YAN 4 Ppt oe auth es 4 Ndi tie ») ‘ . \.\a) Me ia At > wr a “se SS een ku on WS: Fh be s Oh VU 43 UR ‘ ap fos’ 4 af Oy. “At rote Vall Mette oR » a 3% ag } prabvond ~ = . | ye 562 Rah hed —— OTE £4588 All ) covey % Hh bd fee wa ~, ‘thing o, Yin Gate ri) wee s adit adda t \ “Way ity : thy Deve re ww —-—~ Vyyet ye WA gies. . nt 4 ¥ Nady. RCS | Wa AS ewe vw, WW Wwe Ss Suse ousuzy , age » ee iT M od - - PARTY ST ea ase eh Teco | AA Mie v Van ciel prin oma Nee ~w - ou, + .. EtG | tig | | | Y bh #y "en h “we is yi ; 4 — wt | eL A} aay rear Hye igus AU BLI DT TNE a ai SP mht Sew Paha pe de sds wt ~ ae AAA D syltl! ‘ ~V a ww 0 t ‘ we Re aN So Wey eS Sot rMvs wwe SESS, One ae el , a whet 7 A 4 Hy hob d f do iw Na i A "0g le * “eh yeueyte we 4S we dy wh, »* 8 Cen tt yt ~~. ly 6 te © SOR | ed Ve dan pete Wd, Pwcy "Ui occu eee Tine ey Ww” weer g Wi by gE on™ apa lowe eo ~ = Ay = v *‘e@ues vs . 4 4 ~ 1. oh ‘ | te Pee As ee — we we eh yey a ait we TAAL | || ~ a) Vy idl . wygese> 47 Fy Wey bel tt neh ~ f Nag Wig LD Wine we Tate | | ht Woy ITT Bates ven -ss" StU CET OA St 75 uwY ee hey Ay WY r Phe 7 edad dh wie. Uutee cae aT sewer t owe we” Ue, vee Ae BM he wikkee b pbithde | TA, Byyes: Vou duluyy ‘y yu svi Bo PT ETUTTT Pept we Ore ag Cay es cw ee al ae JOURNAL | OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 14, 1924 BOARD OF EDITORS E.P Kiuuip W. F. Mreccrers D. F. Hewitt NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF STANDARDS GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. RoHwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GOLDMAN G. W. STOsE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Griaaes J. R. SWANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. ERRATA Vol. 14, 1924 Page 55: The papers by C. E. Van Orstrand and by A. L. Day and E. T. Allen were given at the 370th meeting, not at the 371st as stated in the Proceedings. Page 78, line 11: For Dr. HILLEBRAND read Dr. H. S. WasHINGTON. Page 205, line 6 from bottom: For Arizona read NewMexico. Page 399, in the formula, line 13 from bottom: For 1-+ cos a read 1—cos a. Vou. 14 January 4, 1924 No. 1 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Srpney Paice E. D. W1LLIAMSON E. P. Kiuuie GEOLOGICAL SURVEY GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY NATIONAL MUSEUM ASSOCIATE EDITORS H, V. Harian S, A. 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Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. —_- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 14 JANUARY 4, 1924 Now THE FOSSIL SWAMP DEPOSIT AT THE WALKER HOTEL SITE, CONNECTICUT AVENUE AND DE SALES STREET, WASHINGTON, D. C. FORMATIONS EXPOSED IN THE EXCAVATION Cuester K. WENTWORTH, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY INTRODUCTION Early in August, 1922, S. E. Godden, publicity manager of the Allen E. Walker Organization, called the attention of the United States Geological Survey to the stumps of trees and other vegetableremains that were being brought to light in the excavation for the foundation and basement of the new Walker Hotel, located at Connecticut avenue and DeSales street, N. W., Washington, D. C. DeSales Street is an east-west street, only one block long, about half way between L and M streets and between Seventeenth street and Connecticut avenue. The excavation is about 450 feet long and 150 feet wide. The writer, who at the time was engaged in a critical study of terrace phenomena in the vicinity of Washington, under the auspices of the Geological Survey, examined the section at intervals of two or three days as the work progressed, until the 15th of September, when he left the city. The following paper is based in part on the writer’s personal observations and in part on notes later furnished to him by Messrs. L. W. Stephenson and Laurence La Forge, during the con- tinued progress of the work. Samples of the different formations were collected, but these have not as yet been critically studied in the laboratory. 1 Papers presented at the 176th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences held jointly with the Geological Society of Washington, the Biological Society of Washington, and the Botanical Society of Washington, the evening of Wednesday, March 14, 1923. 1 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 1 The writer is indebted to Mr. Godden, to F. F. Gillen, engineer in charge of the excavation, and to several of the workmen for courtesies and assistance rendered during his examination of the section. The present surface of the ground at the block bounded by Seven- teenth and Connecticut avenue and DeSales street and L street has an altitude of 50 to 57 feet above sea level: The depth of the excavation for the foundation of the hotel was 35 to 40 feet, making the range of altitude of the bottom of the cut 15 to 22 feet above sea level. THE SECTION Five different formations were exposed in the section afforded by the excavation, the thicknesses and general relations of which are shown in the generalized columnar section (Fig. 1). These formations from above downward were as follows: (1) Artificial fill. (2) Pleistocene loam, sandy clay, sand, and gravel. (3) Pleistocene swamp silt or muck. (4) Cretaceous sand and gravel. (5) Pre-Cambrian schist. DESCRIPTION OF FORMATIONS Artificial fill. This material consists of a mixture of loam, clay, and sand, and varies in thickness from nothing at the northeast corner of the excavation to a maximum of 13 feet near the middle of the west side, the difference in thickness being due to the irregular configuration of the original surface on which the material was dumped. The material is likewise somewhat variable in composition and has little regularity of structure. Overlapping of different phases indicates the shifting of sources of the material dumped and of the directions of accumulation. Various materials of human source, while not quanti- tatively of great importance, are sufficiently abundant to indicate deposition of the material contemporaneously with the activities of - civilized man. The shapes and conditions of fragments of these materials together with the crude non-stratified character of the deposit show conclusively that it is artificial fill. Bits of coal, brick, tile and other pottery, tin cans, oyster shells, and occasional frag- ments of glass, leather, and metals are the most abundant relics found in this formation. A brick pavement, said to have been part of the cellar floor of the old convent which stood at the west end of the hotel site, and an old stone wall, extending two or three feet below the base of the fill, were exposed along the west side of the excavation. JAN. 4, 1924 WALKER HOTEL DEPOSIT 3 Brick sidewalk at present street grade. Unassorted mixture of gravel, loam, and clay. Contains a variety of articles of human source, such as bricks, tile, coal, cinders, glass, tin cans, and metal and leather fragments. 0 ft. to 13 ft. ES = WN Os ly s ey eS x x -Peat—a thin layer of carbonaceous material at the contact between the fill and the underlying sandy loam. 0 in. to 0.5 in. Light gray loam, sandy clay, sand, and gravel, in places slightly mottled with buff. The material is poorly assorted and includes ly bands and lenses of pebbly sand. Wicomico < formation. 5 ft. to 15 ft. Se K§ 2s ws B Light brown highly carbonaceous silt or q swamp muck, containing tree stumps and wood fragments; turns black when exposed to air. 6 ft. to 9 ft. Clay, sand, and gravel. Ranges from sandy clay above to coarse gravel at the base; finer material is a rich micaceous, little assorted gray-green geest from the underlying schist; the pebbles of the gravel are composed of a great variety of rocks from many parts of the Potomac basin, and the gravel is far less dominantly quartzose than the Pleistocene gravels of this region. The deposit is a basal phase of the Patuxent formation. 7 ft. to 12 ft. LOWER CRETACEOUS Schist, considerably weathered but still compact. — Fig. 1. Generalized columnar section of formations exposed in the excavation. Several species have been recorded from the Pleistocene of Europe, and in this country Pleistocene species are known from Ontario,!* from cave deposits in Pennsylvania,!’ and from post-glacial beds in Massachusetts.!8 ACALYPHA VIRGINICA L. (PI. 2, f. 10) This large, mostly tropical and sub-tropical genus of herbs and shrubs extends northward as far as Ontario in the case of this single herbaceous species. Characteristic seeds are present in the swamp deposit. In the modern flora this species is an inhabitant of woods and thickets ranging from Ontario to Florida, and it is common in the existing flora of the Dis- trict. The genus is not known elsewhere in the fossil state. Iuex opaca Ait. (Pl. 2, f. 4, 5) The seeds of this species are not uncommon in the swamp deposit. In the existing flora it is found in low moist woods from southern New England to eastern Texas, and, except in the south Atlantic states, it is almost entirely confined to the Coastal Plain. Five species of Ilex have been recorded from the Pleistocene of North America, the present species occurring in beds of that age in North Carolina!® and Alabama.?° ViTIs coRDIFOLIA Michx. (Pl. 2, f. 6-9) Seeds of the chicken or frost grape are among the most abundant fossils in the swamp deposit, ranking next to the seeds of the bald cypress in abun- dance. They are frequently broken and are invariably hollow, as are most of the associated remains. They show considerable variation in size and form but are believed to represent a single species. The extremes of size are figured. This species, which is also known as the possum and winter grape, is an inhabitant of low moist thickets and stream banks, and is found from New 15 Berry, E. W., U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 91: 221, pl. 116, f.1. 1916. 16 Penhallow, D. P., Am. Nat. 41: 448. 1907; Coleman, A. P., Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 26: 247. 1915. 17 Mercer, H. C., Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. ser. 2,11: 281. 1899. 18 Emerson, B. K., U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 597: 148. 1917. 19 Berry, E. W., Journ. Geol. 15: 345. 1907. 20 Berry, E. W., Am. Nat. 41: 686, pl. 2, f. 1. 1907. 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 1 England westward to Nebraska, and southward to Florida and Texas. It is recorded as not uncommon in the flora of the District. Grape seeds of various species, usually unidentified specifically, are common in the Pleistocene of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and have been recorded from New Jersey,?! Maryland,™ Virginia,“ and North Carolina.”* AmpELopsis (?) sp. (Pl. 2, f. 19) A small berry-like, pedicellate fruit, apparently two-seeded, is tentatively referred to the genus Ampelopsis, and may be compared with the fruits of existing Ampelopsis cordata Michx., a species of swamps and river banks, found at the present time from southern Virginia to Florida, and westward to Illinois, Kansas, and Texas. The fossil is too small to represent a normal fruit of Ampelopsis arborea (L.) Rusby, which is a native of the District at the present time. Its identification is too uncertain to be considered as of special significance. Cornus AMoMuUM Mill. (Pl. 2, f. 15-18) The silky cornel, swamp dogwood, or kinnikinnik, is a shrub of low woods and stream banks, which, at the present time, ranges from New Brunswick and Ontario westward to Dakota and Nebraska, and southward to Florida and Texas. It is not at all uncommon in the modern flora of the District. The stones of this species are not uncommon in the swamp deposit. They are usually somewhat compressed, pointed at both ends, unsymmetrical in outline, and irregularly ridged. Specimens are figured showing lateral and vertical views, as well as in section showing the two cells. Stones belong to different species of the genus Cornus are not uncommon in the Pleistocene of Europe. In deposits of this age in North America the only previous record is in the Pleistocene of New Jersey.”° LEUCOTHOH RACEMOSA (L.) A. Gray (PI. 2, f. 11-14) This species, which is new to the Pleistocene of North America, is repre- sented in the swamp deposit by the single depressed-globose, 5-valved capsule figured, and by numerous detached loculicidal valves, some of which are figured from different angles. The swamp leucothoé is usually found in swamps and moist thickets, although it may also occur in drier situations. It is found from Massa- chusetts to Florida and Louisiana at the present time, and is usually re- stricted to localities in the Coastal Plain. It is recorded, under the name of Eubotrys racemosa (L.) Nutt., as frequent, in the flora of the District of Columbia. 21 Berry, H. W., Torreya 10: 266. 1910. 2 Hollick, A., Maryland Geol. Surv. Pleistocene 235. 1906. 23 Berry, E. W., Torreya 6:89. 1906. 24 Berry, E. W., Journ. Geol. 15: 345. 1907. 25 Penhallow, D. P., Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, ser. 2, sec.4:70. 1896. JAN. 4, 1924 WALKER HOTEL DEPOSIT 23 GaLium sp. (Pl. 2, f. 20) With the exception that the two specimens collected have an aperture at both poles, they are very similar to the fruits of various species of Galiwm. Since the embryo in Galium seeds is at the pole this region would probably be one to decay more rapidly, which might account for the double opening. Specific identification is impossible, but the specimens suggest the Holarctic recent species Galium triflorum Michx., which, in the existing flora of North America, is a woodland species, ranging from Nova Scotia to Alaska, and southward to California, Louisiana, and Alabama. It is common in damp woods in the existing flora of the District of Columbia, in which seven other species of Galium are also reported. Galiwm has-been recorded from the European Pleistocene, but has not been found heretofore in deposits of that age in America. SAMBUCUS CANADENSIS L. (PI. 2, f. 21-24) The one-seeded, rough-surfaced nutlets of this species are rather common in the swamp deposit. The elder, or as it is more commonly termed, the elder-berry, inhabits wet situations generally thickets, and at the present time ranges from Nova Scotia westward to Manitoba and Kansas, and southward to Florida and Texas. It is still abundant in the District of Columbia. The genus has not been known before in the American Pleistocene. ; VIBURNUM NuDUM L. ? (PI. 2, f. 25) The specimen is a stone apparently belonging to this species, which, in the existing flora, is a rather large shrub of swamps, ranging from Long Island to Florida, and westward to Kentucky and Louisiana. It is common in swampy and wet places in the present flora of the District. This species has been reported from the Pleistocene of North Carolina®® and Florida.?’ VIRURNUM sp. (Pl. 2, f. 30) This flattened equilateral stone is typical of certain species of Viburnum and probably represents the modern species Viburnum prunifolium L., which, in the existing flora, is a shrub or small tree, ranging from Connecticut to Florida. If this is the correct affinity of the fossil it may be an example of a dry-soil element otherwise unrepresented in this deposit, although the black haw is not especially restricted in its habitat and is found in a variety of situations. It is common in the existing flora of the District. In the absence of certainty of identification it would be futile to discuss the mean- ing of its presence in the present assemblage. It has not before been found fossil, although the stones of several other species of Viburnum have been found in the Pleistocene of the United States. 26 Berry, E. W., Torreya 14: 160. 1914. 27 Berry, E. W., Journ. Geol. 25: 662. 1917. 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 14, No. 1 Additional plant remains which are shown on the accompanying plates, and which are not positively determined, comprise the following: 1. A characteristic prickle, evidently of some species of Rubus or Rosa GRE 27): 2. Fruits that appear to represent some undetermined species of the family Ranunculaceae (PI. 2, f. 26). 3. Immature fruits of the genus Ranunculus (Pl. 1, f. 32; pl. 2, f. 28). 4, Immature fruits of sedges, probably representing the genera Carex and Scirpus (el 2) fs 3): HEXAPODA-DIPTERA RETINODIPLOSIS sp. (Pl. 2, f. 832-34) These galls are very abundant in the swamp deposit. They are roughly spherical, thick walled, monothalamous, about 5 mm. in diameter. Dr. E. P. Felt, the well known authority on galls, has kindly examined them and states that they belong to the genus Retinodiplosis Kieff, of the family Itoni- didae—the gall midges. Although possibly specifically distinct they are very close to the species Retinodiplosis taxodii Felt,?® whose galls are tightly packed in the cones of the cypress and probably represent modified or aborted seeds. Dr. Felt considers this cypress midge as decidedly more primitive than the other species of the genus occurring in the pines. ITONIDA sp. (PI. 2, f. 29) These galls are small, rotately 5-lobed and stalked. snl specimens have been found in the swamp deposit, but they are much less abundant than the Retinodiplosis galls. 'They were examined for me by W. L. McAtee who, however, is not responsible for the generic name. The genus Itonida belongs to the same family as Retinodiplosis, and is a more modern name © for the well known term Cecidomyia. The fossil galls are very close to the galls of Itonzda anthici Felt,?® and very probably represent that species. The latter are flower-like, and are borne on the leaves of the bald cypress. For their general appearance in life the reader is referred to an illustration published by Dr. Felt.%° 28 Felt, H. P., Ent. News 27: 415-417. 1916. 29 Felt, E. P., Econ. Ent. Journ. 6: 278. 1913. ‘ON. Y. State Mus. Bull. pp. 231-232. 1920. Journ. WasH. Acap. Scr., Vou. 14 PLATE 1 BERRY on ORGANIC REMAINS Journ. WasH. Acap. Scr., Vou. 14 PLATE 2 BERRY on ORGANIC REMAINS PLATE 3 1., Vou. 14 Sc H. ACAD. Ss Journ. Wa BERRY on ORGANIC REMAINS JAN. 4, 1924 WALKER HOTEL DEPOSIT 25 PuaTE 1 Figs. 1-3. Naias sp. Figs. 4-8. Carez cf. collinsit Nutt. Figs. 9-11. Carex cf. intwmescens Rudge. Fig. 12. Scirpus ef. lacustris L. Figs. 13-15. Scirpus cf. americanus Pers. Fig. 16. Cladium sp. Figs. 17, 18. Dulichium arundinaceum (L.) Britton. Figs. 19-22. Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx. Fig. 23. Polygonum sp. Fig. 24. Chenopodium sp. Fig. 25. Castalia sp., immature. Figs. 26-28. Phytolacca decandra L. Figs. 29-31. Ranunculus sp. Fig. 32. Ranunculus sp., immature. Figs. 33-35. Ceratophyllum demersum L. Fig. 36. Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. Figs. 37-42. Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich., cone scales and seeds. All of the figures on this plate are from untouched photographs and all are uniformly enlarged four times natural size except Figure 33 which is # natural size. PLATE 2 Fig. 1. Rubus sp., eight stones. Figs. 2, 3. Prunus serotina Ehrh. (?), 2 stones. Figs. 4, 5. Ilex opaca Ait. Figs. 6-9. Vitis cordifolia Michx. showing maximum and minimum sozed seeds. Fig. 10. Acalypha virginica L. Figs. 11-14. Leucothoéracemosa (L.) A. Gray. Fig. 11 shows a complete capsule, and Figs. 12-14 show detached valves, the usual method of occurrence. Figs. 15-18. Cornus amomum Mill., various stones. Fig. 17 shows one in cross-section. Fig. 19. Ampelopsis (?) sp. Fig. 20. Galium sp. Figs. 21-24. Sambucus canadensis L. Fig. 25. Viburnum nudum L. (?) Fig. 26. Fruit of some member of the Ranunculaceae. Fig. 27. Thorn of Rubus or Rosa. Fig. 28. Ranunculus sp., immature. Fig. 29. Iionida sp., Gall of cypress leaf midge viewed from above. Fig. 30. Viburnum sp., probably prunifolium L. Fig. 31. Fruits of sedges, immature. Figs. 32-34. Retinodiplosis sp., cypress cone galls. All of the figures on this plate are from untouched photographs and all are uniformly enlarged four times natural size. PLATE 3 Fig. 1. Cross-section of cypress log. Fig. 2. Longitudinal section of cypress knee. 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 1 DIATOM DEPOSIT FOUND IN THE EXCAVATION ALBERT Mann, Nationa Museum In making the excavations under discussion it was found necessary to dig down to bed-rock, as building operations in the vicinity had shown the locality to be swampy and a stream to have had its bed nearby. The site had been filled in by the city. To reach a solid foundation digging was carried to a depth of 35 to 40 feet below the level of the adjacent streets. Close to the bottom of the excavation a swamp-like deposit was uncovered, in which were embedded the stumps of large bald cypress trees (Taxodium distichum) in a fair state of preservation. ‘The soil in which they had flourished was dark gray, almost black, and of a decidedly peaty texture, and was found to be richly mixed with the silica remains of fresh water diatoms. The material having been cleaned, the diatom flora proves so unique that a report seems to be called for. In all, 78 species and notable varieties of diatoms have been detected in this deposit, which is rather more than the number of species usually found in fresh water localities in and about Washington at the present time. A large proportion of these are now locally unrepresented. In fact, so many are very rare and unique that one may be led to infer either that their life-period dates back very many years and that the deposit is a sub-fossil one, or that they flourished under quite different conditions from those of the present time. Their antiquity is further suggested by the fact that many of the specimens are in a decayed or “rotten”? condition, indicating that they have been subjected for a long time to some corrosive agency. ‘This is especially noticeable in those species that have thin and delicate ‘‘frustules,”’ the technical name given to the silica boxes or encasements that surround the life-substance of diatoms. Since silica, the material composing these diatom boxes, is affected only by hydrofluoric acid and by alkaline solutions, the corrosion here noted must have required a great many years. A weak solution of potash, soda, or lime, such as is generally found in alkaline soils, has only a very feeble and slow effect as a silica solvent. It may be added that there are rather an unusual number of distorted and misshapen diatoms present, and that this distortion is rather common where these microscopic plants are forced to grow in alkaline waters, especially if lime is present. JAN. 4, 1924 WALKER HOTEL DEPOSIT 27 Another fact suggestive of the age of this deposit is that a number of uncommon species found here are characteristic of certain fossil diatom beds located in central Alabama, notably at Montgomery. In the Alabama State Geological Survey for 1894 is a report by K. N. Cunningham on the fossil diatoms of Montgomery, the geological age of which has been fixed as Pleistocene. Material from this precise spot is now not procurable, because the city has extended over the most of the diatom bed. But samples obtained from outcrops locted in the suburbs of the city have been examined and these agree in general with the Cunningham report. He lists 55 species, of which 44, or 80 per cent, have been found in the Connecticut avenue deposit. Of the 11 not found there nearly all are very minute forms, which may have escaped discovery in the examination of the local material. It should be noted that the close resemblance between these two deposits is seen not so much in the number of species common to both as in the rarity of many of the species common to both; and it must be recognized as a significant fact that the diatoms of the two beds—one Pleistocene fossil at Montgomery, Alabama, and the other here at Washington—are strikingly like each other and quite unlike the usual diatoms now found in a living state in the two localities. To confirm this last point I have examined the diatom flora of a bald cypress swamp near Cape Henry, Virginia. = $3 Os _ Tey... Srauos Yuriy : 209 2a, ee HOp--- ae ee a z 109 —-- aposd 120135. QQOENS [OUI IAQ ~---- 301g Saye daa aS 7 a fy. « ap OA 44S 4 a4 4 #08 MH PE LAH ot RH (Mo [7 g [DI1Q AAA - Jadd]D ff OF 90499 Y WIOAf 190129 YJUaaJUaNay {0 d/1fO4d ----99 “> Oesianes yur C= S Ox apol8 radio sp 08: a20LINS JoulBiug *.4S-4 451 AG OE , AH | ae ' ! ‘ ' ' ‘ J019 [DIIJ1AA - JAALIG Af 07 192195 \f WOLY ANUAALY INIIJIBUUOD JO a/14JO4q JAN. 4, 1924 WALKER HOTEL DEPOSIT 39 This map shows that in the vicinity of the hotel site there was a rather steep descent from Rhode Island avenue to the north bank of Slash Run and a more gentle rise from the south bank of the stream to I street, and that the stream flowed through the area now occupied by the hotel in a ravine in which there was no room for a swamp. It also shows that through most of its lower course the fall of the stream was too rapid for the formation of a swamp. In two places, however, one east of Seventeenth street and the other west of Nine- teenth street, where the valley was wider and one bank of the stream was lower than elsewhere, the stream may have flooded the valley bottom during freshets and may thus have formed somewhat marshy areas. Finally, comparison of the present altitudes of the street ‘intersections with the former altitude of the surface shows the amount by which the surface has been raised by filling. This ranges from nothing at the northeast corner of the hotel site to 12 feet at the north- west corner, but at one place in the channel of the stream the depth of fill shown in the excavation was about 15 or 16 feet. The top of the stump bed is 16 to 20 feet below the present surface and as the depth of fill was nowhere greater than 12 feet, except in the stream channel and there only in deep holes, the stumps clearly can not be those of trees that were growing on the banks of the stream before the fill was made and within the memory of living persons. This is more clearly brought out by Figure 2, which shows two profiles, with a vertical exaggeration of 8 to 1, drawn along the centers of Connecticut avenue and Seventeenth street, respectively. The pro- files show the present grade and the original surface and thus the amount of cut or fill, the fill being indicated by a stippled pattern. They also show the position of the hotel excavation, projected into the planes of the profiles, the positions and thicknesses of the geologic formations exposed, and the approximate position of the crystalline rock surface. They present incontestable evidence of the correctness of the conclusion of the geologists that the stump bed represents an ancient swamp that existed in a former geologic epoch, that was not exposed at the surface during the early history of Washington as a city, and that had no relation to Slash Run. PHYSIOGRAPHIC RELATIONS The muck bed was found at nearly the same level in all parts of the hotel excavation and has been encountered at that level on the south side of I street, 100 yards south of the hotel. It therefore underlay 40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 1. parts of the surface that differed in altitude, before Slash Run was filled in, by at least 16 feet, and it must also underlie areas where there has been no fill. Hence it has no relation to the recent topog- raphy and must have occupied a hollow in a surface existing at some time during the Pleistocene epoch. As the average thickness of the bed is about 8 feet it must represent a swamp that was in existence for a long time. The swamp could have extended but a short distance northwest of the hotel site, as the muck bed was not encountered in excavating for the foundations of the Connecticut apartment house, at the southwest corner of Connecticut avenue and M street, where the crystalline rock surface was reached at no great depth. On the other hand it may have extended some distance southeastward, as there are indications of a shallow trough, trending in that direction, in the surface of the Cretaceous beds. The cypress swamp must have been but little above the base level of drainage in the Potomac basin at that time. It probably occupied the lower valley of a tributary of the Potomac, perhaps the Rock Creek of that epoch, when the land stood 30 feet or so lower than now with regard to sea level, and when the uplift which caused the stream to excavate its valley had ceased and had been succeeded by a slow subsidence, which allowed the accumulation of 5 to 10 feet of swamp deposit. The subsidence then became more rapid and the swamp was buried by the beds of sandy clay and fine gravel con- stituting the Wicomico formation. After some later oscillations of level that did not materially affect the history of the Walker Hotel locality the Recent epoch was ushered in by an uplift of the land to a little more than its present height and the development of a new drainage on the emerged surface. Slash Run was formed and began to carve its valley, and it had almost but not quite uncovered the old stump bed when man interfered and put an end to its activities. Buried muck and peat beds containing cypress stumps and wood have been found exposed in cliffs and river banks or have been pene- trated in wells at many places in the Coastal Plain from Maryland to Alabama. Nearly everywhere they are overlain by deposits of the Talbot formation of the Pleistocene age and are believed to have been formed in the early part of Talbot time, hence the bed in the Walker Hotel excavation was at first regarded as of Talbot age. Later study led to the view that the overlying sandy clay is part of the Wicomico formation. Furthermore, its altitude above present sea level and its relation to the topography of Pleistocene time make it improbable that the bed can be as young as Talbot. It is now regarded as having been formed in the early part of Wicomico time and hence of mid- JAN. 4, 1924 WALKER HOTEL DEPOSIT 4] Pleistocene age. Although the Pleistocene formations of the Chesa- peake Bay region have not yet been satisfactorily correlated with the drift sheets of the northern United States, there is little doubt that a deposit of early Wicomico age must be older than the Wisconsin drift, if not, indeed, older than the Illinoian drift. The best recent estimates of the date of beginning of the Wisconsin glacial epoch put it not later than 100,000 years ago and the date of beginning of the IIlinoian glacial epoch as at least 300,000 years ago. It seems fairly certain, therefore, that the muck bed and the cypress stumps can not well be less than 100,000 years old and that they may be much older. SUMMARY. The conclusions of the geologists as to the great age of the stump bed, based on the stratigraphic relations displayed in the excavation, have been confirmed in every respect by the testimony of the leaves, seeds, and diatom remains found in the muck, by the physiographic evidence of the conditions under which the cypress swamp was formed and existed, by the geographic evidence regarding the topography of the lower valley of Slash Run, and by the historical evidence from descriptions published years before the growth of the city had altered the conditions in the locality. It is, therefore, established that the stumps and the muck in which they are imbedded are the remains of a cypress swamp that was overwhelmed and buried by natural processes many thousand years ago and are not, as so many people have supposed, the remains of trees that grew on the banks of Slash Run less than 60 years ago and were cut down and covered by an artificial fill. It should be said in closing that the geologists make no demur to the recollections of the old residents, but only to the conclusions based on those recollections. The geologists are well aware and admit without question that a stream formerly ran through the locality in a valley - that was deeper than it is now; that there may have been marshy spots here and there along its course; that large trees grew on its banks; and that the trees were cut down and the land was filled to some depth about 50 years ago. They insist, however, and have proved, that all this has nothing to do with the muck bed and cypress stumps discovered in the Walker Hotel excavation, at a depth several feet below the bottom of the former Slash Run valley, and that the stump bed is a much older deposit in no way related to the conditions along Slash Run that many people still remember. 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 1 Obituary Mr. Erskine Dovueias WILLIAMSON, physicist in the Geophysical Lab- oratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and one of the Editors of this Journal, died on Christmas afternoon at about three o’clock at the George Washington University Hospital. Although only thirty-seven years of age at the time of his death, Mr. Williamson had won for himself an eminent position not only in the scientific life of Washington, but in a wide circle of mathematical physicists and physi- cal chemists in this country and abroad. He was born in Scotland on April 10, 1886, and was educated at the University of Edinburgh, where he took the degrees of Bachelor of Science in 1908 and Master of Arts in 1909. As one of the most promising pupils of Sir James Walker, he was appointed a re- search assistant under the Carnegie Trust of Scotland. His research work at Edinburgh became known in this country and he was offered an appoint- ment at the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution in 1914. Here, in company with John Johnston and L. H. Adams, he studied the prob- lems of the formation and consolidation of limestone. This work was fol- lowed up by research on the physical and chemical effects of very high pres- sures, in which he did pioneer work in the development of special apparatus and in the measurement of compressibilities of minerals and rocks. During the War he did his part in aid of the cause of his native country, as well as of the United States, by going into one of the glass plants, in company with other members of the Laboratory force, and assisting in the rapid devel- opment of the manufacture of optical glass, a “key industry’’ in which this country rapidly shook itself free of its former dependence on Germany. Mr. Williamsen’s ability as a mathematician was particularly highly valued at the Laboratory, and he made several valuable contributions to the practical problems of the annealing of glass, as well as to the theoretical and highly important question of the transmission of earthquake waves through the earth, and the deductions concerning the constitution of the earth’s interior, which can be drawn from these facts. Mr. Williamson was active in the local scientific organizations, having been a member of committees in the American Chemical Society and the Philo- sophical Society of Washington, and one of the editors of the Journal of the AcaprEmy, of which he would have become Senior Editor in January. He was also a member of the American Physical Society and the Mathematical Society of Edinburgh. The Editors wish to put on record their appreciation of his self-sacrificing devotion to the editorial work of the Journal, which he continued until forced by illness a few weeks ago to relinquish the duties, and of their own keen sense of loss in the sudden death of their colleague. OUNCEMENT ¢ OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND ; y ex AFFILIATED SOCIETIES : ; eee 5. The Biological Society. : . | | puedey, January 8. THE AcapEmy, at the Carnegie Institution. ee ee TT. Waynan - VauGHAN: Oceanography in its relation to es earth s sciences. Annual meeting. - | MA ic Be Co ome January 9. The Geological Society. eG ace toa pa Ren day, January 10. The Chemical Society. DAN tA u day, January 12. The Philosophical Society. | i fs : i ‘ ar : ue 1esd Jay, January 15. The Anthropological Society. pa aaa sdaj reer t 17. Tae ACADEMY. u Mea : 7. - 0 ef street, Washington, DG. ites cece eek ye a eae So See ‘ ee cane in the sel as CuesterR K. ee eee . Diatom deposit found in the excavation. ALBERT MANN..............c0000 S The geographic and historical evidence. LauRENCE LaForce.. Toles 8 gk eee OBITUARY: 6 dosys vc vice be SERRE Fete Me Fake nek oh ee ee OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: T. WAYLAND VauGHAN, U.S. Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. StnsBex, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: Wiut1aM R. Maxon, National Museum. _ Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ne > oS a4, 5 PT 20,42 Seger at he January 19, 1924 a yh No. 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. AA AE a A pe ; : 4 WUly 2; ; Oh fy BOARD OF EDITORS An E. P. Kirure W. F. Meccers -D. F. Hewerr NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF STANDARDS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS . L. H. ApaMs S. A. Ronwir PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GotpMAN G. W. Stosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Grices J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY a E. WIcKERS ay CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, MD., U.S.A. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24,1912. Acceptance ior mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. 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Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 14 JANUARY 19, 1924 No. 2 ENTOMOLOGY.—A new Prorhinotermes from Panama. T. E. SnypDER, Bureau of Entomology. J. Zetek and I. Molino of this Bureau, stationed at Ancon, Canal. Zone, have recently collected a species in the genus Prorhinotermes Silvestri, which proves to be new. This new termite (Prorhinotermes molinot Snyder) was found on Largo Remo Island, Canal Zone, on the Atlantic Coast. With the addition of this new species, the known termite fauna of Panama totals 30 species, representing 18 genera or sub-genera. The termites of Panama are of great biological interest; three families are well represented, but the Termitidae are the most numerous. Since the forming of Gatun Lake some species are appar- ently now confined to virgin islands in this lake. Species of Prorhinotermes apparently are not subterranean in habit. In burrowing through wood the grain is followed; the hardest species of woods are riddled. Prorhinotermes molinoi, new species. Winged adult.— Head greyish-brown, darker than P. simplex Hagen; spectacle markings on epicranium, but slightly longer than broad, slightly broader posteriorly than anteriorly, with few scattered long hairs—3 transverse rows. Fontanelle distinct, hyaline, sub-oval spot, on line at posterior of ocelli. Eyes black, nearly round, large, projecting, less than their diameter from lateral margin of head, a little less than twice their diameter from the posterior margin of the head. Ocelli hyaline, subelliptical, narrow, pointed at apex, nearly touching eyes, at oblique angle to eyes, nearly parallel to upper margin of antennal socket. Post-clypeus lighter colored than head, bilobed, projecting. Labrum lighter colored than head, arched, tongue-shaped, broader than long, broadest beyond central transverse line, with long hairs at apex. Antennae yellow-brown, 17 or 18 segments, pubescent (long hairs); third segment is shorter and narrower than second or fourth segments; segments are wedge-shaped, but become broader and longer towards apex; last segment elongate and subelliptical. 43 44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 2 Pronotum same color as head, broader than long, anterior margin slightly (concave) roundedly emarginate, sides roundedly taper to posterior margin, which is convex; with scattered long hairs on margins. Legs yellow brown, fairly elongate, pubescent. Wing scale plainly longer than the pronotum. Wings hyaline, costal veins yellowish, base blackish, over twice as long as the abdomen. In forewing, there is no definite median vein, but the cubitus branches in the middle into two branches, the upper branch may be considered the median vein; it is above the cubitus, parallel to the subcostal vein, is unbranched, and nearly reaches the apex of the wing; the lower branch branches to the lower margin, there being from this and direct from the cubitus 17 branches or sub- branches to the lower margin of the wing. In hind wing, the median is more distinct, and runs parallel and close to the cubitus until near the apex of the wing, where it branches to the subcosta; the cubitus reaches the apex of the wing, and has 17 branches or subbranches to the lower margin (Figs. 1 and 2). Abdomen dorsum same color as pronotum, ventrally lighter colored; with row of long hairs at base of each tergite. Cerci fairly elongate. Measurements: Length of entire winged adult: 9.50 mm. Length of entire dealated adult: 5.0-5.5 mm. Length of head: 1.50 mm. Length of pronotum: 0.77 mm. Length of anterior wing: 7.50 mm. Length of hind tibia: 1.17 mm. Diameter of eye: 0.32 mm. Width of head: 1.40 mm. Width of pronotum: 1.10-1.20 mm. Width of anterior wing: 2.30 mm. Prorhinotermes molinoi Snyder has a larger head than P. :nopinatus Silvestri of the Samoan Islands, and a larger pronotum and different wing venation than P. simplex Hagen of the West Indies and Southern Florida; it differs from P. oceanicus Wasmann of the Cocos Islands in that P. oceanicus has 22 segments to the antennae and differs in wing venation. Wasmann states in an appendix (p. 160)! that P. oceanicus is the winged adult of Leucotermes insularis Wasmann from the Cocos Islands. Holmgren,? however, considers oceanicus to be in the genus Prorhinotermes. Soldier.—Head yellow-brown, slightly darker anteriorly, much broader posteriorly than anteriorly, with few scattered long hairs in several transverse rows; fontanelle hyaline spot (distinct) on line at center of eye spot. Eye spot hyaline, large, suboval. Labrum yellow-brown, elongate, rather narrow and rounded at tip, with long hairs at apex. -Mandibles dark reddish-brown, heavier and broader even to apex (less taper) than in P. simplex Hagen. 11903. Wasmann, E. Uber einige Termiten von Oceanien. Zool. Jahrb. Band 17, Heft 1, Anhang 10: 139-164. 21910. Hotmeren, N. Termitienstudien. Kungl. Sv. Vet. Akad. Handling., Band 46, no. 6: 73, pl. 5, f. 11. JAN. 19, 1924 SNYDER: NEW PRORHINOTERMES 45 Antennae yellow-brown (broken), pubescent; third segment sub- clavate, longer than fourth, but slightly shorter than second segment; segments wedge-shaped. Maxillary palpi very long and slender; as long as mandibles. Pronotum slightly darker than head, broader than long, broadest near anterior margin, slightly concave, sides roundedly taper to pos- terior margin, which is nearly a straight line. Legs light yellow-brown, fairly elongate and slender, pubescent. Abdomen yellow-brown, with row ‘of long hairs at base of each tergite. Fig.2 hind wing Measurements: Length of entire soldier: 5.75-6.20 mm. Length of head with mandibles: 2.90-3.00 mm. Length of head without mandibles (to anterior): 1.90 mm. Length of left mandible: 1.15-1.20 mm. Length of pronotum: 0.70—-0.80 mm. Length of hind tibia: 1.20 mm. Width of head (posteriorly where broadest): 1.60—-1.65 mm. Width of head (at anterior margin): 1.0-1.1 mm. Width of pronotum: 1.20-1.30 mm. Prorhinotermes molinoit Snyder has a larger head than P. inopinatus Silvestri and is longer than P. simplex Hagen. Type locality. Largo Remo Island, Canal Zone, Panama, on the Atlantic Coast. Described from a series of winged adults collected with soldiers and workers at the type locality by J. Zetek and I. Molino on August 31, 1923, in a hard, wet tree trunk on the ground. On the same day and on the same island winged adults, soldiers, and workers were found under the bark of a fallen coconut palm tree. I take pleasure in naming this termite after Dr. I. Molino, who has collected many interesting termites, and made valuable notes on their habits. Type, winged, male adult.— Cat. No. 26756, U. 8S. N. M.; morpho- type, soldier. 46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, NO. 2 BOTAN Y—The genus Oxyrhynchus Brandegee. CHARLES V. PIPER, Bureau of Plant Industry. In December, 1920, there were received from Miss Mary E. Wood- bridge, State Department of Agriculture, Austin, ‘Texas, seeds of a bean taken from plants grown near Austin by H. H. Parker, who reports that his original seeds were found in a lot of castor beans which the label on the bag indicated were imported from India. The seeds could not be identified, and so some of them were sent to Sir David. Prain, at Kew, who forwarded a few to Colonel A. T. Gage, in Cal- cutta. Neither could identify the bean. Later, fairly complete. botanical material was received from Miss Woodbridge. It proves torepresent an undescribed species of the genus Oxyrhynchus Brandegee, which was based on a single species, O. volubilis Brandeg., collected by Purpus near Rascén, San Luis Potosi, Mexico. ‘The specimens are in young flower. : The plant from Abaco and Cuba, described as Dolichos insularis Britton, also belongs to Oxyrhynchus. On the basis of the more complete material the genus may be rede- scribed as follows: OxYRHYNCHUS Brandegee (Leguminosae— Papilionacae— Phaseoleae— Phaseolinae) Twining herbs, perennial; leaves trifoliolate; stipules striate; flowers in axillary narrow raceme-like thyrses; bracts subulate, striate; bracteoles ovate; calyx bilabiate, campanulate, the rounded lobes subequal; standard reniform, broader than long, deeply emarginate, with two reflexed auricles at base; wings free, as long as the keel; keel broadly faleate, with narrowed acute beak, the two petals partly united, minutely ciliate; stamens diadelphous, the filaments glabrous, : slightly enlarged at base; ovary linear, pubescent; style glabrous except near the apex, where bearded on each side with long hairs, and at tip, bearing similar hairs which partly surround the stigma; stigma ellipsoid-obovoid, attached on the dorsal side just below the middle; pods short-pedicelled, straight, cylindrical, beaked, terete or com- pressed, thin-walled, 2 or 3-seeded; seeds globose, each with a linear hilum extending over half the circumference of the seed, the hilum covered with a white caruncle; germination hypogeous. Harms placed! Oxyrhynchus next to Rhynchosia, but it clearly be- longs close to Dolichos, Vigna, and Dysolobium, as Dr. Harms points out in a recent letter. 1 Die Nat. Phlanzenf. Erganzungsheft 3: 149. gan. 19, 1924 PIPER: OXYRHYNCHUS 47 Apparently there are three species involved, certainly two, as the Austin plant is quite distinct from the others in its swollen pods. These species may be distinguished by the following key: Pods turgid, circular in cross secuat leaflets thin; inner layer of pod felt-like..... Fa ott de NOT oO Gleenins: Pods compressed and 2-edged. Leaflets thin, tending to coriaceous, 4—6 cm. long, truncate at base; flowers 8 mm. long: inner layer of pod thin...... 2. O. volubilis. Leaflets thickish, membranous, 4-7 cm. long, the middle one often subcordate; flowers 10 mm. long; inner layer of pod felt-like. 3. O. insularis. 1. Oxyrhynchus alienus Piper, sp. nov. Perennial; stems herbaceous, twining, slender, terete, sparsely strigillose, tall, growing 15 to 20 meters in a season; petioles about as long as the leaflets, very slender, sulcate above, strigillose especially at the enlarged base; stipules triangular-lanceolate, acute, striate, persistent, 2.5 mm. long; stipels subulate, 1 mm. long; petiolules somewhat fleshy, puberulent; leaflets membranous, ovate-triangular, the lateral ones oblique, nearly truncate at base, obtuse and apiculate at apex, 3-nerved at base, sparsely strigillose on both faces especially beneath, 6 to 8 em. long, 4 em. broad; peduncles terete, axillary, strigillose, the inflorescences exceeding the leaves; flowers about 6 in each of 10 to 20 lateral clusters in a narrow, rather dense, raceme- like thyrse, the pedicellar glands oblong and prominent; bracts subu- late, striate, fugacious, 3 mm. long; bracteoles ovate, thin, ciliate, 1 mm. long; pedicels short, puberulent; calyx purple, open campanu- late, 5 mm. long, 2-lipped, the subequal lobes as long as the teeth; upper lip 2-lobed, the lobes semicircular, minutely ciliate; lower lip 3-lobed, the broadly oblong lobes rounded at apex, minutely ciliate, the median one two-thirds as long as the others; corolla green, more or less tinged with dull purple; standard green, butterfly-shape, deeply notched, 10 mm. long, 15 mm. broad, slightly pubescent on the back especially near the base, bearing a deep depression below the middle, broadly cordate at base, the stipe only as long as the sinus, each basal lobe with a blunt inflexed auricle; wing dull violet, as long as the standard, oblong, obtuse, sparsely ciliate, a broad triangular tooth near the base on the upper edge, the stipe one-third as long as the blade, the edges somewhat inflexed; keel green with the beak violet, lunate, semicircular, rather broad, the two petals attached to below the middle, the beak rather acute; stamens included, dia- delphous; filaments filiform, glabrous; anthers innate; pollen yellow; ovary linear, pubescent; style curved, glabrous to near the tip, bear- ing long lateral hairs on each side just below the stigma; stigma terminal, dark green, obovoid, attached on the dorsal side below the middle, surrounded by long stiff hairs arising from the sides of the style tip a short distance below the stigma; pods inflated, oblong- cylindric, thin-walled, acutely short-beaked, densely covered with short somewhat ferruginous hairs, the two sutures prominent, a faint ridge on each valve very close to the ventral suture, 5 cm. long, 2 cm. broad, 2 or 3-seeded; pods lined inside with a thick soft felt-like layer 48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 2 of white tissue; seeds spherical, dark brown, shiny, 10 to 12 mm. in diameter, the hilum linear, extending over half the circumference of the seed and covered with a dense white caruncle. Orginally sent by Miss Mary E. Woodbridge, from plants grown by H. H. Parker, Austin, Texas, from seeds found in castor beans supposed to be from India. Type in the United States National Herbarium, nos. 1,111,336 and 1,111,337. In October, 1923, when seen by the writer, the plant was just beginning to bloom. The roots are thickish, about the size of a lead pencil, but no nodules were found on the original plant nor on sev- eral seedlings examined. The herbage is not ill-tasting and probably would be palatable to cattle. The vine is quite attractive and when in bloom showy. It is well worthy of culture as an ornamental vine. 2. OXYRHYNCHUS VOLUBILIS Brandeg. Univ. Cal. Publ. Bot. 4:271. 1912. In addition to the type specimens collected by Purpus and repre- sented in several herbaria, the plant was collected in mature fruit at Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico, November, 1830, by Berlandier (no. 3129), the specimen being in the Gray Herbarium. Another specimen from the same place was collected by Dr. E. Palmer (no. 265), February 1 to April 2, 1907, also in mature fruit. Dr. Palmer notes that it is called “frijol monilla,’’ and that the seeds are used as food and also by children in lieu of marbles. Both the Berlandier and Palmer specimens seem identical with the Purpus plant, and the two localities are not far apart. The mature pods are compressed, 6.5cm. long, 3 cm. broad, and 1 em. thick, each containing three nearly glo- bose seeds, 10 mm. long. Pringle’s 11333, collected near Monterey, Nuevo Leon, is in young flower. 3. OXYRHYNCHUS INSULARIS (Britton) Piper. Dolichos insularis Brittton in Brit. & Millspaugh, Bahama Flora 195. 1920. This plant is known from the following specimens: Cusa: Cayo Ballenato Grande, Camaguey, Shafer 1026, March 22, 1909 (type); La Gloria, Camaguey, Shafer 255, February 3, 1909. Axpaco: Old fields, Great Cistern, Brace 1757, Dec. 19, 1904. gan. 19, 1924 PIPER: OXYRHYNCHUS 49 OXYRHYNCHUS ALIENUS PIPER 1. Branch of plant, X 4; 2. Inflorescence, X 4; 3. Front view of flower, X 3; 4. Separate petals of flower, X 3; 5. Keel, lateral view, X 3; 6. Calyx, stamens, and pistil, X 3; 7. Anthers, much enlarged; 8 and 9. Tip of style and stigma, much enlarged; 10. Pods and seeds, X }. 50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 364TH MEETING The 364th meeting of the Society was held in the Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, November 23, 1921, President StosE presiding and 49 persons present. ; Informal communications: Davip Wuitr exhibited an unusual specimen showing joint-plane induration in sandstone, reported by Dr. I. C. White from northeastern West Virginia. Mr. White also spoke on shaft and gallery mining of oil sand at Pechelbronn and in the Irvine pool of Kentucky. Discussion by Messrs. StosrE, Utricu, Brooks, BassLerR, and REINHOLT. Program: J. 8. BRown: Coastal ground water. The contamination of wells by sea water on sea coasts is a problem of economic impor- tance wherever the coastal population is dense and a large amount of ’ water must be supplied, and has received attention in many parts of the world. This paper is based on a field study on the coast of Connecticut and on a review of the widely scattered literature on the subject. Statements regarding contamination are based on a large number of analyses, in which the amount of chloride (Cl) is the most important criterion. In Connecticut shallow wells, such as are dug in the drift for domes- tic supply, seldom are contaminated at distances of more than 100 feet and never more than 250 feet from the shore. This corresponds with observations in other regions where rainfall is normal or abundant. The deeper, drilled wellls in Connecticut usually penetrate bedrock and range from 100 to 500 feet in depth. They are contaminated more frequently than are shallow wells. The probability of con- tamination also increases with the depth, and when once salt water is encountered, fresh water is not likely to be obtained below. How- ever, in places like the Atlantic Coastal Plain, where there are strati- fied ’ sedimentary rocks, impervious beds often seal out salt water so that fresh water may be obtained even on islands or beneath the sea. Contamination in Connecticut probably does not extend more than 500 feet inland, even at depth, because of the poor circulation of ground water in the fissures of the deeper zones in bedrock. However, on a sandy coast practically pure sea water may occur beneath fresh water even several miles inland, as has been shown by investigations in the dune belt on the coast of Holland. Most islands appear to contain bodies of fresh ground water, gener- ally only as a lens or thin sheet overlying salt water. The greater head of fresh water due to increment from rains enables it to displace a certain amount of salt water of greater density. On the basis of this equilibrium established between the fresh and salt water in porous materials such as sand, it is possible somietimes to predict the depth at which salt water will be found when the height of the water table above sea level is known. JAN. 19, 1924 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY dt Heavy pumping of wells near the sea frequently exhausts the fresh water faster than it is supplied, and causes the wells to become salty. Even a large drainage basin underlain by good water-bearing material such as the stratified drift of Connecticut can not be expected to yield more than about 25 per cent of the amount of water it receives by precipitation. The salinity in certain wells on small islands and promontories sometimes is much greater in summer than in winter. A number of factors seem to combine to produce this effect. Diffusion and per- colation are more rapid in summer. Evaporation is greater and transpiration by plants tends to reduce the quantity of water that. reaches the water table. As a result, the salinity curve of wells in such localities shows a relation to the yearly temperature curve. (Author’s abstract.) E. O. Uuricu: Solution of some vexing problems in Appalachian. stratigraphy. . W. T. THomM, JR., Secretary. 365TH MEETING The 365th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, Wednesday even- ing, December 14, 1921, with 55 persons present. The Presidential Address was delivered by the retiring President, GEorGE W. STosE: Relation of faults to folds in the Appalachians. W. T. Tuo, Secretary. At the 29th Annual Meeting, held on the same evening, the following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, Wm. C. ALDEN; Vice Presidents, G. F. Louauuin and L. W. STEPHENSON; Treasurer, G. R. MAnsFIEeLp; Secretaries, WM. T. THom, Jr., Kirk Bryan; Mem- bers-at-Large of the Council, J. B. RersipE, Jr., R. C. Weuus, M. I. GoutpMAN, E. T. WHerry, Miss A. I. Jonas. LAURENCE LAForaGs, Secretary. 366TH MEETING The 366th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, Wednesday even- ing, January 11, 1922, President ALpeEN presiding and 45 persons present. Program: Hersert E. Grecory: Geographic outline of the Southern. Pacific. Presented by T. WAYLAND VavaHss in the absence of Dr. Gregory. T. WayLanp VAUGHAN: Correlation of the post-Cretaceous geological Jormations of the Pacific region. H. 8. Wasuineton: Chemistry of ianaian Lavas. 367TH MEETING The 367th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, Wednesday even- ing, January 25, 1922, President ALDEN presiding and 48 persons present. Program: Prof. P. P. Goupxorr: New aspects on the geology of the principal ore-bearing provinces of Siberia. 02 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 2 JOINT MEETING A joint meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences and the Geological Society of Washington was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club, Thursday evening, February 2, 1922, President Humpureys of the Academy presiding, and 74 persons present. Program: Prof. H. A. Brouwsr: The major tectonic features of the Dutch East Indies. 368TH MEETING The 368th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, Wednesday even- ing, February 20, 1922, President ALDEN presiding and 63 persons present. Informal communication: Krrk Bryan—EHzamples of wind ero- ston in the Plateau country of Arizona. AT C. E. S1IeBENTHAL: Fluorspar district of Jardin County, inots. FRANK L. Hess: Uranium-bearing asphaltite sediments of Utah. F H. D. Miser and C. 8. Ross: Diamond-bearing peridotite in Ar- kansas. 