pools would be pure ; but it may have been very 
useful for irrigating the Gardens of Bethlehem. 

Mrs. Finn.—They were evidently intended for an aqueduct for 
irrigation. 

Mr. Martin Rouse.—Are they used at the present day ? 

Mrs. Finn.—No. I was unfortunate enough to suffer very badly 
at one time. We were cultivating gardens there, and a Greek was 
ordered to destroy our work. Perhaps I may be allowed to say 
what I ought to have said before. It is not quite fair to lay all the 
blame on the Turkish Government. The Baroness Burdett Coutts 
did get leave to repair the old great aqueduct—not this one, but a 
much larger and finer one—and I am sorry to say that an English- 
man told me in London how he was the means of stopping carrying 
out the scheme. 

Mrs. Finn then narrated the occurrence that terminated so 
unfortunately for the inhabitants of Jerusalem. 

The CHAIRMAN.—Really this paper has afforded us exceedingly 
interesting information. Anything that adds to our knowledge of 
Jerusalem, as it was and as it is, is always interesting. It is 
certainly one of the most pitiable spectacles there can be to see a 
country as badly governed as can be, with these miserable jealousies 
and these miserable under-currents of motive that have nothing to 
do with the benefit of humanity, and which are certainly spoiling 
one of the most beautiful parts of the earth. I often think when 
one reads that sort of question about the water supply of Jerusalem, 
how little we realize the advantages we have in England. We take 
it as a matter of course that we are to be supplied with water, 


166 THE WATER SUPPLY OF JERUSALEM. 


even though we waste most of what we get. In London the waste 
is inconceivable. What becomes of the 36 gallons a day per head 
(babies included) I cannot conceive, but so it is. Contrast with 
that a state of affairs where water has to be fetched miles, and we 
ought then to be able to realize the advantages under which we 
live. | 

We owe our thanks to the Secretary for reading the papers, and 
we owe both the writers thanks for giving us two opposite views. 
I confess lamin sympathy with the original paper as to what would 
have been the right thing to do, if it were possible to have the old 
aqueduct repaired ; but it is always interesting to hear the other 
side, even if one does not wholly agree with it. 

The Meeting then terminated. 


ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.* 


Rev. CANON GIRDLESTONE, M.A., IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and contirmed. 
The following elections were announced :— 


Memser :—The Right Hon. the Earl of Ducie, D.L., F.R.S., 16, Portman 
Square, London. 


AssocIATE :—Charles Little, Esq., Ontario. 


The Secretary (Prof. Epwarp Hutt, M.A., LL.D., etc.)—Letters 
of regret at not being able to attend have been received, including one 
from Bishop Welldon, who, I am sorry to say, bas been very unwell. 


The following paper was then read by the Author, entitled :— 


MODERN THEORIES CONCERNING THE COMPO- 
SLTION- OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. -By , Rev. -JoHn 
TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S. 


O one conversant with the religious thought of our own and 
ah other Protestant countries during the last thirty or forty 
years, can have failed to observe that an attitude has been assumed 
by many minds in Christian circles towards Holy Scripture of an 
entirely different character from that which formerly prevailed. 
This is the more remarkable, since it 1s not due to any fresh 
light from modern scientific or other discoveries thrown upon 
the sacred page, but to the adoption of new theories formed to 
account for its composition, This change, however, although it 
has come about quietly and unobtrusively, is yet of the 
magnitude and importance of a revolution. To many it has 
brought with it as a logical consequence the rejection of some 
of the cardinal doctrines of Christianity, or a new interpreta- 
tion of them scarcely distinguishable therefrom. A highly 
commended exponent of this “new theology” has declared that 
“it holds to the Trinity, though indifferent to the use of the 
word, but not to a formal and psychologically impossible 
Trinity (whatever that may mean); to the Incarnation not as 
a mere physical event, for that has entered into many religions, 


* Monday, April 6th, 1903. 
M 


168 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S.. ON MODERN THEORIES 


but as the entrance into the world, through a person, of a 
moulding and redeeming force inhumanity; . . . . tothe 
Atonement as a divine act and process of ethical and practical 
import, not asa mystery of the distant heavens, and isolated from 
the struggle of the world, but as a comprehensible force in the 
actual redemption of the world from its evil; tothe Resurrection 
as covering the whole essential nature of man; to judgment as 
involved in the development of a moral nature,” and so on. Apart 
from the utterances of professional theologians, we find evidences 
of this change and its consequences in nearly all the religious 
literature of our times—hymns, prayers, sermons, magazine 
articles, popular religious and semi-religious novels and treatises 
of all kinds up to bulky Bible dictionaries. Richard Le 
Gallienne ten years ago, confounding things which differ, said, 
“The Trinity, the Atonement, Infant Baptism, Baptismal 
Regeneration, the Immortality of the Soul, the Life Hereafter— 
these and many other dogmas are now seen to be matters of 
symbolism or personal intuition ” (Religion of a Literary Man). 
That such a change should, whether rightly or wrongly, produce 
an impression among the non-religious classes, that an excess of 
reverence has been paid to Holy Scripture and an exaggerated 
authority over faith and conduct attributed to it, is no more than 
might be expected. But.to what extent the general decline of 
the religious sentiment among the masses of our fellow-country- 
men, indicated, apparently, by the decline of public worship and 
other symptoms, may be due to this change, is too wide and 
too delicate a question to be entered into here and now. That 
the two should synchronize gives reasonable ground for suspicion. 
Among the religious classes also it is ominous that the leaders 
in the various denominations in England, America and Germany 
should complain loudly of the failure of the churches to 
accomplish their true mission, and should deplore with one 
consent the increasing dearth of candidates for the Christian 
ministry. The German correspondent of an English paper 
which has done more than any other in the country to promote 
this change, lately published a table showing that in the various 
universities of Germany, the number of theological students 
during the past twelve years had declined from 4,536 to 2,281. 
When we view side by side with this change the enormous 
progress in the knowledge of truth, made during the same 
period in almost every other branch of research, we shall find 
ourselves confronted by a problem well fitted to provoke 
inquiry. And surely no Society could be more fitted to 
conduct it than one such as this, devoted to the investigation 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSI'TION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 169 


of those great questions of Philosophy and Science which bear 
upon the great truths of Revealed Religion. By its leading 
and most capable advocates, this change, however, is alleged to 
be an integral part of the general intellectual progress of our 
race; so that without it the line of advance would be broken, 
and the Christian Church left in the rear, an enfeebled and 
neglected factor among the spiritual and intellectual forces of 
the age. But it must not be forgotten that whilst its advocates 
have appeared to hold the field and have certainly been 
eminently successful in obtaining the public ear, a more 
conservative party has continued to exist. For many years 
this party appeared to be indifferent to what was transpiring. 
It was thought possible that new light was breaking on the 
sacred page, and there was an unwillingness to obstruct it. 
But the party of change has, within recent years, reached 
certain conclusions which it regards as “assured.” The epoch 
has been marked by the publication of such works as the 
Encyclopedia Biblica and parts of the Polychrome Bible. 
Although these publications indicate the high-water mark of 
the change, and do not meet with universal acceptance among 
its advocates, yet they serve admirably to show the direction of 
the movement and its probable ultimate objective. They may 
be taken therefore as indicating also, that the time has now 
come, when the two parties may wisely and fairly submit their 
differences to the tribunal of a more public religious opinion, 
with a view to their adjustment according to the indisputable 
sovereignty of truth. 

In all ages, many thoughtful minds have felt serious 
difficulties of various kinds to an admission of the claim made 
for the volume of Holy Scripture as ‘‘ the Book of God, and the 
god of books,” or in other words, as possessing by its origin and 
contents a supernatural title to our regard. Hence everyone 
duly appreciating its worth, must most earnestly desire the 
removal of all such difficulties as are not from the nature of the 
case inevitable. It may help us, therefore, to a just perception 
of the balance of truth between the two sides, to sum up briefly 
a few of the difficulties which the party of change claims to 
have more or less successfully dealt with, e.g. :— 


i. Alleged mistakes, scientific, historical, theological and 
literary, made by the sacred writers. 

i. Alleged irreconcileable contradictions within the 
different writings themselves, and between one writer 
and another. 

M 2 


170 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


iil. Apparent interpolations, glosses, ete., showing editorial 
manipulations of the writings, and destroying the 
claims to antiquity and unity of authorship made by 
the writings themselves, or made for them by the 
older school of expositors. 

iv. High ideals of personal and national life alleged to be 
impossible to the Hebrew nation in the early stages 
of its history, calling for a rearrangement and 
redating of the records in order to a reconstruction of 
that history. 

Advanced conceptions of the nature and attributes of 
the Deity which require to be accounted for, as the 
result of a long process of development and training, 
and which it is alleged cannot be reasonably assigned 
to the dawn of Hebrew national life. 

The claim to an extraordinary supernatural insight into 
the past, present and future, and into both the invisible 
and material worlds made by, or on behalf of, the sacred 
writers of both Testaments, which do not fall within the 
limits of the ordinary operations of human reason, and 
which by the adoption of new modes of critical ex- 
position, need no longer be retained as an integral part 
of the Christian faith. 

vil. The alleged incredibility of the present exact adjust- 
ment of character to life, miracle to doctrine, ete., 
presented by the New Testament records of the 
person and work of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the 
alleged unreasonableness of attributing the description 
of such a transcendent personality to writers in 
immediate and sympathetic contact with the effete and 
corrupt Judaism of His day. 

vii. The miraculous and supernatural events and predictions 
recorded in both Testaments, and the miraculous and 
supernatural assistance claimed by and for the writers, 
in the production of the records. 

ix. The exercise of supernatural spiritual power attributed 
to the Apostles and other early Christians in the 
practice and promulgation of the Christian life and 
faith, and the claim made by many professed Christians 
of the present day to an experience similar in many 
respects in kind, if not in degree. 


= 


V1. 


= 


These are some of the difficulties, or groups of difficulties, 
with which modern Biblical exegesis is required to deal, and 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. I/1 


with which each party claims to be capable of dealing more 
adequately and more reasonably than the other. They are all 
recognized by the new school therefore, and the treatment of 
them more or less covered by the theories it has adopted 
to account for the composition of Holy Scripture. ‘That 
investigations into these difficulties have been followed by 
many beneficial results need not be denied. Crude ideas 
have been matured ; errors concerning matters of fact corrected ; 
a more diligent search of the sacred records stimulated; the 
adoption of a more scientifically exact terminology promoted ; 
while ignorant and erroneous exegetical interpretations have 
been abandoned. But admitting all this, there is still a wide 
and impassable gulf between the principles held and applied 
by the two parties even in their nearest approach to each 
other. A moment’s review of these principles will make this 
plain. 


THE MORE CONSERVATIVE VIEW. 


According to what, in the absence of a better term, we may 
call the more conservative view, the volume of Holy Scripture 
is a collection of writings produced at intervals during a period 
of some 1400 or 1500 years under the influence of a super- 
natural, miraculous and divine inspiration. This inspiration is 
believed to have operated through the personality and the 
faculties of the several writers, but no one knows exactly how ; 
and since the phenomenon appears to have ceased, its scientific 
investigation has become impossible. But its effects remain, and 
are chiefly these—the revelation of truths not otherwise 
attainable by the human understanding, suchas the true nature 
of the Deity, His methods of dealing with sin, the mysteries of 
a future life, etc.; and an infallible guidance given to the writers 
in the selection of such historic or other facts as are best suited 
to serve the Divine purposes of the volume. It is contended 
moreover that as the very first condition of any communication 
coming from God must be its truthfulness, and that as the truth 
of this volume has in so many instances been established where 
verification has been possible, there is prima facie reason for 
maintaining that this condition has been fulfilled. Of course it 
is recognized that these writings were originally produced by 
the hand; but that as the originals are lost, like the food and 
medicine provided by a Beneficent Providence for the welfare 
of our bodies, the continuance of the supply is dependent on 
human ingenuity and diligence, though often alas! through the 


172 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


ignorance, carelessness or even wickedness of man at the cost of 
purity and wholesomeness. It is admitted therefore that no 
MS. of either Testament is faultless, and that as a consequence 
no version can safely be alleged to be absolutely accurate in 
every word. But there is reason to believe that the pains- 
taking labour of many scholars in this field of “ textual” or 
3 lower criticism ” has given us texts so approximately accurate 
as to be absolutely trustworthy concerning every important and 
fundamental doctrine of the Christian faith. With regard to 
alleged errors and contradictions it is maintained that a 
sufficient number has been already corrected to justify the 
conclusion that others would be removed also, could an 
absolutely accurate text be obtained; while so many alleged 
scientific and historical mistakes have been found to lie, not in 
the Sacred Volume, but in the imperfection of human knowledge, 
that there is reason to believe that those which remain are of a 
similar nature. 

According to this view also, whilst recognizing the obligation 
of an absolute loyalty to all objective truth, it is maintained 
that the truth of the fundamental doctrines of the Christian 
Faith generally, and of the Christian Scriptures in particular, 
has been established by nearly 2,000 years experience; for 
wherever they have gone they have elevated and _ blessed 
mankind to an extraordinary degree. But nothing has occurred 
nor been discovered in modern times to remove them from their 
position of pre-eminence, while all rival or contrary systems 
have hitherto proved so dynamically inferior, that unless 
falsehood be mightier than truth, the case of the latter against 
the former must be regarded as non-proven. 

Similarly with regard to the objections raised against the 
high ideals of life; the advanced conceptions of the nature and 
attributes of the Deity; the knowledge disclosed by the sacred 
writers and speakers of things past, present and future, and of 
both worlds ; the accuracy of the records concerning the person 
and work of Christ; and the presence of a Personal Spiritual 
Force among those who share the Christian faith and life; it is 
claimed that since all these difficulties relate to matters 
supernatural, they must be solved by reference to the super- 
natural, while the effort to eliminate the supernatural from the 
Christian Scriptures and from the faith and life to which they 
relate, if successful, would deprive them of all that gives to 
them their distinctive character and value. 

Hence with regard to the date and authorship of the books of 
Scripture, where ‘these are deduced from a plain and reasonable 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 143 


interpretation of their contents, it is held that the abandonment 
of these deductions would involve in some cases the abandon- 
ment of all belief in the divine inspiration of the records, er the 
acceptance of a new and inadequate theory thereof; in other 
cases an imputation of untruthfulness to the writers; and in 
yet others an accusation of ignorance or intentional imaccuracy 
against Christ or His Apostles. As to the method of compila- 
tion, the practical unity of authorship is maintained where 
authorship is claimed, beginning with Moses as the author of 
the Pentateuch, and ending with St. John as the author of the 
Apocalypse. At the same time the existence of editorial 
additions and other interpolations of more or less value is not 
denied, nor that the authors in some cases made use of previous 
writings. 

This statement, while intended to commit no one, wiil, it is 
believed, be found a generally accurate representation of the 
position. Moreover, it is believed to afford a stronger and 
more adequate foundation for dealing with those intellectual 
and moral difficulties which are alleged to keep many in the 
present day from an acceptance of the Christian faith than any 
other that has been proposed. 


MODERN CRITICAL VIEWS. 


Many professed Christian scholars, however, in the present 
day have objected to these views, and have deemed thie basis 
they offer for dealing with modern doubt both unsatisfactory 
and ineffective. As the remainder of this paper must be 
devoted to an inquiry into the new method to which the old is 
asked to give way, it will be well to have, in a few brief 
sentences, the proposals which the new method makes to the 
old to attain the end in view. Here also, as in the foregoing _ 
statement, the non-commitment of those whose views it is 
believed to represent must be premised, and no intention must 
be supposed of attributing unanimity to them. Among the 
proposals made then are the following :— | 

i. To give up the traditional authorship of the books of 
Holy Scripture. 

ii. To give up also the unity of their authorship and accept 
a theory of compilation instead. 

iii. To give up their traditional dates and accept others 
more or less modern. 

iv. To give up the belief in their special Divine inspiration 
and treat them as originating in the same way as 


174 REY. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


other human literature, or as the sacred books of other 
national religions. 

v. To give up the history taught by these books as they 
now stand, and rearrange the events in a new order 
more in accordance with a progressive or evolutionary 
theory. | 

vi. To give up the behef in the strict truthfulness of the 
records and admit the influence of bias partisanship 
and pious inventiveness on the part of the writers. 

vu. To give up belief in the miraculous so far as possible 
and treat all alleged miracles as legends. 

vil. To give up belief in such explanations of Scripture 
doctrines and of the experiences of the devout, as are 
not verifiable by the more ordinary intelligence and 
experience of mankind. 

ix. And some go so far as to ask that all belief in the 
operation of the supernatural, whether in the produc- 
tion of Holy Scripture or in the higher religious 
experience of the devout, should also be given up. 


In urging these or portions of these requests, it is alleged that 
the older mode of dealing with the difficulties of the human 
mind placed needless obstacles in its way and created infidelity, 
while the new method will disarm the infidel and destroy his 
infidelity. To which it is objected that the new method is not 
a conquest but a capitulation. 

It will thus be seen that widely divergent views of Scripture 
distinguish the two methods, and that the crux of the whole 
question between them hes mainly in the mode of its composi- 
tion. Ii composed as the new method affirms, then, speaking 
generally, the Christian religion for nearly two thousand years 
. was promulgated by false statements of its principles and 
enfeebled by false interpretations of its doctrines—erroneous 
modes of speech which eluded the intelligence and moral 
integrity not only of the great mass of its adherents but of most, 
if not all, of its most brilliant exponents, and yet in spite of 
which it achieved its most remarkable triumphs over the human 
understanding. It cannot but be therefore of the greatest 
interest to inquire for the origin of the discovery of these remark- 
able errors, the credit for which the new method takes to itself. 

The time at our disposal is wholly insufficient to permit an 
adequate inquiry at first hand, we must be content therefore to 
accept the explanation given by one of its foremost and most 
capable exponents. Canon Cheyne, in his Mounders of Old 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 175 


Testament Criticism (p. 2), attributes it to English deism of the 
eighteenth century, which found so many apt disciples in 
Germany. “It was not merely,” he says, ‘a new constructive 
stage of German theoretic theology and a keener psychological 
investigation for which deism helped to prepare the way, but 
also a great movement which has in our own day become in a 
strict literal sense, international, concerned with the lterary 
and historical criticism of the Scriptures.” This movement 
had as one of its earliest promoters in Germany Professor J. G. 
Hichhorn, of Jena and Gottingen (A.D. 1752-1827), who, as 
Canon Cheyne says, wrote in his Jntroduction to the Old 
‘Testament, “ My greatest trouble I had to bestow on a hitherto 
unworked field—on the investigation of the inner nature of the 
several writings of the Old Testament with the help of the 
Higher Criticism”; upon which the Canon remarks, “ By 
‘higher criticism’ he means the analysis of a book into its 
earher and its later elements.” It is by this name, now more 
widely applied, that the modern development of this movement 
is best known, and if its ancestry be correctly represented, it 
may without disrespect be admitted that it will hardly be com- 
mended to devout English Christians by its connection with 
the notorious deists Shaftesbury and Bolingbroke, Collins and 
Toland, Woolston and Tom Paine. 

Let us, however, overlook as far as possible any discredit 
which it may derive from its unfortunate ancestry—nothing 
and nobody can be held responsible for his ancestry—and pass 
on to consider some of its leading principles. 


I. THE PRINCIPLE OF COMPOSITE AUTHORSHIP. 


Eichhorn’s work may be said to have started with an 
endeavour to account for the Book of Genesis upon this 
principle. He supposed it to consist mainly of two authors, 
one of whom has been termed the “Jehovistic ” and the other 
the “ Elohistic.” But the theory did not criginate with Eich- 
horn. Some fifty years earlier Jean Astruc, a French physician, 
had noticed that although the Book of Genesis relates through- 
out to events which transpired before the Divine name in its 
full form of “Jehovah” had been assigned to the use of the 
Israelites through Moses (Exodus vi, 3), yet both that name 
and “Elohim” appear in the said Book. Jean Astruc there- 
fore published a volume in 1753 A.D. entitled Conjectures sur 
les mémotres Originaux dont il paroit que Moyse sest servit pour 
composer le lire de la Genése. But the conjectures of Jean 
Astruc have become the “assured conclusions” of the higher 


176 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


criticism of to-day. The theory thus started however was not 
confined to the Book of Genesis; it was applied by Eichhorn to 
the rest of the Pentateuch, and has since been extended to the 
whole volume of Scripture from Genesis to Revelation. Hence, 
eg., the Book of Genesis is said not to have assumed its 
present form until the time of the Exile, say 500 B.c., and to 
have been put together by a series of “Rédacteuis” or 
“Editors.” The first of these is supposed to have become 
possessed in some unknown way of the writings of the 
unknown “Jehovistic” and “Elohistic” authors, “J” and “K,” and 
to have combined them into another document “J E.” Then it 
is supposed that a priest wrote an independent narrative “ P” 
upon which a second editor fitted “JE” and added his own 
editorial “adjustments” and so on. We thus have no less than 
five writers to deal with in the Book of Genesis alone. The 
Book of Exodus is assumed to have originated in much the 
same way, and the priest is supposed to show his hand by a 
jealousy for his class in those parts which make Aaron 
co-operate with Moses before Pharaoh while “J” represents 
Moses as acting alone. But Chapters xx, 23—xxill, 33, are 
without any apparent reason separated from the rest of the 
Book and called “The Book of the Covenant.” The Book of 
Leviticus is assumed to be throughout part of a so-called 
“Priest's Code.” But Chapters xvli-xxvl are for some 
unknown reasons separated from the rest of the Book and 
called the “Law of Holiness” («“H”). Where “P” obtained 
it the critics do not know. The Book of Numbers is treated in 
the same way. The Book of Deuteronomy has a still less 
credible origin assigned to it. It is represented as written in 
the days of Josiah, secreted in the temple, and then said to have 
been “found” by Hilkiah the priest (see 2 Kings xxii and 
2 Chronicles xxxiv), notwithstanding the statement that it was 
“the Law of the Lord by Moses” (see Canon Driver’s Jntro- 
duction). ‘For this new version of the story or for hiniting the 
“find” to the Book of Deuteronomy there is not the least 
historic foundation, nor for the further arbitrary restriction of 
the term “ Book of the Law” to Chapters xii—xxvi. 

It would be impossible in this brief paper to trace out the 
results of the application of this theory to the rest of Scripture. 
It must suftice to say that upon the same principle as Moses is 
got rid of from the authorship of the Pentateuch and a series of 
capital letters obtained in his place—“ J,” “EH,” “JE,” “P,” “H,” 
«DD. « D”.¢ Dt? “D3” ete, ‘so Joshua, Samuel, David; Solomonyes 
Isaiah, Daniel, the Evangelists and Apostles,and even our Lord 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 177 


Himself fade almost entirely out of the remainder, leaving us in 
their places a series of unknown editors piecing together with in- 
numerable blunders and contradictions fragments of hitherto un- 
heard-of writings of an indefinite multitude of nameless authors. 

Moreover the carelessness with which these compilations 
were made leaves no room for inspiration, and would bring 
a well-merited castigation upon the proverbial school-boy. 
For instance, Prof. Geo. Adam Smith, in his Modern Criticism 
and the Teaching of the Old Testament, in dealing with 
what are called “doublets,” and which are supposed to 
afford evidence of the compilation theory, cites the Book 
of Joshua. He says, “In the story of the crossing of the 
Jordan as told in Josh. ili and iv, there are two accounts of 
the monument set up to commemorate the passage. One of 
them builds it at Gilgal on the west bank with stones taken 
from the river-bed by the people; the other builds it in the 
bed of the river with twelve stones set there by Joshua.” It is 
ditticult to believe that Prof. G. A. Smith could have read the 
story through when he wrote these words. Let us take two 
verses—“ And the children of Israel did so as Joshua com- 
manded them, and took up twelve stones out of the midst of 
Jordan, as the Lord spake unto Joshua, according to the number 
of the tribes of the children of Israel, and carried them over 
with them unto the place where they lodged, and laid them 
down there. And Joshua set up twelve stones in the midst of 
Jordan in the place where the feet of the priests which bare 
the ark of the covenant stood; and they are there unto this 
day ” (iv,8 and 9). Comment is needless. Again, in the account 
of the capture of Jericho he says that two stories have been 
interwoven: “One which relates how Israel marched round 
Jericho on seven successive days,” and another which relates: 
“ That a portion of the armed men marched round the city seven 
times on the same day.” Now it would be surprising enough 
to find that any ordinary reader could have failed to see that 
the narrative is a perfectly consistent account of a military 
demonstration which took place once on six successive days and 
was repeated seven times on the seventh day. But it is 
still more surprising to find a Biblical critic and a professional 
theologian, ready to convict a man with intelligence enough to 
compile the Book of Joshua, of being such a stupid blunderer as 
to piece together in this careless way fragments mutually con- 
tradictory of each other. But it is most surprising of all that 
it should have taken intelligent readers more than two thousand 
years to find out the blunders. 


178 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


It has been commonly supposed that these “results” are due 
to a more exact knowledge of the Hebrew than the ordinary 
English reader possesses. But such is not the case. Indeed, a 
critical examination of the Hebrew gives “results” quite 
opposed to these. For instance, the Hebrew of Ezra, Nehemiah 
and Daniel—the time of the Exile—abounds with Aramaisms, 
but the Hebrew of the Pentateuch is the purest in almost the 
whole volume of the Old Testament, and does not contain a 
single chapter which could on these grounds be assigned to the 
same period as the Exilic Books. With regard to the New 
Testament, the personality of the Evangelists, and with it their 
personal testimony, almost disappear. The original source is 
supposed to be, in some cases, certain undiscovered and possibly 
Imaginary logia, or the first and third Evangelists are supposed 
to have copied from the second. Thus in the Gospel of St. 
Matthew 816 verses out of the total of 1,068 are supposed to 
have been taken from St. Mark, or from the same original source, 
while of St. Luke’s 1,149 verses, 798 are said to. have been 
derived from the same source, and this in spite of the fact that 
St. Luke himself absolutely disavows—if words have any 
meaning at all—having made use of any such sources (1, 1-3). 

All this is very remarkable, and the astuteness claimed by 
means of which these supposed different documents are dis- 
criminated is an unprecedented phenomenon of the human 
intellect. Hence when the scissors are passed between the } 


and the 5 of the word %1") (Genesis xxii, 20), and Professor 


W. H. Bennett professes to have detected the junctions of 
nineteen different scraps or snippets on one page of the Poly- 
chrome Bible, we begin to wonder whether the length of rope 
claimed has not resulted in the proverbial suicide of the 
principle. It is necessary to remember also that although these 
various documents are spoken of with as much confidence as 
though they lay side by side snug and safe in the british 
Museum, not one of them has ever been found, nor the least 
fragment of one, nor the remotest allusion to one among all 
the known writings of antiquity, nor was their existence ever 
conceived of by the human mind until their invention became 
necessary by this theory of composite authorship. 

As to the manner in which these imaginary documents are 
used by modern criticism, let us hear a whilom expert. 
“Such theories,” says Professor Ramsay in Sé. Paul the 
Traveller, “usually assign varying degrees of accuracy to the 
different older documents ; all statements which suit the critie’s 
own views on early Church history are taken from an original 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 179 


document of the highest character; those which he likes less 
belong to a less trustworthy document, and those which are 
absolutely inconsistent with his views are the work of the 
ignorant botcher who constructed the book. But this way of 
judging, common as it is, assumes the truth of the critic’s own 
theory, and decides on the authenticity of ancient documents 
according to their agreement with that theory.” 

Enough has been said to explain this theory of composite 
authorship, and, it is hoped, without the least desire to display 
any other partiality than a partiality for truth. There is, 
however, one fact which ought not to be passed over. It has 
been possible in one solitary instance to test it. We have in 
addition to the Biblical story of the Deluge, the Assyro- 
Babylonian account, current with the parent stock of the 
Israelites for nearly two thousand years ‘at least, and perhaps 
for much more, before the time, when according to these 
theories, the story assumed its present form. The same 
so-called elements, marked “J” and “E,” are as distinctly 
discoverable in the one as in the other, and in almost the same 
order. Thus in both, the instruction to build the ark or ship 
(E) precedes the collection of the cargo (J); the entry into the 
ark or ship (E) and the story of the storm (E) are followed by 
the account of the destruction of hfe (J); the abating of the 
storm (J) by the resting of the ark or ship upon the mountain 
(EZ) and the sending out of the birds (J); the quitting of the 
ark or ship (E) by the presentation of the offerings (J) and the 
oath or covenant (E).* It is therefore not too much to say 
that a theory which is not inductive but purely @ priori, and 
which breaks down upon the first possible test, ought not to be 
accepted as a “scientific” explanation of so unique and 
mysterious a problem as that of the composition of Holy 
Scripture. 


II. Tue PRINCIPLE of Historic PROGRESS. 


Another principle relied upon is that of historic progress. 
The problem to be solved by this principle, is the plain fact 
that Holy Scripture does beyond denial appear to present us 
with a precise and hteral record of events which it treats as 
genuine history, during the period from the Creation to the 
close of the Apostolic Age. It uses in many places symbolic 


* For a more detailed table of the parallelism see the author's little 
book, A Plea for the Old Faith (Stockwell). The professed dissection of 
the Biblical Story is taken from Driver’s [ntroduction. 


180 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


and figurative language, but never appears to betray the least 
recognition of any detailed use of myth, legend or fable. The 
story of the world before man; the creation of man himself; 
his rebellion against his Maker; the corruption of the 
antediluvian world; the Deluge; the re-populating of the earth; 
the rise of the great nations of antiquity; and the history of 
the Israelitish naticns, whatever forms of speech are used, are 
all treated as matters of historic fact. 

But the human mind is supposed to stumble at some of 
these things, and so it has been offered relief on the principle of 
historic progress, 

First with regard to the pre-Israelite world. It is premised 
that since history and the exact description of scientific 
facts are comparatively modern developments of literary 
ingenuity, these records may all be treated as legendary. 
But fortunately it has been possible to test this negation at 
more than one point. The remarkable progress of modern 
science has enabled us to see that Genesis 1, is, allowing for 
certain verbal formule, an exact orderly and precise account of 
the creation of the world from its gaseous condition to the 
close of the Quaternary period. Or again, tested by modern 
geological research, the Deluge is found to have been a fact and 
not a fable. 

Then with regard to the later records mainly concerned with 
the history of the two Israelitish nations and the founding of 
the Christian faith, no unbiassed reader can deny that from 
Abraham down to the seer of Patmos the Scripture does profess 
to give us exact history. The story of the Patriarchs; the 
deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt; their settlement in the 
land of Canaan ; their national histories ; the ministries of their 
prophets; the personalities of their great men—Saul, David, 
Solomon and Hezekiah; Isaiah, Jeremiah, Hosea and even 
Jonah and Daniel, are treated as strictly historic. Even the 
New Testament writers and speakers never betray the least 
suspicion that their supposed ancestors were mythical “epony- 
mous heroes” or the records concerning them, legends or fables. 

Why these records should not continue to be read as historic 
in the absence of any inexorable evidence from newly discovered 
truth it is not easy to see. But for those unable to do so it has 
been premised on the principle of historic progress that the 
Hebrew nation could not possibly have started its national 
existence in the way described. It is premised that originally 
they must have been only a small obscure nomadic tribe highly 
susceptible to the superstitions supposed to be begotten of a 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY scRipTuRE. I81 


desert life, having only the crudest religious ideas, and these of 
a polytheistic order, and probably practising the horrid rite of 
human sacrifice. Thus Abraham, Isaac and Jacob if not 
Canaanitish heroes engrafted at a later period on the Hebrew 
stock, are not to be viewed in the light of the glorified descriptions 
of the Book of Genesis, for was not that book on the composite 
document theory compiled some 1,000 or 1,500 years after their 
shadowy personalities had slept with their fathers? Moreover, 
since upon this principle it is impossible that the Hebrew nation, 
however extraordinary, should have started upon its free national 
existence with sucha constitution as that of the so-called Mosaic 
Legislation—therefore the bondage in Egypt; the mission of 
Moses to Pharaoh; the passage of the Red Sea; the giving of 
the Law at Sinai; the journey through the wilderness ; and the 
conquest of Canaan, are not to be regarded as the accurate 
accounts of sober history. Much of the professed history of the 
kings must on the same principle be similarly treated, and we 
are even warned that David himself, the man after God’s own 
heart, the “ sweet singer of Israel,’ and the alleged ancestor of 
our Lord, being described as of “a ruddy countenance,” may 
turn out after all to be only “a solar myth.” As to the 
prophecies of Scripture they are for the most part pre-dated 
history, or where this theory will not work, as in the case of the 
prophecies of Isaiah, we must suppose two Isaiahs or whatever 
larger number may be necessary, while with regard to the exilic 
stories of Esther and Daniel, Esther was a sort of “ Fairy 
Queen,” and Daniel was not—there was no Daniel and no den 
of lions, and no Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego, and no fiery 
furnace, and no “ Form of the Fourth lke unto the Son of God,” 
causing the proud king in humble and penitential tones to 
exclaim, “ Ye servants of the Most High God, come forth and 
come hither.” If it be objected that in the New Testament the 
writers and speakers treat the records of all these events and 
persons as historic, we are told by one learned divine at least, 
and he the principal of a theological college in London, that 
even with regard to our Lord, “ historically we know more of 
the Old Testament than He did”! 

To establish these premisses then it was deemed necessary to 
reconstruct the history. But how to do this without rejecting 
or destroying the records was a difficulty. The new theories, 
however, have accomplished the task. Eduard Reuss (1804— 
1891 A.p.) declares that the solution came to him rather as an 
intuition than as a logical conclusion, and it was this— that 
the prophets are earlier than the Law and the Psalms later 


182 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


than both.” No doubt theories of the greatest value may flash 
upon a thoughtful mind with great suddenness. But the next 
thing the scientifically trained will do is to ascertain whether 
the facts are as the theory supposes. This, however, Reuss does 
not appear to have done, but instead thereof to have immediately 
turned the Old Testament records topsy-turvy. He assumed 
that the elaboration of a nation’s laws must, of necessity, be the 
result of long experience ; and that the higher the moral level of 
those laws the longer the period required for the nation to rise 
to it. But he did not take the pains to inquire whether, even 
if the rule be admitted, exceptional conditions may not have 
existed in Israel’s case undetected by his intuition. Had he 
done so he would no doubt have been led to very different 
conclusions. Now since this is the “ working hypothesis” of 
the principle of historic progress, it may be well to submit it to 
a brief examination. 

First of all. Is it true that an advanced code of laws 
necessarily presupposes a long period of previous national 
history working up to it? Had Reuss investigated this 
question he would have found reason to doubt the universality 
of the hypothesis. He would have found that it 1s never true of 
Colonial nations. Turning his eyes westward he would have 
seen two great nations, the Canadian and the American, with an 
advanced code of laws of a high moral level with yet a very 
brief national history. Or among the nations of antiquity he 
would have found Assyria, one of Israel’s contemporaries, upon a 
level with Babylonia the mother country of both. It is quite 
true that comparatively little was known of the history of 
Babylonia and Assyria when Reuss formed his hypothesis, but 
enough was known to have kept even him from the errors into 
which he fell, and more than enough is now known to check 
his followers from the adoption of his fallacious intuition and 
from persisting in his erroneous conclusions. 

Moreover, the Scripture history of Israel is perfectly con- 
sistent with itself, and does not need reconstructing. Abraham 
is not represented as a rude and savage sheik nurtured in the 
wild life of the desert, the progenitor of a tribe of wild nomads 
wandering into Egypt, captured, enslaved, breaking forth a 
horde of semi-savages, and adopting a constitution of a highly 
moral and religious tone. On the contrary it represents him as 
a devout citizen of a great and ancient city, of whom the 
Almighty said, “For I know him that he will command his 
children and his household after him,’ a man therefore who 
could not but have carried forth with him and transmitted to 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 183 


his posterity the very best elements of the civilization and 
culture in which he himself had been brought up. How 
true this is which the Scripture records quietly take for 
granted as a thing not needing to be said, the recently 
recovered laws of Khammurabi, the contemporary of Abraham, 
and many other modern discoveries amply testify. In Egypt 
also both the people and their leaders were brought into 
contact with one of the greatest and foremost nations of 
antiquity. A shipload of English people going to America or 
Australia do not need to revert to an imaginary prehistoric 
savagery before they establish a national constitution ; why 
then should it be thought necessary to doubt the veracity of a 
record which does not assert that an offshoot from Babylonia 
did so? And why should it be thought necessary to conciliate 
an irrational unbelief by breaking up the Scripture records into 
inexplicable fragments and rearranging them in an incredible 
order ? 

Next we may be permitted to inquire whether such 
indubitable facts as are known to us and a legitimate use 
of the Scripture records themselves will bear out this 
hypothesis. In spite of Professor Delitsch’s lecture on Label 
und Bibel, no Assyriologist in the world has yet been able to 
disprove that the historical records of Holy Scripture have 
received great and remarkable confirmation from the recent 
discoveries of archeology. If this be not so let us be told 
categorically the historic errors which archeology has dis- 
covered. Babel, Erech, Acecad and Calneh, the cities over 
which even Nimrod ruled; Asshur, Nineveh and Kalah the 
first cities of Assyria; Karchemish, the great Hittite capital, 
and other cities without number are all found in the very 
localities indicated by the Biblical records, while historic events 
almost innumerable connected with other nations contemporary 
with the Hebrews, with their chief promoters and actors, are 
directly or indirectly confirmed. Thanks to Dr. Pinches, 
Chedorlaomer, Arioch, and Tidal have started up out of the 
buried records of the past, while Sennacherib and Hezekiah, 
Mesha and Ahab, Sargon and Merodach-Baladan, Shalmaneser 
and Jehu, “the noble Asnapper,” and Artaxerxes, Nebuchad- 
nezzar and Cyrus, possess the same features, speak in the same 
tones, and display the same characters in the records of arche- 
ology as they do upon the pages of Holy Scripture. No more 
striking instance of the careless theorizing on the basis of this 
principle of historic progression could perhaps be found than 
that afforded by the moderate and temperate Canon Driver. 

N 


184 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


In his commentary on the Book of Daniel—that last refuge of 
the Higher Criticism—in the Cambridge Bible as well as in his 
Introduction, referrmg to the old musical instrument con- 
troversy he says: “Anyone who has studied Greek history 
knows what the condition of the Greek world was in the sixth 
century B.c., and is aware that the arts and inventions of 
civilized life streamed then into Greece from the East, not 
from Greece eastwards.” Now I venture to say that no one 
who has studied Greek history “is aware” of anything of the 
kind. Our histories of Greece tell us that “the sixth century 
B.c.” was “the most brilliant in the history of Greece.” It 
was the age in which Crcesus, the famous King of Lydia in 
Asia Minor, adopted the Greek language and customs, and 
Greek sages swarmed “from Greece eastwards” to his Court ; 
it was the age of the building of the first temple of Diana of 
the Ephesians, reckoned one of the wonders of the world; it 
was the age of the philosophers Thales, Anaximander, and 
Pythagoras ; it was the age of the poets Sappho, Alczeus, and 
Anacreon; it was the age of the legislators Solon and 
Pisistratus. Moreover, it was also one of the most brilliant 
ages in the history of Babylon. The statement, therefore, that 
in such an age, one of the most brilliant in her history, Greece 
had no “arts and inventions of civilized life” to give to Babylon 
in the East, in one of the most brilliant of hers, displays an 
obliquity of vision in the application of this historical hypo- 
thesis as extraordinary as that of his predecessor Reuss 
himself. 

Such facts as we know therefore forbid us to suppose that 
these records, compiled with such precise geographical and 
historic knowledge, and covering a period of more than a 
thousand years, could have been hacked out of the records 
of unknown writers by mere botchers and trimmers, and 
patched together in the bias of pride or partisanship. 

Finally we may be permitted to ask whether the chief actors 
in this reconstructed history could by any moral possibility 
have taken the places assigned to them by this hypothesis. It 
is quite true, as the late Dean Farrar pointed out, that we miss 
in the historic records of Kings and Chronicles any definite 
account of the observance of the Day of Atonement and of the 
Jubilee Laws. But it must be remembered that for several 
hundred years after the death of Moses the disorganized state 
of the nation made the maintenance of these institutions 
practically impossible. It was struggling for its life and in 
constant and deadly conflict with powerful and treacherous 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 185 


foes. Then under the monarchy the schism soon came, and a 
series of unfaithful kings and priests caused in both nations so 
serious a lapse into idolatry as ultimately brought both down 
to irreparable ruin. It was during this latter period for the 
most part that the ministry of the prophets took place. 

Now if the prophets preceded the Law, not only must we 
abandon all faith in the veracity of the records which describe the 
giving of the Law, but we must assign to the prophets themselves 
a réle which honest men of God could never have taken. They 
were chiefly of the non-sacerdotal classes, and their missions were 
largely to rebuke both kings and priests and people for their 
unfaithfulness to the Divine Laws—Laws which with one voice 
they attribute to Moses. They call for a return to the loyal 
obedience of those Laws, and utter solemn threats of national 
disaster and final ruin if disobedience be persisted in. “The 
ox knoweth his owner and the ass his master’s crib,” said Isaiah, 
“but Israel doth not know, and my people doth not consider.” 
Ezekiel the prophet of the Exile, says in the name of the Lord, 
“Wherefore I caused them to go forth out of the land of 
Egypt and brought them into the wilderness. And I gave 
them my statutes and showed them my judgments, which if a 
man do he shall even live in them. . . . But the house of 
Israel rebelled against me in the wilderness ; they walked not in 
my statutes, and they despised my judgments . . . then I 
said I would pour out my fury upon them in the wilderness to 
consume them” (xx, 10-12). Now if the hypothesis under 
consideration be correct, there is not a word of truth in this 
statement, and we must conclude that such language was mere 
prophetic chicanery, rulers and people being rebuked for dis- 
obedience to Laws which had never been given, and browbeaten 
into the observance of Laws which had yet to be enacted. 

On the whole then it must be concluded that the hypothesis 
for the reconstruction of Old Testament history which places 
the prophets before the Law, and treats the earlier records as 
legends, creates more difficulties than it removes, and makes 
larger demands upon our credulity than the most miraculous 
event recorded upon the sacred page. 


Ill. Tue T'weory oF SPIRITUAL EVOLUTION. 


No account of these modern theories could be regarded as 
approximately adequate which passed over the theory of 
spiritual evolution. The facts dealt with are briefly these :— 
Upon the earlier pages of the Sacred Volume the religious 

N 2 


186 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


truths recorded are more dimly perceived and described than 
upon its later, while the general moral and spiritual level of the 
subjects of their influence is considerably lower. Moreover even 
at the middle period of the history some of the characters most 
approved and most exemplary in their devoutness shock our 
moral sensibility by the enormity of their words and deeds. 
To account then for the upward movement of truth and lie 
which appeared to take place, the theory of evolution is intro- 
duced into these spiritual spheres. 

It is not always easy to discover whether the term 
is intended merely to indicate an amplification of truth 
and life analogous to the evolution of the individual from 
the germ; or whether it is used in the far more difficult 
sense of the origination of a higher species from a lower. 
Probably some attach one idea to it and others the other. 
But in whichever sense employed it is beyond doubt 
intended to displace the idea of a divine inspiration communi- 
cated to the writer ab extra, or from a source not himself, and 
then operating within him through his mental and moral 
faculties. Nor do those writers who resort to the theory always 
make it plain whether the process is supposed to apply to the 
events recorded or to the vecord of the events, or to the truths 
intended to be conveyed by the record, or even to Him to whom 
legislators and historians, poets and prophets, apostles and evan- 
gelists, all alike bear witness. But to whichever applied, it 
seems ln every case to be equally inappropriate. Broadly and 
generally, the term evolution indicates that the living power 
which produces new forms is within, and operates within the 
original, under the favourable conditions of a suitable environ- 
ment. Manifestly, therefore, to use it to indicate that one set 
of events followed another, as shall we say, that the forty 
years of wandering in the wilderness came by a process of 
evolution from the false report of the spies, is to use 1t without 
any due appreciation of the proper function of words. May it 
then be applied to the record? This surely would land us in 
absurdities equivalent to that of saying that Macaulay’s History 
of England was followed by that of Froude by a process of 
evolution. Or if it be apphed to the ¢ruths intended to be 
taught, the term is no less scientifically inadmissible, since the 
truths themselves at the end of the period covered by the record 
were neither more nor less than at the beginning. They had 
not altered. The alteration and progress was in human know- 
ledge and experience, and by no conceivable application of the 
term can the advance of human knowledge and experience be 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 187 


described as evolution. But worst of all is that use of it which 
describes Christianity as the last result in an evolutionary process 
from the earliest forms of religious faith of the Old Testament 
Scriptures or elsewhere. Christianity is the Personal Christ in 
the active exercise among men of His supernatural and divine 
grace. Unless, therefore, His miraculous conception, His virgin 
birth, and His divine nature be denied, we must accept His 
own declaration of His pre-existence—“I came forth from 
the Father and am come into the osmos, again I leave the 
kosmos and go unto the Father,’ and we must therefore 
frankly confess as utterly inadmissible the term “evolution.” 

But in every employment of the term and in whatever sense 
used, it appears to contemplate a degree of religious ignorance 
in the earlier period of our race which did not exist and a 
measure of progress therefore which could not have taken 
place. That the religious knowledge conveyed to the mind of 
man by the New Testament is in advance of that conveyed by 
the Old is no new discovery. But there is no truth in the New 
which may not also be found in the Old. Moreover we are 
almost daily being forced to the conclusion that the amount of 
religious knowledge in the very earliest ages of mankind of 
which we have any record was far greater than a few years ago 
had ever been supposed. It would seem therefore not improbable 
that the Scriptures of the Old Testament especially were given 
for the preservation of truth as well as for its revelation. 

What shall we say to such admonitions as these current 
probably among Abraham’s contemporaries and related as 
uttered to mankind by its Creator :— 


“Every day will thy God be gracious to thee ; 
Sacrifice, prayer, the best of incense, 
For God, in purity of heart shalt thou have— 
That is the delight of the Divinity. 
Prayer, supplication, and bowing down the face, 
Early shalt thou offer Him. 


Sacrifice increaseth life, 

And prayer releaseth thee from sin. 

Against friend and companion speak no evil, 
Speak not low things, do right, 

If thou promise then give, withhold not.” * 


Surely if such precepts as these were in circulation in the 


* See The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records, ete., by 
T. G. Pinches, LL.D., M.R.A.S. (8.P.C.K.) 


188 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


nation from which Abraham came and long before his time, 
there was not much room, especially on the ethical side of 
human life, for the operation of any principle of evolution from 
the days of the patriarch at least until He came in whose 
name the new dispensation was founded. 

From these principles applied by modern criticism to account 
for the composition of Holy Scripture, it is evident that 
throughout the supernatural is being lost sight of. But every 
system of religion offered to the acceptance of man hitherto, 
has been offered with a view to his safe guidance into the super- 
natural and eternal life of the future. How this can be done 
by a religious system shorn of its supernatural origin and 
stripped of its supernatural power not even the most brilliant 
exponent of the Higher Criticism has yet explained. We wait 
to know. 


DISCUSSION. 


The CHAIRMAN.—I am sure I may thank Mr. Tuckwell in all 
your names for his most lucid account of the conflict that is now 
going on amongst us, in which we are all more personally interested 
than we sometimes think, because the literary side of Christianity 
is a very important one. God has chosen, in His providence, to 
give us a literary side to it. It might have been otherwise. The 
whole of Truth might have been confined to tradition, but 1t is not 
so, for as Mr. Tuckwell says, in one of his later pages, “ It would 
seem, therefore, not improbable that the Scriptures of the Old 
Testament especially were given for the preservation of truth as 
well as for its revelation.” We owe a great deal to that. Perhaps 
Mr. Tuckwell’s paper has the effect, rather, of destroying the 
destroyer. My own personal aim is to be constructive rather than 
destructive. I have thought it might be well for us to consider 
what is the best method of dealing with this great subject for 
practical purposes. It seems to me that the first thing is to assure 
ourselves of the historic Christ, to stand firmly on His work and 
mission, and to make sure of the New Testament before dealing 
with the abstruse subjects of the Old Testament. 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 189 


But when you have the historic Christ, you find yourself in 
possession of the Old Testament, which was always recognized by 
Christ and His followers as the basis of their mission, and you 
cannot avoid it. Thus you are compelled, as soon as you have 
accepted Christ, to push back your inquiry into the books that 
precede our Lord’s time, and you soon find yourself back in the 
age of Nehemiah, about 400 years B.c., the age in which the Old 
Testament drew near to its conclusion and completeness ; and about 
the books so completed Josephus says, that all the writings are the 
work of prophets, and there are none after the age of Artaxerxes. 
You next start back from Nehemiah and push your investigation 
up to the age of Moses, or Abraham. But you have this difficulty, 
that you have no contemporary literature before Nehemiah, so that 
you are cut off from the natural materials for discussing your 
subject. 

What have you got, then? you have got the books themselves— 
those wonderful books of the Old Testament. You speedily find 
that they are of different kinds and materials in many ways. They 
are not isolated, and it is in this way that you work back from the 
age of Nehemiah to Moses. Take Ezra and Nehemiah, what books 
did they possess? You find they had, to a large extent, the books 
that compose the Old Testament. Then you go back to the days 
of David’s Bible again, and to the days of Joshua, and you ask, 
was there a pre-Joshua Bible? And you find there was. Moreover 
the whole of the Exodus was carried out by God because of certain 
promises made to man which constituted his Magna Charta. And so 
you find your way back to Genesis, and if you believe in what 
Christ believed you believe in the mission of Moses, and when you 
use your own Bible you have a strong literary argument upon 
which you can rely. 

The third argument is archeological. The German Emperor has 
rushed into the conflict where professors might fear to tread, 
perhaps, but [ would recommend you to invest sixpence in a little 
book just published by the Christian Knowledge Society entitled 
Babylonian Excavations and Early Bible History, by Professor Kittel, 
of Leipzic. It is a good thing if you can correct one German pro- 
fessor by another, and it is curious that Dr. Kittel discusses nearly 
all the points that Mr. Tuckwell has gone into. In this matter there 
appears to be an Anglo-German Alliance for truth. But I will not 


190 REV. JOHN TUCKWEIL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


say more upon the archeological test, because I see some here who 
are experts in the matter, except this, that people say, “ Is it really 
thought that Genesis is Babylonian”? I say yes, of course it is, for 
Abraham came from that part of the world. 

But I will pass to another topic which is hardly ever touched on. 
Mr. Tuckwell touched on it on one page, viz., the linguistic side. 
So little is said about the linguistic side of this matter. Any 
student would naturally expect that the oldest part of the Old 
Testament would show marks of its age, and that the later part 
would show marks that it is later. I have devoted a great deal of 
my spare time to this particular question, investigating the 
linguistic side of the subject, and I have found, almost to my 
surprise, and to my intense satisfaction, a very strong linguistic 
evolution, as I will call it for convenience, running from Genesis 
onwards, so that you have a number of non-technical words there, 
which are afterwards dropped out, and another series of words 
rising up in the days of the Kings, and a still further series in the 
days of the Captivity. Just let me give you, for a moment or two, 
one or two instances. It is often thought remarkable that ‘“ clean” 
and ‘unclean ” beasts should have been referred to so long ago as 
the days of the Deluge. What did they know about clean and un- 
clean beasts? The curious thing is that when you examine your 
text carefully you find that expression “unclean” is not used, but 
the non-technical expression “ not clean.” 

Again, how remarkable it is that the month 47), the month of 
the Passover, is so called in Exodus, but it drops out in the later 
books, and the name Nisan is substituted for it. Abid is an 
Egyptian word and therefore is in its place in Exodus, but it drops 
out afterwards because the people got to Assyrianize their words 
more. 

Another instance is the shewbread used in Exodus and other 
books. You can trace the word up to the time of David, and from 
that time onwards it is totally different. The word is in the Bible, 
although, unfortunately, our revisers have not noticed the change. 
They ought to have put Shewbread in the one case and Rowbread in 
the other. 

I hope the days will come when our critics will spend more time 
in studying what the words mean than in substituting their own 
ideas. I feel sure that the paper that has been read will be a great 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 191 


encouragement, and that you will feel you are not following 
“cunningly devised fables” when you believe the Old Testa- 
ment. 

Mr. Martin Rovuse.—The manly and interesting sketch that 
Canon Girdlestone has just given bears out, ina remarkable manner, 
an observation I recently ventured to make as to one book alluding 
to the other. Isaiah recalls the overthrow of the Midianites by 
Gideon ; and in Joshua we find quoted a commandment of God given 
only in Deuteronomy, Moses’ successor building and inscribing an 
altar, etc., precisely as Moses commanded (Judges vu, 25; Is. x, 26). 

I would mention, too (and no doubt Canon Girdlestone will 
accept a slight correction), that it is in Deuteronomy that the month 
Alib is mentioned. I do not know whether it is mentioned in 
Exodus as well. 

Rey. CANON GIRDLESTONE.—Yes, Ithinkso. (See Ex. xiii, 4, etc.) 

Mr. Martin Rouse.—But in Deuteronomy also, which is declared 
to be so recent, the same month is called Adz) (xvi, 7). When we 
pass further on we come in the prophets to the title “the Lord of 
Hosts,” over and over again. But never is God so-called in the 
first eight books named of the Bible till Samuel’s time. Of course, 
if these books were written after the Captivity, they would have 
called God the Lord of Hosts, or still more likely the God of 
Heaven, which is the favourite title in Ezra and Nehemiah. We 
are told that Isaiah is a double book. In the first part of the book 
we get the kingdom of Christ dealt with; we also get the mira- 
culous birth spoken of, “A virgin shall be with child” (vi, 14), 
and then, “ For unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given; and 
the government shall be upon His shoulder ; and His name shall be 
called Wonderful, Counsellor, the Mighty God, the Everlasting 
Father, the Prince of Peace” (ix, 6), (two of which titles are 
conclusive against any Unitarian view). But in the latter part, 
from the 40th chapter onwards, we get the preaching of John 
the Baptist foretold, “The voice of him that crieth in the wilder- 
ness,” and also the ministry of Christ, “ Behold my servant, whom 
I uphold; mine elect, in whom my soul delighteth; I have put 
my spirit upon Him; He shall bring forth judgment to the 
Gentiles. He shall not ery, nor lift up, nor cause His voice to be 
heard in the street”; this is one of various passages quoted 
thence in the New Testament and plainly referring to the Saviour’s 


192 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S.. ON MODERN THEORIES 


ministry. And true it is that ‘He shall not fail nor be dis- 
couraged till He have set judgment in the earth; and the isles 
shall wait for His law.” A little later on, in the 53rd chapter, 
we get the rejection and vicarious sufferings of Christ. The just 
preceding words are, “So shall He sprinkle” [Revised Version, “ or 
startle ”] “many nations; kings shall shut their mouths at Him; 
for that which had not been told them shall they see”; which 
describe the final triumph of His kingdom. 

We are told that the Old Testament develops spiritual doctrine 
up to the New, not, as we might well think, that there was a 
fuller revelation of God in the New Testament, but that, somehow 
or other, there was an evolution in men’s minds of their estimate of 
the character of God. We are daringly told that Abraham and 
Jephthah, in their days, thought it quite right to offer human 
sacrifices. I would say that this theory is quite incompatible with 
the theory which places these old books as being written after the 
Babylonian Captivity. If they were written after the Babylonian 
Captivity, how can they show the earlier stages of development in 
religious thought ? That, of course, is an absurdity. 

Dr. THEO. PincHES.—I feel that I cannot speak very closely to the 
subject. It is true that I have written a book concerning the Old 
Testament and the cuneiform records; but I have written it on 
parallel lines, and not with reference to the higher criticism at all, 
trying to illustrate the Old Testament, as far as possible, from what 
I have read in the inscriptions I have studied so long. 

It is needless to say that I quite agree with what Mr. Tuckwell 
has said with regard to the existence among other nations, before 
the Jews, of a great deal of enlightenment, such as we might call, in 
fact, knowledge of divine truth, and one cannot help coming to that 
conclusion. All of us have read, no doubt of Professor Delitzsch’s 
recent lectures on “ Babylon and the Bible,” and there is one point 
he touches on therein, viz., the monotheism of the Babylonians. 
That, I may remark, is one of the subjects referred to in a lecture 
that I gave before this Society, and I referred to it rather promi- 
nently.* He says he has always insisted on the polytheism of the 
Babylonians, and I would say the same thing ; but there must have 


* The Religious Ideas of the Babylonians, read on the 16th of April, 
1894, (See the Journal of Transactions, xxviii, pp. 1-38.) 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 193 


been amongst them, it seems to me, a class or section of the more 
enlightened of the people, who had a purer and better knowledge of 
the Deity than the Babylonians as a whole possessed. But I find it 
very difficult to speak on the points that Mr. Tuckwell has touched 
on. I consider this to be a most valuable paper, and I have listened 
to it with a considerable amount of interest. It puts the matter 
before us plainly, and it shows one (I speak quite as a layman on such 
a matter as this) how inconsistent such theories as the higher critics 
bring forward can be ; but, at the same time, we must admit that 
these higher critics have done a great deal of good, and that when 
we come nearer to the end of these controversies we shall be able to 
see how far they have helped forward the subject, and enabled us to 
come to a true conclusion with regard to the documents with which 
we have been familiar so long. 

I must ask you to pardon the imperfection of my remarks. It is 
not a subject that I have studied, but I have tried to say just a few 
words from the archeological point of view, as requested by the 
Chairman. 

Dr. A. T. SCHOFIELD.— Might I say that we always hear everything 
against the higher critics and everything bad of them, and no doubt 
they deserve a great deal of it. They seem, certainly, from the 
perusal of many of their researches, to display what seems to us to 
be an extraordinary amount of incredulity and of invention and 
facilities for raising more difficulties than we can takein. But the 
point to which I speak is one of conscious irreverence, or conscious 
stupidity. 

It seems to me we must give some of these men credit 
for their earnest endeavours to arrive at the truth, and that we must 
also give them an immense amount of credit for the value of their 
textual criticisms in many places. Professor Margoliouth called my 
attention to some, some time ago, and it is one part of their work. 

It seems to me that their work is of two characters, that where it 
is legitimate criticism it is of real value, that where it is mere 
speculation of the human mind concerning what professes to be the 
word of God, their wisdom seems suddenly to become foolishness. 

Professor LANGHORNE ORCHARD.—I am sure we shall all be glad 
if the “higher critics” will adopt Dr. Schofield’s suggestion, and, 
leaving “higher criticism,” confine themselves to the more useful, 
if less ambitious, work of textual criticism. 


194 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S.,. ON MODERN THEORIES 


The able author of the paper just read has done good service in 
exposing, without unfairness, the nature and the method of much 
of present “higher criticism.” ‘These critics remind us of the 
scientists in Bacon’s time, who, instead of going for their theory to 
nature and fact, spun the theory out of their own “inner conscious- 
ness,” and then tried to make the facts suit the theory. If the facts 
proved amenable, all was well; if they did not fit, then “so much 
the worse for the facts.” Bacon’s noble protest did away with this 
vicious method, a method re-introduced by the “higher critics.” 
These gentlemen, themselves being witnesses, start with a pre- 
conceived theory of evolution as one of the crutches of their system ; 
and they find the other crutch in imagination. 

Cornill affirms that the “various stages” of the Hebrew religion 
‘are now regarded as steps in a process of organic evolution,” and 
Graf regards the ‘‘ Mosaic law-giving as it now presents itself before 
us, as the evidence and product of a gradual evolution out of a 
fertile germ, in conformity with all nature and all analogy.” Cheyne 
(Founders of Old Testament Criticism) admits that he has “ enlisted 
the imagination in the service of history,” and, with charming naiveté, 
asks, ““Why should we not do so”? and, referring to Hilkiah’s 
finding of the “Book of the Law,” says ‘it is impossible not to 
endeavour to fill up dacune with the help of the imagination.” 

Yet Dr. Cheyne might have reflected that what is permitted to 
the writer of a fairy tale may be denied to the inventor of a soi-disant 
scientific theory. Driver, writing about the earliest dates of certain 
documents, says that certainty is unattainable, for “conclusive 
criteria fail us and we can only argue upon grounds of probability 
derived from our view of the progress of the art of writing,” etc. 
‘Our view” being made both judge and jury, can we wonder at the 
Mercieti |) 

The author gives some instances of “higher critical” carelessness. 
Many others might be cited, ¢.g., Wellhausen’s blunders, obviously 
due to inattention, over the Hebrew words soleth and kemach and 
chattath, to which attention has been drawn by Dr. Baxter (in 
Sanctuary and Sacrifice), and the confusion by Dr. Robertson Smith, 
of the tent in which Moses sat to judge the people with the 
Tabernacle of Jehovah afterwards erected. 

It is difficult to feel admiration for critics of this description. 
Nor does it lessen the difficulty to find that in Wellhausen’s 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 195 


“translation” of the Psalms, a translation which Dr. Cheyne 
pronounces to be “exquisite,” one well-known passage is cut out 
because it is “inexplicable,” and another is cut out because it is 
“unsuitable ”! 

Our thanks are due to the author for his valuable paper. 

Professor F. J. CANDY observed that 2 Kings xix, 29, which is 
identical with Isaiah xxxvii, 30, was spoken in a_ seventh 
sabbatical year, to be followed by the year of Jubilee and the first 
common year. If you read Isaiah Ixi and I|xii, without a break, 
you will see that the ideas of restoration, deliverance, and marriage, 
are interwoven ; showing that the prophecy was written in the year 
of Jubilee, that followed the deliverance from Sennacherib ; on the 
occasion of the marriage of King Hezekiah with his Queen 
Hephzibah, the mother of Manasseh. (See 2 Kings xxi, 1.) 

The SECRETARY.—I am unwilling to intrude on an occasion when 
a subject is before the Institute which may be considered the 
peculiar property of theologians. But when the question of the 
truthfulness of the Bible, both as an historical document and as a 
revelation of God’s purposes towards mankind is in question, I feel 
that it is as much a matter which concerns a layman as it does a 
theologian, and from this point of view I venture to offer a few 
observations. And first, let me say how much I admire and 
appreciate the manner in which Mr. Tuckwell has treated his subject, 
in which he shows not only erudition, conciseness, and plainness of 
arrangement, but deep conviction of the overwhelming importance 
of the subject upon which he treats. Necessarily restricted by space 
and time, he has placed his arguments in so clear a manner that they 
may be comprehended by the most illiterate reader, and I hope will 
be extensively read. 

And now let me ask if any book ever written and purporting to 
be an historic document, as is the case to a large extent with the 
Bible, has ever been treated in so ruthless a manner as have the 
Old Testament Scriptures by the German, and I regret to say some 
English critics, belonging to the school of Eichhorn and Jean Astruc ? 
Has Herodotus, or Pliny, or Tacitus been treated in this manner ? 
These works dealing with ancient history have doubtless been found 
to contain inaccuracies ; but when investigations carried on at the 
present day in Egypt, Greece, or Italy have shown that there is a 
large amount of truth at the bottom of their historical statements 


196 REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., ON MODERN THEORIES 


(as for instance Schliemann’s discoveries in Troy), immediately these 
disclosures are welcomed by the whole intelligent world, and we are 
called upon to put more and more faith in the accounts they give of 
the nations of the ancient world. But in the case of the historical 
portions of the Bible it is different; for when Egyptologists and 
Assyriologists bring to light remarkable points in corroboration of 
the accuracy of the Biblical accounts, the critics in question either 
pass over them in silence, or endeavour to explain them away on 
some hypothesis conjured up from the depths of their own fertile 
imagination. As Mr. Tuckwell has well observed, the investigations 
carried on amongst the Assyrian tablets and in Egypt by such 
laborious workers as Dr. Pinches, Prof. Sayce and Prof. Petrie, and in 
Palestine by the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Society, all 
go to confirm the wonderful accuracy of the accounts even of the 
earliest books of the Old Testament; and the evidence from day to 
day and year to year being cumulative, amounts at the present time 
to demonstration such as all fair-minded men might be supposed to 
admit without hesitation. Witness, for instance, the remarkable 
case of the discovery of the Moabite stone, and its verification of the 
history of the Book of Kings (2 Kings i). And here I might be 
allowed to add my own humble testimony as regards one very 
important epoch of Israelitish history, that of the Exodus, which 
has called forth, perhaps, more adverse criticism, on the ground of 
the miraculous element which pervades the entire narrative, than 
any other part of the Old Testament. Now, it will be admitted 
that there is no series of events recorded in the Bible which de- 
pend for their outcome on the topographical features to the 
extent of those connected with this wonderful migration from Egypt 
to Canaan as narrated in the Book of Exodus. The whole series of 
events is associated with topographical details, such as the crossing 
of the then arm of the Red Sea, the camping grounds, the valleys 
amongst the mountains of Sinai, which were the only highways for 
a great multitude of men, women, and children; the giving of the 
law from Sinai itself, the camping ground at its base, the streams of 
water for supplying drink, the Gulf of Akabah (or Ezion Geber), 
the Arabah Valley, the camp at Mount Horeb, Kadesh, the 
mountains of Edom and Moab, the crossing of the Jordan, and the 
plain of Jericho. It would have been impossible to construct sucha 
narrative as that of the Exodus unless the writer of it had been 


CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 197 


perfectly familiar with these topographical details, with places which 
still preserve their traditional names, with the distances between 
them, and special events which are minutely described both in 
Exodus and in Deuteronomy. It is inconceivable that any writer 
other than one who, like Moses, was himself a witness of the events 
recorded, could have written the narrative of the Exodus with the 
accurate topographical details which we are at this day ina position 
to confirm or deny by personal investigation. Now nearly all these 
recorded localities can be identified, and have been identified at the 
present day. I myself have visited the greater number ; and I can 
speak with the utmost confidence of the accuracy of the details, and of 
the manner in which the events recorded fit in with the conditions of 
the topographical features. Could there bea more convincing proof 
that the events recorded were written by one who was personally 
present, and took a leading part in the events themselves ? Moses 
himself claims to be the author on the ground of his own personal 
participation in the events, though these may have been dictated to 
an amanuensis. On all these grounds I claim for the history of the 
Exodus the same amount of credit which is yielded to the events 
recorded, say in Carlyle’s History of Frederick the Great, or any 
similar work purporting to be a narrative of historical events. 


198 


ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.* 


GENERAL HALLIDAY IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed. 


The following election was announced :— 
Member :—Rev. W. P. Schuster, M.A., Vicar of West Lulworth. 


The following papers were read :— 


ON THE GEOLOGICAL : RELATIONSHIP OF THE 
VOLCANOES OF THE WLST INDIES. By dk oie 
SPENCER, M.A., Ph.D.,F.G.S. (No. 1.) (With Map of the 
West Indian Islands.) 


T. VINCENT has been one of the danger-places of the 
earth, with its volcanic forces devastating the island, 
nearly two hundred years ago, and again a century later ; 
hurricanes sweeping off the magnificent tropical vegetation, 
only three or four years since, and lately the revival of volcanic 
eruptions carrying destruction to the existing order of things, 
and building up new physical features. The general interest 
in such great changes has been concentrated upon Martinique, 
on account of the volcanic activity being on a more limited 
area and annihilating a whole city. It is this feature which 
has awakened the popular interest and drawn to the scene 
various scientific observers and adventurers, who have described 
the pathetic side of the devastation and the new conditions in 
the island. But working quietly at the problem of the late 
changes of level of land and sea, the writer, after having spent 
much time in the West Indies and Central America, has studied 
especially the phenomena which bear upon the question of the 
age of the volcanoes, and of their place in geological history. 
It is this aspect of the question which is here brought forward. 


* Monday, April 20th, 1903. 


RELATIONSHIP OF THE VOLCANOES OF THE WEST INDIES. 199 


While the Virgin group and the adjacent small islands on the 
same submerged plateau with Puerto Rico, the Lesser Antilles, 
or Windward Islands may be considered as commencing with 
St. Croix* (on the south-eastern side of the great trough across 
the submarine plateau), and following the form of a crescent for 
a distance of 750 miles to the coast of South America, this 
physical barrier between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic 
Ocean, having a breadth of scarcely more than 100 miles, or 
reduced again to a width of 25 miles, is a submerged plateau dis- 
membered into the various drowned table-lands, more or less 
surmounted by mountain ridges and volcanoes, now forming 
the Windward Islands. Everywhere we find wonderful valley- 
like land forms indenting the submerged plateau connecting 
North and South America together. The depressions in the 
plateau between the islands do not exceed depths of more than 
2,000 or 3,500 feet below sea level. In one place only is this 
amount exceeded between the two continents where it is 
dissected to a depth of 6,000 feet, namely, in the trough between 
St. Croix and the Virgin Islands, between which and the 
continent, by way of Puerto Rico and some of the Bahama 
Islands, an emergence of 2,100 feet would make a continuous 
land connection. Among the island masses, we find submarine 
canyons or gorges with a corresponding depth of 6,000 feet, a 
broad depression between the Grenadines and Barbados reach- 
ing to from 6,000 to 9,000 feet, and elsewhere among the Bahamas 
there are other submarine valleys of depths of more than 12,000 
feet. All these are reproductions of land features of plateau 
regions, such as those of Mexico and Central America, so much 
so that they may be regarded as evidence of the former eleva- 
tion of the region, forming a bridge between North and South 
America, across which we now know some animals migrated in 
the early Pleistocene period. 

The primary foundation of this barrier between the Caribbean 
and Atlantic basins has never been discovered, but it is 
probable that no geological formation or physical feature older 
than some part of the Cretaceous period will ever be found. 
Except possibly some of the volcanic formations, there is only 
very little information concerning any rocks as old as this 
period. In St. Croix and St. Thomas, Cleve found some 
evidence of the existence of the Cretaceous formation in that 
region. Possibly the “Scotland Sands” of Barbados, apparently 
older than the Tertiary era, may also be Cretaceous. Elsewhere 


* St. Croix (Fr.), Sta. Cruz (Span.) 4 


200 J. W. SPENCER, M.A., ON THE GEOLOGICAL 


throughout the whole chain of islands, there is nothing except- 
ing the voleanic basement that can be assigned to greater 
antiquity than that of the early Tertiary days. 

The Windward Islands are practically divided into ie 
parallel chains. The inner one commencing with Saba, continues 
through St. Eustatius, St. Kitts, Nevis, and Montserrat; the 
western of the twin islands of Guadeloupe, Dominica, Marti- 
nique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada and the Grenadines, is 
characterized by complex volcanic formations surmounted by 
voleanic cones and ridges. The outer chain from St. Croix, St. 
Martin, Anguilla, Antigua, Barbuda, Grand Terre of Guadeloupe, 
Marie Galante, to Barbados, with probably some sunken islands 
between the two last mentioned, is characterized by more or 
less calcareous formations resting upon the denuded surfaces of 
an old voleanic foundation. Some of these islands are in part 
mountainous, but of no great elevation, showing the erosion 
features of considerable antiquity. They are also marked by the 
rolling outlines of coastal plains, which extend beyond their 
present shores, and form the summit of the adjacent portions of 
the submerged plateaus. While the coastal plains, traversed 
by erosion features, do not prevail upon the western chain of 
the islands, yet in the large Saba banks, just south-west of the 
volcanic island of the name, we find the same features repeated 
at a depth of only 100 feet, or a little more, below the surface 
of the sea. All these calcareous formations show themselves to 
be only remnants of such, extending over an immense land area 
now dismembered and sunken beneath the sea level; and. the 
apparent gap in their succession between the Guadeloupe 
Archipelago and Barbados, is represented by three banks of 
similar form where, it is reasonable to suppose, they are of the 
same character, and that they are the slightly drowned 
remnants of the submerged Antillean plateau. 

In the outer chain of islands, we find that the volcanic 
basement 1s covered by formations of the older Tertiary era, the 
upper portions belonging to the Oligocene system, while the 
lower beds may perhaps teach down to the base of the Eocene. 
This gives us the clue to the age of the older volcanic forma- 
tions. These rocks, without describing them accurately, are 
a sort of dolerite consisting of triclinic felspars with but little 
magnesium silicate. It is a kind of intermediate eruptive rock, 
which if found in Paleozoic strata would be called porphorite, 
and if in the Tertiary, andecite. There is nothing to establish 
the age of these old rocks beyond the fact that they are below 
the old Tertiary formation. Such voleanic deposits dissected by 


RELATIONSHIP OF THE VOLCANOES OF THE WEST INDIES. 20] 


the rains and streams, form the low mountains of the outer 
chain of islands and the foundation of the inner chain of 
volcanic islands, where they may be seen at many points, and 
on the smaller islands away from the recent. volcanic cones. 
Typically they may be best observed in that little continent, 
which we call the island of Antigua, for there the erosion 
features of their surface have not been buried beneath the late 
voleanic accumulation. And here we also find the formations 
passing under tuffs which are themselves succeeded by the 
lower Tertiary limestones. In St. Kitts the south-eastern end 
of the island is composed of these old igneous rocks with their 
surface features characteristically modified by atmospheric 
agents, but in the centre of the island they are surmounted by 
more recent voleanic cones. The same is true with regard to 
the southern end of Martinique; but in other islands like Nevis, 
the mountain part of Guadeloupe, Dominica, Montserrat, St. 
Lucia, and St. Vincent, the old igneous foundation has been 
more or less buried by the later volcanic accumulations. While 
more detailed studies may lead to some modification of opinion, 
the writer is inclined to regard these rocks as the remains, left 
after atmospheric denudation, of a widespread igneous system, 
forming the apparent foundation of the modern submerged 
Antillean plateau. 

From the evidence left in the outer chain of islands, there 
was little or no volcanic activity throughout the region during 
the greater part of the Tertiary era, though further investiga- 
tions may show that eruptions occurred, in the inner chain, 
extravasating part of the material out of which the various 
stratified beds of tuffs were apparently formed in the older 
Tertiary days. Throughout the middle and later Tertiary periods 
all the region of the islands was a great land surface which was 
moulded by the erosion agents into features with broad rounded 
outlines, the higher parts of which now form the foundations of 
the islands. But about the close of the Pleiocene the West 
Indian Bridge was submerged so as to leave only small islets, 
and marine beds containing modern forms of hfe were accumu- 
lated about them. These, in several of the islands, occur resting 
upon volcanic sands containing recent skulls of animals, showing 
that the volcanic forces had again commenced to be operative 
before or by the beginning of the Pleiocene period, after a more 
or less general rest of long duration. 

The renewal of volcanic activity thus appears to have been 
coincident with the changes which marked the advent of the 
Pleistocene period, but it has been confined to very much more 

02 


202 J. W. SPENCER, M.A., ON THE GEOLOGICAL 


restricted areas than the old pre-Tertiary igneous eruptions, as 
we find late volcanic accumulations in the first place restricted 
to the inner chain of islands, and even there not covering their 
whole surface, without even building up connections between 
what are now the adjacent islands. From _ observations 
especially in St. Kitts, Guadeloupe and Dominica, and the 
resemblance of the igneous formations in the other islands to 
those first mentioned, it 1s apparent that the volcanic ridges 
and cones built upon the surfaces of the old igneous formations, 
owe their size and great height, reaching to 4,000 or 5,000 feet, 
to the volcanic eruptions accompanying the great changes of 
level of land and sea which have occurred since the beginning 
of the Pleistocene or Glacial period. The building up of the 
ridges of these inner islands has been due entirely to volcanic 
forces which have scarcely affected the portions of the island 
beyond the ridges themselves ; but within this limit we find that 
the stratified beds, some of which are mechanical formations 
derived from the ancient rocks and stratified beneath the sea, 
had been everywhere tilted outward from the centre of the 
volcanic cones which rest upon their surfaces. These sloping 
volcanic beds have not been confounded with the tufaceous 
deposits which have been accumulated upon the slopes of the 
cones of which they make up almost the entire mass, as lava 
is found at only occasional points. While the volcanic 
activity at the present time is startling from the disasters 
that the eruptions have produced, yet it is insignificant compared 
with the whole amount of material which has been erupted to 
build up the cones. 

Interesting examples of the localized effects of the eruptions 
in lifting and disturbing the strata, may be seen in 
St. Eustatius and in St. Kitts. In the latter island there is a 
prominence rising to a height of 700 feet with a diameter of 
much less than half a mile, called Brimstone Hill, which is 
veneered to a height of 450 feet by a bed of limestone, having 
a thickness of about 30 feet, dipping outward in all directions 
at high angles, which was the former sea bottom. This 
prominence was elevated by the volcanic forces pushing up a 
cone, which, however, was not surmounted by a crater. This 
elevation took place as far back as the mid-Pleistocene epoch ; 
and as it occurs on the flank of the main volcanic ridge of 
St. Kitts, it suggests that the voleanic activity had greatly 
diminished in that island long before the present day, although 
more recent eruptions had built up the summit of the cone 
where we now find the crater. Twelve miles distant across the 


RELATIONSHIP OF THE VOLCANOES OF THE WEST INDIES. 203 


sea, in St. Eustatius, a similar phenomenon was repeated; but 
there the sea bottom was raised to a height of 900 feet, and 
the prominence became surmounted by a crater now rising 
about 2,000 feet above the sea. No eruptions in these islands 
have been observed within the historic period. But this 
locality is situated near the north-western end of the volcanic 
chain. 

However, in the not distant island of Guadeloupe, several 
eruptions occurred in the eighteenth and earlier part of the 
nineteenth centuries, and in Dominica, a small disturbance 
took place about 1880. While a small manifestation was 
observed in Martinique some fifty years ago, yet the volcanic 
forces had eome to be considered inactive, and the only 
dangerous volcanic island was thought to be St. Vincent, where 
the eruptions of 1718 and of 1812 sent its débris as far as 
_ Barbados, more than 100 miles away. 

The relationship of the volcanic activity to the physical 
changes in the Antillean region should be somewhat more fully 
explained, even though partial repetition may be unavoidable. 

In pre-Tertiary times the whole Caribbean plateau was 
subjected to wide-spread volcanic eruptions which, however, do 
not appear to have been entirely beneath the surface of the 
sea, and later the plateau seems to have been a land surface, 
which was greatly modified by atmospheric denudation 
sweeping away any craters or cones that existed, and leaving 
only modified hill surfaces such as now occur between the 
Tertiary formations, or he buried beneath the later volcanic 
ridges. Even the origin of the plateau may have been mostly 
volcanic, but that was antecedent to the early Tertiary period. 

While the old igneous basement is found beneath the surface 
rocks of nearly all of the islands, yet we cannot certainly say 
that the pre-Tertiary eruptions covered the whole breadth ef 
the submerged plateau between the Atlantic and Caribbean 
basins ; for in Barbados upon its outer edge, there is a series of 
sand deposits, probably as old as the later Cretaceous or early 
Eocene days, which forms the oldest foundation in that region 
of which we know anything. After the completion of the now 
buried features carved out of these ancient eruptive rocks, and 
after the deposition of the sandy shore deposits just mentioned, 
the whole region sunk to depths unknown. In Barbados this 
depression, perhaps referable to the same general epoch, 
reached to the abysmal depth of perhaps two miles, as pointed 
out by Professor Harrison and Mr. Jukes-Browne, the evidence 
of which is shown by the oozes containing oceanic radiolaria, 


204. J. W. SPENCER, M.A., ON THE GEOLOGICAL 


etc., which were accumulated in the district now elevated to 
form the island. As these deposits lie beneath old Tertiary 
formations, their origin cannot have been later than the early 
part of the Tertiary ‘period. 

Passing by the minor changes, the general condition of the 
region in the earlier Tertiary period was one covered by the 
sea, at first with the accumulation of clastic strata derived from. 
the remains of the older voleanic rocks. These were succeeded 
by white limestones and marls containing fossils which show 
their age not to have been later than the Oligocene period, by 
the close of which time the general construction of the 
Antillean plateau was formed; to be greatly denuded and 
carved into its present broader outlines during the long 
Miocene-Pleiocene period. During the earlier part of the land 
history, its elevation appears to have been considerable, but the 
altitude was gradually reduced so that about the end of the 
Pleiocene days its surface was reduced in area so as to leave 
only the present chain of islands somewhat smaller than 
now. During this long period of land surface, North and 
South America were bridged by a now sunken plateau. 
Throughout this long era we are not certain that volcanic 
activity was energetic throughout the region, and the dif- 
ferentiation of the many tufaceous formations of the more 
western islands needs further elucidation. 

After the subsidence about the close of the Pleiocene 
period, the whole region rose to form a very high table-land, 
whose elevations as shown among the Windward Islands them- 
selves, must have been from 3 000 to 6,000 feet, but from the 
evidence among the Bahamas and off the coast of the North 
American continent, it must have exceeded two miles, at a 
time which corresponded to the earlier Pleistocene days. 
This elevation seems to have been a sufficient cause of the 
Glacial period. Then the rapidly descending streams carved 
out the canyons which became great deep river-like valleys 
now submerged beneath the sea. 

Upon the changes of level which carried down the land of 
the later Tertiary days below sea-level, volcanic activity after 
the long rest was renewed as we have already seen, and the 
volcanic ridges were in part upheaved and further built up by 
the eruptions mostly before the mid-Pleistocene period, which 
reduced the area of the islands to sizes smaller than now. In 
short, the great chain of volcanoes belongs to the late Tertiary 
and post-Tertiary days, being coincident with the great changes 
of level of land and sea. 


RELATIONSHIP OF THE VOLCANOES OF THE WEST -INDIES. 205 


Since the mid-Tertiary epoch there have been terrestrial 
oscillations causing the islands to be enlarged somewhat beyond 
their present size, only to again be depressed to near their 
present altitude. In several islands at least a slight com- 
paratively recent elevation is noticeable, as seen by geological 
evidence, though we have no satisfactory records from an 
historical standpoint. 

Thus it appears that the voleanic phenomena were closely 
connected with those of earth movements, which in proportion 
have declined as also has the voleanic activity. 

While the volcanic forces have built up ridges and cones, by 
the accumulation of the débris of eruption, yet in part their 
elevation has been due to upper thrusts of the ridges themselves, 
fringed with fragments of the sea bottom; but the great changes 
of the whole now submerged plateau may in part have been 
tectonic, but if so they have been modified by what in 
America is called epeirogenic or slow continental movements ; 
for everywhere the surfaces of the submarine plateau are 
dissected by systems of valley-lke indentations which have not 
obscured the movements due to volcanic or other forces. 

The vibrations in the rocks during the recent eruptions were 
sufficient to break the submarine cables, often overhanging the 
walls of the submerged canyons. It has also been reported that 
the sea bottom had collapsed in places. Such sinkings in the 
crust have been contradicted with the general statement that 
there have been no apparent changes. If such a collapse of the 
submarine crust had really occurred, then there might be some 
doubt as to the origin of part of the valley-like features, made 
known by the dredgings. Although the district is volcanic with 
caldrons and cul de sacs of valleys, in part originated by the 
destructive forces of exploding volcanoes, yet the general 
features are those of denudation; so that the idea that the 
valley forms in the submarine plateau have been due to past 
atmospheric action, does not seem to be affected. Accordingly, 
from the records of these drowned valleys, we obtain our 
knowledge of great changes of level of land and sea in recent 
geological times. 

The terrestrial movements, as also the volcanic, have been 
mostly along the line represented by the chain of islands—the 
margin of the Atlantic Ocean—which has been marked as a 
zone of terrestrial weakness favourable to both tectonic move- 
ments and volcanic action, and suggestive of renewed volcanic 
activity along this course. But the recent eruptions in 
Martinique and St. Vincent, those in Central America and 


206 J. W. SPENCER, M.A.. ON THE WHST INDIES. 


Mexico, others reported in the region ef the Azores, in Japan, 
and the great earthquakes of Guatemala, Chinese Turkestan, 
etc., all belonging to parallel zones, yet they seem to point to 
some terrestrial disturbance of a general common origin acting 
parallel with the line of the equator, as if the movements are 
readjusting the terrestrial crust in a transverse as well as a 
normal direction. In fact, we know but little about volcanicity, 
and it seems strange how little has been added to our knowledge 
by the recent eruptions almost at our own doors. 

The effects of the eruptions have been made known to us in a 
popular way through very many media of communication, so 
that the writer has deemed it desirable only to respond to the 
courteous request for a contribution, by telling something of the 
relation of the igneous formations to their place in geological 
history, as based upon travel among the islands; and some of 
his data for the opinions here expressed, have already been 
published, and to them the reader is referred, and for this 
reason, fuller detail here becomes unnecessary. 


REFERENCES. 


“On the Geology of the North-eastern West India Islands,” by P. T. 
Cleve, Zrans. Roy. Swedish Acad. Soc., ix, No. 12 (1870). 


“ Geology of Barbados,” by Messrs. J. B. Harrison and A. J. Jukes- 
Browne, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvii (1891), and vol. xlviii 
(1892). 

** Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent,” by J. W. Spencer, Bull. 
Geol. Soc. Ann., vol. vi (1894). 


“On the Geological and Physical Development of Antigua”; “ of Guade- 
loupe” ; “of Anguilla, St. Martin,” etc.; “of the St. Christopher 
Chain,” etc.; ‘of Dominica, with notes on Martinique, St. Lucia, 
St. Vincent, &e.”; “of Barbados, with notes on Trinidad.” Six 
papers by the present writer in Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., volumes lvii 
and Iviii, 1901 and 1902. 


Notr. —The Council is indebted to Dr. Tempest Anderson for the loan 
of lantern slides from photos taken by himself and Dr. J. 8. Flett when 
investigating the recent eruptions in St. Vincent and Martinique at the 
instance of the Royal Society. The Report was presented to the Royal 
Society on November 20th, 1902, and since then Dr. Anderson has 
contributed a paper on the eruptions to the Royal Geographical Society, 
which is published in the Geographical Journal, March, 1903.—E. H. 


207 


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208 


ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.* 


GENERAL HALLIDAY IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed. 
The following election was announced :— 
Member :—The Rev. W. P. Schuster, M.A., Vicar of West Lulworth. - 


The SECRETARY.—We have here, Mr. Chairman, through the 
courtesy of Dr. Tempest Anderson, of York, a number of photo- 
graphic slides taken by himself when in the company of Dr. Flett. 
He was sent out by the Royal Society to report on the volcanic 
eruptions of St. Vincent and Martinique. 

The CHAIRMAN.—We all owe a vote of thanks to Dr. Tempest 
Anderson, who has lent the slides we have just seen. [Applause. ] 


The Rev. Jonn Tuckwe tt then read the following paper :— 


VOLCANIC ACTION AND THE WEST INDIA 
ERUPTIONS OF 1902. By J. Logan Losiey, E.G:S:, 
E.R.G.S. Author of Mownt Vesuvius, ete. 


No. II. 
CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 
Introduction ... ee Ae =a bate oe au 208 
Volcanic Phenomena ... ans nes es eas 210 
The West Indian Eruptions .. 214 

Geological and Geographical ‘Conditions and Results of 
Volcanic Action ... 218 
The Cause of Volcanic Action. bo dee a oa DAN 

INTRODUCTION. 


HE disastrous results of the West Indian eruptions of the 
present year have again powerfully drawn the attention 
of the civilized world to volcanic action. 

With the advance of education, and the development of the 
means of communicating and disseminating information of 
those natural phenomena that conspicuously affect the material 
well-being of mankind, an intelligent interest in these 


* Monday, April 20th, 1903. 


THE WEST INDIAN ERUPTIONS OF 1902. . 209 


phenomena will doubtless extend and deepen. In the future, 
therefore, we may expect that this interest will not be confined 
as hitherto to the few and these few chiefly men of science, but 
will be possessed by an ever-increasing number of those who 
claim to be educated. 

The subject of volcanic action requires to a large extent the 
knowledge of observed facts, and also to a large extent 
philosophical deductions and conclusions, and consequently it 
appears to be a subject eminently worthy of the consideration 
of the Victoria Institute. 

Volcanic action is indeed of such a conspicuous and startling 
character even when not destructive of life and property, that 
it has from remote times riveted attention and excited the 
wonder and awe of all those who have witnessed its more 
violent manifestations. 

In ancient times, however, no attempt was made to explain 
it or ascertain its natural causes. It was readily accounted for, 
as were other striking natural phenomena, by attributing it to 
supernatural causes. 

Classic fable abounds with allusions to volcanoes associating 
them with Pluto, Proserpine, Vulcan, and Typheeus. Pluto 
seized Proserpine in Sicily, near to Etna, and carried her down 
with him to reign as his queen in his own dominions far below. 
Vulcan, the god of fire and. fusion, forged the thunderbolts of 
Jove by volcanic fires, and the smoke, and flames, and bellowings, 
and shakings of an eruption were but the evidences of. his 
industry. The Greek Typhon was the personification of the 
principle of evil, and described by the Latins, under the name 
Typheeus, as having a hundred dragon heads, fiery eyes, a black 
tongue, and a terrible voice, and lying, groaning and uneasy, 
buried under the volcanic regions of Sicily and Ischia, all 
obviously suggested by the volcanic character of those islands. 

In medieval times, superstitious dread of the crater of a 
volcano as an opening to the place for lost souls supplanted the 
mythological fables of the ancients, and even at the present day 
this supernatural association lingers amongst the inhabitants of 
volcanic regions. The denizens of the immediate neighbourhood 
of Etna so regarded the crater 10,000 feet above them, and 
think of it with mind-oppressing awe. 

With the eighteenth century began the scientific consideration 
of volcanic action, for in 1700 Lemery, long before the chemistry 
of Priestly and Davy, ascribed this action to chemical causes. 
Lemery was followed by Breislak, and later by our great 
English chemist Sir Humphry Davy, with similar hypotheses 


210 J. LOGAN. LOBLEY, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., ON VOLCANIC ACTION 


since all were based on chemical action. Chemical combination, 
as the cause of voleanic phenomena, was also supported by 
Daubeny, but both he and Davy advanced on Lemery and 
Breislak in regarding water as the source of the supply of the 
essential element, oxygen. 

Cordier was the advocate of the hypothesis that has been 
favoured for the longest time and by the greatest number. 
This is based on the popular assumption that the earth is a 
ereat mass of fused matter enclosed in a thin shell or crust, 
through which by fissures the molten matter or lava issues 
when the interior mass is pressed upon by the adjustment of the 
exterior crust required by the shrinkage consequent upon the 
secular cooling of the whole globe. 

The difficulty of accepting a thin crust led Sir Charles Lyell 
and Mr. Hopkins to the conclusion that there were probably 
portions of the crust in a fused condition, these subterranean 
reservoirs of lava existing where relief of vertical by lateral 
pressure allowed of the interior heat exerting its melting power, 
and that the cause of volcanic activity was supplied by the 
access of water from the sea. 

Dr. Sterry Hunt and my old friend the Rev. Osmond Fisher, 
contended for a thin exterior crust and a solid central mass 
with an intermediate ocean of fused matter; and the great 
seismologist of the last century, Mr. Mallet, attributed volcanic 
heat to tangential pressure from secular cooling ; while, still later, 
Prof. Prestwich advocated the importance of land surface water 
as a factor in the production of eruptions, while accepting a 
central fluid mass as the source of volcanic lava. 

The impossibility of reconciling any one of these hypotheses 
with all volcanic phenomena and ascertained scientific facts, 
leaves the question of volcanic action still undetermined and an 
unsolved problem. It therefore affords a most interesting subject 
for consideration and discussion. 


VOLCANIC PHENOMENA. 


In estimating the value of any hypothesis it is in the 
first place necessary that we be acquainted with the 
phenomena to be accounted for; and each and all of these 
phenomena must be kept clearly in view. 

Volcanic action may be said to be that which ejects material 
on to the exterior of the globe from below the surface. A 
volcano is therefore essentially a communication between the 
interior of the earth and the exterior, and consequently it is 


AND THE WEST INDIAN ERUPTIONS OF 1902. 211 


not necessarily a mountain or a hill, although the accumulation 
of the ejectamenta around the vent forms elevations of greater 
or less altitude and magnitude. Where, however, no accumu- 
lation takes place, as when from extreme violence the ejected 
material is widely dispersed, then a depression rather than an 
elevation is the result. 

Leaving out of account such minor action as that of 
fumaroles, solfataras, salses, etc., voleanic eruptions may be 
roundly regarded as of three kinds; (1) emissive eruptions; 
(2) explosive eruptions; (3) partly emissive and _ partly 
explosive eruptions. 

The first of these, emissive eruptions, is perhaps best 
exemplified by the lava flows of Mauna-Loa in the Sandwich 
Islands. From the two craters of this very extensive 
mountain mass, one, the summit crater, 13,675 feet, and the 
other, the crater of Kilauea, 4,000 feet above the level of the 
sea, a very fluid lava occasionally flows, and spreading out, 
forms successive sheets of basalt with a very gentle inclination, 
only from about 4° to 4°75°, and not separated by beds of scorize 
or ash. 

In the prehistoric voleanic district of Auvergne in central 
France, there are domes of trachyte formed by acidic lavas 
without craters, which have evidently been the result of 
the cooling of a very viscid lava that has solidified without 
flowing away from the vent, which has thereby been sealed 
over with solid rock. 

Lava flows in such cases of purely emissive eruptions are 
unacconipanied by noise or violence, and are merely, as it 
were, springs of fluid rock-matter rising from the deep 
interior through conduits to the surface, the lava being of 
different degrees of fluidity according to its varying chemical 
composition. The lava of Kilauea, being very basic, has 
indeed such great fluidity that it is drawn out into capillary 
glass by the wind, and this is called “ Pele’s hair,’ from the 
same goddess that has given the name to the Martinique 
volcano. 

The explosive eruptions give the most terrific of all volcanic 
outbursts, although they are sometimes on quite a small scale. 

In these eruptions no lava is seen, but instead there is an 
ejection, either continuously for a short time, or intermittently, 
ot fragmentary material, with explosive violence, and thundering 
noises both in short detonations and continuous roars, and 
accompanied with subterranean rumblings and earth tremors 
and movements, 


212 J. LOGAN LOBLEY, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., ON VOLCANIC ACTION 


The material ejected and shot high up into the air—heavy 
masses, rounded “bombs,” cindry fragments or scorize most 
irregular in form and partly vesicular, lapilli, and fine dust or 
ash—is often so great as to quite take away the light of the 
day, and the finer particles ascend to great heights and are 
then carried by winds and upper currents of the atmosphere 
to long and, in some cases, immense distances. Vast volumes 
of steam are given off, which condensing, form with the ash a 
mud, often wrongly called lava, that sometimes rolls down the 
slopes to the base of the volcano in a destructive torrent. 
Sea waves of great magnitude are also sometimes produced 
by displacement, or movement, of adjacent sea-bottoms and 
land masses either insular or coastal, which may occasion 
great destruction to life and property. These destructive 
oceanic waves are invariably wrongly called “tidal waves” 
by the newspapers, although they are seismic waves, and 
have nothing whatever to do with the tides, which are periodic. 
This is an illustration of the little attention paid to even the 
most elementary science in this country in ordinary education. 
Electrical phenomena are also produced, for voleanic lightning 
plays amongst the ascending ash-charged fumes. 

The great historical eruption of Vesuvius, in A.D. 79, was 
an eruption of this class. By it the cities of Pompeii, 
Herculaneum, and Stabie were destroyed, and during its 
continuance the darkness was complete. Dry lapili and ash 
overwhelmed Pompeii and Stabiz, both at considerable distances 
from the crater, while a torrent of mud overwhelmed the city 
of Herculaneum, immediately at the foot of the mountain 
slopes, and no lava anywhere issued from the volcano. For 
a long period it would appear that the Vesuvian eruptions 
were explosive eruptions only, though of much less violence, 
since it was not until a.D. 1036 that there was any record of 
a lava-flow there, although in pre-historic eruptions, as shown 
by the basaltic rocks of Monte Somma, lava was abundantly 
emitted by this vent. 

The Krakatoa eruption of 1883 is the greatest recent 
example of a purely explosive eruption, and by it the island 
of Krakatoa was almost destroyed. It produced complete 
darkness, and ejected by its explosive force the material of 
two-thirds of an island of thirteen square miles, covering the 
adjacent seas with floating lapilli of pumice. Its fine ash was 
carried upwards to a height estimated at 50,000 feet, the 
finest and highest having been carried three times round the 
elobe, and occasioning the very beautiful sunsets of that time, 


AND THE WEST INDIAN ERUPTIONS OF 1902. 213 


conspicuously seen in this country. The eruption was heard 
3,000 miles away, it produced an ocean-wave that caused 
ereat devastation, and an atmospheric wave that affected the 
barometer of Greenwich Observatory, 

In the same region, the eruption of Papandayung, in the 
island of Java, in 1772, was of such terrific violence that a 
depression fifteen miles by six was formed, the whole mass 
previously occupying that area having been blown away. 

A purely explosive eruption on a small scale was that of 
Monte Nuovo, near Baiz on the shore of the Bay of Naples, 
in 1538, by which a cratered hill was formed by an ejection of 
fragmentary material from a newly opened vent, from which 
no lava has ever flowed. 

The eruptions that are both emissive and explosive are the 
most usual, and they exhibit the most varied phenomena, since 
in these the characteristics of the non-explosive are added to 
those of explosive eruptions. ‘The modern eruptions of 
Vesuvius and the eruptions of Etna and Hecla, are good 
examples of this class. Premonitions are commonly given by 
earth-tremors and subterranean rumbling noises occurring 
immediately preceding, or very shortly before, the outbreak ; 
and very delicate and elaborate instruments, such as the late 
Professor Palmieri’s seismograph at the Royal Observatory on 
Vesuvius, are sometimes employed for the detection and 
registration of these warning symptoms. 

According to their character and relative violence these 
eruptions may be termed “strombolean,” when there is slight 
but, during a prolonged period of time, continuous eruptive 
energy ; moderate or normal, when the eruption is not a very 
great one; and “paroxysmal,” when it is of much more than 
usual violence. 

A flow of lava may either precede, accompany, or follow, 
the ejection of scorie and ashes, and may flow over a lip of 
the crater or through a tunnel in the crater-wall, or it may be 
emitted from an opening or openings on the slopes of the 
volcano. Eruptive energy may also be manifested at more 
than one point at the same time on the same volcano. Thus 
violent explosive ejections of scoriz and ashes may be going 
on from the summit crater while lava is being quietly emitted 
from one or several oritices far below. 

The explosive ejections, accompanied by a rushing roar, 
occur with very small intervals of time between, but they are 
usually distinctly separated when the eruption is not of great 
violence. The fine volcanic ash, much of it the result of the 


214 J. LOGAN LOBLEY, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., ON VOLCANIC ACTION 


trituration of repeatedly ejected scoriz, is not ejected to the 
enormous elevation it reaches by the explosive force, but is 
carried up by the ascending column of hot steam and gases, 
which in the heavier cold air rises to very high regions before 
being altogether dissipated or condensed. 


THE West INDIAN ERUPTIONS. 


Probably no voleanic outburst has been the subject of so much 
descriptive writing as that of the West Indian eruptions of the 
year 1902.’ Voluminous accounts have appeared in the daily 
press of Europe and America, articles containing much detailed 
description are to be found in the monthly magazines, in one of 
which the subject occupies 50 pages,* and several special com- 
missions of expert observers have visited the islands and 
reported on the eruptions and their results. It will, therefore, 
only be necessary here to very briefly state the general features 
of the eruptions and to indicate the phenomena that were 
exceptional and pecuhar. | 

There is no difficulty in classifying the whole of the out- 
bursts, both in Martinique and St. Vincent, as explosive 
eruptions, for although the early accounts mention “ lava,” all 
that has since appeared show that there has been no emission 
of fluid lava. There were the usual premonitions of eruptive 
activity after dormancy ; subterranean rumblings, accompanied 
by emissions of steam, had been heard for three months before 
the outburst; ash-clouds had begun to darken the sky in the 
latter days of April; and on May 2nd soft ashes lay 16 inches 
deep over the Savane of the city of St. Pierre. On May 3rd 
the so-called “smoke ” was illuminated, indicating the presence 
of incandescent matter in the crater throat below. On May 5th 
a deluge of hot mud poured down not from the summit crater 
of the Martinique volcano, La Montagne Pelée, 4,000 feet, but 
from a vent at about 2,400 feet above sea level, where had been 
the “ Etang Sec,” a dry depression since the eruption of 1851 
until April 27th last, when it held a pool of water 600 feet in 
diameter.— This great flow of mud overwhelmed the lower 
grounds and a large manufactory, the Usine Guerin, at the foot 
of the mountain, just as Herculaneum at the foot of Vesuvius 
was overwhelmed by volcanic mud in A.D. 79. 

After two days of less violent activity, May 8th (1902) wit- 


* The Century Magazine, August, 1902. 
+ Fortnightly Review, August, 1902. 


AND THE WEST INDIAN ERUPTIONS OF 1902. 215 


nessed the appalling total destruction of a town with its 30,000 
inhabitants in less than a quarter of an hour, This terrible catas- 
trophe was caused by what must be regarded as an exceptional 
phenomenon. It has been variously described, and it is not a 
matter for surprise that the descriptions of some eye-witnesses 
under the terrors of their experiences were not scientifically 
accurate. It was said there was a “sheet of flame” spreading 
out horizontally over the city and burning everything beneath. 
In The Times the phenomenon was described as “a combination 
of suffocating heat, noxious vapours, a shower of burning cinders 
and a discharge of burning stones.” Dr. Flett and Dr. Tempest 
Anderson, reporting» for the Royal Society, say, “The most 
peculiar feature of these eruptions is the avalanche of incan- 
descent sand and the great black cloud which accompanies it,” 
and again, that “a mass of incandescent lava rises and wells 
over the lip of the crater in the form of an avalanche of red- 
hot dust, it is lava blown to pieces by the expansion of the 
gases it contains. It rushes down the slopes of the hill, 
carrylng with it a terrific blast, which mows down everything 
in its path. The mixture of dust and gas behaves in many 
ways lke a fluid. The exact chemical composition of these 
gases remains unsettled. They apparently consist principally 
of steam and sulphurous acid. There are many reasons which 
make it unlikely that they contain much oxygen, and they do 
not support respiration.”* 

Professor Heilprin has confidence in the report of the officers 
of a French cable-ship that was about eight miles distant, who 
while “ watching the tall column of ‘smoke’ issuing from the 
summit crater, observed a puffing cloud rise from the flank of 
the voleano, followed immediately by a dense black vaporous 
mass which with intense rapidity rolled down the mountain 
slope, hanging close to the surface, and becoming brilliantly 
luminous as it approached the sea-border.’’f 

On May 20th a similar phenomenon seems to have occurred 
which destroyed much that had been left standing by the 
eruption of May 8th, and again during the visit of Drs. Flett 
and Anderson on July 9th an outburst took place with a 
similar incandescent avalanche, and still later, on August 30th, 
when the town of Morne Rouge and three villages were 
destroyed. 

Professor Heilprin is of opinion that the eruption of 


* The Times, August 21st, 1902. 
t Fortnightly Review, August, 1902. 


216 J. LOGAN LOBLEY, F.G.8., F.R.G.S., ON VOLCANIC ACTION 


May 8th was not from the summit crater which previous 
to these events had held a small lake, called the Lac des 
Palmistes, but from a “lower vent which had opened on the 
western slope of the mountain,’ which he appears to think was 
that from which the mud-flow of May 5th was discharged. He 
also considers that the “glowing cloud was mainly composed of 
one of the heavier carbon gases brought under pressure to a 
condition of extreme incandescence, and whose liberation and 
contact with the oxygen of the atmosphere, assisted by electric 
discharges, wrought the explosion or series of explosions that 
developed the catastrophe.” 

In these accounts from highly competent observers there is 
some ambiguity and some divergence. From what follows, the 
phrase, “a mass of incandescent lava” cannot refer to fluid 
lava but to solid ejectamenta in a finely divided state, or 
properly volcanic ash, or, as it is elsewhere called in this report, 
“dust” and “sand.” To this incandescent ash one report 
seems to attribute the appearance of a sheet of flame, and the 
other to actual incandescent gas which may rightly be called 
“flame.” All accounts, however, agree in recording the 
characteristics of explosive eruptions as they have been already 
here described.* 

The eruptions of St. Vincent were generally synchronous 
with those of Martinique, but the principal outburst took place 
on May 7th, a day on which La Montagne Pelée was not 
particularly active, but the day before the great explosion of 
that volcano. The Soufriere gave a premonition of renewed 
activity on May 5th by a disturbance of the waters of the lake 
which then occupied its old crater. On the following day its 
eruptions commenced, accompanied by violent earthquake action, 
the issue of great volumes of steam, and by loud explosive 
thunderings. Then on the next day, May 7th, St. Vincent's 
ereat outburst took place. Its terrific explosions could be heard 
throughout the Caribbean Sea, while immense volumes of steam 
rose to great altitudes. We are told that “A huge cloud in 
dark dense columns charged with voleanic matter rose to a 
height of eight miles from the mountain top, and darkness hke 
midnight descended. The sulphurous air was laden with fine 
dust, and black rain followed rain of scoriz, rocks and stones.” 


* Many of the phenomena here described were witnessed by Dr. T. 
Anderson and Dr. Flett, and are described, with illustrations, by the 
former observer in the Geographical Magazine, March, 1903. 


AND THE WEST INDIAN ERUPTIONS OF 1902. 217 


It was this dust, or fine ash, of which samples have been 
brought to this country from the islands of Barbados, where it 
fell at a distance of 100 miles from its place of discharge. As 
will be seen from the specimens, this volcanic ash is a fine grey 
powder, the largest particles being less than ;!; of an inch. 
Under the microscope it is found to consist of crystals of 
plagioclase felspar, hypersthene, augite, and magnetite with a 
small amount of voleanic glass. An analysis by Dr. Pollard 
gave the following result* :-— 


Silica aa es Ts ax pie Ge ou 
Oxide of SS peirnn ee, ae in 95 
Atummea: «.: x3 ae , iS 1S 79 
Peroxide of iron ... ett ast, ae 28 
Protoxide of iron ... ey aan od. eS 
Oxide of manganese = _ at. ‘28 
Oxide of cobalt and nickel a = 07 
Lime eh it ae ae ~ 9°58 
Maenesia ... oe: ee me mea! OLLG 
Potash ke oe we By Bes 60 
Soda a oe: i aC sen ee 
Phosphoric acid ... Fe. a3 Bs. "15 
sulphuric acid ~ ... Hite a aay 33 
Ghiorime 2. Be. ne ed Ae 14 
Water te ts a Dele fn, Si 

LO0735 


It is an interesting fact that the ash from St. Vincent was 
carried to Barbados by an upper current of air moving in the 
contrary direction to the surface wind which was the ordinary 
“trade wind” of the region, from east to west, the island of 
Barbados being due east ‘from St. Vincent. 

Apart from the extraordinary incandescent avalanches of the 
Martinique volcano, the West Indian eruptions of 1902 have 
not exhibited phenomena other than normal. Their magnitude 
has been often exceeded, and in our own times the Krakatoa 
eruption of 1883 was a much ereater one, with much more 
topographical derangement, and equally great destruction of 
human life. 


* Nature, June 5th, 1902 


218 5. LOGAN LOBLEY, F.G.S., F.R.G.8., ON VOLCANIC ACTION 


(GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS AND RESULTS 
OF VOLCANIC ACTION. 


For a due estimation of the sufficiency of any hypothesis of 
volcanic action it is, however, not enough to consider only the 
phenomena of eruptions. The larger facts, both geological and 
geographical, consequent upon, or incidental to, voleanic action, 
not only in the present epoch, but during past periods of the 
earth’s history, must be taken into consideration, and their 
relative importance carefully valued. 

These are so numerous and varied that a volume would be 
required to do justice to their interesting and important 
characters. All that can be done here is to give a brief 
summary, and with this | must now content myself. 

The outputs of volcanic eruptions relatively to the bulk of 
the globe are individually infinitesimal, and in their aggregate 
form only a small part of even the land surface of the earth. 

There is no general constant flexibility of the earth’s surface, 

each subsidence or upheaval being local and of limited duration, 
while astronomical calculations and the general stability of land 
and sea during long periods prove great rigidity of the exterior 
of the globe as a whole, and consequently a great thickness of 
solid rocky substructure. 

The inorganic Palseozoic conditions of the earth’s surface were 
generally similar to those of Neozoic times, as shown by similar 
organisms, ripple-marks, worm-burrowings, rain-pittings, etc... 
and Paleozoic volcanic action does not appear to have been 
ereater than Neozoic, while the highest mountain ranges have 
received a large amount of their pr esent elevation since the close 
of the secondary period. 

The specific gravity of the globe is only 5°5, although that of 
surface rocks 1s over 2°5, while the pressure at the centre is. 
calculated by Walterhausen at 2,498,600 atmospheres, and by 
Laplace. at 5,000,660. 

Heat increases with depth below the surface at a rate that if 
continued would give rock-fusion, under atmospheric pressure 
only, at from 25 to 30 miles, and at half the distance to the 
centre a temperature equal to that of the sun, an impossible 
heat, and consequently there is not a continued uniform increase 
ot heat. 