369TH MEETING ‘The 369th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, Wednesday even- ing, March 8, 1922, President ALDEN presiding and 62 persons present. Program: FRANK ReEEVES: A distant peripheral zone of thrust faulting in flat-lying beds around the Bearpaw Mountain intrusion, Montana. The regionally flat-lying Cretaceous formations which encircle the Bearpaw Mountains in Montana are highly faulted. These faults apparently are confined to a peripheral zone approximately 20 miles - wide, which may be separated from the mountains by an unfaulted belt 8 to 10 miles wide. The larger faults are 10 to 20 miles long and have throws ranging from 1,200 to 1,500 feet. In a rough way they form ares of circles circumscribed about the mountains. The chief characteristics of these faults are that on the upthrown side along a belt one-half to 1 mile wide the strata are usually highly in- clined away from the fault, while on the downthrown side they he at their regionally horizontal position. Other interesting features are the occurrence of pivotal faults—i.e., faults in which the throw changes sides along the fault plane—and the presence of long, narrow, rectangular, and smaller triangular horsts. As many of these faults pass laterally into steeply dipping limbs of anticlines and as parallel with them there are long, narrow unbroken anticlinal folds, some of which are overturned, it seems evident that the faulting and folding are contemporaneous, and consequently that all the faults are either thrust faults or faults of slight hade. The few fault planes observed by the speaker, who mapped a portion of the faulted belt on the southeastern side of the mountains in the summer of 1921, were inclined toward the upthrown side at angles from 45° to 70°. The pivotal faults can be considered as thrust faults produced by the faulting of anticlinal folds along their axes. At one end of such a fault one limb of the anticline is faulted down, on the other end the other limb is faulted down. JAN. 19, 1924 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 53 Apparently these faults and folds were produced as a result of horizontal compression and as the deformed zone is so closely as- sociated with the Bearpaw Mountains, these compressive forces probably originated in crustal movements in the mountains. These mountains, however, being a circular area of uplift consisting of a cluster of extinct voleanos whose breccia tuffs and flows rest upon a slightly elevated floor of Cretaceous shale, offer no obvious explana- tion of the origin of these compressive forces. It is here suggested that beneath these mountains, at a depth of a few thousand feet, there is a laccolith, and that the intrusion of this laccolith domed up the overlying beds to a height of about 3 miles, and that later, either as a result of a sag in the earth’s crust, induced by the weight of the laccolith, or by the escape of the magma upward through voleanic vents, the whole laccolith or the upper surface was lowered nearly 3 miles. (Such an elevation and subsidence would be necessary to produce a crustal shortening across the faulted zone of 2,500 feet, which is the amount estimated for the part of the faulted zone that was studied by the speaker.) If this subsidence occurred, it is thought that the strata overlying the laccolith would be under great horizontal compression, for they would probably have been lengthened by the solidification of lava intruded into the tensional fissures caused by the uplifts, and could not settle back to a lower position without buckling. It is possible that the intrusion of igneous dikes and sills into the strata overlying the laeccolith would so metamorphose and reinforce the strata that they would not buckle in the center of the dome but would transmit the compressive stresses out to the less rigid strata surrounding the mountains, and produce there the peripheral zone of faults. The presence of dikes, sills, and small voleanic necks cutting Cre- taceous rocks out as far from the mountains as the faulted zone sug- gests that the laccolith extended out under the faulted area in sill- like form. If it had such an extension and was not solidified when the collapse occurred, it would furnish a surfaee on which the domed beds could flatten without the development of a great amount of friction. In transmitting these compressive stresses the Eagle and Judith River sandstones, and probably the Madison limestone, if the laccolith were intruded below it, acted as competent beds. It is thought that the associated Claggett and Colorado shales under pressure would flow and give a vertical component to the horizontal compression stresses, which would explain why the strata are bowed up so sharply along the fault planes and why there are so many horsts. or upthrown blocks. This flow of shales can be observed in some places in the field where the 600 feet of Claggett shale has been en- tirely pinched out, leaving the Judith River formation resting upon the Eagle sandstones. That other laccoliths in the same region have not had such a history may be due to the fact that as a result of deeper burial or greater viscosity there was no upward escape of magma, or more probably that because of the larger size of the Bearpaw laccolith it alone of al) the laccoliths in the western United States exceeded the load that the earth’s crust could support. In support of such an explanation it may be noted that the larger laccoliths of the world have centripetal dips. (Author’s abstract.) 54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 2 W. D. Couns: Fallacies regarding mineral waters. It is generally admitted that a number of mineral waters have therapeutic properties. Some of the literature on the subject is thoroughly reliable, but erro- neous or misleading statements may be found in the writings of those not specialists in the subject. Such errors are particularly apparent in attempts to correlate the composition of the mineral matter dissolved in a water with the therapeutic properties of the water. These properties have been attributed to the presence of traces of lithium, bromide, iodide, radium, or like substances, because such traces have been shown in analyses of the waters, and because the substances themselves are known to produce certain physiological effects. Such an explanation ignores the fact that no one could drink in a day the quantity of water which would contain an ordinary thera- peutic dose of the unusual constituents. Furthermore, the water of many public supplies contains traces of these constituents so that such an explanation implies that millions of people are taking the medicine in every drink of water. It is not uncommon to describe the therapeutic action of ordinary substances such as calcium car- bonate and bicarbonate or sodium chloride in connection with analyses of waters which contain no more of these constituents than can be found in many public and private supplies. All the statements re- garding therapeutic action of the substances may be true, but the implied connection between the presence of these common constit- uents and curative properties of the waters is misleading. (Author’s abstract.) P. V. Rounpy: Upward migration of oil along a fault plane in Okla- homa. 370TH MEETING The 370th meeting of the Society was held in the Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, March 22, 1922, Vice-President LOUHGLIN presiding and 52 persons present. Program: J. 8. Dinter: The surface fusion of recent lavas. (Illus- trated.) In the remarkably progressive paper by Drs. Arthur L. Day and E. 8. Shepherd on Water and volcanic activity: the important part played by waterin voleanic eruptions was clearly demonstrated. | It was also shown by them that as a magma rose in a volcano in con- sequence of the gradual release of pressure, dissolved gases were set free in constantly increasing quantity as the surfce is approached, and, especially near the surface, reactions were set up among the gases that increased the temperature in some eases locally at least more than enough to offset the loss of heat by expansion and ex- posure. The lava lake of Kilauea, apparently, is regarded by Day and Shepherd, and also by Dr. E. T. Allen, as maintained in a molten condition by such reactions. A remarkable case of the fusion of lava after it reached the surface occurred in Salvador in connection with an eruption of basalt from the crater of El Pinar, June 7, 1917. Specimens of the lava were sent by Dr. S. Calderén, of San Salvador, to the U. 8. Department of Agriculture. Dr. Calderén says, ‘‘The samples I am sending you were collected on the upper surface of the ground, in the pockets 1 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 24: 573. 1913, reprinted in Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1913 275. JAN. 19, 1924 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 55 of scoria formed by the escape of gases, being found on all very steep slopes where the current of lava formed casades.” It appears that the lava flow in passing over the cascade was much broken and torn forming pockets into which the gases escaping from the lava collected and apparently mixed with the confined air. The reaction of the gases produced so much heat that the lava exposed on the inner sur- faces of the pockets was fused. The fused basalt formed icicle-shaped bodies hanging from the roof from which the molten basalt dropped off to the floor or ran down the sides of the pocket. Although the lava in this case is basalt and fuses more easily than most other lavas the amount fused in the pockets appears to have been relatively small. A similar phenomenon has been observed in connection with a late eruption of Lassen Peak. The lava is not basalt but dacite. About the voleanic vent from which the dacite was erupted May 19, 1915, on the joint plane surfaces in the new lava there are local patches of once molten material which appear to have been formed during the great explosive eruption of May 22, by rising hot gases escaping from beneath the surface along fractures into small pockets at the surface. 371ST MEETING The 37lst meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Wednesday even- ing, April 12, 1922, President ALDEN presiding and 53 persons present. Program: M. N. BramMuetre: The origin of the chert in the One- ota Dolomite. The Oneota Dolomite of the basal Ordovician in Wis- consin contains much associated chert as nodules and lens-like masses parallel to the bedding-planes. This chert is a replacement of the earbonate rock, as shown by the exact similarity of micro-structure in the oolitic dolomite and oolitic chert, with a contact between the two showing all stages of the change, individual ooliths being partly of carbonate and partly of chert. Also, “cryptozoan’’ reefs, in which the chert occurs, show the organic micro-structure preserved by the replacing chert. Evidence of the time of replacement is not conclusive. It seems to have been effected by marine waters as a syngenetic process; first, because the distribution is more suggestive of such a process, and secondly, because silicification was antecedent to dolomitization, as evidenced by the destruction of fossils by the latter process and their preservation where silicified before such dolomitization. Dolomiti- zation of formations similar to the Oneota Dolomite is generally ac- cepted as a syngenetic process effected by sea-waters. (Author’s abstract.) ; | C. E. VAN OrstRAND: Deep earth temperatures. (Illustrated.) ArtHurR L. Day and E. T. Auten: The hot springs of the Lassen National Park. (Illustrated.) These springs are regarded as vol- canic in origin. The heat is doubtless volcanic as well as the gases which issue from the springs. The same may be said of a portion of the water, but the conditions prevailing satisfy none of the criteria which have been proposed for “juvenile” springs; most of the water is therefore probably meteoric. The substances dissolved and precipitated in the springs are inter- preted as decomposition products of the lavas of the region by free sulphuric acid which occurs in many of the waters. These substances 56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 2 are opal, ‘‘kaolin,’’ alunite, pyrite, and the sulphates of the common rock bases. The sulphuric acid is probably derived from the volcanic gases, hydrogen sulphide or sulphur. Though most of the springs contain free acid a Bear are shghtly alkaline. The alkaline condition logically represents a later stage of chemical reaction between the rock and dilute acid. These springs do not necessarily belong to a subsequent period; they may rather be the product of conditions locally favorable to more complete chemi- eal action. Hot acid springs of volcanic origin on chemical grounds are classified as a stage of voleanic activity that follows fumaroles and precedes alkaline springs. (Author’s abstract.) R. 8. Bassuer: Oscillation of the Central Basin of Tennessee in Ordovician time and its economic bearing. (Illustrated.) The Carters, Lowville, and Kimmswick formations, of Black River age; the Curds- ville, Hermitage, Bigby, Cannon, and Catheys formations, of Mo- hawkian age; and the Leipers formation, of Cincinnatian age, all rather easily distinguished faunally and lithologically, prove, in the course of extensive mapping, to be developed quite unequally on different sides of the Nashville dome. For example, the Carters limestone is thickest on the western side, while the overlying Lowville limestone is thickest on the eastern side; the Kimmswick limestone outcrops only on the southern flank; and the next younger formation, the Curdsville limestone, is found alone on the northern side. The chief reason for these differences is believed to be due to oscillation of the Nashville dome, and the great development of phosphatic _ rock in the Hermitage, Bigby, Catheys, and Leipers formations is considered as likewise connected with the same phenomenon. Davin G. THompson: Some features of desert playas. (Illustrated.) The Spanish word playa is used to-day in Spanish-American countries to designate beaches along lakes, seas, or large rivers. Most English- speaking geologists, however, use the term to designate nearly level areas of alluvium in the lowest parts of closed basins in arid or semi- arid regions, which at times may be covered with temporary lakes and which are generally devoid of vegetation. This paper is based on. . observations of some 30 playas in the Mohave Desert region, Cali- fornia. Most playas can be separated into two groups, depending upon the position of the water table. In water-tight basins the water table will always be within a few feet of the surface, and ground water is carried upward by capillary movement and discharged by evapora- tion and transpiration. The playas in these basins are kept moist almost continually by the capillary discharge, and, lacking a better term, they are tentatively called wet playas. If part of the rim of the basin is not water tight, ground water may move freely from one basin to another, and in the higher basin the water table may lie at a considerable depth. Playas in such basins are moistened only occasionally by storm waters and are dry for most of the time. These playas are tentatively called dry playas. The dry playa has a water table generally deeper than 8 feet; the surface is hard and smooth in the dry season, with or without mud cracks; and there is generally less than 2 per cent of alkali in the soil. The wet playa has a soft, rough, and perennially moist surface; mud JAN. 19, 1924 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 57 cracks are generally absent; and alkali is present in the soil in amounts over 2 per cent and easily visible. These characteristic features seem to be directly related to the ground-water conditions in the enclosing basins. Observations of these surface features will generally enable the geologists to determine whether or not ground water is close to the surface. Mechanical analyses were made of a number of samples, and a rough microscopic examination of them was made by Dr. M. I. Gold- man to determine whether the soil of playas of the wet type con- tained more sand than those of the dry type, as seemed to be true in the field. The results did not show any unusual abundance of sand in the soils from the wet playas. The samples from several wet playas, however, showed unusually high percentages of very fine clay. In three samples from dry playas the greater proportion of the fine material was between 0.02 and 0.005 mm. in diameter. In four samples where the water table is known to be or is believed to be close to the surface a very large proportion of the material was much finer, in two of the soils 45 and 66 per cent, respectively, of the entire sample being finer than 0.0005 mm. It is suggested that the greater per- centage of very fine material in the soils from the wet playas may be due to more effective chemical decomposition than where the water table is at some distance below the surface. Possibly some of the concentration of clayey material of the dry playa in the larger size is due to the fact that aggregates of the finer material have not been properly dispersed. (Auwthor’s abstract.) 372D MEETING The 372d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, Wednesday even- ing, April 26, 1922, President ALDEN presiding and 46 persons present. Program: F. E. Marrues: The production of steps in canyons by selective glacial quarrying. (Illustrated.) A critical study of the features of the Yosemite Valley, the Evolution Valley, and other glaciated canyons in the Sierra Nevada discloses the fact that the cross cliffs in their stairwise ascending floors consist, as a rule, of sparsely jointed, prevailingly massive rocks, whereas the basined treads are developed in relatively well jointed rocks. The intimate relations that thus are seen to exist between form and structure can scarcely be explained by any of the more generally current theories of glacial excavating. The two theories that have been applied to the interpretation of the development of the Yosemite Valley—the frost sapping theory of Willard D. Johnson and the gravitational corrasion theory of E. C. Andrews—both postulate rapid headward recession of cross cliffs under the influence of sapping “processes acting intensively at their bases. The treads of the stair- way are supposed to result from this recession, which, for reasons not adequately explained, is assumed to work horizontally, or nearly so. However, it is manifest that the cross cliffs in the Sierra canyons are developed under structural controls of a purely local nature, and therefore are not migrant but essentially stationary features. It is believed that the evolution of steps in glaciated canyons is better explained by a theory of selective quarrying, according to which the ice would excavate most effectively where the rock is most thoroughly jointed and therefore most readily quarried away block 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 2 by block, and would excavate least effectively where the rock is massive and not susceptible of being quarried. In a canyon floor composed of alternating stretches of jointed and massive rock, there- fore, selective quarrying would in time produce a series of shallow basins separated by barriers of massive rock. However, the barriers are slowly planed down by grinding on their upstream sides and crests, and the basins are quarried out most energetically at their heads, where the glacier falls into them, and so, the asymmetry of both bar- riers and basins becomes progressively accentuated, and there re- sults a canyon profile resembling a stairway with basined treads. Abundant proof of the local origin and essentially stationary charac- ter of the cross cliffs is afforded by their peculiarities of form, de- clivity, and orientation, which are in every case clearly determined by the structural peculiarities of the rock. Particularly instructive in this regard are the cross cliffs at the heads of the Yosemite and Evolu- tion valleys. They cut obliquely across the valleys, regardless of the direction of the motion of the ice, but strictly in accordance with the local structures. ArtHuR Howick: A review of the fossil flora of the West Indies. Comparatively little is known and still less has been recorded in relation to the fossil flora of the West Indies. The bibliography is very scanty. Ward,? in his comprehensive paper on The geographical distribution of fossil plants, issued in 1889, gives a list of eight titles, and states that “‘the only one of the West Indies from which fossil plants have been reported is the island of Antigua.’”’ field surveying which require special apparatus and are not adapted to ordinary geological field work. The purpose of this note is to emphasize the value of stereoscopic photographs in geological field work and to indicate briefly certain practical details in connection with the taking of stereoscopic views with an ordinary film camera. Stereoscopic vision. Our ability to recognize the relative distances to two points P; and P, (Fig. 1) depends on the sensitivity of the eyes to shght angular changes between the lines of sight of the two eyes and to a much less degree on the change in focus of each eye as the line of sight passes from P; to Ps. In Fig. 1 let ¢:, es represent the two eyes; P, and Ps, two object points located at distances D, and Dz respectively from the eyes. The angle between the lines of sight to P; is e:Pié, and to Pe, e:P2é2. The difference between the angles e:Pié2 and @:Prée FEB. 4, 1924 WRIGHT: STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY 67 is the angular shift which takes place between the lines of sight to P, and P, respectively. It is evident from Fig. 1 that all points on the circle ee2.P, subtend at the eyes é:, é, the same angle e,P,e:; similarly all points on the circle e:e2.P2 subtend the angle e,;P2e.. If the inter- pupillary distance ee. be standard, namely 65 mm., the distance along the chord e,€: is so nearly equal to that along the circumference for circles 1 meter and over in diameter that the difference (0.046 mm. or less) is for practical purposes negligible. On this assumption we derive directly from Fig. 1 for the points P; and P, Leia £0. 3 Cie D, D; ay wherein 6b = ee. and D, = D, + d. The angular difference in radians is accordingly he, me b-d Z b-d D, Di+d D,(D;+4 d) pia +4) 1 yy =| a= As a rule dis a very small quantity compared with D, and the equation may be written as a first approximation Aa = ay — a = =, (1) This equation indicates that for short distances to P, the change in angle for a given distance d is large; for greater distances to P the change in angle is much less for the same interval d as is shown by Table 1 computed on the basis of an interpupillary distance ee. = 65 mm. TABLE 1—AncLes SuBTENDED AT THE Eyes (INTERPUPILLARY DISTANCE 65 MM.) BY THE LINES OF SIGHT TO AN OBsEcT Point AT A GIVEN Distance IN METERS enmee 30 E2 IN ANGLE pp ia LINES DISTANCE TO P1 IN METERS ANGLE patho LINES ~- 0.25 14° 48.83’ hs) east ale? 0.50 FO LG Ge 30 o es 0.75 4 57.75 40 OW 5:58 1.00 3 43.38 50 On 447 2.00 1 51:72 100 Op? 28 3.00 1 14.48 200 (ermal ah 4.00 0 55.86 300 0 0.74 5.00 0 44.69 400 0 0.56 10.00 0. 22:34 500 0 0.45 1000 OF 90:22 .68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 3 Experiments by Helmholtz and others on the ability of the eyes to distinguish the relative distances of objects from the observer have proved that on the average two points separated stereoscopically (in depth) by 30” of are and in exceptional cases by 10” or 12” or even less are recognized as situated in different planes. If therefore we assume a value Aa = a, —a, = 0.0001 in radians or A a = 20.63” equation (1) becomes g = 0:0001 - Di b Stereoscopic views. In the stereoscopic photography of geological features the combination of camera lens and plate functions as the eye. The distance between the two camera positions corresponds to the inter- pupillary distance and equation (1) is directly. applicable, if the focal length of the camera lens is taken into account. The photographs thus taken are viewed with the aid of a stereoscope which may or may not be equipped with weakly magnifying lenses. The stereoscope is necessary because the eyes, as a result of long practice and habit, per- form a series of operations automatically in passing from one object to another; at the same time that the object is brought to focus the lines of sight are adjusted for the distance. In the case of two photographs placed at the distance of near vision the eyes tend, in focussing on the photographs, to converge the lines of sight to a single point of a single photograph, whereas to see stereoscopically it is essential that the right eye focus on the right hand photograph, the left eye on the left. This | it is possible to do with practice, but in general it is simpler and involves less eye strain to superimpose the two photographs by means of a stereoscope either of the reflecting mirror type (Wollaston or Helm- holtz) or of the lens refracting type (Brewster or Helmholtz) in which the photographs are viewed through weak lenses so placed that the distances to the images appear to be comparable to those of the original object. In the case of a lens stereoscope the image is also enlarged and the stereoscopic effect is thereby enhanced. 1H. v. Hetmuouirz, Physiologische Optik 814 et seq. 1896; O. Hecker, Zeitschr. Instrumentenkunde 2: 372. 1902; C. Punrricu, Zeitschr. Instrumentenkunde 21: 221, 1901; 22: 65, 1383, 178, 229. 1902; - 23: 43. 1903; 25: 233. 1905; J. W. Frencu, Trans. Opt. Soc. 24: 226. 1923. FEB. 4, 1924 WRIGHT: STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY 69 As a first approximation we may consider that the stereoscopic effect increases directly with the degree of enlargement of the photograph; and this in turn increases with the focal length of the camera lens and with the magnification by the stereoscope. Equation (1) may accord- ingly be written ee 2) De ot wherein f is the equivalent focal length of the camera lens, / the distance at which the photographs are viewed by the eye (commonly 10 inches or 25.0 em., the distance of near vision), V the magnifying power of the stereoscope which, as ordinarily defined, is the ratio of the apparent height of the image observed through the lens at a distance / (10 inches) to the height of the object itself. Assuming the value, a:—a: = 0.0001, the magnifying power of the stereoscope to be N = 2, the distance of near vision / = 10 inches, we may write equation (2) _ 0.0001-10 Dj; Dj 3) _= 0.0005: 2 d-f ad-f b Thus if a lens of focal length f = 7 inches, the separation b of the two camera positions required for a depth resolution of 1 per cent of the distance, d = 0.01 D, is _ 9.0005 - D:_ 9 9971 D, 0.01 %7 For d = 0.001, b = 0.071 D; for d = 0.005, b = 0.014 D. For a lens of focal length f = 20 inches we find for d = 0.01 D, 6 = 0.0025; for d = 0.001 D, b = 0.025 D; for d = 0.005 D, b = 0.005 D. Similarly, for an object at 2000 feet distance, the separation of camera positions with a lens of 12 inch focus required to enable the observer to recognize a depth difference of 2 feet (d = 0.001 D) in the stereoscope is 6 = 0.0005 - 20007 Aim 1 In general it may be stated that, with ordinary cameras having lenses of focal lengths between 5 inches and 20 inches, a camera sepra- tion of 3 to 5 per cent of the distance suffices for critical stereoscopic studies; commonly a camera separation of 1 to 2 per cent of the distance to the object suffices. The greater the camera separation (up to 10 per cent) the higher the resolving power in depth. ASSOCIATE EDITORS ~- L. H. Apams S. A. Ronwmr PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLDMAN G. W. Stoss BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 5 GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Grices J. R. SWANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. 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A lot of material received for examination at the National Museum from Erwin Ploetzke contains a gray sulpharsenide of nickel, cobalt, and iron. The specimens were mailed from Burke, Idaho, and a letter accompanying them stated that they were from a prospect of Ploetzke in Idaho. Inquiries as to the exact locality met with no reply. Recently a similar lot of material was received from A. Beals of Avery, Idaho. An inquiry directed to Mr. Beals elicited the information that both lots were from the same prospect in which Mr. Ploetzke is a partner. It is located one mile above the mouth of Slate Creek, 7 miles from Avery. This is the first source of nickel minerals in Idaho. The deposits of the Blackbird district in Lemhi County are commonly referred to as cobalt-nickel deposits but, as a matter of fact, they contain almost no nickel. The Avery locality is in Shoshone County. The specimens consist of greasy-appearing, greenish, sheared - quartz containing the gersdorffite associated with pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. The gangue contains a small amount of a grayish carbonate, probably ankerite. The quartz contains small open- spaces lined with imperfect quartz crystals on which rest occasional whitish crystals of barite and minute pale-green globular or barrel- shaped aggregates of a scaly micaceous mineral. The latter is prob- ably a chlorite. Optically, it is biaxial positive with 2V medium small, estimated at 30°, and refractive index is about 1.62. Asa later deposit in the cavities there occur rose-red crusts of minute crystals of erythrite (cobalt bloom) too small to be measured but identified 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 273 276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 by their characteristic optical properties, and some dead-black material which may be heterogenite. The gersdorffite appears to form masses up to several centimeters in diameter either pure or mixed with other sulphides. However, the mineral is not massive but consists of closely spaced small in- dividual crystals, less than a millimeter in diameter, separated by quartz. Specimens may be selected which contain a large propor- tion of the mineral practically free from other sulphides. Several of these were crushed and sized by screening, and the quartz separated by methylene iodide. A few grains of pyrrhotite were separated with a hand magnet. Microscopic examination showed this pre- pared sample to be free from other. sulphides. It was analyzed yielding the following results and ratios: TABLE 1.—ANALYSIS AND Ratios OF GERSDORFFITE FROM IDAHO (ONUIET BUY Aare binaa Bt bborsiohs eae te acerca Sener HE 3.48 Cobaltieesse eee in bones ee ae ee OKOON) “Onl aAl Nickel eg an kts Listas ee anes 14.28. 0.243). 01586 yy eo2en Mina aerse WA Aiea eie sia sae due eyetents dan eee, MON ae ORLSS) I NGS eVTut CG Vek AO a eran ec NY seg cB 43.80 0.584 0.584 © 1.025641 Sul humane eee ak kak a DEL 17.70. 0.552) 05552 10,96 Gia tian oS ve Sian etree Caer Le ne oe 98.92 The ratios indicate the formula (Ni, Fe, Co) = with the ratios Ni:Fe:Co = 7; 5; 2 approximately. Several aeatae isolated from the quartz, were measured and were found to be isometric combinations of cube and octahedron. It is evident that the mineral is a member of the pyrite group and a sulpharsenide of nickel, iron and cobalt. It is thus a 3-component isomorphous mixture of the gersdorffite and cobaltite molecules with a hypothetical iron sulpharsenide not yet recognized as a dis- tinct mineral. Since the gersdorffite molecule is definitely predomi- nant over the others in the present mineral it may be designated gersdorfhite. The color of the mineral is steel-gray like arsenopyrite. After exposure it becomes dull and assumes a barely perceptible reddish tinge. In the closed tube it gives, like arsenopyrite, copious subli- mates of arsenic sulphide and arsenic. Polished surfaces of the ore, examined in reflected light, disclose the angular crystals of gersdorfite which have probably replaced the quartz metasomatically. Pyrrhotite occurs in a network of fine veins forming the matrix of angular quartz grains. The only jJuLy 19, 1924 EMERSON: THE OENOTHERA PROBLEM 207 other metallic mineral present is white in color and is unattacked by the usual etching reagents including nitric acid and acid perman- ganate. This may be pentlandite. It is present in very small amount and bears the same relation to the quartz as the pyrrhotite. The gersdorffite is resistant to all reagents except that, with long etching with acid permanganate, a faint zoning becomes visible by the slight darkening of certain layers in the crystals showing, probably, slight ditferences in composition. The associated pyrrhotite, when separated and purified, contains a mere trace of nickel. GENETICS.—Do balanced lethals explain the Oenothera problem?! STERLING H. Emerson, University of Michigan (Communicated by H. H. Bartiett). It has.been proposed by Muller (1917, 1918) and by Morgan (1918) that the balanced lethal explanation suggested by De Vries (1911, 1918) only to account for his double reciprocal crosses probably lies -at the root of nearly all the unusual genetic phenomena of the Oeno- theras. This view was supported by G. H. Shull, who reported at the Toronto Meetings of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science in December, 1921, that he had proved the correct- ness of Muller’s hypothesis. He stated that, with the exception of the short style of brevistylis, all the known genetic characters of Oenothera probably lie in a single chromosome pair. Since then data have been published to support this announcement (Shull, 1923-a, 1923-b). Since the beginning of genetical studies on Oenothera, experimenters have been impressed with the striking correlations between various characters, and some breaks in these correlations have been noted. Emphasizing the idea that in Oenothera as well as in other organisms we are dealing with “unit’’ characters, Shull has concluded that all these characters, except the short styled condition of brevistylis, are associated in a single linkage group. In this group he has now located nine factors affecting visible characteristics, with which two zygotic lethals and two gametic lethals are assumed to be associated. In reviewing the published data presented to demonstrate the behavior noted above, one finds considerable difficulty in harmonizing different portions of them, and is led to the conclusion that the proof for the balanced lethal hypothesis for the Oenotheras is by no means 1 Papers from the Department of Botany, University of Michigan, No. 202. 278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 certain. It will be the endeavor of this present paper to point out some of the discrepancies in the published results and show why they do not support that hypothesis. ‘Thanks are due to Dr. Shull for amplifying the published data with regard to one or two points left doubtful by his publications, and also for reading the manuscript before publication. DEMONSTRATION OF BALANCED ZYGOTIC LETHALS To illustrate the behavior of balanced lethals, Shull (1923-a) has used a cross between O. lamarckiana and mut. rubricalyx, the former having green hypanthia, the latter red. In the first genera- tion of this cross all the plants had red hypanthia but were of two TABLE 1.—Resvuuts or RecrprocaL CROSSES BETWEEN QO. LAMARCKIANA AND MUT. RUBRICALYX. FIRST GENERATION CROSS lamarckiana- rubricalyz- ik hke PUTCO YL aL GRCKIONU: tas een Tae see econ 42 100 Li RANKUAE SX WON PARNER. 5 chon ooapabpcocodssonmovenubocot 25 37 LUTOIEEY Ie 2 ae eee een oP et tag Ne i ot cent rn 67 BYE SME CULLIOM Wie TAblO) es worcm were mae een ine sete cette tere 68 136 SECOND GENERATION FIRST GENERATION Red Green hypanthia hypanthia 9 lamarckzna-like. yielded a total of... .. 2. ......0.ce0 00s 396 0 LOmnbrecalya-like yaeldedia totalvotend4- oe. oe acceecee es nee 863 326 types with regard to growth habit, resembling one or the other of the parents. The second generation from lamarckiana-like plants bred true for red hypanthia, whereas the progeny from rubricalyz- like plants showed segregation into a class with red and one with green hypanthia. The actual results are reproduced in Table 1. This cross was explained by Shull on the basis that O. lamarckiana carried the balanced zygotic lethals 1, and 1, (noted by De Vries, 1918), and that mut. rubricalyx carried but one of these lethals, since a homozygous form, latifrons, continually segregates from mut. rubricalyx in a 1:2 ratio (Shull 1923-b). Latifrons is assumed to lack lethals. These genetic constitutions will explain the composi- tion of the first generation. But with such constitutions, both ' types of the F, of lamarckiana x rubricalyx should breed true except JuLy 19, 1924 EMERSON: THE OENOTHERA PROBLEM 279 for cross-overs, and with crossing over, both should show segrega- tion. This, however, does not happen. This cross may be dia- grammed as in Table 2. From Shull’s data for this cross one might assume that both |, and |, entered from the rubricalyx parent and only 1, from lamarc- kiana. Diagrammed on this basis the results would be as shown in Table 3. This arrangement allows for some of the first generation plants to breed true and others to give segregating progenies; but there are two objections toit. In the first place, this distribution of lethals is contrary to that found by De Vries for O. lamarckiana and by Shull (1923-b) and De Vries (1919) for mut. rubricalyx and the simi- lar types, rubrinervis and erythrina. In the second place, the splitting forms should be lamarckiana-like and the non-splitting form should be rubricalyx-like. De Vries (1919) has shown that mut. rubrinervis earries the normal velutina gamete (or chromosome) of O. lamarckiana with its characteristic lethal 1,, but that the typica component has mutated to deserens, which lacks the lethal l,. Rwubricalyx is a muta- tion from rubrinervis in which the deserens component has mutated to a state that may be called latifrons. In Tables 2 and 3 the gam- etes are named and the factorial compositions of the gametes are listed. The genetic behavior of any combination is determined by the factorial constitution while the resemblance of any plant to O. lamarckiana or to mut. rubricalyx is presumably indicated by the chromosomes present in that plant. Since noting the irregularities set forth above, it has been the writer’s privilege to correspond with Professor Shull, who now be- lieves the lamarckiana plant used in his cross had in some manner lost the lethal 1, from the velutina chromosome. On this last as- sumption the cross appears as in Table 4. It is a little more difficult to predict the appearances of the dif- ferent genotypes on this hypothesis. Here the velutina-velutina combination is not eliminated by lethals, and if it reached maturity it probably would differ from rubricalyx in growth habit. The typica-latifrons combination, however, probably would resemble lamarckiana. In De Vries’ crosses of O. lamarckiana and mut. rubri- nervis (De Vries, 1919), three F,; types were noted, lamarckiana, rubrinervis, and lucida, the last corresponding to the typica-latifrons combination of the present cross, and resembling lamarckiana. The velutina-velutina combination was lethal in De Vries’ experiments. vou. 14, No. 13 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 280 sold z SCG | 942)-DUDIYILDULD) (DUIINIaA-~vIId AY) TY-"]4 sold C T LOYl-pupryauvwun) (swoufyo)-vaidhy) ¢q-r I Z T OYT-LApMIWGns (SUWOL{YD)-DUYYNIAQ) Y-1 I Z Sold, (nuagnjaa-DUurynjad) TT Y-1 woo1s snos | poeisnosd poi snos -Azowo0yy | -AZOIOj0FT | -AZOUIOFT NOILVUANADS LSU NOILVUANGD GNOOS _{ & (suoufe7n7) XATVOINGON AG YY GNV VNVIMOUVNVI AM GAIMUVA ST o] Al “LOY GNV VNVIMOUVNVT (OC NAAMLAA SASSOUL) LO HOTAVHAE OILANGY) AHL ONTIMOHS TA (wurjnjac) Bh yr (nord h?) x DUDIYILDULD) I (wurjnjaa) SaLanvo SINGUVd XATVOINGOU (TTOHG UNTLAV) WVUDVIG VW—'P ATAVL I Ve sold II-VuprwyaLpuy) (NUurnjad-vordhj) Yy-1 T z sol, Zoyy-punryoupwun) (swowfyyn)-nordh}) *y-1 sold G sold OYT-TAPMIUGNs (SWOLLLIDI-DULINIAL) BYA-"a SoIp (MUrynjaa-pUryNIa2) WA YA mwo0is snos | poisnos per snos -Azouloyy | -Azo1ojopy | -AZOWOFT NOILVUANAS LEAT NOMWVYUANAS ANOOUS Ta (suousi70)) Mer (Duagngoa) LhPDIVUGNA I (nord hj) Ons x x (ourngan) UDUYILOUD) SaLanvs SINGUVd XATVOINTOY AG 4 ANV ] GNV VNVIMOUVAVYT A GaINUVD SIT] dI XATVOINEON “LOY OGNV VNVIMDUVNV'T ‘O NAUUMLAA SHUSSOUD TO YOTAVHUG OLLANGAY) THL ONIMOHY WVYOVICT Y—'§ HTAV.L sold G Sold ayT-PunryIuvuy) (Durynjar-vadh}) 'py-*|4 Wy (suosfyy7) \ oh : 2 aw : x : rhiqpon. sold V6 il LOYT-VULYIUDUD] (SWOL fun)-vo1d hy) y-*]1 Ps (Du1yn7a0) LOO Sort Z I OyT-ehppowgns (suosfuyp)-vuyngad) Y-Ys er = (pard fiz) Pe: Pe SoIp (MUagnjad-puULnjad) WPYy-"a YI Muinjad) HEL udols snos por snos por snos -Az0woFT | -Azo1ojozy | -AZOWIOFT NOILVUANGD LSU SaLanvp BINGDUVd NOILVUANAD GNOOUS TT XINO XATVOINEON GNV cf GNV '{ SHINUVO VNVIMOUVAVI JI XATVOINEON “LOW GNV VNVIMOUVNVT (O NOUMLAA SASSOUL) LO NOTAVHUEY OLLANGY) FHL ONIMOHG (8-€Z61 TITOHY NO aasv¢q) WVUOVIC VY—’S ATAVL JuLy 19, 1924 EMERSON: THE OENOTHERA PROBLEM 281 The only conclusions that can be drawn from this experiment is that the data obtained do not demonstrate the action of balanced lethals. No checks were made to ascertain what lethals were pres- ent and as a result there is not one lethal factor in the cross that can be definitely recognized. EXPERIMENTS TO SHOW LINKAGE AND CROSSING-OVER Cross involving red hypanthia and revolute leaves—Mut. funifolia, a revolute-leaved, green-budded mutation from O. lamarckiana, (Shull, 1921) was crossed with the flat-leaved, red-budded mut. rubri- calyx, (Shull, 1923-b). The first generation consisted of two types, one resembling O. lamarckiana, the other mut. rubricalyx, but all had flat leaves and red hypanthia. These two types gave second generation progenies as indicated in Table 5. TABLE-5.—F:; FREQUENCIES IN THE CROSS MUT. RUBRICALYX X MUT. FUNIFOLIA SECOND GENERATION . FIRST GENERATION Flat leaves Revolute leaves Red Green Red Green hypanthia hypanthia hypanthia hypanthia 3 lamarckiana-like................ 187 0 1 0 OT ire 277 8 4 98 MUETUTACOIYT-WKE oo, o/< S2 5.0/2 ae es 0s 41 9 14 6 Shull’s hypothesis was that mut: funzfolia, like O. lamarckiana, carried both 1, and 1,, and mut. rubricalyx only 1. This assortment of lethals again brings in the same difficulties discussed under the preceding cross. Back-crosses were made with both F, types to the double recessive hyb. erythrina funifolia. As mut. erythrina supposedly has the same lethal factors as mut. rubricalyx, it would be hard to predict what lethals were carried by the hybrid funifolia used in this back-cross. Since the explanation of this experiment involves crossing over between lethals and the factors for revolute leaves and red hypanthia, and since it is not known just what lethal factors are present in each _ case, the data are not of much significance even in showing the rela- tion between the revolute factor and that for red hypanthia. Cross involving red hypanthia and sulfur flower color—When O. franciscana hyb. sulfurea was crossed with mut. nanella hyb. rubri- calyx (Shull, 1923-b), the first generation consisted entirely of plants with red buds and yellow flowers. Six F,. families gave a total of 282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 581 plants with red hypanthia and yellow flowers, 6 with red hy- panthia and sulfur flowers, 34 with green hypanthia and yellow — flowers and 43 with green hypanthia and sulfur flowers. The de- ficiency in the sulfur-flowered classes was attributed to the presence of an egg lethal linked with the factor for sulfur flower color which had been introduced into hyb. franciscana sulfurea from its O. biennis parent when the cross was made by Davis, (Davis 1916). Davis, however, used O. biennis as the female parent, eliminating the pos- sibility of the entrance of an egg lethal. Furthermore, if a pollen lethal instead were concerned, there would be 15 per cent crossing over between such a lethal and the sulfur factor. In this case the normal O. biennis, when imbred, should throw 15 per cent sulfur flowered forms; however, only four (Stomps 1914) sulfur flowered plants have appeared in the many thousands of O. biennis plants grown in culture. The zygotic lethals presumably carried by mut. nanella hyb. rubricalyx were not considered. If they were present they should decrease the number of plants in the double dominant class of the second generation and the data would be still farther from agreement with the hypothesis. Other crosses.—In the back-cross (mut. funifolia * mut. nanella hyb. sulfurea) F, < nanella hyb. sulfurea (Shull 1923-b), neither the zygotic lethals of mut. funifolia nor the gametic lethal associated with sulfur flower color were considered, although the deficiency in the nanella sulfurea class might be explained as well by the presence of a pollen lethal as the deficient class in the preceding cross. In another cross involving revolute leaves and red stems, the zygotic lethals of mut. funifolia were not considered. It is possible that the rubricalyx plant used in the above cross did lack the zygotic lethals characteristically associated with this type, and the same may be true for the particular funifolia plant used, but no tests were made to determine the presence or absence of these lethals in either case. CONCLUSIONS In order to explain different crosses on the balanced lethal hypothesis, it has sometimes been necessary to assume that O. lamarckiana has both the zygotic lethals 1, and 1, and sometimes only one of them, apparently depending upon what cross it is in. Similarly, mut. funifolia must have had |, in some crosses and lacked it in others and mut. rubricalyx must at different times have carried only 1,, both 1, and |, or neither. Likewise the pollen lethal as- JULY 19, 1924 EMERSON: THE OENOTHERA PROBLEM 283 sociated with sulfur flower color must show crossing over with the sulfur factor or not depending upon what cross it is in. While it may be true that the zygotic lethals referred to are different in dif- ferent individuals of the same type, no test has been made in any ease to determine which lethals might be present, and their presence _ has been assumed in a cross only when it has been convenient to do so. In other cases they have been disregarded entirely. It is quite possible that there might be crossing over between the sulfur factor and the gametic lethal associated with it in some crosses and not in others if one assumes the presence of cross-over modifiers in one case —but these again have not been demonstrated). As the experiments reviewed in this paper are the only ones thus far brought forth by Shull to prove the balanced lethal hypothesis for Oenothera, one must conclude that the discrepancies found demon- strate the failure of the data to support the particular form of the ‘hypothesis that has been proposed. It is not the purpose of this review to disprove the balanced lethal hypothesis for Oenothera nor to offer any alternative theory, but rather to show that-the evidence thus far brought forward fails when critically examined to support this hypothesis. It is not impossible to make an adequate test of the hypothesis, but to do so one must test the genetic constitutions of the individual plants used. Davis, BRapLEY Moore. 1916. Hybrids of Oenothera biennis and Oenothera franciscana im the first and second generations. Genetics 1: 197-251. GaTEs, R. RuGGLEs. 1915. Origin and behavior of Oenothera rubricalyx. Journ. Genetics 4: 3593-360. Morean, T. H. 1918. Concerning the mutation theory. Sci. “Monthly 5: 385-405. Mutter, H. J. 1917. An Oenothera-like case in Drosophila. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 3: 619-626. 1918. Genetic variability, twin hybrids and constant hybrids in a case of balanced lethal factors. Genetics 3: 422-499 SHULL, GEorGE H. 1919. Three new mutations in Oenothera lamarckiana. Journ. Hered. 12: 394-363. 1923-a. Linkage with lethal factors the solution of the Oenothera problem. Eugenics, Genetics and the Family 1: 86-99. - 1923-b. Further evidence of linkage with crossing over in Ocnothera. Genetics 8: 154-167. Stomps, THeo. J. 1914. Parallel mutations in Oenothera biennis L. Amer. Nat. 48: 494— 497. 284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 De Vries, Hueo. 1911. Uber doppeltreciproke Bastarde von Oenothera biennis L. und O. muricata L. Biol. Centralbl. 31: 97-104. 1918. Mass-mutations and twin hybrids in Oenothera grandiflora Ait. Bot. Gaz. 65: 377-422. 1919. Oenothera rubrinervis, a half mutant. Bot. Gaz. 67: 1-26. BOTANY.—WNew plants from Central and South America. S. F. Buakg, - Bureau of Plant Industry. The new species here described, belonging to several families of Dicotyledones, have been found in the course of herbarium work during the past few years. In most cases the new species have been worked out in connection with the preparation of preliminary keys to the groups concerned. Urtica granulosa Blake, sp.noy. Monoecious herb; stem densely incurved- puberulous, sparsely hispid; petioles slender; lower leaf blades broadly cordate-ovate, the middle and upper lanceolate, acuminate, coarsely toothed, incurved-pubescent, paler green but not canescent beneath; staminate spikes simple, about 3.5 em. long; pistillate spikes mostly simple, 3 em. long or less; pistillate perianth 1.8 mm. long, hispidulous, barely surpassing the ovate, whitish, granulose achene. Stem simple, slender, probably tall, suleate-quadrangular, densely but not canescently puberulous with ineurved-ascending hairs and sparsely stimu- lose-hispid with spreading hairs; internodes (upper and middle) mostly 1.5-3.5 em. long; leaves opposite; stipules linear-lanceolate, acute, puberulous, 6-8 mm. long; petioles J-5.2 em. long, pubescent like the stem; lower leaf blades 9.5 em. long, 6.2 em. wide, acute, coarsely and simply dentate (teeth about 19 pairs, deltoid, acute, about 5 mm. long), membranaceous, deep green; middle and upper leaves lanceolate, 6—-11.5 em. long, 2.5-4.5 em. wide, often falecate, cuneate to truncate or subcordate at the often unequal base, coarsely toothed (teeth 12-21 pairs, sometimes with a lateral tooth, acute to obtuse, the terminal one elongate), above deep green, rather densely pubes- cent with mostly incurved hairs and sparsely hispid, beneath ‘paler green, evenly and rather densely puberulous and sparsely hispid, 3 or 5-plinerved from near the base; axils (on upper part of plant) all floriferous, the stami- nate spikes below, densely flowered, 1.8-3.5 em. long, the pistillate above, 0.5-38 em. long, densely flowered, all hispidulous-puberulous and sparsely hispid; staminate calyx hispidulous, 1.8 mm. thick in bud; inner sepals of the pistillate calyx oval, obtuse; achene obtuse or acutish, marginate, 1.4 mm. long, 1 mm. wide. CuinuaHuA: In shade of cliffs, canyon below Cusihuiriachic, September 21, 1888, Pringle 2005 (type no. 1,167,407, U. 8S. Nat. Herb.); Pilares, September 22, 1891, C. V. Hartman 748. Distributed as Urtica breweri S. Wats., which has most of the leaves broadly ovate and sepals twice as long as the achene. In leaf outline and general appearance U. granulosa is similar to U. aquatica Liebm., but in that species the finer hairs of the stem are retrorse, and the pistillate calyx is glabrous. Urtica mexicana Blume (not Liebm.) and U. serra Blume are identical with U. JuLY 19,1924 BLAKE: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA 285 aquatica. Material of the type collections of all three species was examined by the writer some years ago in European herbaria. Drymaria cognata Blake, sp.nov. Veryslender dichotomous annual, glan- dular-hirtellous on the upper part of the internodes; leaves opposite, linear, acute, 3-nerved; pedicels glabrous or glandular-hirtellous; sepals lance- elliptic, acuminate, strongly 3-nerved, glabrous, about 4 mm. long; petals and capsule shorter than the sepals. Densely dichotomous-branched from base, or rarely nearly simple in undeveloped specimens, about 14 em. high; internodes of the main stem usually 2-4 em. long; leaves 9-20 mm. long, 0.8—1.5 mm. wide, acute or acumi- nate, sessile, glabrous, prominulously 3-nerved beneath; stipules of the stem leaves scarious, linear-subulate, entire, 0.6 mm. long; leaves mostly wanting on the branches, replaced by lance-ovate, acuminate, scarious bracts 1.2—2 mm. long, with a green midnerve; flowers solitary in the forks and at apex of branchlets, the pedicels 0.5—2.8 mm. long; sepals 3.54.5 mm. long, with green 3-nerved center and subequal scarious margin, 2 somewhat shorter than the other 3; petals 5, white, 3.2 mm. long, linear-oblong, 2-lobed to below the middle; stamens 5, included; ovary subglobose, about 6-ovuled; style equal- ing ovary, longer than the 3 stigmatic branches; capsule ovoid, obtuse, 2-3 mm. long; seeds somewhat yellowish brown, densely blunt-muriculate, 0.8 mm. long. Duranco: City of Durango, April-November 1896, Palmer 912 (type no. 304403, U. S. Nat. Herb.) San Luts Porosr: Near City of San Luis Potosi, 1879, Schaffner 542 in part. Related to Drymaria leptophylla (Schlecht. & Cham.) Fenzl (including D. gracillima (Hemsl.) Rose, according to Briquet!), D. effusa A. Gray, and D. nodosa Engelm. In D. nososa the petals are longer than the sepals; in D. effusa the sepals are obtusish and slightly shorter than the petals; and in D. leptophylla the stem is glabrous and the sepals only 2-2.8 mm. long. Palmer 912, type of the new species, was listed by Rose under D. gracillima when the latter was raised to specific rank. Drymaria peninsularis Blake, sp. nov. Many-stemmed annual, pale green or glaucescent, glandular-hirtellous throughout; leaves opposite, lin- ear, the upper ones reduced to bracts; inflorescences elongate, racemiform; sepals obtuse, glandular-hirtellous, white-margined; seeds fuscous. Root annual, apparently sometimes persisting and becoming perennial; stems evidently prostrate or ascending, up to 20 cm. long, branched; inter-- nodes mostly 1—2 cm. long; stipules scarious, subulate, entire, about 0.6 mm. long; leaves linear, fleshy, obtuse, 1-nerved, sessile, the lower and middle ones 1-2.5 em. long, 0.8-1.5 mm. wide, the upper linear, 2-4 mm. long, much shorter than the pedicels; stems floriferous from about the middle, the pedi- cels solitary, axillary, in fruit 4-12 mm. long, erect to deflexed; sepals 5, oval- oblong, obtuse or rounded, green with broad white petaloid margins, obscurely 1 or 3-veined, 2.8—(fruit) 4 mm. long; petals 5, white, oblong-flabellate, con- tracted at base, 4-fid for nearly half their length (outer lobes oblong or obo- vate, blunt, the inner shorter and much narrower), 3mm. long, about equaling the sepals, persistent, slightly exserted in fruit; stamens 5, included, the 1Ann. Cons. Jard. Genéve 13-14: 375. 1911. 286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 filaments subulate, glabrous, alternating with as many glands and adnate to them at base; ovary globose; style about equaling the 3 stigmatic branches; capsule 3-valved, 3-4 mm. long, equaling the sepals; seeds bluntly muricu- late, reniform, 0.9 mm. long. Baga CALIFORNIA: Cape region, January-March 1901, Purpus 423 (type no. 470422, U.S. Nat. Herb.); coast south of Pescadero, Nov. 1902, Brande- gee; Cape San Lucas, Xantus 5, Brandegee 30, Rose 16357. All these specimens have been identified as Drymaria arenarioides Willd. In that species, which occurs in Mexico from Chihuahua to Hidalgo, the leaves are shorter and somewhat broader (mostly elliptic or linear-elliptic), the upper ones are not conspicuously reduced, and the mature seeds are much lighter brown. Bauhinia eucosma Blake, sp. nov.” High-climbing vine, unarmed; branch- lets appressed-pubescent; leaves bifoliolate, the leaflets semi-ovate, obtuse, pergamentaceous, glabrous and glaucescent above, sparsely appressed-pilose beneath chiefly along the nerves, 5-nerved; racemes pilose; pedicels about 1.5 em. long; bractlets linear; calyx campanulate, 15-nerved, 2—2.5 em. long, the teeth subulate, short; petals sericeous, 4 cm. long; perfect stamens 10; pod 10.5 em. long, about 4-seeded. Older branches gray-barked, glabrous, the younger brownish-gray; inter- nodes about 1 em. long or less; petioles slender, glabrous or sparsely hairy, 3 to 6 em. long; leaves deeply and narrowly cordate, the basal sinus 1 to 2 em. deep; leaflets 5.3 to 8.8 em. long, 2.5 to 4.8 em. wide, broadly rounded at base, erect, somewhat overlapping, deep green above, somewhat glauces- cent, brownish beneath, rather coarsely prominulous-reticulate beneath, finely so above; racemes terminal, about 6 cm. long, 6 to 9-flowered, pilose with mostly appressed rufescent hairs; bracts deciduous; pedicels 11 to 16 mm. long, pubescent like the axis, bearing above the middle two linear bractlets about 3 mm. long; calyx thick-ovoid in bud, at maturity campanulate, 5-toothed (teeth pubescent, 2 to 3.5 mm. long), rufidulous-sericeous at base and on the nerves with appressed hairs, rufid-puberulous above between the nerves with appressed hairs; corolla ‘‘white;’’ petals inserted at base of calyx, obovate, densely rufescent-sericeous outside, the claw about 5 mm. long, the lamina rounded at apex, 1.2 to 1.5 em. wide; stamens 10, all antheriferous, the filaments glabrous, 1.5 em. long, the anthers hairy, 2.8 mm. long; ovary sessile, not adnate to the calyx, densely rufous-pilose, 6-ovulate, the stigma oblique; pod oblong-obovate, flat, apiculate, sessile, rufid-pilose with appressed hairs, 10.5 cm. long, 3.2 em. wide. PanaMa: Along river at the Agricultural Experiment Station, Matias Hernandez, Province of Panama, September 10, 1914, Prttier 7682 (type no. 716839, U. S. Nat. Herb.) A member of the section Tylotaea, apparently near Bauhinia hymeneaefolia Triana, which, according to description, has coriaceous leaves, short-pedi- celled flowers, ovate-oblong calyx lobes, and only 5 antheriferous stamens. According to Mr. Pittier’s notes, the shrub is known as “‘bejuco de cadena,” and the pounded stems yield a good fibre. The dry pods are used by children ° as windmills, and called ‘‘runrun.’’ Bauhinia obovata Blake, sp. nov. Vine?, unarmed; branchlets puberu- lous; leaves suborbicular-ovate in outline, bilobate for one-third their length, ——— JULY 19,1924 BLAKE: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA 287 9-nerved, thin-coriaceous, glabrous above, rufid-puberulous beneath; racemes dense, rufid-puberulous; bracts obovate, 4 mm. long; bractlets obovate or spatulate; calyx campanulate, about 11 mm. long, 13-nerved, the teeth obo- vate; petals pilose, 12 mm. long; perfect stamens 10. Branches slender, angulate, the younger densely and finely rufid-puberu- lous, the older elabrescent; petioles puberulous, 1.5 to 3.5 em. long; leaves 4 to 6.5 em. long, 4 to 8 em. wide, shallowly cordate at base, above rather pale green, somewhat shining, beneath brownish, densely and finely puberulous with appressed, shining, rufidulous hairs, the primary nerves prominent beneath and the secondaries prominulous, the lobes somewhat incurved, obtusely short-pointed; racemes short-peduncled, rather dense, 8.5 cm. long or less, sometimes with a basal branch, densely rufid-puberulous with mostly appressed hairs; bracts usually deciduous; pedicels mostly 6 to 9 mm. long, bearing above the middle 2 bractlets about 3 mm. long; calyx broadly cam- panulate, densely rufid-pubescent with appressed hairs, the tube 7 to 8 mm. long, the teeth 5, obovate or spatulate-obovate, obtuse, 3.5 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. wide; petals obovate, rufous-pilose outside, venose, the claw about 4 mm. long, the lamina rounded, about 5 mm. wide; stamens 10, unequal, all antheriferous, the filaments glabrous, the anthers essentially so; ovary ses- sile, not.adnate to the calyx, densely rufous-pilose, 4-ovulate, the stigma small, oblique. Panama: Along the Sambi River, southern Darien, above tide limit, February 1912, Prttier 5568 (type no. 715834, U. 8. Nat. Herb.) A species of the section Tylotaea, apparently nearest the Brazilian B. angulosa Vogel, which is described as having small, narrow, very caducous bracts, small setaceous bractlet, and longer petals (half an inch longer than the calyx). Stylosanthes linearis Blake, sp. nov. Herbaceous perennial, subsimple, hirsute below; sheaths of the stipules 1-1.6 cm. long, hispid-pilose; leaflets 3, linear, 1.8-3.5 em. long, 1.5-2 mm. wide, acuminate, hirsute-ciliate; spikes many-flowered, collected in few, remote, subglobose heads about 1 cm. high and 1.5 em. thick; axis rudiment present; bractlets 2; basal joint of pod minute; terminal joint oblong or oval-oblong, compressed, 4-4.2 mm.long, 2.8-3 mm. wide, 2-nerved and reticulate on each side, pilosulous, the incurved- uncinate beak 1.2—1.5 mm. long. Several-stemmed; stems rather slender, simple or subsimple below the inflorescence, 60 em. long, erectish, sparsely hirsute below with spreadingly slightly tuberculate-based yellowish-white hairs about 3 mm. long, glabrous above; middle internodes about 8 cm. long; sheaths of the stipules sparsely hispid-pilose like the stem and sometimes pilosulous when young, the teeth subulate, stiff, 4 mm. long; petioles pilosulous and rarely hirsute, 4 to 7 mm. long, the rachis about 1 mm. long; leaflets short-petiolulate, mucronate, rounded at base, firm, obscurely puberulous along midline above, usually sparsely hirsute-ciliate and sometimes with a few stiff hairs along the costa beneath, strongly 3-nerved to apex, the veins prominent beneath, the second- aries obscure; primary bracts unifoliolate, the sheath 3.5 to 4 mm. long, densely pilose-ciliate with whitish hairs, somewhat erect-pilose dorsally, the teeth 2 mm. long, the petiolulate blade linear-subulate, ciliate below, about 3 mm. long; secondary bract 1, linear-lanceolate, ciliate, entire, about 2.5 mm. long; axis rudiment slender-subulate, stiff, long-ciliate, 0.3 to 0.8 mm. long; bractlets 2, similar to the secondary bract but longer, about 3 mm. long; 288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13. calyx 6 mm. long (including the 2.8 mm. long, stipe-like base), the lobes cili- ate; corolla yellow, the banner about 6 mm. long. ARGENTINA: Common in “esteras,’’ Las Palmas, Terr. Chaco, 1917, P. Jorgensen 2693 (type no. 1,065,486, U. S. Nat. Herb.) A member of the section Styposanthes, nearest Stylosanthes longiseta M. Micheli, known to me only from description. In that plant the heads and the upper part of the stem are setose-hispid, the leaflets are oblong (1.2 to 1.4 cm. wide), and the scarcely reticulate fruit is nearly glabrous. Caperonia angusta Blake, sp. nov. Stem sparsely hirsute-pilose, gla- brate; leaf blades linear, acute, serrulate, nearly glabrous, the lateral veins about 8 pairs; flowers short-pedicelled; staminate flowers with 5 equal sepals, 5 subequal petals, and a 3-lobed ovary rudiment; pistillate flowers with 7 or 8 unequal sparsely glandular-ciliate sepals and 5 unequal petals; capsule muricate. Herb 60 cm. high and more (the base not seen), much branched; stem slender, striatulate , pale green, very sparsely hirsute-pilose with mostly erect or ascending eglandular hairs; main internodes 2.5 to 5 em. long; stipules ovate, acute, persistent, 1.5 mm. long; petioles sparsely strigillose, 1.5 to 3 mm. long; blades 2.5 to 5.5 em. long 3 to 5 mm. wide, rounded at base, ser- rulate with about 8 pairs of small, acute, remote teeth, rather pale green, glabrous above, beneath sparsely strigose on costa and veins or nearly gla- brous, featherveined, the lateral veins about 8 pairs, straight, prominulous beneath, the secondaries barely prominulous; peduncles axillary, 5 to 15 mm. long, somewhat hirsute with erect or divergent hairs; racemes 0.8 to 2 cm. long, the lowest flower pistillate, remote from the 8 to 20 staminate flowers; bracts ovate, acute, persistent, 1 mm. long or less; pedicels of the staminate flowers about 0.5 mm. long; sepals 5, equal, ovate, acute, glabrous, 1.5 mm. long; petals 5, subequal, oblong or elliptic-obovate, rounded at apex, 1.2 mm. long; stamens 10, the anther cells subpendulous from the thickened gland- like connective; ovary rudiment distinctly 3-lobed; pedicel of the pistillate flower about 1 mm. long; sepals 7 or 8, unequal, the 3 or 4 largest ovate, acute, 2 to (fruit) 2.8 mm. long, bearing one or two long gland-tipped hairs on each margin and sometimes on the back, the 2 or 3 smallest lanceolate or lance-ovate, about 1 mm. long, the others intermediate in size and shape; petals 5, unequal, white, 1 larger, spatulate-obovate, acute, 3 mm. long, 1.2 mm. wide, the other 4 narrowly oblanceolate, 3 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide, or sometimes all subequal, oblanceolate-obovate, 3 mm. long, short-pointed; ovary muricate; styles 5 or 6-fid for about three-fourths their length; capsule subglobose, about 3 mm. high, 4 mm. thick, muricate on the upper half, the projections ending in usually gland-tipped hairs. PanaMA: Ina spot subject to inundation, Agricultural Experiment Station, Matias Hernandez, Province of Panama, January 1-15, 1915, Pitter 6927 (type no. 716988, U.S. Nat. Herb.) A member of the section Eucaperonia, nearest C. panamensis Pax & K. Hoffm., from which it differs in the more numerous sepals of the pistillate flower (5 in C. panamensis), these provided with a few gland-tipped cilia, the 3-lobed ovary rudiment, and other features. As the name C. panamensis has been used previously by Klotzsch,? the species described as new by Pax and K. Hoffmann* under this name may be renamed C. stenomeres. 2In Seem. Bot. Voy. Herald 103. 1852-57. 3In Engl. Pflanzenreich, Teil 4, 1477: 424. 1914. —— yJuLy 19,1924 BLAKE: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA 289 Meliosma idiopoda Blake, sp. nov. Shrub or tree; branches obscurely strigillose, glabrate; petioles short-strigose, about 8 mm. long; leaf blades elliptic or obovate, acuminate at each end, chartaceous, wavy-margined but entire, essentially glabrous, about 18 em. long; panicles subcylindric or coni- eal, puberulous, 13-21 em. long, 3.5-8 em. wide; pedicels 1-1.5 mm. long; sepals somewhat unequal; petals unequal; disk nearly half as long as ovary, bearing several marginal glands. Branches slender; leaves alternate; petioles naked, slender, 4-10 mm. long; blades faleate-acuminate, long-acuminate to the acute base, 14.5-21 em. long, 3.8—6.5 em. wide, obscurely strigillose along costa, densely whitish- papillose beneath, featherveined, the costa and the 8-10 pairs of lateral veins impressed or flattish above, prominent beneath, the loosely reticulate vein- lets finely prominulous on both sides; panicles solitary in the axils toward apex of branches, rufid-puberulous with suberect hairs, the peduncle about 3.5 em. long, the axis 10 to 17 em. long, the lower branches sometimes 6.5 em. long and much longer than the other branches, sometimes only 1.5 cm.; sepals 5, the 2 outermost oval-ovate or suborbicular-ovate, acutish to obtuse, glandular-ciliolate, otherwise glabrous, the 3 inner somewhat larger, subor- bicular, rounded, glandular-ciliolate, 1.5 mm. long and wide; petals 5, unequal, 2 of the outer suborbicular, obscurely ciliolate-erose, otherwise glabrous, about 1.3 mm. long, 1.8 mm. wide, the other outer one as long but 2.5-2.8 mm. wide ,the 2 inner (opposite the perfect stamens and adnate to their filaments at base) cuneate-oblong, 0.8 mm. long, broadly bifid, the teeth cilio- late; stamens 5, 3 sterile (the one adnate to the broadest petal with 2 large empty cells, the 2 adnate to the 2 other broad petals with 1 large empty cell), 2 fertile and with longitudinally dehiscent anthers; disk closely girdling ovary, bearing about 5 glandular teeth; ovary sparsely pubescent at apex, 2-celled, the cells 2-ovuled, the ovules superposed; style glabrous, entire, slightly shorter than ovary; stigmas connate. Costa Rica: Forests of Las Vueltas, Tucurrique, altitude 635-700 meters, May 1899, Tonduz 13372 (type no. 861231, U. 8. Nat. Herb.) Related to Meliosma glabrata (Liebm.) Urban and WM. tonduzii Donn. Smith, both Costa Rican. Both species, according to description, are at once dis- tinguished from M. idiopoda by having the style about twice as long as the ovary, in addition to various other differences. Hypericum galinum Blake, nom. nov. Hypericum denticulatum H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 5: 191. pl. 458. 1821. Not H. denticulatum Walt. 1788. Hypericum denticulatum Walt. (Fl. Carol. 190. 1788) is the tenable name?. for the plant usually known as H. virgatum Lam., and the homonymous Mexi- can species must consequently be renamed. Vaccinium dasygynum Blake, sp. nov. Low shrub, very leafy; branches densely griseous-pilosulous with mostly spreading hairs; leaves petioled, ovate to ovate-elliptic, 9-15 mm. long, crenate-serrulate, coriaceous, obscurely pubescent; racemes short, in the uppermost axils; flowers 4 or 5-merous; calyx tube densely pubescent, the teeth nearly glabrous; corolla campanulate- urceolate, 5.5 mm. long, glabrous; stamens 8 or 10, the filaments ciliate and pilose; anthers exaristate; tubules 14 times as long as the sacs; young fruit densely pilose. 4Blake, Rhodora 17: 134. 1915. 290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 Apparently erect; petioles pilosulous, about 2 mm. long; blades 3-10 mm. wide, obtuse or acutish, cuneate to rounded at base, marginate but not revolute, crenate-serrulate from near the base with 6-14 pairs of blunt, gland- tipped teeth, above dull green, puberulous along costa and when young some- times on surface, beneath brownish, sparsely hirsutulous with dark hairs leaving little pits in falling, ciliolate toward base, the lateral veins about 3 pairs, Impressed above and bluntly prominulous beneath or nearly obsolete on both surfaces; racemes several in the upper axils, about 7-flowered, the axis about 8 mm. long, pilosulous, the bracts suborbicular-ovate, obtuse, ciliolate, otherwise essentially glabrous, reddish, about 3 mm. long, deciduous; pedicels pilosulous, 2-4 mm. long, bearing 1—2 deciduous bractlets near base; calyx tube campanulate, 2.5 mm. long, densely griseous-pilosulous with spreading or ascending hairs, the limb 2 mm. long, the 4—5 teeth suborbicu- lar -deltoid (1.2 mm. long), obtuse or acute, sparsely glandular-denticulate, reddish, nearly or quite glabrous; corolla (pink?) 4 mm. thick, the 4-5 deltoid, obtuse, recurved-spreading teeth 1 mm. long; stamens all alike and equal, 4.8 mm. long, the filaments distinct, ciliate, pilose within, sparsely so outside, 2.5 mm. long, the anther saes finely muriculate, 1.2 mm. long, the 2 tubules distinet, cylindric, opening by terminal pores, 1.7 mm. long; ovary 4 or 5- celled, the cells without false partitions, the ovules numerous; style glabrous, barely exserted. Kcuapor: Vicinity of Nabon, September 25, 1918, J. N. Rose, A. Pachano, & G. Rose 23017 in part (type no. 1,189,978, U. S. Nat. Herb.); vicinity of - Tablon de Ona, September 27, 1918, Rose, Pachano & Rose 23082 in part. Closely allied to Vaccinium floribundum H. B. K., in which the calyx is nearly or quite glabrous. V.dasygynwm may prove to be only a form of that species, but seems distinct on the basis of the specimens examined. The specimens were mixed in one ease with Gaultheria reticulata H. B. K., and in the other with Vacciniwm floribundum. Vaccinium retifolium Blake, sp. nov. Prostrate or reclining shrub, very leafy; stem and branches densely spreading-hirtellous; leaves short-petioled, elliptic, about 9 mm. long, acutish at each end, bluntly crenate-serrulate, veiny; flowers solitary, axillary, on pedicels 4-7 mm. long; calyx glabrous, 5-toothed; corolla broadly campanulate, 5-toothed, 7.5 mm. long and thick, glabrous throughout; stamens 12(?), all alike and equal, unappendaged; filaments distinct, hairy; anther sacs slightly longer than the tubules. Stem branched, about 35 em. long, rather slender; petioles 1-2 mm. long, densely hirtellous like the base of the costa; blades 7-11 mm. long, 3-4.5 mm. wide, short-ciliate toward base, otherwise glabrous, crenate-serrulate above the usually entire lower third with 3-8 pairs of obtuse, gland-tipped teeth, coriaceous, not revolute on margin, green and somewhat shining above, usually brownish or reddish beneath, feather-veined, the veins 4-5 pairs, anastomosing and usually forked toward apex, prominulous or impressed above, bluntly prominulous beneath; flowers few, solitary in the axils toward apex of stem; pedicels glabrous, somewhat thickened toward apex, bearing 2-5 ovate, acute or acuminate, coriaceous, glabrous bractlets about 1 mm. long; calyx 4 mm. long, the tube subglobose, 2 mm. long, equaling the limb, the teeth deltoid, acuminate, 1.5 mm. long, sometimes with a small glandu- lar tooth on one side near middle; corolla thickish, the teeth slightly spread- ing at apex, suborbicular-deltoid, obtusish, 2 mm. long; stamens 4 mm. long, JuLy 19,1924 BLAKE: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA 291 the filaments lanceolate, 2.2 mm. long, densely hirsutulous dorsally and on margin, nearly glabrous inside, the anther sacs finely muriculate, 12 mm. long, the tubules distinct, cylindric, 1 mm. long; ovary 5-celled; style glabrous, 5 = long; berry globose, about 6 mm. thick, the seeds numerous in each ce Ecuapor: Vicinity of cone October 6-15, 1918, J. N. Rose & G. Rose 23387 (type no. 1,002,890, U. _ Nat. Herb.); Nabéon, Sept. 25, 1918, Rose, Pachano, & Rose 22989. A member of the section Newrodesia, allied to Vacciniwm reclinatum Niedenzu (V. reflexuwm Hook. f., not Klotzsch) and much resembling the plate of that species, but with solitary flowers, longer corolla, and tubules nearly as long as the anther sacs. The single corolla examined had 11 stamens, with a space for a twelfth. Macleania euryphylla Blake, sp. nov. . Leafy shrub; stem cinereous-pilosu- lous with curved mostly spreading hairs; petioles stout, about 5 mm. long; leaf blades broadly ovate, broadly rounded at apex, broadly rounded or slightly cordate at base, about 6 em. long; racemes fasciculiform,. the axis glabrous;. calyx glabrous, about 6 mm. long; corolla glabrous throughout, 1.4 em. long; filaments ciliate; tubules of the anthers 2, connate, equaling the sacs. Stem stout, suleate, glabrescent on the rounded angles; internodes about 2 em. long; petioles curv ed-pilosulous, 4~7 mm. long; blades 4.3 to 6.3 em. long, 2.5—-5 em. wide, strongly coriaceous, sparsely ciliolate at base or glabrous, sparsely impressed-punctate especially above, light green above, brownish beneath, not revolute on margin, featherveined (chief lateral veins 3 pairs) and loosely prominulous-reticulate beneath, the chief veins impressed above; racemes axillary, many-flowered, the axis stout, glabrous, about 5 mm. long, the bracts suborbicular, about 3 mm. long, ciliolate, nearly or quite glabrous dorsally; pedicels stout, glabrous, about 7 mm. long, jointed at apex, bearing 2 roundish ciliolate bractlets near base; calyx campanulate, 6-7 mm. long, about 6 mm. wide, the 5 acute teeth about 1 mm. high; corolla ovoid-tubular, fleshy, probably red, 5 mm. thick below, the 5 teeth ovate, obtuse or acutish, erectish, 1.5 mm. long; stamens 10, all alike, 8.5 mm. long, the filaments distinct, flat, pilose-ciliate especially above and sparsely pilose in front and back, 2.8 mm. long, the anther sacs oblong, strongly muriculate, 3.8-4 mm. long, the tubules connate to apex, 3.8-4 mm. long, opening by elongate slits; ovary 5-celled; style glabrous, 1.8 em. long, exserted about 4 mm. Ecuapor: Cusatagua, near Ambato, Prov. Tunguragua, March 1919, A. Pachano 179 (type no. 1,033,456, U. S. Nat. Herb.). This species enters Horold’s® group II, Aof Macleania. It is isuineniched from most species of that group by its broadly ovate, round-tipped leaves, and from the others by characters of pubescence or dimensions. In leaves and inflorescence it is very similar to the figure of M. cordata Lem. (FI. des Serres I. 4: 312. 1848), but that species is at once distinguished by having the corolla teeth pubescent inside. The vernacular name is given by the collector as “‘sagalita.” >Bot. Jahrb. Engler 42: 269. 1909. 292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 Forsteronia amblybasis Blake, sp. nov. Shrub or tree; branches and branchlets glabrous; leaves opposite; petioles 7-11 mm. long; leaf blades oval or elliptic-ovate, about 12 cm. long, short-pointed or subacuminate, rounded at base, glabrous except in the axils of the veins, pergamentaceous, the chief lateral veins 4—6 pairs; panicles puberulous, slender, the primary branches short, the flowers glomerate, subsessile; calyx eglandular, the sepals oblong, obtuse, 2 mm. long, finely ciliolate; corolla 3.5 mm. long, the lobes ovate-_ oblong, 2.2 mm. long, sparsely puberulous outside, densely pilose-barbate inside especially toward apex. ; Branches and branchlets (the latter dull brown) conspicuously lenticellate; petioles slender, naked, glabrous or slightly puberulous; blades 9.5-13 ecm. long, 3.5-6 em. wide, mucronulate at the obtuse or acute apex, usually broadly rounded at base, dull or somewhat shining green above, brownish green espe- cially along the nerves beneath, the costa and chief lateral veins impressed above, prominent beneath and with incomplete barbatulate cups in the axils, the veinlets prominulous above, scarcely so beneath; panicles terminal and in the upper axils, densely spreading-puberulous when young, sparsely so when old, the peduncle 1.44.5 em. long, the axis 7-19 cm. long, the branches few, subopposite, 4.5 em. long or less, the flowers collected in glomerules toward their tips, and at apex of panicle interrupted-glomerate, the glomerules 7-10 mm. thick; bracts oblong, about 3.5 mm. long, apiculate, ciliolate, otherwise nearly glabrous; pedicels puberulous, about 1.3 mm. long or less; sepals oblong or ovate-oblong, 2—2.2 mm. long, obtuse or acute, finely puberulous on middle of back or essentially glabrous except for the ciliolate margin; corolla cam- panulate, the 5 lobes suberect, the tube 1.3 mm. long, densely annulate-bar- bate inside near middle, the lobes obtuse; stamens 1.8 mm. long, the filaments about half as long as the anthers, the anthers glabrous outside, their tails thickened, truncate; nectary 5-lobed; ovaries hispidulous at apex. Boutvra: Tipuani to Guanai, December 1892, M. Bang 1689 (type no. 1,167,408, U. S. Nat. Herb.); Polo-Polo near Coroico, North Yungas, altitude 1100 m., October-November 1912, O. Buchtien 3953. Both these collections were distributed as Forsteronia sellowii Muell. Arg., to which species F’. amblybasis seems to be nearest. In that South Brazilian plant, however, according to Mueller’s description, the leaves are subacute at base and considerably smaller, the panicle is glabrous, the calyx and corolla are somewhat smaller, the corolla is fulvo-puberulous outside, its lobes are merely hispidulous inside, and the anthers are hispidulous on the back above. Fischeria boliviana Blake, sp. nov. Vine, densely and finely glandular- hirtellous and rather densely spreading-hirsute; leaf blades oval-obovate, short-pointed, narrowly cordate at base, densely and finely pilosulous on both sides; peduncles mostly exceeding the leaves; flowers numerous, 1.8 cm. wide; sepals lanceolate, acuminate, puberulous and hirsute, about 3 as long as the corolla; corolla lobes oblong-ovate, obtuse or acutish, pubescent on both sides, not distinetly ciliate, crisped on one side. Stem and branches rather stout; leaves opposite; petioles pubescent like the stem, 1.5—2.2 cm. long; blades (only the ug per seen) 5-6.5 em. long, 3-3.8 em. wide, abruptly short-pointed (the point about 2 mm. long), narrowly cordate at base (the sinus usually open, about 4 mm. deep), papery, above light green, densely and softly spreading-pilcsulous (the hairs with barely enlarged base), beneath brownish green, similarly pubescent with shorter JuLY 19,1924 BLAKE: NEW PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA 293 hairs and along the veins sparsely hirsute, hirsute on margin, feather-veined, the lateral veins about 6 pairs; peduncles solitary, axillary, pubescent like the stem, 3-6 cm. long; inflorescences umbelliform or shortly racemose, similarly pubescent; pedicels 1.1—-1.6 cm. long; buds apiculate; sepals 7 mm. long, 1.5-2 mm. wide below, reflexed; calycine glands small, easily deciduous; corolla deeply 5-parted, the lobes hispidulous- puberulous outside, hirsute- pilose inside except along the sulcate-plicate glabrous midline, 8 mm. long, 4.5 mm. wide; outer corona fleshy, adnate to base of corolla and to gynoste- gium, about 3 as long as the latter; inner corona of 5 fleshy, oval, rounded lobes equaling the gynostegium, their inner margins prolonged into deltoid obtuse lobes applied to the apex of the disk of the gynostegium. Botrvia: Beni River, July 1886, Rusby 936 (type no. 32499, U. 8. Nat. Herb.) Related to Fischeria calycina Decaisne, which is described as with peduncles equaling the leaves, and lanceolate attenuate merely puberulous corolla lobes; also related to F. peruviana Deeaisne, which is said to have only a few seattered hairs on the inner surface of the corolla lobes, while those of F. boliviana are rather densely hirsute-pilose inside. Fischeria funebris (Donn. Smith.) Blake. Fischeria martiana var. funebris Donn. Smith, ee Gaz. 24: 398. 1897. Stem densely and minutely subglandular -puberulous and less densely spreading-hirsute; petioles similarly pubescent; leaf blades oval-ovate to obovate, usually rather long-acuminate, cordate at base, papery, densely hirsute-pilose or hirsutulous above (the hairs longer along the costa), beneath brownish, densely and rather softly hirsute-pilose or pilosulous (the hairs longer along the veins); peduncles longer than the leaves; inflorescences umbelliform, becoming short-racemose; pedicels 2—-3.5 cm. long; buds very obtuse; sepals narrowly lance-subulate, attenuate, 9-15 mm. long, distinctly exceeding the corolla, puberulous and hirsute; calycine glands present; corolla about 1.8 em. wide, deeply 5-lobed, fleshy, the lobes ovate, obtuse, strongly plicate-crisped on one side, somewhat crisped toward apex on the other side, not sulcate-plicate along midline except at extreme base, hirsutu- lous on both surfaces except toward margin and apex; outer corona fleshy, subentire, about half as long as gynostegium; inner corona of 5 fleshy, obtuse lobes surpassing the gynostegium, their inner margins prolonged into subor- bicular appressed lobes. GUATEMALA: Between Sepacuité and Secanquim, Alta Verapaz, altitude 400 m., May 18, 1905, P7ttier 311. Costa Rica: Hacienda Veyta, Rio Volcdn, Valley of Diguis, Feb. 12, . 1898, Pittier 12065; Las Vueltas, Tucurrique, altitude 600-700 m., Jan. 1899, Pittier 13182; Finca de Chirrip6, plains of Zent, altitude 200 m., Feb. 1900, Pittier 16054; Rio Honda, altitude 50 m., Feb. 15, 1903, Pittzer, 16641. This plant is clearly a distinct species from the Brazilian Fischeria martiana Decaisne, which is described as having larger flowers, sepals equaling the | corolla, acute buds, and a white corolla veined with green, its lobes sulcate- plicate along the midline. In F. funebris the corolla appears to be densely veined with dark on a light ground. 294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 ORNITHOLOGY .—Descriptions of new Treronidae and other non- passerine birds from the East Indies. Harry C. OBERHOLSER, Biological Survey. Further evidence of the richness and value of Dr. W. L. Abbott’s Kast Indian bird collections for the United States National Museum is furnished by the following new birds. The names of colors used in these descriptions are from Ridgway’s Color standards and color nomenclature. ARDEIDAE Butorides javanicus carcinophonus, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters —Similar to Butorides javanicus javanicus, from Java, but larger, and somewhat lighter on neck and under surface. Description —Type, adult female, no. 182229, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Pulo Alanga, eastern Borneo, May 12, 1913; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Forehead greenish slate; pileum and crest deep slate green, the tip of the crest more slaty; the middle of the crown dark ivy green, slightly metallic; cervix mouse gray; upper back brownish neutral gray; remainder of back and its plumes light grayish olive, the edges and tips of the feathers glaucous; rump and upper tail-coverts deep mouse gray; tail deep slate olive, somewhat metallic; wings slate color, the exposed outer parts of the webs of the feathers dark ivy green; anterior lesser coverts more brownish and duller, the edgings buffy white, cinnamon buff, and sayal brown; middle of the chin mostly creamy white; sides of chin and of neck, together with the throat and jugulum, rather brownish mouse gray, the middle of the lower jugulum paler; breast, sides, flanks, and crissum, neutral gray, the breast washed with brownish; abdomen pale grayish buff; lining of wing light neutral gray. Measurements of type-—Wing, 168.5 mm.; tail 63; exposed culmen, 64; height of bill at base, 12; tarsus, 45; middle toe without claw, 40.5. Butorides javanicus carcinophilus, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters.—Similar to Butorides javanicus carcinophonus, from Borneo, but lower parts paler. Type.—Adult female, no. 201671, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Casiguran, Luzon Island, Philippine Islands, June 1, 1907; Dr. E. A. Mearns; original number, 15262. Measurements of type-——Wing, 161 mm.; tail, 57; exposed culmen, 62; height of bill at base, 12.5; tarsus, 44; middle toe without claw, 41. MEGAPODIIDAE Megapodius forsteni balukensis, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters—Similar to Megapodius forsteni forstent, of the Molucecea Islands, but having the upper surface darker and more rufescent, ‘the cervix more or less overlaid with brown; lower parts darker; and size slightly smaller. Description.—Ty pe, adult female, no. 200692, U. S. Nat. Mus., Baluky Baluk Island, Sulu Sea, Philippine Islands, January 10, 1906; Dr. Ea Mearns. Pileum dull olive brown; upper cervix deep mouse gray, slightly washed with olive brown; lower cervix, together with the rump, back, and JuLY 19, 1924 OBERHOLZER: TRERONIDAE 295 seapulars, dark prouts brown; upper tail-coverts and tail, clove brown; wings rather rufescent clove brown, the edgings of tertials, of inner greater and middle coverts, like the back, the lesser coverts and remaining portion of the other coverts, chaetura drab; sides of head, together with chin and upper throat, mouse gray; sides of neck, together with remaining lower parts and lining of wing, deep mouse gray, the abdomen washed with olive brown. Measurements of type —Wing, 211 mm.; tail, 73.5; exposed culmen, 22.5; height of bill at base,; 10; tarsus, 61.5; middle toe without claw, 40. This island race is apparently still more different from Megapodius forsteni . cumingii of the island of Palawan, in the Philippine Archipelago, being very much darker both above and below. RALLIDAE Hypotaenidia striata paraterma, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters——Similar to Hypotaenidia striata striata, from the Philippine Islands,! but much darker above, the ground color more extensively and deeply blackish, the edgings also more deeply colored, and the white spots on hind neck, back, and rump much fewer and smaller; lower parts somewhat darker; and white bars on flanks and sides much narrower and farther apart. : Description.—Type, adult female, no. 161078, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Samar Island, Philippine Islands, April 18, 1888; F. 8. Bourns. Pileum and upper cervix, bay, somewhat blackish medially; remaining upper parts brownish black barred with white, the edgings of the feathers varying from saccardo umber to sepia; chin creamy white; sides of head and the greater part of the sides of the neck, together with the throat and breast, between neutral gray and mouse gray, the breast washed with olive brown; primaries and seconda- ries between fuscous black and fuscous; the rest of the wings and the remaining portion of the under surface colored like the back; lining of wing brownish black, barred with white. Measurements of type-—Wing, 114, mm.; tail, 45; exposed culmen; 38; tarsus, 34; middle toe without claw, 37. This new race is of interest since it differs apparently so much from the typical form of the species, which inhabits the other islands of the Philippine Archipelago,—Luzon, Siquijor, Panay, and others. It is, in fact, as dark as Hypotaenidia striata obscurior Hume, of the Andaman Islands, but is dis- tinguishable by smaller size; by rather broader more widely spaced white - bars on sides and flanks; and by larger white spots and wider white bars on the upper parts. The original Hypotaenidia striata striata? came from the Philippine Islands, but had no more definite locality assigned. Since it is desirable now to have an exact type locality, we will designate this as Manila, on the island of Luzon, from which the original specimen probably came. 1 Type locality: Manila, Island of Luzon, Philippine Islands. 2 (Rallus) striatus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1:262. ©1766 (after May 24). ‘‘Philip- pinis’’. 296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 TRERONIDAE Muscadivores aeneus arhadius, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters.—Similar to Muscadivores aeneus aeneus, from Borneo, but with tail more greenish; cervix, top and sides of head averaging more grayish. Description.—Type, adult female, no. 180106, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Kateman River, eastern Sumatra, September 3, 1903; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Top and sides of head, light grayish vinaceous, the crown overlaid with gull gray; cervix gull gray; chin, extreme anterior part of forehead, and orbital ring, creamy white; remaining upper parts metallic bluish green with a strong bronzy sheen; tail bluish green with a slight metallic gloss, the middle pair of rectrices most decidedly blue; tertials metallic green like the back; primaries and secondaries, fuscous on the basal two-thirds of inner half of inner webs, glaucous greenish slate color on the remaining portion, the outer vanes of the secondaries with more or less metallic green gloss; primary coverts and exterior greater coverts greenish slate, with some metallic green on their outer webs; rest of upper wing-coverts metallic green like the back; throat pale grayish vinaceous; jugulum gull gray; breast and abdomen, light grayish vinaceous; sides of the same shade, but overlaid and tinged with gull gray; flanks gull gray; crissum dark bay; lining of wings between gull gray and deep gull gray. Measurements of type-—Wing, 228 mm.; tail, 140; exposed culmen, ’ 23.5; tarsus, 31; middle toe without claw, 37. Haemataena melanocephala enantia, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters.—Similar to Haemataena? melanocephala bangueyen- sis, from Mindanao, but with yellow of throat darker; yellow of middle of lower abdomen paler, showing thus more contrast to the crissum. Description.—Type, adult male, no. 191872, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Cagayan Sulu Island, Philippine Islands, February 26, 1904; Dr. E. A. Mearns. Head and throat, pale gull gray, but the forehead, sides of head, sides of throat, and the middle of the lower throat, between light gull gray and pallid neutral gray, with a large black patch on the occiput; chin and upper throat, between light cadmium and lemon chrome; cervix and sides of neck, warbler green, shading a little to citrine on the upper back and scapulars; lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts, cerro green; tail-feathers basally and, excepting the middle pair, also on marginal portion of inner webs, fuscous, the remaining portion of the feathers somewhat metallic green, between scheele’s green and erass green, some of the feathers bronzy, and having on the two middle rec- trices numerous narrow, almost invisible, bronzy bars; wings fuscous, the superior coverts and the exposed portion of the quills (except the secondaries) in the closed wing somewhat metallic olive green, cerro green, bronzy green, and dark green, all mingled together, the general effect being nearly olive green; secondaries between scheele’s green and grass green; jugulum and breast, between cerro green and spinach green, and shading to between parrot green and grass green on abdomen, sides, and thighs; lower abdomen empire yellow, verging slightly toward apricot yellow; crissum chrome yellow to cadmium yellow, the longest middle lower tail-coverts mostly rose red; lining of wing neutral gray, outwardly mostly cerro green. ’ For the use of this generic name instead of Spilotreron Salvatori, cf. Richmond, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 53: 593. 1917. JuLY 19, 1924 OBERHOLZER: TRERONIDAE 297 Measurements of type-——Wing, 119 mm.; tail, 77; exposed culmen; 55.5; tarsus, 22; middle toe without claw, 22.5) This new race is apparently confined to the island of Cheawen Sulu.t Treron curvirostra erimacra, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters—Resembling Treron curvirostra nasica, from Borneo, but much larger, and, in the male, of lighter coloration. Description—Type, adult male, no. 201778, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Balabae Island, Philippine Islands, October 16, 1906; Dr. E. A. Mearns. Pileum slate gray, lightening to rather dark gull gray on the forehead; cervix between deep grape green and pois green; cervical collar deep gull gray; middle of back purple drab; remainder of back, together with the scapulars, dull, dark eorinthian purple; rump olive green; upper tail-coverts warbler green; middle tail-feathers dark citrine; basal portion of the remaining tail-feathers slate gray, the subterminal portion black, the tip dark gull gray; wings black, slightly brownish; but the tertials olive green, the bend of the wing slate gray, slightly washed with olive, the lower rows of lesser coverts andover green, the edgings of the wings lemon yellow; sides of neck and of face like the cervix; chin and throat, lime green; jugulum yellowish citrine; breast grape green; abdomen grape green shading to asphodel green, darker laterally, and passing into slate gray on the sides of the body; flanks and thighs, calla green mixed with creamy white; lower tail-coverts between sayal brown and ochraceous tawny; lining of wing slate gray. Measurements ‘of type-—Wing, 137 mm.; tail, 88.5; exposed culmen, 17; height of bill at base, 7.5; tarsus, 22; middle toe without claw, 23. This is the bird that has been commonly recorded from the Philippine Islands as Treron nipalensis, but it is readily distinguishable from the bird from Borneo, which is clearly a subspecies of Treron curvirostra, as well as from the typical race of the Malay Peninsula.’ From the latter it differs in both sexes in its darker coloration, particularly on the upper parts. Dendrophassa vernans nesophasma, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters.—Similar to Dendrophassa vernans vernans, from Luzon Island, Philippine Islands, but in both sexes paler throughout and with the green of upper parts averaging more grayish. | Description.—Type, adult male, no. 191947, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Cottabata, Mindanao Island, Philippine Islands, March 3, 1904; Dr. E. A. Mearns. Pileum between hathi gray and cinereous; forehead dark pearl gray; cervix between pale and light vinaceous drab, washed with plumbeous medially; interscapulum and rump, deep grape green, the scapulars between courge green and light hellebore green; upper tail-coverts isabella color, gradually verging into the grape green of rump; tail slate gray, with a broad subterminal band of black, and tipped narrowly with slate black; wing-quills, except the tertials, slate black, the outer primaries brownish black distally, all the quills ‘For a list of the other subspecies of Haemataena melanocephala, cf. Oberholser, Proc. U. 8. Nat Mus. 54: 192. 1917. ° For the change of specific name from Treron nipalensis to Ireron curvirostra(Gmelin), ef. Oberholser, Smithson. Misc. Coll. 60: no. 7:3, footnote. 1912. The type locality of Columba curvirostra Gmelin is there designated as ‘‘Malay Peninsula’’; we here further restrict it to the town of Malacca. 298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 shading inwardly into slate gray basally; tertials and superior wing-coverts, between courge green and light hellebore green, the bend of wing washed with plumbeous, the greater coverts and tertials conspicuously margined distally on their outer webs with picric yellow; chin, throat, and sides of head, between dawn gray and pearl gray; jugulum like the cervix, but not washed with plumbeous; middle of breast between ochraceous orange and yellow ochre; lower breast and upper abdomen, lime green, darker and duller laterally, sides deep gull gray; lower abdomen pinard yellow; flanks partly lincoln green, partly deep grape green, broadly streaked with pinard yellow; crissum rather light auburn; lining of wing deep gull gray. Measurements of type-—Wing, 148 mm.; tail, 92; exposed culmen, 17; tarsus, 22; middle toe without claw, 23. : In addition to Mindanao, this race occupies at least the islands of Basilan, Jolo, and Sulu. Dendrophassa vernans abbotti,® subsp. nov. Subspecific characters.—Resembling Dendrophassa vernans vernans; from Luzon Island, Philippine Islands, but in the male darker and duller above; in the female darker, duller, less greenish above, duller, less greenish or less yellowish below, the abdomen usually paler, and medially often even whitish. Type. —Adult male, no. 153653, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Tyching; Trang, Lower Siam (Malay Peninsula), June 2, 1896; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Measurements of type.—Wine, 140.5 mm.; tail, 90; exposed culmen, 15.5; tarsus, 22; middle toe without claw, 24.5. This subspecies ranges apparently over all the Malay region, from Singapore to Siam. Dendrophassa vernans zalepta, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters.—Similar to Dendrophassa vernans vernans of Luzon Island, Philippine Islands, but decidedly smaller. Type.—Adult male, no. 248190, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Kwala Besar, Celebes, August 24, 1914; H. C. Raven; original number, 1538. Measurements of type-—Wing, 137 mm.; tail, 81; pasa culmen, 16.5; tarsus, 20.5; middle toe without claw, 23.5. This new form is distinguishable from Dendrophassa vernans nesophasma, of the southern Philippine Islands, by reason of much smaller size, and somewhat. darker coloration. It appears to be confined to the island of Ceebes. Dendrophassa olax arismicra, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters —Similar to Dendrophassa olax olax, from Sumatra, but much smaller; and upper parts darker, particularly the rump and pileum. Description.—Type, adult male, no. 181777, U. 8S. Nat. Mus.; Segah River, northeastern Borneo, November 23, 1912; H. C. Raven; original number, 429. Pileum, cervix, sides of head and of neck, rather dark slate gray, paling to gull gray on forehead; upper back dark vinaceous brown; rest of back, together with the scapulars, haematite red; rump and upper tail-coverts, blackish slate; tail dull black, the tip rather deep neutral gray; wings dull black, the inner webs of the quills brownish; the outer edges of the secondaries, together with the greater coverts and outer middle coverts, marguerite yellow, the lesser coverts and exposed portion of the inner median coverts, haematite § Named for Dr. W. L. Abbott. JuLY 19, 1924 OBERHOLZER: TRERONIDAE 299 red, middle of chin dull white; sides of chin, together with the throat, slate gray, lighter medially; jugulum raw sienna; breast between oil yellow and pyrite yellow; abdomen vetiver green; sides slate gray, washed inferiorly on the anterior portion with the color of the breast, on the posterior portion with vetiver green; flanks blackish slate, mixed with tawny and washed anteriorly with vetiver green; thighs tawny; crissum between auburn and chestnut; lining of wings blackish slate. Measurements of type -—Wing, 114.5 mm.; tail, 71.5; exposed culmen, 13.5; height of bill at base, 5; tarsus, 19; middle toe without claw, 20.5. This new subspecies is evidently not the same as Dendrophassa olax hagent™ from northeastern Sumatra, since that bird is described as paler than Den- drophassa olax olax, while the Borneo birds are darker than the typical race. Butreron capellei messopora, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters——Similar to Butreron capellet passorhina Oberholser’ from Pulo Mata Siri, but pileum more greenish (less grayish); upper parts darker; greenish areas of lower surface, except the flanks, darker; breast and abdomen more yellowish as well as darker. Description.—Type, adult male, no. 181425, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Klumpang Bay, southeastern Borneo, January 22, 1908; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Forehead olive gray, lighter anteriorly, and washed all over with greenish; crown greenish gray, washed with greenish; hind neck vetiver green, slightly tinged with citrine; scapulars the same; back and rump, darker, between vetiver green and andover green; upper tail-coverts dull vetiver green; broad tips of middle pair of rectrices between light yellowish olive and mignonette green, remainder of exposed portion deep grape green, and the basal concealed por- tion deep gull gray, more or less washed with the same green; the remaining rectrices dusky neutral gray, basally deep gull gray on outer vanes, light neutral gray on the inner, and terminally pale neutral gray, the two pairs next to the middle pair washed with the green of the middle feathers, par- ticularly on the outer webs, the outer rectrices also very slightly and narrowly tinged with the same on the outer margins of their gray tips; wings slate color, but the outer webs of the tertials and most of the lesser wing-coverts (excepting only those along the bend of the wing), together with a few of the inner middle coverts, between andover green and vetiver green like the scapulars; narrow edgings on outer webs of the inner middle coverts and some of the inner greater coverts, lemon yellow; and similar, but much broader, edgings on the two innermost greater coverts and on the outermost tertial and innermost secondary, lemon chrome; lores pale greenish olive gray; superciliary region, a narrow orbital ring, and the anterior malar region,. greenish gray; remaining parts of the sides of the head, together with the sides of the neck, vetiver green; anterior part of chin between a dark yellowish glaucous and seafoam yellow, posterior portion of chin and middle uppermost part of throat, between dark citrine green and water green, middle of rest. of throat rather dark lime green; a broad band on the jugulum yellow ochre, shading laterally to buckthorn brown; breast and abdomen between mignon- ette green and lime green; sides of body between tea green and water green; flanks between light slate olive and rather light sage green; shorter lower tail-coverts of the same green color, but mixed with feathers of cartridge buff 7 Osmotreron olax hageni Parrott, Abhandl. K. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. II KI. 24: abt. 1: 266. Nov. 6, 1907 (‘““Umgegend von Deli’ [Sumatra)). ee ee 300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13. and pinkish buff, and some of the green feathers broadly tipped with the same buff; rest of lower tail-coverts hays brown; thighs partly dull green like the abdomen, partly cartridge buff; lining of wing partly slate gray, partly dark gull gray. Measurements of type-—Wing, 193 mm.; tail, 128; exposed culmen, 25.5; height of bill at base, 10.5; tarsus, 26; middle toe without claw, 29. Butreron capellei panochra, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters.—Resembling. Butreron capellet messopora, from Borneo, but upper and lower parts, excepting the crissum, lighter. Type.—Adult male, no. 181058, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Besitan River, eastern Sumatra, February 8, 1906; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Measurements of type-—Wing, 199.5 mm.; tail, 133; exposed culmen, 25; height of bill at base, 10.5; tarsus, 28; middle toe without claw, 31. This race may be distinguished from Butreron capellet magnirostris of the Malay Peninsula by its lighter, more grayish (less greenish) upper parts, particularly the forehead; and lighter, more grayish (less greenish) lower sur- face (excepting the orange rufous pectoral band of the male). The recognizable races of Butreron capellei are now five, as follows: 1. Butreron capellet capellec (Temminck). Java. 2. Butreron capellet passorhina Oberholser. Pulo Mata Siri, in the Java 3. Butreron capellet messopora Oberholser. Borneo. 4. Butreron capellei panochra Oberholser. Sumatra. 5. Butreron capellet magnirostris Strickland. Malay Peninsula. CUCULIDAE Surniculus lugubris massorhinus, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters—Similar to Surniculus lugubris lugubris of Java, and to Surniculus lugubris dicruroides of Nepal, but larger than either. Description.—Adult female; no. 181212, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Siak River, eastern Sumatra, January 3, 1907, Dr. W. L. Abbott. Pileum metallic greenish slate black; cervix metallic bluish black; mantle metallic deep slate green; lower back, rump, tail, and wings, like the pileum, but the rump a little more greenish, the inner edges of the wing-quills fuscous, the tertials and superior wing-coverts, except the primaries and the outer greater and middle series, metallic deep slate green; lores and sides of head black, the latter with a metallic bluish or greenish sheen; sides of neck metallic bluish black; crissum metallic deep slate green, barred with dull white; remaining lower parts, together with the lining of wing, brownish black with a dull metallic greenish sheen. Measurements of type-——Wing, 143 mm.; tail, 135; exposed culmen, 23; tarsus, 17;*middle toe without claw, 15.3. BUCEROTIDAE Hydrocissa convexa barussensis, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters—Like Hydrocissa convexa convexa, from Sumatra, but larger, the length of wing much over 300 mm.® 8 Measured without straightening the quills. juLy 19, 1924 OBERHOLZER: TRERONIDAE 301 Description.—Type, adult, sex unknown, no. 179786, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Tana Bala Island, Batu Islands, in the Barussan Chain, western Sumatra, February 11, 1903; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Breast, and remainder of posterior lower parts, tail (excepting the two middle feathers), a short narrow patch on edge of wing, a bar across the extreme bases of primaries and secondaries, and broad tips of the same feathers, white; all the rest of the plumage black with a metallic greenish, in places purplish, sheen; bill ivory white, but the base of mandible, the posterior end of the casque, and a broad irregular stripe extending from the anterior point of the casque diagonally backward and downward to the middle of the base of the casque, black; “‘iris crimson brown; orbital skin and throat bluish white, deepest round eye; ear dull cobalt; feet gray black.” Measurements of type-—Wing,°® 315 mm.; tail, 289; culmen from nostril, 145; height of bill (without casque) at nostril, 46; length of casque, 152; height of casque at nostril, 42; tarsus, 54; middle toe without claw, 43. Birds of this species from the other islands of the Barussan Chain seem to be the same as those from Sumatra and Borneo. The wing in twelve speci- mens of Hydrocissa convexa convexa from Sumatra, Borneo, and the Barussan Islands measures 275-305 mm., with an average of 288 mm. PICIDAE Meiglyptes tukki hylodromus, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters.—Similar to Meiglyptes tukki tukki, from Sumatra, but with light bars of upper and lower parts, particulary the former, less uniform and less extensive, therefore less conspicuous. Description.—Type, adult male, no. 180846, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Mojeia River, Nias Island, Barussan Islands, western Sumatra, March 10, 1905; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Pileum between olive brown and chaetura drab; re- mainder of upper surface, including the scapulars, between olive brown and deep olive, barred with dark olive buff; tail olive brown, with lighter bars between cinnamon buff and isabella color; exposed surface of wings olive brown, the primaries and secondaries with fuseous bars of the same color as those on the tail, but the bars on the innermost webs cartridge buff; sides of head between hair brown and deep grayish olive;a streak on the side of the neck creamy buff; malar strip brazil red; chin dull cream buff, barred with light brownish olive; upper throat dull buffy white, barred with blackish brown; lower throat and jugulum brownish black, posteriorly barred with dull buffy; posterior lower parts between buffy brown and deep olive, barred with pale dull buffy, lining of wing cream buff. Measurements of type-—Wing, 94 mm.; tail, 61; exposed culmen, 20.5; height of bill at base, 8; tarsus, 20; middle toe without claw, 16. This new race is so very much smaller than Meiglyptes tukki calceuticus, of the neighboring Banjak Islands, that there is no difficulty in distinguishing it from that form. Meiglyptes tukki percnerpes, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters.—Similar to Meiglyptes tukki tukki, from Sumatra, but with lower parts paler and duller, the light bars there usually less sharply 9 Measured without straightening the quills. 302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 contrasted to the dark areas; black jugular band somewhat narrower; upper surface much paler, more ‘brownish (less grayish), its light bars more ochraceous, and on the back rather broader. Type. —Adult male, no. 181636, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Batu Jurong, south- western Borneo, June 22, 1908; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Measurements of type-—Wing, 99 mm.; tail, 65; exposed culmen, 21; height of bill at base, 8; tarsus, 21; middle toe without claw, 15. PHODILIDAE Phodilus badius abbotti!®, subsp. nov. Subspecific characters.—Similar to Phodilus badius badius, of Java, but somewhat larger, and with upper parts and legs paler. Description.—Type, adult, sex unknown, no. 172948, U. 8S. Nat. Mus.; Province Wellesley, Federated Malay States, western Malay Peninsula, 1899; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Forehead between light vinaceous fawn and vina- ceous buff; crown, occiput, upper cervix, back, rump, and upper tail-coverts, between tawny and russet brown, spotted with dark brown; a collar on the lower cervix, together with the outer scapulars, bright ochraceous tawny, spotted with dark brown; tail russet, barred with black; wings russet, the lesser coverts mixed with ochraceous tawny along their median line and spotted with dark brown; face like the forehead, but the fringe all along the eyes, except on the outside, russet, mixed with rather reddish mars brown; a narrow collar on the throat rather reddish mars brown; below this a collar of creamy white; rest of lower parts like the forehead, but breast, sides, and flanks, mixed with a color between yellow ochre and ochraceous buff; thighs between pinkish cinnamon and clay color, paler on the inside; under wing- coverts dull white, tinged with buffy, the middle of these coverts russet. Measurements of type.—Wing, 192 mm.; tail, 85; exposed culmen, 26; height of bill at base, 17; tarsus, 42; middle toe without claw, 33. BUBONIDAE Strix leptogrammica nyctiphasma, subsp. nov. Subspecifie characters.—Like Strix leptogrammica myrtha of Sumatra, but with face and forehead lighter, and the posterior lower parts darker, more rufescent, the dark bars therefore less distinct. Description .—Type, adult male, no. 179099, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Pulo Bang- karu, Banjak Islands, Barussan Islands, western Sumatra, January, 1902; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Forehead russet, paler anteriorly; crown, occiput, and upper cervix, dark, rather rufescent bone brown; superciliary stripe and lower cervix between sanford brown and hazel, mixed to some extent with the paler color of the bases of the feathers; upper back between deep mars brown and warm sepia; back, rump, upper tail-coverts, and scapulars, between tawny and cinnamon brown and a lighter shade of the same, barred with the color of the crown, but the outer scapulars pale buff; wings and tail like the crown, barred with brown, varying from the color of the back to: pale pinkish buff; lores dull white, the tips of the feathers blackish; ear dises like the superciliary stripe, but paler and mixed with whitish on their posterior edges; posterior auricular region like the crown; sides of neck, together with the chin, throat, and jugulum, brown like the superciliary stripe: remainder of lower 10 Named for Dr. W. L. Abbott. JuLy 19, 1924 SPECK: SIOUAN WORDS 303 parts, including the thighs and the lining of the wings, cinnamon buff, but the crissum paler, the thighs darker, and all except the sides of the body barred with the brown color of the crown. Measurements of type—Wing, 293 mm.; tail, 176; exposed culmen, 30.5; culmen from cere, 23; height of bill at base, 23; tarsus, 46; middle toe without claw, 35. This new owl has been found on only the Banjak Islands. It may be distinguished from Strix lepogrammica niasensis, from the neighboring island of Nias by its larger size. The four recognizable races of this species are: 1. Strix leptogrammica lepotogrammica Temminck. Borneo. 2. Strix leptogrammica myrtha (Bonaparte.) Sumatra. 3. Strix leptogrammica niasensis (Salvadori.) Nias Island. 4. Striz leptogrammica nyctiphasma Oberholser. Banjak Islands. ETHNOLOGY.—The possible Siouan identity of the words recorded from Francisco of Chicora on the South Carolina coast. F. G. Speck (Communicated by J. R. Swanton). One of the most baffling problems of American ethnology has been that of the linguistic identity of the tribes inhabiting the coast of South Carolina in the sixteenth century. The meager informa- tion left to us by the early Spanish writers who dealt with the region has not been sufficient to dispel the mist of uncertainty as to whether their speech had its affinities with eastern Siouan tribes of whom the Catawba, Tutelo, and Woccon are typical, or whether their relationships were with the Yuchi or Muskhogean groups. Mooney in 1894! felt that the affinities of some of these unclassified languages were with Yuchi, while others were probably related to the eastern Siouan group, and the latter conviction has recently taken a more definite phase in the mind of Swanton.? Yet their inclination to this opinion rested more upon inferences drawn from the statements of a certain Indian, named Francisco of Chicora, who was taken by the Spaniards in 1521, and who, after his conversion, gave certain information to his captors, than upon any direct correspondence of words with the known eastern Siouan dialects so far as material in them is available. All authorities agree in accepting evidence of a similarity in phonetics and in the -re terminations in proper names and place names in the dialect in question as suggestive of Siouan affinity. 1 James Mooney, Siouan tribes of the East, Washington, 1894. 2 J. R. Swanton, Early history of the Creek Indians and their neighbors, Bull. 73, Bur. Amer. Ethnology, Washington, 1922. 304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13. The descriptions of territory and the customs of the natives given by the Indian Francisco of Chicora applied to countries known as Chicora and Duhare which, after lengthy consideration, Swanton concludes to have been inhabited by some of the small tribes of eastern South Carolina supposed to be Siouan. Any new deductions from the existing sources tending toward the further elucidation of the problem may be considered acceptable, so I present the accompanying notes which seem to lend a still more definite cast to the Siouan complexion of the tongues under considera- tion. Swanton, in his thorough survey of the problem, quotes at length from the account of Peter Martyr whose narrative, he says, has hitherto escaped ethnological investigators. By comparing the native terms given therein with Catawba linguistic material secured under the auspices of the Bureau of American Ethnology from the few surviving speakers of this interesting and important language during several recent periods of field work, I am able, I believe, to point out correspondences between the terms in the dialects of ‘‘Chicora”’ and “‘Duhare’’ and those in modern Catawba, to a degree which seems to earry the hitherto suspected Siouan determination to a more definite phase. After looking over the evidence, Swanton adds the following com- ments in a letter to the writer, explaining more exactly the application of the term Cusabo and defining the supposed boundary between the Siouan and Muskhogean peoples. ‘‘I believe the region between the Cape Fear and Savannah rivers to have been occupied by both Siouan and Muskhogean peoples, the former extending southward as far as a point between the Santee River and Charleston Harbor, and the latter including Charleston Harbor and reaching the Savannah and beyond. It is these latter and not the Siouan tribes to which the term Cusabo is properly applied, though it was sometimes extended to include the Sewee and Santee. Francisco of Chicora was, I be- lieve, taken from the Siouan section, somewhere near Georgetown Entrance. The names which he-gives are partly those of Siouan tribes and partly, I think, of Cusabo (Muskhogean) tribes, though of course the latter will come to us in a Siouan form and some may even be in a Siouan dialect throughout. The facts do not affect the ex- planations of words and tribal names offered by you except possibly the last, Inziguanin, which I had thought to be a Cusabo tribe. How- ever, even in that case the word itself may be Siouan.”’ In the first place it is a most striking fact that all of the syllables in the set of terms applying to Chicora and Duhare, even the two names JuLy 19, 1924 SPECK: SIOUAN WORDS 305 _ - themselves, are typical of Catawba. The syllable sequence is also the same; that is to say, all of the terms could mean something in this language, since they represent perfectly possible sound combinations from the point of view of phonetics. The open, long vowels and the consonants occurring in Cusabo all appear in Catawba, and the fre- quent r, like the Spanish correspondent in its trill character, is exclu- sively eastern Siouan, not Muskhogean nor Yuchi. The endings -are, -ora and -re in three of the terms of Martyr’s narrative are also ex- | ceedingly typical of Catawba, the -re being a predicative element. Chicora and Duhare are very likely eastern Siouan terms, as may be seen from the varied meanings which may be drawn from them merely in the one language of the group in which we possess enough material upon which to base comparisons. CORRESPONDENCES IN MODERN CATAWBA PLACE AND PROPER NAMES IN CUSABO (from Martyr’s relation—1521) tcikora “going slowly,” “going down hill’ (tcawakéra full form), kéra ““(to) fOnu The relative position of the two peoples would have made it possible for the Catawba or other eastern Siouan peoples who resided on the Piedmont plateau to have referred to the coast inhabitants by using a comparative geographical designation. It seems rather more plausible than Gatschet’s earlier suggestion; chicora = yutcikere, ‘“Yutci over there’ (Catawba). Chicora, name of district near Winyaw Bay (Swanton). Duhare, the name of a kingdom in the neighborhood. Datha, a king’s name. (In con- temporary Spanish the th was pro- nounced as ¢ + h, not as in Eng- lish.) Xapida, (Xapira) a place name, a town. (The x in 17th century Spanish was pronounced like Eng- lish sh.) Xathi, a cereal eaten by the Indians Xamunambe, a place name guahi (=waht), an emetic herb dugare, ‘‘(to) return.” hohare, ‘it does not come out.” ythare, “to let a thing alone.” ditheare, “he eats.” tdte (nA) “grandfather (my).”’» dAt, “up.” yert A’ swa” “governor, chief.” hdpi- (re), “here.” yaprtén, “flat wood, board.” Si; wrasse witi-, “root, medecine.” (-tz ‘‘root’’) yamu, “in the water,’—nampere “+0 a) sdmu, “roouth.” wa, a prefix used in plant names. wa tap, pumpkin, wakta, blackberry, wapAtu’, muscadine, wanAkw’, hickory). -hi, “the,” or “‘like,’”’ demonstrative | element. 306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 13 Next we have two proper names commencing with the syllable zn-. This is most suggestive of eastern Siouan, Catawba yen(n)-, person, human being, male. Inamahari, name of two wooden idols yenwahdri, people who never die. to which offerings were made. wdriwe, ‘God, he who never dies.” (wahdriwe). Inzigquanin, Inzignanin, people with yern sigrire, ‘‘people stingy,” or long tails like alligators who in- ‘people spoiled,’ also referring habited a neighboring province. ° to ‘‘saltwater’” (¢swa-sigri-) Probably alluding to a myth, cited “river spoiled, salty, the ocean.” by Swanton as being common in the Southeast. Several other terms in the language of Chicora are interesting, for instance the ending -xungwa, -cuga occurring in the designations of the god of the north and the god of the south. But no correspondence with them is apparent from a survey of existing Catawaba terms. The similarity between the forms in the documents and those of Catawba is suspicious considering that the accounts were written four hundred years ago by a scribe who did not always spell his words twice in the same way. Besides, the distance between the two languages was something over 150 miles, and the Catawba, an inland Siouan people, have very few terms that would apply to the geography of the coast. I think that Swanton’s state- — ment (op. cit., p. 47); ‘“‘We may feel pretty certain that both (Chicora and Duhare) were in Siouan territory, but more than that we can not say with any degree of assurance,” receives a little more assurance from what has just been shown. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Davip Wuirer, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, has been elected chairman of the Division of Geology and Geography of the National Research Council for the year beginning July 1, 1924. G. F. Loucuirn has been appointed Geologist in Charge, Section of Metalliferous Deposits, of the U. 8. Geological Survey to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of F. L. Ransomn, and F. J. Karz has been made Geologist in Charge, Division of Mineral Resources, the position vacated by Mr. LOUGHLIN. . | IG RAMS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES! ANNOUNCED | _.. SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL OE ~ Saturday, May 31. The Philosophical Society. A. J. Lorga: Trreversibility—cosmic se and microcosmic. hye’: oe Thursday, June 5. The Entomological Society. Marcus Bensamin: Thoughts on heres ae entomological writings. s ; \ es i S * ‘a | _ 'The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month, . ae \ ae es i if CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Mineralogy.—An occurrence of iron, cobalt-bearing gersdorffite in Idaho SHANNON: 2106. Sno -= 2 Lo Se UR eee MER Re oc Wm Rankine Genetics.—Do balanced lethals explain the ee problem? ‘Ss v: HMERSON) «5s sce oh 22s Pe des He eh wie wees Saw SF eh eae Ee Botany. —New plants from Central and South America. of Chicora on the South Carolina coast. F. G. Senck So wun ines Ere ae Seumirriric Notas any Newes £25)... 024 eee abe ee een oe ae OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: amis L. Dy Geophysical ae a, oe 4) BY Aveust 19, 1924 No. 14 JOURNAL OF THE SHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS E _P, Kitur W. PF. Mrocers D. F. Hewerr mUSsEOM BUREAU OF STANDARDS @ROLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. RoxwrEr PRILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 2 BNTPOMOLOGICAL BOCIETY E. A, GotpMax G. W. Stosx BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY SROLvGicalL 4ocrmrr R. F. Grices J. R. Swanton BOTAN aL S0cIE?PTY ANVBROPOLO@ICAL SOCIETY -E. WIcHERS CBRMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mast GERIRNY gon Wii Insp) Mr. Roya aNd GuiILrorp AVES. Lee . yy Bautmore, MARYLAND “2 x =AUG 2 5 1924 Wy. ae Sonal Muse? bee geen | Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the 4 Act of August 24,1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. 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Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, I European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges—The Journau does not exchange with other publications. 4 ti Missing Numbers will be.réplaced without uno Promitey ‘that claim is ma, within thirty days after date of the following 1 issue. i * Volume [, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special are given to members ot scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. aa JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 14 Aveust 19, 1924 No. 14 GEOLOGY.—Oceanography in its relations to other earth sciences.! THomMAs WAYLAND VAUGHAN, Scripps Institution, La Jolla, California. INTRODUCTION The earth is composed of five more or less concentric shells of material, which are known as the centrosphere, the asthenosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. Ocean- ography deals primarily with the hydrosphere, or more precisely that part of the hydrosphere contained in the ocean. As the hydrosphere hes between two of the other spheres, its relation to them is physically most intimate, and to understand it, attention may not be confined merely to the adjacent spheres, but it is necessary in imagination to pierce the subjacent lithosphere and proceed to the innermost part of the earth. Oceanography must, therefore, concern itself with all recognized branches of geophysics. In its relations to geology it transcends the bounds usually set to geophysics and passes into the field of biology, for the present ocean holds the key to the significance of the remains of most organisms contained in the stratified rocks and _ the ocean alone can reveal the nature of many geologic processes which are dependent on the activity of organisms and were operative in the past and are operative at the present time as well. In an address such as this, it is not possible to review all the sub- jects I have indicated. The most that I can aspire to do is to point out some of the reciprocal relations between oceanography and other earth sciences. From some of these sciences oceanography may be the principal beneficiary, to others it may make contributions of 1 Address of the retiring president, WasHineton AcApEmMy or SciENcEs, Washington, Jan. 8, 1924. 307 308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 fundamental importance. Although terrestrial magnetism is one of the important earth sciences, and investigations in it need to be conducted on the sea as well as on the land, I shall only mention it now and shall not give it further consideration in subsequent — remarks. Since my chief scientific activity has been in geology, I may be permitted to emphasize certain geologic relations and to dwell on my beloved bottom muds. Washington scientific men have been fortunate in that they Rs receatly had opportunities to hear excellent presentations of the results of two kinds of investigations which concern the lithosphere, both where it is and where it is not overlain by water. I refer to Dr. A. L. Day’s lecture on the work of the Earthquake Committee of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and Dr. David White’s address on the relation of gravity-anomalies to the density of geo- logic formations. These addresses might be appropriately classified as oceanographic, for both of them dealt with features of the litho- sphere, and 71 per cent of the lithosphere lies under the ocean. Doctor Day did project his studies under the waters of the Pacific as far out from the land as the 2,000 fathom curve. To both of these gentle- men I extend my very warm thanks, for they have helped me greatly. CONFIGURATION OF THE LITHOSPHHERE The total area of the earth according to Sir John Murray? is 196,499,000 sq. mi., of which 57,254,000 is land and 139,245,000 water. That is, about 29 per cent of the surface of the earth is land and about 71 per cent of the surface is water. Therefore, 71 per cent of the surface relief of the lithosphere is under the ocean and only 29 per cent above sea level. It will be generally admitted that considered as knowledge of the earth, it is as important to know the configuration of that part of the lithosphere below, as well as that part above, sea level. It is a scientific misfortune that so many of our maps stop the indie ations of relief at the shore, and it is hoped that this defect may very soon be remedied. In fact, some recently published maps are contoured for the areas both above and below sea level. Although the configuration of the sea bottom is very inadequately known, there is available a considerable body of information—at least enough to make approximations to actual conditions. The ? Murray, Sir John, and Hjort, J., Depths of the Ocean, p. 132, 1912. t auGust 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY 309 average depth of the ocean is greater than 12,000 ft. and less than 18,000 ft., while the average height of the land is probably about 2.400 it. The average ocean depth, therefore, is more than 5 times the average height of the land. The greatest depths of the ocean are a little over 30,000 ft., and somewhat exceed the greatest height of the land. Although from present information it seems that vast areas of the sea-floor are low-lying plains, as most of the eastern Pacific, not all of it is so nearly flat. Two areas adjacent to America in which there is great or considerable relief are the Caribbean region and the sea-bottom off the coast of California south of San Francisco. Surveys of the sea-bottom supply only empirical data on relief, just as topographic surveys supply only empirical information on the surface features of the land above sea level. How are the features to be explained? In order. to answer this question it is necessary to know all those forces that have caused the earth to deviate from the shape of the theoretical spheroid of revolution and assume that of a geoid. To say that the oceanic basins are underlain by heavier and the con- tinents by lighter material—and this is generally accepted as true— is not sufficient, for the boundaries between the land area and the sea bottom are neither uniformly abrupt nor gradually shelving. Such lack of uniformity in the nature of the boundary is indicative of heterogeneity in the composition of the lithosphere on the one hand and of differential movement on the other. Weare, therefore, brought face to face with the problem of the relative weights of the constituents of the different columns of earth substance and the forces that pro- duce differential movements in the earth’s crust. In order to get more information on the density of the material underlying the oceanic basins, gravity determinations at sea are essential. We need for the sea such data as we now have for the land area of the United States, and it is hoped that the recent inven- tions of Professor Michelson and Dr. F. E. Wright will render the needed measurements practicable. The study of the dynamics of geologic structures is just as es-— sential in oceanography as in the study of those structures exposed to view on land surfaces. It is well known that the contact zones between continent and ocean are or were sites of great earth move- ments and adjacent to the sites of such movements there are impor- tant volcanic zones. It is necessary only to mention the earthquake # Geikie, A., Textbook of Geology, 4thedit.,1: 49. 1903. 310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 — zone and the so-called ring of fire of the Pacific. Radial contraction of the earth seems to be accepted by both the adherents of the Kant- — Laplace and of the planitesmal hypotheses of the origin of the earth. Geologists are all convinced of important tangential thrusting near the surface of the earth as well as vertical displacement, although only a few accept the hypothesis of continental drift advocated by Wegener. Notwithstanding agreement about a few general princi- ples underlying geologic structures, relatively little is known. More energetic investigation of these features of the earth should be ad- vocated and supported by geodesists, geologists, and oceanographers. In this connection the work of the Earthquake Committee of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the codperating institutions deserves the highest commendation. The kinds of configuration of the ocean bottom so far considered are the major features, the ocean basins and the more or less sub- marine ridges with their associated submarine troughs or other de- pressions. These are the great tectonic features of the ocean on which other forces play. In the sea, forces are operative which tend to bring the sea bottom to the great base-level of the sea—wave-base. Above wave-base, there is marine erosion which tries to cut down all that stands above it, while below it sedimentation tries to raise the bottom to that level. In some places in the sea agencies tend to fill the sea above wave-base, but such filling, unless the access of new material exceeds in rate the capacity of the waves to cut, must be only temporary. The accumulation of sediment on the sea bottom is not merely due to detritus washed from the land. The most wide-spread deposits — in the sea are composed of the remains of organisms which build their skeletons out of substances dissolved in the sea-water. Some of the organic rocks, coral and algal reefs for instance, may have distinctive form. A number of factors may cause sea-level itself to fluctuate, for a glacial epoch will lower sea-level and deglaciation will raise it; an overdeepening of an oceanic basin will draw the sea downward from the land; and an elevation of the sea-bottom or the accumulation of sediment in the sea will cause the ocean to overflow its shores. The land surface may go down. Currents and waves affect the shore and the bottom below it at least as deep as wave-base—and currents may be effective to even greater depths. The results of all these processes is to produce a submarine phys ography of great complexity. This physiography has not received august 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY 311 the attention it deserves, and until it has been sufficiently studied many phenomena of importance both in understanding the ocean itself and the geologic history of adjacent land areas cannot be ade- quately explained. Wave-base has been mentioned. What is the depth of wave-base off different kinds of shores and under different climatic conditions? Except in a very general way, I think it safe to say no one knows. A thoroughgoing investigation of the profile of submarine equilibrium is one of the outstanding needs of the physiographic side of ocean- ography. CLIMATOLOGY AND OCEANIC CIRCULATION Atmospheric circulation and oceanic circulation are comparable in that both are due to the same fundamental causes, viz., the rota- tion of the earth on its axis, the heat of the sun, and the rugosities of the lithosphere. A subaerial mountain range will affect the move- ment of the air, while a submarine mountain range will affect the movement of oceanic water. Of course, the air envelops the entire earth, while the ocean covers only about 71 per cent of its surface. There is a well known reciprocal relation between the air and the ocean. For instance the trade winds tend to drive the surface water of the tropics and subtropics westward and produce a westward- setting surface current. Admiral Pillsbury’s explanation of the Gulf Stream is known to all of you and I need not repeat it. The relation between the land climate of western Europe and the tempera- ture of the north Atlantic and between the land climate of the western part of America and the temperature of the adjacent part of the north Pacific is common information. It is also known that a very high barometer will depress the surface of the ocean, which will rise where the pressure is low. There are other generally recognized interrelations between the air and the sea. It appears that the acquisition of more detailed information on the temperature of the surface waters of the ocean and of atmospheric conditions over the sea may render assistance in forecasting what the weather on the adjacent continents may be. This is a field in which some but not nearly enough work has been done and it should be cultivated more assiduously. That knowledge of oceanic circulation is of the utmost importance to man in navigation is obvious to everyone, and deficiencies in knowledge are recognized and deplored. Besides the value of the information for such purposes, it is also needed in order to under- 312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 © stand the factors controlling the geographic distribution of numerous marine organisms; and knowledge of the interrelation between or- ganisms and currents can be projected backward in time and utilized in interpreting the geologic record. MARINE, SEDIMENTS Marine sediments cover most of the sea-bottom, about 71 per cent of the earth’s surface, and perhaps about 60 per cent of the land surface of the earth, or approximately 90 per cent of the entire sur- _face of the earth. If areal extent is an index of relative importance, the marine sediments are by far the most important class of rocks at the surface of the earth. The thickness of 0.5 mi. assigned to the sedimentary rocks by Professor Clarke in his Data of Geochemistry is, I think, too low. The actual thickness is not known, and this, therefore, is another subject that should receive prompt and com- prehensive consideration.* I shall not attempt to give any general review of marine sediments. It can not be done in the time permissible for this address. I will state that as the ancient marine sediments can be interpreted only by the light derived from the study of modern sediments, the study of modern sediments is a geologic necessity. I will now pass to the consideration of certain special sediments, viz.; calcium-carbonate sediments. CALCIUM CARBONATE SEDIMENTS The calcium carbonate contained in or composing sediments is deposited from solutions either in contact with the tissues of organ- isms or by physical or chemical processes which may or may not be dependent on the activities of organisms. The original source of the calcium carbonate is the crust of the earth. According to F. W. Clarke and H. 8. Washington’s estimate of 1920° the average amount of CaO in the earth’s crust is 5.08 per cent and that of CO, is 0.102. Clarke in his Data of Geochemistry assumes that the lithosphere consists of 95 per cent igneous and 5 per cent sedimentary rocks. He distributes the 5 per cent of sedimentary rocks as follows: Shales, 4; sandstones, 0.75; limestones, 0.25. In modern deep-sea sediments 4See Chamberlain, T. C., The age of the earth from the geological view point. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soe. 61: 254-255. 1922. 5 Washington, H.S., The chemistry of the earth’s crust, Journ. Franklin Inst., p. 773, 1920. : august 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY 313 CaCQ; is about 32 per cent, and if this ratio should hold for sediments in general, the CaCO; ratio is much higher than is usually supposed; limestone should be not 0.25, but 5 x 0.32 = 1.60, or Clarke’s figure may be less than one-sixth of what it should be; or 5 xX 0.2175 = 1.0880 if all the CaCO; at the surface of the earth were confined to the deep-sea bottom. TABLE 1—PerceNnTAGE OF CaCO; In MopERN DrEp-SEA SEDIMENTS (Data taken from Challenger report) Area of the Earth: 196,470,700 sq. mi. | ! - (1) (2) | (3) (4) (5) PER CENT OF PER CENT OF PRODUCTS OF FIGURES IN NAME OF DEPOSIT AREA IN SQ. MI.| AREA OF THE : = unis CaCOs3 COLUMNS (8) AND (4) | Red clay...-......| 51,500,000} 26.2 6.70* 26.2 X 6.70 = 175.54 Radiolarian ooze....| 2,290,000 | hgh 4.01 Ig et 4.41 Diatom ooze.......| 10,880,000 | DD 22.96 5.5 XK 22.96 = 126.28 Globigerina ooze. .., 49,520,000 | 25.2 | 64.47 25.2 X 64.47 = 1624.64 Pteropod ooze..... 400,000 | 0.2 79.25 0.2 X 79.25 = 15.85 ee 2,556,800 | 1.3 | 85.58 1.3 X 85.53 = 111.39 Coral sand ) Volcanic mud | 600,000} 0.3 | 270-49) 99.64 | 0.3x 29.65 = 8.89 Voleanie sand ) | 28.79 Green mud} | 50,000 0.4 | 25-79\ 37.65 | 0.4.x 37.64= 15.08 Green sand ) 49.78 Red mud..........| 100,000 0.05 | 32.28 0,05 < 32:28 = | 1.61 Blue mud.........| 14,500,000 | 7.3 12.48 TO WALES Oi TO [it 67255 2175.27 2175.27 ——— = 32.20 per cent. 67.55 56 CaCO; = 32.20 per cent; CaO =32.20 a = 18.03 per cent 18.03 5.08 average for the earth’s crust. Concentration of CaO in deep-sea sediments = = 3.55 times the percentage in the * Mr. George Steiger informs me orally that the CaCO, in red clay is about 9 per cent. There is great need for more accurate investigations of the chemical composition of sedimentary geologic formations with the deter- mination of the areas, thickness, and volumes of the different forma- tions so that estimates of the average composition of the sedimentary rocks may be rendered possible. There is strong evidence of con- 314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 _ centration of CaCO; in marine formations and it seems that this J has escaped the notice of most geologists.° DERIVATION OF CALCIUM FROM THE ORIGINAL CRUST OF THE EARTH The calcium is derived from the constituents of the original earth substance by the action of acid radicles that would produce soluble calcium salts. These salts are not necessarily CaCO3, which would result from the action of CO, on calcium compounds. CaSO, and CaCl, are also water-soluble calcium salts and CaCO; may be formed from either of them by adding a strong alkaline carbonate, such as (NH,)2 COs, K,CO;, Na,CO; or bicarbonate, according to the equation for the sulphate, R,CO; + CaSO, = CaCO; + RSO,, in which R represents a monovalent alkaline base. It seems more probable that the principal solvents of Ca were waters containing ©O,; and SO, radicles. Clarke in his Data of Geo- chemistry properly attributes the greater amount of solution to carbonated waters, but I wish to enter a plea for more consideration of the sulphate radicle. Chlorine might be an important solvent were it not for the greater affinity of Na for Cl, especially in the presence of CO; and SO, radicles. The discrepancy between the amounts of Na and Cl in the rocks and of Na and Cl in the ocean has been recognized by several geophysicists and chemists. There is a known excess of Cl to an amount of about 50 to 1. Several attempts have been made to explain this discrep- ancy. F. C. Brown’ postulates that both Na and Cl are derived by radioactive processes, and that in the evolution of these elements the amount of Cl in comparison with the amount of Na in the present average composition of the earth’s crust has outrun the proportion of Na and thereby produced the discrepancy. Professor Chamberlin suggests that there may be a return of the sodium of the ocean to the solid state in the ocean sediments® and that the discrepant ratios of Na and Cl in the ocean as compared with the parent rocks may thereby be explained. Notwithstanding the discrepant amount of Na and Cl, in whatever way the fact be explained, there is enough 6 Leith and Mead, in their Metamorphic Geology recognize such a concentration of CaCOs. 7 Brown, F. C., Sur wn preuve que le sodium appartient a une serie radioactive d’ élément, Le Radium,9: 4. 1912. 8 Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 61: 264. 1922. auGustT 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY 315 Na to combine with Cl and we have no important amount of Cl in our atmosphere. Therefore, it seems probable that Cl was not an important acid radicle in the original solutionof Ca from the parent rocks. Two calcium salts, therefore, seem to be the sources of the impor- tant deposits of limestone, viz., CaSO, and CaCOs. CHEMICALLY PRECIPITATED CALCIUM CARBONATE IN THE OCEAN The presence of large quantities of finely divided calcium in the vicinity of the Florida Keys was recognized long ago. In 1863, E. B. Hunt® described the so-called white-water periods, which are due to the stirring up of the fine-grained calcium-carbonate muds by storms. Nearly fifty years later Sanford!® said, ‘‘other deposits, such as the marls accumulating on the bottom of Whitewater Bay, have been precipitated from solutions in ways not clearly under- stood.” . My own studies of the problem were an outgrowth of an investi- gation of the oolitic limestones of southern Florida which I began in February, 1908. From the structure of the oolite grains, the opinion was reached by Messrs. Sanford, Clapp, and Matson and myself that the grains were formed by chemical agencies which caused precipitation of calcium carbonate in concentric shells out- ward from an interior nucleus. In the hope that oolite might be found in process of formation, I undertook in the summer of 1908 a detailed study of the bottom deposits in the bays and sounds of the Key region of Florida. Some results of these studies were published in 1910 in a paper by me on the geologic history of the Floridian Plateau... Mr. Geo. C. Matson made mechanical analyses of the bottom samples and described the sepa- rates. This was a first attempt at such work by both Mr. Matson and me and in the light of later experience it is crude, but, neverthe- less, valuable information was procured. From the field studies of Mr. Sanford and myself it was found that the soft caleareous mud was in places 10 ft. or more in depth and from the microscopic examination of the finest separates I said “that the accumulation on the sea-bottom of large quantities of 9 Amer. Journ. Sci., 2d Ser., 35: 200. 1863. 19 Florida Geol. Survey., 2d. Annual Report, 228. 1910. “ Vaughan, T. W., A contribution to the geologic history of the Floridian Plateau, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Pub. 133: 99-185. 1910. 316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 amorphous calcium carbonate, apparently not of detrital origin, is undeniable.”’” The interpretation of a part of the finely divided calcium carbo- nate deposits of the Floridian region as a chemical precipite by Mr. Sanford and me was new and the correctness of our conclusions has been abundantly corroborated by subsequent investigations. PHYSICAL, BIOLOGIC, AND CHEMICAL FEATURES OF THE MUDS® The following are the results of mechanical analyses of several samples which are about typical of the class of deposit under con- sideration: MecHanicaL ANALYSES OF Bottom SAMPLES ponies, | 2-1 MM. 10.5. | 0.5-0.25 mu. ee, 10 Leer ee eee BESsm oi 1.0 1.6 isi 10.2 25.1 25.8 35.4 88 0.6 1.9 4.3 16.1 27.9 1955 30.3 i | 1.6 4.5 5.0 6.5 12.2 al.1 40.1 261 | 1.2 2.9 4.0 30.4 23.7 RS 26.3 262 0 0.1 0 0.2 0.5 29.5 69.8 Silt + clay for Nos. 87, 88, 177, 261...................average 55.0 per cent Clay TarINOS OOo Lida taOl = ts mt hea cone gets oeey Rae average 35.5 per cent Explanation of station numbers: B.s. 87, Bahamas, 1 mi. w. of w. mouth of South Bight, depth 1 fm. 88, Bahamas, 3 mi. w. of w. mouth of South Bight, depth 8 ft. 177, Bahamas, 2 mi. w. of w. mouth of South Bight, depth 1 fm. 261, Bahamas, 1 mi. w. of w. mouth of South Bight, depth 8 ft. 262, Florida Weys, east of Sugar Loa fKey, north side of Loggerhead Kxey, depth about tide level. 2 Carnegie Inst. Washington, Pub. 133: 136. 1910. 13 Prof. Richard Field has applied the name ‘‘drewite’’ to the fine-grained deposits in Tortugas lagoon, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Yearbook 18: 197. 1920, but he does not define the term petrologically, physically, chemically, or otherwise. Later, Dr. E. M. Kindle, Pan-American Geologist, 39: 368-369. 1923, used the term ‘‘drewite”’, but he also gives no adequate description of it. However, he designated as the typical locality of ‘‘drewite’’, the shallow-sea bottom of the Great Bahama Bank, west of Andros Island. ‘‘Drewite’’ is not recognizable from the definitions of either Field or Kindle. I know from a study of material from the two areas that the ‘‘drewite”’ of Field is not the ‘“‘drewite’’ of Kindle. If ‘‘drewite’’ should be accepted as a name, it should be applied to the kind of deposit Field had in mind. It is my opinion that in- vestigations have not yet advanced far enough to warrant any fixed nomenclature for such deposits. If a temporary name is desired, Grabau’s term “‘calcilutite’’ might be applied to the ‘‘drewite’’ of both Field and Kindle, but Grabau’s term was proposed for indurated calcium carbonate muds. te auGustT 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY Sal The striking feature of these analyses is the high percentage of particles of silt and clay sizes. The small amount of material of the larger sizes is composed prin- cipally of foraminifera referred to Orbiculina adunca (Fichtel and Moll), but there are some Sorites duplex (Carpenter) and shells of small mollusks. The intermediate sizes are composed of smaller foraminifera and ellipsoidal aggregates of minute particles of calctum carbonate, mostly aragonite needles. The ellipsoidal aggregates are particularly characteristic of the Bahamian deposits. The finest sizes are aragonite needles and particles so minute as to be visible only with a very high power of the microscope or the ultramicroscope. Many of the small particles show distinctly under polarized light and, therefore, are probable crystalline. The smaller aragonite needles and the other minute particles exhibit vigorous Brownian movement. As it seemed that there was an appreciable amount of particles of colloidal size in these muds, I requested Prof. Milton Whitney to test several samples for their probable colloidal content. Inthe first specimen submitted (b.s. 261) it was estimated on the basis of the adsorption of water vapor that there was 8.6 per cent colloid. I then submitted about a quart of mud from the west side of Andros Island, Bahamas (b.s. 177) in the hope that enough colloid might be extracted for a chemical analysis. Professor Whitney reported: “In an attempt to separate out colloidal material from the sample at our disposal we used a small high-speed centrifuge the inside dimensions of the bowl being 1.75 inches in diameter, 0.875 inch in radius and the length of the bowl was 7.5 inches. Running this centrifuge at a speed of 28,000 revo- lutions per minute we obtained a solution of considerable turbidity in which, however, we found a large number of needles which we assumed to be arago- . nite having a diameter of about one-tenth micron and varying in length from 1 to 4 microns. As the persistence of organized material in liquids passing through this centrifuge at this velocity is very unusual the remainder of the sample was made quite dilute so as to have sufficient volume to pass through our larger centrifuge. The internal dimension of the bowl of this larger centrifuge is 4.125 inches in diameter or 2.0625 inches in radius while the length of the bowl is 22.75 inches. The solution was passed through this centrifuge which was operating at about 17,000 revolutions per minute. In 14H. E. Merwin determined these needles to be aragonite. “ Por photomicrographic illustrations see Vaughan, T. W., Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 28: pl. 47, fig. 6, 1917; and Coral and the formation of coral reefs, Smithsonian Rept. for 1917, pl. 32, fig. 3, 1919. 318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 the solution so prepared no aragonite needles could be distinguished by the ultra microscopic nor could any definite evidence be found of colloidal droplets. “The turbid solutions passing through the small centrifuge were then passed through a Pasteur-Chamberlain filter tube under suction, the material collecting on the outside of the tube being occasionally detached by reversing the current and putting a pressure on the inside of the tube when the material detaches itself and slides off into a dish. This concentrated material was put on a plate that was slightly warm in order to hasten the evaporation of the small amount of liquid when it began to swell up with bubbles evidently CO, escaping at a temperature somewhat above room temperature. This was an indication of a considerable amount of bicarbonate being present which may have been formed through the passage of air during the time taken to filter the water off through the Pasteur-Chamberlain tube. As it was evident that some change has occurred in the material it was felt that satis- factory results could not be obtained by carrying the matter further. “As the conditions in the material seemed to be very delicately adjusted we took some of the original solution that had passed through the smaller centrifuge and which contained what appeared to be small aragonite crystals and passed in CO, when the suspended material was entirely dissolved and an apparently clear solution was obtained. One portion of this was put in the vacuum desiccator when a profusion of CO, bubbles were given off. A small amount of solids separated out with the escaping of the gas which were found to be calcite. Another portion of this clear solution was gently warmed on a hot plate, somewhat above the room temperature, to drive off the COs. A number of crystals formed which under the ultra microscope were identified as a mixture of calcite and aragonite needles.” In compliance with a suggestion from Professor Whitney, I re- quested Dr. Paul Bartsch to get for me a large sample of mud at a locality along the Florida Keys where I knew the material was very fine grained. This specimen contained 69.8 per cent of particles of clay size but the percent of colloid has not yet been determined. The results of these tests was to show that much of the fine material in these samples consists of particles of colloidal size, thereby cor- roborating an inference that would be drawn from the Brownian movement so well exhibited. The Bahamian samples differ from the Floridian samples by having a far greater abundance of neat, very distinct aragonite needles. There are some aragonite needles in the Floridian samples, but many of the small particles appear to be rhombs and are probably calcite, but this feature needs more careful study. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE MUDS The following are chemical analyses of several of the muds and specimens of oolite: \ - auGcust 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY 319 - CHewican ANALYSES OF OOLITE AND BoTroM SAMPLES FROM FLORIDA AND THE BAHAMAS* (By W. C. Wheeler) OOLITE, BOCA FLORIDA per cent SiO: . 0.03 + eee 0.18 ol See 0.22 MgO.. Trace 7 lL ate SS TMi Na,O. } 0.90 eee Trace - J ee 1 Eee} . > 42.34 0 Se eee Trace A 0.28 |e 1.02 Soluble...... OL ae |} 99.95 Reduced analyses (hypothetical combinations); H.O, organic OOLITE, GRANDE KEY, EVERGLADES, MIAMI, FLORIDA|/ANDROS ISLAND per cent 8.238 0.00 0.21 Trace 51.60 0.11 Trace 0.17 40.11 Trace Trace 0.08 100.51 BOTTOM SAMPLE}F (98), suanrrornr, | EASTSIDE LAGOON, FLORIDA per cent per cent 0.07 1 ils 0.00 0.14 0.13 0.21 (total Fe) Trace esi 54.57 51.04 TAO) ee Ne 8 TrACes, sastessoen we. 1.72 2.03 (and organic) 43.07 41.50 ‘Erace Nseries OPA) aallccareo eee: OL O38 si a ReReresercens 2.21|| 99.87 99.57 matter, salts rejected; silica not essential lee ee 0.03 (Al, Fe)20; dala Sita obec 0.42 MgCo;. Trace CaCO; a2 8; eer eer re 99.05 Ca;P.0; Trace CaSO, 0.50 Tae | 100.00 * Vaughan, T. W., Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 28: 937. 8.19 0.21 Trace 100.00 + Sample washed and dried over H.SO;. t Sample filtered, washed, and dried ever H.SO,. § Twenty-five per cent soluble SiO,; the rest of the silica appears to be white sand. | Saline salts not washed out by water in the preparation of the sample. 0.07 1.18 0.13 0.37 Trace 2.88 99.56 95.57 “Prace= 4 |h* tas ae (027: Ca ie ae ee 100.00 100.00 LOT. BOTTOM SAMPLEt (87), 1 MILE WEST OF WEST END OF SOUTH BIGHT, BAHAMAS per cent 0.28 : 0.03 0.11 (total Fe) 3.16 (and organic) 42.45 and soluble 0.29 320 SAMPLE OF MuD FROM THE BAHAMAS, B.S. 261. (Chemical analysis by E. Theodore Erickson) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 CALCULATED AS: LOM Sen in \ eRe SE 228 ache Ye 0.22 S1Osge. sda cceshest coe Oe 0.22 NU O RY eee eee Sia Nate 2a 0.21 Al Opies syns teen ee eae 0.21 Fe.O; 050010 0 hb 010% GO Do Ome 0 BOO 0.06 FeO; GC a en rae oas OM UN Sold 570): 0,070 0.06 JIN VECO) ot 5 aa Nee tee re Ee Cote SE 0.66 CaCQs) vc Gee eee ee ee CaO 50.19 Mig COs...) Sava ctecienn ae ee 1.39 HO snooagcod ODO Oe SOO OCGOMOODONODS 0. 79 SrCO; Pome oO taniiic oo amooi a oroata' Gc O06 6 0.93 CaSO, a\ Felis) ediaties CRGITEM ORCI eee eae ees 0.68 Organic matter and H.O+..... 5.86 Organic matter and H.O + 5.86 BIN @ ers Me tees syste SA dott None (CLO 5 A eee as eer oe Chae ere ae eo! 40.60 SO chk ae See 0.79 1210) any Sepa ee etree i/o NEE OE gt Trace (Ca) 3)(ROD ane eee Trace DO eee ait) See EEE ode eat 0.51 Mini Oi fos. dt one Siete ae Trace Vn @) Bares 25.1 8 NS Loc be etsy at Mralces II Los oy sc reel ,-2.44.4) 5040 eee eee 0.13 per cent When received at the chemical laboratory this sample was “pasty” It was dried to “apparent” dryness at 105°C. for several hours and the above analysis was then made on with an excess of moisture. the dried sample. It is interesting that strontium is present in this sample. An examination of sample, b.s. 261, Andros Island, Bahamas, by Mr. Erickson showed the presence of organic matter, but neither its amount nor its nature was ascertained. Prof. Milton Whitney had a partial chemical analysis and a de- termination of the water-adsorption value made of the colloidal part of b.s. 262 from Florida and reports as follows: PARTIAL CHEMICAL ANALYSIS UF COLLOID FROM B.S. 262. REJECTING PER CENT LOSS ON IGNITION SOS ho CUD eas ee eS Seo O ROMA Aad chs Soon 6a. 2.78 8.02 (TiOs, Fe:0s;, Al,Os, P5O>. Sa aol ao MoS ao oo aon ood 805004900000 2.86 8.25 COOP ee isn oases oo en osnayate tes So oe Ach ORC aoe 20.15 58.10 ‘Vic O) eee ae mE VC 8 > 8.89 25.63 MOSSTOMTISM LEO Mery sk. st oes CORE oe ee ee 62.04 — |)" Sever TECKU es eugene aera ees o Siatdin ete ota.a:4.9 40" 96.72 100.00 auGcustT 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY 321 It is interesting to note that the mineral part of this material is mostly composed of calcium and magnesium salts, of which the cal- cium are more than twice the amount of the magnesium salts, and that SiO, and Fe.O; + AIO; together aggregate less than one-third of the amount of the CaO. The MgO content is relatively high and differs significantly in amountfrom that found in the oolitic limestones. It appears that there are chemical features of these muds that are as yet far from being understood and that additional research is needed. THE LOCUS OF CHEMICALLY PRECIPITATED CaCO; IN THE OCEAN The shoal-water calecium-carbonate deposits have now been studied for several areas in tropical and subtropical regions. Dr. M. I. Goldman made a very detailed study of the reef sands of Murray Island, Australia, and later he has made a similar study of sands collected behind the reef at Cocoanut Point, Andros Island, Bahamas; and M. N. Bramlette has just completed a quantitative deter- mination of the different ingredients of the bottom samples of Pago Pago Harbor, Samoa. No chemically precipitated calcium car- bonate was recognized in any of the samples from the three localities mentioned. Besides these detailed studies by Messrs. Goldman and Bramlette, I have examined numerous bottom samples in a more or less cursory way. The chemically precipitated material, which is identified chiefly by the aragonite needles, is known only under peculiar environmental conditions. The present sites of its undoubted occurrence are chiefly the shallow mud flats on the leeside, the west side, of Andros Island, Bahamas, and some of the flats behind the Florida Keys. Many of the samples I have collected need to be restudied in the light of the wider experience acquired since the inves- tigation of such deposits was undertaken, and the present known extent may be somewhat increased. The natural environment of the deposits is shallow, relatively stag- nant water, which may at times be heated by the sun above the normal temperature of the freely circulating ocean water; the salinity of a spot sample of water from the west side of Andros Island is more than 2 parts per thousand higher than that of the normal ocean water of the region; and there is considerable organic matter in the mud. CAUSE OF THE PRECIPITATION OF THE CALCIUM CARBONATE In 1910 I suggested that the precipitation of CaCO; in the Florida Key region was due to loss of CO, because of mechanical agitation and the action of marine plants." 16 Carnegie Inst. Washington, Pub. 133: 135. 1910. 322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 The investigation had advanced to this stage when G. Harold Drew came to Tortugas in 1911 to study the possible effects of deni- trifying bacteria on the abundance of green marine plants. He told me that he had discovered that these organisms caused the pro- duction of ammonia; and then, as the papers of Murray and other were known to me, I suggested to Drew that he perhaps had dis- covered the agency whereby the precipitation of calcium carbonate in the Florida Key region was effected, and he accordingly under- took a series of cultures to test the action of the denitrifying bacteria, to which he applied the name Bacterium calcis, without having studied the morphology of the organism. Drew’s principal paper on the subject was entitled, On the Pre- cipitation of Calcium Carbonate in the Sea by Marine Bacteria, and on the Action of Denitrifying Bacteria in Tropical and Temperate Seas, in which he expressed the opinion. . . . “it can be stated with a fair degree of certainty that the very extensive chalky mud flats forming the Great Bahamas Bank and those which are found in places in the neighborhood of the Florida Keys are now being precipitated by the action of the Bacterium calcis on the calcium salts present in solution in sea water.’’!7 Assuming that Drew’s conclusions were valid, I concurred in his opinion and published such concurrence in several. papers. After Drew’s unfortunate death in 1913, Messrs. K. F. Kellerman and N. R. Smith of the U. S. Department of Agriculture undertook further investigations of the bacterial floras of the Bahamian muds and thei possible influence in precipitating calcium carbonate. These investigators!® isolated Drew’s Bactercum calcis and found that it is referable to the genus Pseudomonas, the name thereby becoming Pseudomonas calcis (Drew) Kellerman and N. R. Smith. Kellerman and Smith recognized that the organic salts of calcium, the malate and succinate used in cultures by Drew, could not reason- ably be expected to be present in significant amounts in sea-water, and, therefore, devised cultures in which the only additional supply of calcium to the sea-water was calcium sulphate contained in a suspended dialyser. The denitrifying organisms were grown in association with CO, producing organisms, so that the conditions 17 Carnegie Inst. Washington, Pub. 182: 44. 1914. 18 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 400-402. 1914. aucust 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY 323 would be favorable for the reaction CaSO, + (NH,);CO; = CaCO; + (NH,).SO, and abundant precipitation of calcium carbonate resulted. These experiments seemed fairly conclusive that denitrifying bacteria might be an agency in precipitating calcium carbonate in particular areas in the ocean. But Prof. C. B. Lipman, from studies he made in Samoa and later at Tortugas, Florida, reached the con- clusion that denitrifying bacteria do not cause the precipitation of ealecium carbonate in “pure sea water.’’ However, as he says that “ealeareous sand inoculation showed marked nitrite production,’’'® he thereby indicated that he recognized a difference between condi- tions in the open ocean and on the shallow sea-bottom. In the report of the Committee on Sedimentation of the National Research Council for 1923, pp. 33-37, statements by N. R.. Smith and me bring the matter as regards the Bahamian and Floridian bottom deposits up to date to April, 1923. Pseudomonas calcis, from present information, is principally a bottom-living organism and it seems to thrive best on a bottom in which there is considerable organic matter in the mud. The investigations are deficient in that the nature of the organic matter in the mud is still unknown, and until this deficiency is supplied satisfactory conclusions may not be expected. There is no reason to challenge the accuracy of Professor Lipman’s work or his conclusion that denitrifying bacteria do not cause the precipitation of calcium carbonate in “pure ocean water.” But it seems that he has not conducted experiments under conditions which would simulate those under which the particular kind of deposit whose cause is sought is known to occur. In May, 1922, Dr. Paul Bartsch collected an additional large sample of mud off the west side of Andros Island, Bahamas, for me, . and through the kindness of Dr. K. F. Kellerman, N. R. Smith, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, undertook another study of the bacterial flora of the mud. Mr. Smith has completed an elaborate investigation and I quote from his report: ‘A]l the colonies on three plates were picked off and put into media for pure culture work. A comprehensive and critical study of their activity showed them to belong to three large groups based upon their biochemical relations.” 'S Lipman, C. B., Does denitrification occur in sea water? Science, n.s. 66: 501-503. 1922. o24 “Group I. “Group Il. A. B. C. D. “Group III. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 14, No. 14 TABLE I.—Grovprs or Bacteria In B:s. 261 Denitrifiers. Ammonifiers. Vibrios. Rod-forms. (<3 (73 Ps. calcis type. Strong Ammonifier Weak Wealk Inactive forms’’. “e (<3 Weak Ammonifiers—Gram Negative. —Gram Positive. “The precipitation of caletum carbonate in natares and artificial sea water by mixed crude cultures from the mud and by pure cultures is given in Table IDUE, Various sources of food for the bacteria are indicated. In each flask, a dialyzing tube containing calcium sulfate was suspended to keep a supply of calcium in solution.” TABLE II.—Catctum CarBoNATE PRECIPITED IN SEA WATER NUTRIENTS ADDED INOCULUM CaCO3 (1) Peptone 0.2% (2) ce ‘ 2/0} ENO: 0.2 2% (73 (3) 2 gm. cooked aoe albumen Crude cultures Group I Crude cultures Many crystals cc (73 Crystals. (4) 9 gm. “ec “ce ce “ce “ “ce (5) 2 gm. : - Sy Group I and II A | Many erystals (6) Sterile mud in dialyzing tube “land II A | Few erystals (7) aS Saale ss % se Crude cultures Very few crystals (8) cS eke tS os None No crystals ARTIFICIAL SEA WATER (10) Peptone 0.2%; HSNO 0.2% | Group I Few crystals (11) 2 heoae % Crude cultures Many crystals (12) KNO; 0.2% f i Few crystals (13) Peptone 0.2%; “ s Crude cultures Many crystals and aggregates agar 0.2%. (14) Peptone 0.2%; “ + Group I Many crystals and aggregates agar 0.2%. (15) Peptone 0.2%; “ ye Group I and II A | Many erystals and aggregates “One objection might be raised to the above experiments as a whole, and that is that a dialyzing tube of calcium sulfate was suspended in each flask. Also, only Group I and II-A were used for the pure culture inoculations. The following experiment therefore was set up and the results are given in Table III. being as indicated in the table. and zero’s indicate none.”’ Sea water with 0.02% K;HPO, was used as a base, the nutrients Plus marks indicate production of CaCO; TABLE II1.—InNocunatep By Purr CULTURES OF GROUP INiinrenitsee ses ee I II-A II-B Il-C III iPeptone, 02626) ee 0 +++ 0 0 0 Peptone 0.2%....... 0 0 0 ININIO)3'O) ESAs an Seo aee + +++ avueustT 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY 325 “As ean be seen from a glance at the table, Group II-A in pure culture precipitated by far the greatest amount of CaCO; and Group I only precipi- tated CaCO; when nitrates were present. Even then the amount was com- paratively small. A rough analysis of the solution in the flasks of Group I-A after the precipitation of the CaCQ;, showed only about half the amount of ealcium of the control flask. “From the foregoing, the following points seem to be the most important. “1. The bacteria of sea water or bottom mud from the mud bank may be grouped into 6 main groups according to their physiological activity. “2. Calcium carbonate is formed from calcium sulfate as a result of the growth of the bacteria; the more plentiful the food, the better is the chance for the formation of CaCO ;. Bottom mud provides a nutrient for the pro- duction of a small amount of CaCQs. “3. Agar in low percentage favors the formation of larger accumulations of crystals of CaCQs3. “4. CaCO; is formed in natural sea water by pure cultures if organic matter is added.” These experiments show that bacteria taken from a bottom mud largely composed of chemically precipitated material will precipitate CaCO, and that the mud contains nutrient material that will support the bacteria. It also appears that the strongly ammonifying Vibrios are probably more important agents than the denitrifying Pseudomonas. Although the researches of Mr. Smith have advanced knowledge of the possibility of the precipitation of calcium carbonate by am- monifying bacteria, other entirely inorganic factors need to be con- sidered. Johnston and Williamson have made careful studies of the solubility-product constant [Ca++] [CO,=], the concentration of H.CO;, the effect of temperature on H.CO; concentration, and. the relation of the solubility-product constant to rise in temperature ;2" R. C. Wells has conducted experiments on the solubility of calcite in sea-water;! and the relative saturation of sea-water with reference to CaCO, has been studied or discussed by a number of other inves- tigators, including myself. The results of the different investigators - are accordant, and all agree that the surface layers of the ocean water in tropical and subtropical regions is saturated or even super-saturated with reference to CaCO;, and that any agency that would cause a further concentration of CaCOs;, or which would otherwise reduce the capacity of the water to hold CaCO; in solution, would produce pre- 70 Johnston, J., and Williamson, E. D., The role of inorganic agencies in the deposi- tion of calcium carbonate. Journ. Geol. 24: 729-750. 1916. Johnston, J., Merwin, H. E., and Williamson, E. D., The several forms of calcium carbonate. Amer. Journ. Sci. 41: 473-512. 1916. 71 Carnegie Inst. Washington, Pub. 213: 316-318. 1917. 326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 cipitation. Where the chemically precipitated CaCO; is known to be present, there are several such agencies. ‘Two of them are evapora- tion and increased temperature, at least during the summer months. The action of green plants in reducing the CO, content of the water is also an important factor in certain localities. Therefore, theoreti- cally there should be precipitation of CaCO; without any bacteria. The different factors entering into the problems have not been evaluated and we stand now about where we did in 1916, except that advances have been made in knowledge of the physical and chemical features of the deposits and of the bacterial flora associated with them. That ammonifying bacteria, with or without the asso- clative action of CO, producing bacteria, are responsible for part of the work seems reasonable. By associative action the reaction between (NH,). CO; and CaSO; may become possible. Perhaps assistance may come from a physical chemist who is an expert on equilibria or through such a physical chemist working in conjunction with a bacteriologist. I wish to close the account of this subject by a quotation from Murray and Hjort’s Depths of the Ocean, and a comment on their statement. They say: “Dittmar’s item CaCOs;, which was presumably included in order to express the fact that there is on the whole an excess of bases over acids, is obviously incomplete as it stands. From the most recent measurements we gather that a 3 per cent sodium chloride solution, in equilibrium, as regards CO,-tension, with air (which holds good approximately for sea-water), dissolves at 25°C. about 0.07 gr. of ealcium carbonate per litre. Hence there cannot be as much as 0.13 gr. per litre in sea-water [referrmg to Dittmar’s hypothetical combinations in his analysis]. The surplus base should rather be regarded as a mixture of calcium and magnesium bicarbonates, existing in equilibrium with a certain amount of free CO., and of the products of their hydrolytic dissociation, viz., calctum and magnesium hydroxides. It is the two latter which impart to sea-water its alka- line reaction. “On considering sea-water in its relation to submarine deposits we note that, of all possible combinations of cation with anion, there are three which are much less soluble than any others, and are there- fore closest upon saturation and precipitation: these are calcium sulphate, caletum carbonate, and magnesium carbonate. “From what is known of the solubility of gypsum in brines, and allowing for the excess of SO,, one would suppose that sea-water is- auGustT 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY 327 very nearly saturated for this salt, and that addition of, for instance, a sulphate would precipitate it. But gypsum is unknown as a con- stituent of deep-sea deposits (unless of extraneous origin), so that its solubility-limit is evidently never exceeded under submarine conditions.” Although John Johnston, E. D. Williamson, and R. C. Wells have rendered valuable service in their investigation of the solubility of CaCO;, we do not know the solubility limits of CaCO 3, CaSO,., and MeCoO;, in the presence of one another in sea-water. Until this problem in physical chemistry has been solved, we shall not be able definitely to understand some important phenomena in the ocean. The relative solubility of the ocean salts, in the presence of one another, is one of the pressing problems of both oceanography and geology. THE BAHAMIAN AND FLORIDIAN OOLITES As the study of bottom deposits described to you was prompted by the desire to ascertain the origin of the oolitic rocks of Florida and the Bahamas, I will revert to them for a few moments. For some time I thought the ellipsoidal aggregates in the fine-grained muds were to be considered oolite grains, for in external features they are very similar (see plate I, figs. la, 1b, 2), but the grains in the mud do not exhibit the concentric structure of the oolite grains, as plate II, figs. 1-4, shows. However, the cores of the oolite grains are similar to the grains in the muds, and it may yet be shown that the muds repre- sent a stage in the formation of the oolitic limestones. I have ex- pressed this opinion in print, but the opinion was premature. Fur- thermore, I do not consider the results of my experiments on the growth of grains in the muds trustworthy. The experiments were too crudely conducted. The origin of the ellipsoidal grains is a puzzle. They resemble in size, form, and general structure, glauconite and greenalite grains, and it is probable that when their formation is explained the explana- tion will be of wide application. The formation of such aggregates is another of the unsolved problems of oceanography and geology. OTHER CALCIUM CARBONATE MARINE DEPOSITS I shall not undertake to indicate the different kinds of shoal-water calcium-carbonate deposits except to state that they are of organic 2 Vaughan, T. W., Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 3: 303. 