Rock-fusion resulting from relief of vertical pressure in 
subterranean regions would not, with an open vent, be limited 
in lateral extension, and surface ruptures would be produced 
with lava outputs on a scale far transcending any catastrophes. 


AND THE WEST INDIAN ERUPTIONS OF 1902. 219 


that have ever occurred; yet volcanic action has gone on for 
long periods of time in many areas without causing any surface 
derangements other than the building up of conical hills or the 
rupture of very small areas. 

Areas of great volcanic activity in Paleozoic and even in 
Tertiary times, although still contiguous to the sea, are, and 
have been for prolonged periods, perfectly unvoleanie, and 
insular volcanoes in more recent times have become extinct 
without change of geographical conditions, as in Madeira and 
the Canary Islands. 

Lavas from different volcanic regions though having a general 
resemblance, are not the same in composition, and some present 
considerable differences ; while the products of the same 
voleanic centre at different periods may be _ respectively 
trachytic and augitic, as those of the Alban Hills; or may be 
characterized by different mineralogical features, as those of the 
Somma-Vesuvian centre; and moreover trachytic and augitic 
lavas may respectively be emitted by each of two vents in the 
same volcanic region. 

Lava solidifies with a small loss of heat, lava flows of little 
volume solidifying rapidly, and many lava flows are small. 

Eruptive energy may suddenly occur where no volcanic vent 
previously existed, in some cases followed by a continuance of 
activity, as at Jorullo, and sometimes after a brief outburst 
followed by perfect quiescence, as at Monte Nuovo. 

Two volcanic craters on the same dome may not be sympathetic 
im activity, as Kilauea and Mauna-Loa, yet the eruptive axis 
of a volcano may alter its position as in Vulcano and Vulcanello, 
and the volcanic foci of Etna and Vesuvius were calculated by 
Mallet to be only a few miles deep. 

The chief Northern European Tertiary volcanic outpouring, 
that of the lavas of Antrim, Iona, Staffa, and Mull, was in the 
same geological epoch as the great Central Kuropean subsidence, 
and the oveat Central European outpouring, that of the lavas of 
Auvergne, Central Germany, Bohemia, and Hungary, was 
contemporaneous with the principal Central European Tertiary 
elevation. The Andean Central American and West Indian 
volcanic regions are rising, or geologically recently elevated, 
areas ; and, generally, volcanic action is on rising rather than 
subsiding areas. 

Active volcanoes, with few exceptions, are near the sea cr 
water areas, and inland extinct voleanoes were similarly situated 
at the period of their activity, as in Auvergne and Hungary, 
while extinction of activity has followed the removal of the 


220 J. LOGAN LOBLEY, F.G.8., F.R.G.8., ON VOLCANIC ACTION 


coast-line to a very moderate distance, as in the neighbourhood 
of Rome. 

Steam is a most abundant and sea-salt a common product of 
explosive eruptions, and some volcanic tufas consist largely of 
marine Diatomacea as in Patagonia. 

Enormous flows of lava have been poured on to the surface 
without explosive effects, and there are vast beds of lava-rock 
not associated with volcanic scoriz or cones, as in Antrim, 
Abyssinia, and Idaho; and Plutonic igneous rock-masses and 
dykes have, been also formed without explosive effects. 

Volcanoes quite dormant for many centuries have sometimes 
commenced a new epoch of activity, as Vesuvius in A.D. 79; 
and sometimes after an eruption have relapsed into complete 
quiescence, as Epomeo in 1302. 

Pressure caused by shrinkage of the earth’s crust would be 
tangential, not vertical, and the heat produced by the crushing 
pressure of rocks is not localized at the points of contact, but 
disseminated through the rock-masses synchronously with 
production. 

2,000,000 tons pressure are removed from every square mile 
of the earth’s surface when the barometer falls two inches, and 
observations of the activity of Stromboli and Vesuvius seem to 
indicate an approximation to periodicity of eruptive energy 
coincident with (1) autumn and winter; (2) the lunar syzygies : 
and (3) with hygrometric atmospheric conditions. 

Antecedent to eruptions, earthquakes, or earth-tremors, occur, 
especially, and more violently, previous to the opening of new 
vents, as at Jorullo and Monte Nuovo, and after long dormancy, 
as before the first historic eruption of Vesuvius. 

Though great volcanic activity may occur at particular 
periods, yet no sympathy between the eruptive energy at two 
well scparated vents has been with certainty found to exist. 

This statement of governing facts to be kept in view when an 
endeavour is made to explain the cause of volcanic action, 
though brief and incomplete, is perhaps sufficiently comprehensive 
to prevent a too ready acceptance of inadequate hypotheses, 
while it may serve to show as well the difficulty as the highly 
interesting character of the subject. So difficult, indeed, does 
it appear to the authors of geological works, that for the most 
part they content themselves with a description of phenomena 
and a statement of some hypotheses, while refraining from 
giving any explicit opinion of their own. 


AND THE WEST INDIAN ERUPTIONS OF 1902. yal 


TuE CAUSE OF VOLCANIC ACTION. 


The due consideration of the cause of Volcanic Action would 
require a treatise and, therefore, all I can do here is to give an 
outline that may be useful, and to refer my hearers or readers 
to where I have dealt more fully with the subject.* For the 
sake of brevity and clearness it may be well to proceed by the 
method of elimination. 

The hypothesis that must first be disposed of is that of all 
lava being derived from one great central source, or, in other 
words, that the globe contains in its interior a vast central body 
of fused rock-matter that gives to all volcanoes their lava and 
other ejectamenta. 

This is based on several considerations. The increase of 
temperature with descent from the surface, found in mines and 
borings, will give a rock-fusing heat at from 25 to 30 miles 
depth if continuous. The Nebular Hypothesis of the origin of 
the Solar System gives an original heat to the earth-mass equal 
to that of the sum at the time of detachment, and which heat 
would be greatly above the fusion point of rocks. This high 
temperature would be very largely retained in the interior of 
the earth-mass, while the exterior would cool and solidify, and 


* Report, British Association, Bath, 1888, p. 670. 

“On the Causes of Volcanic Action,” Proc. Geol. Assoc., 1889, vol. xi, 
pL 

Mount Vesuvius, 1889, chapter viii, p. 212. 

Report, British Association, Oxford, 1894. 

“On the Climate of the Cambrian Period,” Anowledge, November, 
1894, vol. xvii, p. 260. 

“On the Mean Radial Variation of the Globe,’ Quart. Jour. Geol. 
Soc., 1895, vol. li, p. 99. 

“On the Cause of Earthquakes,” Aznowledge, July 1895, vol. xviii, 
p- 161. 

“Volcanic Phenomena,” Jour. City of Lon. Col. Sct. Soc., 1896, vol. iv, 
ja 

“The Foldings of the Rocks,” Anowledge, 1896, vol. xix, p. 162. 

“On the Source of Lava,” and 

“On the Post Cambrian Shrinkage of the Globe.” 

“The Mean Radial Variation of the Globe.” Rep. Brit. Assoc., 
Liverpool, 1896. 

Presidential Address, 1896, City of Lon. Coll. Sci. Soc., Jour. of Soc., 
vol. iv, p. 69. 

“On the Depth of the Source of Lava,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 
1897. 

“The Crust of the Globe and its Disturbances.” 

Presidential Address, 1897, City of Lon. Coll. Sct. Soe., Jour. of Soc., 
vol. v, p. 1. 


222 J. LOGAN LOBLEY, F.G.S., FsR.G.S., ON VOLCANIC AUTION 


thus it was concluded a fused mass would remain in the 
interior enclosed in a solid crust. There is, besides, a general 
similarity in the character of volcanic ejectamenta in all parts 
of the world. 

It has, however, now been ascertained by physical research 
and astronomical observation, that the rigidity of the earth as a 
planet is so great that it must either be a solid sphere or have 
a solid crust of very great thickness, from 400 to 800 miles at 
least, a thickness of massive cooler rocks obviously far too great 
for lava to pass through. Lord Kelvin is of opinion that the 
earth is solid to the centre. The increase of heat with descent 
will in its fusing effect be counteracted by the enormous 
pressure of the exterior rocks, and thus solidity may be main- 
tained at avery high temperature. The general similarity of 
volcanic ejectamenta may be explained by the general similarity 
of the erystalline rocks which form the platform, as it were, 
upon which the clastic or sedimentary rocks are superimposed, 
and which, therefore, we must conclude, underlie the derived 
rocks everywhere around the lithosphere of the globe. These 
primordial rocks are made up of minerals that are combinations 
of but a few chemical elements in the aggregate, and so on 
being melted will give generally similar products. And it is 
only a general similarity that exists, since there is a considerable 
divergence in specific chemical composition to be found in the 
outputs of different volcanoes. 

From these considerations, the central source hypothesis must 
be regarded as quite inadmissible, and ought now to be looked 
upon by all writers on the subject as obsolete, and yet this 
hypothesis is imphed in much that is written on volcanoes in 
recent works and especially in newspapers. 

The wide-spread opinion, however, that lava is derived from 
a distance of about 30 miles from the surface, is not dependent 
on the central source hypothesis, since it is compatible both 
with separated reservoirs of fused rock matter in a thick crust, 
or in an otherwise solid globe, and with an intermediate Ocean 
of fluid lava between a solid central mass and a solid crust. 

Lateral pressure relieves and lessens vertical pressure, and so 
at places in a thick earth’s crust it was said the great vertical 
and fusion preventing pressure of the exterior rocks may be so 
much lessened by lateral pressure that the internal heat may 
exert its fusing effect, with the result of converting solid zock- 
masses into subterranean lakes of molten rock-matter, from 
which the surface volcanoes receive their supphes of lava. 

To this it may be replied. that a thickness of 30 miles of 


AND THE WEST INDIAN ERUPTIONS OF 1902. 223 


rocks cooler than lava at their base and becoming continuously 
cooler to the surface, even with a conduit throughout, is much too 
ereat a thickness for lava to pass through unsoliditied. A lava 
coluinn of 100 feet diameter would give a much greater flow 
than the great majority of lava emissions either in the present 
epoch or in past geological periods. Yet this would be a mere 
thread in proportion to its length of 30 miles. From the records 
of many eruptions, I find that an ascending movement of 1 foot 
per second will give an unusually rapid flow of the more mobile 
or basic lava, yet at this rapid rate the lava would require 44 
hours to travel from a base of 30 miles depth, all the time im 
contact with cooler and, as it rose, with increasingly cooler rocks. 
Fiuid Java has little excess of heat over the fusion point and 
consequently with little loss of heat it solidifies. Such a 
column of lava would therefore solidify long before reaching the 
surface. But the great majority of lava-flows are much 
smaller than one from 100 feet column, and in a great number 
of cases are very small flows. These must, therefore, be from 
very thin columns or from very slowly ascending columns, and 
in either case the possibility of the fluid lava reaching the 
surface must be dependent on a comparatively small depth of 
source. 

There is, again, another objection that seems to me to be even 
more conclusive against a 30 miles depth of the source of lava. 
This is that there could not possibly be a fissure or conduit 
threugh 30 miles of rocks, or, indeed, through rocks at all 
approaching that thickness. The weight of a column of ordinary 
rock of 1 square foot section is 400 tons per mile, or 800 tons 
for two miles. This exceeds the crushing weight of granite, 
which is 720 tons per cubic foot. Although in great mass, from 
lateral resistance of the contiguous rock-masses giving a 
counteracting resultant force, the full weight of 800 tons would 
not be exerted at 2 miles depti, yet it would at a somewhat 
greater depth, and thus, as M. Tresca has shown, at a depth of 
more than a few miles from the surface, the rocks, although 
solid, will “ flow,” or move horizontally, if laterally unsupported, 
and consequently cracks or fissures at these depths are impossible. 
Hence it will be quite sate to say that no openings exists below 
a few miles from the surface. 

Thus it would appear that both the central source of lava and 
the 30 miles distant source of lava, must be given up, and with 
them, of course, all hypothesis founded on those bases. This 
narrows and simplifies the inquiry very greatly, since, with the 
elimination of these hypotheses, we can no longer regard the 


224 J. LOGAN LOBLEY, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., ON VOLCANIC ACTION 


internal planetary heat of the globe as that which fuses rocks 
and gives volcanic lava, for the internal heat at less depths 
than 25 miles is altogether inadequate for the melting of rocks 
even under the small atmospheric pressure of surface 
conditions. 

But the rock-fusing temperature that gives fluid lava has to 
be accounted for. 

This at the moderate depth which will soa allow of com- 
munication by a conduit with the surface, it seems to me, can 
only be explained by chemicai action being brought into play. 
This, however, does not exclude whatever effect the planetary 
heat existing at that depth is capable of exerting. At a depth 
of five miles there is doubtless, in accordance with the Report 
of the British Association Committee on Underground Tem- 
peratures, a temperature of about 500° F. Heat favours 
chemical action and will cause it to arise where under 
cooler conditions no chemical action would take place. 
But chemical action may be prevented or checked by 
pressure, and the normal pressure at five miles depth is 
enormous. Then this vertical pressure may be greatly relieved 
by lateral pressure and other causes, and when so relieved, 
chemical reactions that had been prevented at a favouring 
temperature by greater pressure would commence. This 
chemical action will give an accession of heat that may 
give rise to further and more intense chemical action that 
will still further raise the temperature. By this action and 
reaction heat may be augmented until a rock-fusing tem- 
perature is reached. Such action, of course, would only take 
place where the contents or composition of the rocks gave 
suitable elements for chemical reactions, and for only so long 
as those conditions continued. Thus volcanic action in 
definite and limited areas, as well as the local extinction of 
voleanic action where geographical conditions are unaltered, 
may be readily explained. 

Although lessened, the pressure of the exterior rocks may 
yet be great, and this together with the increase of volume by 
fusion and the expansion of adjacent rocks by the neighbouring 
great heat, will force the lava upwards through any conduit 
available. Such a rise of lava may bring it into contact with 
the water of the exterior rocks, when hydrothermal conditions, 
or the sudden production of steam, will cause explosive effects 
and give the earth-tremors and thunderings of incipient 
eruptions, and may also produce rendings of the surface rocks, 
and so form passages for great and sudden influxes of sea or 


AND THE WEST INDIAN ERUPTIONS OF 1902. 2m 


lake water, that will then cause the greater explosive effects ot 
eruptions, and produce the vast volumes of steam that ascend 
above the eruptive craters. 

Should the lava not find a conduit extending to the surface, 
Plutonic dykes may be formed far below; and should lava 
reach the surface without meeting with water, a purely 
emissive eruption will be the result. 

The great paroxysmal explosive eruptions, such as the 
recent West Indian outbursts, may, therefore, be regarded as 
due to the formation and rise of an unusually large body of 
lava, together with the supply to the volcanic conduit of 
sufficiently large bodies of water, to transform the whole into 
solid fragmentary ejectamenta. As the fusion temperature of 
rocks is above the critical point of water, some of the water 
may be decomposed by the disassociation of its elements, and 
free hydrogen being thus evolved some of the effects stated in 
the reports of the recent eruptions might be produced by the 
inflammability of that gas. 

The time of an eruption may, I consider, be determined by 
one or more of several factors, that will be sufficient to give 
the requisite relief of vertical pressure. Amongst these factors 
will be lateral pressure, secular elevation, planetary or lunar 
attraction, and hygrometric atmospheric conditions. In illus- 
tration of the reliet of pressure consequent upon the last-named 
factor, it may be mentioned that a fall of the barometer of two 
inches will remove pressure from the area of the base of Mount 
Etna alone, to the extent of two thousand millions (2,000,000,000) 
of tons. The islands of Martinique and St. Vincent, with the 
other islands of the Lesser Antilles, are on the crest of a long 
ridge that has been elevated in comparatively recent geological 
times, and the elevatory movement has apparently not yet 
altogether ceased. It is this elevation with its consequent 
rehef of pressure that has most probably been the cause of 
the renewed volcanic activity in the Windward Islands of the 
West Indies. 

The explanation of volcanic action which I have here ventured 
to give is in accordance with an*hypothesis I brought before the 
British Association so long ago as the Bath Meeting of 1888. 
As I have not since become acquainted with anything to shake 
that hypothesis, perhaps I may be pardoned for having some 
confidence in its soundness, which appears to me to be sup- 
ported and illustrated by the West Indian eruptions of 1902. 


226 J. LOGAN LOBLEY, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., ON VOLCANIC ACTION 


DISCUSSION. 


The CHAIRMAN.—Our Secretary, who has had to leave, has put 
into my hand his remarks on the two papers. 

The SECRETARY much regretted that neither of the authors of 
these two valuable papers were present. He had hoped that both 
would have been with them this evening—as the date for reading 
had been originally fixed in order to meet their convenience. But 
Professor Spencer’s arrival in England had been delayed owing to 
various causes. He was, in fact, at that moment crossing the 
Atlantic, and is expected to arrive about the 28th of this month. 
Professor Logan Lobley writes that he was obliged to leave England 
for France and Spain on the 14th inst., and that he greatly regrets 
not being able to read his paper and take part in the discussion, 
which he hopes will be interesting. | 

We have to express our thanks to Dr. Tempest Anderson, of York, 
for the use of the lantern slides of photographic views taken by 
himself when in company with Dr. J. 8S. Flett. He was engaged in 
reporting, last year, for the Royal Society on the phenomena 
displayed by the volcanic eruptions in the West Indian Islands. 
These will have given members a better idea of the character and 
effects of the eruptions than any oral or written description; they 
are well reproduced in Dr. Anderson’s paper, published in the 
Geographical Journal for March, 1903. 

The two papers before us this evening appear to be complementary. 
Each deals with an aspect of the subject not treated in the other. 
Professor Spencer’s paper gives us very precise details regarding the 
physical structure of the West Indian Islands, which have, for 
several years past, been the objects of his special and arduous 
investigation. He has shown us that these islands have undergone 
great vertical movements of elevation and depression ; that there 
were volcanic outbursts on a much larger scale than those of recent 
times at a period which cannot be definitely fixed, beyond the fact 
that they are older than the Tertiary period, and it is satisfactory to 
know that the volcanic eruptions have decreased in intensity into 
recent times. He also maintains his view that the plateau of the 
West Indian Islands formed a great causeway during the Pleistocene 


AND THE WEST INDIAN ERUPTIONS OF 1902. Poa § 


epoch (which was one of great elevation of the sea-bed and land) by 
which the two continents were joined, and by means of which land 
animals migrated from one continent to the other, and finally he 
points out the connection between the oscillations of level and the 
outbursts or subsidence of volcanic activity. 

Professor Logan Lobley, while referring to the West Indian 
volcanoes, deals with the source and origin of volcanic action on 
broad principles, which can scarcely be gainsaid. By his work on 
Mount Vesuvius, and his numerous papers in scientific publications, 
he has taken a high place amongst authorities on vulcanicity, and I 
quite agree with him that the central-source theory is untenable. I 
do not think, however, that he sufficiently recognizes the necessarily 
distinctive sources of the heavy basic, and the lighter acid, lavas as 
originally determined by Durocher, nor does he account for the 
sequence of these varieties of lava at apparently the same source as 
in the case of the Siebengeberge in the Rhine Valley, where the 
light acid trachyte was succeeded by the basic basalt lava. These, 
however, are minor points, and do not detract from the intrinsic 
value of the essay, and they may not have come within the scope of 
his communication. 


228 


ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.* 
GENERAL HALLIDAY IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed. 
The following elections were announced :— 


ASSOCIATES per G. Juhlin, Arvika, Sweden ; Herr 8. Sundholm, B.A., 
Sentula, Finland ; Rev. Charles C. Petch, Gorakhpur, India. 
The following papers were read :— 
No. I. Report on the Congress of Orientalists held at Hamburg in 
September, 1902. 


No. Il. The Laws of the Babylonians, as recorded in the Code of 
Hammurabi. 


No. I. 


REPORT ON THE CONGRESS OF ORIENTALIISTS 
HELD AT HAMBURG IN SEPTEMBER, 1902. 
By THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, Esq., LL.D., M.R.AS. 


T was promised us, when the invitation reached Rome in 
1899, that we should have a right good welcome in the 
great commercial city of Hamburg, and that everything would 
be done in a superior manner. And as a matter of fact, our 
welcome was of the most cordial nature, such as the German 
nation knows well how to extend. A committee, appointed for the 
purpose, found for us lodgings at prices in accordance with the 
indications given, and they performed their work well, for 
there are not many Orientalists who know Hamburg, and 
though most of the visitors would have preferred to choose 
their lodgings themselves, the kind offices of the committee 
were a great saving of time and trouble. 
The first reception of the Congressists was on the eve of the 
day when the assembly was to begin work. This took place in 


* Monday, May 4th, 1903. 


REPORT ON THE CONGRESS OF ORIENTALIS'TS. 220 


the Concert-house, where a band enlivened the monotony of 
the conversation. In accordance with what is apparently the 
German custom, each person paid for what he required, but as 
the refreshments available were not always to the taste of the 
nationalities represented, the trade done by the waiters of the 
institution was small. The assembly was welcomed by 
Professor Windisch, of Leipzig, president of the Congress 
and also of the German Oriental Society. He was followed 
by the Chairman of the Senate, Dr. LD. Behrmann, whose 
speech of welcome was a specially gratifying one to the 
Assyriologists present, and showed what an important place 
their study had taken in the circle of researches dealing with 
the East, and this has been emphasized, as many of my 
audience are aware, by the interest which the German Em- 
peror has taken and probably still takes in it, as is shown by 
his having attended Professor Fried. Delitzsch’s lectures, con- 
cerning which I shall have something to say later on. Dr. 
Behrmann, in the course of his remarks, pointed out that a 
hundred years before, on the 4th September, 1802, Grotefend 
laid before the Society of Sciences at Géttingen his paper upon 
the decipherment of the Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions, in 
which he had reasoned out at least eight letters of that system 
of writing. In amanner never hoped for (he continued) light 
had been thrown upon the gloom of antiquity, for the boundary 
of knowable things had been shifted back a fourth part of ten 
millenniums. It was difficult to say whether the century 
which had just begun would be as fruitful in discoveries as 
that which had so ‘lately come to a close, but there was no 
doubt that the members of the Congress would work full of 
strenuous earnestness into the future, then on the evening of 
the present century ; a thankful posterity would say, in the 
words of the Arabic proverb, Al-fahra lil-mubtedi, wa in ahsanu 
l-mugtedi, “ Honour to the beginner, even though his suc- 
cessor bas done better.” 

We found that the sections of the Congress would meet in 
the Concert-house, where the first reception had been held, with 
the exception of the Egyptian and the Indian sections, which 
met at the State laboratory. This was naturally in the highest 
degree inconvenient for those who took an interest in these 
subjects and in the doings of the other sections, the two build- 
ings being rather far apart. Moreover, the sundered sections 
did not come very often into contact, and, therefore. did not 
have an opportunity of exchanging ideas and notes. 

In all probability one of the most tedious things in connection 


250 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


with a congress is listening to all the speeches of salutation or 
greeting which are given, at the first plenary meeting, by the 
representatives of the various governments. There were at 
the Hamburg Congress fifteen of them, and what they had to 
say, with the addresses of the president and vice-president 
(Herr Senior D. Behrmann and Burgomaster Dr. Ménkeberg), 
who, with the other vice-presidents, were then. elected, brought 
up the total of the speeches to about twenty. The listener can- 
not escape from the feeling that such time might be better 
spent. Nevertheless, ene feels naturally a certain amount of 
interest on.such occasions when someone gets up to speak in 
the English language (which happened fairly often), or when 
the speaker made his remarks in a language seldom heard, as 
did the Egyptian delegate, Ahmed Zeki Bey, who uttered his 
words of salutation in Arabic, to the great gratification of all 
those who know anything of that language. As to the speech 
of the Chinese delegate, that was naturally for the extreme few, 
but 1t was made comprehensible to most of the audience by 
rendering into very excellent German by his Chinese inter- 
preter. It was noted that some of the United States delegates, 
even those with English names, sometimes preferred to speak 
German. In the afternoon sectional meetings took place, so 
that there was no loss of time in getting to work.* 

As it will be impossible for me to vefer in detail to all the 
papers which were read, I propose to speak of such of them as 
may be regarded as of general interest to the members of this 
Institute, though my own predilection will naturally be mani- 
fest, especially as those which I heard were, to some extent, 
papers dealing with my own subject, whilst the remainder 
were related thereto more or less. Unlike other congresses. 
of Orientalists which have been held, no. short abstracts of 
the papers have been issued, so that the general public and 
the members of the Congress who were unable to attend all 
the meetings find themselves in almost absolute ignorance 
of the value of the papers which they were unable to 
hear. The London Orientalist Congress held ten years ago 
was, In, this respect, far away in advance of that of Hamburg, 
which cannot claim, therefore, to be a place where such things 
are managed better. 

As, after the election of Professor Buhl as President of the 


* Tt is worthy of notice, that this was the first Orientalist Congress at 
which the Government of Ceylon has been represented, the delegate 
being Don Martino de Zilva Wickremasinghe. 


REPORT ON THE CONGRESS OF ORIENTALISTS. 231 


fifth (General Semitic) Section, I was the first of those asked 
who had his manuscript with him, my paper upon “A Small 
Collection of Babylonian Tablets from the Birs Nimroud,” 
being an account of a portion of the collection belonging to 
Lord Amherst of Hackney, was the first read. The Birs Nim- 
roud, as probably most of my audience know, is the ruin of the 
great temple - tower at Borsippa (of this word Birs is 
probably a corruption), which was a religious centre of con- 
siderable importance at the time Babylonia existed as a nation, 
and is regarded by many as the place where the Tower of Babel 
stood. The documents described were mainly contract-tablets, 
and covered a period dating from some interregnum, when 
Assyrian influence was supreme, to the time of Artaxerxes. 
This earliest tablet, of the time when there was no king of the 
native line in Babylon, is dated in the reign of an eponym, a 
kind of mayor in the city of Babylon, named Ubar. It is the 
only instance of dating by eponyms in Babylonian history 
known to me, and is of considerable importance on that 
account. The names of the witnesses imply that the document 
belongs to the reign of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon, who, as 
we know from the Old Testament and the inscriptions, some- 
times held his court at Babylon. 

As is well known, after the reign of Nabonidus, when Bel- 
shazzar, his son, seems to have held a position equal to that of 
king, the Babylonians never regained their political liberty. 
This, however, does not mean that they never tried, as the 
tablet dated in the reign of Sama§g-iriba, which was studied 
many years ago by Professor Oppert, sufticiently shows. 
Further confirmation of this I was able to bring forward, by 
quoting two of Lord Amherst’s collection, one dated in the 
reign of a Babylonian named Bél-Simanni, and the other in 
that of a Persian which I read doubtfully as Siku&ti. It will 
therefore be seen that the Babylonians of the Persian period 
were not particular as to the quarter whence the change which 
they desired came—they would have preferred a Babylonian 
ruler, in all probability, but failing that, they were willing to 
acknowledge another foreigner. Doubtless their opinion was, 
that under the new ruler things might be much better, and 
could not very well be worse. 

An interesting paper read at the same sitting of the General 
Semitic Section was that: of Professor Paul Haupt, of Baltimore, 
U.S.A., upon the name of Tarshish, which he regarded as 
simply a place for crushing ore, and therefore applicable to 
any district where there was a foundry, or smelting-furnaces. 

Q 


2382 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


The root is generally compared, it will be remembered, with 
the Syriac rashsh, “to hammer.” This would be in many 
ways an acceptable theory, but how Tarshish comes to be the 
name of a precious stone, translated in the Authorized Version 
“beryl,’ but according to the Septuagint and Josephus the 
chrysolite, requires explanation. That the word occurs as the 
name of a Persian prince probably yields but little help. 

A noteworthy paper was that of Professor Merx, of 
Heidelberg, upon “The Influence of the Old Testament upon 
the Development and Formation of Universal History,” which 
was read at. the first plenary meeting. He said that without 
the exchange of ideas which had taken place between Orient 
and Occident, in its broader sense, our civilization would have 
been quite different from what it is at present. Referring to 
the uncritical way in which Herodotus approached the East, 
Professor Merx said that, with the genial simplicity of a true 
artist of story-telling of the first rank, Herodotus presented to 
us the account of all the known nationalities, mingling together 
history and legend, always interesting, and approaching the 
legends by no means uncritically; but he only presents what 
is of importance on account of its relation to Greece. Of a 
consecutive history of mankind, directed towards a definite 
end, he knows nothing; the race which resulted from the 
stones of Deucalion and Phyrrha have for him no united history. 
Diodorus Siculus, on the other hand, had the idea of general 
history as something continuous and fixed, and in his time the 
task of the historian was conceived as one in which he had to 
arrange in order the subject of which he treated in such a way 
as to show the association of races who, however, are divided 
from each other by time and space. But the historian at this 
period found himself in a great difficulty, for how was he to 
gain a uniform series of historical events, with their con- 
temporaneous reciprocal influences, when a united chronology 
was entirely wanting? Inquiring then how Old Testament 
history arose, and how it was systemized, Professor Merx said, 
that if there had ever been a nation which regarded itself as 
the centre of the world, that nation was the Jews. The various 
component parts of which Old Testament history is made up 
cover already, in the ninth century, when the Jehovist found 
his material, every kind of historical document. In this 
history his glance is as it were a universal one, as is proved 
by the ethnical table, which he incorporated into his work, and 
which is wrongly ascribed to another source. If we look 
closer at his work, we see that he has the unity of the human 


REPORT.ON THE CONGRESS OF ORIENTALIS'S. yaS 3 


race, the unity of God, who made and rules heaven and earth, 
and along with that the unity of the universe when he had no 
name for it. He had got as far as the Greeks, at a time when 
the pseudo-Aristotelian book upon the world was written, in 
which the cosmos is a system consisting of heaven and earth 
together with the beings contained therein, and among the 
many divine names only one God is accepted. (We may here 
note, that the Babylonians had already reached this point at a 
period yet to be determined, but which cannot be later than 
500 B.c., and may be as early as 2500 B.c.) It would be im- 
possible, however, to go over all the ground covered by this 
interesting lecture, which ought to be read in full to get an idea 
of its importance and suggestiveness. 

A paper of more general interest was that of Ahmed Zeki 
Bey, of Cairo, which was entitled, “The invention of gunpow- 
der and cannon attributed to German genius in the fourteenth 
century, according to Arab authors.” He began by referring to 
the dispute between scholars, as to whether gunpowder had 
been invented by the Chinese or the Spaniards. Though an 
Egyptian himself, he had come to another conclusion. In the 
libraries of Vienna, Constantinople, and Algiers was a manu- 
script, bearing the title, “The honour and the advantage which 
accrue to those who carry on war with the help of cannon.” 
This work was written by a Moor of Spain in Spanish (he 
having forgotten the language of his forefathers) in the year 
1635, and translated by a former interpreter to the Sultan of 
Moroceo. The author, like the translator, was a pious Moslem, 
and took to heart the expulsion of his compatriots, who were at 
the same time his co-religionists, from Spain, and this book 
was written as a means of advising them how to regain the 
lost provinces. It is divided into fifty chapters, and in the 
course of the work he speaks of the invention of gunpowder, 
which he attributes to a monk 265 years before his time—that 
is, in 1370. He praises especially the Germans, who, he says, 
were the cleverest masters in this engine of warfare. Clearly 
the claims of Roger Bacon were, in his time, unrecognized on 
the Continent. 

Papers upon Semitic pet-names, the superscription of the 
book of Jeremiah, and the present primitive Semitic sacrificial 
sites, the last by Professor Curtiss, of Chicago, were among 
those next read. In my own speciality, Professor Oppert read 
a paper upon the translation, which he had recently made, of 
the great cylinder-inscription of Gudea, that containiny his 
celebrated dream, which I hope to touch upon at greater length 

qg 2 


234 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


at some future time. Papers upon the pronunciation of 
Hebrew were not wanting, as that of Professor Guidi, of Rome, 
_and Dr. Ginsburg, of London, on the paseks, showed. Perennial 
with Professor Halévy is the question of the Semitic character 
of the Babylonian syllabary, which, strange to say, notwith- 
standing that, at the Congress of Paris, many “anti-Akkadists ” 
or “anti-Sumerists” declared themselves, was listened to in 
chilling silence, though several of those erstwhile “anti- 
Sumerists’’ were present at the meeting. 

Of considerable interest was the account of the excavations 
by the German Palestine Fund at Ta’annek, by the explorer, 
Professor Sellin, of Vienna. It was described as an important 
Canaanitish city, which was destroyed by the Assyrians, and is 
not again mentioned until the fourteenth century. The ruins 
excavated are three hundred metres long, and they le near a 
village bearing the old name, Ta’anach, consisting of a mosque 
and about twenty huts. The pottery of the site has the usual 
black concentric lines, and bronze implements and figures of 
Astarte were found. Of special interest was a black cylinder- 
seal with the Babylonian name Atanab-ili, servant of the god 
Nergal, similar to the numerous examples belonging to the 
period of the dynasty of Hammurabi. Among the graves 
excavated were some reyvarded as being those of sacrificed 
children, and altars, thought to have been used in connection 
with the rites attending these sacrifices, were found. In the 
south portion a destroyed room, with amulets and human 
remains, were likewise discovered. An ornamented altar among 
the ruins was described as being exactly like the Mosaic altar 
of incense. 

In view of the interest attaching to Professor Friederich 
Delitzsch’s two lectures entitled Babel und Bibel, and the 
German Emperor’s decision thereon, a short paper upon the 
name of Yahwah (Jehovah) by Professor Bezold, will probably 
be regarded as of greater interest than most of the other com- 
munications, though it cannot be said that it settled the point 
in question, namely, whether the name occurs or not either one 
way or the other. All the possible ways of reading the 
supposed original form of Jehovah were quoted, and the 
question aroused a certain amount of discussion. The names in 
which this divine appellation occurs are contained in inscrip- 
tions copied by me for the Trustees of the British Museum, 
and published by them in the series of inscriptions they are 
now issuing, entitled, Cuneiform Teats from Babylonian Tablets, 
parts iv and vii. The transcription of one of these names does. 


REPORT ON THE CONGRESS OF ORIENTALISTS. 235 


not admit of doubt, and was referred to by me in my paper 
upon “The Religion of the Babylonians 2000 years B.c.,” read 
at the Paris Congress for the History of Religion in 1900. It 
is the Babylonian equivalent of Joel, Yau™-ilu, meaning “ Jah 
is God,’ and cannot, at least with our present knowledge, prove 
the existence of the name Yahwah (Jehovah) at that early 
date. 

The other two forms Delitzsch reads la-a’-ve-ilu and La-ve-ilu 
respectively, and it must be admitted that they are both 
possible readings, especially if we change the v into w. I have 
no hesitation in saying, however, that if Professor Delitzsch’s 
transcription of the character before iu, whether written with 
v or with w, be correct, its identification with the original 
reading of the name Jehovah is exceedingly improbable. As 
was pointed out in the discussion which ensued, the form is a 
later one than that found 1500 years later, namely, Yaawa or 
Yawa, which occurs in several names quoted in the paper upon 
“The Religious Ideas of the Babylonians,” read before this 
Institute in 1895. It is to be noted, however, that the reading 
necessitated by the early date of these names is also possible, 
namely, Yawa-ilu and Yawa-tlu, in which case Professor 
Delitzsch would be right, and the names in question would 
mean “ Yahwah (Jehovah) is God,” though his transcription 
would be slightly incorrect. 

The readings Ya’pi-ilu and Yapi-ilu are possible, and this 
fact has to be taken into consideration. Professor Delitzsch’s 
theory, however, with the modification in the transcription 
which I have proposed, will always have to be regarded as one 
of the more probable ones, and may be accepted, with reserve, 
until material comes to light to prove the reading one way or 
the other. 

Before closing, there is one point which may be referred to, 
and that is the question of the publication of the transactions. 
Iu consequence of the motion of Professor Naville, the 
suggestion that abstracts only of the papers read should be 
printed was adopted. The reason of this is that the volumes 
of papers do not, as a rule, appear for several years after the 
Congress has been held—it is only ashort time since the second 
and third volumes of the Transactions of the Congress, held at 
tome in 1899, were announced as ready for delivery to the 
members, and this is, undoubtedly, an undesirable state of 
things. The issue of abstracts, it was supposed, would fully 
meet this difficulty, and it was provided in the resolution that 
the abstracts sent in for publication should not exceed two 


236 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


pages, and the volume containing them should be issued within 
six months. The writers of papers were to have the right of 
printing them in full in any publication which seemed good to 
them. 

It was at once seen by many, however, that this might be the 
death-blow to Congresses. A number of people subscribe to 
them without having any intention whatever of being present, 
their only desire being to receive the publication which it is the 
custom to issue. It is needless to say that their money is a 
very welcome addition to the funds of the Congress, and the 
people who stop away ought to be encouraged to add to the 
number of subscriptions received. There is also the possibility 
to be taken into consideration, that many of the people who 
are accustomed to attend Congresses may decide to refrain in 
consequence of the absence of transactions. To all appearance, 
however, it was only the small minority which realized these 
disadvantages, and this being the case, the proposed more than 
doubtful reform was carried by an overwhelming majority. 

Under this new rule, the abstracts of the papers ought by 
now to be in our hands, but when they will appear, no one 
knows. This, indeed, was foreseen at the outset, and one 
speaker upon the subject went so far as to say, that it was very 
doubtful whether the promised abstracts of papers would appear 
at all. With a view to clear up this question, I wrote to the 
Secretary of the Hamburg Congress, Dr. Sieveking, and received 
in reply the assurance that the volume would not only appear, 
but was actually in the hands of the printer. This was 
reassuring news, but it will be very much behindhand, | fear. 
Some of the contributors of papers may have received their 
proofs, but nothing of that nature has as yet reached my hands, 
and to all appearance two months more must elapse ere the 
volume reaches the members. The Congress of Rome surpassed 
that of Hamburg greatly in this respect, for full reports were 
issued to the members every day, enabling its progress to be 
easily followed, and how full they were may be judged from the 
fact, that in their reissued form, the daily bulletins total 
273 pages of closely-printed matter. One hardly wants any- 
thing more than this, and if the Hamburg Congress had issued 
something even half as extensive, one could have put up with 
the delay in issuing the volume of abstracts, and might even 
reconcile one’s self to the abandonment of the issue of 
Transactions. 


THE LAWS OF THE BABYLONIANS. 237 


Wo, IT. 


THE LAWS OF THE BABYLONIANS, AS RECORDED 
IN THE CODE OF HAMMURABI. By THEOPHILUS 
G. Pincuzs, Esq., LL.D., M.R.AS. 


TRANGE to say, Hammurabi’s Code of Laws, that remark- 
able addition to our knowledge of the rights of man when 
the world, in the sense of the people who inhabit it, was young, 
was not referred to by the Assyriologists who attended the 
Orientalist Congress at Hamburg. In all probability they 
had not had time to study it in all its bearings, and had 
nothing very new to say about it, for Father Scheil, in his 
hastily-published translation of the inscription, had practically 
covered all the ground, and new points worth writing a paper 
about had to be looked for, not only in the code itself, but in 
the many contract-tablets which illustrate it. Indeed, the 
work of illustrating this new edition to our knowledge of the 
legal system of the Babylonians and Assyrians is only now 
being done, requiring, as it does, scholars specially gifted with 
a talent for that branch of the work. 

Notwithstanding all that has been written concerning this 
remarkable document, it is very probable that there are 
comparatively few persons who have a clear idea of what it 1s 
like, and the nature of the information which it gives, with the 
bearing of that information upon the legal literature of the 
Babylonians: and it is probably on this account that the 
Council of the Victoria Institute expressed the desire to know 
something about it—a request to which I willingly accede. 
At the outset I must say, however, that I do not come before 
you as the one who is to make this remarkable, but in many 
respects difficult document clear and plain in every respect to 
all, for that would not only require that legal knowledge in 
which I am deficient, but much more time than I have at my 
disposal. My desire is, therefore, to be regarded rather as the 
popularizer of the contents of the code as far as it is likely to 
interest the majority of the members of this Institute. 

The monument upon which this important inscription is 
engraved is about 7 feet 6 inches in height, and is made of a 
dark-coloured stone described as diorite. It is covered with 
inscription on all four sides, except where the bas-relief 
representing King Hammurabi before the Sungod is, and a 
portion which has been erased, making a considerable gap, in 


2388 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


which, as Professor Scheil suggests, an Elamite king, Sutruk- 
nahhunte, who ruled a thousand years later, intended to carve 
his own name, as he had done on several other monuments 
found at the same place. The inscription itself consists of a 
rather long introduction, the code of laws itself in about 280 
sections, and a recital of Hammurabi’s perfections and noble 
deeds. Naturally a text like this, with 3638 lines of writing 
in all, notwithstanding that these lines are short, must be of 
considerable value, not only for the laws of the Babylonians, 
but also for their legal terminology, their manners and customs, 
and, indirectly, for the history of their civilization. The 
publication issued by the French Government, and the transla- ’ 
tion accompanying it, contributed by Professor Scheil, are 
worthy of the highest praise. 

It would be difficult here to give a complete list of the laws, 
which, to say the truth, are not very well classified, but among 
them are to be found enactments dealing with attempts to 
thwart the ends of justice, theft, kidnapping, fugitive slaves, 
housebreaking, brigandage, the hiring and letting of fields, 
orchards, etc., the borrowing of money, commercial travellers, 
female drink-sellers, deposit and distraint, marriage, adultery, 
inheritance, the position of female-slaves (illustrating the story 
of Hagar and Sarah), apprenticeage, adoption, violence (illus- 
trating the dictum “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth ”), 
medical treatment, housebuilding, navigation and freighting, 
the hire of animals and men, pasturing, and the hire of boats, 
and other things. These and many other matters are treated 
of, and not only is the law laid down, but the pay, for instance, 
of a workman, or a physician, or the amount of hire for objects 
required for temporary use, etc., are indicated. 

Noteworthy is the fact that the first two sections deal with 
the casting of spells, which, if not justified, was evidently 
considered a serious offence. The following are the laws 
referring to this:— - 

“Tf a man ban a man, and cast a spell upon hin, (if) he 
cannot justify it, he who has banned him shall be killed.” 

“Tf a man has cast a spell upon a man, and has not justified 
it, he upon whom the spell has been thrown shall go to the 
river-god, (and) shall plunge into the river. If the river-god 
take him, he who banned him may seize his house. If the 
river-god show him to be innocent, and he be saved, he 
who banned him shall be killed, (and) he who plunged into the 
river shall seize the house of him who banned him.” 

There is a certain amount of difficulty about these two laws, 


THE LAWS OF THE BABYLONIANS. 239 


and to understand them well, it would be necessary to have a 
more precise definition of the technical terms used. Professor 
Scheil states that they relate to witchcraft in the first and 
the second degree, the first referring to an anathema, the second 
to sorcery of the ordinary kind. This is probably correct, but 
it is still needful to know under what circumstances such banns 
or spells were cast, and what constituted justification. In all 
probability such things were done with the hope of preventing 
an opponent or rival from doing something to the disadvantage 
of the person banning—perhaps, at least in the first instance, 
to thwart the ends of justice. That this is probable, may be 
surmised from the two laws which immediately follow :— 

“Tf, in a judgment, a man seek to discredit the witnesses, 
and has not justified the word he has spoken—if that judgment 
be a judgment of life (and death), that man shall be killed.” 

“Tf he has offered wheat or silver (7.c., money) to the witnesses, 
he shall bear the wrong of that judgment.” 

“Tf a judge has given a judgement, has decided a decision, 
(and) has delivered a sealed tablet (referring thereto), (and) 
then afterwards has changed his judgment, that judge, for the 
judgment he has judged and changed, they shall summon, and 
the claim which was in that judgment he shall repay twelve- 
fold. And they shall make him rise up in the assembly from 
the seat of his judgeship, and he shall not return, and he shall 
not sit with the judges in judgment.” 

Though enacted with the best of intentions, there is but 
little doubt that this was an unfortunate law, for in face of the 
penalty and disgrace attending it, few judges would be found 
who would reverse a decision once given. There is but little 
doubt that it was intended to lessen continuous litigation, to 
which the Babylonians seem to have been very inclined. 
Perhaps it simply means, that an appeal could not be heard 
before the judge who had given the decision, but had to be 
taken to another, and perhaps higher, court. That these three 
laws concerning the integrity of justice are among the first of 
the code, shows in what estimation absolutely just decisions 
were held, and suggest that the two preceding enactments, 
which head the code, probably had something to do with 
thwarting the ends of justice also, or with superseding it by the 
appeal to supernatural or demoniacal agencies. 

The laws which follow have to do with theft. Stealing or 
receiving things stolen from a temple or a palace was punish- 
able with death, and the same penalty attended the purchase or 
receipt on deposit of things from another man’s son or servant, 


24.0 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


which was also deemed theft. On the other hand, the stealing 
of such a thing as an ox, a sheep, an ass, a pig, or a ship (boat), 
either from a temple or from a palace, was attended by the 
penalty of thirtyfold restitution, unless the thief was a poor 
man, in which case he refunded tenfold only. If, however, he 
had not the wherewithal to pay, he was to be put to death. 

The drastic nature of some of the enactments is well illus- 
strated by the laws referring to the purchase of lost property, 
one of which states that if the owner of the object lost (dé 
hulkim) be unable to bring witnesses who recognize that object, 
he is a lar (or something of the kind),—he had stirred up 
cleceit, and was to be put to death. In these and similar cases 
the intention apparently was to discourage the bringing of 
actions at law. 

Further instances of severity, however, occur in the enact- 
ments dealing with the female drink-sellers, which, from 
their nature, are of more than ordinary interest, and point to 
the giving of credit extensively for the drink which they 
supphed. Indeed, from this and other inscriptions one gets the 
idea that the Babylonians were dreadful winebibbers :— 

“Tf a wine-woman has not accepted grain as the price of 
drink, (but) has accepted silver by the great stone (probably 
the 4 mana, the ‘little stone’ being 4 mana), and has set the 
tariff of the drink below the tariff of the grain, they shall 
summon that wine-woman, and throw her into the water.” 

In all probability every wine-woman took care to know how 
to swim. 

“Tf a wine-woman, (when) riotous fellows are collected at 
her house, does not seize them and take them to the palace, 
that wine-woman shall be killed.” 

Ladies of high degree, especially if they had anything to do 
with a temple, had to be careful of their conduct :— 

“If a devotee, who dwells not in the cloister, open a 
wine-house, or enter a wine-house for drink, that female they 
shall burn.” 

The wants of the thirsty field-labourers were carefully safe- 
guarded :— 

“Tf a wine-woman has given 60 qa of second (?) quality 
drink, for thirst, she shall take 50 qa of corn at harvest-time.” 

But in all probability my audience will be most interested in 
the enactments which illustrate the Mosaic code, especially 
those of “an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.” In the 
space of a short paper, such as this must necessarily be, l am 
unable to treat of this branch of the subject fully, but the 


THE LAWS OF THE BABYLONIANS. 241 


points upon which Iam able to touch will be found, I think, 
to be of interest both from the Biblical and other points of view. 

Simple restitution was very justly exacted in kind—goods 
for goods, an ox for an ox, an ass for an ass, a slave for a slave. 
For cheating, for the loss of another’s goods by carelessness, for 
theft, ete., the compensation varied from threefold to thirtyfold. 
Their system differed from ours in that they did not resort to 
the punishment of imprisonment to any great extent; the 
punishment was either restitution with proportionate and ex- 
ceedingly heavy damages, or death. 

Injury to the person, however, could not be made good. A 
member of the body could not be replaced, so that the punish- 
ment which seemed to the Babylonians, as to the Hebrews and 
other nations of antiquity, to be just, was that of making the 
evil-doer like the person upon whom he had inflicted the 
injury. But it was not only eye for eye, tooth for tooth, limb 
for limb, but also son for son, and slave for slave; for a man’s 
son once departed this life, could never be restored to him; a 
substitute would not supply the loss, and the same, in a lesser 
degree, could be said for his slave, who was not always one pur- 
chased for money or corn, but born, or at least brought up, in 
his house, and therefore knowing his master’s ways, and the 
special routine of his household, and probably also having a 
corner in his heart. 

The following are the principal of the laws relating to 
retaliation :— 


Summa awelum in mar awelim uptadbit, tn-su ukappadu. 

“Tf a man has destroyed the eye of the son of a man, they 
shall destroy his eye.” 

Summa nerpaddu awelim istebir, nerpaddu-su isebbirru. 

“If he has broken the limb of a man, they shall break his 
limb.” 

Summa in muskini uhtabbit, i lu nerpaddu muskini sstebir, 
istin mana kaspr isaqal. 

“Tf he has destroyed the eye of a poor man, or broken the 
limb of a poor man, he shall pay 1 mana of silver.” 

Summa in arad awélim uhtabbit, i lu nerpaddu arad awélim 
astebir, misul Simi-su isaqal. 

“Tf he has destroyed the eye of the servant of a man, or 
broken the limb of the servant of a man, he shall pay half his 
price.” 

Summa awélum sinni aweéelin mehri-su ittadi, sinna - su 
inaddi. 


242 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


“Tf a man has made the tooth of a man who is his peer to 
fall out, they shall make his tooth fall out.” 

Summa sinni muskini ittadi, Sussan mana kaspi isagal. 

“Tf he has made the tooth of a poor man to fall out, he 
shall pay 4 of a mana of silver.” 

Here follow the laws concerning the breaking of the head of 
a superior, an equal, and a poorer man, the respective penalties | 
being 60 blows with a whip, a mana of silver, and 10 shekels 
of silver. If the culprit was a slave, his ear was cut off. 

Unintentional injuries inflicted in a quarrel entailed respon- 
sibility for the doctor’s bill, or, if the person died of those 
injuries, the payment of half a mana of silver in the case of a 
free man and one-third in the case of a pour man, as com- 
pensation. 

For the death of another man’s daughter, the daughter of 
the aggressor was killed, unless the father of the slain woman 
was of inferior rank, in which a money penalty was provided. 

It is after this part that the very interesting enactments 
concerning physicians, their pay when successful, and the 
penalties to which they were liable in case of non-success, are 
inserted :— 


Summa azu awélam zimmam kabtam ina GIR-NI siparri 
ipus-ma awelam ubtallit u lw nagabte awelim ina GIR-NI 
separre ipte-ma in awelim ubtallit, ésrit silt kaspr veka. 

“Tf a physician has treated a man for a severe wound with 
a bronze lancet, and has cured the man, or has opened the 
cataract of the man’s eye with a bronze lancet, and has cured 
the eye of the man, he shall receive ten shekels of silver.” 

“ Tf he be a poor man, he shall receive 5 shekels.” 

“If he be a man’s slave, the master of the slave shall give 
two shekels of silver to the physician.” 

Summa azu awelam zimmam kabtam ina GIR-NI siparri 
ipus-ma awelam ustamit wu lu nagabte awélim ina GIR-N1 
siparry upte-ma in awelim uhtabbit, ritte-su inakizu. 

“Tf a physician has treated a man for a severe wound with 
a bronze lancet, and has caused the man to die, or has opened 
the cataract of a man with a bronze lancet, and has destroyed 
the eye of the man, they shall cut off his hands.” 

“Tf a physician has treated the slave of a poor man for a 
grave wound with a bronze lancet, and caused him to die, a 
slave like the slave he shall return to him.” 

“If he has opened his cataract with a bronze lancet, and 
has destroyed his eye, he shall pay half his value in silver.” 


THE LAWS OF THE BABYLONIANS. 243 


Summa azu nerpaddu awelim sebirtum ustalim, u lw ser hanam 
marsam ubtallit, bél simmim ana azu hamset siqli haspi inaddin. 

“Tf a physician has made whole the broken limb of a man, 
or has cured a diseased bowel, the patient shall give to the 
physician five shekels of silver.” 

“Tf he be a poor man, he shall give 3 shekels of silver.” 

“Tf he be the slave of a man, the master of the slave shall 
give to the physician 2 shekels of silver.” 

These are followed by the rules for veterinary surgeons and 
surgeon-barbers. 

Naturally there is a considerable amount of doubt as to the 
exact nature of the surgical operations referred to, especially that 
in connection with the curing of the eye. Both Professor Scheil 
and the Rev. C. H. W. Johns translate the word zimmw or 
simmu (the latter is the correct form) as “ wound,” and in this 
I have followed them, but it seems to me, that the translation 
“operation ’”’—“It a physician has performed a severe operation 
on a man ”—is also worthy of consideration. I take this word 
to be quite distinct from svmmwu (with D), “malady,” especially 
of the eye, on account of the differing sibilant. Be this, how- 
ever, as it may, there is another still more important word, 
namely, nagabtw (as transcribed by Scheil), which he renders 
“tae,” or “cataract,” but which Mr. Johns translates by 
“ abscess.” 

As to which is the right rendering, I do not express an 
opinion; to the lay mind one seems as good as the other. The 
question naturally arises, and can be best settled by medical 
men, namely, “Do abscesses commonly affect the eye?” For 
it to be the subject of a legal enactment, it must naturally be a 
fairly common disease, and dangerous to the sight. In the 
importaut tablets published in the 2nd edition of the Cuneiferne 
Inscriptions of Western Asia, vol. iv, plate 29*, and “ Additions 
and Corrections,” pp. 7 and 8, which refer to remedies, including 
incantations, for diseases of the eye, nagabtw does not occur, 
though the ordinary word, nagbu, written both ideographically 
and spelled out in full, seems to be there. To all appearance 
we have in these inscriptions the most valuable data for de- 
ciding whether the disease of cataract was treated, and also 
what its name was. Nagbw or nagbu means “ water-channel,” 
“spring,” also “ mountain-torrent,” and could, therefore, easily 
stand for “ cataract,” a meaning which the longer form nagabtu 
or nagabtu might also have In this case, hkewise, the question 
might be asked, whether the etymology suggested leads us in 
the right path. 


244 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


From the medical point of view, however, a certain amount 
of information is available and may serve to indicate the 
true meaning. I learn from Dr. Emmeline Da Cunha that 
abscesses in the eye-ball are exceedingly rare, so that it is 
extremely improbable that laws would be made in which they 
were specially mentioned; and that it would be quite useless, 
moreover, to operate upon such abscesses with a lancet.* On 
the other hand, operations for cataract by native practitioners 
are common in the East, at least in India, and some of these 
men, who are mere quacks, simply push, by means of their 
instruments (a kind of spatula) the crystalline lens into the 
vitreous humour. The patient is then able to see, but loss of 
sight results in consequence of the lens not being completely 
removed, aud it was probably to prevent such criminally un- 
skilful treatment that the laws here referred to were made. 

In the Mosaic law, it was enacted, that “if men strive 
together,” and anyone get hurt, “then thou shalt give life for 
life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, 
burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe,” and 
though all these things are not mentioned here, there can be 
but little doubt that the intention of the Babylonian code was, 
that the principle should apply to all the cases of injury 
possible. It is not likely that they drew the line at the life, 
the eye, and the tooth of a man, or the breaking of his bones. 
The two codes may in this be regarded as in perfect agree- 
ment. 

But not only are the enactments of the Laws of Moses 
illustrated, but we find, both in the interesting code which 
I am now briefly describing and in the legal documents 
of the period to which it belongs, noteworthy parallels to 
circumstances referred to in other parts of the Bible. Of special 
interest in this connection is the case of the giving of Hagar by 
Sarai to Abraham because Sarai had no children. Several 
tablets referring to the marriage of more than one wife by a 
man oceur among the inscriptions of Babvlonia, the most 
interesting of them being those referring to the two wives of 
Arad-Samai, and the conditions attending the marriage of the 
inferior wife. Another case is that of Sama&-nfiri, daughter of 
Ibi-Sin, who was brought by Bunini-Abi and Bélisunu, his wife, 
from her father, “as a wife for Bunini-abi, as a servant for 


* The only operative treatment would be the removai of the eye-ball. 


THE LAWS OF THE BABYLONIANS. 245 


Bélisunu.” The price paid was 5 shekels of silver. In this 
inscription provision is only made for the eventuality that 
Samas-nfri might deny her mistress, in which case her hair 
was to be shaved off, and she was to be sold. Hagar, however, 
was apparently lower in station even than the woman referred 
to on this tablet, and was driven out with her son to perish for 
much less, apparently, than merely denying her mistress. 

Naturally it seems strange that any woman should give to 
her husband, as in the case of Abraham and the man mentioned 
in this inscription, another wife, who was bound to be her rival. 
The desire that her husband should have children to perpetuate 
his name does not altogether explain it, and the adoption of an 
orphan-child, or the child of a poor man or a widow with little 
or no property, would have overcome the disadvantage of child- 
lessness sufficiently well—at least, that would seem to be the 
case, and would certainly be the lesser evil of the two to the 
wife. It is here, however, that the code of Hammurabi is again 
of value, as the following enactment shows :— 

Summa awelum assata thuz-ma assatu 4 amta ana muti-sa 
addin-ma maré ustabsi, awelum si ana sugetim ahazim pani-su 
astakan, awelam suate il Vmaggaru-su—sugetim Ul ihhaz. 

“Tf a man has taken a wife, and that wife has given a hand- 
maid to her husband, and she has had children, (if) that man 
set his face to take a concubine, they shall not allow that man 
(to do so), he shall not take a concubine.” 

According to this, a childless woman gave another wife to her 
husband to prevent him from going himself and taking a 
concubine. The matter is therefore explained—a wife preferred 
to choose herself the woman who was to replace her, and she 
chose one who would be subordinate to her, not one who might 
become a really serious rival. Now that we know all the 
circumstances, the matter is more explicable to the European 
mind, and the Biblical narrative likewise gains, though we wish 
that both Sarai and Abraham had treated Hagar more con- 
siderately. 

According to Pfarrer J. Jeremias, there are no less than 
twenty-four enactments in which the Laws of Hammurabi 
exhibit certain, or almost certain, analogies with the Book of 
the Covenant, in which sometimes the one, sometimes the other, 
seems to be the more primitive and rude. For all these, 
however, I have not at present time. My intention was to 
give simply a short description of the code, leaving the com- 
parisons for some future communication. The examination of 
over 280 legal enactments is not to be compressed within the 


246 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


compass of one short paper—not even the most important of 
them. 

But besides the laws, there is the monument itself. It is a 
splendid example of Babylonian stone-work, and the relief 
showing the king before the sungod is especially fine. The 
surface of the stone, which is described as diorite, has suffered 
in places, where 1t may be supposed that the material was a 
little soft, and has therefore been affected by the weather, but 
except where the Elamite king has erased a portion of the text 
to inscribe his own name—w hich, however, for some reason he 
failed to do—it is practically in the condition in which it was 
when it left the sculptor’s hands. Besides the laws, the 
introduction and concluding peroration are worthy of attention. 
The former refers to the various gods and temples of Babylonia, 
and in this inscription it would seem that Ilu, God as the Lord 
of the world and the creator of all things, which Professor Scheil 
has boldly reproduced by the west-Semitic El—it will be 
remembered that Hammurabi belonged to a foreign dynasty, 
notwithstanding that he is regarded as having been a Babylonian 
—was probably really the god whom he worshipped, and. this 
circumstance may prove to be of importance in the history of 
the religions of the Semitic East. In this introduction he not 
only speaks of all the principal cities of Babylonia: Babylon, 
Dur-ilu, Ur (of the Chaldees), Sippar, Erech, Nisin or Isin, 
Harsag-kalama, Cuthah, Borsippa, Dilmu (Dailem), Lagas, 
Girsu, Hallabi, Muru, Adab, Malka, Mera, Tulul, and Agadé, 
with their gods and their temples, but he also refers to the two 
principal cities of Assyria, namely, AuSar or Assur, and Ninua 
(Nineveh) That AuSar or Assur existed and was an important 
place at the time his dynasty reigned, we know from the tablets 
of the period to which that dynasty belonged, and which are 
now in the British Museum; but this is probably the earliest 
mention of Ninua (Nineveh) in Assyria, which is to be 
distinguished from Nina, near Kinunir, in Babylonia. 

At the end he describes how he had made his peopie, with 
the help of the gods, dwell in security, and the long reference 
which he makes to the temple E-sagila at Babylon, the great 
temple of Belus, leads to the sugeestion that the monument 
was carved to adorn the courtyard or some other prominent 
place in the grounds of that edifice. If this be the case, it is 
probable that the conjecture that the monument was carried off 
from Babylonia by some Elamite ruler, probably Sutruk- 

nabhunte, is correct. For us it is a fortunate circumstance that 
it has been so well preserved—had it remained on the site 


THE LAWS OF THE BABYLONIANS., 247 


where it was first placed, injury or destruction at the hands of 
Sennacherib and his ruthless soldiers might have deprived 
posterity of one of the finest and most remarkable monuments 
which have come down to us of that great empire within whose 
centre the germs of civilization, if they did not have their birth 
there, were at least fostered, and encouraged to grow into that 
healthy tree which now overshadows the earth. 

The knowledge of Hammurabi’s code of laws was not confined 
to Babylonia. Though we did not know it, fragments of a copy 
of it have been in the British Museum for from twenty to fifty- 
five years, and notwithstanding that one of the fragments bore 
the colophon stating that it was the “ Laws of Hammurabi”— 
Dinani Hammurali—it was not recognized, and is even 
described in the Catalogue as a “Legend” of that king. - This, 
however, shows that other copies of the document existed at 
Babylon, from which these Assyrian transcripts were made. It 
must have served, as many of the contract-tablets show, as the 
basis of the law of both countries for many hundred years, and 
if ever superseded—which is uncertain—must have formed the 
basis of any further enactments which were made. 


DISCUSSION. 


The SEcRETARY (Professor Hutt, M.A., etc.).—Mr. Chairman, 
ladies and gentlemen, I wish, on behalf of the Council, to express 
our deep gratitude to Dr. Pinches for the production of these two 
papers, but especially for the latter. He had promised, some time 
ago, to give us an account of the proceedings at the Congress of 
Orientalists, which he has done; but when this wonderful and 
interesting monument of ancient Babylonian art and history was 
found and became recognized and described in the 77mes and various 
other papers, the Council thought that some account of it from such 
an eminent Assyriologist as Dr. Pinches, would be very acceptable 
to the Institute. So he very kindly agreed to somewhat curtail the 
first paper in order to give time for the second, and I am sure we all 
feel deeply grateful to him for what he has brought forward this 
evening, and the paper gains special interest from the fact—as 


stated by Dr. Pinches himself—that the Babylonian king is the 
R 


248 §§ THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


Amraphel, King of Shinar, in Genesis, 14th chapter, and con- 
temporary with Abraham. 

The CHAIRMAN.—Perhaps Dr. Chaplin would tell us something 
about diseases of the eye, as that subject has been referred to. 

Dr. CHAPLIN.—I am afraid I cannot say much about diseases of 
the eye in ancient Babylon, but judging from analogy I should say 
that diseases of the eye in that part of the world were and are very 
much the same as the diseases of the eye in Egypt and Assyria, 
where these diseases, owing to various circumstances, are much more 
frequent than they are in more temperate climates. 

I was much interested in what was said in the paper about 
operations on the eye. J remember a quite common Persian came 
down to Jerusalem when I was living there—a man who had no 
pretence to education or position in society—but his business was 
to operate for cataract, and with very inferior instruments and 
inferior knowledge of the anatomy of the eye, he would very often 
perform successful operations. 

Sir Henry Howorrtu, D.C.L., F.R.S.—Mr. Chairman, ladies and 
gentlemen, I have no right to intervene at all, because my knowledge 
is not first-hand, as it ought to be in discussing a paper of this 
importance. I came here to-day for more than one reason. Jama 
trustee of the British Museum, and as trustee of that great establish- 
ment I am never tired of rehearsing the claim to our gratitude 
which we owe to my good friend who read these papers, and whose 
admirable work as an Assyriologist—not merely his cuteness, but 
his efforts and discoveries, are only matched by those of Professor 
Sayce in this realm. I am delighted that he is so active, and I hope 
he will go on with his activity until he is as old as Methuselah. 

I remember how good an account he gave of what took place at 
the Congress. I have taken off my hat more than once in front of 
this great monolith of Hammurabi, and there it stands, it seems to 
me, a royal monument in stone with the inscriptions of Augustus, 
who was especially honoured all through the eastern world. Now 
the portrait of this wonderful king, the beautiful portrait of this 
very king, is on a large plate of clay or stone—I think a clay monu- 
ment—at the British Museum, and it is drawn in bas-relief with all 
the precision of a beautiful cameo. There he is with his lovely 
beard, and it is so beautifully finished that I think you ought all to 
go and look at it. Now that this particular king has become so 


THE LAWS OF THE BABYLONIANS. QAI 


famous, we must also remember as instancing the fact that he and 
his dynasty have nothing to do with Babylonia, that they belong to 
the same race that gave this early dynasty to the South Arabian 
District, that on the inscriptions were found the names of twomembers 
of the same dynasty exactly as they appear now on this inscription, 
so we have come to call this the South Arabian dynasty. Some 
people have been troubled (I do not know why) to find that a large 
number of enactments and laws which related to the civil status of 
the Jews, should have been found existing amongst the neighbours 
of the Jews at this very early date. Surely nothing could be more 
natural. You cannot, by any process under heaven, impose a great 
code of laws by a jump. Such codes are all the result of a long 
process of preparation, and they cannot go very far ahead of the 
moral standard of the people whom they affect. If they do, they 
fall in abeyance. ‘They represent a long period of growth, a gradual 
development which we call the ethics of jurisprudence, and it is very 
natural that we should find that a large number of those enact- 
ments should relate to people so closely connected with the Jews. 
Vaghler has published a beautiful edition of the text and _ transla- 
tions, and a German pastor has published, within the last fortnight, 
an admirable monograph of the whole code, in which he takes the 
line I am trying to argue, and it is of great interest to us all to find 
that these laws, about which questions of ali kinds have been raised, 
should have been proved to be the Laws of Western Semites in their 
growth and progress. 

There is one point upon which I am inclined to differ from my 
friend. This enormous monolith, when I saw it in Paris, seemed to 
be a very difficult stone for even the Hlamite king to carry across 
the country and up to the mountains of Susa. No doubt Cush was 
actually once a province of the empire of Hammurabi, and there 
were perpetual fights in those provinces. I have written many 
papers on the struggles of these people, and I believe when Ham- 
murabi formed his great empire, extending into the countries of 
the west and into Palestine, that he also conquered and appropriated 
the kingdom which was afterwards the seat of the empire of the 
Elamite Kings, but which during his time was part of his empire, 
and that this monolith was simply planted in one of the cities of his 
empire and formed a portion of his own legal enactments, and that it 
is not a question of the removal of the stone. 

I 


2E0 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


It seems to me that nothing can well be more interesting than the 
description given by the author of this monument. In the British 
Museum we have by far the largest number of monuments relating 
to this king. <A huge find was made of gods fabled and sacred for 
the British Museum, and they are being rapidly published. The 
subject is one that suggests every sort of idea, and I can only say 
in common with, I am sure, every one in this room, that we are 
very grateful to my good friend for the admirable account he has 
given. 

Mr. Martin Rovuse.—A great deal has been made of this subject 
in the columns of the Times, for instance, as though the Code of 
Moses were based on it. Sir Henry Howorth says it is not to be 
wondered at that they should contain many points of similarity. 
But I beg, with all deference, to dissent from his conclusion that 
the law of Moses is to be regarded as having been developed from 
these other codes. No doubt all that existed and was practically 
good, was left unchanged, but in the review that was given in the 
Times, there are a number of features that are claimed to show a 
likeness, but which show a very distinct difference between the 
codes. For instance, it is possible that if an ox gored a man to 
death, and it was not known beforehand that the ox was spiteful, 
there was to be no compensation by the Code of Hammurabi. With 
greater justice the Scripture says the ox shall be slain, and his flesh 
shall not be eaten; that is to say, a dangerous animal was not to be 
allowed to exist, and the owner was to suffer the loss of the ox, 
whereas according to the Babylonian Law there was no provision 
of the kind. 

Again, when men are striving one with another, and one wounds 
the other, the Code of Hammurabi simply says the doctor’s bill is 
to be paid. The Bible adds that the offender shall pay for the loss 
of time for the one that suffered the injury. Again we see the 
Mosaic Law is the more just. We are told in the account that 
Dr. Pinches gave, that many of the thieves were punished with a 
thirty-fold penalty. There is nothing of the kind in Scripture, five- 
fold I think is the highest that is paid, and no distinction is made 
whether the theft is from a common man or froma palace. Again, is 
there anything like the cruelty and injustice of burning a woman 
who takes to the trade of a wine merchant, because she happens to 
be of high rank? Or again, of drowning a woman (which was not 


THE LAWS OF THE BABYLONIANS. 251 


mentioned to-day), or being divorced from her husband (this was 
quoted from the Times review), she might be drowned at, the 
pleasure of her husband. On these points one can but condemn 
such codes. There is nothing of the kind in the Mosaic Law. 
Those ordeals do not exist. Again, Dr. Pinches showed that the 
laws of Hammurabi shed light on the custom of taking a second 
wife when the first wife was childless, and that a man might, if he 
chose, divorce his wife if she bore him no child. Certainly this was not 
laid down in the Law of Moses. Again, on behalf of the Bible story 
of Hagar, I would say in reply to Dr. Pinches that Abraham did 
not drive out Hagar to perish, or with any thought that she would 
perish, any more than when he made the attempt to sacrifice Isaac, 
for we read in the Old Testament he believed that he would be 
raised from the dead. and if we did not read it, God had already 
promised that through Isaac all nations should be blessed, and 
therefore, of course, he believed Isaac would be raised from the 
dead ; and those who declaim on the nature of human sacrifice 
utterly shut their eyes to the plain teaching of Scripture. Hagar 
was not driven out to perish, for it had distinctly been told 
Abraham that Ishmael would become a great nation. There is, 
therefore, a very striking difference between the account that we 
have of Hammurabi, and that given in the pages of the Bible of the 
Code of Moses. Perhaps Dr. Pinches can supply the hiatus. 

Rev. S. STEPHAN (who was not audible from where he spoke) was 
understood to say, in referring to the treatment of diseases in the 
East, that in most parts of Assyria the cure of certain diseases was 
almost entirely left to women. They gained the confidence of the 
people. They treated those diseases with compounds of which they 
kept the secret. Im the case of disease of the eye they put the 
patient on the ground, with his head turned towards them, and held 
the head fast while they applied their compounds, which generally 
caused tremendous pain. He was brought once to undergo that 
treatment, but the pain was so great that he only allowed it to be 
applied to one eye. 

Rev. JOHN TUCKWELL.—I should like to say a few words on this 
paper, which has so many points of interest upon which one might 
speak for a long time. What has struck me, however, is that the 
old idea that writing and civilization and legal enactments and 
legislation for nations, of a somewhat advanced character, are 


252 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


comparatively modern, is completely destroyed. I do not think 
that even the most eminent Assyriologist would dispute that. It is 
thought that decisions were served out by the Judges by mere 
precedent. Now it is evident the Code of Hammurabi shows 
something considerably more in advance of that and, as Sir Henry 
Howorth well said, it indicates a long period of civilization before 
this code could have been drawn up. I think the temerity of that 
form of criticism which desires to show that all Mosaic legislation is 
so modern is completely knocked on the head. It ought to be 
remembered that Abraham’s nationality was Babylonian. He was 
a wealthy and cultivated man, no doubt, and would hand on to 
succeeding generations all the enlightenment he possessed, and when 
Moses came to legislate for the children of Israel, as I take it, we 
may go back to the belief, notwithstanding criticism to the contrary, 
that he wrote the Pentateuch. When, therefore, we find Moses 
legislating, it is natural that he should incorporate the most en- 
lightened and advanced views of national government that he could 
obtain from any source whatever, whether from experience or divine 
revelation. I confess I am surprised that anyone should think that 
this code does, in the slightest degree, affect the stability of any 
portion of Holy Scripture. In the New Testament, where you find 
our Lord referring to some of these enactments, He does not say 
that they were the enactments of Moses especially. It will be in 
the recollection of those who are familiar with the New Testament, 
as I hope we all are, that our Lord uses the words :—“‘It has been 
said by those of old time” (Matt. v, 21 e¢ seq.), and that phrase occurs 
over and over again in the course of His Sermon on the Mount. So 
He does not commit us or Himself, or the legislation, especially to 
Moses—that enactment, for instance, ‘‘An eye for an eye and a 
tooth for a tooth.” I think, therefore, the conclusion we may come 
to is one of satisfaction, that enables us more fully to understand 
that Bible that has been the light and comfort of our parents and 
grandparents before and I suppose is the joy of many of our hearts 
to-day. (Applause.) 

The SrcreTAkY.—I hold in my hand the very paper that 
Mr. Tuckwell has referred to by Dr. Pinches entitled ‘“ Hammu- 
rabi’s Code of Laws,” printed from the Proceedings of the Society 
of Biblical Archeology, November, 1902, showing that he was the 
first in the field. 


THE LAWS OF THE BABYLONIANS. 253 


I have also a communication from Professor Orchard on the 
subject of this evening, which I will read. 

Professor ORCHARD.—The Laws of Hammurabi are undoubtedly 
remarkable, and bear testimony to a mind of commanding genius, 
They furnish yet another rebuke to the many rebukes which modern 
science has been administering to the foolish theory which depicts 
early man as a developing savage. These laws cannot, however, be 
seriously put upon anything like the same high level with the 
divine enactments in the Pentateuch. Hammurabi’s laws are, in 
fact, unequal and unjust both in regard to persons and in regard to 
offences. A fatal injury done to a girl is punishable, if she is a 
gentleman’s daughter, by the death of the delinquent’s daughter ; but 
if the injury be done to a poor man’s daughter, the punishment is 
merely a fine of half a mina of silver. Anyone injuring a gentle- 
man is to receive a like injury himself, but a simple fine is considered 
adequate compensation if the person who has been injured is poor. 
What can be thought of the justice (?) which visits with death such 
offences as theft, threatening witnesses, or harbouring a runaway 
slave ? What a contrast to the careful graduation of punishment 
to offence, and the impartial equity, the non-respect of persons, 
which characterize the Laws of the Pentateuch. 

Dr. PINCHES, in reply, said: I will not detain you very long. It 
is needless to say that I am much obliged to all who have so kindly 
commented on my papers, and not least, I can assure you, to my 
very good and learned friend, Sir Henry Howorth; in fact, I look 
upon him as one of the leading spirits, as it were, of the science of 
Assyriology in England. He is one who has probably taken more 
interest in it than anyone else, and I do not regard him as a layman 
at all. He makes a serious study of these subjects, and what he 
says I listen to with great respect, for it is always worth noting. 

Referring to that matter, I am ready to admit the probability that 
Hammurabi did carry the monument to Elam itself and set it up at 
Susa. The indications on the monument itself may be misleading. 
In this case, as in many others, we must not place toomuch credence 
and reliance on what may be deduced from the inscriptions. 

What Mr. Rouse says is also very interesting ; but I do not think 
it necessary to refer to everything he said in detail. The code of 
Hammurabi, with regard to the ferocious bull of which he speaks, 
reminds me of what used to be regarded as a kind of dictum or law, 


254 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON 


or legal practice, that “ Every dog had his first bite free.” You 
could not punish the owner of an animal who did not know that the 
animal was of a ferocious nature, and of course to destroy that 
animal seems to me to be a little hard on the possessor, especially 
when the animal was of value, like an ox, or some creature on his 
farm. As for those women who were burned alive for going into 
a wine-house, the enactment applied to devotees of the gods and 
those living in a cloister (for such it would seem to be), and applies 
to women who had performed a rite of purification or a religious 
ceremony carried out with that object. Though the punishment 
was dreadfully severe, yet perhaps it was hardly worse than the 
doings of the Middle Ages, when, for simply thinking otherwise 
than as his judges thought, a man was burned at the stake. It is 
true, as Mr. Rouse said, the enactments were uncharitable, and I 
believe there are none of the nature of those charitable ones of the 
Mosaic Code. Ido not know that there is anything charitable by 
enactment in our English Code. I do not know with what eye 
that would be looked upon by a judge. 

The SECRETARY.—There is the gleaning of corn, 

Dr. PrncHEs.—That is a custom, but not legalized I think. 

It is needless to say that I listened with much pleasure to the 
remarks of my friend Mr. Stephan. There was a conflict between 
Hammurabi and the Elamites for many years, and it is very likely 
that at that time Hammurabi obtained possession of portions of the 
country and set up his monument there. That is a point, however, 
into which I will look and will add a note to my paper if necessary. 
He says eye diseases are not prevalent, except inflammation, and 
that was cured by means of herbs. That is a very important point. 
The diseases of the eye mentioned in the Code of Hammurabi were 
cured by means of the lancet. There is hardly any doubt, I think, 
of that. The word is composed of two characters, the Semitic pro- 
nunciation I do not know, but the first is the character gir, which 
means a short sword or dagger, and could only stand for lancet, or 
some instrument used for surgical purposes. Cataract may not 
have been so serious in ancient times, and it may be that it was 
more frequent in Babylonia than in Assyria. That is a point on 
which I know nothing, but upon which probably Mr. Stephan 
knows something—I mean whether cataract is more prevalent in 
Babylonia than in his native place. 


: 


THE LAWS OF THE BABYLONIANS. 259 


I am much obliged to Mr. Tuckwell also for his kind remarks. I 
wish I had time to work out all the inscriptions that come to my 
hands. There are so many of them, but I hope to do a great deal 
of work in the near future. Like art, study is long and time is 
short. I think with him that the Bible—the Old Testament—has 
nothing to fear from the Code of Hammurabi. I do not myself 
think that it can be proved, by any means, that the Laws of Moses 
were derived from Babylonia. Every country would naturally have 
its own code of laws, and that they should borrow from one another 
is conceivable and quite natural. That has been done constantly. 
Every country has laws that seem to the legislature of that country 
to be most suitable for it, and so with Assyria, the Holy Land, and 
the nations around. 

A vote of thanks to the author having been carried, the meeting 
adjourned. 


ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.* 
Cou. MACKINLAY IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed. 
The following candidates were elected :— 


Memser :—Rev. Marmaduke Washington, M.A. 


Associates :—Henry J. Martyn, Esq.; Richard Denny Urlin, Esq. ; 
Capt. Alexander M. Seton, R.A.; Rev. A. E. Barnes-Lawrence, 
M.A. ; The Hon. and Rev. W. Talbot Rice, M.A.; Professor J. W. 
Spencer, Ph.D., F.G.S. ; Rev. William Fisher, M.A. 


The CHAIRMAN.—Our Secretary will give you a few words of 
introduction. 

The SECRETARY (Professor EDwarp Huvt1).—Mr. Chairman, 
ladies and gentlemen, I think it is right that I should state how it 
came that my valued friend, the Rev. Dr. Frazer, addresses us this. 
evening. He and I are members of the same club, and he is one of 
those officers of the Church Militant unattached at the present moment 
to any particular regiment, so that he offers his services where they 
may be required—his spiritual services; and on occasions he has 
been out to South Africa as Acting Chaplain to the Forces,. 
carrying with him those spiritual benefits which are necessary to. 
the comfort of our soldiers in the field, or in the hospital; or some- 
times by the sadly necessary services over their graves. One 
evening he began to give me some of his experiences, and they 
appeared to me to be so interesting, that I thought it would be of 
interest and pleasure to the members of the Institute, if he could be 
induced to give us some of those experiences at one of our ordinary 
meetings. He very kindly and readily consented to do so, and now 
I have the pleasure of introducing him to you this evening. 
[ Applause. | 


* Monday, May 18th, 1903. 


EXPERIENCES IN SOUTH AFRICA DURING THE WAR. PLAT | 


LECTURE ON “EXPERIENCES IN SOUTH AFRICA 
DURING THE WAR.” By the Rev. W. H. 
FraZER, D.D., late Acting Chaplain to the Forces. 


AST year my friend Professor Hull asked me to give an 
account of my experiences, or some of them. We were 
then on the very tip-toe of expectation—the war was existing, 
and we know how our pulses throbbed day by day with regard 
to news from the seat of war. That state of things happily 
has discontinued. “Grim visaged war hath smoothed his 
wrinkled front,’ and now we are about to reap the benefit 
benefit even from a terrible war; and I feel that although the 
subject may be somewhat tame, owing to the many books that 
have been written upon it, still there are hearts to whom the 
experiences that they have had in doing their little duty for 
others’ sake are very dear, and which they treasure most 
thoroughly and will never part with while they live. 

Now, ladies and gentlemen, although I am asked to speak 
about the war in South Africa, I claim that my experiences of 
the front commenced at home. I was Acting Chaplain in 
Woolwich. I had previously been at Aldershot. A quarter of 
a century ago I commenced my work with the soldiers, and I 
was brought face to face with the front on the occasion of a 
first batch of 164 invalided men sent to the Herbert Hospital 
for care and ministration. One’s heart naturally throbbed with 
sympathy on this first appearance of these gallant heroes, who 
had fought and bled for their country, and I remember how 
anxiously I wended my way up the hill, and thought how I 
might speak words showing my sympathy with their sorrows, 
their sadnesses and sufferings; but I was astonished to find, 
when I got into their midst, that I was about the only saddened 
soul there. . I found they were all joyous and happy, and then, 
after experience amongst them, visiting them and talking with 
them, I came to the conclusion that it was a remarkable fact in 
human history, that those lads who were brought from the 
humble positions they had been taken from to fight, and who 
had fallen, and were mutilated for life, were nevertheless 
proud of their positions, and one grumbling word did I never 
hear from the mouth of any with regard to his misfortunes. 
[Hear! hear !] It was a glorious fact—it was an opening up of 
my own mind to many a revelation of the deep things hidden 
within the hearts of men, no matter what their grade might be 
in life. The war fever was abroad and I caught it, and said to 


258 REV. W. H. FRAZER, D.D., ON 


myself, “I must go and see more of this business—I must go 
and see what has made these men what they are.” I apphed 
to the War Office to be permitted to go out, and was immedi- 
ately sent. When it was announced to my friends at Woolwich, 
officers said, “What a lucky fellow you are,” everyone 
appeared to wish (even though they had wives and families) to 
get out to the war, and it was a great cause of thankfulness to 
me that I had succeeded in vetting out. During ny services I 
had four trips—two out and two back. I need not go into any 
of those details with regard to sea-faring life that we note down 
in our diaries—that has nothing to do with our subject. 
There are just one or two incidents that I will touch upon. 
One was, seeing a whale get a good thrashing from a thrasher. 
[ had travelled a good deal about the world, and I had but once 
seen a thrasher attack a whale. 

Another one was, that those boys—those heroic souls that 
belong to our country and make our hopes satisfactory and firm 
with regard to it, sung merrily on those evenings on board, 
when concerts were given, and I marked this, that those whom 
we would call uncultured youths, full of ignorance, sane their 
songs with charming beauty, that went to the heart. Our 
officers would have a concert, too, but “Tommy” beat them 
hollow. We went from Southampton to Queenstown, and I 
was glad to tread the ground there, where I had been many 
years ago, and from thence we sailed to Las Palmas and St. 
Helena. St. Helena especially is well worthy of notice, and 
full of memories and history. Then we made our way to Table 
Bay, wher I beheld a sight that I was assured, and I believe, 
had been until then unequalled in this world, with its 18 or 
20 giant troop-ships all clustered there, to carry to and fro 
hundreds of thousands of men and weighty munitions of war. 

When I got ashore at Capetown I had to report myself to 
some superior officer. He was very nice, but he was rough in 
his manner, and gave it to me hot. The next day he was good 
enough to ask me to forgive him. “It was that unfortunate 
temper of his,” he said, “that Irish temper.” I said, “ Nothing 
of the sort. Irishmen have the best of tempers, especially 
when they are educated and cultured men;” but I was bound to 
forgive him, and I did. 

T was next, to my great surprise and regret, ordered home in 
charge of troops. I often think of the pleasure of those 
journeys, and how our soldiers valued the services of religion, 
and it was a pleasure to me to go back again even for that very 
purpose. I had opportunities during my stay in Cape Town of 


EXPERIENCES IN SOUTH AFRICA DURING THE WAR. 259 


visiting the camps and holding services in them, visiting the 
Boer and English hospitals, and holding services in them also. 
On my way home I[ found that the men were suffering from a 
vreat want, namely, of literature—something for them to read. 
The discomfort and unhealthiness of my cabin caused me to 
complain bitterly on arrival at the War Office, and to the 
owners of the ship. I was just a week at home, and off again 
on another ship. Having found the great want that was 
experienced of literature for “Tommy Atkins,” I put a few 
letters in the newspapers, begging for some papers, books, and 
magazines. This happened on a Monday. I asked to have 
them on Tuesday evening in Southampton, as our ship would 
sail on Wednesday morning. When I got to Southampton, to 
my great surprise, I found there was an immense quantity 
of literature, up-to-date—two waggons full. I had thought 
I might get a good bundle that I could lay aside and open at 
my leisure, but found that two waggons from the Post Office 
had come, and I found also another waggon from the railway; 
so there was a good supply this time, and it was pleasant for 
me to read a few of the pretty letters that some of those 
kind people wrote. Many of them thought that I was sure to 
meet their relatives, and I was to say to each one of them 
what they wished. It was very natural, but I was afraid I 
could not be in so many places at the same time, and I gave 
it up; but of course I did put a notice in the papers thanking 
those who had contributed. Then I got into Cape Town, and 
reported myself, and I was asked to join the 19th Brigade in 
the north-east of the Transvaal. The commander was then 
chasing De Wet. I said I would catch him if I could. 

On advice, however, I withdrew my name and ardour to go 
to the front to chase De Wet. I was then asked to go to De 
Aar, a station where I should not be lying on the veldt all 
night with but a blanket to cover me; so I went there. The 
only thing that struck me on the way up country was what is 
called the Karoo Bush. It is a beautiful country around Cape 
Town for about one hundred miles out, where the Karoo country 
commences, and if you have not been there, you may wish to 
know what it is like. The Karoo Bush is a shrub on which all 
cattle, horses, sheep, and goats are fed—a small bush from 
6 inches high to about 18 inches. It covers the whole of the 
ground. Butit is a desolate country, and passing through in 
winter, we find the shrubs turned quite black, and the country 
looking horrid. I saw it first when it was the very worst time 
of the year. It was not so bad afterwards, when the bushes 


260 REV. W. H. FRAZER, D.D., ON 


bloomed. As you go on you see very few houses. The truth 
is, every Dutchman and every Boer when he gets into a 
farmstead is never so happy as when he can look round and see 
no other buman habitation. He wishes to be monarch of all 
he surveys. It is a peculiar sentiment, but it is there. When 
I got up to De Aar, I was ordered to extend my labours. There 
were not many soldiers in De Aar, and it was so quiet that I 
thought there would be there nothing of the war worth seeing ; 
but it turned out afterwards to be one of the hottest spots of 
the whole campaigning ground. 

My duties were extended from De Aar up to Orange River 
and Modder River, and afterwards to Jacobsdall in the Orange 
River Colony. The two first stations are in Cape Colony, and 
I was put on orders to visit those places every week if possible 
and give to them as many Sundays as I could. Then I saw 
before me a great opportunity of learning a good deal that I 
wished to know. The first thing I learnt was to run along the 
line of country which a little time before Lord Methuen had 
followed, showing all the battle fields that were his—at which he 
fought and conquered—Belmont, Graspan, Enslin, Modder River, 
and Magersfontein. I made my way up as far as Mafeking. 
The most interesting place I came to was Magersfontein, six 
miles across the veldt from the Modder River Station. 

I was deeply interested, having read in the newspapers the 
accounts of that rather unhappy battle. It was there that 
General Wauchope fell. It was there that the Highland 
Brigade met with so much loss; and I was glad to see it, because 
on reading the news that comes from the press, and all those 
worthy gentlemen who supply us with information in the way 
of news, you never get a true idea till you go, as I did, to the 
spot. I found there at a glance how it was that such things 
happened as they did in that battle, and how it failed. There 
is a line of entrenched kopjes, and two miles off is the Modder 
River, and coming out of the end of the kopjes there is an 
unknown level trench on the level veldt running across to the 
Modder River. It was a night attack, the troops arrived early 
before the morning light, and unhappily, not having scouted, they 
knew nothing whatever about that trench. They were working 
to get round the kopjes to outflank the Boers, and I saw there 
308 dead Boer horses. Our troops were overcome, and had to 
do what the Highlander ever bravely avoids—they had to retreat 
in haste. They were fine young fellows leading as the 42nd 
ever does; but disaster awaited them; all the officers of the 
corps being shot down, save three, one of them, young Grant, 


: 
er 
¥ 
Dt 
a 


EXPERIENCES IN SOUTH AFRICA DURING THE WAR. 261 


fought about seven hours, and what I am smiling at, is the 
frequent regrets that he expressed to me that he had not been 
wounded. We all know how General Wauchope and others 
were blamed. There is no war without little and great 
mishaps. It is absurd for people to say it is a disaster here 
and a disaster there: it is not a disaster, but an incident of 
war. By the way, I should have told you of those patient loyal 
men at the Woolwich Hospital. I will tell you why I talk so 
highly of them: they came from the Colenso fight, where 
they were beaten badly, from Spion Kop and Magersfontein. 
Those men who had suffered so much were the fellows that 
never grumbled in the slightest, and every man of them that 
fought under Buller, though defeated, spoke loudly in his praise. 

Well, we came to Modder River and Magersfontein, and then 
I went to Paardeberg; there I saw the deep river banks that are 
described, with holes in which they found shelter. You know 
that General Cronje and between 4,000 and 5,000 men 
surrendered on that occasion. I afterwards saw them in St. 
Helena, and thought that a much better place for them. I took 
some good snapshots of Paardeberg and all those battle-fields, 
Belmont, Graspan, Modder River, Kimberley; and all the way up 
to Mafeking I picked up all kinds of curios; they are now on 
my walls, and people come and look at them, and would like to 
take some of them away ; I have always to keep a sharp look 
out when my friends come to my rooms. I have a large 
quantity of cartridges from that trench that opposed the 
Highland Brigade at Magersfontein. I have some remains 
of the wire fencing that balked them as they came up to this 
flat and fatal trench. I intended to have got a curio which I 
picked up from one of the horses that were dead behind a 
kopje. A lady thought how nice it would be to get one of those 
horses’ hoofs and take it home, and get it mounted as an ink 
pot. I saw one almost severed from the leg, and I wrenched it 
off, and walked away with it; when the atmosphere became very 
unpleasant. I said, “Bea man now, and face it—stick to it, 
and don’t give it up,” but I had to give it up, and I ran as fast 
as I could, and left it. I felt that it would be better to be a 
coward for a minute, than a dead man for the remainder of my 
hfe. At Paardeberg I was more successful in collecting curios. 
I got a large number of Boer stirrups, and the nurses at the 
hospitals hked to have curios from Paardeberg. Lasked, “Would 
you care to have a stirrup?” “Oh! yes, should be delighted,” 
and I gave to several of them a stirrup. 

I came on to Mafeking; it was after the siege had been 


262 REV. W. H. FRAZER, D.D., ON 


raised ; it was well worth seeing. There again was a battle- 
field, or the place where a great military struggle was carried 
on, and that unfortified flat town was left with 600 brave 
men to defend it against from 6,000 to 9,000 Boers under 
Cronje. I have a good many curios from there, and many 
pieces of very large guns, which also are coveted by my 
friends. 

I found one very strange thing there, viz., that the very 
man who was thought so much of (and they did marvellous 
things in defending that town), I found very unpopular with 
the inhabitants, I refer to Baden-Powell. Several men who 
came from there only the other day, said they were astonished 
to find the ‘feeling that existed there against him. They said 
the great favourite there was one of his staff officers, and the 
reason of his unpopularity was, their having “short commons ” 
for so long a time. Having got south from Mafeking, after a 
little I went on my weekly excursions. I had to go about 
300 miles every week. I held services at four different 
stations, commencing them sometimes at 5.30 am. This was 
not my choice, but what the men and their officers hked. At 
times the men would be in the trenches all night, and come 
thence at the first opportunity to worship God. On one of 
those occasions a terrible disaster overtook the men who were 
encamped at Jacobsdall, when they were surrounded and 
butchered. 

I have been taught by my experience in South Africa, that 
the Boers have a great regard for clergymen, therefore I 
preferred a Cape cart to an armed escort, which provoked 
sniping. I met Mr. De Waal, of the Cape Parliament, whose 
name constantly appears in the papers as the Secretary of the 
Africander Bond, and I was very glad to meet him. He is an 
intelligent man, and spoke English well. He is a Hollander, 
and lived for many years in the United States. He spoke of 
English rule as the most glorious that subjects could live 
under. He spoke of his own people—that they are truly 
religious. But I said, “ What about white flags to allure the 
British soldier into houses and other traps to have them shot 
down?” He said, “I am not going to defend everything they 
do, but you will find they have every respect for clergymen,” 
and so I found it. 

The most remarkable thing I found about our young soldiers 
was this—they had no fear of death. They had never 
grumbled over any hardship they had to endure—there was 
never any al and I could not believe that men could 


EXPERIENCES IN SOUTH AFRICA DURING THE WAR. 263 


be got in this wide world to care so little for life as they did 
when called on in parties to draw the enemies’ fire. All they 
wanted to do was their duty, and to be thorough men, and they 
were. I had to go many miles, and had risks to run every day, 
and the conviction came on myself when fear was utterly 
banished. There would be in travelling by rail, risk of 
their blowing up the line or the train. We were frequently 
attended by armour trains going in front pioneering other 
trains. There was an important battle fought by these trains, 
and I came in at the end of it. The Boers were making a dash 
down into Cape Colony under De Wet and Stein. Plumer 
had fought them first at Sandrift, and for two or three days 
across the country. An armour train happened to come in 
sight of them, and knew nothing about the events that had 
been going on. We wired tor more armour trains to come, and 
about 10 p.m., when all had arrived, there was an explosion, 
showing that the line was blown up. We had to wait until 
the morning to investigate, before we could move trains. 
When the hght did come, the Boer forces of several thousands 
had crossed the line, but all their wagons, thirty-four of them, 
they had to leave behind, and we got them. However, in 
fifteen minutes our men had another rail down and trains 
were passing over it. One train had two twelve-pounders. 
They fought and turned over some of the Boers as they fled. 
We however had to be contented with their thirty-four 
waggons, and some Cape carts and one maxim. Their red- 
cross waggon was found full of ammunition. 

When I visited the hospitals I found the behaviour and 
tender-heartedness of our “Tommys” amazing; they were ever 
ready to assist the nurses or their brothers in warfare. They 
were as kind and as tender as women. (Applause.) It isa 
pleasure to me to be able to testify to this; and as to the medical 
officers, no more splendid behaviour and great devotion could 
be expected of them, their nurses, and staffs. 

Scotsmen are proverbially clannish, I found that out in hospital 
experience. A Scotch doctor said to one of his countrymen, 
“ Well, mon, I am glad you have come here, because I can always 
be kind to you. You have only to ask me for anything you 
want, and I will get it.” “ Well, doctor, it is very good of you,” 
said the man, “I will just ask a trifle, and that is, can you get 
me a glass of whisky?” “Oh!” said the doctor, “I am so 
sorry, because we have run short of whisky. We have only a 
short supply, and none is given except to those patients for 
whom it is ordered ; but as soon as a fresh supply comes in, I will 

S 


264: REV. W. H. FRAZER, D.D., ON 


not forget you.” “ You are a good doctor,” said the man. “Is 
there anything else I can do for you?” said the doctor. “ Well, 
if you would come in and talk with me like this two or three 
times a day, and sit where you are now, I should be glad, because 
your breath is so nice and comforting.” There is an implication 
here. 

A little incident occurred to me when I was going my rounds 
once. <A staff oflicer at Orange River said, “Can you baptize a 
Boer baby? There is a loyal Boer and his wife who want to 
have their baby baptized.” I replied, “ Certainly ; you keep the 
train here and I will doit.” “Oh! your train will be all right,” 
said he, “they don’t care a button about stopping a train here 
for half an-hour or an hour.” It did not perturb them. They 
travel at a pace of 12 or 13 miles an hour. I baptized the baby ; 
but what surprised me was that when I asked for the name, the 
Boer father said, “ Victoria.” ‘I'he Queen had been dead about 
a fortnight, and so I baptized the child with that name. I after- 
wards thought it a great pity that I did not suggest that the 
name should have been made to apply to both King and Queen, 
and that it should have been given the name of Victoria 
Edwardina. 

Looking at the experience I had of the war, and remembering 
the heroic acts and splendid behaviour of our men, it is a 
terrible thing to think that any men who, for the love of 
country, for love of their flag and their King, endured so much, 
should be allowed to want, to hunger, or to beg; but it is so, not 
that our Government wishes it, but the Government cannot be 
everywhere. There are other men—very different altogether— 
men in petty positions that turn that position to make grand 
fellows of themselves. They do a deal of harm, and I have 
seen much of it. I have seen the very best type of men of the 
line and our militiamen, but there is a great difference between 
the volunteer officer and the militia officer and linesmen—a 
wonderful difference. It takes more than a monthly training 
each year to make good officers. There are also, it struck me, 
great failings and wrong doing in various ways in the Army. I 
know of men, for instance, at the present time, who tell me 
that they have not received their pay, and cannot get it. I 
know of many cases of that kind. I know a clergyman who 
cannot get his pay and claims. They tell him he has received 
all his claims in South Africa; yet he has necessarily and 
largely spent his own money in performing his duties at the 
front, and these fellows obstinately refuse to pay him, or to 
produce the documents pertaining to his claims. I know of a 


EXPERIENCES IN SOUTH AFRICA DURING THE WAR. 265 


ease of a major in a volunteer corps who could not get his 
claims paid. His solicitor wrote to Mr. Brodrick, our War 
Minister, and said, “If you do not pay me this money, I will 
issue a writ.” That was to expose the case, for he could not 
get judgment on a writ against the Crown; and within 48 
hours that money was paid. The other day a clergyman’s 
brother, who had fought in the ranks, told me he could not get 
his pay, and could not get even a free passage home. There 
are a good many things of that kind that I might go into and 
give particulars of, but it would take too much time. I may in 
another form ; for instance, I could give you one point about my 
own sending in a claim for £37 for lodging allowance. When 
I came to be paid I was given but £30. I said, “My claim is 
just £37, and you have a receipt for this amount. What about 
this receipt?” He said, “I do not know anything about it, 
that is all you can get.” That is how they transacted business 
at the Cape. Those men ride rough-shod over a gentleman and 
man of intelligence, and do things that would soon be set. right 
in a police or county court in this country. I do not think of 
anything further to say, beyond a few words concerning 
natural objects in Cape Colony. The Karoo country contains 
herds of spring-buck, ostriches, locusts, and flies. The flies are 
the greatest pest there, and the most dangerous one ; for where 
they appear, enteric disease spreads with wonderful rapidity. 
Then there are those extraordinary dust-storms, which commence 
like a whirlwind. I have been a httle distance from them, and 
have seen the whirling of the wind and the gathering up of the 
dust—forming a column of great height, which moves along, 
still gyrating, for a couple of miles, and then it dissipates and 
disappears. These storms form in full force in an instant, when 
everyone, when the wind is heard, rushes to close doors and 
windows (which are ever open in the summer), to keep out the 
dust-storm. Where I lived mostly I found the climate healthy. 
It was declared to be chmatically the most severe situation in 
the whole of South African camping ground: that is in 
De Aar. Thesummer is extremely hot; but still I had splendid 
health. It was 106 or 107 degrees in the shade every day for 
five or six hours, but in my tent it was from 113 to 118: so I 
could never go into my tent during the day. I got, all through, 
most excellent health, and the only suffering I had to endure 
was four or five days of fever and ague. 

I have read some of the best books on this subject, and I 
have observed that the incident I referred to of the battle of 
-the six armoured trains is net referred to by De Wet, who is 

s 2 


266 REV. W. H. FRAZER, D.D., ON 


credited with the outrage of sjamboking a well known major 
in one of our cavalry regiments, because he remonstrated with 
him concerning his cruel treatment of some of our men whom 
he had made prisoners. 

I will not delay you further, but will merely thank you for 
the attention you have given me. [ Applause. ] 


DISCUSSION. 


Mr. MARTIN RovuseE.—-I would ask the lecturer a question or two, 
as no one seems to come forward ; whether, in the first place, he 
believes there is any truth in the charges that were made, especially 
abroad, regarding the treatment of women and children in the 
concentration camps. 

Dr. FRAZER.—It is a most important question, and I must 
willingly testify that the shadow of a word to support those charges 
I have never heard uttered against one of our men. I do not 
believe that you could find one individual, unworthy of himself as an 
Englishman, as being party to such crimes as were charged against 
them. I have watched keenly, and I have asked others who have 
had opportunities as widespread there as mine, and they have 
never found a shadow of foundation for it. [Applause. | 

Mr. Martin Rouse.—I would ask the lecturer whether he saw 
much of the work of the South African General Mission, in which I 
am particularly interested ; as to whether they went to the front 
and worked amongst the men, and so on. I should like him to tell 
us, if he can, some of his experiences, if it is not too late, of the 
cheer and comfort that he has been able to give to dying men, and 
his account of any change that has come over the heart and life of 
men through his own ministry. 

Dr. FRAzER.—Oh yes; God uses humble beings towards great 
ends. He knows how much good has been done. I know that it 
was very satisfactory, the experience that I had in my ministry. 
With regard to the natives, the missioners go in amongst them. I 
had no opportunity of forming an opinion, but this I do know, that 
the Bishop of Grahamstown spoke to me most approvingly of a 
service he had attended of Kaffirs close to my station. Unfortu- 
nately every Sunday when they met for worship I could not attend. 


EXPERIENCES IN SOUTH AFRICA DURING THE WAR. 267 


He said, more reverence in the house of God he never experienced. 
He declared that many of those people put ours to shame in their 
realization of the Divine Presence in their lives, and the reverence 
and holy fear evidenced in their worship. I am very hopeful 
about it, and I see in every way a great future for South Africa— 
commercial future and spiritual future. I am persuaded that the 
work has begun well and that it will go on. [Applause. | 

The CHAIRMAN.— Dr. Frazer has done very good work in bringing 
before us the army at this time. At one period the army was 
regarded as entirely distinct from the people; but that time has 
rather passed over ; now the army is more in touch with the rest of 
the population. Dr. Frazer has mentioned the good conduct and 
feeling of the soldiers, and I think that is very important to 
remember, and I think it will be found that the conduct of the 
soldiers has had a great deal to do with the happy settling down 
that has gone on. There is no ill feeling, as far as I know, between 
English soldiers ; on the contrary, there has always been kindness 
and good feeling shown when they are in hospital or at any other 
time they have met. What is that due to? Very much, I believe, 
to the spread of the Gospel in the army. Now, as we know, many 
efforts are made, and soldiers are not all the dissolute, idle and 
corrupt people one was accustomed to think about; but their whole 
tone is better, and some are earnest Christian men. I remember a 
colonel in the “ Black Watch ” telling me that he thought that there 
was no place where a Christian man could be so useful as in the 
army. I know of the Soldiers’ Christian Association, which is very 
largely developed in the army, and all of us can help a very great 
work in the army by praying for them, by coming into touch with 
them, and remembering them and looking after them on furlough ; 
by speaking kindly to them, and helping them so that they may be 
more and more brought out in the future. 

We all join in thanking the lecturer for the information he has 
given us this afternoon. [Applause.] 

Dr. FRAZER.—I only wish once more to assure you of the great 
pleasure it has given me to come here and to tell you these few 
experiences. [ Applause. | 

The meeting then terminated. 


ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.* 


Rev. G. F. WHIDBORNE, M.A., F.G.S., IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed and the 
following election took place :— 


AssociaTE :—William Warry, Esq., M.A. (Oxon.). 


The following paper was then read :— 


THE LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE 
SCIENCE SIDE. By Professor LioneL S. BEALE, 
RCP. EAS. 


EFORE reading tbe paper I should hke to make an obser- 
vation particularly with regard to the point that of all the 

broad questions left for us to consider, and I trust to determine, 
bearing upon the most important principles open to human 
knowledge and investigation, is the one which I venture to lay 
before you of the relation between living and lifeless matter. 
The difference between the extreme opinions with regard to 
the relation of life to matter is now most extraordinary. Many 
observers and thinkers insist that hving things and lifeless 
things all belong to one category, while others believe that the 
distinction between life and non-life is simply absolute: that 
there is no relation at all between matter that is alive and 
matter that is not alive; that they are quite distinct, and that 
life depends, as far as it has yet been reached, not upon any 


* Tuesday, June 2nd, 1903. 


Pa eee ae ey Te a a ee ee 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE 3IDR. 269 


forces of non-living nature, but upon the Almighty ; that there 
is not a particle of living matter of any kind which can be 
explained, except on the view that it depends upon God. 

The matter of the body of everything that lives in this 
world consists in part only of matter which is actually 
alive ; the greater part being composed of matter which “as 
been alive, but which as structure has ceased to live—matter 
which in fact has been formed j/70m and by matter which at the 
time was alive; this being the only way in which structure and 
formed matters belonging to a living organism and endowed 
with characteristic properties or structure, can be produced. 

The living matter consists of innumerable minute particles, 
Bioplasts, to be seen in the tissues and organs of man and the 
higher animals, varying in size and proximity to one another in 
different species, but present in all. At an early period of 
development, in all classes and kinds of complex organisms, the 
embryo consists almost entirely of particles of hving matter, 
indistinguishable from each other, each of which, as develop- 
ment proceeds, may form on its surface a thin layer of delicate 
tissue, and this may increase layer within layer, until each 
particle appears separated from its neighbours by a considerable 
thickness of tissue which, as it has been formed, has ceased 
to live. As age advances, the proportion of this last increases, 
and the living particle within diminishes in size. In old age 
the living particles in the tissues become very small. 

Allow me to say that these observations depend entirely 
upon what one is able to make out by using the microscope. 
Nothing that I have just referred to can be seen without 
comparatively high powers of the microscope. 

All the matter that is alive, and at every period of its 
existence, contains a large proportion of water—water being 
absolutely necessary to every kind of living matter or bioplasm, 
that lives in this world as long as its life shall last. And there 
is no doubt that water was present in every particle of matter 
that lived in past time, even from the creation of life, when 
“the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.” ‘The 
nature of life power is unknown, but there is no property of 
matter, no force, no factor, with which it is comparable. 
Distinct from all physical agencies, vital motion is not in the 
slightest degree affected by gravitation. 

The division and sub-division of many particles of living 
matter, all through living nature, into very minute, separate, 
and growing living particles, is a fact of the highest importance 
as regards the question of the nature of life. Seen in the micro- 


270 PROFESSOR LIONEL S. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


scope as innumerable separate particles easily destroyed, and 
varying in size from extreme minuteness, to particles generally 
measuring not more than the one two-thousandth of an inch in 
diameter. These living bioplasts, besides being very numerous 
in all growing tissues and organs, are present in very large 
numbers in many of the fluids of the body, especially in the 
blood, lymph and chyle, and in milk, at an early stage of its 
formation. In the interstitial fluid which slowly circulates in 
all the minute interstices of the tissues, distributing nutrient 
matter in solution, and receiving also in solution substances 
resulting from the action and death of hving matter, minute 
particles of hving matter also exist. All through the living 
world, every living particle has been derived from a living 
particle which lived before it, and each one may give rise to 
numerous living particles which may succeed. 

No one can tell from any given particle of living matter 
what will be the structure, or what the properties or composition 
of the tissues and substances to be formed by it; not even the 
chemical composition of the hfeless compounds which result 
from the death of any particular bioplast can be ascertained. 
Such is the origin, and the earliest stage of all living matter at 
this time and I think I may say, has been so generation after 
generation from the very beginning. 

_ Every living particle in nature as long as it lives contains 
water, which, if much reduced in quantity, would cause the 
death of the living matter; and death would occur long before 
a living particle became nearly dry. Some living particles and 
many Protozoa consist almost entirely of water. This moist 
Bioplasm or living matter possesses in its substance the power 
of movement urthin itself, and wm every direction—movements, 
vital, inscrutable, inimitable, but to be seen and studied in 
many instances as long as the right proportion of water is 
present. 

No living particle of matter can be chemically analysed: for 
any attempt to do so would cause its death, and then we 
should be dealing, not with the hving matter itself, but only 
with various kinds of lifeless matter—chemical substances 
formed at and after its death. Form, colour, composition do 
not help us in any way to explain or account for the nature of 
living matter. Indeed they are, as I have remarked, but 
results of its death. Their character, properties and compo- 
sition depend upon the vital changes effected by the life power 
while the matter lived. 

In the tissues and organs of fully formed living animals and 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FBOM THE SCIENCE SIDE. ye | 


plants, the minute particles of living matter alternate with 
non-living matter or tissue, which has been formed from and 
by the living matter, but which in the state of tissue or struc- 
ture of any kind does not dive. 