1913; Carnegie Inst. Washing- ton, Yearbook 12: 183. 1914; Carnegie Inst. Washington, Pub. 182: 83. 1914. 328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 origin, and comprise remains of algal, foraminiferal, coral, echinoid, mollusean, and other organisms. Clarke and Wheeler have made a valuable contribution to knowledge in their work on the inorganic constituents of the skeletons of marine invertebrates and caleareous algae, and Goldman and Bramlette have rendered an important service in their analyses of bottom deposits to determine the percen- tage of the different organic constituents and correlate organic with chemical composition. Before passing to the next topic, I wish to emphasize the fact that limestone of a high degree of purity, that is from 95 to over 99 per cent CaCOs, is usually either a very shallow water or only a moderately deep-water deposit. The purest limestone is a very shallow water deposit. It is time that the erroneous statements in text-books that pure limestones are deep-water deposits should be erased. Whether a shoal-water deposit is pure limestone or not is determined not by depth of water but by outwash from the land. Where there is no outwash of siliceous, aluminous, and ferruginous material, beach deposits may contain more than 95 per cent of CaCQOs;, and the shal- low water Key West and Bahamian oolites are over 99 per cent CaCO;. None of the deep-sea deposits. nearly approach these de- posits in purity. COLLOIDAL CONSTITUENTS OF DEEP-SEA SEDIMENTS Recently chemical analyses have been made in the Chemical Laboratory of the U. 8. Geological Survey by Mr. L. G. Fairchild of about 60 bottom samples collected by the U. 5. Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer “Surveyor” off the Bahamas, across the Caribbean Sea from Jamaica to Panama, and off the southwest coast of Central America to off the southern end of Lower California. These samples show, as had been pointed out by Sir John Murray, a decrease in CaCO; content with increasing depth. Prof. Milton Whitney under- took the determination of the percentage of material in the colloidal state in these samples by the amount of water vapor adsorbed, and the determinations showed that CaCO, and material in a colloidal state were reciprocal, the two percentages aggregating about 100 per cent, as is shown in the following table based on specimens of Globigerina ooze: 23 U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 102 (1 ed.); 124 (2 ed.) 1922. Journ. WaAsH. Acab. Scr. Vot. 14 PLATE I 2 X 20 Figs. la, 1b. Oolite grains from limestone, No Name Key, V’lorida. Fig. 2. Ellipsoidal grains from mud, b.s. 261, Bahamas. Journ. Wasu. AcApb. Sect. Vou. 14 PLATE 2 Figs. 1, 2, 3. Thin sections of ellipsoidal grains from muds. - Figs. 1, 3, b.s. 261, Bahamas, Fig. 2, b.s. 88, Bahamas. Fig. 4. Thin section of oolite grain, Bahamas. august 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY 329 | NUMBER OF SAMPLE DEPTH TEMPERATURE “°C. CaCO3* COLLOIDt fathoms | per cent per cent 6 2,534 2.8 40.20 57.8 7 2,758 eT 38.02 46.8 8 2,655 2.8 30045 48.6 9 2,595 2.0 38.42 43.5 * Analyses by L. G. Fairchild. 7 Determination by U.S. Bureau of Soils. Method used, absorption of water-vapor, The tests reported on in the following table were based on com- posites supplied by Sir John Murray of all samples of red clay and blue mud collected by the “‘Challenger.”’ PER CENT PER CENT PER CENT CaCO, Borers | NON-COLLOIDAL* (STEIGER) ‘ Boney Meeked Clay. 26h .l.ik..: 63.3 | 16 8.8 88.1 Lb. GOT G Be 66.5 22 9.2 97.7 * Mr. Fry reports these figures as approximations by counting a number of slides: The non-colloidal material is made up of siliceous animal remains and a few quartz fragments. I should lke to review the investigations of Prof. Sven Odén on the mechanical composition of marine sediments, but I may only state that he has made important contributions to the subject. The analyses given above present the problem of accounting for the presence of the material in a colloidal state. There are recog- nizable in our present state of knowledge four possible sources of the colloid, as follows: (1) Outwash from the land; (2) voleanic and other dust precipitated from the atmosphere; (3) the residue from the tests of dead pelagic organisms after their tests have been more or less completely dissolved while falling to the bottom; (4) the mineral residue from the decomposed soft parts of organisms, some of which may be plankton and other deeper, even, bottom-living, organisms. The material is not necessarily derived exclusively from any one of these sources. It seems improbable that outwash from the con- tinents would reach the east side of the Bahamas, but the flocculation and precipitation of particles of colloidal size in sea-water have not been sufficiently investigated to warrant a positive opinion on this possible source. Atmospheric dust, including volcanic dust, deserves careful study and attempts at quantitative estimates of its amount should be made. The test-bearing plankton, Globigerina and associated organisms, has not been the subject of comprehensive and detailed chemical study, and, until such studies have been made, 330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 the nature of the residue after the solution of the CaCO; will not be known. Mr. I. G. Moberg has made chemical analyses of plankton at the Scripps Institution of the University of California, but his investigations are incomplete. He has found an appreciable amount of ash, but its composition is not yet known, or at least the results of the analyses of the ash have not been published. The problems associated with the finer constituents of deep-sea sediments are fascinating and a number of them can be solved. I should like to discuss them further, but I may not do so on this occasion. THE GEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SOME BIOLOGIC FEATURES OF THE OCEAN Many geologic deductions are based on biologic premises. I will briefly discuss three kinds of biologic research that are needed in interpreting sedimentary rocks. These are the rate of growth of rock-forming marine organisms and the ecology and the duration of the free-swimming larval stages of marine organisms. That marine organisms are important rock builders is known to all students of sedimentary rocks and I have in this address already enumerated the more important groups. The rate at which these agents may build rock is determined by their growth rate. About the only groups of such organisms on which there is at all adequate information are the stony corals and Alcyonaria. The stony corals are of more or less romantic interest because of their association with ship-wrecked mariners, feathery palms, and dusky maidens, but the volume of rock attributable to them is relatively small. The other organisms associated with reefs, the nullipores, mollusks, and foraminifera, are fully as deserving of study. If Professor Setchell should give us the data on the nullipores, as it is hoped he will, a considerable body of information will be available on three important groups of organisms in the shoal waters of the tropics. The growth rate of some economically valuable mollusks is known, and these are also rock builders, but much more information is needed. It is desirable to have observations made on the growth rate of all the organisms with hard parts at as many localities as is possible. The organisms that transcend all others in importance as con- tributors to sediments are the foraminifera and I am not aware of any information on their growth rate. In fact there is probably no group of organisms on which information for geologic purposes is more greatly needed than the foraminifera. The need for chemical august 19, 1924 VAUGHAN: OCEANOGRAPHY dol analyses of the foraminiferal plankton has already been stated; and later they will be mentioned again in discussing the duration af free- swimming larval stages. Information of the kind indicated is also needed for diatoms. Per- haps Doctor Mann will tell us uninformed geologists, how long it took to form the diatomaceous earths of the Calvert formation in Mary- land and Virginia and of the Monterey group in California. The history of most sedimentary geologic formations is in large measure deduced from premises derived through the study of the ecology of living organisms. The temperature of the seas in which ancient deposits were laid are inferred almost exclusively from bio- logic evidence. Depth is inferred both from organisms and the nature of the sediments. The intensity of light is inferred from depth and latitude, which controls the angle of incidence of the sun’s rays. The character of the motion of the water is deduced from the physical features and arrangement of the sediments and from biologic evidence. The concentration of salts in the water is deduced from the organisms. Each one of these topics might be the subject of an essay. We need to know for geologic purposes the ecology of all the im- portant groups of marine organisms; and the ecology should not be considered merely in an empirical way but it should be based on the deepest ascertainable mechanical and bio-chemical foundation. Sir John Murray in his treatment of the pelagic foraminifera put before us an ideal toward which we should strive. In order to achieve the desired goal, the bio-chemistry of skeleton formation needs to be thoroughly understood, and I wish to bespeak for Dr. Shiro Tashiro all the encouragement and support his scientific colleagues can give him. In dealing with problems of geologic correlation, which involve the consideration of the geographic distribution of organisms in past’ geologic time, the geologist needs to know the factors that limit distribution to restricted areas and the means whereby dispersal over a possible geographic range may be effected. I have devoted considerable attention to this topic in an address before the Paleon- tological Society and the Geological Society of America, and therefore, need now to treat it very briefly. Certain fossil marine organisms attained world-wide distribution apparently in a rather short time, geologically speaking. Examples of organisms of this kind are supplied by three genera of larger fora- minifera, Discocyclina, Asteriacites, and Lepidocyclina, which are 332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 known in Europe, America, the East Indies, and Asia. Another genus of foraminifera, the large Nummulites found in the limestone of which the Egyptian pyramids are built, is not known in America, but it is known in Europe, Africa, and Asia, and as far eastward as the Bonin Islands. In the adult stage all of these organisms are bottom-living. How can such a distribution be explained? ‘The most plausible hypothesis is that the embryos of Nummulites are free- swimming for only a short time and, therefore, could not be carried great distances by ocean currents, while the embryos of the other genera could be. Several species of corals found on the east coast of Africa also occur in the Hawaiian Islands. How is so wide a distribution of corals made possible? At one stage in their life corals are free-swimming larvae and my own experiments showed that some larvae may remain free for as many as 23 days and then settle and form colonies. The long duration of the free-swimming larval stage renders possible wide dispersal by ocean currents. In order to understand the possible distribution of organisms by marine currents it is necessary to know whether the organisms pass through a free-swimming larval stage and if they do pass through such a stage what the duration of the stage is. Unfortunately rel- atively little mformation is available on most groups of organisms. It is, therefore, obvious that one of the desiderata of geology is to know the duration of the free-swimming larval stage and the upper and lower temperature limits the larvae can withstand for just as many groups of marine organisms as is possible. I will specify for- aminifera, sponges, corals, echinoderms, bryozoa, brachiopods, and mollusks. There are other biologic features of the sea of importance to geolo- gists, but I shall not try to enumerate more. I have mentioned three subjects on which far more research is needed before the demands of the geologists on marine biology will be satisfied. CONCLUSION In the remarks I have made to you, I have not attempted to out- line the content of oceanography, a subject well treated in an address by Capt. R. L. Faris before the Philosophical Society of Washington and published in our Journal.2* I should like'to dwell on some other aspects of the biology of the ocean, particularly the fundamental food supply of marine organisms, and to indicate how it is a field for 24 Faris, R. L., Some problems of the sea, Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 12: 117-132. 1922. © avueust 19, 1924 ADAMS AND WASHINGTON: IRON IN METEORITES 300 investigation as yet scarcely touched, but I must pass it with bare mention. I should also like to indieate the relation of certain oceaon- graphic problems to problems in both geology and engineering, such as the deterioration of concrete in contact with sea-water at and near sea-level and the behavior of the finer constituents of sediments. These problems are mentioned to indicate that this address makes no claim to comprehensiveness. The discussion of each topic considered in my remarks terminates with the presentation of a set of unsolved problems, some of them of great complexity. It might be inferred that very little is known about the ocean. Such as inference would be a half truth. If we compare what is now known with what was known in the days when Maury was doing his epoch-making work, it will be evident that great advances have been made in knowledge of the ocean. Even since the publication of Murray and Hjort’s Depths of the Ocean in 1912, many important additions have been made to our knowledge of the ocean. We have advanced and are rapidly advancing in the science of oceanography, but our knowledge of nearly all the funda- mentals is deficient. However, until knowledge had reached its present stage recognition of many of the problems was not possible. It is on the unsolved problems, particularly the more fundamental ones, that future investigations should be concentrated. I have indicated some of the problems of oceanography and have shown that for their solution all the different branches of geophysics must lend assistance and aid must also come from those branches of geology not classified as geophysics. Oceanography in its turn can help the other earth sciences. For geology knowledge of the ocean is essential, because the ocean holds the key to the history recorded in most of the sedimentary rocks. GEOPHYSICS.—The distribution of iron in meteorites and in the Earth L.-H. Apams and H. S. Wasuineton, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. It is now generally agreed that the Earth consists of an iron core surrounded by silicate rock. The earlier speculations concerning the density at various distances from the center, it is true, proceeded on the assumptions that the Earth is essentially uniform in composi- tion and that the high internal density is due to compression under 1 Received June 25, 1924. 334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 the great pressures in the interior. But, beginning with the hypoth- esis by Dana in 1873, the notion of an iron-cored Earth has steadily gained credence among students of the subject. What is certainly known is this: somewhere within the Earth is a very considerable amount of material intrinsically denser than any known silicate rock. This conclusion is reached most directly from studies based on the compressibility of rocks and on the velocity with which earthquake waves are transmitted through the Earth. Such studies have yielded a quantitative estimate of the increase in density due to pressure at various depths and have shown that, while the effect of pressure on density is a factor not to be neglected, it is nevertheless impossible to explain the high density of the Earth on the basis of compressibility alone.2 That is, there must be at the center some material which, under normal conditions, would be much denser than ordinary rocks. The principal reason for assuming the dense material in the interior to be mainly metallic iron is the analogy with meteorites. Most of these visitors from outer space contain large quantities of metallic iron with varying amounts of nickel; and it does not demand an un- warranted use of the imagination to regard meteorites as fragments of disrupted bodies similar to, although probably much smaller than, our own planet,? and to reason that the structure and average com- position of these bodies are not very different from those of the Earth. The earlier picture of the Earth’s metallic core, as presented by Wiechert,* was that of a central iron core separated by a rather sharp boundary from the surrounding silicate shell. More recently® it has been suggested that between the core and shell lies a zone of mixed metallic iron and silicate rock, called pallasite from its sup- posed resemblance to a certain type of meteorites. The stony shell that surrounds the iron core is supposed to be granitic near the sur- face, and of basic (peridotitic) character below. The probable dis- tribution of iron within the Earth is represented by Fig. 1, which shows the central iron core surrounded by the pallasite layer,’ above this being the silicate shell, and the outermost, thin rocky crust. ? Williamson, E. D., and Adams, L. H., Density distribution in the Earth, Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 18: 413-428. 1923. 8 Farrington, O. C., The pre-terrestrial history of meteorites, Journ. Geol. 9: 626. 1901. 4 Wiechert, E., Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen, p. 221. 1897. 6 Williamson, E. D., and Adams, L. H., Op. cit., p. 424... Also Clarke, F. W., The evolution and disintegration of matter, U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 132-D: 76. 1924. ® This figure is taken from Williamson and Adams, this Journal, 18: 426. 1923. auGustT 19, 1924 ADAMS AND WASHINGTON: IRON IN METEORITES 335 The existence of the zone of pallasite is indicated by the course of the earthquake velocities as a function of depth. If these quanti- ties be plotted a striking feature of the graph is that, whereas the velocity increases steadily and rectilinearly down to depths of about 1,600 kilometers below the surface, beyond this depth the velocity becomes almost constant for about 1,400 kilometers.. This is ac- counted for by two facts based on measurements made in the labora- tory: 1, the velocity increases with pressure and hence with depth; 2, the velocity is much less in metallic iron than it is in basie silicate Fig. 1. Cross section of the Earth, showing supposed zone of mixed iron and silicates surrounding iron core. The width of the outer circular line represents, to scale, a sur- face layer 60 km. in thickness. rock (peridotite). The small rate of change in velocity at depths below 1,600 kilometers is, therefore, explained as due to the gradually increasing amount of metallic iron mixed with the peridotite, because the normal tendency for depth to increase the velocity in the peridotite is offset by the increasing admixture of iron with a lower transmission velocity. This transition zone between the metallic core and the silicate shell may be thought of as a zone of incomplete segregation. In view of the supposed similarity between meteorites and the interior of the Earth, it is important to consider more in detail the structure and composition of meteorites. 336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 Meteorites are classified into three main groups: siderites, com- posed almost wholly of nickel-iron; szderolites, composed of about equal parts of nickel-iron and silicates, the latter chiefly olivine and orthorhombic pyroxene: and aerolites, composed almost wholly of sili- cates, also chiefly olivine and orthorhombic pyroxene. Small amounts of some non-oxide compounds (sulphides, phosphides, carbides, ete.) are almost always present, but they may be disregarded here. The metal and the silicates appear to be immiscible and, when solidified, they may be intermingled in two ways: the silicate may Fig. 2. Diagrammatic representation of a Fig. 3. Diagrammatic representation of a lithospor: silicate scattered, or sporadic, in a ferrospor: iron scattered, or sporadic, in a continuum of iron. continuum of silicate. be scattered sporadically through a more or less continuous mass of metal, or the metal may be scattered sporadically through a mass of silicates. The former case is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 2, and the latter in Fig. 3. We propose to call the first case, that in which the silicate is sporadic in metal, lithospor; and the second, that in which the metal is spora- dic in silicate, ferrospor; the adjectival forms being respectively lithosporic and ferrosporic. The material in which the sporadic particles, whether metal or silicate, are embedded would naturally be called the continuwm. avucGust 19, 1924 ADAMS AND WASHINGTON: IRON IN METEORITES Oo7 This distinction between these two types of intermingled iron and silicate was first applied to the classification of meteorites by Daubrée? who suggested the terms “‘syssidéres’’ for those with silicate sporadic in 2 continuum of iron, and “‘sporadosidéres’’ for those in which the iron is sporadic in a mass of silicate. Daubrée’s terms seem not to have been generally adopted, except by Daubrée’s successor Meunier.® Fig. 4. Actual lithospor (meteoric). Photograph of section of Mount Vernon pallasite. The iron is shown as black. The now generally accepted classification of Brzina takes little note of the distinction. These are the two chief, and extreme, modes of intermingling found in meteorites. The lithosporic type is illustrated by the pallasite found at Mount Vernon, Kentucky,? (Fig. 4) in which rounded 7 Daubrée, A., Classification adoptée pour la collection des meteorites du Muséum, Comptes Rendues 65: 60-63. 1867. # Meunier, 8., Guide dans la collection des meteorites avec le catalogue des chutes representées au Muséum, Paris, 1898. * We are indebted to Dr. G. P. Merrill, of the U. 8. National Museum, for the photo- graphs of specimens in the museum reproduced in Figs. 4, 5a, and 5b. Fig. 4 repre- sents part of Fig. 28 of Merrill’s Catalogue of the meteorites in the U.S. National Museum, Washington, 1916. 338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 nodules of olivine are sporadic in a coherent, continuous “sponge” of nickel-iron.!® This, the most common type of siderolite, is called pallasite. The silicate is usually olivine, much less commonly or- Fig. 5a. Actual ferrospor (terrestrial). Fig. 5b. Actual ferrospor (meteoric). Photograph of section of iron-bearing basalt Photograph of section of the Alfianello stony from Kaersut, West Greenland. Theironis meteorite. The iron is shown as black. shown as black. thorhombic pyroxene, or both olivine and pyroxene; but the texture is almost always the same.!! In the siderites, composed almost 10 'Tassin, W., The Mount Vernon meteorite, U. 8. National Museum, Proc. 28: 214. 1905. From measurements of the areas, Tassin estimates that the percentage of iron is about 36.5 and that of olivine, about 62; his analyses yielded the estimates, respec- tively, of 33 and 63. Measurements of photographs by Chirwinsky (Mineral. Ab- stracts, 2:84. 1923) gave values of about 41 per cent of iron and 59 per cent of olivene. These are percentages by weight. We estimate, by measurement of the photograph shown in Fig. 4, iron 32 per cent by volume and silicate, 68 per cent, corresponding to the weight percentages, iron, 52, and olivine, 48. 11 Tn a sparsely represented sub-group of the siderolites, the ‘‘mesosiderites’’, the metal sponge, although continuous in the mass is separate (discontinous) in thin section: see Farrington, Meteorites, 1915, p. 201, and Merrill, Catalogue of the Meteorites in the U.S. National Museum, 1916, p.4. This rare type constitutes a transition to the ferro- sporic type. >) AuGustT 19, 1924 ADAMS AND WASHINGTON: IRON IN METEORITES 339 wholly of metallic nickel-iron, the constantly present but small amounts of non-oxide ees are, similarly, always sporadic nodules in the continuous “‘ sponge’ ’ of metal. The ferrosporie type is represented by two senile, shown in Figs. 5a and 5b.“ The former shows a specimen of the iron-bearing basalt of Kaersut, West Greenland, in which the iron is of terrestrial origin, its volume percentage amounting to 31; the latter shows the stone which fell at Alfianello, near Brescia, Italy, on February 16, 1883. This meteorite contains (in round numbers) about .44 per cent (by weight) of olivine, 41 of bronzite, 8 of nickel-iron, and 7 of iron sulphide (troilite). The ferrosporic type is characteristic of most aerolites, or stony meteorites, in which the amount of metal averages about 10 per cent. There is a difference which is more apparent than real with re- spect to the continuity of the material, whether metal or silicate, in which the other is scattered. In the iron-stone meteorites, the siderolites, the continuum is an apparently uninterrupted ‘‘sponge”’ of metal; but the metal is really made up of separate crystal in- dividuals of several nickel-iron alloys. In the stone meteorites, the aerolites, the continuum is continuous only in the sense that it is entirely silicate, but is composed of separate crystals, grains, or fragments, of one or more different silicates. The lithosporic pallasites contain from 35 to 75 per cent of silicate, with an average of about 50; and the ferrosporic aerolites contain from about 20 per cent of metal to almost none, the average being about 12 per cent. The analogy with meteorites not only bears out the hypothesis that the central part of the Earth is composed of nickel-iron and a mixture of nickel-iron and silicate, but it suggests further a suc- cession of metal-silicate textures like those shown by meteorites, distinguished by the sporadicity of either silicate or metal, as is illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3. The size of the discrete particles which make up the lithosporie and ferrosporic material of the Earth may cover a vast range—from microscopic particles to ‘particles’? many hundreds of meters in diameter. We may suppose, then, that in passing from the center outward the almost wholly metallic core of nickel-iron changes gradually into pallasite, with sporadic silicate. In this region the percentage 2 Fig. 5a is part of Plate LV, in Phalen, W. C., Notes on the rocks of Nugsuaks Penin- sula and its environs, Greenland, Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 45, 1904. Fig. 5b is from an unpublished photograph made and given to us by Dr. Merrill. 340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 of silicate gradually increases until the pallasite merges into ferro- sporiec material with scattered grains of nickel-iron, analogous to the greater number of aerolites. The iron becomes less and less abun- dant, until at about 1,600 kilometers below the surface the material is entirely silicate rock, free from metallic iron, except for rare ex- amples, such as the iron-bearing. basalts of Disko Island and Bihl in Hesse-Cassel.¥ The Earth, then, is to be conceived of, not as a huge meteorite, but as a body similar to those of which meteorites are but fragments representing different parts of the whole mass. On disruption, therefore the Earth would yield all of the known kinds of meteorites. PHYSICS.—Some recent results obtained in standardization of geodetic base line tapes. L. V. Jupson and B. L. Page, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by G. K. Burgess.) The standardization of invar base line tapes or wires is regarded in all countries as a process requiring not only apparatus which is most carefully designed but also a facility and care of manipulation, which is perhaps excelled in ordinary linear measurements only in the comparison or use of the national prototype meters themselves. The equipment for the standardization of base line tapes at the Bureau of Standards is adequate for testing these tapes with a pre- cision much higher than is yet required for their use in the field. Its present state of development—for in its origin it was essentially field apparatus—is the result of accumulated experience in this Bureau and elsewhere. It is a comparator having many merits which it is hoped may be described in a publication in the near future. There are, however, certain results of recent standardizations of tapes which are of sufficient importance to be discussed at this time in a separate article. In a recent test of six 50-meter invar tapes for the U. 8. Coast & Geodetic Survey, a standardization was made during the last week in March. As these tapes were new and as certain tapes received just previously had been found to be unstable as to length, it was decided to keep the tapes for further standardiza- tion. The latter work was done on the first of May. A day’s work included for separate determinations of the lengths of the tapes 18 Somewhat similar ideas as to a gradual change from lithgsporic pallasite to ferro- sporie material between the metallic core and the outer crust have been suggested by Clarke, Op. cit., p. 77, and by Chirvinsky, Op. cit., p. 84. August 19, 1924 JUDSON AND PAGE: BASE LINE TAPES . 341 when supported at three points and when supported at five points. The results summarized in Table I give a fair conception of the consis- tency of the results obtained in this important field of standardiza- TABLE I CORRECTION TO TAPE WHEN SUPPORTED CORRECTION TO TAPE WHEN SUPPORTED AT THREE POINTS AT FIVE POINTS xewper | March 26th | March 26th, | March 26th | shen gout } and 27th Ist. ° Vv : and 27th Ist. V ena a Determina- 8 Determines (12 Determina- microns microns microns microns microns microns 1 | — 3970.0 —3969.0 1.0 —976.0 —973.4 2.6 2 —3809.5 —3814.9 6.4 —800.1 —800.7 .6 S — 3468.4 — 3472.4 4.0 —529.0 —533.6 4.6 4 — 3380.6 — 3380.4 0.2 — 537.6 — 537.7 0.1 $ | -—2939.1 | —2939.0 Ost — 334.2 — 332.6 1G 6 | 3167.5 —3163.3 4.2 —656.8 —658.9 2 “DETTE a 2.6 IAVOCTALEL en. eek ee: 1.9 tion. The observations were made at an average temperature of 25.4°C. That this consistency is not due to an erroneous standardization on either date being compensated by a change in the length of the tapes is indicated by the fact that a tape used in the standardization work at the Bureau for several years was also measured, and its length TABLE II COMPUTED CORRECTIONS OF TAPE SUPPORTED THROUGHOUT TAPE NUMBER | From observations at | From observations at Me Vv three supports five supports aaa microns microns microns microns 1 + 66 +65 + 66 i 2 +252 +245 +248 3 3 +471 | +480 +476 4 CL +447 + 446 +446 0 5 +595 +o17 +586 9 6 +202 +207 +204 By) PREG an eRe hee ais ya 52), 2 Eo he ke eal 4 remained constant to about ten microns, and was entirely consistent with previous results. For this tape the values of V were 25.2» and and 9.7», opposite in sign. The largeness of this quantity compared with those in the table above is easily explained by the character of the line and the general condition of the tape. 342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 14 There is another result which gives an insight into the relative accuracy which is obtained in the measurement of base line tapes. The correction to the length of the tape when supported throughout can be readily computed if there are known, its weight per unit length and the correction to the tape when supported at three or at five points. For the test of the six tapes already referred to, the cor- rections when supported throughout were found by computation, and are given in Table II. This was not a test undertaken with unusual care, but is represen- tative of the standardization of tapes as now being carried out at the Bureau of Standards. Table III gives these data for other tape standardizations of the past few months. TABLE III COMPUTED CORRECTIONS OF TAPE SUPPORTED THROUGHOUT TAPE Ceol ome Tbe ee a Mean v microns microns microns microns 7 +2932 +2897 +2914 17 8 —69 —69 —69 0 9 +1391 +1391 +1391 0 10 +1559 +1541 +1550 9 11 +454 +450 -+ 452 2 12 +801 +805 +803 a 13 +1244 +1252 +1248 4 14 +1101 F +1128 +1114 14 15 +1498 +1489 +1494 5 16 +499 +477 +488 11 PNA R eR NA OE END OR eT RR SE WERE RTO moe Pag Ae Oe og 6 The accumulated records of the Bureau of Standards show that these standardizations determine the values not only to a high rela- tive accuracy but also to a high absolute accuracy. PHYSICS.—WNotes on the graduation of invar base line tapes. L. V. Jupson and B. L. Pages, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by G. K. Burgess.) The precision required in modern geodetic measurements neces- sitates that the lines ruled on tapes be smooth and even, perpendic- ular to the edge, clearly visible to the naked eye, and yet not deep enough to affect the strength of the tape. Lines have recently been ruled on geodetic tapes with a result which appears to be so satis- aucust 19, 1924 CHASE: NEW SPECIES OF PANICUM IN ALFALFA SEED 343 factory that a brief description of the method illustrated by a photo- eraph (X10) (Fig. 1) of one of them may prove of interest. The limes, 20 microns wide, ruled with a special diamond, carefully set to ensure a single, even, symmetrical line were graduated directly on the invar tape after a small section of the tape had been polished. Owing to various characteristics of invar tapes it is found difficult by the use of the ordinary methods to obtain a good line at the edge Fig. 1. Photograph of ruling on tape. Magnified 10 diameters. of the tape. This difficulty has been overcome, however, by filing off the edge of the tape, after the lines had been ruled. 490 Mean with regard to sign Mean without regard to sign Lander, Wyo Edgemont, 8. Wioorecrolt, WYO. 2-8-... 251: Hill City, S. Dak Newcastle, Wyo Bridgeport, Neb Buford, Wyo Boulder, Colo Lafayette, Colo Paci, Mole E2200 3 hes Idaho Springs, Colo | ELEVA- TION H meters 1005 1841 4293 | 16388 2340 | 1398 | 1243 2191 1322 2386 2976 2200 1282 1146 1181 1716 | 2179 1990 1960 | 1590 | 1048 1910 1359 1259 1890 | 1150 1493 | 1805 1311 1962 1322 1635 1066 1295 1518 1328 1114 2396 1630 1595 1511 2303 | | ISOSTATIC ANOMALY dyne —0.012 —0 .007 +0 .021 —0.016 +0 .020 +0 .024 —0.021 +0 .004 +0 .010 —0.002 +0 .021 —0.001 —0.003 +0 .007 —0.050 —0.013 +0 .001 —0.013 +0 .003 +0 .052 —0.010 +0 .013 +0 .021 —0.016 +0 .004 +0 .032 —0.015 —0 .028 —0 009 —0.021 ‘| +0 .036 +0 .019 +0 .054 +0.021 +0 .042 +0 .029 —0.008 +0 .046 —0 .014 —0 .020 —0.006 +0 .022 +0 .005 0.019 COR. TO DISCARD COMP. OUT TO AND INCLUDING 17.9 miles dyne —().027 —0 .054 —0.070 —0.038 —0.063 —0.041 —0.038 —0.060 —0.040 —0.061 —0.059 —0.058 —0.014 —0 .030 —0 .029 —0 .043 —0 .045 —0.0538 —0 .053 —0 .038 —0 .033 —0 .052 —().034 —0.030 —0 .025 —0 .032 —0 .046 —0.051 —0.032 —0 .055 —().031 17.9 miles 36.5 miles dyne —0.039 —0.061 —0.049 —0.054 —0.043 —0.017 —0.054 —0.103)/—0 .056 —0 .075)/—0 .080 —(.108]—0 .063 —0 .104)—0.038 —0.103)—0 .059 —0 .017/—0.017 —0.054|—0 .023 —0 .046|/—0 .079 —0 .074)/—0 .056 —0 .080)—0 .044 —0 .095)—0 .066 —(0 .094|—0 .050 —0.064/-+0 .014 dyne —0.048 —0.094 =(0) Jie: —0.076 (IAD —0.082 —0.067 —0 .058}—0 .043 —0 .093}—0 .039 —0 .061}—0 .013 —0 .055|—0 .046 —0.039|—0 .021 —0.068) 0.0C0 —0.077|—0.061 —0 .085| —0 .079 —0.C62|—0 C41 —0 .094|—0 .076 —0 .062|4 0.C05 ANOMALIES WITH ISOSTATIC COMP. OMITTED TO 36.5 miles dyne —0.060 —0.101 —0.092 —0 .092 —0.100 —0.058 —0.058 —0.099 —0.065 —0.110 —0 .083 —0.104 —0.020 —0 .047 —0.096 —0 .087 —0.079 —0.108 —0.091 —0.012 —0.068 —0.080 —0 .040 —0.071 —0.035 —0 .036 —(0 .092 —0.113 —0.071 —0.115 —0 .026 —0 .090 —0.052 —0.058 —0 .067 —0.064 —0 .053 —0.100 —0.092 —0.081 —0.073 —0°120 —0.047 —0.028 —0.031 —0.040 —0.035 —0.029 —0 .057 —0 .C48 —0.040 —0.038 —0 .068 0.043) 0.077 —=O,071- +0.C02 —0.037 —0 .025 —0.035 —0.061 —0.054 —0.106 —0.101 —0.079 —0.098 —0.028 +0 .026 —0.010 +0 .002 —0.006 —0 .037 Ona —0 .062 —0 .060 —0 C44) —0.C46 —0.072 0.072 = 037, 0 .C49 358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 15 Further evidence regarding the isostatic condition of the earth’s crust is given in Table 3 which shows the effect on gravity anomalies of not taking into account the negative attraction of the compensa- tion of the topography within certain distances of 42 stations. Each station used in the test has an elevation of more than 3000 feet. It is evident that the anomaly will be affected in proportion to the average thickness of the dise of topography whose compensation is ignored. Thus for an average elevation of 6000 feet the change in the anomaly will be one half that of 3000 feet. The elevations of the stations given in the table do not represent the average elevation of the surface forms considered. Some stations are on a peak cr ridge above the general level, whereas others are in valleys below the average elevation of the surrounding region. Let the ordinary method of compensation whose anomalies are shown in column 3 be called A; the one in which compensation is ignored for topography out to 17.9 miles, anomalies for which are in column 6, be called B; and the third method, the anomalies of which are shown in column 7 be called C. A careful inspection of the table shows that the A anomalies are, in nearly all cases, smaller than those for either the B or C methods. The smallness of the A, as compared with the B and C anomalies, is shown best as tabulated below. TABLE 4.—Anomatigs WitTHOUT REGARD TO SIGN NUMBER BY LIMITS Method A Method B Method C dyne dyne 0.000 0.009 12 4 1 0.010 0.019 11 6 1 0.020 0.029 12 4 3) 0.030 0.039 2 5 4 0.040 0.049 2, 8 2 0.050 0.059 33 6 3 0.060 0.069 | 0 6 4 0.070 0.079 | 0 3 5 0.080 0.089 0) 0 3 0.090 0.099 0 0 7 0.100 0.109 | 0 0 6 0.110 0.119 | 0 0 3 If the sign of the anomalies is considered, it is found that for A, 22 are positive and 20 negative; for B, 4 are positive and 37 negative; while for C, only 1 is positive and 41 are negative. 4 Copied from Proc. Nat. Acad. Sei. 7: 24. 1921. SEPT. 19, 1924 BOWIE: ISOSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM 359 Ii, for a large area, a gravity anomaly map were constructed, similar to illustration No. 11 of Special Publication No. 40 of the Coast and Geodetie Survey, it would be found that the high ground would be distinctly indicated on the B and C anomaly maps, while for the A map the high ground bears no relation to the anomaly contours. If it is agreed that the method employed in gravity reductions which most uniformly reduces or eliminates the anomalies is the most probable, we must conclude that the A method is better than either the B or C method. A disc of topography 3000 feet in thickness and 18 miles in radius does not escape compensation to a marked degree. This conclusion seems to be inevitable, for not only is there the evi- dence from gravity anomalies, but topography in the form of masses above sea level is caused by the process or processes which change the density in the earth’s crust below. As the larger surface features are caused by what we have been accustomed to call the compensa- tion, instead of the compensation being caused in some way by the surface features, it is reasonable to believe that there is not much more topography than there is compensation. If the crust under any area were in equilibrium before uplift, and if uplift is due to expansion and change in volume without any change in mass, the portion of the crust in question should still be in equilib- rium. At least it would not be heavier than normal. But after uplift there is erosion acting as an active agent in removing material. If the earth’s crust were sufficiently strong it would resist the tendency for the crust under the eroded area to move upward under gravita- tional forces. Gravity anomalies at stations in areas of erosion indi- cate that the crust below is in equilibrium, and the inference is that the material of the crust has been moved upward by the nucleal ma- terial which has been forced under it to restore the equilibrium. The gravity anomalies and abstract reasoning both favor the idea that even masses of moderate size above sea level are not extra loads. on the crust. The anomalies do not enable us to know whether the compensation is directly under a topographic feature or distributed in the crust at some distance horizontally from the column directly below the feature. That the earth’s crust has ability to resist certain stress differences is beyond question. There are stress differences in the crust between high areas and adjacent lower ones. The fact that areas have been high ones for long periods of time proves that the material of the crust is sufficiently strong to prevent a column of small cross-section being in isostatic equilibrium independent of the small columns surrounding 360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 15 it. Should a peak such as Mt. Shasta, with a base of small area, lose material by erosion more rapidly than the areas of lower elevation surrounding it, surely the column under Shasta about 60 miles in length would not be pushed up by the isostatic adjustment more rapidly than the small columns adjacent to it. If the crustal material were so weak as to permit this, then surely the base of Shasta would col- lapse and push out under the surrounding area resulting in a more uni- form elevation of the surface of the whole region. The area under and around Shasta must be what may be termed an isostatic unit. The test described in the first pages of this paper gives some idea of the maximum horizontal dimensions of this unit. When a major uplift takes place by thermal and other type or types of expansion, in an area presumably in equilibrium, there will be much resistance to be overcome. ‘The unaffected crust to the sides of the expanding material tends to resist free movement. Presumably the greatest expansion will occur in that portion of the crust which is overlaid by the deepest sedimentary beds, and the least expansion should be under the thinnest sediments. The expansions of different portions of the material should progress at different rates and even at different times. The expansion of any small unit of the crust tends to be in all di- rections, but there is very strong resistance to movement downward and to the sides, and the general direction of least resistance will be upward. But the upward resistance will vary from place to place. When a large amount of material has been forced up directly over a very active region, the gravitational resistance to further up- lift may be greater than the resistance of the material surrounding it. Further uplift would occur along inclined directions, and some of the topography formed by the expanding material would not be directly above the latter. Here there would be regional rather than local distribution of the compensation. Strictly, we should say we would have regional rather than local distribution of the topography, since the change in density (called compensation) is the cause of the masses (topography) above the plane of reference which is sea level. — In the case of original uplift the isostatic unit appears to be larger in cross-section than that of the column of the crust directly under the uplifted feature. The computations of the effect of the topography and of the iso- satic compensation on the value.of gravity are made for small areas and columns, but this is done to facilitate the work. This method does not in any way detract from the reliability of the gravity anom-_ SEPT. 19, 1924 BOWIE: ISOSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM 361 alies obtained. The values of the anomalies would be the same within several units if the compensation were made for any other horizontal distribution out to a moderate distance from the topographic features. The writer and many other students of the earth’s crust believe the theory of isostasy is substantially true. The major uplift at least must then be due to expansion and increase in volume of the crust beneath the affected area, and the isostatic adjustment or movement of matter to restore equilibrium as erosion and sedimentation occur must be below rather than within the crust. We do not know the method of distribution of the compensation vertically, nor do we know the depth of compensation, for this is a function of the vertical distribution. We do know that, in order to eliminate gravity anomalies to the extent to which uniform vertical distribution does, the center of gravity of the compensation must be between 30 and 50 kilometers below the surface. We are able to account for many of the larger gravity anomalies by the presence of abnormally light or heavy material near the gravity stations. This is especially true of those stations over large masses of pre-Cambrian and Cenozoic material. The stations on Puget Sound and on and near the Black Hills in South Dakota are notable examples. In consequence of being able thus to account for most of the large anomalies,® we are justified in claiming a more perfect equilibrium of the earth’s crust than would have been justified several years back when the anomalies were supposed to have been due largely to lack of equilibrium. It appears to be reasonably certain that a mass of the crust 3000 feet or more in thickness, with a radius of 18 miles is largely compen- sated. We do not know the cross-section of the isostatic unit of the earth’s crust, although the tests with gravity anomalies indicate it to be probably less than 100 miles in radius. The configuration of the earth’s surface in a mountain area is a function of the chemical compostition of the crustal material below, the manner in which sedi- ments were laid down before the uplift began, the expansion of the crustal material, and the distribution of resistances to resulting upward movement, to the irregular erosion of the uplifted area, and to the distribution of resistances to the upward movement of crustal material as nucleal material is forced below the crust to balance the effect of erosion. All of the problems outlined above are important ones, but not the least important is the determination of the cross-section of * In U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Special Publication No. 40, 1917, this explana- tion of large gravity anomalies is outlined for the first time. 362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 15 the isostatic unit. It is not very small nor is it very large. The writer feels that it is from 25 to 50 miles in radius. I+ is believed that much may be learned on this matter by the combined efforts of the geologists, geophysicist, geochemist, and the geodesist. MINERALOGY .—Chlorophoenicite, a new mineral from Franklin Furnace, New -ersey! (Preliminary description). WuiLuiam F. Fosuac, National Museum and R. B. Gages, Trenton, New Jersey. The material herein described was collected by one of us (R. B. G.) at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey during the year 1923. Upon ex- amination, it proved to be anew species, and the name chlorophoenicite? (xAwpos = green, go.vixos = purple red), in allusion to the property it possesses of changing from green in natural light to a light purplish red in artificial light, is here given it. Chlorophoenicite is a hydroxyarsenate of manganese and zine carrying minor percentages of lime and magnesia. Pure, homogeneous material yielded the following analysis: TABLE 1—CompositTion oF CHLOROPHOENICITE | ACTUAL ANALYSIS THEORETICAL ET cLO Pins Oe a ee te cr as Nc A Le na tes ge et 11.60 11.4 EEN 6 Yasar cn el lala: Pieter Nalin oy ig ocd 3.36 Weta) 8 EP Oe 8 EE OT ROS aw ares 1.34 U3 Oa AER A tone as eS es Ll oe ee | 0.48 ID OS ea ines Ea en ey cog aa ak: gay uetrcaan ans bol bale 34.46 38.5 SN Oe RS, SI ORR RI ae ad tl DA ie 29.72 29.3 SOs os Pe ne REE, GTP area OY ae | 19.24 20.8 TRtv ss Rebewe eden a er ore COMA Leaps eae PEL ee eae ee 100.24 | 100.0 This analysis leads to the formula 10 RO-As,O;-7H.O and a ratio of Mn to Zn of approximately 6:4. This may also be written R;As.Os:7R (OH)>., a composition remarkable in its low ratio of arse- nate tc hydroxide. The theoretical composition of this compound with a ratio of Mn:Zn of 6:4 is given in Table 1. When heated in the closed tube, these crystals give off water at a fairly low temperature, retain their shape, become black in color with a highly brilliant luster. The surface of the tube is not coated or colored by any arsenic coating. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 2 The writers are indebted to Dr. H. 8. Washington for suggesting this name. —— SEPT. 19, 1924 PIPER: NEW GENUS OF LEGUMINOSAE 363 Under the blow pipe, the erystals darken instantly, but only fuse with difficulty on the edges. They do not decrepitate or ex- foliate. The brilliant luster shown in the closed tube is destroyed and the faces of the erystal become rough and porous. These tests easily distinguish these crystals from green willemite crystals of a similar shape and color which do not darken in a closed tube and fuse fairly easily in a blow pipe flame. The chlorophoenicite forms long prismatic crystals ranging in size up to 8 mm. The crystal system is monoclinic and the crystals, elongated in the direction of the b axis, have a habit similar to epi- dote. The crystals are deeply striated parallel to the b axis and the small prism faces are rounded and usually etched. The color is a light grayish green in natural light but is pink or light purplish red in artificial light. This difference in color is more pronounced on the prism faces than on the pinacoids. The plane of the optic axes is across the prisms. 2V is large with a dispersion of p>v and strong; the indices of refraction are, a = 1.682, 6 = 1.690 y = 1.697. Chlorophoenicite occurs in cracks and crevices in the typical franklinite-zincite are of Franklin Furnace, New Jersey. It is associated with small rose red erystals of leucophoenicite, brown tephroite and calcite. The chlorophoenicite itself is very similar in appearance to the light green willemite that is found in some of the erevices and might at first glance be mistaken for it. BOTANY.—A new genus of Leguminosae. CHARLES V. PIPER, Bureau of Plant Industry. A Costa Rican climbing shrub or liana collected 25 years ago by Tonduz seems clearly to represent an undescribed genus related to Calopogonium Desvaux. The large leaflets, closely resembling the leaves of the aspen, and the dense racemes of very small pubescent yellowish flowers are conspicuous characters. Leycephyllum Piper, gen. nov. Climbing shrub; leaves trifoliolate, the leaflets entire; stipules striate; flowers small, yellowish, numerous, in racemes from the axils of theupper leaves; calyx campanulate, the upper lip short bidentate, the lower lip 3- toothed, the median one as long as the calyx-tube, the lateral ones short; standard obovate, stipitate, the upper margin incurved or hooded, the base without callosities or auricles, but the basal margins thickened; wing oblong, stipitate, the auricle somewhat hook-like; keel oblong-cbovate, stipitate, not auricled; vexillar stamen free, its filament enlarged at base, the other stamens united below, free above the middle; anthers oval; style curyed, glabrous; stigma terminal, very oblique, minute; ovary pubescent. 364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 15 Leycephyllum micranthum Piper, sp. nov. Stems terete, densely puberulent when young, becoming glabrous; stipules lanceolate, striate, puberulent, 3 to 4 mm. long; petioles terete, channelled above, faintly striate-ridged, puberulent, usually longer than the leaflets; stipels apparently wanting; petiolules very pubescent; leaflets entire, firm membranaceous, broadly ovate to suborbicular, 3-nerved from the base, strongly acuminate and short-apiculate, broadly cuneate to rounded or even subcordate at base, sparsely puberulent above especially on the nerves, less so beneath, 8 to 10 cm. long; peduncles densely brown puberulent, floriferous from near the base, knotted with the pedicellar glands, 5 to 6 em. long includ- ing the racemes of numerous flowers; bracts lanceolate, 3 mm. long, nar- rowed at base, long attenuate to apex, densely puberulent, much longer than the buds; pedicels shorter than the calyx; calyx densely brown puberulent, the tube 1.5 mm. long, the median lower tooth as long; corolla yellowish; standard 5 mm. long, puberulent on the outer side and densely covered near the tip with minute sessile glands; wings oblong, 5 mm., the auricle hook-like; keel as long as the wings, oblong-obovate, stipitate. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 938783, collected at Las Vuel- tas, Tucurrique, Costa Rica, 635 meters altitude, January, 1899, by Adolpho Tonduz (no. 12951). The label notes “‘liane a tige aplatir; fl. jaunatres; fr. rouge et noir.” BOTANY.—Aciachne, a cleistogamous grass of the high Andes. AGNES CuHasn, Department of Agriculture. The genus Aciachne was described! by Bentham as dioecious, ‘‘Spicu- lae unisexuales, c ignotae.’’ ‘There is one species, A. pulvinata Benth., “Andes of South America.’ Of the seven collections cited two, Lechler 1813 and Mandon 1287, are represented in the U. 8. National Herbarium. Bentham states: ‘‘ Notwithstand- ing the number of specimens from most of the above localities, I have been unable to detect any but female spikelets, which on some of them are numerous, often past flower, and show- ing only the persistent outer glumes. The males are probably on distinct plants and most likely with a different inflorescence, rendering it difficult to identify them. If that bethecase, it is possible that the male of this, or an allied Aciachne pulvinata. Fig. snecies may be represented by Lechler’s speci- 1, spikelet X 10; fig. 2, é floret X 10; fig. 3, palea x Mens gathered at Gachapata in Peru a month 10; fig. 4, caryopsiscrowned earlier than the females above referred to, and by old stigmas andstamens distributed with the number 599. In these “rig the leaves are longer, all erect, and very rigid, 1 Hook. Icon. Pl. 4: 44. pl. 13862. 1881. SEPT. 19, 1924 CHASE: ACIACHNE 365 lto3in.long. The spikelets are several in a loose, slightly branched, rigid, erect panicle of 1 to 2 inches, the glumes precisely like those of the females, but enclosing three perfect stamens and the ovary reduced to an ovoid rudiment with two small points.”’ The plate shows a flower with ovary and stigmas. In the Genera Plantarum? “‘Spiculae unisexuales <& ignotae’’ is repeated. Hackel says? of Aciachne “ Ae. unbekannt.”’ Practically all the numerous specimens of this grass preserved in herbaria have well-developed fruit. Professor A. 8. Hitchcock, in a letter from Lima, Peru, writes, ““A peculiar and wonderful grass is Aciachne. This in some places is the dominant or even the only grass on whole hills. It is not eaten by stock. It occurs in little mounds or patches, a deep green, dying out in the center and forming fairy rings. It is commonly supposed by the people there to be a moss. ‘The spikelets are hidden among the short prickly leaves but the little sharp-pointed fruits rattle out easily and stick in the clothing.”’ The fact that the plant fruits so abundantly suggested that the mystery of the staminate form might be explained by cleistogamy. Professor Hitchcock’s collections contained an abundance of fruiting material. o ee, a ¥e< CONTENTS ea Pappas 4 sey (Preliminary description). Witi1am F. Fosnae and R. B. Gage... Botany.—A new genus of Leguminosae. | CHARLES V, PIPER. ............cceeeees Botany.—Aciachne, a cleistogamous grass of the high Andes. A@nus CHasz,.... & Zoology.—Snails of the genus Succinea from the Maritime Province of Siberia. AI B Yee AY OA 0 co 529) OI Me Pa dieinisle ie ci eyaceie ines oyepatisene saat eee iS teroe y Entomology.—Notes on Grylloblatta with description of a new species. AL N. ADIL oo ig ss Wala closed ulios cig ae a phen Mia dy Ulee cla esac Oye CG sn ree a anD _ PROCEEDINGS ne Dates ie ' Geological Society.<...,.-.% eee cut el BY anivesl cod (this 2S aie OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: ArtHUR L. Day, Geophysical Laboratory. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Siuspex, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: W. D. LAMBERT, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. es i aw, LO Bi Sil =” "2." ea ee ee SS ee ee ae ee Oe Ce 4 4 mas DE sa) ie ay pa © 8 | Vol. 14 OcToBER 4, 1924 No. 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS E. P. Kriuie W. F. Mreacers D. F. Hewerr © NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU Of STANDARDS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L, H. Apams S. A. RonwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLpMAN G. W. Stosn BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY _SECLASICALRORERTY R. F. Grieas Ae Re SwiANiton BOTANICAL SOCIETY /_S ANTHROPOLOGICAL society ‘ é E. WicHERS / Xi CHEMICAL SOCIETY | »)\7 f } (7 si 0 = 4Q9A \ ‘, Ky - PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THD WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royan anp GUILFORD AVES. Bautimore, MARYLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24,1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage prov ided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. 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Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. be os, European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. f Exchanges—The JourNAt does not exchange with other publications. P Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is madd within thirty days after date of the following issue. ii * Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates. are given to members ot scientific societies affliated with the Academy. ~< uf JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 14 OcToBER 4, 1924 No. 16 ZOOLOGY.