This distinction between the living and non-living matter of 
everything in nature, is absolute; and when we say an 
organism has ceased to live, or is dead, to be accurate—we 
should rather say, the once living matter is dead. The tissue or 
structure died when it was formed, and was as dead while it 
remained in the living body, as it would have been if the 
whole organism had ceased to live. 

Such structures in fully formed organisms, as hair, feathers, 
horn, nail, much of the tooth structure, the greater part of the 
ivory of the adult elephant’s tusk, for instance, are lifeless, 
though they may have been firmly fixed to the living body for 
years, and, indirectly, may be of great importance to life. All 
these dry and lifeless structures were moist when formed by 
the moist living bioplasm or living matter. 

A sharp line of distinction must therefore in all cases be 
drawn between the living and non-living parts of every living 
organism in nature. But it must be borne in mind that all the 
tissues, and all the non-living formed matter of every organism, 
was first in the state of living matter. 

Of the precise nature of the life-power of lving matter, 
little has yet been ascertained. The power, it must be ad- 
mitted, belongs to life itself, and originated in previous living 
matter. I think we must place life-power, if not among 
Spiritual powers, at least consider it as being nearly allied to 
the spiritual order, and absolutely apart from all physical 
properties, forces, energres, or factors of matter. 

The living particles themselves and their action during life, 
can I think only be reasonably accounted for by attributing 
them to vital power, created, sustained, and regulated from the 
beginning, by the living God. 

With regard to living matter, living growth, and the formation 
of tissue :—In every department of living nature, at all times, 
and in all ages, in all developmental processes, a great fact for 
consideration is the universal presence of a large proportion of 
water, and the faster the growth proceeds whether in’ health or 
disease the greater will be the percentage of water. Some 
vegetable, as well as animal tissues during the very important 
and earliest stages of development, may contain for a time 
more than eighty or ninety per cent. of water, and I think it 
will be found that all living tissues and organs, and abnormal 


272 PROFESSOR LIONEL S. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


erowths during tke periods of rapid increase, contain nearly 
as much. I wonder that thoughtful persons have not been 
impressed with this broad and probably universal fact, 
especially as Mr. Darwin’s evolution hypothesis suggests that 
all living organisms probably sprang from one or a very few 
simple life forms, each of course containing much water. If his 
followers had admitted that, from the beginning to the end of 
life, the changes in the germ during its development, and every 
succeeding living particle till its death, were governed by some 
direct superintending and sustaining life power, the view 
would I think have been near the truth. 

By the study aud contemplation of the changes occurring in 
life and living growth, we may perchance approach nearer to a 
true conception of the nature of the vital changes governed by 
infinite Almighty Power, than by directing attention to the 
overwhelming lifeless cosmic matter and the extreme cold and 
heat of the Cosmos, infinitely far away from any particle of 
matter that can possibly live, or move and grow. 

In my last paper to the Institute, I alluded to the elaborate 
structure of the valves of diatoms, as positive evidence of the 
direct influence of constructive power and agency, which can 
only be attributed to the infinite living power of Providence, 
and I feel confident that anyone who will attentively examine 
a few slides of these beautiful objects in the microscope, will 
agree with me. 

~ Again, by ee watching the highly complex movements 
of the legs of the tiniest insect, or spider, on a summer's day, 
the thoughtful mind will be convinced by what is observed, of 
the action of a very elaborate and highly complex nervous 
system, the general arrangement of which will be as clear to the 
understanding, as if every part had been microscopically dis- 
sected out, and prepared in the most perfect manner for 
demonstration. 

The observer who from long and careful microscopical 
investigation is aware of the general structure and arrangement 
of the thin layer of the active grey matter near the surface of 
the convolutions of the human brain, and has thought over the 
ereat number and distribution of the vessels taking part in its 
blood supply, and who is able to compare this with the corres- 
ponding arrangements in other parts of the human body, will 
mark the provision for the free supply of a large proportion of 
arterial blood, and will feel satisfied with the evidence afforded 
of purpose and design. He would infer wonderful activity and 
very high office of the extensive and elaborate structure, and 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE SIDE. 273 


the large proportion of very moist living matter which is well 
known to exist in this part of the brain. This is by far the 
most important and wonderful part of the human organism. 
And if he had the knowledge which patient microscopical 
enquiry into the minute structure of this part of the brain 
alone can give, and had frequently contemplated his own think- 
ing power and noted the wonderful precision of some of the 
most delicate and complex of man’s voluntary movements (say 
for example, in drawing, and in playing musical instruments), 
seated probably in several parts of the cerebral cortex, particu- 
larly if he was in good health, and especially after rest, when his 
mind was clear and active, would I think believe, on this ground 
alone, in the infinite power of the living God of living nature, 
unless he had determined under all circumstances, to refuse to 
admit the existence of what he had seen with his own eyes and 
was evident to his understanding, and to neglect the inferences 
which necessarily follow the careful consideration of well 
demonstrated facts. 

Thus at the outset of our enquiry, it appears that the con- 
sideration of a few broad general facts connected with many 
different organisms at various ages, and belonging to different 
departments of living nature, regarded from the science side 
only, compel the reason to infer, that all growth and the 
process of the formation of tissue, like life itself, must be due to 
powers which are of the living world only, and that all the 
chemical and physical changes occurring in living nature are 
brought about and regulated by vital action—vitality itself, a 
power which has not been isolated or made evident by 
scientific investigation. It seems to me therefore that this 
power in living matter only, must be admitted to be a special 
endowment—a power created by God, supported and sustained 
by Him only. 

The life of a part and of the whole of a living body, really 
depends upon the millions of millions of minute particles of 
living matter or Bioplasts, in all parts of the moist tissues and 
orgaus, these minute particles being generally separated from 
one another by intervening tissue which has been formed by 
vital changes occurring on the outer part of the living matter of 
the bioplast. Thus each bioplast or particle of living matter, 
becomes separated from its neighbours by tissue of gradually 
increasing thickness which is permeable to fluid. The living 
matter of each bioplast by the tendency of its parts to move 
away from other parts, or from a centre, causes fluid to move 
slowly in the opposite direction, towards the living matter. In 


274 PROFESSOR LIONEL 8. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


this way, each minute bioplast receives its nutrient matter in 
solution, and any products of action and disintegration of the 
bioplasm would be dissolved and slowly removed, and at the 
same time, by the constant movement of fluid in the inter- 
stices, the tissue by this slow but steady movement of fluid 
would be preserved, and its healthy condition ensured. This cir- 
culation of fluid, I have spoken of as the “interstitial circulation” 
because the fluid is constantly moving in the interstices of the 
tissue. It is a most important system, and indeed exists in 
organisms not provided with proper organs of circulation, as 
well as those possessing a special circulating fluid—the blood— 
which is driven through the vessels by a special pulsating heart. 
or propelling organ. 

Let me now ask your attention to an argument of a different 
kind, which seems to me equally conclusive against placing 
physical and vital phenomena in the same category—the 
maintenance of the uniform internal temperature of the body of 
man and the higher animals, notwithstanding the constant 
changes in the outside temperature. Many intelligent persons 
are not aware of this remarkable fact, and of its very great 
importance to the well-being of the organism, and the serious 
consequences which may result, if the internal temperature 
rise only a few degrees above the normal—a change which is 
not unfrequently followed by serious disease, and in too many 
instances leads to an early death. By this fact alone the 
reason of thoughtful persons ought to be convinced, that the 
physical and chemical changes in man and the higher animals, 
cannot in any way be compared with those in the physical and 
chemical laboratory. Only think of the structures concerned, 
and especially of the arrangement and actions of the nerve and 
vascular systems engaged in the restoration of the body to its 
normal condition, after it has been subjected for a few weeks to 
an internal temperature of but three or four degrees above the 
normal. Think also of the wonderful heat-regulating powers 
of the wren, which maintains its normal temperature, probably 
several degrees above 100, during the coldest weather. 
Consider its small size, and think also of the physiology of the 
common little bat of our climate, and study the finest nerve 
fibres distributed to its vessels, just beneath the epithelial 
layer of the membraneous part of its wing, one of the most 
wonderful and beautiful examples of the finest nerve distribu- 
tion in nature (see Bioplasm, an Introduction to the Study of 
Physiology and Medicine. J. and A. Churchill, pp. 280 to 336, 
Plates XV to XX), 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE SIDE. 275 


The physical oneness of the Universe-—The enthusiastic 
advocates of the adequacy, of “ Universal Physical Law” to 
cause and sustain all vital phenomena, do not admit that, 
during the life of any living growing organism or organ, or of a 
growing living particle of any structure- -forming matter in the 
life- world, the power at work is distinct and marked off from 
all matter that is not alive, or that the state of life is absolutely 
distinct from the state of death, and that of non-life. I hope 
that ere long some of my contemporaries will consider and 
discuss this important question. 

Will any one of the advocates of the doctrine of the 
“ Physical Oneness of the Universe” maintain that there is no 
absolute distinction between living and non-living? Can any 
satisfactory evidence be appealed to in support of the supposed 
existence of a living organism or a living particle of any kind 
at this time, in any other world than this? Can the advocates 
of such purely conjectural ideas support the contention of the 
existence of any kind of living being, of a sidereal nature in any 
part of the Cosmos? Is it not certain that up to this time, the 
only living beings of which man has, or can have cognizance 
and knowledge, are those organisms which hke man himself, 
have been created in, and inhabit this world? Could any 
ordinary living thing known to us, retain its life for a moment 
under the conditions now known to exist in any nebula, star, 
sun, or other celestial body yet discovered? And yet it is not 
surprising that the wonderfully successful exploration of an 
immense part of the intinite Cosmos in recent times, should 
have strongly appealed to the imagination of well informed 
persons; or, that the contemporaneous revelations of the 
minute structure and growth of the tissues, and the formation 
and action of our own organs, and the particles of living matter 
by which they were formed, should have been little noticed. 
Infinitesimal details of structure, unseen changes during 
development and growth, wonderful as these are, cannot as yet 
compete with the vast and overwhelming grandeur of the 
material eternal Universe. Astronomy and physical investiga- 
tion generally, have advanced during the past century in 
greater degree than other departments of natural knowledge. 
The same remark applies to all departments of physics and 
chemistry——and no wonder people have been led to expect that 
some great physical generalization concerning all matter— 
living and not living—was about to enlighten the world, and 
the discovery of some universal physical law, equally applicable 
to living and non-living, lead to the revelation of the real cause 


276 PROFESSOR LIONEL 8. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE | 


of all nature, at last to be understood by mankind—making it 
clear how the living comes from the non-living—both being 
directed, governed, and sustained, by the same universal 
physical laws. Unfortunately, however, the idea of “The 
Physical Oneness of the Universe,” can only apply to the 
infinite non-living part thereof. So far from the operation of 
physical law having been proved in anything that lives, the 
doctrine, as I have shown, is not supported by any one fact 
characteristic of life. No thinker who has studied the facts of 
life and growth in any one living thing, or the process of tissue 
formation, as it may be investigated in the animal or vegetable 
world, will admit that the dogma of the ‘ Physical Oneness of 
the Universe,’ is applicable to any kind or state of life. He 
who holds this dogma to be true, must have concentrated his 
thoughts on that vast part of the Universe, which is and must 
ever be absolutely devoid of all lefe. 

The Telescope, designed and constructed in the early days of 
modern scientific discovery and progress, improved and still 
improving, has gradually brought nearer and nearer to the 
comprehension of man, some of the inexhaustible wonders of 
the lifeless celestial orbs, and the results of the operation of 
the universal law, by which their never-ceasing movements are 
governed. There is no evidence that these vast ageregates of 
lifeless material atoms, have ever been for a moment through 
the ages, the seat of one spark of life, or of the movements of 
one single living particle. Can we suppose that any living 
thing known to us here, could approach within thousands of 
miles of the nearest of them? Has not the successful 
investigation of the external part of many, proved the presence 
of some of the most refractory substances known, being in a 
state of vapour at a temperature, which we of this world are 
unable to realize? Must not many, if not all, of these colossal 
collections of inorganic matter be destitute of water, in which 
case nothing which can in any way compare with one single 
form of life known to us, could possibly exist in those remote 
regions so far removed from any means we possess of their 
minute investigation ? 

The more minutely and successfully physical investigation 
can be carried out, the more widely will physical phenomena be 
shown to be separated from every vital change or action. 
Physical and vital changes are, and must ever be, as the poles 
asunder. Between the movements of living matter, and those 
of lifeless matter of any kind, there is no analogy. 

For little more than fifty years has the study of the minute 


a ee ee a 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE SIDE. 277 


changes in living matter been rendered possible by great 
improvements in our means of investigation, by which results 
of great interest to all intelligent persons, have been obtained, 
and broad general scientific principles of importance with 
reference to vital action all through living nature, established, 
the application of which to our life world is not yet realized by 
the public. 

To prove the exercise of Infinite Power as contrasted with 
the operation of physical law, or of physical and chemical 
properties of matter, one has but to examine under the 
microscope the living matter of the germ of a living organism, 
at an early period of its development—the very young leaves of 
a leaf bud or petals of a flower bud, or to study the germination of 
a common mustard or other seed in a thin layer of water, or 
the vital movements to be seen ina particle of the living matter 
of blood, mucus, or pus. All attempts to show that the 
wonderful vital movements of living matter can be included in 
the physical category, have failed. and must ever fail. 

Modern forms of evolution, and evolution by law, as advocated 
by some, seem to be a progressive experimental process, perhaps 
never to be completed—inasmuch as some of the evolved soon 
die, while others having been created “more fit,’ are supposed 
to have survived in the so-called struggle for life, and the 
progeny of the latter, it is concluded, would continue to improve 
and advance, generation after generation, without ceasing. 

By some, living naturé would seem to be looked upon as a 
vast well-found laboratory, or as an elaborate machine in which 
experimental creation was always proceeding of its own accord, 
without any power corresponding to human _ intelligence, 
direction, or power. 

The great “laboratory of nature” is supposed to contain 
abundance of the ingredients entering into the composition of 
the bodies of the living things about to be formed, or the means 
of producing them spontaneously; there being in this great 
natural laboratory no professor or assistants, the substances 
necessary must have the power of taking up their proper 
positions, of arranging themselves, and of moving towards one 
another in the exact proportions ; so that when the atoms come 
within the spheres of their mutual attraction, they may combine 
to form the required chemical compounds. The physical forces, 
or the forces denominated vital, then manifest themselves, and 
the living properties of the new atomic aggregations develope. 

The Professor of Physics of Tufts College, Massachusetts, does 
not hesitate to suggest that when “chemists shall be able to 


278 PROFESSOR LIONEL S. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 

form the substance ‘Protoplasm,’ it will possess all the 
properties it is now known to have, including what is called its 
life, and one ought not to be surprised at its announcement any 
day.” (Matter, Ether and Motion. Society for Promoting 
Christian Knowledge, 1899, p. 283.) This book, it is announced 
is “intended for ordinary readers,’ on the ground that “ it 
brings all natural phenomena under a few clear principles.” 
The chapter on “Physical Life” in Professor Dolbear’s book, 
seems to me quite inconsistent with belief in any form of living 
power, above or beyond the properties of lifeless matter, and to 
be opposed to the idea of the need of the living God in the 
creation or government of the living world. 

Here, is one of the most recent of astronomical discoveries, as 
recorded by a very confident reviewer and I conclude supporter, 
of universal physical doctrines, in the last number but one of 
the Hdinburgh Review (Jan. 1903, p. 140). I wonder what 
his scientific countrymen will think of it :—‘* We may rest 
assured that our intuitions of truth and beauty far from being 
peculiar to humanity are shared perhaps in a transcendent 
degree, by sidereal beings who know as we know if more surely and 
clearly, and worship what we worship, though we may hope with 
a fuller apprehension of the Eternal Majesty ”! (Italics mine.) 

It is to be hoped that the Edinburgh reviewer will inform us 
of the nearest sidereal body which he considers to be the abode of 
the knowing, thinking sidereal beings he postulates, and tell us 
whether he inclines to the view, that like us they live, or if they 
have lived, and died in past time, and what idea he has been 
able to form of their probable composition, dimensions and 
weight, the mode and period of their construction, and ultimate 
destiny. 

The Microscope is an instrument of a more humble character, 
and of capacity far inferior to that of the telescope, being 
necessarily limited to the investigation of objects of extreme 
minuteness, and of close proximity to us. It is of more recent 
invention than the telescope, and is capable of great further 
improvement. New and better methods of the microscopical 
investigation of minute details of structure than any we now 
possess, will probably soon be discovered. We may therefore 
expect to learn much more than is at present known concerning 
the wonderful phenomena of hfe and living growth, in living 
organisms of all kinds. By the use of the microscope, however, 
we are now in many instances, able to see into the very 
substance of living matter, and to study some transparent 
structures during their formation. In this respect we have an 


; 
i 
‘ 
, 
| 
. 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE SIDE. 279 


advantage over the astronomer, who at present is unable to pene- 
trate very far into the substance of any of the immense objects 
he brings under observation, situated at enormous and unknown 
distances from his eye. 

Many facts of living nature which can only be ascertained by 
the aid of the microscope, are far more worthy of attention and 
of very careful study than is generally supposed, on account of 
their bearing on broad questions connected with all life, 
including that of man. The results of minute investigation 
with this instrument have not yet been adequately recognised 
by science, philosophy or religion, although many profound 
truths of living nature, have already been elucidated by its aid, 
which could not possibly have been otherwise made known 
to us. 

The new knowledge connected with cerebral structure and 
general nerve action, is sufficient to encourage us to pursue 
enquiry further, and to seek for more exact and definite 
information. Microscopical research steadily pursued, will 
enable the observer to distinguish the special work etfected by 
vital power,from all results of physical and chemical change. Thus 
the separation of the kingdom of life from the non-living cosmos, 
will become more evident to the mind, and the realm of 
non-living matter. will be distinguished from that of life; and I 
think, if we use our reason aright, the direct works of God— 
from any results of force or energy,and the operation of “ Universal 
Physical Law.” Is not the microscope to the world of life, of 
which we ourselves constitute a very important part, what the 
telescope is to the non-living universe—the life that is infinitely 
near us—to non-living matter infinitely distant, and ever 
unapproachable by us? Are mind and thought, intellect and 
reasoning, less worthy of contemplation, than lifeless heat and 
cold, and blind inanimate physical force, by which life may be 
destroyed at any moment but can never be restored ? 

Some philosophers seem to have considered that there was a 
hard and fast iine of separation between animals and vegetables, 
while not a few have been inclined to degrade the latter, and 
consider them to be near to matter that does not live. But by 
microscopic investigation, we learn that the lowest living micro- 
scopic fungus is as much a member of the life-world as man 
himself. EHverything—every particle that Jives—is abso- 
lutely separate and distinct from every particle of non-living 
matter. Everywhere in the life-world, the Vital Factor which 
I have defended for half a century, reigns supreme. Living 
growth, formation and action, entirely and absolutely depend 

£ 


280 PROFESSOR LIONEL §. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


upon life-power which at present undemonstratable, was derived 
from already existing life-power. 

What happens to, or becomes of the life, when a living 
particle dies, has never been ascertained. No law explains it. 
Life comes from life, and it cannot be included among any forces 
or properties of matter. At death, life leaves matter without 
passing on to any other matter, or assuming any other form 
whatever. Life never arises anew. The same matter lives and 
dies, but the products resulting from its death, cannot be caused 
to live again, unless they are dissolved, and then taken up by 
living matter which imparts to them life-power. Life after life, 
series after series, of organisms have been as it were using and 
animating the same matter. As age has followed age, millions 
of different forms of hfe have animated atoms which die and 
may be animated over and over again by other living particles. 
The life, not the matter, is therefore the individual living 
creature or particle, for many of the same atoms may have 
helped to form the temporary abode of unnumbered individuals, 
differing widely from one another in nature and power, 

I have shown many friends a fortunate preparation of very 
delicate peripheral nerve-fibres which could be traced without 
interruption over a considerable area of very thin tissue (young 
frog’s bladder, Mylo-hyoid muscle of green tree frog). My 
friend sees and traces network after network without a break, 
and sees the bioplasts connected with the fibres. He admits 
the continuity of many of the finest fibres with dark bordered 
nerve fibres. We quite agree as to the facts demonstrated in 
the specimen. But to get my friend to think of what such a 
specimen proves, and the mode of its formation, the growth, 
structure and action of this very small part of the nervous 
system which he sees, and to get him to consider how nerve- 
action is performed in the living animal, or say, over the whole 
surface of the bladder, or of a muscle, seems most difficult. 
No doubt in thinking over what he has seen, the hard black 
representations illustrating nerve-distribution in text books on 
minute anatomy have strongly impressed him, and as well as 
the hard wire-like pictures of the soft delicate nerves of 
nature, have rendered it difficult for him to form an idea of the 
actual nature and importance of the soft moist transparent 
nerve-tissues and the countless bioplasts he sees. The 
specimens referred to have been preserved without change 
since the preparation was first spread out flat in preservative 
fluid, and ultimately in strong glycerine or syrup, and the 
excessively thin cover-glass applied, forty or fifty years ago. 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE SIDE. 281 


Viewed as an isolated preparation its interest can hardly 
be appreciated, or its meaning clearly understood. 

Many of the most important conclusions arrived at by me, 
on the structure, growth and action of the tissues of man and 
animals were published in the Transactions of the Royal, and of 
the Royal Microscopical Society, in my Croonian lecture to the 
Royal Society, and Lumleian and other lectures at the Royal 
College of Physicians between 1855-75. A brief account of 
the principal observations, illustrated with many drawings on 
wood by myself, will be found in Sioplasm, an Introduction to 
Physiology and Medicine, pp. 345 et seg. (J. and A. Churchill, 
Great Marlborough Street), and in the later editions of How to 
work with the Mier oscope (Harrison and Sons, Pall Mall). 

Unfortunately the results of my work were strongly opposed 
to the doctrines of hfe and living growth, generally taught in 
the schools, and pressed upon the notice of the public, during 
the time of Darwin, Huxley, and Tyndall, when no one who 
had been led from his observations to form conclusions different 
from those advanced by them, could get a patient hearing. 
And so things have gone on to this time, and Universal 
Physical Law, the lifeless physics of the entire universe, living 
as well as non-living, prevail. But physics cannot explain 
ordinary facts of living nature. Creation by and the depen- 
dence of the whole world of life upon God may be denied and 
ridiculed ; but, as is well known, no one has ‘explained from 
the phy sical or chemical side, one single case of life or living 
growth. To get over the difficulty, some authorities, and 
especially Herbert Spencer, insist, that physical deposition, 
aggregation, crystallization, and the mere accumulation of solid 
particles are examples of growth, thereby sanctioning the idea 
of a Godless living world. 

By the telescope man has been able to see the wonderful 
works of God that do not live, but were created and completed (7) 
zeons ago, by His Infinite Power, and now, and for ever, will be 
governed, by His eternal unchanging universal law. 

By the microscope, man is enabled to see and form some 
idea of the design, construction and gradual formation of the 
wonderful living, ever-changing, growing and multiplying 
living organisms, which constitute living nature as we know it 
at this time, and which living nature receives unceasing 
support, and, as many think, is under the direct supervision of 
Almighty power which shall never cease. Does not careful 
minute investigation in all departments of living nature, 
convince man of God’s living presence in every part of the life 

T 2 


282 PROFESSOR LIONEL S. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


world ; and is it not certain that further minute investigation 
and discussion on life, development and growth, will gradually 
bring the living human intellect nearer to Him ? 

General conclusions concerning the life of our world.—Evidence 
which I regard as conclusive, has compelled me to teach during 
the last half century certain definite principles as regards the 
nature of life and growth, and of all things lving, and things 
that have lived in time past. 

The conclusions referred to are as follows :-— 

(1) That, the distinction of every kind of life and growth, 
and the formation of tissue, in all things livine—from every 
kind of non-lfe—is absolute. 

(2) That, there is no evidence in support of the view that 
any kind of life has proceeded, or has in any way been obtained, 
from non-life. 

(5) That, while it is certain our world must have been 
formed ages before the appearance of one living particle, there 
is no evidence justifying the idea of the gradual production of 
a living organism, from any matter, or combinations of non- 
living substances. 

(4) In several papers published in our Transactions during 
the past twenty years, and in other works, I have traced the 
formation of the wonderful structures characteristic of widely 
different living organisms, from structureless colourless living 
matter containing invariably a large proportion of water; and 
have shown that the facts demonstrated lead up to certain 
general conclusions of great interest to all who desire to under- 
stand the nature and progress of developmental phenomena, 
and the mode of growth of living things in general, as well 
as of man. The nature of those differences by which the state 
of life is marked off from every kind of lifeless condition— 
from inorganic matter—and from the state of death, which 
occurs only in matter that has lived, has been referred to. 

(5) Many arguments have been advanced in support of my 
contention of the influence of Vitality, Vital power, throughout 


the whole of the life-world known to us, the only life-world of 


the existence of which we have proof, and, as far as has been 
proved to exist at this time, the only life-world in the infinite 
universe, the only life-world yet shown to have been created, 
governed and sustained by the Almichty. The infinite 
designing, directing, sustaining power of the eternal living God, 
as it seems to me, looking from the science side only, must be 
acknowledged in every kind of iiving matter and at every 
period of life. 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE SIDE. 283 


(6) Can there be any reasonable doubt that life, vital power, 
vitality, stands alone, a power per se, not related to any of the 
forces, potencies, or properties of any ordinary lifeless matter, 
and as far as existing evidence justifies us in concluding, in the 
universe ? Whence originally came vital power in living nature, 
and what becomes of it when it ceases at death, is at this time 
unknown to science. 

(7) But, so far, there is no indication of life ever having been 
brought within the domain of physical Jaw. Rather does life 
seem to be a power which I venture to think, will ere long be 
regarded as allied to, if not to be actually included in, the 
spiritual order of things. | 


While it must be fully conceded that the most profound and 
almost universally, applicable generalization which ever 
originated in a human mind was founded upon the fact 
familiar to everyone, the fall of an apple in autumn, and though 
it is not surprising that the universal law then discovered, has 
been supposed to govern all matter in all states and places in 
every part of the universe, was it likely that the contention 
_ that matter in one particular state, living for a short time only 
in this comparatively infinitesimal portion of the universe of 
material infinity, should for a moment not only cease to obey, 
or act contrary to the universally received universal law, but 
behave as if there was ‘no such law at all? Philosophy and 
reason alike have at times refused to listen to this fact—that there 
is one state, in which matter resists and absolutely overcomes 
the influence of gravitation. That matter in this one state only, 
might and does move in every conceivable direction, and by 
virtue of its own inherent power and notwithstanding the 
ordinary tendency of every lifeless material particle to be drawn 
towards, or to be pulled by the weight of lifeless particles 
towards the earth, was not conceivable at that time; the power 
of self-movement being known only in matter that lives, 
evidently inherited from the living matter from which it came, 
and this from preceding lving matter. 

Contemplating broadly the only living nature of which we 
have knowledge and experience, can we for one moment agree 
that life and all living things obey this great “ universal” law 
of gravitation? Do not countless members of the vegetable 
kingdom by growing away from the earth as long as they live, 
act contrary to that “universal law”? In this growth are not 
atoms and particles of matter moved, and somehow piled up one 
above the other, against their natural tendency to be moved 


284 PROFESSOR LIONET 8. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


towards the ground? And are not living organisms out of 
number able to overcome this law in fiight, and by the ordinary 
movements of their limbs in raising parts or the whole of their 
bodies, from the ground by the action of their soft moist nerves 
and muscles, and the power of the bioplasm of these tissues ? 
Indeed is it not a fact that a/l living organisms overcome gravi- 
tation? And in short, is there a living particle in our life- 
world which 77 all tts parts obeys this law? Are we not there- 
fore compelled to recognize in these facts the influence of a 
power distinct from all the forces, properties and qualities of 
every kind of matter that does not live—a power which 
characterizes only matter which is alive, but which ceases 
when life ceases? Vital and physical are opposed. If physical 
acticns and physical laws and properties were not overcome by 
Life-power, Vitality, there would be no life, 


Reuiegio Vira, RELtIcio SctentTI#, ReLieio MEpICct. 
ReenuM Vir#, Regnum DEI. 


DISCUSSION, 


The CHAIRMAN.—Ladies and gentlemen, I am sure we must be 
deeply grateful to the Professor for giving us such, if | may use 
the word, an eloquent paper in every sense of the word, eloquent 
not only in the words in which it is expressed, but the depths of 
thought and the forcible truths that it enunciates. 

Before going any further the Secretary will read some communi- 
cations which have been received. Perhaps I might first put a 
formal vote of thanks. 

[Put and carried unanimously. | 

The CHAIRMAN.—There are one or two questions I should like 
to ask the Professor, but I should like first to express my own 
personal gratitude for many thoughts which it seems to me are 
hardly to be taken in all at once, but to be well thought over and 
to form the ground of suggestion of further thoughts. As one reads 
the paper through, every now and then in what appeared to be a 
casual sentence, there seemed to be wrapped up a most striking root 
thought, which I am sure we shall be very wise if we try to 


te en a 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE SIDE. 285 


cultivate for ourselves. One thing on the first page struck me as 
being remarkable, where the Professor points out the multiplicity 
of living particles that go to form, if I understand aright, one life— 
that one life is composed of a multitude of little lives. I cannot 
help thinking that there is a great deal of truth in that thought. 

_ Professor BEALE.—They all come from one original one. 

The CHAIRMAN.—Then with regard to the passage where the 
Professor points out that water is essential to life I would ask a 
question, which I know how he will answer of course, is there a 
living particle in a dry seed, a seed that appears to be dry? Ithink 
perhaps he might tell us something very interesting about that. 
What seems to come out rather strikingly when we read that “the 
tissue or structure died when it was formed” in the new body, and 
yet went on I suppose to be carried on in that new body, is the 
old Mors janua vite view of forces. I was also struck with the 
thought that vitality has both living products and dead products. 
If I understand aright the living particles produce on the one side 
dead bodies and on the other side new living particles. Might it be 
that the form of life which we think of as spiritual or the resurrec- 
tion life may be that in which the products will all be living, and 
that that may explain many of those points with regard to the 
scriptural idea of the resurrection life where there is an ascendance 
over the laws of matter ? 

Professor BEALE.—If I may reply io the last question first, it 
seems to me when any actual living particle dies it is impossible to 
suggest what becomes of the life that is gone. Where it has gone 
it is impossible to say. It ceases ; it does not become converted into 
force as has been said. There has been a remark about “ Agnostic.” 
‘* Agnostic” is used in two very different senses—as if one knew not 
at all, and also as if one was not certain. The Agnostic has said 
distinctly and many times that man is a machine and all his actions 
are mechanical. Now that seems to me not an Agnostic observation, 
it is a very positive affirmation that man isa machine. The answer 
to that is that man is not a machine, and not one of his actions is 
mechanical. There are no mechanics at all in living things. That 
is the point. But it is said your brain and muscles move—they live. 
That is true, but the part of matter that forms a great part of the 
brain is not living matter at all. It cannot reproduce itself, whereas 
all living matter can. Many would say that the bark of the living 


286 PROFESSOR LIONEL S. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE» 


tree belongs to the living tree and therefore it is living. It is 
nothing of the sort. The bark is dead while the tree is alive, like 
our nails and the horns of animals, and so on, and the same with 
our hair. It is ridiculous to say that the hair is alive as long as it 
is connected with the head, or else the use of a pair of scissors makes 
the difference between life and death. No one has defined the 
difference between life and death; that has to be done. What I 
_hope is that we may have discussions about this. It is impossible 
to get on without discussion. Many of us, I am quite sure, are 
quite ready to answer any question that may be proposed as well as 
we can, and then those present will be able to judge for themselves 
whether our answer is sufficient or not. We shall not get much 
further with this, although there has been a wonderful advance 
during the last month, since May 2nd, when Lord Kelvin’s paper 
was read, and now on June 2nd we get very satisfactory information 
that an advance has been made. 

The SECRETARY.—Yes, I think there has been a movement in 
the direction of belief in an almighty governing and guiding 
Power. 

Professor BEALE.—Very strongly, and all I regret is that the 
proprietors and editor of The Times were not present just to hear 
what we had to say. 

Mr. Martin Rovuse.—I should like to ask Professor Beale 
whether he has observed that the living particles in a particular 
portion of an animal increase in number and size as the animal 
continues to grow ? 

- Professor BEALE.—Yes, during the early period of life. The fact 
is life goes on and out in the lower animals much more than in the 
higher. 

Mr. Rouse.—May I take it when you say that living matter is 
not-under the influence of gravitation you mean the life particles 
are not, because the animal taken as a whole of course is, but the 
living particles resist gravitation ? 

Professor BEALE.—Yes, but the animal’s structure is dead. 

Mr. Rovusr.—Might the permanent structure then cease to 
live 2 

Professor BEALE.—Yes ; it is not only the external parts of our 
body, such as the outer layers of the cuticle, the hair and the 
greater part of the teeth, that are dead, but the fibrous tissue is 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE SIDE. 287 


dead. For instance, the tendons are dead. ‘The point is this, that 
if you take the growing part of the skin, even of an old man, if you 
cut off the outer dry part and come to the lower part, take a very 
thin layer and transfer it to the surface of another individual which 
has been properly prepared to receive it, it grows. Therefore it 
seems to me, the test as to life or not is, if matter is living it will 
grow. Non-living matter will certainly not grow, and the word 
growth comprehends wonderful changes. Nothing can be used for 
growth—for increase in living things unless it is dissolved. All the 
matter, all the atoms must be dissolved in water somehow before 
they can be appropriated and grow. 

Mr. RousE.—When you speak of the matter being absolutely 
dead you mean it has no living particles within it ? 

Professor BEALE.—No living power. 

Mr. Rouse.—The cell walls of it are dead ? 

Professor BEALE.—The cell walls are dead. 

Mr. Rouse.—But the cell substance then is alive ? 

Professor BEALE.—Yes. 

The SECRETARY.—There is one point on this, and the previous 
discussion which has occurred to my mind as a mistaken idea about 
life which I wish to just state with due deference. Professor 
Beale has said that when life departs from a body no one knows 
what becomes of it—you cannot tell what becomes of it—it ceases— 
as if life was an entity. An entity, if it left the body, we might 
know something about what becomes of it—it might enter into 
another combination. But as life is only a condition of existence, 
it is not an entity and you cannot speak of it as going elsewhere, or 
disappearing, or entering into any new combination. As the 
Professor has clearly pointed out, life must come from life, but it 
means, I apprehend, that one living body has the power of 
communicating that condition of existence which we call life, but 
not, as it were, importing into the other body some definite object 
or entity. I was reading in a weekly paper a recent article on this 
very subject, and the writer seemed to deal with the question of 
life as if it was an entity. I said to myself, This seems to me to be 
an entirely erroneous view ; it isnot an entity ; it is not a substance 
.so to speak ; it is a condition. Now I do not know what force that 
would have with my friend, the Chairman. when he speaks of the 
question of the resurrection. I have not thought that question out, 


288. PROFESSOR LIONEL S. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ON THE 


but possibly it might have some bearing upon it. The resurrection 
of the body, or of the spiritual body, would seem to be under that 
view, not the passage of the life, but the power of the dying and 
saved individual to transfer into the spiritual body that life which 
he himself possesses. The whole subject is one, if very vague and 
indefinite, yet worthy of consideration, and I will just throw out 
that postulate to Professor Beale. 

Professor BEALE.—I should like very much if Professor Hull 
would join some of us in trying to get some of these matters 
discussed from the scientific side. I should venture to suggest that, 
life is a power belonging to the order spiritual, and therefore I 
should not speak of it as a condition. 

Brigade Surgeon J. Ropinson.—I would like to ask whether the 
‘material eternal universe,” on p. 275, refers to a past eternity—that 
there is no creation at all of matter as matter; or whether the 
eternity here spoken of is a prospective one. In what sense is that 
eternity to be understood ? 

Professor BEALE.—Matter in different forms—the cosmos. It is 
lifeless, absolutely lifeless. 

Mr. Ropinson.—I meant to ask as to calling matter into 
existence ? 

Professor BEALE.—I do not say whether it can be changed. 

Mr. Ropinson.—I heard Mrs. Besant lecture at Reading, and on 
this question she at once, without hesitation, said it was a very 
stupid idea on my part to conceive that matter was not eternal. 
Matter, as matter, through its ultimate developments, might be the 
formation of a cosmos. 

Professor BEALE.—May we not do all we can first to make out 
the nature of the things nearest to us, and then consider those far 
away afterwards ? 

Rev. J. TUCKWELL.—I think it is extremely difficult to express 
what we all feel on this exceedingly useful and suggestive paper. 
There are one or two points which I think may be wisely emphasised 
by us in our thinking over the matter. What struck me as being 
of very great value was what the Professor has called the necessity 
of supposing that in biological existence, behind and antecedent to 
it, there must be some designing, some intelligent, some vital force. 
Now I think if we take that thought and read Professor Beale’s 
paper with it in our minds, it may be of very great service to us. 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM 'THE SCIENCE SIDE. 289 


If I understand Professor Beale, he, as well as Lord Kelvin, suggests 
that we must suppose—we cannot do without the supposition—that 
there is a Creator, a designing, thinking mind, determining the 
action and the products of those different forms of bioplasm. It 1s 
the same in our own body. If I understand it, the bioplasm at the 
root of my nails has in it no different physical properties, so far as 
can be discovered, from the bioplasm at the root of my ear, both 
are enriched by the fluid which circulates and conveys nutriment 
all over my body, and yet in the one case the bioplasm is working 
night and day and producing matter of one kind, and in the other 
case it is producing matter of another kind. Surely there is an 
indication there, above and beyond all we know of physical nature, 
of a creating, directing force, determining what shall be the product 
of these different forms of bioplasmic life. I should like also to 
thank Professor Beale for the suggestion which he has emphasised 
this afternoon, that there is a great difference between all material 
forces and products, and the products of what is called by him 
vitality or vital powers; or to refer once more to Lord Kelvin’s 
letter, Lord Kelvin disavows anything like a confusion between the 
form of a crystal and the growth of a plant or an animal, The 
formation of a crystal, he allows, may be described by the expression, 
‘fortuitous concourse of atoms.” Those atoms or molecules are 
drawn together, or precipitated together by the physical forces of 
nature, and you have the crystal which is piled up by particles ab 
extra; but in the case of a life you have an entirely different 
condition of things; an entirely different process of form. You 
have a bioplasm working from within and laying layer upon layer of 
dead matter inside the cell, and so what is described as dead matter 
within the cell is thrown out upon the dead matter that is outside, 
and continually increasing in quantity so that there is no growth 
without death. It occurred to me that Professor Beale’s paper, and 
especially his reference to that subject, explains what has been felt 
by some to be a very difficult expression used by our Lord himself. 
Not very long since I heard an infidel challenge the statement which 
Christ made, “‘ Except the corn of wheat fall into the ground and 
die, it abideth alone ; but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit.” I 
think Professor Beale’s paper, this afternoon, gives us an explanation 
of that extremely difficult passage. It shows us that the corn of 
wheat cannot grow without death. The gelatinous substance then 


290, PROFESSOR LIONEL 8. BEALE, F.R.C.P,, F.R.S., ON THE: 


of the cell has to die in order that the material that builds up the 
new plant may be formed ; and that layer after layer of it may be 
formed, the process of death has to go on continually. I think if it 
were only for the light thrown upon that one passage, and the 
evidence that it is in strict accordance with what we know of 
scientific biology, Professor Beale’s paper would have been valuable 
beyond expression. 

Professor BEALE.—May I appeal to Professor Hull, and may I 
appeal to my colleagues on the Council to consider whether we 
must not have a little alteration in some of our arrangements, in 
order that we may have, now and then, one of these points 
thoroughly discussed. It seems to me to be quite within the 
purview of the Institute 

The SECRETARY.—It is not the first time that you have brought 
this proposal before us, and I think we discussed it at one of the 
meetings of the Council, and I have thought over it myself. I 
would wish you, in the first place, to consider that the arrangements 
for the meetings and discussion of papers have been of long standing. 
They are the result not only of the arrangements made years ago 
by the members and associates and the Council of the Institute, but 
they have been, as it were, confirmed by subsequent use and 
experience. They are something like the rules which govern the 
meeting of Parliament, and it is very difficult to introduce additional 
meetings and discussions without possible disarrangement of the 
ordinary meetings and discussions, and also adding, perhaps, very 
largely to the labours of a very small staff, which I hope you will 
consider. I find, as a matter of fact, as your Secretary, that it 
takes me all the time that I can spare from other engagements to 
deal with what we are now doing; and the Council, when they did 
me the honour of appointing me as Secretary, accepted my statement 
that I should give the time necessary to conduct the affairs of this 
Institute as Secretary, provided I was allowed the time for other 
numerous engagements and duties. You have no idea the amount 
of labour that getting these papers and discussions through the press 
involves. I have to read the MSS., correct them and send them 
through the press; attend to their issue—first the proofs, then the 
revises, and then ultimately to get them all into the shape for the 
volume of Transactions. Possibly, if you thought it worth while to 
have a couple of meetings thrown in, which would not involve either 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE SIDE. 291 


printing or reporting, there might be no difficulty, but I doubt much 
if they would be of much use. 

The CHAIRMAN.—It is quite evident, ladies and gentlemen, this 
is an indication of a forward movement. It is equally evident that 
we are already allowing our Secretary to be overworked, so that we 
cannot move forward, and it is quite evident that we must aim at 
increasing our staff. It is equally evident that one way of doing 
that is for the members and associates to aim at increasing our 
numbers. It has long appeared to me that this Society is not nearly 
as fully representative in our members as it ought to be for the 
valuable work which it is doing, and for the prestige which it has. 
I believe that there are a large number of people who, with a very 
little inducement, could be found to join this Society, so I am going 
to make an impertinent remark which I only hope will produce 
living matter, 7.¢., that you who are present should each of you try 
if you cannot find some friend, scientific or otherwise, forthwith to 
join the Institute, and thus you will try from this little cell to set 
forth a new line of vital action which shall bring out still more good 
from the most important work of the Victoria Institute. 

The SECRETARY.—I have only to say that if every member and 
associate was as active in getting members and associates to join 
as our Chairman, we should probably double our numbers in the 
forthcoming year. 

The CHAIRMAN.—Now, thanking the Professor for this interesting 
paper, we adjourn. 


Communication from Lord GRIMTHORPE, LL.D. : 


I did not receive Dr. Beale’s interesting paper in time to write 
anything on it for the meeting on June 3rd. I had been thinking 
on the subject occasionally in consequence of the discussion started 
by Lord Kelvin, and continued until Zhe Times found they had been 
too much occupied with politics and hundred year old news, and 
attempts to get relief from its encyclopedic speculation. Indeed I 
had, as you know from former papers of mine, asked the question, 
“ How did the world evolve itself and all the beauty of nature, and 
how are all its laws maintained”? Dr. Beale’s difficulty about such 
internal forces of vegetable matter had been in my mind aggravated 


292 PROFESSOR LIONEL S, BEALE, F.2.C.P., F.R.S.. ON THE 


by the failure of any philosopher of genius enough to invent an 
accepted solution of the rising of sap in trees, was aggravated by 
the rejection of mere capillary attraction to account for it, as it 
was for a time thought to do. And there are the heavy heads of 
such things as sunflowers to increase the puzzle. Indeed, our 
oldest law called gravity has not got beyond the region of universal 
fact—a totally different thing from any prime cause of it. Weight 
seems so natural that we are apt to forget that Newton only proved 
it as a fact, and all subsequent experience has only confirmed it as an 
universal law. Few people reflect what would be the condition of a 
world, and still more, of a universe without it, in which nothing 
would stand firm without bonds of some kind. Or you may realize it 
by simply throwing a few corks on to a large basin full of water, out 
of contact with and not very near each other, which will soon settle 
for themselves to join each other and the basin. And now the general 
puzzle is perhaps increased by the gradual reduction and at last aboli- 
tion of any solid atoms, which are dismissed for mere ‘‘emanations” 
of undemonstrable vibrating entities, as both electricity and light 
are at last pronounced to be. Even a watch main-spring only does 
its work by cohesion (which is only attraction completed) of its 
particles in the old popular sense of the banished atoms. All the 
chemical affinities too, are only attractions from no known or yet 
imagined prime cause, except the one called (in banished language) 
creation, and maintenance by an omnipotent and omnipresent force 
and will, which plainly foresaw what behaviour it would cause. The 
famous Tyndalic dogma of a promise and potency of life to dead 
matter is transparent nonsense, invented to conceal ignorance by 
fine words. All these forces are quite as inconceivable without a 
prime cause as the entity called life, which is only the power to 
attract and “assimilate” the air and water and other materials 
for repairing decay or destruction—or, the knowledge and power to 
lay eggs and all other seeds, which in their turn grow up to 
imitate their parents and begin the same course again ad infinitum. 
The head of the Birmingham University, Sir Oliver Lodge, quoted 
Aristotle’s knowledge of such things as a reason for sticking to 
Greek learning, which really told us nothing. And he did not 
answer any of the above questions, which must have been some- 
where in the mind of such a contemptuous philosopher as he 
appeared in the aforesaid great diffusion of universal knowledge, 


LIVING GOD OF LIVING NATURE FROM THE SCIENCE 8iDk. 293 


and you will see them approach faster as they get near. Mean- 
while we go on blundering and trade-unionising against all practical 
knowledge of how to do or to improve anything that is wanted ; 
as if the only practical rule of life were to get the most pay for 
the least and worst work that can be sold for more than it cost 
the doer of it, and yet talking of ‘“ Labour” as the only potentate 
worth acknowledging. Had we not better begin again at the 
other end, as some prime Author and Maintainer of the universe 
did, who not only made His own laws but enforces them every 
minute ? 

As I once wrote for you a paper on “‘ Beauty of Nature*” with 
the same general object as the preceding one of Dr. Beale’s, I 
invite your members to reflect what answer they or anybody can 
give to the question suggested just now by a short walk, in this 
suddenly fine afternoon, in the gardenn—What made merely 
promiscuously planted oak trees look so beautiful? Certainly not 
I, some thirty years ago, when I planted most of them at random ; 
and certainly not my gardener. But I and the persons with me all 
exclaimed at it, and then it came into my head to ask this question, 
for any of your members to answer. 

And reverting to universal gravity, let me tell those who do not 
know, that Newton’s friend Paley reminded the readers of his 
admirable book called Natural Theology, which is better reading 
than any scientific one that I know or ever knew, that he asked 
therein how gravity can be accounted for; and that he anticipated 
the erroneous dictum of a well-known atheistic philosopher, that the 
law of gravity is only “ the expression of a necessary law of space.” 
It is nothing of the kind until he establishes the new theory that 
gravity is a mere emanation of straight lines of attraction in every 
direction. 


Communication by Rev. J. RaTE, M.A. :— 

I am much interested in Professor Beale’s paper, and am Fala 
that it endorses Lord Kelvin’s statement, viz.:—that ‘“ Modern 
Biologists are coming once more to a firm acceptance of something ; 
and that is—a Vital principle.” 


* Trans. Vict. Inst., vol. xxi (1887-88). 


294, PROFESSOR LIONEL S. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., ETC. 


But I see no reason why the same Almighty Power which is 
exerted in the creation and support of living matter should not be 
equally exerted in maintaining the laws which govern inanimate 
matter. 

Newton in his immortal work, the Principia, closes it by an 
argument in which he treats of the attributes of God as manifested 
in the laws which govern the material world, concluding, “ Et 
hec de Deo, de quo utique ex phenomims disserere, ad philosophiam 
nateralam pertinet,” and then he adds, ‘“ hypotheses non fingo.” 

If I may be permitted, I will add a note on Causation which I 
published many years ago. ‘A fallacy arises, I think, from 
viewing the laws of Nature too exclusively of the material world. 
Looking on Nature, as it is, a great and connected whole, consisting 
of matter, force, organic life in the vegetable and animal world, 
sentient and psychical life in man and animals, and spiritual life 
in man—we find each lower law dominated in its turn by the 
law of the higher existence. Thus the laws of inanimate matter 
are dominated and interfered with by the laws of organic life in 
plants and animals; the laws of organic life are dominated by 
the laws of psychical life in animals and man ; and in man the laws 
of psychical life which he derived from Adam are dominated, when 
he ‘puts on the new man,’ by the law of the ‘Spirit of life,’ which 
he derives from union to Christ. The first man Adam was made 
cis Woynv Cecav; the last Adam was made eis rvedmua Cwororodv 
(1 Cor. xv, 45). Thus one law controls another; the higher 
controls the lower, interferes with its usual unimpeded operations 
and effect ; but is no violation of it.” 

What first satisfied the mind of Socrates in inquiring into the 
nature of Causation, was the saying of Anaxagoras, ews dpx Nods 
cot 6 Crakoommv te Kat Tavtwy aizios. ‘Having heard a certain 
person reading once in a book, as he said, by Anaxagoras, to the 
effect that it is a Mind which regulates, and is the Cause of all 
things, I was indeed delighted with such a theory of Causation ; 
and it appeared to me in a manner to be quite just for Mind to be 
the Cause of everything ; and I supposed, if such were the case, 
that the regulating Mind sets all things in order, and disposes 
them severally in such a mode as they may best abide in.” 
(Platonis Phedo, Ch. xlvi.) 


COUNCIL AND OFFICERS 


LIST OF MEMBERS, ASSOCIATES AND 
HONORARY MEMBERS. 


COUNOGIL AND OF Pic ie: 


Presivent. 


THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE EARL OF HALSBURY, LORD 
CHANCELLOR, D.C.L., F.B.S. 


Wice-Presivents. 


SIR T. FOWELL BUXTON, BART., K.C.M.G. 

SIR JOSEPH FAYRER, BART., K.C.S.1., M.D., F.B.S. 

PROFESSOR LIONEL S. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S. 

W. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., F.R.S., Past Pres. of Geological Society. 

ALEXANDER McARTHOUR, ESQ., D.L., J.P. 

eres ROBINSON THORNTON, D.D., F.R.Hist.S., Archdeacon of 
Middlesex. 

DAVID HOWARD, ESQ., D.L., F.C.S., F.I.C., fe. (Trustee). 


Wanorary Correspondents. 


THE RIGHT HON. LORD KELVIN, PAST P.RS. 
PROF. A. AGASSIZ, D.C.L., F.R.S. | PROF. MASPERO (Paris). 
PROF. R. ETHERIDGE, F.R.S. PROF. FRITZ HOMMEL, Pu.D. 
PROF. HE. NAVILLE (Geneva). PROF. A. H. SAYCE, D.D;, EiaD? 


Wonorary Auditors. 


J. ALLEN, ESQ. LIEUT.-COL. MACKINLAY, 
LATE R.A. 


Wonorary Treasurer. 
EDWARD S. M. PEROWNHE, ESQ. 


Secretary and ECvttor of the Hournal. 
PROFESSOR EDWARD HULL, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 


Counnrctl. 


(In Order of Election.) 
REV. PRINCIPAL JAMES H. RIGG, D.D. 
REV. DR. F. W. TREMLETT, D.D., D.C.L., PH.D. 
VERY REV. H. WACH, D.D., Dean of Canterbury (Trustee). 
REV. CHANCELLOR J. J. LIAS, M.A. 
GENERAL G. 8. HALLOWES, fc. 
REV. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.LS., F.R.GS. 
CAPTAIN E. W. CRHAK, C.B., R.N., F.R.S. 
THOMAS CHAPLIN, ESQ., M.D. 
REV. CANON R. B. GIRDLESTONE, M.A. 
THEO. G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.AS. 
VEN. ARCHDEACON W. M. SINCLAIR, M.A., D.D. 
GERARD SMITH, ESQ., M.R.C.S. 
COMMANDER G. P. HEATH, R.N. 
REV. CANON TRISTRAM, M.A., D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 
REV. G. F. WHIDBORNE, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 
HIS EXCELLENCY LIEUT.-GENERAL SIR H. L. GEARY, K.C.B., R.A. 
WALTER KIDD, ESQ... M.D., F.Z.8. 
EDWARD STANLEY M. PEROWNE, ESQ. 
MARTIN LUTHER ROUSE, ESQ.. B.L. 
REV. R. ASHINGTON BULLEN, M.A., F.G:S. 
REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A:S. 
MAJOR KINGSLEY O. FOSTER, J.P., F.R.A.S. 
LIEUT.-COLONEL GEORGE MACKINLAY. 
GENERAL J. G. HALLIDAY. 


wdl 


* Members of Council. 
t+ Life Members or Life Associates. 
ft Specially Elected. 
| Distinguishes those who have contributed Papers to the Institute. 
F Foundation Members or Associates (elected before Dec. 31, 1866). 
fe. Finance Committee (Six Members). 
HH Those through whom legacies have been received. 


MEMBERS. 


pt 


1878 t+Acton, Colonel W. Molesworth Cole. 

1876 Aitken, Rev. Canon W. Hay M. H. M.A. Oxon. 

1892 Alison, Rev. Alexander, I).D. 

1895 Alves, Lt.-Colonel M. A. R.E. 

T9301 Ani,’ Professor Henry M: M-A. D.Sc. FsG.S: F.R.S: 
Canada. 

1874 Ashley, Miss M. 


B; 


1882 +Baring, Rev. F. H. M.A. Camb. F.R.G.S. 

1869 +Barker, John L. sq. 

F Barter, Charles, Esq. B.C.L. Oxon. Resident Magis- 
trate of Maritzburg. 

1881 Barton, James, Esq. B.A. M. Inst. C.E. 

1899*4] Beale, Professor Lionel SS. F.R.C.P. F.R.S. 
F.R.Mchi.8. F.R.M.S. (Vicz-PResipEentr). 

1891 Beckett, Ernest William, Msg. D.L. M.P. 

1901 +Bell, Colonel Alexander W. C. Indian Army. 

1903 Bermuda Library, Trustees of. 

1889 Bernsrorrr, His Excellency Count. 

1873 Bevan, Francis A. Esq. J.P. 

1887 Biddle, D. Esq., M.R.C.S.H. F.S.8. Memb. Aeronaut. 
Soc. of Great Britain. 

1895 Bird, Rev. William Arthur, F.R.M.S. 

1879 Bishop, F. 8S. Esq. M.A. Oxon. M.A. Cantab. J.P. 

U 2 


SF 
1887 


1887 
1890 


1884, 
1889 
1869 
1896 


16H 


1890 
1881 
1894. 


1894: 
1896 
1900 
1888 
1890 
1889 
1871 
1902 
1887 
1891 
1897 
1872 
1897 


evel 
1903 
1888 


1900 
1889 
1892 
1899 
1903 
1882 


298 


Blackwood, Lady Alicia. 
Bowman, Rev. Prof. S. L. A.M. D.D. S.T.D. P.S.L. 
Braithwaite, J. B. Esq. 


+Brooke, The Venerable Joshua Ingham, M.A. Arch- 


deacon of Halifax. 
Brown, Rev. Claud, M.A. Oxon. 
Browne, John, Esq. C.H. 
Budgett, James S. Esq. 


*Buxton, Sir .T. Fowell, Bart. K:C.M.G. F.R-GS: 


(Vicu-PRESIDENT). 


C. 


‘Carr, Rev. Arthur, M.A., late Fell. Oriel, Hon. Sec. 


Cent. Soc. Higher Relig. Educ. 
Carrier, Rev. Professor Augustus Stiles, B.A. (Yale). 
Caudwell, Job, Esq. F.R.G.S. F.R.S.L. 
Chapman, Edward, Esq. M.A. Fell. of Magd. Coll. 
Oxon, DOL. ELS: J.P, 
Chapman, Geo. John, Esq. M.A. 8.C.L. F.Z:8. 
Chinnery, H. J. Esq. 
Choles, Capt. Frederick J. F.R.C.I. F.R.G.S. 
Cogswell, Napoleon Thomas, Hsq. 
Collins, Brenton H. Esq. J.P. 
Cooper, 8. Joshua, Esq. 


+Coote, Sir A. C. P. Bart. M.A. Camb. F.R.G.S. 


Corbet, F. H. M. Esq. M.R.A.S. 

Corke, H. C. Esq. D.D.S. F.R.S.L. 

Cory, John, Esq. J.P. 

Couch, The Right Hon. Sir Richard, P.C. F.R.G.S. 

Coxhead, Rev. J. J. M.A. 

Cunningham, Francis A. Esq. M.A. B.Sc. Attorney- 
at- Law. 


D. 


+Day, William, Esq. 


Deacon, J. FW Msq. MAC J.P. 

Derry and Raphoe, The Right Rev. G. A. Chadwick, 
D.D. Bishop of. 

Dicker, Richard D. Esq. 


{ Dodge, Rev. D. Stuart, M.A. 


Dowsett, C. F.-Esq. F.S.I. 

Drummond, Mrs. J. M. A. 

Ducie, Right Hon. The Earl of, F.R.S. F.G.S. 
Dunepin, Right Rev. 8. T. Nevill, D.D. Lord Biskop of.. 


odd 


K. 


1891 Eberhart, Professor Noble M. Ph.D. Sc.V. Dean of 
the College of Science, Chicago. 

1884 Edwards, Trevor Caswell, Esq. 

1882 +Ellis, Alston, Esq. A.M. Ph.D. LL.D. 

1895 Enders, Rev. J. H. 

1896 Evans, Rev. Milton G. A.M. D.D. Prof. Bib. Theo. 


1902 Faber, Mrs. Mary A. 

1878 Fairfax, Sir James R. 

1901 Fanshawe, Rev. W. Dalrymple, M.A. 

1883 +Finnemore, The Honourable Mr. Justice Robert Isaac, 
E.R.A.S. FR. Hist. S. F.R.G.S. Puisne Judge, 
Supreme Court, Pietermaritzburg. 

1901 Foster, Harry Seymour, J.P. F.R.G.S. Consul for 
Persia. 

1902 *Foster, Major Kingsley O. J.P. F.R.A.S. 

1875 Fox, Rev. Prebendary H. HE. M.A. Camb. 

1881 France, J. F. Esq. F.S.A. F.R.C.S. J.P. 

1876 Freeman, Miss F. H. 

1892 Fremlin, R. H. Esq. 

1889 Fremlin, R. J. Esq. 


G. 


1875 Garratt, Rev. Canon S. M.A. 
1892 *Geary, His Excellency Lieut.-General Sir H. L. 
iKC23s RA: 

1878 +Gibbs, Antony, Esq. M.A. D.L. J.P. 

1875 Gibbs, J. G. Hsq. Surgeon-Major (Ret.) Madras 
Medical Service. 

1890 Gibson, Right Rev. Alan Geo. Sumner, M.A. Bishop 
Coadjutor of Capetown. 

1875 +Godson, EH. Probyn, Esq. B.A. Camb. 

1890 Goodyear, C. Esq. 

1885 +Gould, Rev. J. M.A. Camb. 

1876 Gould, Rev. President G. P. M.A. (Regent’s Park 
College). 

1896 tGregg, Rev. David, D.D. LL.D. 

1884 4{GrimrHoren, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D. K.C. 

1899 Groth, Lorentz Albert, Esq. Ph.D. C.E. (Knight of 
Swedish Order ‘“ Gustavus Vasa’’) (K.G.V.). 


300 


1 bs 


1880 Hall, Rev. Canon W. J. M.A. 

1899 *Halliday, General J. G. 

1885{*Hallowes, M.-General George Skene. 

1888 Hatspury, The Right Hon. Hardinge Stanley Giffard, 
Earl of, K.G. P.C. F.R.S. &e. 

1901 Harrison, Edgar Hrat, Esq. 

1882 Head, J. Merrick, Esq. F.R.G.S. 

IF Healey, George F., Esq. 

1890 Hellier, Rev. Henry Griffin, Balliol Coll. Oxon. 

1901 +Hepburn, W. Arnold, Esq. 

1879 +Hingston, C. A. Esq. M.D. B.Sc. Lond. 

1893 Holman, F. A. Esq. 

1895 Hooper, George Norgate, Esq. F.R.G.S. F.S.8. 

18739 * Howard, David, Esq. D.L. F.C.S. F.LC. 

1887 Howard, Josias, Esq. J.P. 

1873 Howard, R. Luke, Esq. F.R.M.S. 

1873 Howard, Theodore, Esq. 

1873 +Howard, W. Dillworth, Esq. 

1890 Hoyle, Isaac, Esq. J.P. F.I.Inst. 

1891. Hupiuston, W. H. Ksq. M.A E.R.S. ¥-G.5. Eon: Gos: 
B’C.S, FuLS. (CV 1ct-PresipEnr )- 

1888*Q Hull, Professor EH. M.A. LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.8.; late 
Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland, 
Professor of Geology R. Coll. of Science, Master 
in Engineering (Hon. Caus. Dub.), Acad. Sci. 
Amer. Philad. Corresp. Soc. Geol. Belg. Soc. Extr. 
(Secretary ). 

1901° Holl, hdmunmd (C2 P. sq. Je 

1891 Huntingford, Rev. Canon Edward, D.C.L. late Tell. 
New Coll. Oxf. 

1888 Hutchinson, Rev. Canon, C. B. M.A. Exam. Chap. to 
Archbishop of Canterbury. 


I. 


SF tInce, Joseph, Esq. A.K.C. F.C.S. F.L.S8. F.G.S. &e. 
1880. Ince, Rev. Canon W. D.D. Reg: Prof. Div Oxi. Chap: 
to Bishop of Oxford. 


J. 


1869 Jenkins, Rev. E..E. M.A. LL.D. 

1891 +Jex-Blake, The Very Rev. 'l. W. D.D. Dean of Wells. 
1895 Johns, Rev. C.H. W. M.A. 

1889 +Johnson, Rev. Samuel Jenkins, M.A. Oxon. 


K. 


1881 Kempthorne, Rev. J. P. 

1895*4[ Kidd, Walter Aubrey, sq. M.D. B.S. M.R.C.5S., F.Z.S. 

1893 +Kinnaird, The Honourable Louisa K. 

1900 Klein, Sydney V. Esq. F.L.S. F.R.A.S. F.R.M.S. 
F.E.S. M.R.I. 

1885 Knox, Rev. J. H. Mason, D.D. LL.D. President 
Lafayette Coll. 


Le 


1881 +Ladds, Rev. T. M.A. Camb. 

18919 +Lansdell, Rev. Henry, D.D. Memb. RI. Asiatic Soc. 
F.R.G.S. 

1898 Laurence, Miss M. A. 

18759 *Lias, Rev. Chancellor J. J. M.A. Hulsean Lecturer, 
1884. 

SH = lidgett, George, Esq. B.A. Lond. J.P. 

1896 Logan, Rev. Samuel C. D.D. LL.D. 

1887 Loveday, Miss L. E. 


M. 


1888 MacEwan, Rev. D. D.D. (Glas.). 

1897 *Mackinlay, Lieut.-Colonel George, late R.A. (Hon. 
Auditor). 

1896 Malyon, Rev. Professor T. J. LL.B. 

1885 Marshall, Rev. C. J. 

1891 +Masuam, Rt. Hon. Samuel Cunliife-Lister, Jord; 
Dees Mal ae 

1901 Matthews, Ernest R., Esq. C.E. F.G.S. 

1872 Matthews, John T. Esq. 

SP *+McArruvr, Avexanper, Hsqg. D.L. J.P. F.R.GS. 
(Vice-Patron), 

1893 McArthur, A. G. Msq. 

1885 McArthur, W. A. Esq. M.P. 

1894 McCullagh, Rev. J. B. 

SF Monckton, Col. the Hon. H. M. 

1877 Morgan, R. C. Esq. 

1900 Mudd, Christopher, Esq. F.L.S. 

1881 +Mullens, Josiah, Esq. F.R.G.S. 


N. 
1880>KNapier, James S. Esq. 
1878 Netson, The Right Hon. The Karl. 


1881 Newton, Rev. Preb. Horace, M.A. Camb. Prebendary 
of York. 


502 


O; 


1902 Olsen, Ole Theodor, Esq. F.L.S. F.R.A.S. F.R.G.S. 
Ord, Wasa, Sweden; St. Andrews Terrace, 
Grimsby. 


JE 


1885 Pain, R. Tucker, Esq. Memb. Graphic Soc. Memb. 
Art and Amateurs’ Soc. 

1881 Patton, Rev. F.L. D.D. LL.D. Prof. Relations of 
Philosophy and Science to the Christian Religion, 
Principal, Princteon Theo. Seminary. 

1885 +Paynter, Rev. F. M.A. Camb. 

1890 Peebles, J. M. Esq. M.D. A.M. Ph.D. Memb. Acad. Arts 
and Sci. N. Orleans, and Memb. Amer. Acad. 

1895 Pepperdene, Frank Simpson, Ph.D. Esq. Anal. 
Chemist. 

1894 *Perowne, Edward Stanley Mould, Esq. (How. 
TREASURER. ) 

1896 +Petter, Rev. W. D. H. M.A. Camb. 

1872 tPhené, J. 8S. Esq. LL.D. F.S.A. 

1882 +Pogson, Miss H. Isis; F.M.S. Meteorological Reporter 
and Assist.-Govt. Astronomer, Madras. 


1888 +Powell, Sir F. S. Bart. M.P. F.R.G.S. 


Et. 


1896 Rage, Rev. Preb. Lonsdale, M.A. Oxon. 

1884 Ramsay, Rev. J. 8. 

1893 Reade, Miss F. M. 

1885 Reed, Mrs. H. V. (Elizabeth A.) (Chicago). 

1903 Reid, James Christie, Esq. F.R.G.S. 

1880 Rivington, Rev. bee! S. M.A., Hon. Canon of Bombay. 
1891 Rogers, Rev. Canon Joseph E. M.A. 

1900 Hocedule: Rev. HG. DoD. Oxon) Hs: 

18999 *Rouse, Martin Luther, Esq. B.L. 

1872 Rowe, Rev. G. Stringer. 


SE 


SF = Scales, George J. Esq. 

1903 Schuster, Rev. William Percy, M.A. Oxon. 
1882 +Scott-Blacklaw, Alex. Esq. 

1891 Sessions, Frederick, Esq. F.R.G.S. M.R.A.S. 
SF = Shaw, E. R. Esq. B.A. 


3U3 


1887 Simons, Henry Minchin, Esq. 

1889 tSimpson, Prof. A. R. M.D. 

1893 Smart, Francis G. Esq. M.A. M.B. F.L.S. F.R.G.S. 
F.S.A. 

18869 *Smith, Gerard, Esq. M.R.C.S.E. 

1873 Smith, Philip Vernon, Esq. M.A. LL.D. 

1873 Smith, Samuel, Esq. M.P. 

1879 Smith, Samuel, Esq. M.R.C.S.E. L.S.A. F.A.S. M.S.A. 
F.S.Se.Lond.; Ratcliffe Prize Essayist (Qu. Coll. 
Birm.); Surgeon-Lt.-Col. R.E. 1st Cons. Batt. 
G.E.V.; V.D. Memb. Bristol Bot. Micros. and 
Nat. Soc.’s &c. 

1899 Smith, Sir Clarence. Kt. J.P. 

1881 +Smith-Bosanquet, Horace J. Esq. D.L. F.R.G.S. 

1875 Stewart, Rev. Alex. M.D. LL.D. 

1871 Stewart-Savile, Rev. F. A. M.A. J.P. 

1892 +Stilwell, John Pakenham, Esq. J.P. 

1894 Storey, J. Esq. Brit. and For. Bible Soc. 

1885 +Stratheona and Mount Royal, Lord, G.C.M.G. LL.D. 
PR.G.822.G35. 

1903 Streatfeild, Rev. G. S. M.A. 

1903 Sutton, Arthur W. Esq. F.L.S. 

1870 Sypney, The Most Reverend W. Saumarez Smith, 
D.D. Bishop of, Metropolitan of N.S.W. and 
Primate of Australia. 


aL. 


1881 +Taylor, Rev. Canon Robert. 

1890 Thomas, Rev. Reuen, Ph.D. D.D. 

SH §*Thornton, Ven. Archdeacon Robinson, D.D. Oxon. 
F.R.Hist.S. (Vice-PresipEnt). 

1872 Townend, Thomas, Esq. 

1897 Townsend, Rev. Professor L. Tracy, D.D. LL.D. 

1891 TRAVANCORE AND Cocuty, the Rt. Rev. E. Noel Hodges, 
D.D. Bishop of. 

1899 Tremlett, James Dyer, Esq. (Barr.-at-Law) M.A. 
Camb. 

1871 *Tremlett, Rev. Dr. F. W. D.D. D.C.L. Hon. Ph.D. 
Jena Univ. F.R.G.S. Chaplain to Lord Waterpark, 
Eccles. Com. for American Prelates and the Univ. 
of the South. 

1875 *Tristram; Rev: HO-E. D.D. LL.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. 
M.Z.S. Canon of Durham. 

1889 Tritton, Joseph H. Esq. F.R.G.S. F.S S. 

1881 Trumbull, Rev. H. Clay, M.A. Yale D.D. (Lafayette 
and N.Y.). 


304 


1901 Tucker, Rev. J. S. M.A. 
18944)*Tuckwell, Rev. John, M.R.A.S. 
18838 Turton, Major W. H. R.E. F.K.G.S. 


Ws 
1880 Usherwood, The Ven. Archdeacon T'. H. M.A. 


Ve 


SF =: Vanner, J. E. Esq. 
1867 Vanner, John, Esq. J.P. 
1875 tVeasey, H. Esq. F.R.C.S. 


W. 


18769 * Wace, Very Rev. H. D.D. Dean of Canterbury ; Hon. 
Chap. to the Queen; Chap. to Abp. Canterbury ; 
late Principal of King’s College, Lond. 

1885 * Walker, Rev. F. A. D:D. E.L.S. BLES) FRG. 
Member of Hellenic, Biblical Archeological, 
Paleontographical, and Ray Societies, and of the 
Middx. Nat. Hist. Soc. and Geologists’ Association. 

1873 Walters, William Melmoth, Esq. 

1890 Ward, Thomas, Hsq. J.P: F.G.5. 1R-G_S: 

1903 Washington, Rev. Marmaduke, M.A. Camb. 

1878 +Watson, Rev. A. Duff, M.A. B.D. 

1896 Webb-Peploe, Rev. R. Murray, M.A. Camb. 

1903 +Whidborne, Miss Alice M. 

1888*4+Whidborne, Rev. G. F. M.A. Camb. F.G.S. F.R.G.S. 

1881 Whiting, Rev. J. B. M.A. Camb. 

SF Whitwell, Miss R. M. 

1899 +Wigram, Rev. HE. F. HK. M.A. 

Williams, Sir George. 

1894 Williams, Colonel Robert, M.P. 

1879 Willis, Right Rev. A. D.D. late Bishop of Honolulu. 

1887 Wilson, Rev. B. R. M.A. 

SF **+ Woodhouse, Alfred J. Esq. L.D.S. M.R.T. F.R.M.S. 

1899 Woodhouse, Rev. Canon Frederick C. M.A. Camb. 

SF Wright, Francis Beresford, Esq. M.A. Cantab. J.P. 
HRs: . 


. Ye 
1876 Young, C. E. Baring, Esq. M.A. F.R.G.S. 


1Sp 
1894 Zimmerman, Rey. Jeremiah, M.A. D.D. LL.D. 


1878 
1894 
1894. 
1893 
1871 
1896 


ASSOCIATES. 


Adams, Rey. Canon James. 

Adams, Rev. R. M.A. T.C.D. 
Adams, Rev. W. W. D.D. 
Alexander, Mrs. H. M. 

Allen, J. Esq. (Hon. Anditor). 
Anderson, Sir Rebert K.C.B. LL.D. 


1888 +Andrews, Rev. Walter, M.A. 


1883 


Archdall, Rev. Mervyn, M.A. 


1869 +Armagh, The Most Rev. W. Alexander, D.D. D.U.L. 


1884 


1887 
1887 
1888 
1894 
1891 


1898 
1886 
1892 
1876 
1882 
1892 
1900 
1893 
1903 
1885 


1889 
1902 
1887 
1887 


1893 
1903 
1894 


Archbishop of. Primate and Metropolitan of all 
Ireland. 

Armour, Rey. Canon 8. C M.A. D.D. Head Master 
Merchant Taylors’ School. 

Arrowsmith, E. M. Esq. 

Ashby, Robert, Esq. 


€ Ashwin, Rev. C. Godfrey, M.A. 


Aspinall, Rev. Canon Edwin C., 
yAtkinson, Rev. Edward, D.D. Master Clare Coll. 

Cambridge. 

Awdry, Rt. Rev. W. D.D. Bishop of Tokyo. 

Aylmer, M.-General H. R.A. 

Bacon, Rev. T. S. D.D. 

Badger, Rev. W. C. M.A. 

Ballard, Rev. F. M.A. and B.Se. Lond. F.G:S. 

Banurji, Kali Charan, The Honourable, M.A. B.L. 

Barclay, Edwyn F. Esq. F.G.S. 

Barlow, Rev. C. H. M.A. Oxon. Chap. Bengal. 

Barnes-Lawrence, Rev. A. E. M.A. Oxon. 

Barry, Right Rev. Bishop Alfred, D.D. D.C.L. Canon 
of Windsor. 

Barton, Rev. Arthur R. D.D. 

Barton, Rev. Protessor G. A. Ph.D. 

Batuurst, Right Rev. C. E. Camidge, D.D. Bishop of. 

Berry, Rev. Canon D. M. M.A. Oxon. Demi of Magd. 
Ellerton Prizeman. 

Berry, Rev. T. Stirling, D.D. 

Best, William Harris, Esq. L.R.C.P. L.S.A. 

Bevan, Rey. Preb. H. E. J. M.A. Camb. Gresham Prof. 
of Divinity. 


506 


1894 Bice, Prof. Hiram H. Ph.D. F. 
1890 +Bigelow, Professor Melville M. 
1874 Billing, Rev. F. A. M.A. LL.D. E.R.S.L. 
18838 Bird, Tether Esq. ¥.RG.S: 

1884 elie Rev. W. Hae TS Tye. 

1873 +Bodkin, W. Esq. M.D. 

1900 Bolton, H. Hargreaves, Hsq. J.P. 


1886 Bompay, Right Rev. L. G. Mylne, D.D. 


Bishop of. 
1890 Bomford, Rev. L. G. M.A. 
18,9 Bomford, Rev. Trevor, M.A. Camb. 
1887 §]Bompas, G. Cox, Esq. F.G.S. F.R.G.S. 
1902 Boord, Miss Eva J. 
1901 Boucher, Rev. Charles EK. M.A. 
1887 Bourdillon, E. Esq., C.E. 
1895 Bowman, John Hall, Hsq. B.A. 
1891 4] Boyd, Rev. T. Hunter. 
1879 +Brass, Rev. H. M.A. F.G.S. 
1895 Breed, Rev. Professor David R. D.D. 
1895 Breed, Rev. F. W., B.A. Durham. 
1887 Bridgeman, Col. the Hon. Francis C. 
1882 Broadbent, Colonel J. EK. C.B. R.E. 
1900 Brown, J. Walter, Esq. 
1899 Browne, T. Quincy, Esq. jun. B.A. Harvard. 
1899 Bruton, F. A. Esq. M.A. 
1893 +Bryan, Joseph Davies, Esq. 


Lord 


1887 Backton, G. Bowdler, Esq. F.R.S. F.C.S. F.E.S. 


F.L.S. Acad. Sci. Nat. Ph. Cor. 


1894*+q Bullen, Rev. R. Ashington, B.A. F.L.S. F.G.S. 


1880 Bulteel, M. H. Esq. M.RC.S.H. 
1883 “Burr, Rev. He!) Dep) lab: 
1884 Burton, H. Esq. 

1893 Buswell, Ven. Archdeacon H. D. 
1892 +Butt, Rev. Canon G. H. B.A. 
1889 Cain, Rev. John. 


1882 CaLEeponia, Right Rev. W. Ridley, D.D. Lord 


Bishop of. 
1901 Candy, Prof. Francis J. M.A. 
1890 Carey, Colonel William, C.B. R.A 


1874 Carziste, The Right Rev. J. W. Bardsley, D.D. Lord 


Bishop of. 
1894 Carroll, A> Hsq. M.D..Diiit.) Rh. De ese: 
1873 - Carruthers, Miss S. H. 
1889 +Caudwell, Eber, Esq. M.R.C.S.E. L.R.C.P. 
1890 +Caudwell, Paul, Esq. B.A. Solicitor. 


1894 Chambré, Very Reverend A. St. J. B.A. M.A. D.D. 


Dean. 
1882 Chance, G. Esq. M.A. J.P. 
18909 *Chaplin, T. Esq. M.D. 
1891 Chapman, Rev. Arthur Wellesley, B.D. 


1889 


307 


Chatterton, Rev. F. W. 


1891 © Cherrill, Rev. Alfred K. M.A. 


1884 
1888 


1892 
1893 


1896 
1888 
1891 
1895 
1888 
1880 
1897 
1898 
1900 


1898 
1899 
1885 
1888 


1890 


1903 
1891 


1885 
1887 
1877 
1899 
1878 
1890 
1889 
1890 
1892 
1879 
1886 


Chichester, Rev. E. A. M.A. 

Clapton, Edward, Esq. M.D. F.R.C.P. F.LS. 
F.R.G.S 

Clark, Allan McDougall, Esq. 

Clarke, Rev. C. W. A. M.A. Camb. Prin. Noble Coil. 
S. India. 

Clements, Rev. G. W., M.A. Oxon. 

Clyde, Rev. J. C. A.B. A.M. D.D. 


+Cobern, Rey. Camden M. 


Cockin, Rev. J. 

Cole, Aj.-General R.A. 

Collet, Sir M. W. Bart. J.P. 

Collie, Frank L. Esq. M.D. C.M. 

Collins, Rev. J. M.A. Camb. 

Conference Library, Aliahabad (Rev. W. E. S. Hol- 
land, Librarian). 

Consterdine, Rev. J. W. M.A. 

Cooper, John James, Esq. J.P. 


+Coote, S. V. Esq. M.A. Oxon. F.R.G-.S. 
“Courtney, W. L. Esq. M.A. LL.D. Fellow and Tutor, 


New Coll. Oxford. 

Coventry, The Right Rev. Edmund Arbuthnott 
Knox, D.D. Bishop of. 

Covington, Rev. Prebendary W. M.A. 

Craig, Rev. J. Duncan, D.D. M.A. (T.C.D.) Member 
of the Senate of the University of Dublin. 

Crawford, Rev. Prof. W. A. 


*Creak, Captain Ettrick W., C.B., R.N. F.R.S. 


Crewdson, Rev. Canon G. M.A. Camb. 

Cribb, John G. Esq. 

Crofton, Lieut.-Gen. J. R.E. 

Crosbie, Rev. Howard A. M.A. 

Crozier, F. H. Esq. (late Madras Civ. Serv.). 

Cruddas, W. D. Esq. M.P. 

Cuming, George W. Esq. 

Cutter, Ephraim, Esq. A.M. M.D. LL.D. 

Daxora, Right Rev. W. H. Hare, D.D. Bishop of. 

Darley-Hartley, W. Esq. M.R.C.S. L.R.C.P. 

Darling, General Charles W. Oneida Hist. Soe. 

Darling, Rev. John Lindsay, M.A. T.C.D. 

Daunt, Rev. Canon W. M.A. 

Davies, Rev. Prof. W. W. M.A. B.D. Ph.D. Ed. Arch. 
Dep. Methodist Review, Delaware. 

Davis, John, Esq. 

Dawson, Rev. W. M.A. F.R.H.S. 

Day, Rev. A. G. M.A. Oxon. 


+De Brisay, Rev. H. de la Cour, M.A. Oxon. 


Deedes, Ven. Archdeacon Brook, M.A. 


308 


1894 +Della Rocchetta, of Dolceacqua, Count Arthur, late 
Capt. in the General Statf of Italian Army. 

1890 +De Witt, Rev. Prof. John D.D. 

1869 Dibdin, Charles, Esq. F.R.G.S. Sec. Rl. Nat. Lifeboat 
Inst. Hon. Memb. Cor. Société des Institutions de 
Prévoyance. 

1869 Dibdin, R. W. Esq. F.R.G.S. 

1898 Dickins, Rev. Alan, B.A. 

1874 Dimond-Churchward, Rev. Prebendary M. D. M.A. 

1894 Dix, Rev. Morgan, 8.T.D. D.D. D.C.L. 

1895 Dodgson, Aquila, Esq. 

1892 Down ano Coxnor, The Rt. Reverend T. J. Welland, 

| D.D. Bishop of. 

1897 Drake-Brockman, William Drake, Esq.. late Sup. 
Hngineer P.W.D. India; late A.I.C.H. 

1888 DcnveEatH, The Rt. Hon. H. L. Lord. 

1885 -Durham, The Rt. Reverend H. C. G. Moule, D.D. 
Bishop of. 

1880 Du-Sautoy, Mrs. F. P. 

1891 Dwarris, Major Robert Dwarris (Indian Army), 
retired, 

1889 Dykes, Rev. J. Oswald M.A. D.D. 

1883 Ebbs, Miss Ellen Hawkins. 

1891 Kckersley, Rev. Jas. M.A. 

1889 +Eddy, Rev. Mary B. G. President Mass. Metaph. Coll. 

1887 +Edwards, W. Durston, Esq. C.E. M.I.C. & M.E. © 

1885 +Elwin, Rev. Arthur. 

1902 Emmet, Rev. William E. M.A. Oxon. 

1877 YEngstrom, Rev. C. Ll. M.A. late Boyle and Barnard 
Hyde Lect. Sec. C.E.S. 

1880 Escott, Rev. Hay Sweet, M.A. 

1886 Evans, Mrs. H. M. 

1896 Evington, Right Rev. Bishop H. D.D. (Bishop in 
Kiushin, 8S. Japan). 

1899 Fairbairn, H. A. Esq. M.D. M.A. 

1899 +Farquharson, Mrs. M. 

1877*tq Fayrer, Sir J. Bart. M.D. LL.D. K.C.S.1. F.R.C.P. 
Surg.-Gen. F.R.S. F.R.G.S. 

1892 Feilden, A: Leyland, Esq. 

1903 Ferguson-Davie, Rev. Charles James, M.A. Trin. 
Coll. Camb. 

1876 Field, Rev. A. T. B.A. Camb. 

1896. +Field-King, J. M.D. C.S.D. 

1869 {Finley, Samuel, Ksq. 

1879 Finnemore, Rev. J. M.A. Ph.D. F.G.S. 

1903 Fisher, Rev. William, M.A. 

1903 Fleay, Frederick Gard, Hsq. M.A. Camb. 

1885 Fleming, Rev. R. H. 0. 

1881 Fleming, Sir Sandford, K:-C.I0G. ELD. FGss: 
E.R.G.S. V.-President Royal Soe. of Canada. 


309 


1900 Flint, Charles A. Esq. 

1885 Flint, Karl, Esq. M.D. 

1889 +FLoripa, The Right Rev. E.G. Weed, D.D. 8.T.D. 
Bishop of. 

1897 Flournoy, Rev. Parke Poindexter, D.D. 

1902 Foote, Robert Bruce, Esq. F.G.S. 

1894 +Forster, Miss EK. J. 

1894 Forsyth, Rev. R. Coventry, B.M. 

1891 Fow ter, Right Rev. Bishop Charles Henry, D.D. LL.D. 

1884 Fowler, W. Esq. J.P. 

1882 t¥Fox, C. Dillworth, Esq. 

1894 Frackelton, Rev. W. S., M.A. M.Sc. 

1882 Fradenburgh, Rev. J. N. D.D. Ph.D. 

1893 Francis, James, Esq. 

1871 Franklyn, Rev. T. HE. M.A. 

1884 Fraser, John, Esq. B.A. LL.D. Sydney. 

1896 Friends Foreign Mission Association, Hoshangabad, 
India. 

1897 Garbett, Hubert, sq. 

1900 Gardiner, EH. J. Esq. 

1873 +Gardner, Mrs. Ernest L. 

1897 Garnett, Thomas, Esq. 

AF +Gedge, Sydney, Esq. M.A. M.P. F.R.G.S. 

1899 Gibbon, Major J. Aubrey, R.E. 

1885 Gibson, Rev. Preb. EH. C. S. M.A. Oxon. D.D. 

1888 Gilmour, M. A. B. Esq. F.R.Z.S. F.R.S.G.S. 

18774 *Girdlestone, Rev. Canon R. B. M.A. 

1903. Goodridge, Richard K. W. Esq. 

1880 Govett, Rev. R. M.A. 

1881 Gray, Charles, Esq. 

1879 Gray, Rev. A. M.A. Oxon. 

1891 Gray, Rev. H. J. Spence, M.A. Oxon, Chaplain to the 
Government of India. 

1903 Gray, Brigade Surgeon Robert, M.D. 

1893 Greg, R. Philips, Esq. J.P. F.S.A. F.G.S. 

1877 Greenstreet, Colonel W. L. R.E. 

1897 Greer, Mrs. Thomas. 

1902 Gregg, [vo Francis Hy. Carr, Esq. M.B.A.A. 

1887 Grenfell, Rev. G. F.R.G.S. 

1881 Grey, Rev. Principal H. G. M.A. Wycliffe Hall, 
Oxford. 

1901 FGriswold, Rev. H. G. M.A. Ph.D. 

1897 Gutch, George A. Esq. C.E. 

1899 Haile, A. 8. Esq. 

1889 Halford-Adcock, Rev. H. H. M.A. Camb. 

1892 Hall, Hugh Fergie, Esq. M.A. F.G:S. 

1891 Hall, Rev. J. R. Longley. 

1902 Hall-Houghton, Mrs. M. H. 

1899 Hamilton, Rev. G. F. 

1903 Hamlyn-Harris, Dr. Ronald, D.Sc. F.G.S. F.L.S. 


BD: Phy: 
LiL. 


1897 
1896 
1899 
L9OL 
1894 
1878 
1899 


1894 
1897 
1893 
1903 


1889 
1874 
1896 


1882 
1882 
1891 
1892 


L901 
1897 
1902 
1895 


1890 
1892 
1883 
1902 
1888 
1903 
1900 
1892 
1885 
1875 
1889 
1897 
1894 


1890 


1873 - 


1885 
1902 
1902 
1893 
1885 


310 


Hanham, Rev. Howard H. 

Hanna, His Honour Judge Septimus J. LL.D. 

Harlowe, David, Esq. 

Harmer; PW. Usq.3. Ph Ges: 

Harper, President Wm. Ramsay, Chicago Univ. 

Harper, The Ven. Archdeacon H. W. M.A. 

Hartley, Rev. Hi. A. S)> MOD i) inberiam “Comsat 
Colombia. 

Harwood, Rev. Edwin, D.D. 

Haworth, Rev. J. G. 


? 


*Heath, Captain G. P. R.N. 


Hendley, Colonel Thomas Holbein (Indian Medical 
Service, retired). 


+Herbert, Rev. EK. P. 


Hetherington, Rev. J. 


Hewitt, David Basil, Esq. B.A. L.R.C.S. L.R.C,P. 


JER: 

Heygate, Rev. Canon W. HE. M.A. Oxon. 

Hicks, Rev. Edward, M.A. D.D. D.C.L. 

Higgens, T. W. EH. Hsq. A.M.I.C.E. 

Hildesley, Rev. Principal A. H. M.A. Sanawar 
Asylum, Punjab. 

Hodges, Rev. Albert H. 

Hodgson, Rev. William, M.A. Oxon. 

Hogarth, Rev. Oswald J. M.A. 

Honduras, Right Rev. George Albert Ormsby, D.D. 
Bishop of. 

Hooper, Charles H. Esq. 

Hoskins, Rev. F. H. A.B. A.M. 


+Houstoun, G, L. Esq. F.G-.S. 


Howard, Sir Frederick, J.P. 

Howard, Joseph, Esq. B.A. Lond. M.P. F.R.G.S. 

Hull, Charles Murchison, Esq. Civil Service, Natal. 

Hull, Edward Gordon, M.A. M.D. Dub. 

Hungerford, Rev. Septimus. 

Hurst, Rev. Canon J. B:D. 

Hutchinson, Mrs. C. W. 

Hutchinson, J. T. Esq. L.R.C.P. 

Hutton, Henry, Esq. 

Hyde, Rev. Henry-Barry, M.A. Chaplain H.M. Bengal 
Kecl. Estab. 

Hyslop, Rev. James, M.A. Ph.D. F.G.S. 

Isaacs, Rev. A. A. M.A. 

Iverach, Rev. Professor J. M.A. 


+Jacob, Colonel Sir S. Swinton, K.C.1.E. Jaipur. 


Jamison, Colonel B. K. 

Janvier, Rev. Cesar A. Rodney, M.A. (Princeton). 

Jeffers, Rev. President HE, T. A.M. D.D. York Col- 
legiate Inst. U.S.A. 


1898 qJervis, Cavaliere W. P. F.G.S. (Turin). 


se 


1902 
1877 
1894. 
1891 
1880 
1883 
1896 
1886 
1903 
1879 


F 

1392 
1898 
1897 
1884 
1883 
1883 


1890 
1887 
1893 
L880 
1884 
1890 
1879 
1873 
1903 
1873 
1893 
L901 


1885 
1889 
1885 
1880 
1873 
1897 
1903 


511 


Jessop, Arthur, Hsq. 
Jewell, F. G. Esq. 
Jewett, Professor J. R. Ph.D. 
Johnson, C. R. Esq. H Sec. Brighouse Ch. Lit. Club. 
ee H. Alison, Esq. F.R. M. S. 
Johnstone, J. Barre, Esq. 
+Johnetoné, Miss J. A. 
Jones, Rey. Lloyd T. M.A. 
Juhlin, Rev. G. (Sweden). 
Kaye, The Ven. W. F. J. M.A. Oxon. Archdeacon and 
Canon of Lincoln. 
Kemble, Mrs. Stephen Cattley. 
Kennedy, James, Hsq. B.C.S. (Ret.) M.R.A.S. 
Kerr, Robert, Esq. 
Kilmer, Rev. C. H. 
Kimball, J. EK. Esq. A.M. Yale (Sup. Pub. Sc.) 
Kimm, Rev. W. F. M.A. late Fell. Cath. Coll. Camb. 
King, A. Freeman Africanus, Esq. M.D. Dean and 
Prof. Columb. Univ. and Vermont Univ. Memb. 
Path. Anthrop. and Biolog. Soes. 
Kinns, Rev. S. Ph.D. F.R.A.S. 
Kirkpatrick, Rev. R. C. M.A. Oxon. and Dub. 
Kittredge, Rev. J. HK. D.). 
+ Knight, “Rev. Cee. M.A: Camb. 
Liach-Szyrma, Rev. W. S. M.A. Oxon. 
Lambert, Alan, Esq. F.G.S. F.R.G.S. 
Langham, J. G. Esq. 
Lawrence, Ven. Archdeacon C. D. M.A. 
Doecace. Samuel A. Esq. 
Lea, Miss G. E. 
Lea, W. A. Hsq. B.A. Se. 
Lefroy, The Right Rev.G. A. D.D. Bishop of Lahore, 
India. 
Lefroy, The Very Rev. W. M.A. Dean of Nerwich 
Le Mesurier, Rev. Canon J. M.A. R.D. 
Levering, W. H. Esq. (Pres. Ind. 8. 8. Union). 
Lewin, Rev. J. R. 
+Lewis, Rev. J. S. M.A. 
Linton, KE. C. Esq. M.A. Camb. 
Little, Charles, Esq. 


1900 FJ Lobley, Professor James Logan, F.G.S. F.R.G.S. 


1883 


1878 
1892 
1884. 
L901 
1887 


1891 


+Lock, Rev. W. M.A. D.D. Oxon. Fell. Jun. Bursar 
and Tutor of Magdalen, Warden of Keble College. 
Locke, Rev. J. G. T. G.D. Souk. Fresh. 1888. 
+Logan, The Honourable James D. 
Longley, Rev. J. M.A. Camb. , 
Lénnbeck, Fredrick Waldemar, Stockholm. 
Lowber, Rev. Chancellor J. W. M.A. LL.D. D.C.L. 
pews Phe. PSD. WRG. fitt.D. 
Lowe, Captain H. J. R. 


1888 
1890 
1893 
1892 
1876 
1892 
1887 


312 


Lowrie, Rev. 8. T. M.A. D.D. 

Lyttelton, The Rev. the Honourable Albert V. M.A. 
McArthur, John Percival, Esq. D.L. 

McClintock, Rev. F. G. Le P. A.B. 

McDonald, J. A. Esq. 

McGillewie, A. Esq. 

Mackay, Rev. P. R. 


1901 Maclaren, J. Malcolm Esq. B.Sc. F.G.S. 


1885 
1897 
1898 
1877 


1881 
1882 
1902 
1872 


1894 
1902 
1891 
1890 


1883 
1903 


M‘Laren, D. Esq. J.P. 

Mackworth, R. Esq. 

Mackworth, William, Esq. 

Macpherson, Rev. A. C. M.A. A.K.C. (Hon. Loe. 
Sec.). 

McWilliam, Rev. J. 

Maitland, Rev. H. F. M.A. Oxon. 

Mallett, Rev. Frank J. Ph.D. 

Mancuester, The Right Rev. J. Moorhouse, D.D. 
Lord Bishop of. 

Mansfield, Rev. Joseph H. M.A. D.D. 

Manwaring, George A. Esq. C.K. 

Marett, Colonel P. D. R.A. 

Marquis, Rev. David C. D.D. LL.D. Prof. N. T. Lit. 
and Hxeg. 

Marspen, Right Rev. Bishop 8. E. D.D. 

Marten, Charles Henry, Hsq. 


1893 +Martineau, A. H. sq. (Ind. Civ. Serv.). 


19058 


Martyn, Henry John, Esq. 


18929 +Masterman, HE. W. Gurney, Esq. F.R.C.S. F.R.G.S. 


1893 
1897 
1888 
1894. 
1895 
1877 


PoE 
Matthews, Rev. J. M.A. 
Maxon, Rev. W. D. D.D. 
Maxwell of Calderwood, Lady. 
Mead, Rev. Charles Marsh, Prof. Th. 
Menanesia, Right Rev. Cecil Wilson, D.D. Bishop of. 
Meteourns, Right Rev. F. F. Goe D.D. Bishop of. 


1892 | Mello, Rev. J. Magens, M.A. F.G.S. 


1879 
1892 
1891 
1889 


SF 
1903 


1899 


1892 
1898 


1899 


1896 © 


18385 
1895 


Methuen, Rev. T. Plumptre, M.A. 
Millard, Henry HE. Esq. Bible Soc. Agent. 
Milier, William, Esq. 
Millingen, J. R. Van, Esq. 
Milner, Rev. W. M. H. M.A. Oxon. 
Mitchinson, Right Rev. Bishop J. D.D. D.C.L. 
Moffat, Rev. J. S. C.M.G. 

+Molony, Major Francis A. R.E. 

Molony, Hdmund Alexander, Esq. (Indian Civil 

Service). 

Monckton, G. F. Esq. F.G.S. 

Monro, George, Esq. 

Moore, G. A. Esq. 

Moore, Rev. Edward C. Ph.D. 


Lso4 


1895 
1889 
1879 
1882 
1892 


1878 
1893 
1900 
1871 
1885 
isss 
18838 
1887 


1894 
1880 
1879 
1886 
18s0 
1902 
15872 
1891 
1894 
1897 


1891 
1899 
1892 
1891 
1902 
1888 


1898 


1893 
1883 


315 


Moorehead, Prof. Warren K. M.A. F.A.A.A.S. Curator, 
Dep. of Archeology, Phillips Acad. Andover, 
U.S.A. 

Moosonee, Right Rev. J. Newnham, D.D Bishop of. 

Moreton, Rev. R. H. 

Morley, Right Rev. S. Bishop of Tinnevelly. 

Moule, Ven. Archdeacon A. E. B.D. (Mid China). 

Moulson, Rey. J. M.A. New Coll. Oxoa. Seu. Chap. 
Bengal. 


+Maullings, John, Esq. 


Munt, George William, Esq. 
Neatby, Edwin A. Esq. M.D. 


+Nelson, J. H. Esq. M.A. 
+tNeve, A. Esq. F.R.C.S. L.R.C.P. Edin. 
¢Nimr, Faris, Esq. (Ed. ** Mouktataf’’). 


Nisbet, H. C. Esq. 

Norbury, Inspector-Gen. Sar H. F. K.C.B. M.D. 
F.R.C.S. R.N, 

Nott, Rev. John W. M.A. 

Nursey, Rev. Percy Fairfax, M.A. Oxon. 


+Oake, Rev. R. C. ; 


Oates, Rev. A. 

O’Dell, Professor Stackpool E. 

Odling, Charles W. Esq. C.S.I. 

Ogle, W. Esq. M.D. 

Oldham, Herbert, Esq. 

Oliver, Rev. T. D.D. T.C.D. Memb. Senate, Univ. Dab. 

Olmsted, Right Rev. Charles Taylor, D.D. Bishop 
Coadjutor of Central New York. 


Orchard, H. Langhorne, Esq. Prof. of Logic, M.A.B.Se. 


Orr, Captain Walter Hood. 

Otis, Rev. J. M. P. D.D. LL.D. 

Oulton, Rev. Richard Charles, M.A. B.D. 

Paine, Robert Treat, Esq. 

Papillon, Major A. F. W. R.A. 

Parker, Rev. Alvin Pierson, D.D. President, Anglo- 
Chinese College, Shanghai. 

Parry, Rev. John Hendon, B.A. 

Paterson, Rev. T. M. B. 


1882 4 Pattison, S. R. Esq. F.G-S. 


1903 


Payne, George Herbert, Esq. 


1885 +Payne, J. A. Otonba, Esq. F.R.G.S. Chief Registrar 


and Taxing Master of the Supreme Court of 
Lagos. 


1894 Peake, A.S S. Esq. M.A. Oxon Fell. Merton, iate Tutor 


1887 


Mansfeld Coll. Oxon. 


Peck, Rev. George Wesley, A.M. LL.D. 


1887 +Penford, Rev. E. J. 


1902 
1903 


Penn, Rev. William Charles, M.A. 


Petch, Rev. Charles Cousens. 


314 


1893 Pettee, Rev. John Tyler, M.A. 

1896 Pike, Rev. Granville R. 

1894 Pike, Rev. Sidney, M.A. Camb. 

1884 Piper, F. H. Esq. 

1881 Pippet, Rev. W. A. 

1896 Plantz, Rev. President Samuel, D.D. Ph.D. 

1890 Porte, Rev.'J. R. A.M. D.D. 

1882 Postlethwaite, J. Esq. F.G.S. 

1898 Potter, Ven. Archdeacon Beresford, M.A. T.C.D. 

1881 Pratt, Rev. J. W. M.A. 

1878 +Pretorta, The Right Rev. H. B. Bousfield, D.D. 

| Lord Bishop of. 

1896 Price, Rev. T. Ralph, M.A. 

1880 +Priestley, Rev. J. J. S.P.G. 

1888 +Pringle, of 'Torwoodlee, Mrs. 

1881 Pritchard, Rev. E. Cook, D.D. 

1892) Putnam, Reva. Po DD: 

1894 Quinn, Rev. Jas. Cochrane, M.A. D.S.T. Ph.D. Pro- 
fessor of Mental and Moral Sciences. 

1890 Raban, Rev. R. C. W. (retired Indian Chaplain). 

1875- Ralph, -B. sq. A.B. bL.D. T.C.D. Prmeipal Cra 
more Coll. 

1896 Rankin, Henry William, Esq. 

1875 Rate, Rev. J. M.A. Camb. 

1891 Redman, Rev. Joseph, C.M.S. 

1891 Reddie, Edward J. Esq. 

1894 Reed, F. R. Cowper, Esq. B.A. F.G.S. Asst. to 
Woodwardian Prof. of Geology Camb. 

1876 Rendell, Rev. Canon A. M. M.A. Camb. 

1883 Renner, W. Esq. M.D. M.R.C.S.EH. 

1899 Revie, Rev. Dugald, M.B. C.M. Glas. Univ. Free 
Church of Scot. Medical Mission. 

1877 Rhodes, Rev. D. 

1878 Rhodes, Colonel G. J.P. 

1903 Rice, Hon. and Rev. W. Talbot, M.A. Oxon. 

HF T* Rigg, Rev. J. H. D.D. Principal of the Wesleyan 
Traiming College, Ex-President of the Wesleyan 
Conference. 

1885 Riggs, Rev. J. F. B.A. M.A. 

1899 Rimington, Alexander Wallace, Hsq. 

1899 Robinson, Rev. Andrew C. 

1895. Robinson, Maj.-General C. G. R.A. 

1894 Rogerson, Rev. Geo. M.A. 

1901 Rosenberg, Louis J. Esq. LL.B. 

1884 +Ross, Rev. G. H. W. Lockhart, B.A. 

1891 Rouse, Rev. G. H. LL.B. 

1888 Royce, Rev. J..8. H. 

1881 Roysron, The Right Rev. Bishop P. 8. D.D. 

1897 Rutland, Joshua, Esq. 

1897 Saint-Amant, George Stanley, Esq. B.Sc. Paris. 


315 


1883 St. Andrew’s University, Court of; Stuart Grace, Esq. 
Factor. 

1891 St. Johns, New Brunswick Free Pub. Lib. J. R. Reul, 
Esq. Chairman. 

1881 Sampson, Rev. J. A. 

1881 Sandford, H. Esq. 

1891 GSchofield, Alfred Taylor, Esq. M.D. 

1895 Seddon, Rev. W. H. M.A. Oxon. 

1876 +tSeeley, Rev. E. 

1880 +Setxirk, The Right Rev. W. C. Bompes, D.D. Lora 
Bishop of. 

1877 Seller, Rev. E. ' 

1903 Seton, Captain Alexander M. R.A. 

1875 Sharp, Rev. J. M.A. Queen’s Coll. Oxon.: Editorial 
Superintendent, Bible Soc. 

1899 Sharpe, Cecil, Esq. 

1902 Sharpe, W. KE. Thompson, Esq. M.A. M.P. 

1889 Shaw, G. Esq. 

1874 Shearar, J. Brown, Esq. 

1882 Shepherd, Mrs. F. Wolfskill De. 

J9OL +Sherard, Rev. Clement E. M.A. Camb. 

1892 Sherring, C. A. Esq. B.A. (B.C.S.). 

1892 Shields, Rev. Prof. C W. D.D. LL.D. Prof. Harmony 
Sci. and Rev. Religion, Princeton. 

1901 Shipman, Rev. Robert, M.A. Oxon. 

1882 Shore, Captain the Hon. H. N. R.N. 

1882 Simcox, Rev. H. Kingdon. 

18769 *+Sinclair, The Ven. Archdeacon W. Macdonald, M.A. 
D.D. form. Sch. of Balliol, Oxon. 

1892 Srincaporr, Lapuan anp Sarawak, Rt, Rev. George 
Fredk. Hose, D.D. Lord Bishop of; V.P. 
R.A.Soce. Straits Branch. 

1880 Skinner, J. A. Esq. 

1893 Sloman, Rev. Arthur, M.A. 

1892 Smith, Hon. C. Abercrombie, M.A. Fell. St. Peter’s 
Coll. Camb. 

1901 +Smith-Bosanquet, Miss Ella. 

1873 Smith, Major-General E. D. 

1896 Smith, Colonel George Hugh. 

1893 Smith, Sir George J. J.P. D.L. 

1897 Smith, Herbert J. Esq. 

1896 Smith, Rev. John, D.D. 

1891 Smith, S. Ashley, Esq. M.D. 

1902 Smyth, William Woods, Esq. U.R.C.S. L.R.C.P. 

1903 Spencer, Professor J. W. Ph.D. F.G.S. 

1881 Spencer, Rev. M. T. M.A. 

1891 Stack, Rev. Thos. Lindsay F. M.A. B.D. Ex. Sch. C.C. 
S.M. Math. Dub. Univ. 

1879 YStatham, E. J. Esq. C.E. A.1.C.E. 

1879 +Stewart, Alex. Esq. 


316 


1872 Stewart, Sir Mark J. McTaggart, Bart. M.A. M.P. 

1891 Stirling, Lt.-General Sir W. K.C.B. R.A. 

1878 Stock, The Venerable Archdeacon Arthur, B.D. 

189V0 +Stokes, Anson Phelps, Esq. Vice-Pres. XIX Cent. 
Club U.S.A. Memb. Council, S.S. Assoc. 

1894 Stokes, James, Esq., Officer of the Legion of Honour. 

1887 Stokes, Rev. W. Fenwick, M.A. 

1903 Stovin, Mrs. Caroline. 

1902 +Strong, John Alexander, Esq. 

1902 +Strong, Rev. Rupert 8. B.A. Camb. 

1888 Sturgis, Julian Russell, Esq. M.A. Oxon. 

1903. Sundholm, 8. Esq. B.A. (Finland). 

1888 Sutton, M. J. Esq. J.P. F.L.8. F.R.G.S. Chev. Leg. of 
Honour. 

1895 Swinburne, George, Esq. C.E. 

1903 Switzer, Rev. B. Neptune, M.A. 

1899 Symonds, Hon. J. W. 

1899 +Talmage, Professor James HE. Ph.D. F.R.M.S. F.G.S8. 
F.R.S.H. F.G.S.A. 

1873 Tapson, Rev. R. K.C.L. 

1882 Taylor, Rev. Hugh Walker, M.A. 

1891 +Taylor, Rev. Stephen, B.A. Corpus C. Coll. Camb. 

1887 Taylor, The Venerable Archdeacon W. F. 1).D. 

1896 Teague, Alexander H. Esq. F.L.S. 

1893 Teape, Rev. W. Marshall, A.B. M.A. Edin. and Camb. 
Vicar of South Hylton, Sunderland. 

1884 Temple, Lt.-Colonel Sir R. C. Bart. C.LE. Beng. 
Staff Corps F.R.G.S. M.R.A.S. Memb. Philog. 
and Folk-lore Soc. Anthrop. Inst. and Asiatic 
Soc. Beng. 

1896 Tennant, Rev. F. R. M.A. Camb. B.Sc. 

1895 Terry, Rev. Professor Milton 8S. M.A. D.D. LL.D. 

1899 Thompson, Rev. Fayette L. 

1897 Thornton, Rev. G. R. M.A. Camb. 

SF FThornton, the Right Rev. Samuel, D.D. late Bishop 
of Ballarat. 

1903 Tilby, James Martin, Esq. 

1894 Tinsley, Rev. Peter D.D. 

1890 {'Tisdall, Rev. W. St. Clair, M.A. 

1873 Tomkins, Rev. W. Smith. 

1894 Tomlinson, Mrs. E. M. 

1891 TRAvancore AND CocHin, Rt. Rev. E. Noel Hodges, 

D.D. Lord Bishop of. 

1891. Trenow, Nigel A.A. Ksq. ER Cos: insta, ond: 

1883 + Tress, Rey. 1B: 

1902 Trumbull, C. G. Esq. Philadelphia. 

1875 Tucker, Rev. W. Hill, M.A. 

1895 Tulloch, M.-General A. B. C.B. C.M.G. 

1882 Turrie, Right Rev. D..8. D.D. Bishop of Missouri. 

1902 Twigg, John Hill, Esq. late India Civil Service. 


1898 
1891 
1901 
1891 


317 


Tydeman, H. Esq. F.R.G.S. Lawrence Military Asylum. 
Tymms, Rev. T. Vincent, Principal of Rawdon Coll. 
Tyrwhitt, Rev. Henry Merwyn M.A. Oxon. 

Tyser, Rev. EK. J. M.A. Camb. 


1892 € Upham, Warren, Esq. Sec. of the Minnesota Hist. Soc. 


1903 
1889 
1836 
1898 


1893 — 


1894 
1901 
1876 


1898 
1890 


Urlin, Richard Denny, Hsq. B.L. F.S.S. Barr. at Law. 

Urquhart, Rev. J. 

Wail, Prot, N- 

Van Someren, Surgeon General Wm. Judson, M.D. 
M.R.C.S. Edin. 

Vaughan, Miss Mary H. 

Vaughan, Mrs. 

Versturme-Bunbury, Capt. Charles Hamilton, R.E. 

Warapu, Right Rev. William Leonard Williams, B.A, 
Bishop of. 

Wait, Rev. Herbert Lancaster. 

Waldron, F. W. Esq. A.M. Inst. C.H. 


1892 9 Walkey, R. Huyshe, Esq. 


1893 


1900 
1892 
1894: 
1881 
1882 
1903 
1889 


Waller, Rev. C. Cameron, M.A. Camb. Principal of 
Huron Coll. 

Waller, Rev. H. H. M.; M.A. late Scho. C.C.C. Camb. 

Walter, Rev. H. M. M.A. Oriel Oxon. 

Ward, H. B. Esq. 

Waring, F. J. Esq. C.M.G. M.Inst.C.H. 


+Warrington, Miss H. 


Warry, William, Hsq. M.A. 
Washburn, Rev. Principal G. D.D. 