—A new Chinese lizard of the genus Eumeces. LEon- HARD STEJNEGER, National Museum. The Eumeces xanthi which Guenther described! in 1889 from Ichang, province of Hupeh, was based on material collected by Pratt, the type being in British Museum. Guenther described it as related to E. skal- tonianus, having the dorsal seales ‘‘much broader” than the lateral and ventral ones. Seven years later he identified? specimens obtained by the Russian explorer Potanin near the town of Lifang-fu (August, 1894) and in the valley of the river Tung (April, 1894), both localities in high altitudes in western Szechwan, as FL. xanthi. The Chinese skinks of this genus are so similar in general appear- ance and the really important characters separating the species were at that time so little understood that the original description of this species is quite insufficient to determine exactly the status of other species from the same general region. It was therefore quite natural that Dr. Barbour in receiving a single specimen from Ichang, the type- locality, should identify it as EH. xzanthi, though apparently with considerable doubt, as he carefully recorded* the deviations of his specimen from the original description. Having recently had occa- sion to study the Chinese skinks, I was favored by Dr. Barbour with the loan of this specimen and was able to show that in reality it is a young EL. elegans. Two specimens (nos. 66736-7) recently received from Rev. D. C. Graham by the National Museum were collected by him at an al- titude of 5—6000 feet near Luting Kiao, western Szechwan, the place where the road to Tatsienlu crosses the Tung River. As this is J Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) 4: 220. 1889. 2 Ann. Mus. Zool. St. Pétersbourg 1: 203. 1896. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Cambridge 40: no. 4: 134. 1912. 383 384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 16 almost certainly the identical locality whence came Potanin’s speci- mens which Guenther himself had identified as H. xanthi, my first inclination was to identify them with this species, but on second consideration it was felt that the differences from Guenther’s original description were too great to be reconciled. They showed some general similarity to a new species, H. pekinensis, recently described‘ by me from the province of Chili, 65 miles north of Peking. They differed, however, radically from the latter in the arrangement of the large temporal shields which, as I have first shown in the Her- petology of Japan (1907), is of prime systematic importance in this genus. On the other hand, the shape and relation of these shields were not recorded in the description of H. xanthi. I therefore had sketches prepared of the various styles of temporals represented in my series of Chinese Humeces, including H. quadrilineatus and the Tung River specimens, and sent them, without names, to the curators in charge of the herpetological collections in British Museum and the Russian Academy of Sciences. Mr. H. W. Parker of the former, kindly sent a sketch of the type of HZ. xanthi showing the temporal shields to be identical with those of H. quadrilineatus, while of the latter, Mr. 8. Czarewsky, returned the sketch of Graham’s Tung River specimen with the notation that it “agrees entirely” with the Potanin specimens, which in addition he describes as having the median dorsal scales not broader or scarcely broader than the rest and as having on the back a median yellowish stripe. Thanks to the kindness of these gentlemen, all doubts as to the distinctness of the former have thus been cleared away, and I have no hesitation in naming and characterizing the new species as follows: Eumeces tunganus, sp. nov. Diaqnosis.—Median dorsal scale rows not enlarged; two unpaired post- mentals; a postnasal; 26 scales around the middle of the body; lower temporal of the second row with parallel upper and lower edges, the upper anterior corner cutting angularly into the upper temporal of the same row, soles nearly uniform granular with a few large tubercles near the heel. Type locality —Luting Kiao, where road to Tatsienlu crosses Tung River, western Szechwan, China; altitude 5000-6000 feet. Type-—vU. S. National Museum no. 66736; D. C. Graham, collector; August 9, 1923. The type has one yellowish median dorsal stripe and two lateral ones; the smaller one (no. 66737), same locality and date, is without either dorsal or lateral stripes. I am inclined to believe that the present species is more nearly related to EF. latiscutatus (Hallowell) than to any of the other Chinese skinks. 4 Occ. Pap. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 5: 120. July 21, 1924. — OCTOBER 4, 1924 HEINRICH: NORTH AMERICAN EUCOSMINAE 385 ENTOMOLOGY.—North American Eucosminae, notes and new species (Lepidoptera). Cart Hetnricu, Bureau of Entomology. (Communicated by 8. A. RoHwEr.) In the present paper I am describing seven new species and four new varieties, adding two described species to our faunal list, reduc- ing two species to the rank of varieties, smking three species as syno- nyms, and transferring the generic position of three others. These changes are occasioned by the receipt of a large amount of additional material sent in for determination (chiefly by Dr. Wm. Barnes, HE. H. Blackmore, and the Canadian National Museum) since the publi- cation of my revision of the Eucosminae.! Strepsicrates smithiana, Walsingham Strepsicrates smithiana Walsingham, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1891: 506. This West Indian species will have to be listed in our fauna, as Dr. Barnes has several specimens from Everglades, Florida (Reared ‘‘Apr. 8-15” and “Apr. 16-23”’ from larvae feeding on guava). A pair of these has been deposited in the National Collection. The males show no differences in - genitalia or pattern from those of Dyar’s indentana. The females are some- what differently marked; smithiana has a narrow, rather strong shading of black scales along dorsal margin and termen of forewing, which is lacking in indentana, while indentana has a fine black streak from end of cell to apex, lacking in typical smithiana. Otherwise the two forms agree. I am therefore keeping the Dyar name, but reducing zndentana to the rank of a variety. Alar expanse.—12-14 mm. Type.—In British Museum. Type locality —St. Vincent, British West Indies. Food plant.—Guava. Thiodia ornatula, new species Palpus extending scarcely the length of the head beyond it; snowwhite. Face and forepart of head snow white; posterior part of headfuscous. Thorax blackish fuscous, more or less spotted with white; tegula blackish anteriorly, dull white behind. Forewing pale cream white marked with blackish fus- cous and brown; a broken, outwardy angulate basal patch indicated by several irregular blackish fuscous lines extending from costa and dorsum, these not meeting (the patch broken longitudinally below costa); on outer half of costa four large pale brown geminate spots; a round brown apical spot and a narrow short brown streak along termen at middle; ocelloid patch consisting of two vertical metallic bars enclosing a blackish fuscous patch which, expands above into a rather large blackish spot and merges into extensions of the brown geminations from costa; on dorsum bordering the inner margin of the ocelloid patch a rather large triangular blackish 1Bull. U. 8. Nat. Mus. no. 123. 1923. 386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 16 patch; cilia brownish, paler toward costa and with a narrow dark fuscous basal band above tornus; forewing, otherwise, of the whitish ground color; termen concave; veins 3, 4, and 5 somewhat approximate attermen. Hind- wing pale smoky fuscous; cilia paler with a dark basal band; veins 3 and 4 short stalked. Male genitalia similar in shape to those of essexana Kearfott, but slightly smaller and with neck of harpe more heavily haired. Alar expanse.—12.5-15 mm. Type.—In collection Barnes. Paratypes.—Cat. no. 27247 U. S. N. M. Also in American Museum, Canadian National, and Barnes collections. Type locality—Oak Station, Pennsylvania. Food plant.—Unknown. Described from male type, 19 male and | female paratypes from the type locality bearing dates from June 21 to Aug. 15 (F. Marloff); 1 female para- type from New Brighton, Pennsylvania (“‘VII—20-07”’); 1 female paratype from Wyoming County, Pennsylvania (W. D. Kearfott, ‘“VI-17-06’’); 3 male and 1 female paratypes from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (H. Engel, ‘““VJ-25-08”’); 1 male paratype from Essex County Park, New Jersey (Kear- fott, July 22); 1 male paratype from Plummer’s Island, Maryland (Busck, Aug. 1903); and 1 male paratype from Chicago, Illinois (Sept. 1900). These specimens had been determined by Kearfott as Laspeyresia gallaesaliciana Riley and were in the Barnes and American Museum collections under that name. A very distinct species, resembling Epinotia nigralbana Walsingham in color, and pattern, and like no other Thiodia. Thiodia insignata, new species Palpus extending the length of the head beyond it; greyish fuscous; inner side white. Face, head, and thorax greyishfuscous. Forewing whitish grey with dark greyish fuscous pattern marking and an ochreous shade below apex; a complete outwardly angulate dark basal patch further out on dorsum than on costa and with apex at vein 1b; from mid costa to vein 1b below end of cell a dark slanting half fascia from the end of which a very faint dark shade extends upward to sub apical costal spot; on dorsum near tornus and op- posite extremity of fascia, a similar colored triangular dark spot; costa beyond middle with four greyish fuscous spots separated by white germinate dashes; ocelloid patch a group of seven black dots separated by three very faint vertical metallic bars; area above, suffused with ochreous; termen straight and decidedly slanting; veins 3, 4, and 5 not approximate at termen; cilia sordid whitish with a dark median shade. Hind wing pale smoky fuscous; cilia paler, with a broad dark median band; veins 3 and 4 united. Male genitalia similar to those of octopunctana Walsingham. Alar expanse.—19-—20 mm. Type.—lIn collection Barnes. . Paratype.—Cat. no. 27248 U.S. N. M. Also in American Museum. Type locality —Silverton, Colorado. Food plant—Unknown. Described from male type and 1 male paratype from the type locality (“July 8-15” and ‘Aug. 1-7’’) and 1 male paratype from Chimney Gulch, Golden, Colorado (Oslar). I have also before me two males from Iditarod, Alaska (‘June 22 and July 7, 1918,” A. Twitchell) which appear to be the ~ OCTOBER 4, 1924 HEINRICH: NORTH AMERICAN EUCOSMINAE 387 same species. They are similar in color, markings and structure except that the dark shade connecting end of outer semifascia and subapical costal spot of forewing is darker and the apex of cucullus is a trifle more pointed. They possibly represent a distinct local race; but for the present may as well go under this name. Closest to columbiana Walsingham; with similar pattern, but larger and darker and with different genitalia; the costa of harpe is straighter and the apex of cucullus more distinctly rounded. Thiodia kokana (Kearfott) Eucosma kokana Kearfott, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 33: 29. 1907. Barnes and McDunnough, Check List Lepid. Bor. Amer. no. 7006, 1917. Eucosma chortaea Meyrick, Ent. Mo. Mag. 48: 35. 1912. Hystricophora kokana Heinrich, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 123, 259. 1923. Thiodia sororiana Heinrich, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 128: 263. 1923. Mr. Meyrick has suggested to me the above synonomy which I was in- clined to doubt, as the type (2) of kokana and that of sororiana (7) showed some slight differences in the shape of termen and in the approximation of veins 3, 4 and 5 on termen of forewing. Recently, however, we have re- ceived from Miss Annette I’. Braun a pair ( and @) of authentic kokana from the type locality (Cincinnati, Ohio). These specimens showed the differences to be purely sexual and the tentative reference of kokana to Hystricophora an error. Thiodia infrimbiana candidula, new variety A pale Eastern race of infimbriana, distinguished by its snow white color and unmarked white forewing cilia. It lacks the olivasceous overcast of typical infimbriana. There is no trace of the semicircular dark shade above the ocelloid patch, so conspicuous in the latter, and themarkings are fainter, in some specimens almost obsolete. The harpe of the male genitalia also has a cucullus more sharply pointed at apex. Alar expanse.—15-18 mm. Type.—In Canadian National Collection. Paratype-—Cat. no. 27249 U. S. N. M. Also in Canadian National, American Museum, and Barnes collections. Type locality—Aweme, Manitoba. Food plant.—Artemesia. Described from male type 7 male and 1 femae paratypes from the type locality collected by Norman Criddle (‘28-VII-1921”, ‘3—-VII-1921,” ““15-VIII-1921” and “23-VII-08”); 2 female paratypes from Cartwright Manitoba (#. F. Heath); and one male paratype from St. Anthony Park, Minnesota (labeled, “ties leaves of Artemesia ludovicana, Aug. 6’’). This name will apply to the Manitoba and other eastern specimens which we have hitherto referred to infimbriana Dyar. Typical infimbriana is apparently limited to the Pacific coast. 388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 16 Thiodia segregata, new species Palpus, face, and head dull white; palpus extending the length of the head beyond it; grey toward apex. Thorax and gound color of forewing creamy or greyish white, due to a greyish ochreous shading at tips of scales; a pale rusty ochreous basal patch and median fascia and a similar dark shade toward apex faintly indicated; in some specimens the basal patch is fairly clear and angulate, with the apex at vein 1b, and farther out on dorsum than on costa; in others it is indicated only by a faint median or dorsal shade; median fascia a faint, straight, rather narrow band from mid costa to outer fourth of dorsum; ocelloid patch weak, consisting of three very faint, vertical metallic bars enclosing a varying number of small black dots, sometimes as many as nine, often altogether obsolete; termen concave; veins 3, 4, and 5 somewhat approximate at termen; cilia whitish, finely dusted with blackish grey. Hindwing pale smoky fuscous; cilia pale, with a dark basal band; veins 3 and 4 united. Male genitalia as in festivana Heinrich. Alar expanse.—11-12 mm. Type.—In collection Barnes. Paratypes.—Cat. no. 27250 U. 8. N. M. Also in American Museum and Barnes collections. Type locality—Monachee Meadows, Tulare County, California. Food plant.—Unknown. Described from male type, 43 male and 2 female paratypes from the type locality (8000 ft., “July 26-23” and ‘Aug. 8-15’). Similar to festivana Heinrich; but paler and less distinctly marked. Pos- sibly a local race of that species. Eucosma giganteana minorata, new variety A food plant variety, differing from typical giganteana in size and habit. The color and pattern are the same; but the moths are much smaller and the genitalia (male and female) are only half the size of those of giganteana, tho similar in shape and structure. The larvae of typical giganteana are borers in the roots of Sylphium perfoliatum while those of the new variety feed in the flower heads of Sylphium gracile. Such a difference in food habit within a species is not astonishing in the Olethreutidae, and in this ease does not, I think, justify more than varietal separation. Alar expanse.—17-19 mm. Type.——Cat. no. 27251 U. S. N. M. Type locality —tLiberty, Texas. Food plant.—Sylphium gracile. Described from male type and one male paratype from the type locality (July 29, 1922 and July 16, 1923); and one female paratype from Stowell, Has (July 5, 1923) all reared by L. J. Bottimer of the Federal Horticultural oard. Gypsonoma parryana (Curtis) Argyrotosa parryana Curtis, Appendix, Ross Second Arctic Voyage, 1835, p. 75. OCTOBER 4, 1924 HEINRICH: NORTH AMERICAN EUCOSMINAE 389 Omitted from my revision of the Eucosminae. Similar to fasczolana in pattern and genitalia; but with outer dark fascia of forewing disappearing before dorsum and with aedoeagus longer and more slender. There are several specimens from Alaska in the Canadian National Col- lection. Alar expanse.—18-19 mm. Type.—Location unknown. Type locality—Arctic America. Food plant—Unknown. Gypsonoma nebulosana (Packard) Grapholitha nebulosana Packard, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 11: 61. 1866. Heinrich, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. no. 123: 261. 1923. Epinotia nebulosana Fernald, in Dyar List N. Amer. Lepid., no. 5231. 1903. Enarmonia nebulosana Barnes and McDunnough, Check List Lepid., no. 7155. 1917. Through the courtesy of Nathan Banks I have been able to make a genitalia slide of Packard’s type and place this species. It is nearly unicolorous brown, with genitalia like those of fasczolana Clemens; possibly a suffused dark variety of the latter, but without any trace of the whitish anti-median and post median areas so conspicuous on fasciolana. I would correct here an error in my Revision of the North American Eucos- minae. ‘The actual type (Packard no. 607; M. C. Z. type no. 14812) is at Cambridge and not in the Fernald collection as I stated. Fernald’s speci- men is a paratype. There is an authentic specimen () from Hopedale, Labrador (‘‘27—VII—1922’’) in the Canadian National Collection. Alar expanse.—19 mm. Type.——In Museum Comparative Zoology. Type locality —Strawberry Harbor, Labrador. Food plant—Unknown. Gypsonoma adjuncta, new species Palpus, face and head white, dusted with grey. Thorax dark grey dusted with white. Forewing dark (blackish) grey with a white patch, somewhat streaked with grey, on costa beyond base, an irregular (more or less obscured) white blotch on mid dorsum and some white dusting near costa on outer third; an obscure blackish dot at end of cell and a faint black dot at apex; cilia grey dusted with white at tornus. Hind wing dark smoky fuscous; cilia paler, with a very slightly darker basal band. Alar expanse.—12-15 mm. Type.—Cat. no. 27252 U.S. N. M. Paratypes.—In Canadian National and Blackmore collections. Type locality —Toronto, Canada. Food plant.—Unknown. Described from male type and one male paratype from the type locality ((Parish, “‘1-13” and ‘6—-7-16’’) received through Edward Meyrick and one paratype from Victoria, British Columbia (W. H. Carter, “‘26—-VI-21,” Blackmore no. 473). 390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 16_ Similar to the European incarnana Haworth, but with anti median white area not a complete pale fascia (dark basal patch fusing at least at middle with median dark scaling), with post median area more heavily dusted (almost suffused) with grey scaling, with costal hook of harpe of male geni- talia much shorter, and with basal opening of harpe larger and more evenly rounded. Possibly an American race of incarnana. Proteoteras implicata, new species Forewing olivaceous green, marked with black or blackish fuscous; an outwardly angulate, dark basal patch faintly indicated by irregular lines of blackish scales beyond base, strongest on basal fourth of costa; costa finely strigulated; from just beyond middle of costa a dark outwardly slanting half fascia more or less dusted with black, extending to upper outer edge of cell; from end of this a fine black line extending out and up toward apex and terminating in a rounded black spot before apex. Hind wing brownish fuscous; cilia slightly paler, with a dark basal band. In male some fine black scaling on upper side of hind wing, on base of cell, and between veins la and 1b at extreme base of wing; on under side of hindwing along costa from base to outer fourth, and a very little along lower vein of cell at base; on under side of forewing on basal third of costa and on upper and below lower veins of cell at extreme base; also on extreme posterior lateral margins of thorax and on outer side of hind tibia and outer surfaces of all femora. Male genitalia with 2 or 3 heavy, flat spines from outer surface of harpe, and with entire neck of harpe from outer margin of basal opening to cucullus, densely spined; socii long and rather slender, with short hair pencils; general shape as in aesculana. Alar expanse.—11-15 mm. Type.—tIn Barnes collection. Paratype-—Cat. no. 27253 U. 8. N. M. Also in American Museum and Barnes collections. Type locality—Everglades, Florida. Food plant.—‘Bush Ash.” Described from male type, 3 male and 4 female paratypes from the type locality labeled, “ex larva in stems of Bush Ash, Apr. 16-23’; and one male paratype from La Chorrera, Panama (Busck, May 1912). Similar to aesculana Riley; but with different genitalia and different sex scaling in male. Exentera senatrix, new species Palpus, face, head and thorax dark ashy grey. Forewing grey, the pale areas ashy grey with a faint bluish tint, the dark markings blackish fuscous; a dark basal patch somewhat broken on dorsum at base by pale scaling and fusing above cell with a similar dark shade from mid costa; at lower outer angle of cell a small blotch of blackish scaling; outer third of costa with three obscured dark geminations; costa otherwise very faintly marked with fine pale gemination; ocelloid patch obscure, two vertical bars enclosing 3 or 4 very short black dashes; forewing, otherwise, ashy blue grey; termen notched at veins 3-5; veins 3, 4 and 5 closely approximate at termen; 7 and 8 short stalked or connate; cilia dark ashy grey, paler toward tornus. Hind- wing pale smoky fuscous; cilia paler, with a dark basal band. OCTOBER 4, 1924 HEINRICH: NORTH AMERICAN EUCOSMINAE 391 Male genitalia similar to those of zmprobana Walker. Alar expanse.-—19-21 mm. Type—tIn Barnes collection. Paratypes.—Cat. no. 27254 U.S. N. M. Also in American Museum and Barnes collections. Type locality Paradise, Cochise County, Arizona. Food plant—Unknown. Described from male type, one male and 7 female paratypes from the type locality, dated, ‘“Mch. 8-15” and Apr. 1-7’’). A rather striking species with very narrow forewings. Close to zmprobana but apparently distinct. Epinotia cruciana (Linnaeus) Two species, Sciaphila direptana Walker and Sciaphila vilisana Walker, described? from St. Martin’s Falls, Albany River, Hudson Bay, were omitted from my revision. Judging by the descriptions and Knight’s figures in the American Museum they are both synonyms of EH. cruciana (Linnaeus) and should for the present, at least, be so referred. Epinotia cruciana lepida, new variety A small dark reddish brown variety with pale anti and post median metal- lic bands more or less obscured. Palpus sordid whitish, shaded with fuscous towards apex. Face and head whitish ochreous shaded with fuscous. Tho- rax and forewing dark reddish brown, in some specimens with a somewhat leaden luster on extreme base of wing and over thorax; from costa at 4 to mid dorsum a pair of narrow, irregular metallic lines, more or less obscured and sometimes enclosing a pale ochreous shading; on outer third of costa three or four whitish or ochreous-geminate marks (very faint in some speci- mens) from which extend three irregular nearly parallel metallic lines, two to tornus, and one to termen below apex, the last often obsolete or much obscured; cilia leaden fuscous with a pale shade toward apex. Hindwing smoky fuscous; cilia paler, with a dark basal band. Genitalia as in typical cruciana except somewhat smaller. Alar expanse.—11.5-12 mm. Type.—tIn Barnes collection. Paratypes.—Cat. no. 27255, U. 8. N. M. Also in American Museum and Barnes collections. Type locality—Mount Washington, New Hampshire. Food plant.—Unknown. Described from male type, 21 male and 2 female paratypes from the type locality (‘4000 ft. ‘July 24-31” and ‘‘Aug. 1—-7’’). A distinct, local, dwarfed variety. Epinotia cruciana russata, new variety A unicolorous form with sordid whitish ochreous palpus and head, and rust red thorax and forewing. In some specimens there is a very faint indication of a darker semi-fascia from mid costa to tornus, but in most this is not distinguishable. The leaden streak along costa from base to middle, 2 Cat. Lepid. Heter. Brit. Mus. 28:338. 1863. 392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 16 so characteristic of the species, is strongly marked; forewing cilia faintly shaded with leaden fuscous; a short, narrow, vertical leaden bar above tornus. Hindwing pale smoky fuscous, somewhat whitish towards base; cilia whitish, with a dark basal band and a faint dark median shade. Genitalia as in typical cruciana. Alar expanse.—15-16 mm. Type.—Cat. no. 27256 U.S. N. M. Paratypes.—In National Museum and Blackmore collections. Type locality.—Victoria, British Columbia. Food plant——Unknown. Described from male type and 2 male paratypes from the type locality (EZ. H. Blackmore, ‘‘24—VI-23,” “25—-VI-23” and “21—VII-23”); and one male and one female paratype from Brentwood, British Columbia (‘14-VII- 23” and ‘'30-VI-23,” Blackmore). Epinotia seorsa, new species Antennae whitish; in male finely pubescent. Palpus triangular, strongly porected, extending three times the length of the head beyond it; outer side purplish red or reddish ochreous; upper edge and inner side sordid whitish, sometimes with a slight greyish dusting. Jace and head sordid whitish. Thorax rust or rosy red somewhat shaded with sordid ochreous white at middle. Forewing rust color (in some specimens red rather than ochreous, in others quite pale) with a faint rose purple suffusion towards apex; on dor- sum near base an obscure outwardly projecting angulate semi-lustrous leaden or purplish fuscous patch, forming the dorsal remnant of an incom- plete basal patch; from mid costa to just beyond middle of dorsum a similar colored fascia, rather broad for most of its length but sharply tapering at costal and dorsal extremities; beyond this a narrow outwardly curved dark line from outer third of costa to tornus; and beyond this an occasional faint obeure dark line or two from costa, disappearing near termen; in some speci- mens there is an irregular faint pale shading along dorsum from base to outer fifth, but this is normally lacking; cilia rosy or rust color dusted with leaden scales towards tornus. Underside of forewing with pale costa and with rest of wing more or less suffused with leaden scaling; the pattern mark- ings, especially the fascia and post median line, darkest and rather strongly marked. Hindwing whitish mottled with fuscous; cilia whitish, with dark basal band. Male genitalia with uncus strong, undivided, tip slightly swollen; harpe as in infuscana Walsingham but not so broad towards base; aedoeagus moder- ately long, straight and slightly tapering toward apex; cornuti a dense cluster of slender spines half as long as aedoeagus. Alar expanse.—18-20 mm. Type.—Cat. no. 27257 U. 8. N. M. Paratypes.—In National Museum, Canadian National Museum, Black- more, and Barnes collections. Type locality —Vavenby, British Columbia. Food plant.—Unknown. Described from male type (‘‘16-IX—1922, Theo. A. Moilliet, Blackmore no. 145’’); one male and one female paratype from Victoria, British Columbia (10-9-03” and “‘27—9-03”’); one female paratype from Duncans, Vancouver Isl., (‘{22-9-12,” Hanham); one female paratype from Quamichau Lake, Vancouver Island (Hanham, ‘Blackmore no. 665); one male paratype from OCTOBER 4, 1924 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 393 Truckee, California (“‘Oct. 8-15’’); and one female paratype without locality label but bearing Blackmore’s no. 876 and presumably from British Columbia. A distinct species close to septemberana Kearfott and vagana Heinrich. Hystricophora taleana (Grote) Grapholitha taleana Grote, Can. Ent. 10: 54. 1878. Heinrich, U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. no. 123: 260. 1923. Thiodia taleana Fernald, in Dyar List N. Amer. Lepid., no. 5182. 1903. Eucosma taleana Barnes and MeDunnough, Check List Lepid, Bor. Amer., no. 7071. 1917. Under Grote’s name the Canadian National Collection has several speci- mens from Aweme, Manitoba, agreeing with specimens from Kansas and Iowa which we had under ochreicostana Walsingham. If the determination is correct—and there seems no good reason to doubt it—ochreicostana and taleana are conspecific. Walsingham’s name, however, may be retained as a racial designation for the Rocky Mountain and Western specimens, as these differ somewhat in both pattern and genitalia from those from the plains country; ochreicostana has broader harpes than taleana and a yellow shading on base of costa of forewing lacking in the latter form. Otherwise the genitalia and patterns agree. I am keeping ochreicostana, therefore as a variety of taleana. Alar expanse.—15-18 mm. Type.—tIn British Museum. Type locality.—Illlinois. Food plant.—Unknown. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 664TH MEETING The 664th meeting was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club March 15, 1924, at 8 p.m., with Vice President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 34 persons present. Under Short Notes, H. C. SKEELS elie a copy of the recently published “Standardized Plant Names” and inquired whether the practice followed in that work of ending all personal specific names in the genitive with a single 7 was likely to be adopted by botanists generally. The subject was dis- cussed by Messrs. WertTmorn, CovILLE, OBERHOLSER, and HrircHcock. Dr. OBERHOLSER stated that the contraction of the termination to a single 7, which was followed at one time by the A.O.U., has now been abandoned by that body. R. W. Suurept read letters from foreign ornithologists referring to the specimen of Archaeopteryx in the Berlin Museum and to specimens of the Labrador Duck. 5. F. Buake reported that a flock of Purple Grackles, numbering between 3000 and 5000, is roosting at night in the southeast corner of the Soldiers’ 394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 16 Home grounds. R. W.SHuFELDT reported that during the winter a number of frozen Starlings had been brought to him from their roosting place in the southwest corner of the Soldiers’ Home grounds. F. V. Covitie: Grossularia echinella, a new species of gooseberry from Florida (illustrated by specimens). The speaker described his discovery of a new species of Grossularia a few weeks ago in northern Florida. This plant, which is related to G. curvata, but very distinct, is the first species of the genus to be found in Florida. O. E. Serre: Conservation studies on California sardines. The economic problems facing the world with its ever increasing population consist largely of the production of foods and the development of the energy needed to make them available to the consumer. The production of foods is de- pendent upon the productivity of the soil, the forests, and the fisheries, and it is the conservation of these resources that is dependent entirely upon the biologist for the information that proper administration requires. In the case of the California sardine fishery, the problem is to administer the resources in such a way that the interest only is used, leaving the capital intact. The program of the state is that of allowing unlimited exploitation at the same time that a competent scientific staff is collecting and analyzing data which should determine the effect of such commercial fishing. This consists of collecting such statistics on landings and units of gear employed and in the analyzing of them in such a fashion as will show the return per fishing unit from year to year. Supplementing this, the staff is making such studies as will allow the distinction between natural fluctuations in abun- dance and those fluctuations due to the intensity of commercial fishing. These consist of studies in age and rate of growth. The size-frequency methods are being used instead of the more common method of scale deter- minations. This is done because the scales of the sardine in California are quite illegible, and the size-frequency constitutes a method into which personal interpretation does not enter, and at the same time provides a vast amount of material on the size-composition of the population, which is useful in the determination of the existence of such phenomena as size or age dominance. The present indications are that the size-dominance is present, though to a less degree than was found in the case of the Norwegian sea herring. These studies have also had a by-product importance to the trade, namely, that of predicting sizes which will be present in large portions in future years. If allowed to proceed to its natural conclusion, this program will evaluate most of the factors in the life history of the sardine and will be a contribution of great importance in maintaining this and other fishery re- sources. O. P. Hay: Distribution of vertebrates in the Pleistocene of North America (illustrated). The speaker outlined the stages into which the North American Pleistocene is divided and showed their distribution by maps. Illustrations of some of the more important vertebrates were thrown on the screen and details of their occurrence were mentioned. The localities at which remains of the larger groups have been found were shown on distribution maps. 665TH MEETING The 665th Meeting was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club March 29, 1924, at 8:05 p.m. with Vice President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 95 persons present. OCTOBER 4, 1924 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 395 E. P. Kiuure: Botanical exploration in Colombia (illustrated). As a part of a plan for the botanical exploration of northern South America an ex- pedition went to Colombia in 1922 to collect plants and study the distribu- tion of vegetation. Special attention was given to the flora of the Western Cordillera and the western side of the Central Cordillera. In order to study the north-south distribution and to compare the flora of the two ranges, bases were established at northern, central, and southern points on each cordillera. Plant life in Colombia naturally varies greatly with altitude. Four zones of vegetation may be recognized: (1) Tropical, sea-level to about 5000 feet; (2) subtropical, 5000 to 9500 feet; (3) temperate, 9500 to 12,000 feet; (4) paramo, 12,000 feet to snow line. Because of the heavy rain-fall on the Pacific coast the forest is here ex- tremely dense, though because of the configuration of the mountains dry “pockets” frequently occur where cacti and other xerophytic plants grow. Palms are particularly striking in the Cauca valley and along the Quindiu trail. Among the characteristic plant groups of the Subtropical and Tem- perate zones are Bomarea, Monnina, Passiflora, Gesneriaceae, Lobeliaceae, orchids and ferns. Plants of the bleak Panamo Zone are usually brilliantly flowered and densely clothed with hairs. Conspicuous plants of this zone are the frailejones (Hspeletia), and other composites, lupines, and lycopo- diums. About 23,000 specimens were collected, most of which were dried over charcoal fires. Much of the success of the expedition was due to the as- sistance given by the Governmental and Departmental officials as well as by private citizens. The hospitality of the Colombian people was greatly appreciated by members of the expedition. Discussed by A. 8. Hircucock. N. A. Coss: Two Blue Jays—Jack and Jill—and their home life (illus- tated). The speaker gave an intimate account, illustrated by colored lantern slides, of the activities of a pair of blue jays that raised a brood of young in a tree close to his house at Falls Church. The ingenious devices to obtain an insight into their home life were described and illustrated by numerous photographs. The paper will appear in ‘Nature Magazine.” é 666TH MEETING The 666th meeting was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club April 12, 1924 at 8:05 p.m., with Vice-President RoHwer in the chair and 50 persons present. New members elected: W. W. Disut, Dr. W. H. Ricu, O. E. Serre, Miss Mary Van Meter, and Dr. J. R. WEIR. Under Short Notes, M. K. Brapy reported his discovery of a sonetoatl salamander coiled about its eggs in Rock Creek Park. The species is new to the D. C. fauna. Dr. T. 8. Patmer inquired if members of the Society had observed box turtles this spring. Some captive adults in his possession have not yet emerged, but young ones, which did not bury themselves last fall and had to be pushed into the ground, have come out.—Discussed by A. WETMORE. Dr. C. W. Strives reported that in experiments carried on by him it has been found that typhoid germs can live in the soil at least 106 days. A. 8. Hitrcucock (presidential address): (a) Remarks on the scientific attitude; (b) Botanizing in Ecuador (illustrated); (c) How to aid the Biological Society. (a) A plea was made to scientists to meet with open-mindedness (the scientific attitude) questions in politics, economics, and religion. (b) 396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 16 Collections were made at Guayaquil and several other places on the Coastal Plain, and at Huigra, Ambato, Urbina, and Quito, on the railroad from Guayaquil to Quito. Trips were made overland to Ibarra and Tulcan to the north, to Portovelo (a gold mine near Zaruma), Loja, and Cuenca to the south, and to Bafios and Mera in the Oriente. Pichincha (near Quito) and Chimborazo were visited for alpine plants. About 2000 numbers of flower- ing plants were obtained. (c) The finances of the Society were briefly dis- cussed. (Author’s abstract.) - 667TH MEETING The 667th meeting of the Biological Society was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club April 26, 1924, at 8:00 p.m., with President GipLEY in the chair and 61 persons present. The President announced the appoint- ment of the following trustees for the permanent funds of the Society: T. S. PALMER (3 years), H. C. OBERHOLSER (2 years), A. S. HttcHcock (1 year). New members elected: Dr. ALExis M. Bacusin, M. W. Tansor. Under Short Notes, Dr. T. 8. Patmer reported that one of his adult box turtles has now come out. When digging their winter holes, he found that box turtles dig out the ground with their hind feet and thus move down gradually backward. Dr. P. B. JoHnson reported that a box turtle which hibernated under dead leaves in his yard apparently backed into its hole. Dr. E. D. Bau reported that certain western turtles dug in backwards. M. K. Brapy reported that he had found all three of the local lizards under one log in Fairfax County. After the close of the meeting, specimens of these lizards were exhibited. A. §. Hrrescock inquired whether elephants use the trunk in a right or left-handed fashion. H. C. OBERHOLSER stated that it has been reported that birds always took a right-handed flight into the nest box. E. A. Goup- MAN Said that most reindeer in Alaska mill clockwise, except for small groups which mill anti-clockwise. P. B. Jonnson inquired whether this might be due to a lack of symmetry in the body. Austin H. Ciarxk: Animal flight (read by H. C. OBERHOLSER). The economic advantages of flight were first described, and the number of the various flying creatures given. The animals that can fly, or at least glide through the air, amount to nearly two-thirds of all the species known, and among land-living animals about three-fourths. These include, in numerical order, insects, birds, mammals, fishes, lizards, snakes and mollusks, with perhaps a crustacean and a frog. The flight of birds was taken up in detail and described, then the flight of bats, the gliding flight of mammals and of reptiles, and the flight of insects. The structures serving for flight were considered. The animals which, without special flying organs, are habit- ually wafted about by the wind, like many spiders and the young larvae of certain moths, were taken up, followed by those which, like the cobras, the frilled lizard, and many leaping mammals, have broad processes or tufts of long hairs which serve to minimize the danger from a fall by increasing the air-resisting surface. Lastly the flying creatures in the sea were discussed, the flying fishes and the flying squid. The flight of the last named was described from personal experience with them off northwestern Africa; when above the surface of the sea they are easily distinguished from the flying-fishes by the fact that a company always keeps together in close formation, and their flight is shorter. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by KE. A. GotpMan, T. 8. Patmer, A. 8. Hrrcucock and H. C. OBERHOLSER. OCTOBER 4, 1924 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 397 W. H. Ricu: Migration of salmon in the Alaska Peninsula region (il- lustrated). The red salmon fishery located in Bristol Bay and along the Alaska Peninsula is one of the most valuable of the fishery resources of the United States. On account of extensive exploitation they were in real danger of depletion when the Alaska Fishery Reservations were established some two or three years ago. Administration of these is vested in the Secretary of Commerce acting through the Bureau of Fisheries. In order that regulations may be adequately based the Bureau has undertaken an extensive investigation of the various phases of the life history of these fish. Of especial importance has been the extent, direction, and rate of the oceanic migrations of the fish, with particular reference to the relationship of the fish taken in Bristol Bay to those taken near the extremity of the Alaska Peninsula. In an effort to solve this problem the Bureau has, during 1922 and 1923, tagged 14,000 red salmon, mainly in the region south of the penin- sula but close to the extremity. The results of these experiments have shown conclusively that the great bulk of the fish taken near the end of the peninsula and along the southern shore of the peninsula as far east as the Shumagin Islands belong to the Bristol Bay run. Their home streams are located in the Bristol Bay district and they are on their return migration to those streams from which they came, at the time they are taken commercially. Apparently the feeding grounds of these salmon during their life in the ocean is along the continental shelf of the north Pacific. Evidence is available which shows that the fish south of the peninsula pass through Isanotsky strait on their way to Bristol Bay. The rate of travel is approximately 20 miles per day during the early part of the season but this increases during the season until the rate is nearly double this toward the end of the season, the latter part of July. In addition to the migration to Bristol Bay some of the salmon are bound to local streams along the southern shore of the peninsula and, to a less extent, to local streams along the northern shore. An interesting feature of this local migration is that the fish bound for these local spawning grounds apparently school separately from those bound for Bristol Bay. This is particularly indicated by the fact that in Morzhovoi Bay, the first large indentation of the southern coast of the peninsula east of Isanotsky Strait, the fish tagged along the western and northern shores of the bay were pre- dominately Bristol Bay fish while those tagged along the eastern shore dur- ing the latter part of the season went mainly to local spawning grounds to to the eastward. A few of the fish tagged in the region about the Shumagin Islands went eastward as far as Chignik, Kodiak, and Afognak Islands and Cook Inlet. (Author’s abstract.) 5. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS E. F. Paruirs, Apiculturist of the Bureau of Entomology, has accepted a position as Professor of Apiculture in the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., and assumes his new duties October 1. J. I. Hampieton, of the Bureau of Entomology, will have charge of the Bee Culture Investigations of the Bureau. Dr. F. M. Waurers, Jr., resigned from the Bureau of Standards on June 30 to become Professor of Experimental Physics in the Carnegie Institute Of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. 398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 16 Dr. H. M. Amt, of Ottawa, Canada, a member of this AcapEmy, has just returned home from a five weeks stay in Europe where he attended the British Empire Mining Congress at Wembley. Later he visited Montiéres, St. Acheul, Cagny, Bovés, Belloy, and other prehistoric sites in the vicinity of Amiens and Abbeville in the Somme valley, and followed up his recent work in Seine and Marne and in the Dordogne country where he obtained further evidence as to life and culture in the New as well as in the Old Stone Age. On his return to Canada Dr. Ami attended the British Association Meeting in Toronto and read two papers: one in Section C (Geology) Prob- lems in the Palaeozoic Succession of Eastern Canada, the other in Section H (Anthropology) On recent discoveries in prehistory. Dr. Gregory Breit, of the University of Minnesota, joined the staff of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton as mathematical physicist, July 1. Professor H. Prrrrer, connected for twenty years with the U. 8. Depart- ment of Agriculture and now director of the Commercial Museum at Caracas, Venezuela, recently received from the French Government the ribbon of Officier de Il’Instruction publique, in recognition of his work on the botany, geography, and ethnology of Central and South America. The Physics Club of the Bureau of Standards announces a course of 60 lectures by Dr. P. R. Heyl on The fundamental concepts of physics in the light of modern discovery. These lectures are to be given at 4:30 p.m. on Mon- days and Thursdays of each week beginning September 29. All scientific men in the city who are interested in this course are requested to get in touch with F. M. Defandorf, Secretary of the Physies Club, Bureau of Standards. ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES’ Saturday, October 4. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club. Program: Reports from meetings of the British Association and the Inter- national Mathematical Congress. W. J. Humpureys, H. L. Curtis, Paut D. Foote, E. W. Wootarp. Tuesday, October 7. The Botanical Society. Wednesday, October 8. The Geological Society. Thursday, October 9. The Chemical Society. Saturday, October 11. The Biological Society. Wednesday, October 15. Society of Engineers. Thursday, October 16. The Acaprmy. Saturday, October 18. The Philosophical Society. The Helminthological Society. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE ( OF THE JOURNAL Thursday, October 2. The Entomological Society. Program: A. C. Baker: A major epidemic of a new pest on citrus. Wm. Scuaus. Some remarks on the Entomological Society of London, CONTENTS | ORIGINAL PapERs Zoology.—A new Chinese lizard of the genus Eumeces. Luonnanp STEINE iden j Entomology.—North American Eucosminae, notes and new species a: Cart HEINRICH «20.0.0 66 ee eee e eee eee e eee e ett ttre eet ees Procerpines aR hes 2 1 ae Biological Sooiety) 6s. eke. tee Seeks ey eee Oe ce Ne Karin gue i ‘ Sg = Screntiric NOTES AND NEWS. 5025 co. Osha perce sre > meee ke ale ener OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY — President: ARTHUR L. ik Geophysical Laboratory, Recording Secretary: W. D. Thus Coast he Geodetic a ic (y/o Treasurer: R, L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic ‘Survey. | OcTOBER 19, 1924 No. 17 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS E. P. Kiurp W. F. Mreacers D. F. Hewserr NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF STANDARDS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. ApamMs S. A. Ronwrer PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLDMAN G. W. Stosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIBTY iS R. F. Griaes J. R. Swanton Saat _ BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL'SOCIETY |. E. WIcHERS SER E CHEMICAL SOCIETY tay F PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY A> it ot Pre EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY i BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royau anp GUILFORD AVES. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24,1912. 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Special rat are given to members ot scientific societies affliated with the Academy. ¥ ie JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 14 - OcToBER 19, 1924 No. 17 MATHEMATICS.—A. straight line chart for the solution of spherical triangles. F. E. Wricut, Geophysical Laboratory. A straight line chart for the solution of a spherical triangle, in which two sides and the included angle are given, has been in use for many years. In 1891 M. d’Ocagne! published a straight line chart for the solution of the equation for the spherical distance between two points on a sphere whose latitudes and longitudes are known 2cosc = (1 + cos L)-cos(a — b).— (1 — cosL)-cos(a + 5) in which c¢ is the spherical distance, jks the difference in longitude, and a and b are the latitudes. This chart was reproduced in 1919 by Peddle? who derived it by the general method of determinants. In 1917 Littlehales* derived, independently and by still another method, the same chart for the solution of the same equation ex- pressed, however, in haversines a 1+ cosa (hav a = sin?— ae Shae eae ) and of the form hav z = hav (Col — PD) + hav(CoL + PD) — hav(CoL — PD). havi in which z is the zenith distance, Col, the colatitude, PD, the polar distance, and ¢, the hour angle. The Littlehales’ chart is published 1 Nomographie. Les calculs usuels effectués au moyen des abaques. Essai d’une théorie générale. Paris. 1891; Traité de nomographie. Paris. 327. 1899. (abaque de la distance sphérique). See also M. Collignon, Note sur la détermination de l’heure du passage du Soleil dans un plan vertical. Journ. de 1’Ecole Polytechnique, sér. 2, 4: 123. 1898. 2 J. B. Peddle, The construction of graphical charts. New York. 149-151. 1919. 2G. W. Littlehales, Altitude, azimuth, and hour angle diagram. Proc. U. 8. Naval Institute 43: 2541-2546. 1917. 399 400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 17 by the Hydrographic Office of the U. 8. Navy* as a separate sheet measuring 56.8 em. (22.4 inches) on a side, and serves exceedingly well the purpose for which it is intended. It has, however, apparently not been realized heretofore that this chart, properly labeled, is competent to solve not only the case of an oblique spherical triangle in which two sides and the included angle are given and the third side is sought, but also any spherical triangle for which any three of its six angles are given and the other three are sought. To show how this can be done and to direct attention to the usefulness of this chart in problems of spherical trigonometry is the purpose of this note. The three fundamental equations of spherical trigonometry are sin a:sin b= sin A:sin B (sine formula) (1) cos a= cos b-cosc + sin b-sin c-cos A (2) cosA = — cos B-cosC + sin B-sin C-cos , (qosinevemaalas) (3) in which a, 6, c are the sides, and A, B, C are the solid angles opposite a, b, ¢ respectively, of the spherical triangle. Other equations of similar form are derived from these equations by cyclical transposi- tion of the letters in the usual manner. The cosine formulas can be rewritten in the form® 2 cos a = [eos(b — c) — cos(b + c)]-(1 + cos A) + 2 cos(b + c) (2a) 2cosA = [cos(B —C) — cos(B + C)]-(1 + cos a),— 2 cos(B — C) (8a) which contains only cosine functions and from which the cosine chart is easily derived. In equation (2a) let cos a = y, | + cos A = 2, cos(b — c) — cos(b + c) = m, and cos(b + c) = n; the equa- tion reduces then to the form I m Ueaniee eae which is that of a straight line in rectangular codrdinates. The line passes through the points: 7 = O, y = n = cos(b + c); anda = 2, y =m+n =cos(b —c). To construct the chart let O be the origin of coordinates; draw on the zero ordinate a cosine scale for the values 4 Sheet no. 2776. Published June, 1917, at Washington, D.C. Plate 1 which accom- panies this paper is a reproduction, on a reduced scale, of this chart. The scales, how- ever, have been relabeled and other scales added. It is a pleasure for the writer to express herewith his indebtedness to Dr. G. W. Littlehales of the U. 8. Hydrographic Office for permission thus to reproduce the chart. 5 Expressed in haversines the cosine equations read hav a = hav(6+c) + hav(6 —c) — hav(b+c)-hav A hav A = hav(B+C) + hav(B —C) — hav(B+C)-hav a 3a. i se | 10° : SSS SEs Sess =SSe5 SS= SsS> SSSSS SSS SSS. 322555 ict : itr WITT LIES EE ER >. Ei UL a ER —— | rn} HEE ass 4 SESSa8 : BES it : a : aesee Bese zs : a = Es i renal ttt tole _ BEESGEEEEEE sae | tJ ESSSSSEE252S55==2 BSSSEeq SESESSE0 i a ig@ mee i elt felt i) alot to Poh = : Seeeeeenee E = Eb = Perec = =s z355 Sa55 EF kd Al Bee =: i Ee SEE | | | 8 7 in .? bit eeu gett i iH TH te . it i CATA. POE i H | i wy a ae q ‘a ia | t 1a ts lau pau Plate 1. On this plate, which is scales of figs. 3 and 4 have been co of solving any spherical triangle ion depends on the elern a. Acad. Scr., Vor. 14, No. 4 . Sor, Vor. 14, No. 17 a Acad 130° THAMAMANAN TA NAN htt late 1. On of figs. , the ring it capable The mode of osine chart and as a sine chart, thus rende: Tuctions are described in the text and also under figs. 1 to 4, sought are the three remaining elements. 8. Hydrographic Office but with relabeled and additional scales given; No. 2776 of the U. which is made to serve both as a ¢ agram, y three of the six elements are For the six possible cases the const which is a reproduction of sheet this plate, 3 and 4 have been combined into one di ving any spherical triangle in which an ction depends on the elements given. RA Pa Be: ier} oct. 19, 1924 WRIGHT: SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES 401 cos(6 + ¢); draw on the ordinate, VQ, at x = 2, a cosine scale to repre- sent the values cos (6 — c); along the x-axis, OQ, draw a cosine scale to represent the values (1 + cos A), as indicated in figure 1. To solve a spherical triangle in which 0, c, and A are known, pass a straight line through the points L and N, for which LO = cos(6 + c) and NQ = cos(b — c). For the point P on this line PR = cos a = y, OR = 1 + cosA = x and from the similarity of the triangles NML and PSL we have NM a PS __cos(b — c) — cos(b + c) _ cosa — cos(b + ¢) ME LS 2 > ent which is identical with equation (2a). To solve equation (2a) by means of the chart (plate 1) pass a straight line through the points (6 + c) on the left side of the chart and (6 — c) on the right hand side and find the ordinate PR = cos a (labeled a) which passes through the abscissa OR = 1 + cos A and is labeled simply A. For equation (3a) the mode of construction is similar to that for (2a) except for the signs of the angles. If, in equation (3a), cos A =y, 1+ cosa = xz, cos (B — C) — cos(B + C) = m, and cos (B — C) =n, the equation reduces to the form m YG 2h which represents a straight line passing through the points « = O, y = —n = —cos(B — C) and « = 2, y = —cos(B + C). The graphical solution is illustrated in Fig. 2, in which DT = cos(B — C) HG = cos(B + C), TK .= 1 + cos aand KP = —cosA = cos (180° — A). In the similar triangles DEP and DFG we have DE i, EE 1+ cosa | cos(B — C) — cos A DF FE” 2 ods = 6) = oosag 26 C) This expression expanded is identical with (8a) except that the sign of cos A is negative, which means that in reading A its supplement is to be taken; in other words the A scale is inverted, as indicated on the ordinate scale through the center of fig. 2. Except for this change in sign the two charts are identical and the single cosine chart can be used for the solution of the two equations (2a) and (3a); but in the first case the ordinate is cos a, and in the second the ordinate is cos A. This is an undesirable feature which can be readily elim- inated by rotating the z, y axes of the chart for (3a) through 90°; 402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, NO. 17 | this means an interchange of the x, y axes and is done by suitable designation of the angles on the chart. This change is important and greatly extends the usefulness of the chart because the inter- section of the two straight lines, represented by equations (2a) and (3a), determines both a and A simultaneously. The exact labeling of the several cosine scales is shown in fig. 3 and on plate 1, and once accomplished needs no further attention. ° 180° 150140 130° 120 160 A Fig. 1. Straight line cosine diagram for the graphical solution of a spherical triangle in which two sides 6, c and an included angle A or the third side a are given; to find the third side a or the included angle A. Pass a straight line through the points LZ [angle (b+c); distance LO = cos(b+c)] and N [angle (b—c); distance NQ = cos(b—c)]; inter- section P of this line with the ordinate erected at # [angle A; distance OR =1 + cos A; or angle a; distance PR = cos a] is the desired point P which determines A and a. The use of the chart is best illustrated by a series of examples which cover all possible cases that may arise. To solve these examples, however, the sine formula (1) is required and for its solution the cosine chart suffices, provided the sine scales are properly indicated thereon. If, in the sine formula sina = yi, sn 6b = y, sn A = Q, Y and sin B = zx, we have y = pal: which is the equation of a straight 1 line passing through the origin. If therefore on plate 1, the ori- oct. 19, 1924 WRIGHT: SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES 403 gin be considered to be shifted from O to the center of the chart and the sines of the angles are plotted in both the 2 and y directions (fig. 4), the lines of plate 1 suffice, providing the numbers in parentheses are used for the angles, as indicated in figure 4 and also on plate 1 (NE quadrant). When the scale numbers in parentheses are used the chart is a sine chart and is so designated in the examples; otherwise it is called the cosine chart. tS 10 20° 302 40 50° €02 702 26 eee ee | a 802 1 100° 80° -_— 5 O Oo iK oH 302 - 902 0290°-+ | 180° 150140 130° 120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 60° 50° |40° 30° Gee | fon aa) 160° sne sina sin6O sina 160° 20° ° ° ° { C) 60° oon 20°40" 90° eo" 70° £0" 90%, “190°. 