1881 4 Watson, Rev. H. C. M. 


1895 


1895 
1882 


1879 
1898 
1898 


Way, the Right Hon. Sir Samuel James, D.C.L. LL.D. 
Chief Justice S. Aust. 

Weaver, George M. Esq. 

Webb, The Right Rev. Bishop, D.D. Dean of Salis- 
bury. 

Webb-Peploe, Rev. Prebendary H. W. M.A. Camb. 

Weightman, Edward John, Esq. M.B. C.M. Hd. 

Weightman, Miss I. Alice. 


1893 +Wettpon, Right Rev. Bishop J. H.C. D.D. Canon of 


Westminster. 


1889 +WeLiinctron, Right Rev. Frederic Wallis, D.D. 


1887 
1894 
1901 
1896 


1882 
1883 


Bishop of. 
Wherry, Rev. HE. M. D.D. 
Whipple, Rt. Rev. H. B. D.D. Bishop of Minnesota. 
White, Rev. G. E. M.A. B.D. 
White, Rev. Professor Henry Alexander, M.A. 
Jen IO RID 
White, Rev. J. M.A. T.C.D. Hon. M.A. Magd. Oxf. 
White, Rev. W. Farren, M.A. 


1894 +Whitehead, Rev. George B.A. Lond. 
18709 +Whitmee, Rev. S. J. F.R.G.S. Cor. Mem. Z.S. 
1881 +Williams, H. S. Esq. M.A. F.R.A.S. A.C. 


318 


1891 Williams, W. Esq. Supt. Govt. Telegraphs India (ret.). 

1882 Willis, The Ven. Archdeacon W. N. 

1896 Wills, Harold Temple, Esq. M.A. B.Sc. 

1891 Wilson, Rev. Edwin William, Ph.B. F.R. Hist. 8S. 

1887 Winchester, Very Rev. J. R. B.A. B.Ph. 

1885 Winslow, Rev. W. C. D.D. D.C.L. LL.D. L.H.D. D.Se. 
S.T.D. Ph.D. Amer. Vice - President Egypt 
Exploration Fund. 

1889 {Winter, The Ven. Archdeacon G. Smith. 

1872 Winterbottom, Charles, Esq. M.R.C.S. L.D.8. 

1887 Wolf, Rev. L. B. D.D. Principal A.E.L.M. College, 

| Guntur. 

1899 Wood, Rev. Arthur Thorold. 

1893 Wood, Peter F. Ksg. F.R.G.S. 

1877 Wood, Rev. Canon A. Maitland, M.A. 

1895 Wood, Rev. Charles James, B.A. 8.T.B. D.D. 

1874 +Wood, R. Esq. 

1899 Wood, Walter James, Esy. F.R.M.S. 

1892 +Woodd, Rev. C. H. Basil, M.A. Camb. Nat. Sci. Trip. 
1890, M.A. 

1883 Woodward, Rev. Canon H. D.D. 

1881 Woolls, Mrs. M. A. (Burwood, N.S.W.). 

1877. Worthington, T. Msq:.B-A. TC.D. 

1895 Wright, David Percy, Esq. 

1903 +Wright, Rev. Ernest Alexanderson, M.A. 

1876 +Wynford, The Right Hon. Lord. 

1883 Wythe, Rev. J. H. A.M. M.D. D.D. 

dF Young, Rev. Charles, M.A. Camb. 


319 


CLERK. 


1884 Montague, Mr. A. E, 
87, St. Paul’s Road, Camden Square, N.W. 


STENOGRAPHER. 


1888 Chapple, A. F. Esq. 81, Chancery Lane E.C. 


NOMINEE ASSOCIATES, &c. 


Bell & Bradfute, 12, Bank Street, Lidinburgh. 
L Berlin Royal Library (per Asher & Co.). 
Boston Public Library (per Kegan Paul & Co.). 
t Cornish Brothers, 37, New Street, Birmingham. 
Dallinger, Rev. W. H. D.D. LID. F.R.S. F.L.S. Ingleside, 
Newstead Road, Lee, S.H. 
M Duns, Rev. Professor J.D.D. V.P.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh. 
Finn, Mrs., 75, Brook Green, W. 
t Guildhall Library, E.C. 
. Harvard University (per Kegan Paul & Co.). ¢ 
m Hutchinson, Rev. T. S. M.A. 13, Aldridge Road Villas, West- 
bourne Park, W. 
t lLibraire Le Soudier, 1748, St. Germaine, Paris. 
t Melbourne Public Lib. and Museum, Melbourne, Victoria. 
. Mitchell Library (F. T. Barrett, EHsq.), 21, Miller Street, 
Glasgow. 
Mitchell, Rev. R. 
Newton Theological Inst., Newton Centre, Mass. U.S.A. 
. Ottawa, Library of Parliament. 
t South Australian Institute, Adelaide, South Australia (Kegan 
Paul & Co. Agent). 
a Sydney Free Library, N.S.W. (Y. J. Pentland & Co.). 
m Texas Universary, Austin, Texas, U.S.A. 
Walters, Rev. W. D. 58, Cromwell Avenue, Highgate, N. 


321 
HON. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


HOME. 

1902 Ball, Sir R. S. LL.D. F.R.S. Prof. of Astronomy, Camb. 

1889 § Conder, Colonel Claude Reignier, R.E. D.C.L. R.E. Office, 
Weymouth. 

1899 Etheridge, Prof. R. F.R.S. F.G.S. 14, Carlyle Sq. Chelsea. 

1890 F Geikie, Prof. James, D.C.L. LL.D. F.R.S. F.R.S.E. F.G-S. ; 
Prof. Geo. and Min. Univ. Edin. Hon. Mem. Phil. Soe. 
York, Geo. Soc. Stockholm and Geo. Paleo. Hydrol. 
Belg. Memb. Amer. Phil. Soe. Cor. Memb. Acad. Sci. 
Phila. 31, Merchiston Avenue, Edinburgh. 

1881 {Guppy, H. B. Esq. M.B. F.G.S. Mem. Min. Soc. &c. 

1903. Howorth, Sir Henry H. K.C.LE. F.R.S. 30, Collingham 
Phare, S.W. 

1888 @ Hughes, Prof. T. M’K. M.A. F.R.S. F.S.A. F.G.S.; Wood- 
wardian Prof. of Geology, Cambridge, Trin. Coll. 
Camb. 18, Hills Road, Cambridge. 

1894 { Kelvin, Right Hon. Lord, G.C.V.O. Past Pres. Royal Soe. 
D.C.L. LL.D. F.R.S.E. Universitu, Glasgow. 

1878 Murcutnson, The Right Rev. J. D.D. D.C.L. Archdeacon 
of Leicester, Hon. Fell. Pemb. Coll. Oxf.; Coadj. 
Bp. of Peterborough; Hon. Canon of Canterbury. 

1903 Petrie, Prof. W. Flinders, D.C.L. 18, Well Road, Hamp- 
stead, N.W. 

1889*4Pinches, Theo. G. Esq. LL.D. 38, Blomfield Road, Maida 
Vale, W. 

1878 {Rassam, Hormuzd, Esq. F.R.G.S. 30, Westbourne Villas, 
Brighton. 

1889 FSayce, Rev. Prof. A. H. M.A. LL.D. Fellow and Tutor 
Queen’s Coll. Oxford. 

1878 Stanley, Sir H. M. G.C.B. D.C.L. LL.D. M.P. 2, Richmond 
Terrace, Whitehall, S.W. 

1899 Turner, Sir William, V.D. M.B. LL.D. D.C.L. D.Sc. F.R.S. 
Prof. Anatomy, Univ. Edin. 6, Hion Terrace, Edinburgh. 

1902 { Wilson, Maj.-General Sir Charles W. R.E. K.C.M.G. F.R.S. 


FOREIGN. 
95 His Masesty King Momotvu Massagvor, West Africa. 
S81 Abbe, Professor Cleveland, M.A. Assistant in the office of 
the Chief Signal Officer of the Weather Bureau, U.S.A. 

1888 Agassiz, Alexander, Esq. D.C.L. Prof. of Comp. Zoology, 
Cambridge, Mass. U.S A. 

1894 Dawson, G. M., Esq. C.M.G. LL.D. D.Sc. F.G.S. A.R.S.M. 
F.R.S.C. Asst. Direc. Geolog. Survey of Canada, 
Sussex Street, Ottawa, Canada. 

1895 MHilprecht, Rev. Professor H. V. D.D. Univ. of Pennsyl- 
vania, U.S.A. 


322 
1893 Hommel, Prof. Fritz, Ph.D. LL.D. Prof. of Semitic 


Languagesin Univ.of Munich, Leopolds Strasse 81 Munich. 
1889 dHulst, Coant Riamo, Cairo. 
1895 Lugard, Brigadier-General ¥. J. D. C.B. D.S.O. 
1896 | Macloskie, Prof. G. D.Sc. LL.D. Prof. Biology (Princeton), 
U.S.A. 
1883 {| Maspero, Prof. G. D.C.L. Collége de France, Cairo, Egypt ; 
24, Avenue le l Observatoire, Paris. 
1888 FNaville, E. D.Lit. Ph.D. Malagny, Geneva, Switzerland. 
1895 Sabatier, Professor Armand, M.D. Montpellier, France. 
1898 Stosch, Rev. Prof. D.D. 24, Lutzow Street, Berlin. 
1898 Zahn, Rev. Prof. Tl. H., Hrlangen. 


I 


SPECIAL. 


1872 Abraham, Rt. Rev. Bishop, D.D. The Close, Lichfield. 

1889 Axncoma, Right Rev. E. Sullivan, D.D. D.C.L. Bishop of. 

1878 Avucktayp, The Most Rev. W. G. Cowie, D.D. Bishop of. 

1883 Beckwith, The Right Rev. J. W. D.D. U.S.A. 

1890 Dover, Right Rev. G. R. Eden, D.D. Bishop of. 

1878 Fredericton, 'The Most Rev. the Lord Bishop of. 

1878 Haiti, The Right Rev. J. T. Holly, D.D. Bishop of, Port-au- 
Prince, Haitt. 

1884 Herzog, Right Rev. E. D.D. Bishop of the Old Catholic 
Ch, of Switzerland, Berne. 

1878 Jaggar, Right Rev.,Bishop T. A. D.D. Bishop of 8. Ohio, 
Lpiscopal Rooms, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A. 

1892 Lucknow, Right Rev. A. Clifford, D.D. Bishop of, Allahabad, 
India. 

1886 Mylne, Right Rev. L. G. D.D. St. Mary’s Vicarage, 
Mariborough, Wilts. 

1888 North China, Right Rev. C. P. Scott, Bishop of, Cheefoo, 
North China. 

1890 Ottawa, Right Rev. C. Hamilton, D.D. D.C.L. Bishop of. 

1878 Staley, The Right Reverend T. Nettleship, D.D. late 
Bishop of Honolulu, formerly Fellow of Queens’ 
College, Camb. Crowall Rectory, Lichfield. 

1886 Truro, The Right Rev. J. Gott, D.D. Lord Bishop of. 

188) Vail, Right Rev. T. H. D.D. Bishop, U.S.A. 

1878 Victoria, The Right Rev. J. S. Burdon, D.D. Bishop of, 
St. Pauls College, Hong Kong (care of Dickeson & 
Stewart, 4, Queen Victoria Street, H.U.). 


HON. CORRESPONDENTS. 


«Allen, Rev. F. A. M.A. The Gables, Meole Brace, Shrewsbury. 
Anderson, J. F. Esq. ¥.R.G.S. Melrose, Curepipe, Mauritius. 
Baker, Rev. W. M.A. 40, Mapperley Road, Nottvigham. 
Batchelor, W. Esq. 58, Bridge Street, Northampton. 


320 


Batterson, Rev. H. G. D.D. 156, W. 73 Street, New York, U.S.A. 

Beaumant, Rev. J. W. D.D. St: John’s, St. Thomas, Ontario, 
Ounada. 

Bell, Prof. J. T. D.Sci. Prof. Mines and Agric.; Lect. in Zool. et 
Paleont. Albert Coll. Univ. Bow 104, Belleville, Ontario, 
Canada. 

Black, Surgeon-Major W. G. F.R.C.S.E. 2, George Square ; and 
Caledonian United Service Club, Hdinburgh. 

Bliss, Rev. T., Yockleton Rectory, Shrewsbury. 

Blewitt, H. D. Esq. Editor, “ Kaffrarian Watchman,” King 
William’s Town, South Africa. 

Brants, M. A. Exq. Ph.D. Zelhem, near Doetinchem, Holland. 

Brown, Rev. J. B. M.A. Fenisclifie Vicarage, Blackburn. 

Burke, Rev. R. G. M.A. UL.B., Lilydale Melbourne. 

Caldecott, Rev. Professor A. M.A. B.D. [ectory, North and South 
Lopham, Norfolk. 

Caldwell, Rev. J. C.D.D. Springfield, O., U.S.A. 

‘Campbell, Rev. Prof. J. M.A. Presb. Coll., Montreal, C.W. 

Challis, Rev. J. L. M.A. Camb. R. Hartwell, Aylesbury. 

Clarke, Colonel A. R. C.B. R.E. F.R.S. Hon. Fell. Camb. Ph. Soc., 
Boldrewood, Redhill. 

Clarke, Rev. A. T. Shelby, Ala., U.S.A. 

‘Clarke, Rev. J. M. M.A. Drayton Rectory, Nuneaton. 

Corbet, Frederick H. M. Esq. Barrister-at-Law, F.R.C.I. F.I.Inst. 
Hon. Executive Officer for Ceylon at the Imperial 
Institute, Ravenshoe, Sutton, Surrey. 

Currie, Rev. F. H. M.A. Lyford, Berks. 

Dalton, Rev. G. W. D.D. Springfield, Newport, Barnstaple. 

Danks, Rev. G. W. M.A. Morton Vicarage, Gainsborough. 

Darling, Generali@> W.) Utica, N.Y., -UoS3A 

Davis, C. M. Hsq. M.A. Secretary of the American Institute of 
Christian Philosophy, 4, Winthrop Place, New York, 
U.S.A. 

Davis, Rev. W. B. M.A. Ramsbury, Wilts. 

Dixon, Prof. J. M. Washington Univ. St. Louis, Mo. U.S.A. 

Dorsey, Rev. J. Owen, Hthnologist, Bureau of eee 
Minister Prot. KMpis. Ch. Dona Park, DiC U Sek 

Douglas, Rev. R. A.M. Dub. Bredgayr V. Stttingbourne. 

Kast, Rev. H. K. Levthfield, Christchurch, New Zealand. 

Kby, C. 8. Hsq. 5, Usukiji, Tokyo, Japan. 

Hccles, Rev. R. K. M.A. Grange Corner, Toome Bridge, Belfast. 

@Hells, Rev. M., M.A, Union City, Mason Co., Washington, D.C., 
ULS A. 

Hider, Rev. I’. R. St. Thomas Rectory, Enfield, N. S. Wales. 

Ferris, Rev. Canon T. B. M.A. St. Matthew's Vicarage, . Not- 
tingham. 

Finn, Alexander, Esq. British Consulate, Malaga. 

{Finnemore, The Hon. Mr. Justice Robert Isaac, F.R.A.S. 
F.R.Hist.5. Puisne Judge, Supreme Court, Pieter- 
maritzburg, Natal. 


324 


Fleming, Rev. T. 8. F.R.G.S. St. Clement’s, Leeds (ff). 

Yogg, The Ven. Archdeacon P. P. M.A. Oxon. George, Cape 
Colony. 

Frampton, Rev. R. G. D. Winshill Rectory, Burton-on-Trent. 

Frankel, Rev. HE. B. Lansdown Road, Bournemouth. 

Gissing, Capt. C. EH. R.N. F.R.G.S. United Service Club, S.W.; 
40, Albany Mansions, Battersea Park, S.W. 

Gregory, Rev. A. R. Vicarage, Ulgham, Morpeth. 

Gregory, The Honourable J. M. LL.D. Ex-President of Illinois 
State University, Memb. Ph. Soc. Washington. 

Gubbins, C. Esq. M.D. J.P. Newcastle, Natal. . 

Gubbins, Surgeon-Col. W. L. M.D. War Office, 18, Victoria Street, 

| §.W.; St. John’s, Worcester Park, Surrey. 

‘Habershon, M. H. Esq. Greenhead, Chapeltown, Sheffield. 

Harris, A. H. Esq. c/o I.M. Customs, Canton, China. 

Harris, Rev. J. 

Harrison, Rev. A. J. B.D. LL.D. Magdalen Lodge, North End, 
Newcastle. 

Harriss, Rev. J. A. Cypress Lodge, Poona, India. 

Hassell, Joseph, Esq. Brittany Lodge, London Road, St. 
Leonards. 

Hewson, Rev. E. F. B.A. Gowran, Kilkenny. 

Hobart, Rev. W. K. LL.D. 29, Hawkins Street, Londonderry. 

Hovey, Rev. Prof. Alvah, 8.T.D. LL.D. Pres. N. Theological 
Institution, Newton Centre, Massachusetis. 

Howard, Sir Frederick, J.P. The Abbey Close, Bedford. 

Hudson, Rev. Canon J. C. M.A. Thornton Vicarage, Horn- 

; castle. 

Hurt, Rev. R. N. Church Institution, Wakefield. 

Hyatt, A. Esq. D.Sc. N.S. N.A. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Berkeley 
Street, Baston, Mass. U.S.A. 

Hutchinson, Rev. A. B. Fukuoka, Japan. 

Irving, Rev. A. D.Se. F.G.S. Hockerill V. Bishop’s Stor!ford. 

Johnson, T. Esq. 

Jowett, J. S. Hsq. 

Karney, Rev. G. S. M.A. St. John’s Vicarage, Paddington, W. 

Kydd, Robert, Esq. 164, Stobeross Street, Glasgow. 

Lawrence, Rev. W. M. D.D. 492, W. Monroe Street, Chicago, 
UaSeAs 

Lester, W. Esq. J.P. F.G.S. F.C.S. Brow Offa, Wrexham. 

Ley, Rev. A. M.A. Oxon. Sellack, Ross, Herefordshire. 

Lindsay, Rev. H. P. M.A. St. Andrew’s Vicarage, Battersea, S.W. 

McLeod, Rev. R. F. North Fambridge Rectory, Essex. 

Macpherson, Rev. A. C. M.A. Shottery House, Beaufort Road, 
Clifton. 

@ Mello, Rev. J. M. M.A. F.G.S. Mapperley V., Derby. 

Merrill, Rev. Selah, D.D. LL.D. U.S. Consul-Genl., Jerusalem. 

Miller, Samuel King, Esq. Editor ‘‘ Scrutineer,” Moss Vale, Albury, 
N.S. Wales. 

tMorris, Rev. J., Posno St. Beaconsfield, South Africa. 


at ian 


325 


Morrison, M. A. Esq. Koniggratzerstrasse, Berlin. 

Nutt, George, Esq. Harley, Much Wenlock. 

tOates, Rev. W. Somerset Hast, South Africa. 

£O’Donel, G. H. Esq. Mission School, Seoni Chappara, C.P., India. 

Painter, Rev. W. Hunt, Stirchley Rectory, Shifnal, Salop. 

@ Parker, Prof. H. W. 47, 7ih Avenue, New York, N.Y., U.S.A. 

tPeet, Rev. Stephen D. Ph.D. Editor ‘ American (ag oer 
5817 Madison Avenue, Chicago, Ill. U.S.A 

Penrith, Rev. T. H. Wesley Manse, High Wycombe. 

Petherick, Revs. Ge Ws BA, OSE. Sipe ftectory, Salford, 
Manchester. 

Phillips, Rev. M. 13, Pantheon Road, Madras. 

Phillips, Rev. T. M.A. T.C.D. F.R.G.S. 140, Blomfield Terrace, 
Harrow Road, W. 

Plummer, C. Esq. Boissevain, Manitoba, Canada. 

Pope, Rev. G. U. D.D. Balliol College, Oxford. 

Sj@ost, Rev. Prof. G5 H> MEA M.D. D.D:S. F.L.8. Surgeon 
Johanniter Hosp. Syrian Protestant College, Beyrout. 

Postlethwaite, J. Esq. F.G.S. Hskin Place, Keswick, Cumberland. 

Ragg, Rev. F. W. M.A. Marsworth Vicarage, Tring. 

Ratcliff, Mrs. 45, Castle Street, Dumfries, N.B. 

Redman, Rev. J. Hyderabad, Sindh, India. 

Richards, Rev. G. B. Somercotes, Plympton, South Devon. 

Robertson, Rev. Alex., D.D. Ca‘ Straun, Ponte Della Salute, Veiice. 

Ross, Rev. H. D.D. LL.D. F.C.S. Memb. R. Soc. of Arts of Port 
Louis, Dallas House, Lancaster. 

Rossiter, J. A. Esq. Tivoli Hall, Kingstown, Dublin. 

Rous- Marten, C. Esq. F.R.G.S. F.M.S. M. Scot. Met. Soc.; M. Gen. 
Syn. N.Z. Wellington, New Zealand. 

Sawyer, W. C. Esq. A.M. Harvard; A.M. Ph.D. Gottingen; Prof. 
Phil. and Rhetoric, Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis- 
consin, U.S.A. 

“Shaw, Rev. G. A. ¥.Z.S. 100, Vassall Road, Brixton, S.W. 

Shaw, Rev. W. Cleethorpes, Grimsby. 

Shipham, Rev. Arthur, The Mound, Matlock Bridge. 

Smith, Armstrong, Esq. F.R.G.S. Govt. Educational Dep., 
Hawaii, Sandwich Islands. 

tSouper, Rev. F. A. M.A. Cantab. Brixham, Devon. 

Stefansson, Jon, Esq. Ph.D. 

Storrs, Rev. W. T. B.D. Vicarage, Sandown, I. W. 

+Taylor, Rev. Canon R., Sé. Stephen’s, Newtown, Sydney, N.S.W. 

Thwing, Rev. EH. Payson, ] MD PED. M.A. Harvard, Prof. Rhet. 
and Voc. Cult., 156, St. Mark’s eae Brooklyn, 
U.S.A. 

Tomkins, Rev. H. G. Park Lodge, Weston-super- Mare. 

Tyndall, Mrs. Colepark, Twickenham. 

Wainwright, S. H. Esq. M.D. Principal Academie Dept. 
Kwansei Gakuin, Kobe, Japan. 

Waller, Rev. J. T. Castletown Manor, Pallaskenry, Ireland. 

Walter, Rev. J. C. B.A. Langton Rectory, Horncastle. 


326 


q Warring, C. B. Esq. M.A. Ph.D. Poughkeepsie, N.Y., U.S.A. 

Weidemann, Professor Alfred, Ph.D. 2, Kénig St. Bonn. 

White, Rev. Hill Wilson, M.A. D.D. LL.D. M.R.LA. Wailsun’s 
Hosnital, Multifarnham, Ireland. 

Whiteway, Rev. R. W. B. Beulah House, Selby, Yorks. 

‘Williams, Rev. C. L. M.R.C.S.E. Ch. Ch. Vicarage, Ramsgate. 

Willis, Rev. N. A.B. T.C.D., 

Willis, R. N. Esq. M.B. 2, Carlton Terrace, Rathmines, Dublin. 

Willis, Rev. W. N. B.A. Camb. Head Master, Ascham (School, 
Eastbourne. 

Willis, T. Gilbert, Esq. 4, Kildare Street, Dublin. 

Winslow, Rev. W.C. Ph.D. D.D. D.C.L. LL.D. D.Se. 525, Beacon 

! Street, Boston, U.S.A. 

Wirgman, Rev. Canon A. T. M.A. D.C.L. St. Mary's Rectory, Port 
Hlizabeth, S. Africa. 

Woker, Prof. Philipp, D.D. Prof. Eccles. Hist. Wankdorf, Berne, 
Switzerland. 

Wright, ‘Rev. C. H. H. D.D. T.C.D. M.A. Oxon. Ph.D. Leipsic. 
Bampton Lecturer, 1878, Donnellan Lecturer, 1850-8], 
90, Bolingbroke ae ove, S.W. 

Zwemer, Rev. S. M. M.A. DAD: E.R.G.S. Bahrein, Persian Gulf. 


327 


SOCIETIES EXCHANGING TRANSACTIONS WITH 
THE INSTITUTE, 


American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
American Geographical Society. 
American Geological Society. 
American Institute of Christian Philosophy. 
American Philosophical Society. 
Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia. 
Anthropological Society, New York. 
Anthropological Society, Washington. 
Canadian Institute. 
Colonial Museum of New Zealand. 
Geographical Society of the Pacific. 
Geographical Society of California. 
Geological Society. 
Harvard Museum of Comp. Zoology. 
Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society. 
Michigan, Agricultural College of, U.S. 
New Zealand Institute. 
Newport Natural History Society, U.S. 
Nova Scotian Inst. of Natural Science. 
Numismatic Society of Philadelphia, U.S. 
Oneida Historical Society. 
Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay. 
Royal Colonial Institute. 
Royal Dublin Society. 
Royal Geographical Society. 
Royal Institution. 
_ Royal Irish Academy. 

The Royal Society. 
Royal Society of Canada. 
Royal United Service Institution. 
Smithsonian Institution (Washington). 
Société Scientifique du Chili. 
Society of Arts. 
Society of Biblical Archeology. 
Society of Biblical Literature, U.S 
Soc. Bib. Lit. and Exeg., Boston. 
Sydney Museum, New South Wales. 
Sydney Observatory, New South Wales. 
United States Bureau of Ethnology. 
United States Geological Survey. 
United States Government Geological and Geographical Survey. 
United States Government Reports. 
Warwickshire Natural History Society. 
West Chester Philosophical Society, U.S. 


OBJECTS, CONSTITUTION, AND BYE-LAWS 


Che Victoria Institute, 


Philosophical Society of Great Britain, 


Adopted at the First Annual General Meeting of the Members and Associates, 
May 27th, 1867, with Revisions of 1874-75, 


eee 


§ I. Objects. 


l. THe Victoria Instrrute, or PHILosopHicaAL Society oF Great 
Britain, is established for the purpose of promoting the fol- 
lowing objects, viz.:— 


First. To investigate fully and impartially the most important 
questions of Philosophy and Science, but more especially those 
that bear upon the great truths revealed in Holy Scripture ; 
with the view of reconciling any apparent discrepancies 
between Christianity and Science. 


Second. To associate together men of Science and authors who 
have already been engaged in such investigations, and all 
others who may be interested in them, in order to strengthen 
their efforts by association; and, by bringing together the 
results of such labours, after full discussion, in the printed 
transactions of an Institution: to give greater force and 
influence to proofs and arguments which might be little 
known, or even disregarded, if put forward mercly by 
individuals. 


il 


Third. To consider the mutual bearings of the various scientific 
conclusions arrived at in the several distinct branches into 
which Science is now divided, in order to get rid of contra- 
dictions and conflicting hypotheses, and thus promote the real 
advancement of true science; and to examine and discuss all 
supposed scientific results with reference to final causes, and 
the more comprehensive and fundamental principles of Philo- 
sophy proper, based upon faith in the existence of one Eternal 
God, who, in His wisdom, created al] things very good. 


Fourth. To publish Papers read before the Society in furtherance 
of the above objects, along with full reports of the discussions 
thereon, in the form of a Journal, or as the Transactions of 
the Institute. 


Fifth. When subjects have been fully discussed, to make the results 
known by means of Lectures of a more pepular kind, and to 
publish such Lectures. 


Sixth. To publish English translations of important foreign works 
of real scientific and philosophical value, especially those 
bearing upon the relation between the Scriptures and Science; 
and to co-operate with other philosophical societies at home 
and abroad, which are now or may hereafter be formed, in the 
interest of Scriptural truth and of real science, and generally 
in furtherance of the objects of this Society. 


Seventh. To found a Library and Reading Rooms for the use of 
the Members and Associates of the Institute, combining the 
principal advantages of a Literary Club. 


§ IL. Constitution. 


1. The Society shall consist of Members and Associates, who in 
future shall be elected as hereinafter set forth. 


2. The government of the Society shall be vested in a Council, to 
which Members only shall be eligible,* consisting of a President, two or 


* Exception: If an Associate has been selected, it has been at an Annual 
General Meeting, and then only after the whole of the Members had been 
censulted, and no disapproval signified. 

To 


11 


more (not exceeding seven) Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, one or more 
Honorary Secretaries, and twelve or more (not exceeding twenty-four) 
Ordinary Members of Council, who shall be elected at the Annual 
General Meeting of the Members and Associates of the Institute. But, 
in the interval between two Annual Meetings, vacancies in the Council 
may be filled up by the Council from among the Members of the Society ; 
and the Members chosen as Trustees of the funds of the Institute shall 
be ex officio Members of Council. 


3. Any person desirous of becoming a Member or Associate shall 
make application for admission by subscribing the Form A of the 
Appendix, which mnst be signed by two Members of the Institute, or 
by a Member of Council, recommending the candidate for admission as a 
Member ; or by any one Member of the Institute, for admission as an 
Associate. 


4, Upon such application being transmitted to one of the Secretaries, 
the candidate for admission may be elected by the Council, and enrolled 
as a Member or Associate of the Victoria Institute, in such manner 
as the Council may deem proper ; having recourse to a ballot, if thought 
necessary, as regards the election of Members; in which case no person 
shall be considered as elected unless he have three-fourths of the votes in 
his favour. 


5. Application for adniission to join tke Institute being thus made 
by subscribing Form A, as before prescribed, such application shall 
be considered as ipso facto pledging all who are thereupon admitted 
as Members or Associates to observe the Rules and Bye-Laws of the 
Society, and as indicative of their desire and intention to further its 
objects and interests; and it is also to be understood that only such as 
are professedly Christians are entitled to become Members. 


6. Each Member shall pay an Entrance Fee of One Guinea and an 
Annual Contribution of Two Guineas. A Donation of Twenty Guineas 
shall constitute the donor a Life Member. 


7. Each Associate shall pay an Annual Contribution of One Guinea. 
A donation of Ten Guineas shall constitute the donor a Life Associate. 


8. The Annual Contributions shall be considered as due in advance 
on the Ist day of January in each year, and shall be paid within three 
months after that date; or, in the case of new admissions within three 
months after election. 


lv 


9. Any Member or Associate who contributes a donation in one sum 
of not less than Sixty Guineas to the funds of the Institute shall be 
enrolled as a Vice-Patron thereof, and will thus also become a Life 
Member or Life Associate, as the case may be. 


10. Should any member of the Royal Family hereafter become the 
Patron, or a Vice-Patron, or Member of the Institute, the cornexion 
shall be regarded as purely Honorary ; and none of the Rules and Bye- 
Laws relating to donations, annual contributions or obligations to serve 
in any office of the Society, shall be considered as applicable to such 
personages of Royal Blood. 


11. Any Member or Associate may withdraw from the Society at any 
time, by signifying a desire to do so by ietter, addressed to one of the 
Secretaries ; but such shall be liable for the contribution of the current 
year, and shall continue liable for the annual contribution, until all sums 
due to the Society from such Member or Associate shall have been paid, 
and all books or other property borrowed from the Society shall have 
been returned or replaced. 


12. Should there appear cause, in the opinion of the Council, for the 
exclusion from the Society of any Member or Associate, a private 
intimation may be made by direction of the Council, in order to give 
such Member or Associate an opportunity of withdrawing from the 
Society ; but, if deemed necessary by the Council, a Special General 
Meeting of Members shall be called for the purpose of considering 
the propriety of expelling any such person: whereat, if eleven or more 
Members shall ballot, and a majority of those balloting shall vote that 
such person be expelled, he shall be expelled accordingly. One month’s 
notice, at least, shall be given to the Members of any such Special General 
Meeting. 


13. Non-resident Members and Associates, or others desirous of 
promoting the objects and interests of the Institute, may be elected by 
the Council to act as corresponding Members abroad, or as Honorary 
Local Secretaries, if within the United Kingdom, under such arrange- 
ments as the Council may deem advisable. 


14. The whole property and effects of the Society shall be vested in 
two or more Trustees, who shall be chosen at a General Meeting of the 
Society. The Trustees are empowered to invest such sums as the Council 
may, from time to time, place in their hands, in, or upon any of the Stocks, 
Funds, or Securities, for the time being, authorized by statute for the 


Vy 


investment of trust funds by trustees, and shall have the usual powers of 
trustees in regard thereto. [The President, Hon. Treasurer, and Hon. 
Secretary may officially give effect to such resolutions as a General 
Meeting may pass in regard thereto. ] 


14a. All moneys received on account of the Institute shall be duly 
paid to its credit at the Bankers, and all cheques shall be drawn, under 
authority of the Council, and shall be signed by the Honorary ‘Treasurer 
and Honorary Secretary. 


15. The accounts shall be audited annually, by a Committee, con- 
sisting of two Members,—one of whom may be on the Council,—to 
be elected at an Ordinary Meeting of the Society preceding the 
Anniversary Meeting. This Committee shall make a written Report 
to the Council at the first Meeting after such audit, and also to the 
Institute, upon the day of the Annual General Meeting,—stating the 
balance in the Treasurer’s hands and the general state of the funds of the 
Institute. 


16. Both Members and Associates shall have the right to be present 
to state their opinion, and to vote by show of hands at all General and 
Ordinary Meetings of the Society ; but Members only shall be entitled to 
vote by ballot, when a ballot is taken in order to determine any question 
at a General Meeting. 


§ IIL. Bye-Laws (Privileges). 


1, A Member or Associate, when elected, shall be so informed by 
the Secretary in a printed copy of the letters, Form B, in the Appendix. 


2. Members and Associates shall not be entitled to any privileges, or 
have the right to be present, or to vote at any of the Meetings of the 
Society, till they have paid the contributions due by them. 


3. Annual subscriptions shall be considered as in arrear, 
if not paid on or before 3lst March in each year, or within 
three months after election, as the case may be. 


4, Should any annual subscription remain in arrear to the 30th June, 
or for six months after election, the Treasurer shall cause to be forwarded 
to the Member or Associate from whom the subscription is due, a letter, 
Form D, in the Appendix, unless such Member or Associate reside out of 
the United Kingdom ; in which case the Form D shall not he sent unless 
the subscription continues unpaid till the 30th September. 


Vi 


5. If any arrears be not paid within twelve months, the Council shall 
use their discretion in erasing the name of the defaulter from the list of 
Members or Associates. 


6. Members shall be entitled to introduce two Visitors at the 
Ordinary Meetings of the Society; and to have sent to them a copy 
of all the Papers read before the Society, which may be printed in its 
Transactions or otherwise, and of all other official documents which 
the Council may cause to be printed for the Society ; they will also be 
entitled to a copy of all such translations of foreign works or other books 
as are published under the auspices of the Society in furtherance of 
Object 6 (§ L.). 


7. Associates may introduce two Visitors at the Ordinary Meetings, and 
shall be entitled to all the minor publications of the Society, and to a 
copy of its Transactions during the period of their being Associates, but 
not to the translations of foreign works or other books above referred to.* 
It shall, however, be competent to the Council of the Society, when its 
funds will admit of it, to issue the other publications of the Society to 
Associates, being ministers of religion, either gratuitously or at as small 
a charge as the Council may deem proper. 


8. When it shall be found necessary to send the letter, Form D, to any 
Member or Associate who may be in arrear, the printed papers and other 
publications of the Society shall cease to be sent to such Member or 
Associate till the arrears are paid; and, until then, he shall not be 
allowed to attend any Meeting of the Society, nor have access to any 
public rooms which may be in its occupation. 


9. The Libraryt shall be under the management and direction of the 
Council, who are empowered to designate such works as shall not be 
allowed to circulate. 


10. Each Member{ shall be allowed to borrow books from the 
Library, and to have not more than three volumes in his possession at 
the same time; pamphlets and periodical publications not to be kept 
above fourteen days, nor any other book above three weeks. 


11. Members who may borrow books from the Library shall be 
answerable for the full value of any work that is lost or injured. 


* These, as well as the Transactions issued in the years previous to 
their joining, may be purchased at half price. 

+ For the use of Members and Associates.—See 7th Object. 

{t Members only are allowed to take books away. 


vil 


12. Periodical publications shall remain on the table for a month 
ther books for a fortnight, after they are received. 


13. When a book or pamphlet is wanted, and has been the stipulated 
time in the possession of any Member, the Secretary shall request its 
return, and a fine of threepence a day shall be incurred for every day it 
may be detained, which fine shall commence on the third day after the 
transmission of the notice in the case of town Members, and after the 
sixth day in the case of country Members ; and until the return of such 
works, and the discharge of all fines incurred, no further issue of books 
shall be permitted to the Member applied to. 


14, The books shall be ordered in for inspection at such times as the 
Council shall appoint, and a fine of half-a-crown shall be incurred for 
neglecting to send in books by the time required in the notice. 


15. A book shall lie on the Library table in which Members may 
insert, for the consideration of the Council, the titles of such works as 
they desire to be purchased for the Institute. 


S IV. Bye-Laws (General, Ordinary, and Intermediate Meeting). 


1, A General Meeting of Members and Associates shall be held 
annually on May 24th (being Her late Majesty’s birthday, and the Society’s 
anniversary), or on the Monday following, or on such other day as the 
Council may determine as most convenient, to receive the Report of the 
Council on the state of the Society, and to deliberate thereon; and to 
discuss and determine such matters as may be brought forward relative 
to the affairs of the Society ; also, to elect the Council and Officers for the 
ensuing year. 


2. The Council shall call a Special General Meeting of the Members 
and Associates, when it seems to them necessary, or when required to do 
so by requisition, signed by not less than ten Members and Associates, 
specifying the question intended to be submitted to such Meeting. Two 
weeks’ notice must be given of any such Special General Meeting ; and 
only the subjects of which notice has been given shall be discussed 
thereat. 


3. The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall usually be held on the 
first and the Intermediate Meetings on the third Monday evenings in 
each month, from November to June inclusive, or on such other evenings 


Vlil 


as the Council may determine to be convenient : and a printed card of 
the Meetings for each Session shall be forwarded to each Member and 
Associate. 


4. At the Ordinary and Intermediate Meetings the order of proceeding 
shall be as follows: The President, or one of the Vice-Presidents, or a 
Member of the Council, shall take the chair at 4.30 o’clock precisely, the 
minutes of the last Ordinary or Intermediate Meeting shall be read aloud 
by one of the Secretaries, and, if found correct, shall be signed by the 
Chairman ; the names of new Members and Assoziates shall be read ; the 
presents made to the Society since their last Meeting shall be announced ; 
and any other communications which the Council think desirable shall be 
made to the Meeting. After which, the Paper or Papers intended for 
the evening’s discussion shall be announced and read, and the persons 
present shall be invited by the Chairman to make any observations 
thereon which they may wish to offer. 


The claims of Members and Asscciates to take part in a discussion 
are prior to those of Visitors. The latter when desiring to speak 
upon any Paper, must first send their cards to the Chairman and 
ask permission (unless they have been specially invited by the 
Council “to attend, and join in considering the subject before 
the Meeting,” or are called upon by the Chairman). 1875. 


5. The Papers read before the Society, and the discussions thereon, 
fully reported, shall be printed by order of the Council; or, if not, the 
Jouncil shall, if they see fit, state the grounds upon which this Rule has 
been departed from, in the printed Journal or Transactions of the Society. 


6. The Council may at their discretion authorize Papers of a general 
kind to be read at any of the Ordinary or Intermediate Meetings, either 
as introductory lectures upon subjects proper to be afterwards discussed, 
or as the results of discussions which have taken place, in furtherance of 
the 5th Object of the Society (§ L.). 


7. With respect to Intermediate Meetings, the Papers read at which 
are not necessarily printed nor the discussions reported,* the Council at 
its discretion, may request any lecturer or author of a Paper to be read 
thereat, previously to submit an outline of the proposed method of 
treating his subject. 


* So arranged when the “ Intermediate Meetings” were commenced, 
16th January, 1871. 


mi 3 


8. At the Ordinary or Intermediate Meetings no question relating to 
the Rules or General Management of the affairs of the Society shall be 
introduced, discussed or determined. 


SV. Bye-Laws (Council Meetings). 


1. The Council shall meet at least once every month from November 
to June inclusive, or at any other time and on such days as they may 
deem expedient. The President, or any three Members of the Council, 
may at any time call a Special Meeting, to which the whole Council shall 


be summoned. 


2. At Council Meetings three shall be a quorum ; the decision of the 
majority shall be considered as the decision of the Meeting, and the 
Chairman shall have a casting vote. 


3. Minutes of the Proceedings shall be taken by one of the Secretaries, 
or, in case of his absence, by some other Member present, whom the 
Chairman may appoint ; which Minutes shall afterwards be entered in a 
minute-book kept for that purpose, and read at the next Meeting of the 
Council, when, if found correct, they shall be signed by the Chairman. 


§ VI. Bye-Laws (Papers). 


1. Papers presented to be read before the Society shall, when read, be 
considered as the property of the Society, unless there shall have been 
any previous engagement with its author to the contrary; and the 
Council may cause the same to be published in any way and at any time 
they may think proper after having been read. If a Paper be not read, 
it shall be returned to the author; and, if a Paper be not published 
within a reasonable time after having been read, the author shall be 
entitled himself to publish it, and he may borrow it for that purpose. 


2. When a Paper is sent to the Society for the purpose of being read, it 
shall be laid before the Council, who shall refer it to two of that body, or 
of the other Members or Associates of the Society whom they may select, 
for their opinions as to the character of the Paper and its fitness or 
otherwise for being read before the Society, which they shall state as 
briefly as may be, in writing, along with the grounds of their respective 
opinions. Should one of such opinions be adverse to the Paper and 
against its being read before the Society, then it shall be referred to some 
other referee, who is unaware of the opinion already pronounced upon the 
Paper, in order that he may state his opinion upon it in like manner, 
Should this opinion be adverse to the Paper, the Council shall then 


x 


consult and decide whether the Paper shall be rejected or read ; and, if 
rejected, the Paper shall be returned to the author with an intimation of 
the purport of the adverse opinions which have been given with respect to 
it; but the names of the referees are not to be communicated to him, 
unless with their consent or by order of the Council. All such references 
and communications are to be regarded as confidential, except in so far as 
the Council may please to direct otherwise. 


3. The Council may authorize Papers to be read without such previous 
reference for an opinion thereon ; and when a Paper has been referred, 
and the opinion is in favour of its being read in whole or in part, the 
Council shall then cause it to be placed in the List of Papers to be so 
read accordingly, and the author shall receive due notice of the evening 


fixed for its reading. 


4. The authors of Papers read before the Society shall, if they desire 
it, be presented with twenty-five separate copies of their Paper, with the 
discussion thereon, or with such other number as may be determined upon 


by the Council. 


§ VIL. Bye-Laws (General). 


1. The government of the Society, and the management of its 
concerns are entrusted to the Council, subject to no other restrictions 
than are herein imposed, and to no other interference than may arise 
from the acts of Members in General Meeting assembled. 


2. With respect to the duties of the President, Vice-Presidents, 
and other Officers and Members of Council, and any other matters not 
herein specially provided for, the Council may make such regulations and 
arrangements as they deem proper, and as shall appear to them most 
conducive to the good government and management of the Society, and 
the promotion of its objects. And the Council may hire apartments, and 
appoint persons not being Members of the Council, nor Members or 
Associates of the Institute, to be salaried officers, clerks, or servants, for 
carrying on the necessary business of the Society; and may allow them 
respectively such salaries, gratuities, and privileges, as to them, the 
Council, may seem proper ; and they may suspend any such officer, clerk 
or servant from his office and duties, whenever there shall seem to them 
occasion ; provided always, that every such appointment or suspension 
shall be reported by the Council to the next ensuing General Meeting of 
the Members to be then confirmed or otherwise as such Meeting may 
think fit. 


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xil 


FORM B. 
SIR, Lg 
I have the pleasure to inform you, with reference to 
your application dated the , that you have 
duly been elected a of the Victoria INSTITUTE, OR 


PHILOSOPHICAL Society OF GREAT BRITAIN. 


I have the honour to be, Sir, 
Your faithful Servant, 


To Hon. See. 


FORM C. 


(esatieers \ Miesara. 0 8 es ee 

* Please pay Messrs. Ransom, Bouvertr, & Co. my Annual 
Contribution cf Two Guineas to the VICTORIA INSTITUTE, 
due on the Ist of January, 19 ,and the same amount on that 
day in every succeeding year, until further notice. 


I am, 
Your obedient Servant, 


19 


If this Form be used, please add your Signature, Banker’s Name, and tke 
Date, and return it to the Office, Adelphi Terrace. Receipt-stamp required. 


* The above is the form for Members. The form for Associates is the same, 
except that the Subscription stands as “ONE GUINEA.” 


Xill 


FORM OD. 
Sir, 19 


I am directed by the Council of the Vicroria Instrrote 
to remind you that the Annual Contribution due by you to the 
Society for the year is now six months in arrears, 
and I have to call attention to the Bye-Laws of the Institute, 
§ ITI, ¥ 4 and 8, and to request you to remit to me the amount 
due (viz., £ ) by Post-office order or otherwise, at your earliest 


convenience. 


I have the honour to be, Sir, 
Your faithful Servant, 


ANG) t el SRC Oblate SOREN AN ee Treasurer. 


FORM E. 
FORM OF BEQUEST. 


I give and bequeath to the Trustees or Trustee for the time 
being of THe Vicrorta InstiTuTe, OR PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 
or Great Brirain, to be applied by them or him for the 
purposes of the said Society, the sum of £ - ; 
if so intended “free of legacy duty.” And I declare that the 
receipt of the Trustees or Trustee for the time being of the said 
Society shall be a good discharge to my Executors for the said 


legacy. 


xiv 


THE JOURNAL OF THE TRANSACTIONS 
ISSUED DURING PAST YEARS. 


Since the Inauguration of the Society, the following Papers have been read :—- 
The Quarterly Parts of the Journal are indicated by the numbers prefixed. (Zhe 
volumes are sold at One Guinea to Non-Members; Half-a-Guinea to Members and 
Associates ; those issued during the years of subscription are not charged for.) 


Pine! oppress, VOLS. 1.TO: 5. 


8 @ ) Wao 


1. A Sketch of the Existing Relations between Scripture and Science. By the late GEORGE 
WARINGTON, Esq., F.C.S. 
2. On the Difference in Scope between Scripture and Science. By the late C. MoUNTForD 
BuRNETT, Esq., M.D., Vice-President V.I. 
On Comparative Philology. By the Rev. Ropryson THornTon, D.D., Vice-President V.I. 
On the Various Theories of Man’s Past and Present Condition. By the late JAMEs 
REDDIE, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I. 
On the Language of Gesticulation and Origin of Speech. By Professor J. R. Youne. 
On Miracles: their Compatibility with Philosophical Principles. By the Rev. W. W. 
ENGLIsu, M.A. 
Thoughts on Miracles. By the late E. B. PENNy, Esq. 
On the General Character of Geological Formations. By the late E. Hopkins, Esq., C.F. 
4. On the Past and Present Relations of Geological Science to the Sacred Scriptures. By the 
Rev. Professor JOHN KIRK. 
On the Lessons taught us by Geology in relation to God. Rev. J. Brop1r, M.A. 
On the Mutual Helpfulness of Theology and Natural Science. By Dr. GLApstTonE, F.R.S. 
On Falling Stars and Meteorites. By the late Rev. W. Mircuett, M.A., Vice-President V.I. 
(The above Papers, with the Discussions thereon, and with “ Scientia Scientiarum: being 
some Account of the Origin and Objects of the Victoria Institute,” with the Reports of 
the Provisional Proceedings, and the Inaugural Address by the late Rev. Walter Mitchell, 
M.A., Vice-President, form Vol. I. of the  Journal.”’) 


O° 


VOL. IL 


5. (On tke Terrestrial Changes and Probable Ages of the Continents, founded upon Astro- 
nomical Data and Geological Facts. By the late HvAN Hopkins, Esq., C.E., F.G.S. 
On the Credibility of Darwinism. By the late GEoRGE WARINGTON, Esq., F.U.S. 
On the Credibility of Darwinism. By the late JAMEs REpDpDIE, Hsq., Hon. Sec. V.L. 
6. | Ou Utilitarianism. By the late JAMES REppIE, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I. 
| On the Logic of Scepticism. By the Rev. Roptnson THORNTON, D.D., V.P. 
! Annual Address (On the Institute’s Work). By the late JAMES REDDIE, Esq., Hon. Sec.V.T. 
74 On the Relations of Metaphysical and Physical Science to the Christian Doctrine of 
H Prayer. By the Rev. Professor JoHN Kirk. 
| On Geological Chronology, and the Cogency of the Arguments by which some Scientific 
Doctrines are supported. (In reply to Professor Huxley's Address delivered at Sion 
College on 21st Nov., 1867.) By the late J. Reppre, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I. (1867-68). 
8. | On the Geometrical Isomorphism of Crystals, and the Derivation of all other Forms from 
ty those of the Cubical System. (6 Plates.) By the late Rev. W. MircuHEt1, M.A., V.P. 


VOL, at, 


9. On the Antiquity of Civilisation. By the late Bishop Trrcom», D.D. 
On Life, with some Observations on its Origin. By J. H. Wunatiey, Esq., Ph.v. 
On the Unphilosophical Character of some Objections to the Divine Inspiration, of Serip- 
ture. By the late Rev. WALTER MircHELy, M.A. bap ae 
On Comparative Psychology. By E. J. Morsueap, Esq., Hon. For. Sec. V.I. 
10, On Theology as a Science, _ By the late Rev. A. DE LA Marg, M.A. 
On the Immediate Derivation of Science from the Great First Cause. By R. LAMINe, Esq. 
On some of the Philosophical Principles contained in Mr. Buckle’s “ History of Civilisa- 
tion,” in reference to the Laws of the Moral and Religious Developments of Man. By 
the Rev. Prebendary C. A. Row, M.A. 
On the Nature of Human Language, the Necessities of Scientific Phraseology, aud the 
Application of the Principles of both to the Interpretation of Holy Scripture. By the 
Rev. J. BAYLEE, D.D. 
11, On the Common Origin of the American Races with those of the Old World. By the late 
Bishop 'Trrcoms, D.D. 
On the Simplification of first Principles in Physical Science. By the late C. Brooxs, F.R.S. 
On the Biblical Cosmogony scientifically considered. By late G. WARINGTON, Esq., F.C.S. 
On Ethical Philosophy. By the Rev. W. W. ENetisuH, M.A. 
12. On some Uses of Sacred Primeval History. By the late D. McCaustanp, Esq., Q.C., LL.D. 
On the Relation of Reason to Philosophy, Theology, and Revelation. By the Rev. Preb. 
C. A. Row, M.A. 


VOL" TV: 


13. ( Analysis of Human Responsibility. By the late Prebendary Irons, D.D. (And part 16.) 
On the Doctrine of Creation according to Darwin, Agassiz, and Moses. By Prof. Krrx, 
: | On the Noachian Deluge. By the Rey. M. DAvison. 
On Life—Its Origin. By J. H. WHEATLEY, Esq., Ph.D. 
On Man’s Place in Creation. By the late Professor MACDONALD, M.D. 
On More than One Universal Deluge recorded in Scripture. By late Rev. H. Mounr, M.A. 
4 On Certain Analogies between the Methods of Deity in Nature and Revelation. By the 
Rev. G. HENsSLow, M.A., F.L.S. 
On the Respective Provinces of the Observer and the Reasoner in Scientific Investigation. 
By the Rev. EDWARD GABBETT, M.A. 
On the Credulity of Scepticism. By the Rev. R. THorntow, D.D., V-P. 
16. | On Current Physical Astronomy. By the late J. REppI£, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I. 
Analysis of Human Responsibility. By thelate Preb. Irons, D.D. (See part 13.) Concluded. 


14 


Lo; 


VOLS Ve 


17. Onthe Origin of the Negro. By the late Bishop T1rcoms, D.D. 
On the Testimony of Philosophy to Christianity as a Moral and Spiritual Revelation. By 
the Rev. Preb. C. A. Row, M.A. 
On the Numerical System of the Old Testament. By the Rev. Dr. THorNTON, V.P. 
18. On Spontaneous Generation; or, the Problem of Life. By the Rev. Prof. Kirk, 
A Demonstration of the Existence of God. By the Rev. J. M’Cann, D.D. 
Why Man must Believe in God. By the late James REppIE, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I. 
19. On Geological Proofs of Divine Action. By S. R. Parrison, Esq,, F.G.S. 
On True Anthropology. By W. HitcHMAN, Esq., M.D. 
On Comparative Psychology. (Second Paper.) By k. J. MorsuEan, Esq., Hon. For. See. V.I. 
20. On the High Numbers in the Pentateuch. By P. H. Gossx, Esq., F.R.S., V.P. 
Israelin Egypt. By the late Rev. H. MovuLe, M.A. 


XV1 


NEM SERIES. 


BEING THE VOLUMES CONTAINING THE MORE MODERN PAPERS, 


VOL. VI. is tHr First oF THIS SERIES. 


21. (On Civilisation, Moral and Material. (Also in Reply to Sir John Lubbock on “ Primitive 
Man.”) By the late J. Reppre, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I. 

On Dr. Newman’s ‘‘ Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent.” By the Rey. Preb. Row, M.A. 

On the Evidence of the Egyptian Monuments to the Sojourn of Israel in Egypt. By the 
Rev. B. W. SAVILE, M.A. 

On the Moabite Stone. By Captain F. Pernie, Hon. Sec. 

On Phyllotaxis; or, the Arrangement of Leaves in Accordance with Mathematical Laws. 
By the Rev. G. HENstow, M.A., F.L.S. 

} On Prehistoric Monotheism, considered in relation to Man as an Aboriginal Savage. By 


i) 
i) 


the late Bishop T1rcomp, D.D. 
23. | On Biblical Pneumatology and Psychology. By the Rey. W. W. ENnGuisn, M.A. 
On Some Scriptural Aspects of Man’s Tripartite Nature. By the Rev. C. GRAHAM. 
On Ethnic Testimonies to the Pentateuch. By the late Bishop Tircoms, D.D. 
24. | On the Darwinian Theory. By the late Prebendary Irons, D.D. 
Serpent Myths of Ancient Egypt. By the late W. R. Cooper, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.R.A.S., 
E Sec. Soe. Biblical Archeology. 129 Illustrations. 