110° 120° 130" 140150 180%, o fe) ° pe cos(B+C) HES 180 302 30° 30° 402 40° 40° ° ? ° 50 50 60° 60° Oo 60° a ° Oo ° ” ° 70 ie 179 670 re) oO Oo oO gos +g0° 80° << — Oo 160° 20° ©) 4 gif" 150140" 130° 120° 110° 100° Or 80° 70° 60° 50° 40° 30° 1 oil a |O (1 + cos A) uo J 1002 ed 100% 110 110° 110° / 120° /* 120° 130° 130° 130° 1402 140° 140° 1502 150° 150° 160 Be 160 160° 170 cos|B-C D i 170% 170° 510.30 40° 50° 60° 70° g0° ae °"100° 110° 120° 130° 140°150° 180° (B—c)> Fig. 3. Straight line cosine diagram for the solution of any spherical triangle in which any three of the six elements are given. In this chart the scales on the horizontal lines refer to the angles A, B, C; the scales on the vertical lines refer to the sides a, b, c. In case two sides and the included angle or the third side are given the construction de- scribed under fig. 1 is used; if two angles and the included side or the third angle are given, the construction of fig. 2 is followed except that in this diagram the axes of fig. 2 have been rotated through 90°, as indicated by the labeled scales. For the case that two sides and an opposite angle ortwo angles and an opposite side are given, it is neces- sary first to find the second opposite angle of the second side by the use of the sine chart (fig. 4) and to plot the lines LN and DG, the intersection P of which determines the remaining angle and side simultaneously. It should be noted that when the sine chart is used ambiguity 1s apt to arise because sin (180° — a) = sina. In general this is not serious and the observer can tell on inspection whether the angle - given on the sine chart or its supplement is to be taken. In any oct. 19, 1924 WRIGHT: SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES 405 spherical triangle A + B + C > 180°. In ease of doubt the cor- rectness of the angle selected can be tested on the chart by the method followed in examples 5 and 6 below. (2) Given the three solid angles of a triangle: A = 60°, B = 101°56’, C = 25°54’. To find the three sides a, }, c. The straight line through the points (B + C) = 127°50’ at the top of the cosine chart and B — C = 76°02’ at its base intersects the ordinate erected at the abscissa A = 60° at the point a = 42.7° (Plate 1 and figs. 1 and 3). The remaining angles b = 50°, c = 20° ean be read off directly from the sine chart after A has been found. (3) Given two sides and the included angle: b = 50°, c = 20°, A Os) bo find a@eB:.C. ; i) Fig. 4. Straight line sine diagram for the solution of the sine formula of spherical trigonometry. This chart, which has long been used, is the northeast quadrant of plate I and is based on the relation sina:sinb = sin A:sinB. Infig.4QK = sina, OK = sin A, RL, = sin b, OL = sin B. If any three of these four elements are known, the fourth can be read off directly from the diagram by virtue of the similar triangles OQK and ORL. Find on the cosine chart the intersection of the straight line passing through the points b + ¢ = 70° and b — c = 30° with the ordinate erected on the abscissa A = 60°. The point of intersection is at @ = 42.7°. The angles B = 102° and C = 26° can now be read off directly from the sine chart. Note that B = 102° and not B = 78° because A + B+ C > 180°. (4) Given two solid angles and the included side: B = 101°56’, C= 25°54’, a = 42°42’. To find A, 8, c. Pass a straight edge through the points B + C = 127°50’ at top of chart and B — C = 76°02’ at bottom of chart and note that it intersects the ordinate a = 42°42’ at the abscissa distance A = 60°. Read now angles b = 50°, c = 20° directly from the sine chart. 408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 17 TABLE 1.—MULTIPLETS IN THE ARC SPECTRUM OF COBALT (QUARTET SYSTEM) Multiplet 1. F; Fy F; F, 8OR-II 30r-I 15-I 3412 .636 3510.419 3584.796 D, 29294 .50—815 . 98 —28478 .52—590 . 85—27877 .67 654.28 654.15 50r-I1 Hee 8-I 3431 .579 3502.63 3552.710 D; 29132 .80—590 .98—28541 .82—402 .37—28139 .45 494.97 494.82 20r-II 15-I 3442 924 3491 .324 D, 29036. 79—402 .52—28634 .27 - 299.05 25r-1 3455 .236 Di 28933 .32 Multiplet 2. EF; F, 3 F; F, 1001 A-T 5-I 3121.414 3203.030 3264. 842 D’; 32027 .51—815 .86—31211 .45—590 .88—30620 . 57 627 07 627 .02 12-II 4-J 3139 .943 3199 .325 DD’; 31838 .52—590 .93—31247 .59— —30845.12 496 80 10-Ii 5-1 31493 .04 3189 .756 D's 31743 .89—402 .55—31341 .34 298.44 10-I1 3159 .660 D’ 31639 .78 Multiplet 3. F; EF, FE; F, 100R-II 20r-I 3526 .856 3631.390 FE"; 28345 .79—815 .93—27529 .86 431.10 431.40 100R-II 60r-I1 15-1 3474.019 3575 .361 3652 .544 F", 28776 .89—815 .63—27961 .26—590 .85—27370.41 ; 439.04 439.12 15-II 50R-II 12-I 3520 .087 3594. 869 3647 .663 5 28400. 30—590 .77—27809 .53—402 .49—27407 .04 346.71 346.81 20r-I 40R-II 3550-599 ~~ 3602.081 F", 28156 .24—402 .39—27753 .85 ocr. 19, 1924 WALTERS: REGULARITIES IN ARC SPECTRUM OF COBALT 409 Multiplet 4. FE; F, F, F, 100R-II 3465 .796 en 28845.17 424.58 6-1 50R-II1 3415 .527 3513 .483 Gs 29269 .70—816 .02—28453 .68 465.42 9-I 30r-I 3456 936 3529 .037 en 29735 .03 28919 .10—590 . 83—28328 .27 25r-I 3533 .363 Gs 29286 .95 28696 .12 28293 .60 Multiplet 5. ~ lies Hee 18% FE’, 60-II 10-I ; 3873.117 3974. 632 D, 25811 .70—659 . 86—25151 .84— —24604.47 654.26 40-11 15-11 5-1 3873.907 3957 935 4019 .300* D; 25806 .10—547 .64—25258 .56—385 .61—24872 .95 494.70 494.84 25-1 1 3881.911 3940 .895 D, 25753 .26—885 .47—25367 .79 299.08 60-II 3894.981 Di 25666 .82 Multiplet 6. EB’; 1 FE’; F’, 100R-II 25R-1 Fall 3502 .281 3585. 159 3656 .965 Di, 28544 69-659 .84—27884 .85—547 .§3—27337 .32 627 .00 627 05 8OR-II 25r-1 Sail 3506.315 3574 964 3624.955 D’s 28511 .85—547,. 48S—27964 .37—885 .64—27578 .73 496 11 496.11 60R-II 20r-I 3512.643 3560. 896 D’, 28460 .48—385 .64—28074. 84 . 298 45 25r-1 3523 .438 D'; 28373 .29 * This line is also used in multiplet 7. 410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Multiplet 7. as 19% Multiplet 8. Ge Gs Gs Multiplet 9. Ds Ds D2 Di vou. 14, No. 17 EF’; F, F’; F’, 20-1 lu 4020 .904 4130.538 24863 .02—659 .90—24203. 12 E 431.89 431.49 8-I Sl 3u-I1A 3952. 329 4058 .188 RO Lu 25294. 41—659 .80—24634 61—547 .66—24087 .05 439.08 439.10 6-I 4-TA 3987 .121 4076 .134 25073 .69—547 .54—24526 .15 —24140.50 346.80 5-1 oan 4019.300 4082 .606 24872 .95—385 .67—24487 .28 F’; F’; FB’, F’, 20-1 3941 .735 25362 .39 424.58 20-1 10-1 3876.840 3978 .656 25786 .92—659 .88—25127 .04 465 43 465.44 10-1 10-1 6-I 3808. 106 3906 .296 3991 .693 26252.35—659 .87—25592.48—547 .60 25044.98 367.81 367.78 4TA 6-1 6-I 3850.29 3933 .921 3994.541 25960 .29—547 .63-—25412 .76—385 .64—25027 .12 P3 P2 Pi 80-1 6450 . 231 15499 .05 654.24 10-ITA 40-I 6188 .980 6282 .640 16153 .29—240 .81—15912 .48 494.88 494.90 3 10-I 5-III 6005 .008 6093 .138 6231 .050 16648 . 17—240 .79—16407 .388—363 . 15—16044 .23 298 .72 299.19 3 8-I 5984. 182 6116 .982 16706 . 10—362 .68—16343 .42 oct. 19, 1924 Multiplet 10. Ds Ds; D2 D Multiplet 11. D’; D’, D’, Multiplet 12. D’, WALTERS. REGULARITIES IN ARC SPECTRUM OF COBALT 411 P’; P’, PY 15-I 7084 .970 14110.50 654.18 20-1 8-I 6771.05 7052 . 854 14764.68—589 .92—14174.76 494.90 494.82 SIU! 15-1 3-1 6551.45 6814 .954 7016 .596 15259 .58—590 .00—14669 .58—421 .57—14248 .01 299.01 298 .99 4—-]T 10-I 6678 .812 6872.38 P3 P2 Pi 40-I 5483 .336 18232 .02 626.99 15-I1 20-1 5301 .036 5369 . 580 18859 .01—240 .74-—18618 .27 496.14 496.13 3-IV? 25-I1 15-II 5165 .148 5280. 204 5331 .450 19355 .15—240 .75—19114 .40-—362 . 98—18751. 42 298.44 298 .50 4II 15-I1 5149. 800 5237 .912 P’; 5-111 5935 .372 16843. 48 17470 .47 17966 .69 14968 .59—421 .59—14547 .00 19412 .84—362.92—19049 .92 P’, P’, lu 5922 .350 16880 .53 17376.73 16955.12 17675.10 17253 .49 412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 17 ture classes III, IV, and V. It is noteworthy that six of the eight multiple levels occur in pairs separated by rather small wave-num- ber intervals: P’ — P = 1300; D’ — D = 2700; F’ — F = 3800. In the region covered by the measurements of Dhein, de Gramont has indicated seven lines as raves ultimes, of which one, 3474.019A, appears in the multiplets given here. The ‘‘persistent’’ lines observed by Pollok and Leonard,! 3412.636, 3465.796, 3474.019, 5302.281 and 3873.117A are found one to a multiplet. Seven of the lines for which Rybar® gives the Zeeman effects are found in these multiplets. A comparison of the patterns observed by Rybar and those calculated by Landé’s scheme! is given in Table 2. TABLE 2.—ZrEMAN EFFECT FOR COBALT LINES r TERMS CALCULATED OBSERVED 3455.236 | DiF. | (0.20) 0.20,0.60 (0.20) 0.59 3523.438 | DiF. | (0.20) 0.20,0.60 (0.20) 0.59 3894.981 | DiF. | (0.20) 0.20,0.60 (0.20) 0.60 3491.324 | D.F. | (0.40, 1.20) 0.00, 0.80, 1.60 (1.18) 0.02, 0.80, 1.59 3560.898 | DoF, | (.40, 1.20) 0.00, 0.80, 1.60 (1.21) 0.00, 0.80, 1.59 3940.895 | D.F, | (0.40, 1.20) 0.00, 0.80, 1.60 (1.17) 0.00, 0.79, 1.58 3585.159 | DaFs | (0.10, 0.27, 0.48, 0.67) 0.76, 0.95, 1.14,| (0.51) 1.36 1.880 1 52) Tee 190 It is of interest to compare the structures of the arc spectrum of . cobalt with those of the preceding element, iron. Whereas the terms found in the are spectrum of iron belong to systems of odd permanent multiplicity (triplets, quintets, septets), those found for cobalt be- long to even systems. In addition to the quartet system represented’ by the above multiplets there is good evidence of doublet terms, and terms belonging to the sextet system are expected in the final analysis. In the are spectrum of iron all of the terms are ‘‘inverted,” that is, In a given multiple level the magnitude of the term increases with the inner quantum number, whereas the terms in cobalt are normal, resembling those of the majority of elements with complex spectra. This abrupt change from iron is of interest, since in approaching iron along a row of the periodic table from the other direction we find titanium and vanadium with all terms normal, chromium with a few inverted terms, manganese with many and iron with all terms inverted. The separations of the sub-levels of the quartet system of cobalt average 3 to 4 times larger than corresponding separations for the sub-levels of the quintet-system terms in iron. “Roy. Dublin Soe. Proce. 11: no.18. 1907. 5 Physik. Zeitschr. 12: 889. 1911. 6 Zeitschr. fiir Physik. 15: 190. 1923. oct. 19, 1924 LEONARD: PLANTS FROM THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 413 BOTANY.—New plants from the Dominican Republic: E. C. Lronarp, National Museum (Communicated by Wriuiam R. Maxon). The new species described in this paper are based upon material collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott in the early part of 1922. Prior to 1920 only a small proportion of the plants known to occur in the Dominican Republic were represented in the National Herbarium by specimens from that country, these consisting mainly of col- lections by Wright, Parry, and Brummel in 1871, Rose in 1913, and certain numbers of Tiirckheim, Fuertes, and Raunkiaer re- ceived from Berlin and Copenhagen. During the past four years, however, Dr. Abbott has collected nearly 3,000 numbers. Of these many have proved new to science and a considerable number are new to the National Herbarium. Botanically, Hispaniola is probably the least known of the West Indies, and both Haiti and the Dominican Republic offer an extremely rich field to the collector. Sophora albo-petiolulata Leonard, sp. nov. Plant shrubby; stipules none; leaves 5 to 10 em. long, the rachis white- pubescent, deeply grooved on upper side; leaflets 12 to 16, elliptic, 8 to 10 mm. long, 2 to 5 mm. wide, rounded at both ends, entire, recurved on margins, obscurely punctate, the upper surface bright green, the lower surface paler; petiolules yellowish white, about 1.5 mm. long, pubescent; racemes terminal, 8 to 10 cm. long, velvety-pubescent; flowers 14 to 20, white, the standard broadly ovate, abruptly narrowed to a claw, 15 mm. long, 13 mm. broad, emarginate, the other petals 12 to 13 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. broad; stamens 10, 9 to 10 mm. long; calyx 5 mm. long, silky- pubescent; pedicels 6 to 7 mm. long, silky-pubescent; ovary densely white- pubescent; pods not seen. . Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,079,459, collected at Maniel Viejo, Province of Barahona, Dominican Republic, altitude 750 meters, March 10, 1922, by W. L. Abbott (no. 1934). Abbott’s no. 1911 collected at the same locality is of this species. : No West Indian Sophora closely related to this species has hitherto been described. In shape and size of the leaflets it bears some resemblance to S. macrocarpa from Chile, but differs in its much smaller flowers. Zanthoxylum bifoliolatum Leonard, sp. nov. Tree, glabrous throughout, the branches sparingly armed with straight spines 2 to 4 mm. long; petioles 2 cm. long, grooved on upper surface, bearing a pair of spines at base of leaflets; leaflets 2, opposite, obovate, 4 to 8 cm. long, 2 to 4.5 em. wide, rounded and emarginate at apex, gradually nar- rowed to a subsessile, often oblique base, coriaceous, entire, the upper sur- 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 17 face shining, prominently veined, the lower surface duller, minutely glandu- lar, the veins prominent, the midrib usually bearing a spine below the middle; flowers 2 to 3 in the axils of the leaves; staminate flowers on pedicels 2 to 2.5 mm. long; calyx 3-lobed, minute; petals 3, ovate, 2 mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad; stamens 3, 4 to 5 mm. long; fruit not seen. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,079,511, collected on Quita Espuela, in the vicinity of San Francisco de Macoris, Provincia Pacificador, Dominican Republic, altitude 1,000 meters, April 7, 1922, by W. L. Abbott (no. 2083). Zanthoxylum bifoliolatum differs from other tropical American plants of this genus in having only two leaflets and in its small axillary inflorescence. Zanthoxylum venosum Leonard, sp. nov. Tree (?) or shrub, glabrous throughout, armed with straight conical spines 2 mm. long; leaves odd-pinnate, 6 to 12 cm. long; petioles seldom armed, not grooved; rachis sparingly armed with short spines, shallowly grooved above; leaflets usually 5, opposite, elliptic to obovate, 3 to 7 em. long, 1.5 to 3 em. wide, narrowed to an obtuse point at apex, narrowed at base to a grooved petiolule 3 to 6 mm. long, prominently nerved and veined, very firm, coriaceous, entire, glabrous, both surfaces pellucid-gland- ular, shining, dark green above, paler beneath, the midrib on the under surface often bearing a small spine near the middle; inflorescence terminal, corymbose, glandular, armed with slender spines 2 to 2.5.mm. long, the flowers numerous; staminate flowers on pedicels 1.5 to 2 mm. long; sepals 3, 1 mm. long, ovate, rounded at apex; petals 3, ovate, 2.5 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide; stamens 3, equaling the petals; pistillate flowers and fruit not seen. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,079,475, collected on the summit of Loma de Cielo, near Polo, Province of Barahona, Dominican Republic, altitude 1,300 meters, March 12, 1922, by W. L. Abbott (no. 1969). Although apparently related to Zanthoxylum coriaceum A. Rich.,® this plant differs strongly from that species in its more pointed, conspicuously veined, pellucid-glandular leaves and armed stems. Maba urbaniana Leonard, sp. nov. Shrub or tree (?); bark gray, the tips of the young branches densely brown- pubescent; petioles 2 to 3 mm. long, densely pubescent; leaves obovate to oval, 1.5 to 3 em. long, 0.5 to 2.5 em. wide, rounded and occasionally emar- ginate at apex, narrowed from above the middle to a truncate or subcordate or rarely rounded base, entire, strongly reticulate, the upper surface shining, glabrous or slightly pubescent, drying tawny-olive, the veins impressed, the lower surface densely and softly pubescent, drying buckthorn-brown, flowers 2 to 3 in short axillary clusters; pedicels 2 to 3 mm. long, censely and softly tawney-brown pubescent; calyx 3 mm. long, 3-lobed, the lobes broadly triangular, pubescent without, glabrous within; corolla about 8 mm. long, pubescent, 3-lobed, the lobes 1 mm. long, thick, leathery; stamens 10, the longer 3 mm., the shorter 1.5 mm.; fruit not seen. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,179,585, collected in the vicinity of San Lorenzo Bay, Dominican Republic, near sea level, April 26, 1922, by W. L. Abbott (no. 2235). oct. 19, 1924 LEONARD: PLANTS FROM THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 415 This species is distinct from its nearest relative, M. caribaea (A.DC.) Hieron, in the smaller and more crowded leaves and the denser soft brown pubescence of the under surface of the leaf blades. Solanum abbottii Leonard, sp. nov. Shrub, 1 to 1.5 meters high; young twigs rather densely stellate-pubescent with 5 to 7-rayed hairs and armed with straight yellow spines about 5 mm. long; petioles 10 to 15 mm. long, stellate-pubescent and spinose; leaves oblong-elliptic in outline, 10 to 15 cm. long, 3 to 6 cm. wide, acutish at apex, narrowed from near the middle to. base, sinuately 5 to 7-lobed, the lobes obtuse, the sinuses shallowly rounded, the upper surface dull green with occasional spines and stellate hairs on the impressed veins, otherwise gla- brous, the lower surface yellowish green, rather densely pubescent with easily detached stellate hairs and with occasional spines; racemes axillary, up to 8 em. long, 8 to 14-flowered; pedicels 6 to 10 mm. long, glabrous; calyx stellate-pubescent and spiny, the lobes triangular, abruptly long-acu- minate; corolla violet, the lobes lance-ovate, 10 to 12 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, -acutish, glabrous within, stellate-pubescent without; stamens and style equal and nearly erect, the anthers 4 to 5 mm. long; fruit not seen. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,079,509, collected on the summit of Quita Espuela in the vicinity of San Francisco de Macorfs, Pro- ‘vineia Pacificador, Dominican Republic, altitude 900 meters, April 7, 1922, by W. L. Abbott (no. 2073). An additional specimen was collected in the same region, April 10, 1922, by W. L. Abbott (no. 2124). According to description, Solanum orthacanthum O. EK. Schulz? agrees with the proposed new species in many respects, especially in general leaf- shape and in the character of the pubescence, but differs in having larger leaves (15 to 20 cm. long) with oblique cordate base and faintly repand margin, fewer flowers (about 4 in each raceme), shorter tomentose pedicels (2 to 4 mm. long), and larger corolla lobes (lobes 15 mm. long). Tabebuia rugosa Leonard, sp. nov. Small tree; young branches thick, gray; leaves 3-foliolate; petioles very stout, 1 cm. long; petiolules 1 cm. long or less; leaflets ovate to elliptic, 12 to 17 em. long, 6 to 11 em. wide, rounded and usually minutely apiculate at apex, obliquely subcordate at base, coriaceous, the margins entire or undulate, recurved, the upper surface glabrous, lepidote (?), strongly rugose and shining, the veins impressed, the lower surface drying light grayish brown, prominently and reticulately veined, the midrib and primary and secondary veins glabrous, the anastomosing veins densely and softly pubes- cent, otherwise glabrous; inflorescence terminal, umbellate, brown-lepidote; pedicels 4 to 5 mm. long; calyx 12 to 13 mm. long, lepidote, the lobes trian- gular, acute; corolla 3 to 3.5 cm. long, “red,” the stamens inserted on the corolla tube 5 mm. above the base, the longer stamens 15 mm. long, the shorter 12 mm., the anthers 3.5 mm. long. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,079,609, collected near Lajana on the Samand Peninsula, Dominican Republic, altitude 100 meters, April 30, 1922, by W. L. Abbott (no. 2272). This species may be related to 7. acrophylla (Urban) Britton, as a simi- larity in texture and shape of leaves seems to indicate, but in other respects 2 Urban. Symb. Antill. 7: 537. 1903. 416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 17 the two plants are different. The flowers of T. acrophylla are twice as large and the leaflets are smaller and obovate and pubescent on both sur- faces, including the primary and secondary veins of the lower surface. Dr. Abbott’s no. 2293, collected in the same region, May 2, 1922, and possibly from the same tree, consists of leaves and mature pods. The pods are up to 18 em. long, 5 mm. thick, rough-lepidote, with slender awn-like tips; the seeds are 7 mm. long, 5 mm. wide, the wings 5 to 7 mm. long. Tabebuia rubrifiora Leonard, sp. nov. Large tree; twigs thick, gray; leaves 4 or 5-foliolate, the petioles up to 8 cm. long; petiolules 0.5 to 2 em. long; leaflets elliptic to obovate-oblong, 5 to 12 em. long, 2.5 to 6 em. wide, obtusish at apex, rounded or subcordate at base, coriaceous, entire, slightly lepidote on both surfaces, pubescent in the angles of the veins on the lower surface, otherwise glabrous; flowers in axillary, 2 to 4-flowered, subsessile clusters; pedicels 8 to 10 mm. long; calyx 6 to 7 mm. long, sparsely lepidote, the lobes triangular, 2 to 3 mm. long, acute; corolla 2.5 to 3 em. long, deep red, the tube 2.5 mm. wide at base, 15 mm. wide at throat; capsules smooth, up to 12 cm. long; seeds 10 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. wide, the wings 4 to 5 mm. long. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,079,657, collected in the vicinity of Laguna, on the Pilon de Azticar, Dominican Republic, altitude. 500 meters, May 12, 1922, by W. L. Abbott (no. 2346). In texture and size of leaflets this species resembles T. pachyphylla Britton, from Cuba, but differs in its much smaller flowers and broader leaflets. Tabebuia paniculata Leonard, sp. nov. Shrub or small tree; petioles 1 to 2 cm. long; leaves 3 to 5-foliolate, the petiolule of the middle leaflet 5 to 10 mm. long, the lateral leaflets subsessile; leaflets elliptic to obovate, 3 to 8 em. long, 1.5 to 4 em. wide, rounded and emarginate at apex, gradually narrowed at base (the lateral leaflets oblique), thick, coriaceous, entire, the upper surface with impressed nerves, glabrous or slightly lepidote, drying dark brown, the lower surface with prominent nerves, lepidote, drying light brown; inflorescence terminal, paniculate, lepidote, the bracts subulate 1.5 to 8 mm. long, the flowers numerous; pedi- cels 1 to 2 cm. long, lepidote; calyx 2-lipped, 10 to 12 mm. long, lepidote; corolla 4 em. long, purplish (?), veiny, the tube 3 mm. wide at base, enlarging to 15 mm. at throat; pods not seen. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,079,633, collected in the vicinity of Laguna, on the Pil6n de Azticar, Dominican Republic, altitude 500 meters, May 11, 1922, by W. L. Abbott (mo. 2330). Tabebuia paniculata is related to T. pentaphylla Hemsl., and differs chiefly in its short petioles and more rounded leaflets. It resembles 7’. gonavensis Urban in some respects, but has much larger leaflets and smaller flowers. Justicia alsinoides Leonard, sp. nov. Diffuse herb; stems weak, branched, usually decumbent, rooting at the nodes, 10 to 15 em. long, terete, obscurely grooved, pubescent with down- wardly curved hairs, bearing white linear straight cystoliths 0.25 mm. long; petioles 5 to 8 mm. long, the under surface pubescent with curved hairs, - oct. 19, 1924 LEONARD: PLANTS FROM THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 417 the upper bearing cystoliths; leaves ovate, 10 to 18 mm. long, 8 to 10 mm. wide (the upper and lowermost usually smaller), obtuse at apex, rounded, subcordate, or abruptly narrowed at base, shortly decurrent on petiole, the upper surface bearing numerous cystoliths, glabrous or with a few scattered hairs, the lower surface glabrous, bearing a few cystoliths; inflorescence spicate, 2 to 4 cm. long, 4 to 6-flowered; bracts linear, lanceolate, 2.5 mm. long; calyx lobes linear-lanceolate, 4 mm. long, sparsely pubescent, 3-nerved, the lateral nerves less prominent than the median; corolla 5 mm. long, pinkish, the tube glabrous, the lips equal, 2 mm. long, puberulent without, the upper ovate, notched, the three lobes of the lower lip equal in size, rounded; style 3.5 mm. long (?); capsule 6 mm. long, puberulent, 4-seeded, the retinacula 1 mm. long; seeds flat, stipitate at base, orbicular, 1 mm. in diameter, reddish brown, minutely reticulate. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,979,513, collected on the summit of Quita Espuela, in the vicinity of San Francisco de Macoris, Provincia Pacificador, Dominican Republic, altitude 900 meters, Apri! 8, 1922, by W. L. Abbott (mo 2119a). This plant is closely related to J. reptans, and may be only a form of that species. It differs chiefly in the size of the sepals, which are at least twice as long as those of J. reptans. Likewise, both corolla and capsule are notice- — ably larger and the leaves are more rounded at the base. Siphocampylos linearifolius Leonard, sp. nov. Herbaceous; stems 36 em. high (or higher?), glabrous; leaves narrowly ovate-oblong, 4 to 7 cm. long, 4 to 11 mm. wide, tapering from below the middle to an obtuse apex, narrowed to a short winged petiole 1 to 2 mm. long, serrate with small sharp teeth or the upper nearly entire, glabrous on both surfaces; flowers in the axils of the upper leaves; pedicels 2 cm. long, pu- berulent, bearing two subulate bracts near the middle; calyx lobes narrowly triangular, 6 to 7 mm. long, 1 mm. wide at base, puberulent, often reddish; corolla 2.5 to 3 em. long, red, the lips equal, the lobes of the lower lip narrowly triangular, 5 mm. long, 2 mm. broad at the base, obtuse at apex, yellow in dried plants, the lobes of the upper lip ovate, 7 to 8 mm. long, 3 mm. broad at base, obtuse at apex; styles 2 em. long; anthers 3.5 to 4 mm. long, densely barbellate at apex; capsule 6 mm. long; seeds 0.5 mm. in diameter, grayish brown, reticulate. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no 1,079,436, collected at Maniel Viejo, Province of Barahona, Dominican Republic, altitude 1060 meters, March 8, 1922, by W. L. Abbott (no. 1903). Dr. Abbott’s no. 1851, col- lected in the same region from the upper slopes of Loma de Cielo, near Polo, altitude 1,200 meters, March 2, 1922, is of this species. Related to S. tuerckheimii Urban in the similarity of the flowers, the glabrous stems, and thin glabrous leaves, this plant is sufficiently distinct in its very narrow leaves and more distant teeth to deserve specific rank. 3 418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 17 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS W. Taytor THoM, JR., has been appointed geologist in charge of the newly formed section of Geology of Fuels in the Division of Geology, U. 8. Geo- logical Survey. E. M. Sprexer, geologist, has been granted leave of absence from the U. 8. Geological Survey to give a course of instruction in geology at Ohio State University. MaxweEtu N. SHorT was appointed junior scientist in the U. 8. Geological Survey and has been assigned to work in Section of Petrology. Dr. JosrepH F. Rock sailed from San Francisco on September 30 for China, as head of an expedition that is to conduct botanical exploration in the in- terior of that country for the Arnold Arboretum. Dr. Rock returned early in the summer from a similar expedition, in the interest of the National Geographic Society and the Department of Agriculture, to Burma, Yunnan, and the borderland of Tibet where he collected approximately 70,000 speci- mens of plants. Work on this large collection is now in progress at the National Museum. Miss Ciara SoutHmMayp Lupiow, entomologist at the Army Medical Museum, died September 29. Her work was mainly in connection with the disease prevention activities of the army. ye Os On a ee ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES* Tuesday, October 21. The Anthropological Society, at the National Museum, 4.45 p.m. Program: A symposium on the anthropology of the Southeastern United States. Speakers: Drs. J. W. Frewxss, A. - Hepricsa, and J. R. Swanton. Wednesday, October 22. The Geological Society. Saturday, October 25. The Biological Society. : Saturday, November 1. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club. Program: O. H. GisH: Preliminary results of earth current measurements - at Watheroo, Western Australia. Fred. E. Wricut: Graphical solution of spherical triangles. WaureR D. LAMBERT: The distance between two points on the earth. pares Tuesday, November 4. The Botanical Society. * The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL Tuesday, October7. Tu AcapEemy and the Chemical Society (joint meeting). Program: S.B. L. Sorensen: The osmotic pressure of protein solutions, CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Spectroscopy.—Regularities in the are spectrum of cobalt. F.. M. Warren, Botany.—New plants from the Dominican 1 ule i OE en LEONARD. wfeaiegl Sciuntiric Notes AND NEWS. 2 isi sicegan ence ee lees ah eee men wee OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: ArntHUR L. Day, Geophysical Laboratory. Cemraspanieng sist iat Francis B. SInsBEE, pie of Stes s Vol. 14 Novemper 4, 1924 No. 18 JOURNAL WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS E. P. Kiuuip W. F. Meacers NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU Of STANDARDS D. F. Hewsrr GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. RopwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLDMAN G. W. Stose BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Griees BOTANICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCINTY ’ J. R. SWANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY / GAL 5 J AAA \ Pe i YY 24 EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN fics} vey oO We BY THB ‘ WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCHS:, Mr. Roya aND GUILFORD AVES. nanan Baurmore, MARYLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Scianeen aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. 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PO eae as ee Le ee i ie ae eae ee .50 Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,” and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D, C3 ie European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges—The Journat does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates My are given to members ot scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. i JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 14 NovEMBER 4, 1924 No. 18 SPECTROSCOPY .—Spectrum regularities for scandium and yttrvum. W. F. Meaaesrs, Bureau of Standards. Scandium and yttrium, with atomic numbers 21 and 39 respectively, occupy positions in the third column of the periodic table of the chemi- cal elements following calcium and strontium in the second column which in turn follow potassium and rubidium in the first column. Whereas the are spectra and some of the spark spectra characterizing the elements in the first two columns of the table have received fairly complete and satisfactory interpretations, the results for scandium and yttrium are still incomplete and uncertain. The writer has given some attention to the are and spark spectra of these two elements, and although the final classifications will be postponed until supplementary investigations on Zeeman effect are completed, the main features of these spectra are sufficiently well established to be presented at this time. Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4 contain, respectively, examples of multiplets in the are and spark spectra of scandium, and the are and spark spectra of yttrium. In these tables the types of combining spectral terms or. energy levels, together with the separations of the sub-levels, are indi- cated at the margin of the multiplets. The individual spectral lines are represented by their observed wave lengths, and the corresponding wave numbers (waves per cm. in vacuo). Estimated relative inten- sities of the lines, and for scandium King’s? temperature classes, appear above the wave lengths. The subscripts to the term symbols repre- sent inner quantum numbers. Different spectral systems are con- veniently distinguished by attaching to the term symbol a superscript 1 Published by permission of the Dineen of the Bureau of Standards of the Depart- ment of Commerce. 2 King, Astrophys. Journ. 54: 28. 1921. 419 420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 18 corresponding to the maximum or permanent multiplicity attainable, but since each of the succeeding tables refers to one system only, the superscripts have been omitted. The results published by Moore? for the Zeeman effect of the yttrium and spark lines listed in tables 3 and 4 are reproduced in tables 5 and 6 where they are compared with the patterns calculated according to Landé.4- The observed magnetic separations have been reduced to terms of the separation of a normal triplet as a unit. The parallel components, enclosed in parentheses, are followed by the perpendicu- lar components. In some cases the calculated patterns are rather complex so that only the stronger components—those likely either to be resolved or to affect the measurements—are expressed in decimal form, the remaining weaker ones being indicated by asterisks. When two or more components are given the most intense one is distinguished by bold face type. The Zeeman effect data in tables 5 and 6 are regarded as confirming most of the multiplets for are and spark spectra of yttrium listed in tables 3 and 4. No Zeeman patterns have as yet been published for scandium lines, but special attention is directed to the close correspond- ence of spectral structures of scandium and yttrium which is evident from a comparison of tables 1 and 2 with tables 3 and 4, respectively. On account of this intimate resemblance it may be predicted that when. the magnetic resolutions of scandium lines are observed the classified lines will be found to have the same patterns as those already found for the corresponding lines in the yttrium spectra. 1. Are spectrum of scandium (Scl). Practically all of the strong are lines of scandium can be arranged in combinations of doublet- or quartet-system terms. Most of these have already been published by Catalan® but his doublet term designations are probably in error. Professor H. N. Russell’ suggested the correct arrangement of terms to me last year, and similar corrections supported by observations of the absorption spectrum have since been made by Gieseler and Gro- trian.? The lowest level in the neutral atom is a doublet with separa- tion of 168.35 wave numbers. This was regarded by Catalan as a P term but is more likely of the D type. The spectra of scandium are ’ Moore, Astrophys. Journ. 28: 1. 1908. 4Landé, Zeit. f. Physik. 15: 189. 1923. § Catalin, Anales Soc. Espan. Fis. y Quim. 20: 606. 1922. Ibid. 21: 464. 1923. ® Russell, In a letter addressed to the author, December 21, 1923. Astrophys. Journ. In Press. 1924. 7 Gieseler and Grotrian, Zeit. f. Physik. 25: 342. 1924. Nov. 4, 1924 MEGGERS: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES FOR Sc AND Y 421 almost identical in structure with those of yttrium for which some Zeeman patterns have been published by Moore and the proof presented below that the normal state of the neutral atom of yttrium contains the last electron in a 33 orbit may, therefore, be considered to apply to scandium as well as to yttrium. Table 1 contains some examples of multiplets in the doublet system of ScI. The wave lengths and estimated intensities (scale 1 to 100) are from new determinations made at the Bureau of Standards. TABLE 1.—DovuBLets IN THE SPECTRUM OF Scl D; 168.35 D, 24488 .52 24656 .80 10,11 Fy 3019.33 33110 .27 "124.63 3}, JU 101 F; 3030.74 3015.35 32985 .64 33154.02 15, IIA 4,1A P, 3273.64 3255.69 | 30538 .32 30706 .66 133.57 10, ITA 1a 3269.91 30573 .09 60, IT F, 3911.81 25556 .39 140.07 ~ iO, 108 40,11 F; 3933 .37 3907 .49 25416 .32 25584 .64 70,11 15,1 IDE 4023.69 3996.61 24845 .85 25014.18 147 .98 10,1 50, II Dz 4047 .79 4020.40 24697 .89 24866. 17 30,1 20,1 Ds 4082.40 4054.54 422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 18 TABLE 1.—DovuBLeEts IN THE SpectTRUM oF Scl—Continued 20, 1A Fs 4779.35 20917 .54 53.08 | 5,1A 12,1A F; : 4791.50 4753.16 20864.46 21032.78 15,11A 4,11A P, 5349.71 5301.94 18687 .41 18855.78 144.76 10, 11A Py 5342.96 18711 .02 6,1A 1,11A Ds 6258.97 6193.66 15972.65 16141.09 44.20 3,11A 6,1A Dp 6276.33 6210.86 15928. 49 16096. 84 50, 1A 10,114 D; 6305 .69 | 6239.40 15854.31 16022.77 0.9 3 10, 1A 20, 1A De 6305.99 6239.78 15853.56 16021 .79 6,1A 2,11A Ds 6413.37 6344.84 15588 .12 15756 .50 83.96 I,11A 5,1A D. 6448.10 6378.83 15504.17 15672.54 2. Spark spectrum of scandium (SclI1). The wave lengths and intensities of scandium spark lines classified in table 2 are from un- published values determined by the writer, while the temperature classes and enhanced symbols are from King’s work. The ultra-violet multiplet of six lines (2540.87—2563.23A) was properly named by Popow’ in 1914. In 1922, Catalin published six additional multi- plets but the types of terms were misnamed in three of these. The correct identification of the terms was suggested to me by Professor 8 Popow, Ann. d. Physik. 45: 163. 1914. Nov. 4, 1924 D; 60,11 F, 3613.84u1 27663 . 56 238 .86 30, III F; 3645.31 27424 .70 158.72 3, 111 F, 3666. 54 27265 .96 50, 11 D; 3572.53 27983 .40 139.82 20,11 Ds 3590.48 27843 .53 103.52 D; 20, 111 P, 3372.14 29646. 24 81.80 Pi 5.94 Po 10 P, 2552.38 3916741 230.39 le 112.74 Po TABLE 2.—TRIPLETS IN THE SPECTRUM OF ScII MEGGERS: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES FOR Sc AND Y D, D; 50, II 3630. 76u2 27534 .65 25,111 40,11 3651.80 3642.79 27376 .01 27448 .68 20,11 3558 .55 28093 .37 35,11 20,11 3576.35 3567 .70 27953 .55 28021 .25 20,11 30, IT 3589 . 64 3580.94 '27850.01 27917 .73 10, 111 3,1V 3359 .68 3352.08 29756. 24 29823 .95 15,111 10, III 3368 . 94 3361 .26 29674. 44 29742 .20 12,11] 3361.94 | 29736 .23 5 1 2545 .24 2540.87 39277 .21 39344. 74 9 6 2560.26 2555 .84 39046 .84 39114.33 8 2563 .23 39001 .59 423 424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 18 TABLE 2—TripP.Lpets IN THE SPECTRUM OF SclI—Continued F, 104.21 F; 80.68 F, 40, III E 5,VE Fy 4374 .46 4354.60 22853 .57 22957 .79 238 .86 2 30,111 E 6,1IV B F; 4420.66 4400.38 4384.80 22614 .72 22718 .92 22799 .65 158.72 3,VE 20,111 E F, 4431.35 4415.55 22560. 17 22640 .91 60,111 E 8,IV E 1 D; 4314.09 4294.77 4279 .95 23173 .39 23277 .60 23358 .20 139.82 50, 111 E 10,1V EB Dz 4320.73 4305.71 23137 .76 23218 .43 103.52 40, 111 E D; 4325 .00 23114 .93 P2 52.94 leh 27 .46 Po 25,V E D; 6245 .64 16006 .73 139.82 8 20 D, 6300.70 6279 .74 15866 .87 15919 .84 103.52 1 8 15 D, 6342.08 6320.86 6309 .90 15763 .34 15816 .28 15843 .74 25,V E 15,VE Pe 5657 .89 5640 .99 17669 .55 17722 .48 81.80 12,VE 9,VE 8,VE Py 5684.21 5667 .16 5658 . 35 17587 .72 17640 .65 17668 .10 5.94 10,VE Po 0669 .05 17634 .75 Nov. 4, 1924 MEGGERS: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES FOR Sc aND Y 425 Russell, and although as stated above there are as yet no published Zeeman-effect data for scandium, comparison with the spectral struc- ture of YII for which such data exist, and general consideration of the various rules which govern multiplet structures, leave no further doubt as to the naming of these terms. The lowest energy level in the ionized scandium atom is represented by the D term with separations of 67.65 and 109.97; the raves ultumes,® marked u;, and us occur in a DF combination. Lines probably belonging to the singlet spectral system are recog- nized in the scandium spark but they have not yet been classified. The presence of singlet and triplet systems in ScII makes this spectrum resemble the are spectrum of the preceeding element, calcium, in accordance with the displacement law of Kossel and Sommerfeld. 3. Arc spectrum of yttruum (YI). Since the spectra of yttrium are expected to be similar in structure to those of scandium it is not sur- prising to find that most of the stronger arc lines of yttrium originate in combinations of doublet terms. The lowest level in the spectrum of neutral yttrium is a doublet D term with the separation 530.35. No results of temperature classification or of absorption observations in this spectrum have been published but the fact that many of the lines involving this D level appear strongly enhanced in the Mt. Wilson Observatory map of the sun-spot spectrum is good evidence that it is the lowest level. It is strictly analogous to the doublet term established by the absorption observations of Gieseler and Gro- trian to be the lowest level in ScI. A partial list of the combinations of this low D level with other terms in the yttrium are spectrum is given in table 3, and the data for Zeeman effect of these lines are reproduced in table 5. TABLE 3.—DovuBLETS IN THE SPECTRUM oF YI D; 530.35 D: 20 3 Py 3620.94 8052.69 27609 .29 28139 .69 314.99 10 Lei 3092.91 27824 .70 3 de Gramont, Comptes Rendus 171: 1106. 1920. 426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 18 TABLE 3.—Dovus.iets IN THE SpEcTRUM or YI—Continued 30 5 P.? 4128.32 4039.83 24216.13 24746 53 47.79 8 Pi : 4047 .65 24698 .74 8 8 Ps 4174.14 4083.71 23950.31 24480 64 349.54 20 Py 4142.87 24131 .10 20 Fy 4102.3 24369 .26 380.91 10 20 F; 4167.52 4077.39 23988. 35 24518 58 10 Fy 4674.84 21385.16 386.99 5 10 F; 4760.99 4643.70 20998 ..17 21528 58 6 15 D;? 6402.02 6191.73 15615.75 16146.13 80.08 15 10 D.? 6435.03 6222.58 15535 .66 16066 .05 4 3 D;? 6793.72 6557.44 14715.50 15245 .83 296.82 3 6 D.? 6933.56 6687 .57 1418.70 14948 .98 Nov. 4, 1924 MBEGGERS: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES FOR Sc AND Y 427 4. Spark spectrum of yttrium (YI). Two multiplets of the type DP? were published by Popow"’ in 1914. These and additional groups in the triplet system are collected in table 4. So far as these groups are concerned, it is evident from tables 2 and 4 that the spectrum of YII is exactly analogous to that of ScII. The sublevels of yttrium terms are more widely separated than those of scandium and the cor- responding multiplets are displaced toward the red. Three sets of P terms having been found in ScII at least as many would be expected in YII, but in the latter case the multiplets involving the low P level TABLE 4.—TRIPLETS IN THE SPECTRUM oF YII D; 404.8 D, 204.9 Di 100 Fi 3710.30u1 26944 .37 861.6 20 50 E; 3832.87 3774. 33u, 26082.76 26487 .26 305.4 4 10 30 EF, 3878.27 3818.37 3788.69 2571 AL 26181.79 26386 90 50 20 D; 3600.72 3548 .99 2764.36 28169.01 484.0 20 30 10 D: 3664.59 3611.05 3584.51 27280.44 27684.88 27889 .88 134.7 10 20 D: 3628.70 3601.91 27550. 26 2755.19 20 6 3 P 4309.61 4235.71 4199 .28 23197 .44 23602. 16 23806 .92 870.9 | 15 8 Py 4398 .03 4358.72 22731.10 22936. 10 331.3 10 Py 4422.60 22604.80 10 Popow, Ann. d. Physik. 45: 163. 1914. 428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 18 TABLE 4.——TRIPLETS 1N THE SpectRuM or YII—Continued 20 8 5 P, 3242.28 3200.25 3179.40 30833 .64 31238 .58 31443 .37 159.5 10 8 Py 3216.67 3195-61 31079 .07 31283 .93 75.3 8 Po 3203.32 31208 .64 IBA 415.4 P; 324.9 F, 10 3 F, 5087 .42 4982.12 19650 .92 20066 .18: 861.6 1 10 3 F; 9320.77 5205.71 0119.10 18789 .04 19204 .36 19529 .26 305.4 2, 8 F, 5289.81 5200.41 18899 .02 19223 .93 50 ) if D; 4883 .69 4786 .57 4713.26 20470 .62 20885 .98 21210.85 484.0 30 10 Ds 4900.11 4823 .32 20402.05 20726 .85 134.7 30 D; 4854.88 20592 .10 P» Tons 12h =e) Po 20 D; 6613.74 15115 .87 484.0 5 15 D: 6832 .47 6795.40 14631 .96 14711.78 134.7 ? 5 10 D, 6895.99 6858 .22 6895.99 14497 .19 14577 .04 14497 .19 Noy. 4, 1924 MEGGERS: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES FOR Sc AND Y 429 TABLE 4.—TrIPLets IN THE SpectRUM oF YII—Continued Py 10708 .4 10628 .6 870.9 Jen 9837.5 9757.8 9837.5 301.3 Po 9426.5 would probably appear in the red or infra-red. A special search for these was made with sensitized photographic plates, and a group of enhanced lines was found between 6613.74 and 6895.99A. These have been arranged in a PD multiplet which, if correct, indicates that P, and P, are coincident. The combination of this level with the higher P level (separations 331.3 and 870.9) should give a multiplet in the infra-red. This one, however, is just outside the region which is accessible to photography, so there is at present no way to verify the abnormal P term. The remaining terms are all established by the Zeeman-effect data collected in table 6. The lowest level in ionized yttrium is the D term with separations 204.9 and 404.8; the raies ultumes, marked u; and uz appear in a DF combination. In addition to the triplet-system multiplets here presented, two pairs have been recognized as combinations between the triplet and singlet systems. These are 3747.55, 3776.58A (P!D?*), and 3950.35, 3982.60A (D'D*). The relative values of other singlet terms have not been satisfactorily arranged as yet. Extended results of investi- gations on the spectra of scandium and yttrium will appear later in Scientific Papers of the Bureau of Standards. TABLE 5.—ZrEMAN Errect ror YI Terms ATA. Obs. Calc. D2P2 3552.69 (0.78) —— (0.00, 0.80) 0.53, 1.06, 1.60 D2P; 3592.91 (0.00) 0.79 (0.07) 0.73, 0.87 D;P2 3620.94 (0.00) 1.00 (0.07, 0.20) 1.005 1. 1457+ D2P2 4039.83 (0.00) 1.37 (0.00, 0.80) 0.53, 1.06, 1.60 DP; 4047 .65 (0.00) 0.75 (0.07) 0.73, 0.87 D;P2 4128 .32 (0.25) 1.10 (0.07, 0.20) 1.00, 1.14, ** DP, 4083.71 (0.73) 0.55, 0.98, 1.55 (0.27, 0.80) 0.53, 1.06, 1.60 D2P; 4142 87 (0.00) 0.80 (0.07) 0.73, 0.87 D:P2 4174.14 (0.00) 1.09 (0.07, 0.20) 1.00, 1.14** D2F; 4077.39 (0.00) 1.06 (0.03 , 0.09)** 0.89, 0.94 D:Fi 4102.38 (0.00) 1.07 (0.08, 0.09*) 1.00, 1.06, 1.12*** D:F; 4167.52 (0.52) 1.05 (*0.51, 0.86)* 0.69, 1.03, 1.37* D:F; 4643.70 (0.00) 0.89 (0.08 , 0.09)** 0.89, 0.94 DsF, 4674.84 (0.00) 1.05 (0.03, 0.09*) 1.00, 1.06, 1.12*** 430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 18 TABLE 6.—ZEEMAN EFFEcT For YII Terms IAS Obs. Calc. DP, 3200.25 (0.60) 1.34 (0.33, 0°67) 0. S3huetstine : 1.50, 1.83 D.P, 3216.67 (0.00) 0.98 (0.00 ,0.33) 0.83, 1.17, 1.50 Dee 24228. O00) 1-16 (0.00, 0.17*) 1005tane 1.33** D-D; 3548.99 (0.00) 1.46 (0.00, 0.17*) **1.33, 1.50, 1.67 D:D, 3584.51 (0.00, 0.65) 0.47, 1.15, 1.81 (0.00, 0.67) 0.50, 1.17, 1.83 DD eoG0072 | (0.00) 1.29 (0.00) 1.33 D:D; 3601.91 (0.00) 0.54 (0.00) 0.50 D:D. 3611.05 (0.00) 1.14 (0.00) 1.17 DD, 3628.70 (0.00, 0.58) 0.55, 1.12, 1.68 (0.00, 0.67) 0.50, 1.17, 1.83 D:D. 3664.59 (0.00) 1.52 (0.00, 0.17*) **1.33, 1.50, 1.67 DH 3710.30! (0:00)'1709 (0 00, 0.08**) 1.00, 1.08, Dane e 3774.83 (0.00) 1.00 (0.00, 0.08*) 0.92, 1.00, 1.17* DF, 3788.69 (0.00) 0.89 (0.00 , 0.17) 0.50, 0.67, 0.83 shy 8818-37 (0.38, 0.77) 0.37, 0.74, 1.14, 1.52 (0.50, 1.00) 0.17, 0.67, 1.177 1467 D he. 2388287, (0.61) 1.17 (*0.50, 0.75) **1.08, 1.33** D.P, 4235.71 (0.31, 0.62)— (0.33, 0.67), 0.82) satin 1.50, 1.83 D;P, 4309.61 (0.00) 1.16 (0.00, 0.17*) 1.00, 1.17, 1.33** DP, 4358.72 (0.96) 0.47, 1.44 (1.00) 0.50, 1.50 D,P, 4422.60 (0.00) 0.47 (0.00) 0.50 F:D, 4854.88 (0.00) 0.80 (0.00 ,1.17) 0.50, 0.67, 0.83 F:D; 4883.69 (0.00) 1.08 (0.00, 0.08**) 1.00, 1.08, 1. 16**** F;D. 4900.11 (0.00) 0.96 (0.00, 0.08*) 0.92, 1.00, ° 1.08** FiFy 5087.42 (0.00) 1.17 (0.00) 1.25 FF: 5200.41 (0.00) 0.65 (0.00) 0.67 FF; 5205.71 (0.00) 1.03 (0.00) 1.08 ZOOLOGY .—New species of Ferrissia from Lower California. BRYANT WALKER. (Communicated by Pau, BartTscu.) I am indebted to Dr. Paul Bartsch of the U.S. National Museum for the opportunity of examining a small lot of Ancylids collected by him in a small pool two and one-half miles inland from San José del Cabo, Lower California. It was found that two very distinct species were represented in the collection, both of which belong to Ferrissia s.s. The occurrence of the typical group of this genus so far south Was quite a surprise as all of the Mexican species, so far as they have been examined as to apical sculpture, belong to the subgenus Lael- Nov. 4, 1924 WALKER: NEW SPECIES OF FERRISSIA 431 papex. Ferrissia s. s., however, is fourd all along the west coast of the United States, and the colony at San José, no doubt, represents a southern extension of the northern fauna. Ferrissia bayacalifornica, n. sp. (fig. 1) Shell pale corneous, thin, obovate, the greatest width being at about the anterior third of the length; anterior margin broadly rounded; posterior mar- gin regularly rounded, but slightly compressed on the right side; lateral margins about equally curved, the left somewhat more so; apex acute, scarcely depressed at the tip, situated at about one mm. from the posterior margin and decidedly turned to the right, radially striate; anterior slope nearly straight, slightly curved towards the apex; posterior slope oblique and nearly straight below the projecting apex; left lateral slope slightly, but regularly Fig. 1.—Ferrissia bayacalifornica, much enlarged. curved from the apex to the lateral margin; right lateral slope slightly incurved at the base of the apex and thence obliquely straight to the lateral margin; surface with fine and regular growth-lines and very faint, scarcely perceptible indications of radial rippling on the anterior slope towards the margin. Length 4.75; width 3.4; alt. 1.4 mm. Type.—No. 264600, U. S. National Museum. Paratypes in Coll. Walker (no. 77862). This species in its obovate shape and acute apex differs very distinctly from any of the described species of Ferrissia s. s. Ferrissia occidentalis, n. sp. (fig. 2) Shell pale greenish horn color, thin, nearly oval, slightly wider anteriorly anterior and posterior margins regularly rounded; lateral margins about equally curved; apex very obtuse, situated at the posterior fourth of the length, somewhat turned to the right, radially striate; anterior slope regularly but not strongly curved from the apex to the anterior margin; posterior slope oblique and slightly incurved; left lateral slope slightly convex; right lateral slope somewhat incurved; surface with very fine and regular growth-lines and without radial sculpture. 432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 18 Length 4; width 2.5; alt. 1.25 mm. Type.—No. 361553, U. 8. National Museum. Paratypes in Coll. Walker (no. 77863). This species differs from the preceding in its smaller size, oval shape and obtuse apex and these features serve to distinguish it from any of the other described species. Fig. 2.—Ferrissia occidentalis, much enlarged. ENTOMOLOGY.—The American Species of Thaumalidae (Orphne- philidae) (Diptera). Harrison G. Dyar and Raymonp C. SHANNON, U. 8S. National Museum (Communicated by S. A. ROHWER). The Thaumalidae are a small group of obscure little flies, usually found in hilly, heavily wooded country around the moss-covered banks of very shallow streams and springs. They have been very rarely collected in North America, our previous records being confined to New York State only. | In 1913 Bezzi pointed out! that the single known American species of this family, which had previously been considered con- specific with the European Orphnephila testacea Ruthé (See L. G. Saunders’), was distinct, and for it proposed the name Thaumalea americana. Several additional American species are at present rep- resented in the collection of the U. 8. National Museum. The family Thaumalidae holds a unique place in the classification of the nematocerous Diptera. Its exact position is uncertain, because of a number of peculiar structural characters. The wing venation according to the Comstock-Needham system is as follows: The costa continues around the wing to its tip, where it is 1 Boll. Lab. Zool. R. Scuola d’Agr. Portici 7: 227-266. 1913. 2 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 9, 11: 631-640. 1923. Nov. 4, 1924 DYAR AND SHANNON: THAUMALIDAE 433 much weaker beyond R,z,; (third longitudinal); the subcosta is usually weak, sometimes evanescing before its tip; the Sc-R cross-vein is placed at about the middle of the subcostal; Ri joint costal beyond middle of wing; the radial sector forks about opposite the tip of sub- costal; with branch R.,; forking a short distance beyond; R» joins R, a short distance beyond the fork of R4,; and appears as a cross-vein, thus making a small first Ri cell; R; and R4.; are nearly parallel and extend to tip of wing; R-M cross-vein is near the base of the forking of R.,;; the media is reduced to a single branch; M-Cu cross-vein pre- sent, making a second basal cell; Cu: and Cu, both present; anal vein. absent. The antenna has been somewhat indefinitely described. It con- sists of a scape, pedicel, and flagellum, the latter being very compact and arista-like, but composed of ten distinct joints, the basal two rather large and globose. A peculiar phenomenon occurs in the males of several of the families of Nematocera. Shortly after the emergence of the adult, the tip of the abdomen beyond the seventh segment undergoes a rotation through an angle of 180°. The Thaumalidae, however, do not undergo this change, as is evidenced by the ventral position of the side-pieces and claspers. The adults, furthermore, present a very unusual condition by lack- ing spiracles in the second and third abdominal segments. KEY TO AMERICAN SPECIES OF THAUMALEA Subcostal vein of wing obsolete on its apical part.........1. pluvialis, n. sp. Subcostal vein distinct apically where it joins costa. Darkly colored species, the mesonotum dark brown; abdomen and pleurae nearly black. Male clasper with two terminal claws; terminal abdominal hairs long; tenth sternites parallel sided.................. 2. americana Bezzi. Male clasper with about six terminal claws; terminal abdominal hairs shorter and_ spine-like; tenth sternites spatulate at LEI hg (eee Sa es a Cece os eres sae oR Ae eee a 3. johannis, N. Sp. Pale colored species, the mesonotum and pleurae light testaceous; abdomen LK Ovontey Le tee her tele Be LAA de ee ae ue OR og 4. elnora, n. sp, 1. Thaumalea pluvialis, new species. A dark brown medium sized species. Mesonotum thickly clothed with very small hairs; margin of scutellum with several rows of minute setae. Legs dark brown. Wings strongly infuscated; in addition to the usual villae, clothed with numerous hair-like setulae. Subcosta faint beyond Sc-R cross vein, its apex entirely evanescent; R. about five times its length distant from base of fork of R415; Rs slightly curved, nearly parallel with Ri;;. Hal- teres and abdomen dark brown. Length 2.5 mm. Male hypopygium. Ninth segment convex and chitinized dorsally, not enclosing the side-pieces, which fit in beneath it. Side piece ovate, a little longer than wide, the tip notched for the reception of the clasper; many spiny 434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 18 setae at the tip. Clasper slender, parallel sided, a little swollen in the middle, with about 14 terminal claws and three stout spines, the latter inserted in an oblique row on the outer fourth of the clasper. A triangular weakly chitinized piece at base of side piece and not as long as its width may represent the tenth sternites. Types, two males, no. 27460, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Prince Rupert, British Columbia, Canada, June 17, 1919 (H. G. Dyar). 2. Thaumalea americana Bezzi. Male hypopygium. Ninth segment covering the hypopygium, the paired flaps beyond it with long setae. Side piece conical, as broad as long, strong excavate at tip for the insertion of the clasper, with coarse hairs outwardly and beneath. Clasper short, tapering, with two terminal claws. Tenth sternites with triangular base, curved, parallel-sided and rounded tips. Our localities for this species are as follows: New York: Ithaca, August 30, 1901 (O. A. Johannsen). PENNSYLVANIA: Pequea, August 31, 1924 (R. C. Shannon). West Virernra: Cheat Mountain Cave, File Creek (D. H. Clemons). 3. Thaumalea johannis, new species. Rather small dark brown species with smoky wings. Last two palpal joints slightly shorter than flagellum. Scutellum with a single row of mar- ginal setae. Legs dark brown. Subcosta complete, joining costa just before base of Rs. Re placed about four times its length from base of fork of radius sector. Rg; gently and evenly curved, its tip approaching Ru;. Cu, gently curved forwards. Wings with villae only. Halteres and abdomen dark brown. Male hypopygium. Ninth segment broad, covering the hypopygium, the ‘paired flaps beyond it with short spine-like setae. Side. piece conical, as broad as long, strongly excavate at tip for insertion of clasper, with coarse hairs outwardly and beneath. Clasper short, tapering, hairy, with about six terminal claws. Tenth sternites with triangular base, oblique, distinctly constricted before the tips. Types, two males, no. 27461, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Cabin John, Maryland, March 24, 1915, April 14, 1916 (R. C. Shannon). 4. Thaumalea elnora, new species. Entirely yellow, except for reddish brown abdomen. Last two palpal joints noticeably longer than flagellum. Scutellum with two irregular rows of setae. Sc-R cross vein before the middle of humeral cross-vein and tip of subcosta; subcosta ending beyond base of radial sector; Re about twice its length from base of Ry,;; Rs rather strongly bowed and approaching tip of R45; M-Cu cross-vein opposite base of Rs, two and a half times as long as R-M cross-vein. Wing faintly smoky. Halteres and cerci of female bright yellow. Male hypopygium. Ninth segment broad, slightly more heavily chitinized than the preceding ones, the pair of flaps beyond it (tenth tergites) finely setose. Side piece conical, about as long as broad, sparsely and coarsely setose. Clasper conical, setose, with two claws at tip. Tenth sternites with triangular base, curved, long, thickened at tip and recurved in a hook. Types, male and female, no. 27462, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Moscow Mountain, Idaho, July 25, 1920 (R. C. Shannon). Dr. A. L. Melander was the first to discover the habitat of this species. It gives us pleasure to name this species for Miss Elnora M. Sutherlin. ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE a AND fata ae SOCIETIES* Wednesday, November 6. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum. Program: L. O. Howarp: Some entomologists at last summer’s Stanford meeting and at the Hawazian conference, G. W. Dean: The corn- borer situation. Saturday, November 8. The Biological Society. Wednesday, November 12. The Geological Society. Thursday, November 13. The Chemical Society. Saturday, November 15. The Philosophical Society. The Helminthological Society. Tuesday, November 18. The Anthropological Society. Wednesday, November 20. Tur AcADEMY * The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL Saturday, November1. Tur Acapremy and the Philosophical Society (joint meeting). Program: Prorrssor H. N. LESSEE Recent advances in our knowledge of the in- terior of the stars. CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS indy. —The American species of Thaumalidae + (Orphnepbiliae a Harrison G. Dyar and Raymonp C. SHANNON.............-.