VOL VIE 


25. (On Natural Theology, considered with respect to Modern Philosophy. By the Rey. G, 
HENsSLOW, M.A., F.L.S. 
On Fatalism. Contributed by the Rev. J. Ropsrys, D.D. 
On Darwinism Tested by Recent Researches in Language. By F. BATEMAN, Esq., M.D., &e. 
i On Force and its Manifestations. By the Rev. J. M‘Cann, D.D. 
On Professor 'Tyndall’s ‘‘ Fragments of Science for Unscientific People.” By the late 
Prebendary Irons, D.D. 
On the Origin of the Moral Sense. By the Rev. Professor Krrx. 
On Force and Energy. By the late CHARLES Brooke, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 
27. | On Darwinism and its Effects upon Religious Thought. By C, R. Brez, Esq., M.D., &e. 
Remarks on Some of the Current Principles of Historic Criticism. By Rev. Preb. Row, M.A. 
On ‘* Scientific Facts and Christian Evidence.” By the late J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S. 
28, | On the “ Law of Creation—Unity of Plan, Variety of Form.” By Rev. G. W. WELDon, M.A. 
Some Remarks on the Present Aspect of Inquiries as to the Introduction of Genera and 
Species in Geological Time. By V.-Chancellor J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S. 


VOL. VIII. 


29. The Paleolithic Age Examined. By N. WuitLey, Esq. 

(Annual Address.) On the Moral and Social Anarchy of Modern Unbelief. By the late 
Principal T. P. Boutrser, LL.D. 

30. On the Identity of Reason in Science and Religion. Rev. R. MircHetu. 

On Buddhism. By the Right Rey. Bishop Prers C. CLtaventon, D.D., &c., with communi- 
cations from Professors CHANDLER and BREWER. 

On the Contrast between Crystallisation and Life. By the late J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S. 

31, On the Brixham Cavern and its Testimony to the Antiquity of Man—examined. By 
N. Whit ey, Esq., Sec. Royal Inst. of Cornwall. 

On the Rules of Evidence as applicable to the Credibility of History. By W. Forsyrn, 
Esq., Q.C., LL.D., Vice-President. 

On the Principles of Modern Pantheistic and Atheistic Philosophy as expressed in the last 
work of Strauss, Mill, &e. By the Rey. Prebendary C. A. Row, M.A. Paper on the 
same, by late Prof. CHALLIs, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 

32. On ‘‘ Prehistoric Traditions and Customs in Connexion with Sun and Serpent Worship. 
J.S. PHENE, Ksq., LL.D., F.S.A., with Illustrations. 


Z 


XVII 


VOL. 1X. 


33. {On the Varying Tactics of Scepticism. (Annual Address.) By the Rey. Roprnson 
Tuornton, D.D., Vice-President. 
On the Harmony between the Chronology of Egypt and the Bible. By the Rey. B. W. 
SAVILE, M.A. 
On the Ethical Condition of the Early Scandinavian Peoples. By EH. W. Gossz, Esq. 

34. | On Magnitudes in Creation and their Bearings on Biblical Interpretation. By the late 
Bishop Trrcoms, D.D. Paper on the same, by late Prof. CuHatiis, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.R.A.S.; with communications from the Astronomer Royal’s Department, the 
Radcliffe Observer, and Professor PrircuArD, F.R.S. 

i On Biblical Interpretation in connexion with Science. By the Rev. A. I. McCatn, M.A. 
(King’s College), with a communication by V.-Chancellor J. W. Dawson, C.M.G.., 
LL.D., F.R.8. - aah 

On the Final Cause as Principle of Cognition and Principle in Nature. By Professor 
G. 8S. Morris, of Baltimore University, U.S. 

On the Bearing of certain Paleontological Facts upon the Darwinian Theory of the Origin 
of Species, and of Evolution in General. By Professor H.-A. NicHouson, M.D., D.Se., 
ERS E,, ke: 

On the Early Dawn of Civilisation, considered in the Light of Scripture. By the late 
J. EH. HowARD, Esq., F.R.S. 

On the Indestructibility of Force. By the late Professor Birks, M.A. 

36. On My. Mill’s Essays on Theism. By the late Preb. W. J. Irons, D.D. 


VOL... x. 


On the Chronology of Recent Geology. By S. R. Parrison, Esq., F.G.S. 
On the Nature and Character of Evidence for Scientific Purposes. By the Rev. 
J. M‘Cann, D.D. 
The Relation of the Scripture Account of the Deluge to Physical Science. By the late 
Prof. CHALis, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 
38. An Examination of the Belfast Address from a Scientific point of view. By the late 
J. E. HowarRpD, Esq., F.R.S. ‘ 
Annual Address; Modern Philosophic Scepticism examined. By the late Rey. R. Mary, 
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., The Radcliffe Observer. 
On the Etruscan Language. By the Rev. IsAAc Taytor, M.A. 
39. On ‘‘ Present Day Materialism.” By the Rev. J. McDOUGALL. 
On the Sorrows of Scepticism. By Rev. R. Tuornron, D.D., Vice-Pres. (see parts 6, 15, 33). 
On Heathen Cosmogonies, compared with the Hebrew. By Rev. B. W. Savitz, M.A. 
On the Place of Science in Education. By Professor H. A. Nicnotson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 
40. On Egypt and the Bible. By the late J. E. Howarp, Hsq., F.R.S. 


VOL 2x: 


41. (The Flint ‘‘ Implements” of Brixham Cavern. By N. WuirLzy, Esq. (Photographically 
illustrated.) 
On the Flint Agricultural Implements of America. By Dr. J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S. 
An Examination of ‘‘ The Unseen Universe.” By the late Preb. [Rons, D.D. 
| The Uncertainties of Modern Physical Science. By the late Professor Birks, M.A. 
} The Ethics of Belief. By Principal H. WAcg, D.D. 


A. 


wh) 


or 


Oo 
a | 


On the Metaphysics of Scripture. By the late Prof. CHALLIS, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 

On the Theory of Unconscious Intelligence as opposed to Theism, By Prof. Morus, U.S.A. 

On the Myth of Ra. By the late W. R. Coopsrr, Esq., F.R.A.S., Sec. Soc. Bib. Arch. 

On Christianity as a Moral Power. By Professor LiAs, Hulsean Lecturer, Cambridge. 

45, | On the Structure of Geological Formations as Evidence of Design. By D. Howarp, F.C.S. 
On the Bible and Modern Astronomy. By the late Prof. Birks, M.A. (Camb.). 

44, (On Comparative Psychology. By HE. J. MorsnEap, Esq. 


VOL. XII. 


45. On the Indestructibility of Matter. By the late Professor CHAL.is, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 
On History in the Time of Abraham, Illustrated by Recent Researches. By Rev. H. G. 
Tomiins, With Numerous Notes by Various Assyriologists. 
On the Horus Myth. By the late W. R. Coopmr, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.R.A.S., Sec. Soc. 
Bib. Arch. (/llustrated.) Additional Papers by various Egyptologists. 
46. The Influence of True and False Philosophy. (Ann. Address.) The late J. E. Howarp, F.R.S. 
The History of the Alphabet. By Rev. IsAAc Taytor, M.A. 
Creation and Providence. By the late J. HE. Howarp, Esq., F.R.8. 
Nature’s Limits: an Argument for Theism, By S. R. Pattison, Esq., F.G.S. 
Mr. Matthew Arnold and Modern Culture. Prof. L1as, Hulsean Lecturer, Cambridge. 


Xvi 


47. On the Relation of Scientific Thought to Religion. The Right Rev. Bishop CorTERiLi, D.D 
Monotheism. By the Rev. Dr. Rute (Author of “* Oriental Records”), 
48. Physical Geography of the East. By the late J. L. Porrrér, D.D., D.C.I.. 


VO) ILE 


49. ( Modern Geogenies and the Antiquity of Man. Late Prof. Birks, M.A. 
The Annual Address. Rev. Principal Riee, D.D. 
50. | “On Science and Man.” By Dr. NoAu Porter (President of Yale, United States). ” 
“ The Lapse of Time since the Glacial Epoch determined by the Date of the Polished Stone 
Age.” By Dr. SouTHALL (United States). 
“Final Cause: a Critique of the Failure of Paley and the Fallacy of Hume.” By the 
late J. P. THompson, D.D., LL.D. (Harvard, U.S.). 
51. | “ The Torquay Caves and their Teachings.” By the late J. E. Howarp, Esq.. F.R.S. 

4 *« Does the Contemporaneity of Man with the Extinct Mammalia, as shown by Recent Cavern 
Exploration, prove the Antiquity of Man?” By T. K. Catuarp, Esq., F.G.S8., &e. ; 
with special additional communications by Professor Boyp-DAwkINs, F.R.8., Rev. 
J. M. Mzetto, M.A., F.G.S. (Creswell), &c. 

“The System of Zoroaster considered in connexion with Archaic Monotheism.” By 

R. Brown, Esq., F.S.A. 
52. | ‘On the Evidence already obtained as to the Antiquity of Man.” By Professor T. McK. 
Hueuss, M.A. (Woodwardian Professor of Geology at Cambridge University) ; with 
additions by the DukE or ARGYLL, K.G., Professor Boyp-DAwkins, F.R.S., and other 


L Geologists. 
VOL. IY. 


63. “The Topography of the Sinaitic Peninsula ” (giving results of last survey). By (the late) 
Rev. F. W. HoLtuann, M.A. (Palestine Exploration Fund); with a new map. 
“ The Ethnology of the Pacific.” By the Rev. 8. J. WHITMEE, F.L.S.; with a large new 
map, showing the distribution of Races and all the results of the latest discoveries. 
The Annual Meeting. 
54. On Physiological Metaphysics. By Professor NoAn PortEr (President, Yale Univ., U.S.) 
On the Druids and their Religion. By the late J. HE. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S. 
On the Organ of Mind. By Rev. J. FisuEr, D.D. (the late). 
On the Data of Ethics. By Principal Wack, D.D. 
55. On the Bearings of the Study of Natural Science, and of the Contemplation of the Dis- 
coveries to which that Study leads, on our Religious Ideas. By Professor SToxKEs, 
P.R.S. CLucasian Professor of Mathematics, Cambridge). 
Late Assyrian and Babylonian Research. By HormMuzp Rassam, Hsq. 
On the Evidence of the Later Movements of Elevation and Depression in the British Isles. 
By Professor HvGurs, M.A. (Woodwardian Professor of Geology at Cambridge). 
On the Nature of Life. By Professor H. A. NicHotsonx, M.D., F.R.S.E., Aberdeen. 
56. On the Religion and Mythology of the Aryans of Northern Europe. By R. Brown, F.S.A 


VOR EV 


7. ( The Life of Joseph. Illustrated from Sources External to Holy Scripture. By Rev. H. G. 
‘TOMKINS. 
On the Relation between Science and Religion, through the Principles of Unity, Order, and 
Causation. Annual Address by the Right Rev. Bishop CoTTERILL, D.D. (the late). 
| Some Considerations on the Action of Will in the Formation and Regulation of the Universe 


or 
~ 


—heing an Examination and Refutation of certain Arguments against the existence of 
a personal conscious Deity. By (the late) Lord O’NEILL. 

On the Modern Science of Keligion, with Special Reference to those parts of Prof. Max 
Miiller’s ‘* Clips from a German Workshop,” which treat thereon. Rev. G. BLENCOWE 

On the Early Destinies of Man. By (the Jate) J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.8. 

ea Man in America. By Dr. Sournatn (United States); a second paper on the 


same, by Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., LU.D., F.R.S., of M‘Gill College, Montreal ; 
and communications from the Duke of ARGYLL, K.G.; Professor W. Boyp-Dawk1ys, 
F.M.S.; Professor T, McK. HuGuEs (Woodwardian Professor of Geology at Cam- 
bridge), and others. 

Scientific Facts and the Caves of South Devon. By (the late) J. E. Howarn, Esq., F.R.S. 

Implements of the Stone Age as a primitive Demarcation between Man and other Animals. 
By (the late) J. P. THompson, D.D., LL.D. 

Meteorology: Rainfall. By J. F. BATEMAN, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 

On the Rainfall and Climate of India. By Sir Joserpn FaAyrer, K.C.S.L, M.D., F.R.S., 
with a new Map, showing the Physical Geography aud Meteorology of India, by 

TRELAWNEY W. SAUNDERS, Esq. 
60, ee ee and the Theories of its Origin. By R. Brown, Esq., F.S.A. 


ov 


61. 


63. 
64, 


65. 


66. 


67. 


68. 


69. 
70. 


| 


bo 
. 


X1X 


VOR. AVC 


The Credibility of the Supernatural. (Annual Address.) By (the late) Lord O'NEILL. 

Supposed Paleolithic Tools of the Valley of the Axe. By N. WuitLty, Esq. (Engravings. ). 

An Examination of the Philosophy of Mr. Herbert Spencer. By the Rev. W. D. Grounp. 

On Herbert Spencer’s Theory of the Will. by Rev. W. ). GRouND; with Communication. 

Biblical Proper Names, personal and local, illustrated from sources external to Holy Seripture. 
By Rev. H. G. Tomxins. Comments by Professor MAsPERoO, Mr. RAssam, and others. 

Breaks in the Continuity of Mammalian Life at certain Geological Periods, fatal to the 
Darwinian Theory of Evolution. By (the late) T. K. CaLuarn, Esq., F.G.5., with 
Comments by several Geologists. 

The New Materialism Unscientific ; or, Dictatorial Scientific Utterances and the Decline of 
Thought. By Professor LIoNEL 8. BEALE, M.D.,¥F.R.S. 

On the Living and the Non-Living. By the same. On the New Materialism. By the same. 

The Theory of Evolution taught by Heckel, and held by hisfollowers. By J. HASsELL, Esq. 

The Supernatural in Nature. By (the late) J. E. Howarp, Ksq., F.R.S. 

Materialism. By Judge C. W. Ricumonp. 


VOLSaxy i: 


( The Recent Survey of Western Palestine, and its Bearing upon the Bible. By 'TRELAWNEY 
SAUNDERS, Lsq. 

Remarks on Climate in relation to Organic Nature. By Surgeon-General C. A. GorpDon, 
M.D., C.B. Speeches by Sir J. Rispon BENNErT, V.P.R.S.; Sir JosEPH FAYRER, 
K.C.8.1., M.D., F.R.S.5 and others. 

On the Argument from Design in Nature, with some Illustrations from Plants. By (the 
late) W. P. JAMES, Esq., M.A. 

Considerations on the Unknown and Unknowable of Modern Thought; or, Is it possible to 
know God? By the Rev. J. J. Lias, M.A. (then Hulsean Lecturer). Comments by 
(the late) Lord O’NeILx and others. 

On certain heories of Life. By Surg.-Gen. C. A. Gorpon, C.B., M.D., Hon. Phys. to 
the Queen. 

On Certain Definitions of Matter. By (the late) J. E. Howarn, Hsq., F.R.S. 

(On the Absence of Real Opposition between Science and Revelation. By Professor G. G. 
STOKES, P.R.S. Comments by several leading scientific men. ; 

, Babylonian Cities. By Hormuzp RAssaAmM; with Remarks by Professor DELITzscu, &c. 

| The Origin of Man. By Archdeacon BARDSLEY. 

(Did the World Evolve Itself? By Sir E. Beckett, Bart. (mow Lord Grimthorpe). 


VOL. XVIT. 


On Misrepresentations of Christianity. By Lord O’NEILr (the late). 

Science not opposed to Revelation. By J. L. PorTER, D.D., D.C.L. (the late). 

Recent Egyptological Research in its Biblical Relation. By the Rev. H. G. ToMKINs. 

Cuneiform Inscriptions as illustrative of the times of the Jewish Captivity. By W. 87. 
CuHap Boscawen, F.R.Hist.Soc. 

Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon—On Recently Discovered Inscriptions of this King. By 
E. A. BupGE, M.A., M.R.A.S. 

Buddhism. By Rev. R. Comuins. Remarks by Dr. LEITNER (Lahore), Professor Ruys 
Davips, Mr. RassaM, Rey. 8. CoLrs (Ceylon), &e. Also a full Note on Krishna. 

Pessimism. By (the late) W. P. Jamzs, Esq. 

On the Prehistoric Factory of Flints at Spiennes. By Rev. J. MaGens MELLO, F.G.S. 

The Evolution of the Pearly Nautilus. By 8. R. Pattison, Esq., F.G.S. 

‘‘On Prehistoric Man in Egypt and the Lebanon.” By Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., 
F.R.S., McGill University, Montreal. Remarks by Professors W. WARINGTON SMYTH, 
F.R.S., W. Boyp-DawkIns, F.R.S., T. RuPERT Jonzgs, F.R.S.,T. WILTSHIRE, F.G.S., 
Colonel] HERSCHEL, F.R.S., Dr. RAE, F.R.S. 


VOI axe 


. {On the Inductive Logic. By Prof. R. L. Dasnry, D.D., LL.D. Speeches by Sir H. 


BaRKLy, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir J. Lerkoy, K.C.M.G., F.RB.S8., &c. 
On Evolution by Natural Selection. By J. HASSELL, Esq. 


< Remarks on Evolution. By Professor VincHow. 


On the Recency of the Close of the Glacial Epoch. By D. Macxr1ntosH, Esq., F.G.S. 
Communications from Prof. 'T. Rupgerr Jongs, F.R.S., and others. 


{On the recession of Niagara (with the United States Government Survey Diagrams). 


~l 
or 


aie 


ba | 
vo) 


80, 


$1. 


&4, 


xx 


( On the Religion of the Aboriginal Tribes of India. By Professor J. Avery, Remarks by 
General Hata, Mr. E. Rassam, and others. 

On the Evolution of Savages by Degradation. By Rey. F,. A. ALLEN, M.A. 

Some Thoughts on the Evolution of Religions. By Rev. W. R. BLackert, M.A. 

On the Relation of Fossil Botany to Theories of Evolution. By late W. P. Jamegs, F.L.S. 
Remarks by Sir R. Owen, F.R.S., Prof. W. CaRkuTHERs, F.R.S., Dr, J. Braxton 
Hicks, F.R.S., &e. 

Was Primeval Man a Savage? By J. Hassett, Esq. 

Remarks on Evolution and Development. By Rev. J. Wurre, M.A. 

On Some Characteristics of Primitive Religions. By Rev, R. CoLtins, M.A. 

Human Responsibility. By Rev, G. BLENCowE. 

On the Worship and Traditions of the Aborigines of America, By Rev, M. EELts, M.A. 

Remarks by Professor J. O. DorsEy, U.S. Survey. 

| Note on Comparative Religions. 


VOL. XX. 


Special Address by the Institute’s President, Sir G. G. Sroxes, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., 
President of the Royal Society. 

Egypt: Physical, Historical, Literary, and Social. By J. Lestiz Porter, D.D., D.C.L. 
(the late), Remarks by the Ear! of BeLMorg, Right Hon. A. 8. AyRTON (the late), &c. 

On the Theory of Natural Selection and the Theory of Design. By Professor Duns, D.D., 
F.R.S.E. Remarks by Right Hon, Lord GrimrHorpE, &c, 

On Agnosticism. By J. HA-sELL, Esq. 

On the Structure of the Gorilla. By E. CHARLESwoRTH, Esq., F.G.S.; with illustration. 

Notes on the Antiquity of Man. By the Epitror. The Chronology of Auimal Life on the 
Earth prior to the Advent of Man, By Sir J. W1itt1Am Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S., 
President of the British Association, 

Historical Evidences of the Migration of Abram. By W. Sr. C. Boscawen, F.R.Hist.Soc., 
with drawings. Notes by Professor Sayce, E. A. W. Bunce, Esq., &c. 

A Samoan Tradition of Creation. Rev. T. PowE 1, F.L.S. (the late); Notes on the Islands. 

‘he Fundamental Assumptions of Agnosticism. By Rev. H. J. CLARKE. 

Un Miracles. By Rev. H. C. M. Watson. Remarks by Lord GrimruorPE, &c. 

On Accounts of the Creation. By W. P. JAMEs, Esq., F.L.S. (the late), 

On Final Cause. By Professor Kk. L. Dabney, D.D., LL.D. 

On Structure and Structureless. By Prof. LioneEL 8. Braue, M.B., F.R.S. 

On the Meteorology of Syria and Palestine. By Professor G, E. Post, F.L.S. (with chart). 
Remarks by Sir JosEpH Farrer, K.C.S.1., F.R.S., &e. 

On the Geographical Names on the List of Thothmes III. By Professor G. MAsPERo 
(with map). Remarks by Sir CuHARLEs WItson. K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Major 
C. R. ConpEr, R.E., Dr. Wricut, &c. Note on Excavations round the Sphinx. By 
Prof, MAsPERO. 


VOL. XxX 


Results of an Expedition to Arabia Petra and Palestine (with chart). By Professor E. 
Hutt, F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland. 

Jewish, Phoenician, and Early Greek Art. By Rev. J. LEsLiz Porter, D.C.L. (the late). 

The Discoveries at Sidon. 

The Empire of the Hittites. By Rev. W. Wricut, D.D. Note on the Hittites. 

Canaan, Ancient and Modern. By Professor Tristram, F.B.S. 

On Caves. By Professor T. McK. HueGugs, F.R.S. (Cambridge), with comments by Sir 
J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S., Sir WAarineton W. Smytu, F.R.S., and others. 

Oriental Entomology. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S. Notes byS. T. KLEIN, Esq., 
F.L.S., and others. 

Petra. By Professor E. HULL, F.R.S. (with chart). 

On Krishna. By Rev. R. Cottrxs, M.A. Notes by Sir M. Monrer-Witiias, K.C.LE., 
Professors MAx MULLER, FE. B. CowELt, DouGLas, DE LAGoUPERIE, Dr. LEITNER, and 
Dr. EDERSHEIM (the late). 

The Pedigree of the Coral Reefs of England. By S. R. Patrison, F.G.S. Remarks by 
Sir G. G. Stoxzs, Bart., P.R.S. 

Practical Optimism. By the Most Rev. Bishop SAumARrEz Situ, D.D. 

Traditions of the Aborigines of North America. By Rev. 8. D. PEEr (with illustrations). 

On the Beauty of Nature. By Lord GrimtHorre, with special paper by Rev. W. 
ARTHUR, M.A. 

Evolution. By Rev. H. J. CLARKE, M.A. Remarks by Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S. 

Appendices; The Jewish Nation and Diseases. Egyptian Discoveries in 1888. (Library 
List, &c.) The Sacred Books of the East. By Sir M. Monrex-Wi1.iams, K.C.L E. 

Zz 2 


85. 


86. 


88. 


89. 


90. 


91. 


92. 


XxXl1 


VOL: XI. 


Annual Address by the President, Sir G. G. Sroxzs, Bart., M.P., President of the Royal 
Society.. Speeches by Sir H. Barkty, K.OC.B., F.R.8., Sir Rispon BENNETT, F.R.5., 
Sir F. L. McCurnrock, F.R.S., Mr. H. RAassam, &c. 

Note by the President on the one Origin of the Books of Revelation and of Nature. 

On Time and Space. By the Rev. W. ARruur. 

On the Names on the List of Thothmes III at Karnac, their Geographical, Ethnographical, 
and Biblical relations. By G. MAspEro, with communications from Sir C. Writson, 
K.C.B., F.R.S., Professor A. H. SAyce, Rev. Canon Lippon, Mr. LE PAGE RENOUF, 
Rey. Dr. EDERsHEIM, Major C. R, ConpER, Rev. H. G. Tomxins, &c., with maps by 
G. MASPERO. 

On the Theory of Natural Selection and the Theory of Design. By Professor Duns, D.D., 
with remarks by Lord GrimrHorPE, the Most Rev. the BisHop of SyDNEy, and others, 
and a note by Mr. 'l’. FRANcIs Rivers, F.L.S. 

On the late Professor AsA GRAY. By the Eprror. 

Note on the importance of Babylonian Excavations. By the Eprtor. 

On Human Footprints in Nicaragua. By Dr. D. G. BRINTON. 

The Aborigines of Australia, their Ethnic Position and Relations, by J. Fraser, LL.D., 
F.R.S. (N.S.W.), with remarks by many travellers; also an opinion by Professor 
Max MULLER. 

Oriental Entomology. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S., remarks by several ento- 
mologists, including a note by Mr. E. B. Poutron, F.R.S., on Mimicry. 

A Physical Theory of Moral Freedom. By Jos—EpH JoHN Murpuy; remarks by Sir J. 
FAYRER, K.C.8.1., F.R.S., the Hon. J. M. Grecory, LL.D., of Washington, and 
others. 

The Botanical Geography of Syria and Palestine. By Professor G. E. Posr, D.D., M.D., 
with notes by Eastern Travellers. 

On Flint Arrow Heads of delicate Structure. By the Rt. Hon. Sir C. Murray, K.C.B., 
also a note on Cave Deposits. 


VOL. 22x 


Annual Address by Sir M. MontEr-WitiiAms, K.C.LE., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., Boden 
Professor of Sanscrit in Oxford University. Speeches by the BisHorp or DuNEDIN, 
Sir H. Barxty, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., Sir Rispon BENNETT, F.R.S., late Mr. H. W. 
Bristow, F.R.S., &c. 

On a few of the Contrasts between the Essential Doctrines of Buddhism and _ of 
Christianity. By Sir M. Monrer-WI.u1Ams, K.C.1.E., &c., &c. 

Coral Islands and Savage Myths. By H. B. Guppy, Esq., M.B. Discussion, &c., by 
Sir G. G. Stoxss, Bart., M.P., P.R.S., Captain W. J. L. Wuarron, R.N., F.B.S., the 

Hydrographer to the Admiralty, Mr. W. H. Hupizston, F.R.S., Professor JAMES 
GEIKIE, F.R.S., Mr. Joun Murray, of the Challenger Expedition, &c. 

On the Keeling Atoll. By Dr. Guppy. 

Colours in Nature. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S. 

On the Sciences of Language and of Ethnography. By Dr. Lzrrner, Ph.D., LL.D., D.O.L. 

Modern Science and Natural Religion. By Rev. C. GoprFREY AsHwin, M.A. 

Note on Science and Religion. By Captain F. PETRIE, F.G.S. 

The Historical Results of the Excavations at Bubastis. By HE. NAvILLE, Ph.D. Remarks 
by Sir C. Newron, K.C.B., Dr. REGINALD Stuart Poo.g, &c. 

Notes on the Ethnology and Ancient Chronology of China. By Surgeon-General 
Gorpon, M.D.,C.B. Remarks by Dr. Leger, Prof. Chinese, Oxford Univ., Dr. BEAL, 
Prof. Chinese, London Univ., &e. 

On Cuts on Bone as evidence of Man’s Existence in remote ages. By Prof. T. McK. 
Hueues, F.R.S. Remarks by Prof. Rupert Jonks, F.R.S., Prof. A. S. Woopwarp, 
F.G.8., Rev. J. M. MELuLo, M.A., F.G.S., &e. 

The Butterflies and Moths of Africa. By W.F. Krrpy, F.E.S. 

The Factors of Evolution in Language. By Mr.J.J.Murruy. Remarks by Professor 


Max MuLLER. 

The Meaning and History of the Logos cf Philosophy. By Rev. H. J. CLarkE. 

The Dawn of Metallurgy. By Rev. J. Maczens Mrtio, M.A., F.G.S. Remarks by 
Professor SAYCE, Major ConpER, Mr. J. ALLEN Browy, F.G.S., and others. 


93. 


94. 


96. 


98. 


99. 


100. 


101. 


102. 


XX11 


VOL. XXIV. 


Annual Meeting. ‘The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Tel el Amarna. By the Rev. A. H. 
Saycr, M.A., D.D., LL.D., Professor of Assyriology, Oxford University. Speeches 
by the Rt. Hon. Lord HAtsBury, Lord High Chancellor, Dr. NAvIL1LE, Sir H. 
BarRkK1Ly, K.C.B., F.R.S., &c., Sir E. OMMANNEY, C.B., F.R.S., Sir J. RisDon 
BENNET?, F.R.S., Captain E. W. Creak, R.N., F.R.S., and others. 

On the Canaanites. By Major C. R. ConprEr, R.E., D.C.L. 

Instinct and Reason. By C. CoLLinGwoop, Esq., M.A., M.B., M.R.C.P., F.L.S., &e. 
Remarks by Professor HuLL, F.K.S., and others. 

The Science of Rectitude as Distinct from Expedience. By Rev. H. J. CLARKE. 

God in Nature. By Professor E. Hurt, D.C.L., F.R.S., Director of the Geological 
Survey of Ireland. 

Man’s Place in Nature. A Note. By the Epiror. 

Land Tenure in Ancient Times in Palestine. By Rev. J. NEtt,M.A. Remarks by the 
Right Hon. Lord Hatsspury, Lord High Chancellor, Mr. F. SEEBOHM, Mr. 8. 
BERGHEIM, Dr. CHAPLIN, and other Eastern Travellers. 

The Botany and Entomology of Iceland. By Rev. F. A. Waker, D.D., F.L.S. 
Remarks by Dr. J. Kaz, F.R.S., Dr. G. HARLEY, F.R.S., Professor LoGan LoBLEy, 
F.G.S., &c. 

The Origin of Man. An address thereon by Professor RUDOLPH VIRCHOW. 

The Dispersal of Plants as Illustrated by the Flora of the Keeling Islands. By H. B. 
Guppy, Esq., M.B. Kemarks thereon by Professor T. RUPERT JonEs, F.R.S., Mr. 
JOHN Murray (Challenger Expedition), and others. 

Sketch of the Geological History of Egypt and the Nile Valley. By Professor E. Hutt, 
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., with map. 


VOL. XXV. 


The Monism, Pantheism, and Dualism of Brahmanical and Zoroastrian Philosophers. 
By Sir M. Monter-W11u1aMs, K.C.I.E., D.C.L. 

On the Post Glacial Period. By Professor W. UpHAM, Assistant State Geologist, U.S.A. 
(a note). 

On raven Responsibility. By the Right Hon. Lord GrimTHOoRPE. Remarks by 
Prebendary H. Wack, D.D., Principal of King’s College, London. 

Chinese Chronology. By Professor J. LEGGE, M.A., Oxtord University. Remarks by 
Sir THoMAs Wang, G.C.M.G., and others. 

The Garden of Eden,a criticism on the views of certain modern writers. By Hormuzp 
RassaM, Esq. Remarks by Sir G. G. Stoxss, Bart., F.R.S., Sir J. W. Dawson, 
C.M.G., F.R.S., Professor A. H. Saycre, D.D., Mr. T. PincuEs, Colonel ConpEr, 
D.C.L., &e., M. BeERTIN, and others. With a map engraved by Mr. Stanford from 
the official surveys. 

Annual Meeting. 

Islam. By Rev. W. St. C. Tispatit, M.A. Remarks by Sir T.ForpD, Colonel ConpEr, 
D.C.L., Dean GouLBURN, Rev. Dr. Ka@:LLE, Rev. H. LANspELL, D.D., M.R.A.S., 
Mr. Rassam, and other authorities. 

On the Reality of the Self. By W. L. Courtney, M.A., LL.D. 

Notes on the Philosophy and Medical Knowledge of Ancient India. By Surgeon-General 
Sir C. A. Gorpon, M.D., K.C.B.,Q.H.P. Remarks by Sir JosEpH Farrer, K.C.S.1., 
F.R.S., and others. 

On the Apparent Cruelty of Nature. By Rev. T. Woop, M.A. Remarks by Sir 
J. FAYRER, K.C.S.I., F.R.S., and others. 

Deontology. By the Rey. H. J. CLARKE. 


VOL: XXVF. 


The Route of the Exodus. By Dr. E. Navitue. Speeches by Sir J. Fayrer, K.C.S.1., 
Sir J. Coopg, K.C.M.G., and others. 

From Reflex Action to Volition. By Dr. Atex. H1~i, Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge 
University, with important discussion. 

The Weak Sides of Natural Selection. By J. W.SuatER, F.C.S., F.E.S. Remarks by 
Professor E. Hutt, LL.D., F R.S., and many others. 

On Serpent Worship and the Venomous Snakes of India. By Sir JosepH Fayrer, M.D., 
K.O.8.1., F.R.S. Remarks by Sir RicHarp Pottock, K.C.S.I., Surgeons-General 
W. B. BEatson, Cornisu, C.J.E., C. A. Gorpon, C.B., Admiral H. D. Grant, C.B., 
aud others, and an important special report by Dr. A. MUELLER, of Australia. 


103. 


104. 


105. 


106. 


107. 


108. 


109. 


110. 


111. 


XXil11 


Somo recent Discoveries in the Realm of Assyriology. By T. G. Prncuzs, Esq., Brit. 
Mus. Remarks by Colonel ConpgEr, R.E., D.C.L., M. Bertin, Mr. W. Sz. U. 
Boscawen, Rev. H. G. TomKIns, and others. 

The Philosophic Basis of the Argument from Design. By Professor BERNARD, D.D., T.C.D. 

On Flint Bodies in the Chalk known as Paramoudra. By E. CHARLESWORTH, Ksq., 
F.G.S. Illustrated. 

The Glacial Period and the Earth-movement Hypothesis. By Professor JAMES GEIKIE, 
D.C.L., F.R.S. Remarks by Professors E. Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S., Logan Losey, 
F.G.S., Major-General Drayson, R.E., F.R.A.S., Mr. W. UPHAM, U.S. Govt. Assist. 
State Geologist, &c., &c. 

Useful aud Ornamental Stones of Ancient Egypt. By Sir J. Wirt1Am Dawson, C.M.G., 
F.R.S. Remarks by W. H. HupixEston, F.R.S., President of the Geological Society, 
Professor HK. HULL, F.R.S., Mr. W. BRINDLEY, F.G.S., Colonel Conpsgr, R.E., D.C.L., 
Professor LOGAN LOBLEY, and others. 


Causes of Climatal Changes. Current opinions reviewed by Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., 
F.R.S. 


VOL. XXVIL 


The work of the Inst’tute in the present day. By the Right Hon. Lord Hatssury, P.C.., 
F.R.S., with speeches by Sir H. BARKLY, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., .R.S., Sir G. BUCHANAN, 
F.R.S., Sir J. Fayrer, K.C.S.L, F.B.S., Sir F. Youne, K.C.M.G., Professor 
EK. Hutt, F.R.S., and others. 

The Principles of Rank among Animals. By Professor H. W. Parker, M.D. 

On the Recession of Niagara "alls. By W. UpHam, Assist. Geologist U.S. Govt. 

How the Waters of the Ocean became Salt. By Professor E. Hutn, LL.D., F.R.S. Remarks 
by Professor J. TYNDALL, D.C.L., F.R.S., Sir J. Prestwicu, D.C.L., F.R.S., and 
others. 

The List of Shishak. With map. By Professor MAspERo. With important discussion. 

An Inquiry into the Formation of Habitin Man. By Dr. A. T. ScHorirgLp. Remarks 
by Dr. ALtEx. Hitt, Master of Downing, Sir C. A. Gorpon, K.C.B., Professor 
PARKER, &c., &c. 

On the Alleged Scepticism of Kant. By W. L. Courtnry, LL.D. Remarks by Arch- 
deacons SINCLAIR (London) and THORNTON (Middlesex), Professors BERNARD, Duns, 
and numerous others. 

On the Comparison of Asiatic Languages. By Colonel C. R. ConprEr, R.E., D.C.L. 
Remarks by Professor LEGGE (Oxford), and others. 

A Possible Cause for the Origin of the Tradition of the Flood. By Sir J. PResTwicu, K.C.B., 
D.C.L., F.R.S. Remarks by Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., I’. R.S., Sir H. Howorty, 
K.C.1 K., M.P., F.R.S., Dr. H. Woopwarp, F.R.S, President of the Geological 
Society, Professor T. McK. Hucugss, M.A., F.R.S., Professor T. RUPERT JonEs, F.R.S., 
Mr. J. ALLEN Brown, F.G.S., Rev. J. M. MELLO, F.G.S., Mr. W. UpHAm, Assist. 
Govt. Geologist, U.S.A., and many others. 


VOL, Xv itt. 


The Religious ideas of the Babylonians. By T.G. Pinches, M.R.A.S., British Museum. 
Remarks by Colonel ConpER, R.E., D.C.L., Rev. Dr. Lowy, Professor FRITz 
HoMMEL, &c. 

Chinese Ethics and Philosophy. By Sir CHARLES GorpDoNn, K.C.B. Special statement 
by Sir THomAs Wank, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., &c. 

On the Luminiferous Ether. By Sir G. G. StoxKEs, Bart., President. Speeches by His 
Excellency the Hon. 'T. F. BaAyarp, United States Ambassador, Sir H. BARKLY, 
G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir JosepH FayreEr, K.C.S.I., F.R.S., Professor HULL, 
F.R.S., Admiral GRANT, C.B., R.N., &c. (Annual Meeting). 

Evolution and Design. By G. Cox Bompas, F.G.S. Remarks by Professor BLAKE, 
F.G.S.,Rev. J. M. Meio, F.G:S8.; ve: 

Archeology and Evolution. By R. H. Watkey. Remarks by Professor LoBLey, 
P.G.S:. we, 

Holy Scripture illustrated and confirmed by recent discoveries in the East. By Professor 
EK. Hut, F.R.S. Remarks by Professor J. H. GLADSTONE, F.R.S., Colonel CONDER, 
R.E., Mr. RAssAm, &c. 

Buddhism and the Light of Asia. By Rev. R. Cottins, M.A. Remarks by Professor 
LEGGE, Kev. G. U. Porr, D.D., the Rev. KENNETH MACDONALD, Professor ORCHARD, 
M.A., B.Sc., Mr. R. Scorr MoncrieErr, and many others. 


113. 


114. 


116. 


Lae 


118. 


119: 


120. 


XX1V 


Stone Folk-lore. By Professor Duns. Speeches by the Right Hon. the Lord Cuan- 
CELLOR, Sir H. Barkriy, G.C M.G., KCB. F.E:S,. Sir G. Bucuanan, F.R.S. 
Sir J. FaAyReR, K.C.8.1., F.BS., Professor Hv LL, F.R.S., Sir C. Gorpon, K.C By. 
His Honour J. OTONBA PAYNE, &e. (Annual Meeting). 

The Mechanical Conception of Nature. By Professor MActoski£, D.Sc., of Princeton 
College, U.S.A. Remarks by Rev. Prof. BERNARD, D.D., G. B. BuckTon, Esq., 
I.R.S., and others. 

The Philosophy of Comte. By J. W. SLATER, F.C.S., F.E.S. 

On the supposed discovery of Remains belonging to an animal intermediate between man 
and the ape: By Professor E. Hutt, F. B.S. (illustrated). 

The Passage of the Red Sea by the Israelites. By Major-General TuLtocu, C.b., 
C.M.G. “Cw ith map). 


VOL) XXX, 


Jubilee Volume. Annual Address: The Perception of Light. By Sir G. G. STOKES, 
Bart., President. Speeches by Earl HAtspury (Lord Chancellor), Sir H. BArKLy, 
G.C.M.G., F.R.S., Sir C. Gordon, K.C.B., Profs. EH. Huuz, F.B.S8., and SAYcE. 

On aes Research and Biblical Study. By the Rey. Canon Rh. B. GIRDLESTONE, 

oA. 

On Certain Inscriptions and Records Referring to Babylonia, Elam, and their Rulers, 
and other Matters. By THEOPHILUS G. PIncHEs, M.R.A.S. With copies of tablets, 
&e., and arranged by the Author up to September 25th, 1897, with Opinions of 
Professors HoMMEL, SAYCE, and others. Communication from Professor A. H. 
Sayce, D.D. 

China’s Place in Ancient History: A Fragment. By Surgeon-General Sir CHARLES A. 
GORDON, M,Ds-K C.D. | -Q:H.P: 

Communications from Her Majesty the Queen and Her Royal Highness Princess Henry 
of Battenberg. 

The Polynesians and their Plant-Names. By H. B. Guppy, M.B. Communication 
from Professor Max MULLER, Dr. JoHN Fraser, F.R.S, (N.S.W.). 

The Natural and the Artificial, By A. T. ScHortetp, Esq., M.D., M.R.C.8. Communi- 
cations from Professor LIONEL 8. BEALE, M.B., F.R.S8., and others. 

Causes of the Ice Age. By WARREN UPHAM, Esq. Communications from Sir JosEPH 
PRESTWICH, D.C.L., F.R.S. (late), Pr ofessor J. GEIKIE, LL.D., F.B.S., and others. 

On Specimens in the Peter Redpath Museum of McGill "Univer sity, illustrating the 
Physical Characters and Affinities of the Guanches or Extinct People of the Canary 
Islands. Jllustrated. By Sir J. WitLt1AM Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S., &e. 

Professor PurTNam on some Guanche Skulls. Communications from Professor J. 
CLELAND, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Dr. LAMBERT of Cairo. 

Miracles, Science, and Prayer. By the Rev. Chancellor J. J. Lias, M.A. 


WO Xxx. 


Annual Address: Chiefly on the Rontgen Rays. By Sir G. G. Sroxss, Bart., President. 
Speeches by Earl Hatspury (Lord Chancellor), the Rt. Hon. Lord KELv1n,G.C.V.O. 
Sir H. Barxriy, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir JosepH FayreEr, Bart., K.C.S.I1. 
F.R.S., Professor E. Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S. 

Biblical Lands; their races, customs, &c. (with Map). By HormMuzp Rassam, Esq. 
Remarks by G. Prncuss, Esq., M.R.A.S. (of British Museum), &e. 

The History of Manikka Vacagar, “the Foe of the Buddhists.” By the Rev. G. U. 
Porg, D.D., with Appendix for Students. 

List of Publications in the Institute’s Transactions on the Religions of the East. 

On some Relations of Mind and Body. By A. 'T’. Scuorretp, M.D., with communications 
from Professors CALDERWOOD, Sb dG aD), ,J. CLELAND, M i) Ihe R S., and Dr. SANSOM. 

The Classification of the Vertebrata. By Prof. J. CLELAND, E.R.S. , J. HutTcuinson, Esq., 
F.R.S., Inspector-General J. D. MAcndonaLp, F.R.S., Prof. H. W. PARKER, Dr. W. 
Kipp, &e. 

The Proposed Scheme for the Embanking the Waters of the Nile. By Professor E. 
Hux, LL.D., F.RiS. Remarks by BALDWIN LatuHAM, M.I.C.E., &c. 

Problems of Aboriginal Art in Austraha. By the Right Rev. BisHor’ THornton, D.D. 

On Primitive Man. By Rev. J. M. MELLo. Communications from Sir J. W. Dawson, 
C.M.G., F.R.S., Professors IT. Rupert Jonzs, F.R.S., E. Huxz, F.R.S., H. G. 
SEELEY, F.R.S., and others. 

Investigations regarding the submerged Terraces and River Valleys bordering the British 
Isles. By Professor E. Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S. Remarks by Cavaliere W. P. JERvIs, 
Director of the Royal Museum, Turin, Professors ETHERIDGE, I.K.8., T. RUPERT 
JONES, F.R.S., LoGan Losey, F.G.S., &c. 


121 


122. 


123. 


124. 


xXXV 


VOL. XXXI. 


Annual Address: The age of the Earth as an abode fitted for life. By the Right Hon. 
Lord KELvin, G.C.V.O. Speeches by the Right Hon. Earl Hatsgury, P.C., F.R.S. 
(Lord Chancellor), Sir G. G. Sroxxs, Bart., F.W.S. (the President), Sir JosEru 
FaYRER, Bart., F.R.S., Sir Sipney SurpparD, G.C.M.G., Captain E. W. Creax, 
R.N., F.R.S. Design in Nature. By Lord KEetvin. A note. 

Where is Mount Sinai? By Professor E. Hurt, LL.D., F.R.S., with the Ordnance 
Survey Map reduced. 

Design as exemplified in the formation of the human foot. A note by Dr. GERARD 
SMm1tTH, M.R.C.S. 

Herodotus. His remarks bearing on Egyptian Geology in the light of recent Egyptian 
Research. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S. Copious remarks by Sir 
J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S. 

Herodotus. His remarks bearing on Egyptian Botany and Investigation. By same. 

Physical conditions of the Mediterranean Basin which have given rise to a community of 
some species of Fresh Water Fishes in the Nile and Jordan Basins. By Professor 
KE. Hurt, F.R.S. (with map). 

Tithe Giving amongst Ancient Pagan Nations. A plea for the Unity of the Human 
Race in early times. By Rev. H. Uanspxe.i, D.D., M.V.1., M.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 
A note, Philological reasons for the same, given at the Congress of Orientalists by 
the Right Hon. F. Max MvuLuER, M.A., D.C.L. 

Another possible cause of the Glacial Epoch. By Professor HE. Hutz, LL.D., F.R.S. 
(with map), with remarks by Professors T. Ruprrt Jonszs, F.R.S., W. 8. GResLEY, 
I'.G.8., United States, Cavaliere JERVIS, F.G.S., Italy, and others. 

The Literature of Egypt in the time of Moses. By J. N. FRApDENBURGH, Ph.D., D.D., 
LL.D. With remarks by Colonel C. R. ConprEr, R.E., D.C.L., &c. 

Plan and purpose in Nature. By Dr. W. Kipp. Remarks by Professors LionEt 6. 
BEALE, F.C.8., E. Huu, F.R.S., J. H. GLapstone, Ph.D., F.R.S.. and others. 
The Star Worshippers of Mesopotamia. By Rev. S. M. Zwempe, F.R.G.S. With 

remarks by Dr. T. Cuapiin and Colonel C. R. Conpzr, R.E., D.C.L. 

Annual Address: The Perception of Colour. By Sir G. G. Stoxss, Bart., F.R.S., V.D. 
Speeches by the Right Hon. Lord Kertvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S., the Right Hon. 
Lord ListEr, P.R.S., Sir C. Gorpon, K.C.B., Archdeacon THORNTON, &c. 

Sub-Oceanic Terraces and River Valleys off the coast of West Kurope. By Professor E. 
Hui, LL.D., F.R.S8. (with three plates). Remarks by Professors ETHERIDGE, F.R.S., 
T. McK. Hucuss, F.R.S., Cavaliere JERVIS, F.G.S., of the Royal Museum, Turin, 
General McManon, F.R.S8., &c. 


VOL. Xxx: 


Annual Address: Our Coal Resources at the close of the Nineteenth Century. By 
Professor E. Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S. Speeches by the President, Sir G. G. STOKEs, 
Bart., F.R.S., Sir JosepH FAYRER, Bart., K.C.S.1., Rev. CANON GIRDLESTONE, M.A., 
and the Ven. Archdeacon THORNTON, D.D. 

The Unity of Truth: Being the Annual Address to the Victoria Institute for 1899. By 
the Right Hon. Sir Ricuarpd TEMPLE, Bart., G.C.S.1. 

Life as compared with the Physical Forces. By J. W. SLATER, Esq., F.C.S., F.E.S. 
Remarks by Professor LionEL S. BEALE, F'.R.S., Rev. Professor BERNARD, Dr. 
R. C. SHETTLE, Xc. 

The Worship and ‘Traditions of the Aborigines of the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 
By Rev. M. Weis, D.D., with remarks by DAvip Howarp, Esq., D.L., Professor 
H i, ORCHARD, M.A., D.Sc: fe. 

The Climate of Egypt in Geological, Prehistoric, and Ancient Historic Times. By 
Dr. GRANT BEY. 

Remarks on the Past, Present, and Future of the Australian Flora. By Rev. W. Woo..s, 
Ph.D., F.L.S., with remarks by Sir Frepzrick YouneG, Surgeon-General Sir 
C. A. GorpdoN, and a communication from (the late) Baron F. von MUELLER, Ph. D., 
F.R.S. 

The Sub-Oceanic River-Valleys of the West African Continent and of the Mediterranean 
Basin (with Map). By Professor E. Hutt, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Communications 
from Professor IT. Rupert JonxEs, F.R.S., Cavaliere W. P. JERVIS, F.G.S., and 
Professor J. LOGAN LOBLEY, F.G.S. 

The Human Colour Sense and its accordance with that of Sound, as bearing on the 
‘* Analogy of Sound and Colour” By Dr, Joun D Macpona.p, 1.H.RN., F.R.S, 


XXv1 


Creation or Evolution. By Dr. Water Kipp, F.Z.S., with commnnications from 
Major Turton, R.E., and Dr. J. H. GLApstTong, F.R.S. 

Common Jrrors as to the ReJation of Science and Faith. By Professor G. MACLOSKIE, 
DiSe., 0.) 

The Scope of Mind. By Dr. Atrrep T’. Scuorietp, M.P.C.8., with communications 
from Professors J. CLELAND, F.R.S., LioneL Brag, F.R.S., Dr. R. Jones, F.R.C.S., 
and R. ANDERSON, Hsq., C.B., LL.D. 

Nationality. Likenesses and Differences which point to many Races making up what are 
called Nationalities, By Professor T. McKenny Huaues, I R.S., with remarks by 
the Right Rey. H. B. Wurrrie, D.D,, Bishop of Minnesota, Professor WesTLAKBE, 
LL, D., Colonel ConpDER, R.E., &c. 

Marks of Mindin Nature. By Rev. Professor J. Duns, D.D., F.R.S.E. 

Thalassographical and Thalassological Notes on the North Sea. By Sgr. Cavaliere 
W. P. Jervis, F.G.S. (with Map), with remarks by Professors E. Hutu, LL.D., 
J. LoGaN Losey, F.G.S., Rev. G. F. Wuipgorne, F.G.S8., &c. 

The Nature of Life (Part I). By Professor Liongt §}, BEALE, F.R.S., with remarks by 
Dr. SHETYLE, Professor ORCHARD, M.A,, B.Sc., and Rev. J.. TUCK WELL. 


VOL. OX XIiT. 


Annual Address: The Origin of New Stars. By Professor Sir Ropert 8. Baur, LL.D., 
F.R.S. Speeches by the President, Sir G. G. Sroxes, Bart.. F.R.S., and the Rev. 
Canon GIRDLESTONE, M.A. 

A short account of the Congrés International d’Histoire des Religions: held in Paris, 
September, 1900. By THEOPHILUS G. PINcHEs, Esq., LLD., F.R.A.S. 

Vitality. By Professor LIONEL S. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., with remarks by Dr. A. T. 
SCHOFIELD, Professor HE. Huri, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor OrcHARD, M.A., B.Sc, 
and Mr. Davip Howarp, D.L. 

On the Being of God. By the Ven. Archdeacon Srncuarir, D.D. Remarks by Professor 
ORCHARD, Rey. JOHN TUCKWELL, and Dr. WALTER KIpD. 

The Philosophy of Education. By A. T. Scuorrge:p, Hsq., M.D. 

Kthics and Religion. By the Rev. Prebendary H. WaAcz, D.D., with remarks by Rev. Dr. 
WALKER, Rey. JOHN TUCKWELL, and others. 

Methods of Protection among Animals, By WaAtter A. Kipp, Esq., M.D., F.Z.S. 
Remarks by Professor Hutt, F.R.S., and Professor ORCHARD. 

Questions Invclved in Evolution from a Geological Point of View. By Rev. G. F. 
WHIpDBORNE, M.A., F.(4.S., remarks by Mr. Martin Rovsg, B.L., and Rev. JoHn 
TUCK WELL. 

Eolithic Implements. By Rev, R. AsutncTron BuLLEN, B.A., F.G.S., with remarks by 
Professor E. Hutt, Professor Rupert Jonszs, F.R.S., and others. 

Visit to the Hittite Cities, Hyuk and Boghaz Keoy. By Rey. G. E. Wuitr, Marsovan. 

Remarks by Dr. THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, DAvID HowarD, Esq., D.L., and others. 

Recent Investigations in Moab and Edom. By Major-General Sir CHARLES W. WILson, 
K.C.M.G., F.R.S. Remarks by Rev. Canon GirpLEsTone and Vrofessor E. Huu. 

Address of Condolence to H.M. the King on the Death of H.M. Queen Victoria, 

Ancient Script in Australia. By H. J. Staruam, Esq., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Remarks 
by Sir G. G. Stoxzs, Bart., F.R.S., Commander G. P. Huatu, R.N., and others. 

Meeting, Monday, 1st April, 1901. Gracious reply from H.M. the King to the Address 
of Condolence; sent through the Home Secretary. 

The Maori’s Place in History. By JosHuA RutianD, Esq. Remarks by Dr. T. G. 
PINCHES, Rev. Dr. WALKER, Rey. W. SuHaw, F.Z.S., and others. 

Pictorial Art among the Australian Aborigines. By R. H. Maturews, Esq. Remarks 
by Professor LoBiey, F.G.S., Rev. W. S. Lacu Szyrma, M.A., and others. 

The Wahabis: Their Origin, History, Tenets and Influence. By Rev. S. M. ZWEMER. 
Remarks by Rey. G. F. Wu1IpBorNnz and Dr. H. W. Hupparp. 

The Arab Immigration into South East Madagascar. By Rev. G. A. SHaw, F.Z.S., 
with remarks by E.S.M. Prrowng, Esq., Professor E. Hutt, Professor ORCHARD, 
and others. 

Hornets: British and Foreign. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.2.S. 

The Divisions of the lee Age. By WARREN Upuam, Esc., M.A., F.G.S.A. Remarks 
by Professor Hut, Professor LoBLEx, Dr. PINCHES, and Rev. JoHN TUCKWELL. 
The Sub-Oceanic Depression known as ‘‘ La Fosse de Cap Breton,” and the adjacent 
River Valleys of France and Spain. By Professor J. Logan Losiry, F.G.S8., with 

remarks by Captain G. P. HeEaTuH, R.N., and Mr. Davin Howarp, D.L. 


XXVll 


V OD. P2eR RAY. 


Annual Address: The Water Supply of Jerusalem. By Major-General Sir C. W. Wirson, 
R.E., F.R.S. 

The Springs of Character. By A. T. ScHoFIELD, Esq., M.D. 

Modifications in the Idea of God,produced by Modern Thought and Scientific Discovery. 
By Rev. Chancellor Lras, M.A. 

The Preparation of the Earth for Man’s Abode. By Professor J. Logan Lospiey, F.G.S. 

Adaptation and Selection in Nature: their bearing on Design. By WALTER Kipp, Esq., 
MDE Zs. 

Physical History of the Norwegian Fjords. By Professor Hull, F.R.S. 

Physical History of the New Zealand Fjords. By J. M. MaciaReEN, F.G.S. 

Iceland: Its History and Inhabitants. By Dr. J. STEFANSSON. 

Artesian Water in Queensland. By R. Logan Jack, LL.D. 

Locusts and Grasshoppers, By Rev. Dr. WaALkgEr, I*.L.S. 

Water essential to All Life. By Professor LIONEL BEALE, F.R.S. 

Procopius’s African Monument. By M. L. Rouss, B.L. © 

Some Diseases mentioned in the Bible. By Dr. T. CHAPLIN, 


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