--- 7 a OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY Presider: eonmargotn L. ate Gasnlecinnl Laboratory. Recording Secretary: W. D. Ties Coast and Ge Survey Treasurer: R. L, Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ‘Vol. 14 Novemper 19, 1924 No. 19 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS - E. P. Kiuure W. F. Mreccers D. F. Hewerr NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU Of STANDARDS GBROLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS y L. H. Apams 8S. A. RoHWER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GoLtpMAN G. W. Stoss BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCINTY R. F. Grigas J. R. SWANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WICHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY : BY THE ‘ WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royau AND GUILFORD Avés. — BauTimorE, MaryLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. 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The rate of Subscription per volume 18.0. 205... 6200s» + bein vapors > pepe Semi-monthly numbers. 34 cd ik cas ck eice bate oleae bi chavo eee ie ioc Neer ree NonthlLy/numberxs wo oo ssc nieve Sop. donc a allele Na,O > CaO > MgO > FeO. Thus, one molecule of potash and soda can bind up to six molecules of silica, one of lime up to two of silica, one of magnesia up to one of silica and one of ferrous oxide up to one of silica and ferrous oxide, can exist in rocks (as mag- netite FeO. Fe.O;) uncombined with free silica. Also, this order is the order of oxidizability of the metals concerned, The very ready oxidizability of the alkali metals is well known, 8 ChaRKE and WasHiINGtTon. The composition of the Earth’s crust. U. 8S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 127, 20. 1924. ° Cf. FarRINGTON. Analyses of stone meteorites. Field Mus. Publ. 151: 212. 1911. 10 Cf. WasHineTon. The chemistry of the Earth’s crust. Journ. Franklin Inst. 190: 791. 1920; CuarRKE and WasnHinaton. The composition of the Earth’s crust. U. 8. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 127,100. 1924. Noy. 19, 1924 WASHINGTON: DISTRIBUTION OF ELEMENTS IN EARTH 441 potassium being somewhat more easily oxidizable than sodium; calcium is fairly stable in the air, but oxidizes slowly; magnesium is much more stable in the air than is calcium, but a wire or ribbon of it burns readily; iron is quite stable in the air, much more so than magnesium—a thin wire or ribbon of it cannot readily be burned. In other words, the order of characteristic occurrence of the ele- ments from the surface to the center is that of the positions of the respective metals of the electrochemical series, namely: K, Na, Ca, Mg, (Al), Fe, Ni. Tammann" has also expressed the idea that the elements in the Earth are arranged generally, from the surface to the center in the order of their electro-affinity, from the most electro- positive to the most electronegative, those that are more electro- positive than iron forming the crust. Such a general distribution as has been suggested above has been often compared to the slag and metal in iron smelting, or the metal, matte, and slag in the smelting of copper. Indeed, Goldschmidt*? and Tammann# carry this latter comparison to the extent of suggest- ing the presence of a shell of sulphides between the crust and the central, metallic core. It would thus appear that the Earth, as a whole, is mainly com- posed, to the extent of over 98 per cent, of only sevenelements. These seven, in their order of abundance, are: iron, oxygen, silicon, magne- sium, nickel, calcium, and aluminum. Smaller amounts of four others, sulphur, sodium, chromium and potassium, bring the percentage to 99.60. Most of the other 81 elements may, therefore, be regarded as “impurities,” possibly produced, as Clarke has suggested, by some process of evolution. Itis noteworthy, also, that the above elements, with hydrogen and cobalt, appear to be those most abundant in the Sun’s atmosphere. "4 It may be of interest to call attention to the resemblance in some respects between the progression of the chief elements in the Earth and that in the atmosphere of the Sun, as recently interpreted." In the chart of the Sun’s atmosphere given by St. John and Babcock ionized calcium lies highest up, followed below by a thick shell of 1G.TamMann. Zur AnalysedesErdinnern. Zeitschr. Anorg. Chem.131:96. 1923. 122,V.M.Goupscumipt. Der Stoffwechsel der Erde. Vid.-selsk. Skrifter 1922: no. 11; Geochemische Verteilungsgesetze der Elemente. Vid.-selsk. Skrifter. 1923: no. 3. 3G. TamMaNN. Zur. Analyse des Erdinnern. Zeitschr. Anorg. Chem. 131: 96. 1923. 144Cf.C.G.Asotr. TheSun,91. 1911. 15 St. Joun and Baxscock, Note on the pressure and currents in the Sun’s atmosphere. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 10: 390. 1924. 442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 19 hydrogen; below this by titanium (ionized), sodium, and calcium; and at the bottom of the solar atmosphere a thin shell of iron vapor, with lanthanum." Some interesting questions suggest themselves in connection with the distribution of the chief elements in the Earth: What is the origin of the relatively enormous mass of metallic nickel-iron? Was there originally sufficient silica to silicatize all the nickel-iron? Is it due to reduction of original silicate, and if so by what reducing agent? Is “gravitative adjustment” alone responsible for the stratification or — do other factors come in? Has there been an actual progressive oxidation or silication, such as is indicated by Prior’s studies on meteorites? To what extent downward does the surficial areal heterogeneity (shown by the continental masses and the ocean floors) extend, and what is the cause of these heterogeneities? But attempts to give even speculative answers to these and other questions must await another occasion. SPECTROSCOPY .—Regularities in the arc spectrum of columbium.! W. F. Mrecaers, Bureau of Standards. Last year, a note was published? on Regularities in the arc spectrum of vanadium. ‘These regularities were discovered by means of certain properties of spectral lines in multiplet structures, such as constant wave-number differences, temperature classification, and intensity rules accompanying transitions of azimuthal and inner quantum numbers. In a second note* some of these structures were confirmed by data on the Zeeman effect for vanadium lines, and some new — multiplets were given. These and additional results not yet pub- lished indicate that most, if not all, of the spectrum lines of neutral vanadium may be explained by combinations of terms belonging to systems whose maximum multiplicities are even, i.e., doublets, quartets and sextets. Similar studies have been made with the are spectrum of columbium which occupies a position directly under vanadium in the periodic system of the chemical elements. This spectrum was expected to possess structures like those found for vanadium, and as far as the 16 The ‘“‘AL”’ in the first column of the chart is presumably a misprint for ‘‘LA’’, according to the text on page 391. 1 Published by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the U.S. Department of Commerce. 2Meccers. This Journat 13: 317. 1923. 8’ Meracers. This JourNnau 14: 152. 1924. Nov. 19, 1924 MEGGERS: ARC SPECTRUM OF COLUMBIUM 443 analysis has been completed, this has been confirmed. It has been impossible, however, to make the analysis for columbium as com- plete as that for vanadium, chiefly on account of the lack of accurate and complete data on its spectrum. The are spectrum of columbium was partially described by Exner and Haschek‘ in a table of 1770 wave-lengths from 2376 A to 7047 A. Four hundred lines (4638- 7047 A) have been measured on the international scale of wave lengths and published by Eder and Valenta.’ ‘The precision of the published values of wave-lengths and intensities is, in general, not as high as desirable for the purpose of recognizing polyfold levels from their various combinations. No data on the absorption spectrum, nor of its spectra in furnaces at various temperatures, exist for this element, although investigations to supply these have been recently under- taken by Dr. King at the Mt. Wilson Observatory. 4143.22 (0.80) 1.85 (0.27, 0.80) 1.60, 2.13, 2.66 P.D, 4192.07 (0.47) 1.22 (0.15, 0.45 *) 0.84, 1.14**** D2F3 4123.86 (0.32, 0.90) 0.47, 1.02, 1.58 (0.28, 0.83) 0.49, 1.04, 1.59, 2.15 DF. 4137.15 (1.13) 0.00 2.20 (1.14) 0.06, 2.20 D;Fs; 4139.74 (0.45) 1.44 (0742 On00) Saad 60) Dik, 4152.65 (0.65) 1.45 (C2 O43, O87) LS) D.F; 4163.64 (1.18) 0.66, 1.46, 2.24 (0.40, 1.20) 0.67, 1.47, 2.26 D3F3 4164.65 (0.80) 1.50 (* 0.52, 0.86) *1.14, 1.49, 1.83* DF; 4168.14 (1.99) 1.33 (2.00) 1.33 DF, 4195.13 (1.27) 0.84 27) 0:6093-138 4205.34 (0.28, 0.89) 1.26, 2.00, 2.58 (0.30, 0.89) 0.77, 1.36, 1.95, 2.55 446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 19 The Zeeman-effect data available for these lines are presented in table 2 together with the patterns calculated according to Landé7 for the combinations of terms indicated in the first column. The magnetic resolutions are expressed in terms of the separation of a normal triplet as a unit, the parallel components, in parenthesis, being followed by the perpendicular components. The stronger com- ponents are distinguished by bold face type, but some of the weaker components of calculated patterns are represented by asterisks. With few exceptions the agreement between observed and calculated . results definitely confirms the term combinations assigned to the spectral lines. The D term with separations 154.1, 237.8, 303.4 and 355.0 wave- numbers, which is common to the multiplets in table 1, is the lowest level in the sextet system, and probably the lowest in the atom, al- though its exact position relative to other systems has not yet been determined. The most sensitive columbium lines for the purpose of chemical analysis, the raies ultimes,* occur in the DF combination where they are marked u. This is another instance of such lines arising from a combination of the lowest level in a system with the next higher level having one unit larger azimuthal quantum number, and this may be regarded as a general rule for raves ultimes. It seems to be generally true also that such lines permit one to identify the lowest orbit in the atom. A case which appeared to be an exception was mentioned? in connection with the are raves ultvmes of titanium which were identified as an F°G*® group although the low F® level is about 6500 wave-numbers higher than the lowest F* level. This case has . been looked into again and it was found that the lines 3635.47, 3642.68, and 3653.49 A in an F*G? group appear to be equally, if not more sensitive than 4981.73, 4991.06 A, ete., which result from the F°G* combination. If the lines of the triplet system are really the most sensitive for titanium and if the raies ultimes always involve the lowest level in the atom it may be of interest to note that according to de Gramont’s rates ultimes the lowest level in neutral zirconium is represented by an F® term, in neutral vanadium by an F* term but in columbium by a D’ term. 7 Zeitschr. f. Phys. 15: 189. 1923. 8 pE GRAMONT. Comptes Rendus 171: 1106. 1920. » Mreccers, Kizess and Watters. J.O.S8.A.&R.S. 1. 9: 355. 1924. NOV. 19, 1924 PITTIER: NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN MELASTOMATACEAE 447 BOTANY.—New or little known Melastomataceae from Venezuela and Panama. If HH. PIrtier. Miconia gatunensis Pittier, n. sp. (Sect. Tamonea) Arbuscula ubique glaberrima, ramis superne plus minusve acute tetra- gonis inferne teretibus laevibusque; foliis modice petiolatis, subcoriaceis, supra intense subtus laete viridibus, petiolo tereti supra sulcato, laminis ovalibus subobovalibusve tripli- vel- subquintuplinerviis, nervis prominen- tibus, basi rotundatis subacutisve apice abrupte anguste acuminatis, acumine brevi subacuto, marginibus integerrimis, venis transversalibus distantibus utrinque conspicuis, subtus prominulis, parce ramulosis; paniculis termin- alibus, basi trichotomis, ad nodos inferiores 4-8-ramulosis, "ramulis gracilibus, bis trichotomis; floribus pentameris brevissime pedicellatis, calyce tubuloso- campanulato, limbo obscure sub-5- dentato, persistente, petalis lineari- oblongis, albis, apice inaequaliter bilobulatis interdum reflexis; staminibus satis imaequalibus, filamentis gracilibus, antheris elongatis, apice attenuatis, uniporosis, basi bilobulatis, lobulis glandulis minutissimis pedicellatis tectis: ovario 3-loculari, glabro, usque ad medium libero, stylo elongato, apice subcapitellato. Arbuscula 2-3- metralis. Ramuli parce ramulosi, virescentes. Petiolus 1-3 cm. longus; laminae 9-20 cm. longae, 5-7.5 cm. latae, acumine 1-1.5 em. longo; nervulis transversalibus suberectis, 6-8 mm. distantibus. Pan- iculae circa 10 cm. longae, laxe pyramidatae. Pedicelli usque ad 0.5 mm. longi. Calyx 4.5-4.7 mm. longus. Petala 4.5-5 mm. longa, 2-2.2 mm. lata. Filamenta 2-6 mm. longa; antherae 5-6 mm. longae. Ovarium 1.5 mm. longum; stylus usque ad 12.5 mm. longus. Bacca ignota. PanaMA: Humid forest along Rio Indio de Gattin, Canal Zone, fl. Feb- ruary 17, 1911, H. Pittier 2786 (type). This species seems to be nearly related to Miconia subnodosa Triana, but differs from it in its rather obtuse and terete branchlets, in the shape and dimensions of the leaves, and in the size of the flowers, in which the stamens are manifestly glandulous on the basal lobes. Miconia septuplinervis Pittier, n. sp. (Sect. Humiconia-A plostachyae) Frutex ramulis junioribus cinereis, vix compressis, petiolis pedunculisque dense adpresse hirsutis; foliis breve petiolatis, insigniter 7-plinerviis, petiolo brevi, canaliculato, laminis elliptico-lanceolatis, basi acutatis, apice sensim acuminatis, margine subintegris, ciliatis, supra viridibus parce adpresse hirsutis, nervis supra subtusque dense hirsutis; spicis majusculis, terminalibus, regulariter interruptis; floribus 3—4-glomerulatis, sessilibus, glomerulis op- positis; calyce urceolato, 5-dentato, dense adpresse hirsuto; petalis 5, ovali- bus, reflexis, glabris, apice rotundatis; staminibus 10, glabris, filamentis antherae aequantibus, connectivo vix producto. Ovarium 3-loculare; stylus glaber; stigma punctiforme papillosum. Frutex 2-3 metralis, parce ramosus. Folia in eodem jugo inaequalia; petiolus basi crassus, 6-10 mm. longus; lamina 12—27 cm. longa, 5-11 cm. lata, nervo mediano crassiore, lateralibus margini valde approximatis. Spicae erectae, validae, 12-18 cm. longae, pedunculo anguloso; glomeruli 1.5-2 cm. distantes. Oalyx ecostatus, 3.5-4 mm. longus, apice 3.2 mm. latus. 1 The first of these contributions was published in This JouRNAL 13: 384-392. 1923. 448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 19) Petala alba, enervia, 2.6 mm. longa, 1.5 mm. lata. Staminum filamenta gracilia, 2.5-3 mm. longa; antherae lineares e basi leviter attenuatae, 0.6 mm. crassae. Stylus circa 4 mm. longus. PaNnaMA: Forests around San Felix, Chiriqui, fl. December 17, 1911, Pittier 5175 (type). This striking species of the subsection EHumiconia-A plostachyae is, so far as I know, the only one in the group with leaves genuinely multiplinerved. In several of the known species, the leaves are said to be trinerved, or almost triplinerved; in a few others they are triplinerved; but in our specimens they are distinctly septuplinerved, the three pairs of opposite nerves showing in light gray on the upper face of the leaf, and being made more conspicuous on the lower face by a neat fringe of gray. h hairs. Furthermore, these leaves are larger than in any other species of the group, and the spikes are sur- passed in length only in M. longipedunculata and M. longispicata. The flowers, forming regularly distant clusters in which one of them opens at a time, seem to differ also by their superior dimensions. With the exception of M. triplinervis R. & P., reported once from Mexico, M. septuplinervis seems to be only species of the Aplostachyae found north of the Ist! mus of Panama. Miconia caudiculata Pittier, n. sp. (Sect. Glossocentrum) Arbuscula ramulis acute tetragonis, superne valde compressis, junioribus petiolis pedunculisque dense squamuloso-furfurescentibus; foliis oppositis, membranaceis, breviter petiolatis, nervulo marginali praetermisso 3-pli- nerviis, petiolo subtus striato supra late canaliculato, laminis oblongo-lan- ceolatis basi sensim attenuatis et in petiolo decurrentibus, apice angustato in caudiculam tenuissimam squamosulam abrupte contracto, marginibus inte- gris plusminusve revolutis, supra glaberrimis in sicco nigrescentibus, subtus tenuiter stellato-tomentellis pallide viridibus; nervis supra immersis, subtus eleganter prominentibus;. paniculis terminalibus, ramosis, folia subae- quantibus, ramulis decussatis, subsimplicibus, multifloris; floribus 5-meris, subsessilibus, basi bracteolis minimis subpersistentibus suffultis; calyce globoso subcampanulato, apice vix sinuato, extus squamulis stellato-ciliatis cinereis utrinque tecto; petalis albis, obovatis, oblique retusis, reflexis, glabris; staminibus 10, inaequalibus, saepius reflexis, filamentis glabris, com- pressis, antheris truncatis late uniporosis connectivo infra loculos modice producto, breviter calcarato, cum filamento geniculato; ovario 3-loculari superne glabro; bacca globoso-depressa, caeruleo-nigrescente, edule. Arbuscula ad 4 m. alta. Petiolus 1-1.5 em. longus; laminae 12-20 em. longae, 3.5-6 cm. latae; caudicula apicalis 4-9 mm. longa. Racemi 15-22 em. longi, circa 6 cm. diam. Pedicelli 0.1-0.2 mm. longi. Calyx 2.6-2.8 mm. longus, 1.8-2 mm. diam. Petala 2.8-3 mm. longa, 1.7—2.1 mm. lata. Antherae cum connectivo 0.5 mm. producto circa 3 mm. longae. Stylus 6-7 mm. longus. Bacca 6-7 mm. diam., 5 mm. longa. VENEZUELA: Zulia: Shady banks of the Sta. Ana and Lora rivers, sometimes in close formation, fl. and fr. December 1922, Pitter 10955, 10980 (last number the type). This shrub, which is characteristic of certain shaded strips along the banks of the rivers in the Perijd district of Zulia, belongs to section Gtlos- Nov. 19,1924 pITTIER: NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN MELASTOMATACEAE 449 socentrum, represented so far in Venezuela only by Miconia munutiflora DC. It is likely, however, that besides this latter species and the newly de- scribed one, we have also in our territory M. trichotoma and M. longifolia DC., reported from the island of Trinidad. But M. minutiflora and M. longifolia belong to the group of species with pentamerous flowers and glabrous leaves, and M. trichotoma has tetramerous flowers, so that our M. caudiculata is the only Venezuelan representative of the species the leaves of which show a stellate indument on their lower face, species which so far have been known to occur only in Central and South Brazil. The new species should probably be placed close to M. willdenowiz (Klotzsch) Cogn., from which it is easily distinguished by several characters, without mentioning the striking apieal appendage of its leaves, which does not seem to have been noticed in any other species of the genus. Miconia cuspidatissima Pittier, n. sp. (Sect. Cremanium) Arbuscula ramis teretibus, flexuosis, glabrescentibus, ramulis novellis, petiolis, paniculis, calycibusque pilis plumoso-penicillatis stellulatisve ful- vescentibus dense obtectis; foliis modice petiolatis, chartaceis, subconcolor- ibus; petiolo tereti; laminis ovato-oblongis, 3- vel sub-5-nerviis, margine integerrimis, basi late rotundatis vel interdum leviter emarginatis, apice longe angustissime cuspidatis, supra fere glabris, nervis impressis, subtus praecipue ad nervos venasque prominentes pilis plumoso-penicillatis tectis; paniculis laxis, basi dichotomis; ramulis floribusque trichotomis; pedicellis longis, gracilibus, basi bracteolis subulatis caducis suffultis; calyce late rotundo-campanulato, basi leviter costato, apice duplo 5-dentato, dentibus interioribus scariosis, late acutis, inconspicuis, exterioribus validioribus, conicis; petalis 5, suborbiculatis, vix unguiculatis, apice leviter emarginatis, in sicco luteis; staminibus 10, aequalibus, filamentis glabris, apicem versus attenuatis, antheris filamento duplo brevioribus, biporosis, obcuneatis, con- nectivo crasso, prominenti, basi bigibboso; ovario calyci adnato, triloculari, stylo glabro apice subclavato vel subcapitellato. Arbuscula 3-4 m. alta. Petioli 1.5-2.5 cm. longi; laminae (cum cuspide 22.5 cm. longa) 10-15 cm. longae, 3.5-6 cm. latae. Panicula circa 10 cm. longa, pedunculo 2.4 em. suffulta. Pedicelli 2.56 mm. longi. Bracteolae 1.5 mm. longae. Calyx 3 mm. longus latusque, dentibus exterioribus usque ad 0.5 mm. longis. Petala 2.5 mm. longa, 2.3 mm. lata. Stamina glaber- rima, filamentis 3.3 mm., antheris 1.6-1.8 mm. longis. Ovarium 1.5 mm: altus; stylus 6.5 mm. longus. Panama: Humid forest on the precipitous slopes between Alto de las Palmas and top of Cerro de la Horqueta, 2100-2268 m., Chiriqui, fl. March 18, 1911, Pittier 3224 (type). This species should be placed either near Miconia elata DC., if the leaves are considered as 5-nerved, or if these are 3-nerved, near M. rigens Naud., the first a Jamaican, the latter a Colombian plant. The relation, © however, seems to be remote, our plant being characterized by the long drip-point of its leaves, by the fulvescent indument formed of long plumose- penicillate hairs on the branchlets, leaves, and rachis of the inflorescence and of stellate hairs on the pedicels and calyx, by the double calyx teeth, ete. This latter character is unusual in Sect. Cremaniuwm. 450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 19 Miconia jahnii Pittier, n. sp. (Sect. Cremanium) Arbuscula ramis tetragonis apice valde compressis ad nodos incrassatis, petiolis pedunculis ramulisque inflorescentiarum dense brununeo-furfures- centibus; foliis approximatis imis longe petiolatis; petiolis angulosis com- pressis; laminis ovato-lanceolatis basi subrotundatis, leviter attenuatis, apice sensim breviterque acuminatis, margine remote calloso-denticulatis, nervis lateralibus margini approximatis, supra glabris glabrescentibusve, in sicco nigrescentibus, nervis impressis, subtus fulvescente stellato-velutinis, nervis nervulisque prominentibus; inflorescentiis terminalibus paniculatis ovoideo-pyramidatis; floribus sessilibus subsessilibusque, in verticillis densis, approximatis, congestis; calyce urceolato, densiuscule furfuraceo, 5-dentato, dentibus brevibus acutis; petalis late obovatis, albis, patulis, margine irregulariter sinuatis; staminibus 10, glabris, antheris filamento dimidio brevioribus; stylo glabro, apice subclavato. Arbuscula 2-3 m. alta. Internodii ramulorum foliatorum circa 1.5 cm. longi, defoliatorum 6-8 em. Petioli 1-2 em. longi; laminae 7-10 em. longae, 2.5-4 em. latae. Paniculae 6-10 em. longae. Calyx 2—2.5 mm. longus, 2.4 mm. latus, dentibus circa 0.6 mm. longis. Petala 2—2.2 mm. longa, 1.7—2 mm. lata. Staminorum filamenta 2-2.5 mm. longa; antherae cuneatae, truncatae, biporosae, 1.7-1.9 mm. longae. Stylus 3-3.5 mm. longus. VENEZUELA: P4ramo Quirord, 3000 m., Andes of Mérida, fl. January 24, 1922, Jahn 876 (type). This species is nearly related to Miconia granulosa Naud., reported from the Eastern and Central Andes of Colombia and from Bolivia. It differs mainly in its smaller leaves, shorter panicles, and larger flowers. It grows on the margin of the high andine pdramos. Conostegia excelsa Pittier, n. sp. Arbor pro genere excelsa, trunco erecto, coma elongata, sparsa, ramulis haud compressis, petiolis, laminis subtus atque inflorescentiis plus minusve dense furfuraceis; foliis longe petiolatis, 5-nerviis, coriaceis, integerrimis, petiolo evanescente furfuraceo, anguloso, laminis ovatis subobovatisve, basi obtuse rotundatis, apice late obtusis supra nervies interdum furfuraceis exceptis glaberrimis, nervis venisque transversalibus impressis, subtus nervis: dorso interdum denudatis exceptis dense canescente furfuraceis, nervis venis venulisque prominentibus; paniculis brevibus, latis; floribus graciliter pedicellatis invisis; pedicellis leviter furfuraceis; bacca 5-loculari, basi stel- lato-furfurascente excepta glaberrima, semiglobosa; seminibus clavatis, apice truncatis, laevibus. Arbor 20-25 m. alta. Petioli 2.5-6 em. longi; laminae 7.5-17 cm. longae, 6-10.5 em. latae. Pedicelli 6-8 mm. longi; bacca 0.5 cm. longa, apice 8 mm. diam. Semina 1—1.2 mm. longa, apice 0.4 mm. lata. PanaMa: Humid forest around Los Siguas Camp, southern slope of Cerro de la Horqueta, at about 1700 m., Chiriquf, fr. March 18, 1911, Put- tier 3196 (type). In the absence of the flowers, it is difficult to establish the relationship of this species. It may be allied to C. macracantha Triana, but differs in the large size of the tree, in the 5-nerved leaves and in the apparently 5-merous flowers. Nov. 19, 1924 PITTIER: NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN MELASTOMATACEAE 451 Topobea micrantha Pittier, n. sp. Arbuscula marginis foliorum ciliatis exceptis glaberrima, ramis gracilibus flexuosisque teretibus, ramulis apice tetragonis; foliis parvis, petiolatis, 3—5-nerviis in eodem jugo inaequalibus; petiolo longo, gracili, canaliculato; laminis late ovalibus suborbiculatisve basi acutissimis, apice abrupte breve acuminatis, margine leviter revolutis remote denticulatis ciliatisque, supra laete viridibus nervo medio prominulo, lateralibus subimpressis, subtus glaucescentibus nervis prominulis, supra subtusque densiuscule rufo-punc- tulatis; inflorescentiis axillaribus, brevibus, pedunculatis, trichotomis, copiose bracteolatis; pedunculo brevi, basi ebracteato; bracteolis oppositis, decussatis, spathulato-oblongis, basi longe attenuatis, apice obtusis, mar- gine crenato-denticulatis, interdum ciliatis, trinerviis, plus minusve punc- tulatis, quam flores longioribus; floribus parvis, 5-meris, pedicellatis; pedicellis brevibus; calyce tubuloso-campanulato, leviter 10-costato, limbo 5-lobulato, lobulis late rotundatis, scariosis, extus dentibus validis subaequilongis productis; petalis 5, orbiculatis, albo-roseis, vix unguiculatis, apice levissime emarginatis; staminibus 10; ovario 4-loculari; bacca sicca, moriformi, calycis lobulis. persistentibus coronata; seminibus paucis, obovato-cuneatis, punc- tulatis. Arbuscula 1-3 m. alta. Petiolus 0.8-1.8 cm. longus; laminae 3-5 cm. longae, 1.5-2.8 ecm. latae. Inflorescentiae 1-1.5 em. longae; pedunculus 0.4-0.5 cm. longus. Pedicelli 0.5-1.5 mm. longi. Bracteolae 5-7 mm. longae, 1.5-1.8-mm. latae. Calyx 2.5 mm. longus (tubus 1.7 mm., lobulis 0.8 mm.), apice tubi 1.8 mm. latus. Petala 2.56 mm. longa lataque; et caeterae ignotae. Panama: Humid forests on the precipitous western slope of Cerro de la Horqueta, 2100-2268 m., Chiriqui, fl. and fr. March 18, 1911, Potter 3276 (type). It is not without hesitation that this remarkable plant is placed in genus Topobea. It agrees with this, it is true, in the general characters of the flower, fruit, and seeds, but the flowers and leaves are very small as com- pared with those of the other species of the genus, and the imperfect stamens at my disposal also seem to be different in their structure. In the bud, however, they are disposed in the same way as in Blakea and Topobea, the anthers being bent down inward so that their tips occupy the hollow at the apex of the ovary, around the style. The bracts, longer than the flowers, are not imbricate, but somewhat distant and decussate. Other striking characters are the ciliate leaves (noted also in 7. ciliata from Ecuador), and the numerous brown dots on the leaves, which, on closer observation, are found to be formed by dense groups of diminute squamose hairs. Iden- tical dots are seen on the leaves of 7. punctulata and T. latifolia, from Colom- bia, as well as on those of 7. superba and T. regeliana, both of which grow within the limits of Panama, but are not at all closely related to our plant. 452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 19 BOTANY.—Five new plants from Venezuela. 8S. F. Buaxn, Bureau of Plant Industry. Four of the new species described in this paper are from high alti- tudes in the Andes of the States of Trujillo and Mérida, Venezuela. One is a striking Draba, with stout stem, fleshy leaves, and large vellow flowers; one is a species of Aragoa, a genus of shrubs allied to Veronica, and previously known only from Colombia; one is an alpine Hrigeron, allied to H. nevadensts Wedd.; and the fourth is a species of Desman- thodium, a small genus of the Heliantheae-Millerinae, ‘hitherto found only in Mexico and Guatemala. The fifth plant belongs to Riencourtia, and is the second new species of that genus collected in Venezuela by Mr. Henry Pittier. Draba bellardii Blake, sp. nov. Caudex thick, with few short branches; stem low, thick, stellate-pubescent; basal leaves tufted, fleshy, yellowish green, oblong, serrate above, ciliate; stem leaves similar but shorter and broader; inflorescence dense; pedicels 1 em. long or less; petals yellow, 7.5—10 mm. long; ovary glabrous, the ovules about 20 in each cell; style and stigma 2 mm. long. Herbaceous perennial, about 14 cm. high; caudex thick, 4-branched, the branches short, erect, densely clothed toward apex with the imbricated corky bases of fallen leaves, one bearing a flowering stem, the others dense tufts of leaves; basal leaves tufted, fleshy, yellowish-green, sessile, narrowly oblong or oblanceolate-oblong, 4 to 5 cm. long, about 1.2 em. wide, acute, serrate above the middle (teeth about 4 pairs, acute or acutish), hirsute- ciliate below the middle and denticulate-hirsute-ciliate above, the broad yellowish-white costa antrorse-hirsutulous with simple hairs on upper sur- face of leaf, glabrous beneath like the whole under surface; flowering stem leafy, stout (nearly 1 cm. thick), angled and striate, yellowish green, evenly but not densely stellate-pubescent with spreading, 2- or 3-branched hairs; | stem leaves similar to the basal but rather shorter and broader, with slightly clasping base, the upper ones (subtending the lower branches of the in- florescence) ovate, about 2.5 cm. long, 1.5 em. wide, pubescent like the basal leaves, about 7-toothed on each side above the entire base; inflorescence about 7 cm. long, dense, leafy-bracted, short-branched below, the flowers congested; pedicels in anthesis 1 cm. long or less, stout, pubescent like the stem; sepals oblong or obovate-oblong, 7 to 8 mm. long, 3.5 mm. wide, rounded, yellowish green, sparsely hirsute along midline with simple or bifurcate ascending hairs; petals yellow, equal, 7.5 to 10 mm. long, glabrous, the claw 2.5 to 4.5 mm. long, about 1.2 mm. wide, the blade suborbicular, subtruncate, 5 to 5.5 mm. long, 5.5 to 6.5 mm. wide, about 8-nerved; sta- mens 6, free, equal, the stout subulate filaments 5.5 to 6 mm. long; ovary ellipsoid, glabrous, 5 mm. long, the ovules pendulous on slender funicles, in two rows of about 10 each in each cell; style and stigma 2 mm. long, the style cylindric-conic, the stigma slightly bilobed. VENEZUELA: At the perpetual snow line, Sierra de Mucubajé, Andes of Mérida, altitude 4,880 meters, 1922, EH. P. de Bellard 14 (type no. 1,185,120, U. S. Nat. Herb.). Nov. 19, 1924 BLAKE: NEW PLANTS FROM VENEZUELA 453 Remarkable for its very stout leafy stem and large yellow flowers. The species evidently belongs in the section Volcanicae of Gilg, and is nearest the Colombian Draba pachythyrsa Triana & Planch., which is described as having lanceolate few-dentate leaves, contracted into a short broad petiole, violascent calyx, a very short style, and about 6-seeded capsule cells. Aragoa lucidula Blake, sp. nov. Branches pilose-lanate; leaves oblong, 2-2.8 mm. long, obtuse, appressed, not keeled, shining, pubescent on back and margin; flowers sessile, small; calyx pubescent; corolla pilose at base of tube. Shrub; branches and branchlets numerous, mostly opposite or in 3’s, the branchlets 1.5-2 mm. thick (including the leaves), terete, cinereously pilose-lanate, densely covered by the appressed, crowded, long-persistent, many-ranked leaves; leaves of main stem linear-oblong, 2.8 mm. long, about 0.5 mm. wide, obtuse, concave inside, sparsely pilosulous dorsally, those of branches and branchlets oblong, 2-2.6 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide, obtuse, thick, concave and glabrous inside, rounded and loosely pilose on back, ciliate especially toward apex, dark green and shining, with narrow pale margin; flowers few toward apex of branches, sessile; calyx 5-parted, 2-2.8 mm. long, the segments imbricated, oval, rounded, 1.5 mm. wide, sub- coriaceous, with green center and subequal subscarious margins, pilose on the green portion of back, especially toward apex, and ciliate; corolla cam- panulate-rotate; 4-lobed about to middle, 7 mm. wide, long-pilose in a ring at base inside, otherwise glabrous, the campanulate tube 2 mm. long, the obovate-oblong rounded entire lobes 3 mm. long; stamens 4, the filaments flattish-subulate, 3 mm. long, pilose about to middle, adherent to tube throughout its length, the anthers reniform, confluently 1I-celled; disk an- nular, thick; ovary globose-ovoid, glabrous, shorter than style, 2-celled, several-ovuled; capsule ovoid, glabrous, 2 mm. long, 4-valved, the valves thick, the septum free; seeds (immature?) obscurely winged. VENEZUELA: Sierra Nevada de Santo Domingo, Mérida, altitude 3600 meters, 12 Sept. 1922, A. Jahn 1091 (type no. 1,186,693, U. S. Nat. Herb.). Aragoa lucidula is the first species of the genus to be found in Venezuela. From the three species of the genus previously known, all of which are Colombian, it is distinguished by its small flowers and dorsally pubescent leaves. The vernacular names given by Dr. Jahn are “romero negro”’ and “chicote,” the former signifying. “black rosemary,” the latter (‘fend of a rope,” Velazquez Dictionary) presumably referring to the ropelike appear- ance of the branches. The name ‘‘romero de pdramo”’ is given on a sheet of A. cupressina H. B. K. in the National Herbarium, collected by Triana near Bogota. Erigeron blepharophyllus Blake, sp. nov. Perennial, with short and thick rhizome; leaves all in a basal tuft, narrowly cuneate or oblanceo- late, about 5 cm. long, narrowed to the sessile base, denticulate toward apex, densely pilose and stipitate-glandular; stem scapiform, 1-headed; involucre subequal, glandular-pilose; rays numerous, about half longer than the involucre; achenes hispid. Rhizome erectish, about 1.5 em. long, simple; basal leaves 12 or more, 4.5-6 cm. long, 4-8 mm. wide, erect or in age reflexed, acute or obtuse and 454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 19 somewhat callous-thickened at apex, gradually narrowed to base, about 4-denticulate on each side toward apex with small blunt callous teeth, 1- nerved or with a pair of lateral nerves well above the base (the nerves all impressed), densely pilose with many-celled acuminate hairs on both sides and on margin and also stipitate-glandular, thick-herbaceous (perhaps. fleshy in life), subscarious and glabrous within toward the base, this about 5-nerved; stems one or two, erect, 12-22 cm. high, densely pubescent with dark several-celled gland-tipped hairs and sparsely pilose, bearing 2—4 linear bracts, these 3-13 mm. long, 0.5-2 mm. wide, pubescent like the basal leaves; head 2 cm. wide; disk 7-8 mm. high, 12 mm. thick; involucre about 2-seriate, 8-9 mm. high, the phyllaries linear (1 mm. wide), acuminate, erect, the outer dull green or purplish, stipitate-glandular and pilose, with very narrow or obsolete scarious margin, the inner whitish, indurate, with narrow scarious margin, 1-vittate, ciliate chiefly toward apex, otherwise nearly or quite glabrous; rays about 40, sub-2-seriate, whitish (when dried), considerably exceeding the involucre, the tube 2 mm. long, erect-pilose with several-celled hairs, the lamina linear-elliptic, bidenticulate, 4-nerved, 6 mm. long, 1.7 mm. wide; disk corollas apparently whitish, erect-pilose with several-celled hairs at base of throat and sparsely so on teeth, 4 or 5-toothed, 4.3 mm. long (tube 1.8 mm., throat funnelform, 1.3 mm., teeth ovate, ob- tuse or acute, 1.2 mm. long); achenes (immature) of ray and disk slender, hispid, several-nerved, 2.5 mm. long; pappus of 25-30 hispidulous rufid bristles 4 mm. long, a few of the outer only about half as long; anthers sagittate at base; style branches with lanceolate, acute, finely papillose- hispidulous appendages. VENEZUELA: Pdramo del Jab6én, Trujillo, altitude 3300 m., 2 Oct. 1910, Alfredo Jahn 46 (type no. 602241, U. S. Nat. Herb.); Paramo de Aricagua, Mérida, altitude 3300 meters, 31 March 1922, Jahn 1035. Allied to Erigeron nevadensis Wedd., which is similar in appearance but is not glandular, and has merely ciliolate leaves with glabrous faces. Desmanthodium blepharopodum Blake, sp. nov. Stem _ essentially glabrous; leaves ovate, denticulate, subcoriaceous, practically glabrous, on rather short densely ciliate petioles; heads medium-sized for the genus, 6—10-flowered. Stem herbaceous above, rather stout, subterete, hirsutulous chiefly in 2 lines with mostly appressed, several-celled hairs, quickly glabrate; leaves opposite; petioles unmargined, connate at base, densely ciliate with several- celled sordid hairs, 3-13 mm. long; blades ovate, 7-17 cm. long, 3.5-7 cm. wide, acuminate, at base cuneate, remotely denticulate (teeth about 0.5 mm. high, 5-8 mm. apart), subcoriaceous, hirsute-ciliate when young, above deep dull green, very sparsely hirsutulous, beneath slightly lighter green, very sparsely hirsutulous along some of the veins or essentially glabrous, quintuplinerved well above the base, the nerves impressed above, with the secondaries loosely prominulous-reticulate beneath; panicle trichotomous, flattish-topped, 14 em. wide, its branches sordid-hirsutulous in lines with spreading or ascending hairs, the branchlets strongly flattened, hirsutulous on the upper side, the bracts (except the lowest pair) 1 em. long or less, ovate, coriaceous; heads sessile, about 5 mm. high, 3 mm. thick, 6—10- flowered, crowded at tips of branchlets in glomerules about 1 cm. thick; outer phyllaries 4, the outermost one suborbicular, about 10-nerved, the ~ others smaller, oblong or obovate, all whitish, subscarious, rounded, glabrous; Nov. 19, 1924 BLAKE: NEW PLANTS FROM VENEZUELA 455 Q flowers 3, inclosed in bottle-shaped, strongly obcompressed, obliquely truncate, few-nerved, glabrous, whitish phyllaries 3.5-4.5 mm. long and 2 mm. wide, their corollas whitish, tubular-funnelform, glabrous, 1.5 mm. long, the limb irregularly about 6-toothed; disk flowers (sterile) 3-7, their corollas whitish, 2-3 mm. long, hirsute above, with subeylindric tube, short campanulate throat, and 5 erect teeth longer than the tube and throat; receptacular pales none; achene obcompressed-trigonous, obovoid, glabrous, blackish, 2.8 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, crowned with a fleshy ring; sterile ovaries oblong to linear, 1-3 mm. long, hirsutulous with 1-celled hairs. VENEZUELA: Between La Puerta and Timotes, States of Trujillo and Mérida, altitude 2000 meters, 16 Sept. 1922, Alfredo Jahn 1143 (type no. 1,186,743, U. S. Nat. Herb.). Nearest Desmanthodium guatemalense Hemsl., which has glaucescent branches and thin-membranous, more or less rhombic-ovate, subsessile leaves which are not ciliate at the base. No species of the genus has hith- erto been known outside of Mexico and Guatemala, the Colombian plant described as Desmanthodium trianae Hieron. being really a typical Clibadiwm (C. trianae (Hieron.) Blake, Contr. Gray Herb. n. ser. 52: 6. 1917). Riencourtia pittieri Blake, sp. nov. Stem strigose; leaves mostly ovate or elliptic-ovate, 3.5-4.8 cm. long, 1.5-1.7 em. wide, hirsute and hispidulous; heads in few glomerules, 9-flowered. Erect herb, about 55 em. high, the base not seen; stem slender, with short erectish branches, evenly but not densely strigose with tuberculate-based hairs; internodes 6 to 12.5 cm. long, much surpassing the leaves; leaves opposite, those of the main stem about 7 pairs; petioles hispid-strigose, 2 to 3 mm. long; blades of the lowest leaves oval-ovate, about 2 cm. long, 1 em. wide, obtuse, those of the middle and upper ovate or elliptic-ovate, 3.5 to 4.8 em. long, 1.5 to 1.7 em. wide, acute or acutish, rounded at base, ser- rate (teeth about 9 pairs, depressed-triangular, mucronulate), above deep dull green, hispid and hispidulous with tuberculate-based mostly incurved hairs, beneath lighter green, hispid-hirsute and hispidulous along all the veins and veinlets with spreading or divergent hairs, triplinerved from near the base (the lateral nerves with a basal branch) and prominulous-reticulate beneath, impressed-veined above; peduncles solitary at tips of branches, ternate at apex of stem, 4 to 5.5 em. long, strigose; glomerules about 1 em. wide and high, subtended by a pair of reflexed lanceolate bracts about 12 mm. long; heads (excluding corollas) 5 mm. high, 3 mm. wide, compressed, 9-flowered; phyllaries 4, dry, whitish, hispid above, mucronulate, the two outer folded, 4.2 mm. long, the two inner flattish, 5 mm. long; @ flower 1, the corolla not seen; disk flowers (sterile) 8, their corollas yellowish-white, 3 mm. long (tube slender, 1 mm., throat campanulate, 1 mm., teeth 5, ovate, 1 mm. long), the teeth hispid-hirsute with spreading hairs above on back, inside densely barbatulate and with a tuft of longer hairs at apex; achene obovoid, plump, pilose, margined, 3.2 mm. long, 2.2 mm. wide; sterile ovaries linear, pilose, 4 mm. long or less. VENEZUELA: In savannas, Upper Cotiza, near Caracas, altitude 1250 meters, 18 Sept. 1921, Pittier 9824 (type no. 1,122,830, U. 8. Nat. Herb.). This plant is nearest the Brazilian Riencourtia latifolia Gardn., with which it agrees in most characters. No material of R. latzfolia has been examined, but Dr. A. B. Rendle and Mr. John Hutchinson, who have examined the 456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 19 material of the type collection (Gardner 3280) in the British Museum and the Kew Herbarium, inform me that the stem-pubescence is wide-spreading in that species, while it is closely appressed in R. pittieri. Riencourtia pittieri is the second species of the genus known from Venezuela, the other being R. ovata Blake, recently descyibed from specimens collected by Mr. Pittier in savannas near Valencia, State of Carabobo. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 668TH MEETING The 668th meeting was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club, May 10, 1924, at 8 p.m. with Vice-President GOLDMAN in the chair and 36 persons present. New members elected: Invinc L. Towrrs, Murray T. Donouo. Under Short Notes, C. P. Harrtey demonstrated that length of day was the factor limiting the amount of growth of stalk in the smaller varieties of corn. Specimens exhibited showed conclusively that in the same variety the stalk of an April planting was decidedly shorter than a stalk planted in June, though the two had grown in adjacent rows only four feet apart. In larger varieties conditions were equalized because of the longer growth period. I. N. HorrMan exhibited and commented upon several of the largest known species of Coleoptera, belonging to the family Lucanidae. In continuation of discussion of Mr. Hartley’s note A. A. DoourrrLE re- ported that corn planted for classroom study in October made a very short stalk. Mr Harriey considered this as probably due to the shortness of winter days. EK. A. GoLupMAN called attention to a belief prevalent in many places in the Tropics that timber cut in certain phases of the moon produces lumber more resistant to rot and insect infestation. J. M. Aupricu reported that one of the beetles exhibited by Mr. Horrman, . Dynastes tityus, frequently may be identified by its peculiar odor, even when the insect iself is not seen. He also stated that it was expected that Profes- sor Mario Berzzt, an Italian entomologist and a student of Diptera of high reputation, would come to this country to examine our National Park System for his government,.and in addition under a grant from the National Re- search Council, to study insect life at high altitudes. E. D. Batu: Migratory habits of insects in arid regions (Illustrated by slides). Migration is an adaptation that enables species to occupy regions which would otherwise be uninhabitable. Migratory habits in birds are well recognized phenomena. There are also many curious and interesting cases in insects. The milkweed butterfly each fall gathers in great swarms and flies southward from the Great Lakes and Manitoba to the Gulf regions. The black witch, a large Noctuid, reverses this process and flys northward from Cuba, oftentimes reaching the northern states, occasionally as far as Saskatchewan. Many other moths fly northward annually from southern regions. The migratory locusts of the Bible and similar species in South America, South Africa, and eastern Russia, in the course of their migrations cause great damage. In former times the buffalo came down in winter out of the mountain regions to sheltered spots on the plains. Lady beetles ov. 19, 1924 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 457 reverse this process and fly to the exposed tops of mountains, where they gather in large swarms for hibernating purposes. Beet leafhoppers fly from the deserts to the beet fields in the irrigated valleys of the west. In the examples mentioned the migratory habit affects all individuals of the species alike and they all migrate at a stated time. There is another type of migration in which only certain specially modified individuals take part. Many modifications of this kind are found in the arid regions of the western country. Most of the leafhoppers that feed on the short grasses have abbreviated wings, an adaptation which enables them to move about freely in these tangles. The areas they inhabit are subject to periodic droughts in which animal life, including even the insects, may be destroyed. These insects have a special migratory form with slender body and long wings that is capable of flying long distances. These migratory forms always appear very early in the season from the first nymphs that mature. Within afew days of emergence they fly away to other regions and thus distribute the species, leaving only the normal short-winged forms in the original location. The Rocky Mountain Locust which was so destructive in the western regions from 1872 to 1876, was considered to be a distinct migratory species of : grasshopper (MW elanoplus spretus). Studies made during the recent out- break have shown that this grasshopper is not a true species but only a specially modified long-winged migratory form of the common injurious grasshopper of the northern part cf the United States (Melanoplus atlantis). Production of excessive numbers of the migratory form is probably corre- lated with periodic droughts. It is probable that migratory forms are pres- ent In many species in which they have not as yet been recognized. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion by J. M. Aupricu, C. W. Srites, M. B. Warts, E. A. Goup- MAN, and A. 8S. Hircucock. A. Wermors, Secretary, pro tem. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Professor W. L. Corsin, formerly of Boston University, has been ap- pointed Librarian of the Smithsonian Institution. He succeeds Pau Brockett who is at present Assistant Secretary of the National Academy of Sciences. : Mrs. AGNEs Cuase, assistant agrostologist of the Department of Agri- culture, sailed for Rio de Janeiro October 18. She will remain about six months in Brazil studying and collecting grasses. Neit Horcukiss, a graduate of Syracuse University, has been appointed assistant in agrostology (junior botanist), Bureau of Plant Industry. Dr. W. A. Orton has resigned as Pathologist in charge of the office of cotton, truck, and forage crop disease investigations in the Bureau of Plant Industry, to become scientific director and general manager of the Tropical Plant Research Foundation. Dr. Orton entered the service of the Department of Agriculture in 1899, and has been prominently associated with its activities for slightly more than twenty-five years. In recognition of his long service an informal fare- well dinner was given at the City Club, November 18, by his associates. 458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 19 The Pick and Hammer Club held itsfirst autumn meeting at the Geolog- ical Survey on October 25. Program: Taytor THom, The International Petroleum Congress at Tulsa; FRANK Hess, Chasing rare minerals; Davip Wuite, The British Association meeting. Newt M. Jupp, Curator of American Archeology, United States National Museum, returned to Washington September 30th. Mr. Judd has been engaged for four months in continuation of the National Geographic So- clety’s explorations at Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon National Monument, New Mexico. The past season’s investigations constituted the fourth year of field work of the five year project previously noted in the Journal. Be- sides a noteworthy collection additional data bearing on prehistoric peoples © of the Southwest were gathered. It is felt that the 1924 explorations have proven the most profitable of the series. Two courses of lectures are being given at the National Museum at 4.30 p.m. Fridays and Mondays by Dr. Ates HrpuicKxa. The first, which commenced on October 24 and is given on Fridays, is entitled Man’s origin, and includes: a. Evolution in nature, its causes and objects; b. What is “man?” His relation to other living beings; c. Man’s origin; the material evidence bearing on the subject; d. The why, where, when, and how of man’s ascent; e. Man’s spread and differentiation; f. The racial composition of existing nations; g. Man’s present and future. The second course, given on Mondays, entitled Man’s physical and physiological characteristics, in- cludes: a. The life cycle of man; the developmental stage, growth, the adult stage, senility, death; b. The adult body, pigmentation, skin, eyes, and hair; stature, weight; the head, the face, rest of the body; ce. The brain; organs of sense; d. The functions of the body; e. Mentality. Nep HOo.uistrer, Superintendent of the National Zoological Park since 1916, and one of the foremost mammologists of the world, died November 3, following an operation. Mr. Hollister was born at Delavan, Wisconsin, November 26, 1876, where he received his education and began the study of zoology. From 1902 to 1909 he conducted zoological field work for the Biological Survey in the west. ' In 1910 he was appointed Assistant Curator of Mammals in the U.S. National Museum; this position he held until 1916 when he became Superintendent of the Zoological Park. In 1912 he represented the Smithsonian Institution on the Smithsonian-Harvard Expedition to the Altai Mountains, Siberia. Mr. Hollister was the author of a number of important works on zoological subjects, including The birds of Wisconsin (1903), Mammals of the Philippine Islands (1911), Mammals of the Alpine Club Expedition to Mount Robson (1913), and Hast African mammals in the U. S. National Museum (1918, 1919, 1923). The last, probably Mr. Hollister’s chief contribution to science, is a complete technical account of the East African collections made by Theodore Roosevelt, Pau! Rainey, and others. During Mr. Hollister’s term of office as Superintendent, the National Zoological Park has shown steady growth and development. Many improve- ments to the grounds and animal quarters were carried out, and he made every effort to provide for the enjoyment and convenience of the public. Mr. Hollister was a member of the AcapEMy and served as Associate Editor of this JourNat from 1919 to 1923, representing the Biological Society. ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES* Saturday, November 22. The Biological Society. Saturday, November 29. The Philosophical Society. Tuesday, December 2. The Botanical Society. Thursday, December 4. The Entomological Society. * The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE ' JOURNAL Tuesday, October 28. The Botanical Society. Program: V. H. Buackman, Imperial -College, London: Modern tendencies in English botany. Saturday, November 15. Tur Acapremy and the Philosophical Society (joint meeting). Program: Pror. Cu. Fapry, Paris: Thirty years work in spectroscopy with the interferometer. CONTENTS ORIGINAL PaprErRs Geophysics.—The radial distribution of certain elements in the Earth, ae BW AGEEBIGTION:. |. \ciniss sc'h adae salons Siowslysic dink Saree eee Naas i a Spectroscopy.—Regularities in the are spectrum ofcolumbium. W.F. Mz ea Botany.—New or little known Melastomataceae from Venezuela and Panam ‘e H, Prrrme......... ey. ol SeRCpAkG lee wiaic ey Hel ben ptt net OR Lo ee se ee Botany.—Five new ‘plants from Wonentela. BoB Biaae cies tenses voted cat : PROCEEDINGS OPA SOGIObY cated t's Sena Haeh kell Meese rctrnawea nia years fe ae ; Scrunrivrc Norms AND NEWS). \3)-a;ey.04 coc cns case bas atmen a ae ken eee ea OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY } Bai: Artuur L. Day, Geophysical Laboratory. AE iy Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Sttssrexz, Bureau of Standards. =. Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey. “a _ Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Vol. 14 DECEMBER 4, 1924 No. 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS E. P. Kiuure © W. F. Meacrrs D. F. Hewsrrr NATIONAL MUSEOM BUREAU Of STANDARDS GHOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. RonwEeR PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLDMAN G. W. Stosze BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Grices BOTANICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCINTY J. R. SWANTON f ANTHROPOLOGICAL BOCIETY E. WIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY x PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royat anp Gutnrorp AVES. "4, nx Battmore, MaryLanpD f Sy He sire as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Act of August 24,1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. \ Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific workin Washington. Tothis endit publishes: — (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) — short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; — (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies: (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JoURNAL is issued — semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. 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The rate of Subscripiton. per volume 48. 2.0 os oe ev ile s tilly obey se ne dele elelele Sami-monthly- numbersy bs. oo $05 selves wn wip las ws nb bod big ee eee ie Ree eee ate Monthly numbers i553 2355.00 A tk a ek ee Ga Seige ie ei yp Remittances should be made payable to ‘“‘Washington Academy of Sciences,’”’ and — addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, DiC European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges—The Journat does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. TA aed * Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special! rates : are given to members ot scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 14 DrcEMBER 4, 1924 No. 20 GEOPHYSICS.—Temperatures at moderate depths within the Earth. Leason H. Apams. Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington. In the application of the results of laboratory measurements to the solution of problems concerning the Earth’s interior it is important to have an estimate, even though it be a very crude one, of the tempera- tures at various depths within the Earth. The possibility of the stable existence of certain minerals at great depths, the physical condition of the Earth’s “crust,” the mechanism of isostatic adjustments, — these are some of the questions requiring a knowledge not only of the physical constants of rocks but also of the temperatures and pressures far below the surface. The determination of the pressure is compara- tively simple—for depths as great as several hundred kilometers the pressure can be calculated with an uncertainty of not more than 10 per cent—but the estimation of the temperature is attended by many difficulties and leads to less satisfactory results. The direct measurement of temperature at any considerable depth is, of course, out of the question; the deepest bore-hole ever made (near Fairmont, West Virginia) is only 2.4 kilometers deep. More- over, the direct extrapolation of the temperature gradient, measured in such bore-holes, to a depth several hundredfold that actually at- tained, is a task from which even the most optimistic speculator would shrink. The first important attack on this problem was made by Lord Kelvin in 1862. On the assumption that the Earth was originally © molten, that it cooled rapidly by convection until the solidification- point was reached, and that cooling then proceeded by the much slower process of thermal diffusion, the problem becomes that of the cooling 1 Received November 1, 1924, 459 460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20 of a sphere with constant surface temperature, and the temperature at any depth can be calculated in terms of the original temperature and of the time since solidification.2 From the melting-point of ordinary rocks and from the surface temperature-gradient as meas- ured in deep borings the age of the Earth, that is, the time which has elapsed since solidification, may be determined. But the age of the Earth estimated in this way is only 40 to 100 million years (depending on the assumed initial conditions), and so short a time has been held not to accord with geologic evidence. The Kelvin theory of the cooling of the Earth was therefore never received favorably by the geologists, and the temperatures at various depths as calculated from the Kelvin equation were not universally | accepted. But no one was able to point out the fallacy in the theory until the discovery of radioactivity and of the widespread occurrence of radioactive elements in the rocks of the Earth’s crust, which showed that the conduction of heat from the interior is not the only thermal effect to be considered, and that the heat produced by the spontaneous disintegration of radioactive elements is a factor of great importance. The investigations of Strutt? and of Joly‘ led to the astonishing result that if the average amount of radioactive material throughout the whole Earth were only a small fraction of that found in the surface rocks then the Earth is not cooling at all but would be getting con- tinually hotter. Itis evident that this discovery definitely removed the possibility of calculating the age of the Earth and the temperatures at great depths from the observed superficial temperature-gradient alone. 2 Cf. THompson and Tart, Treatise on natural philosophy, 11: 474. 1895. For depths of 1000 kilometers or less the formula is 6 — 67 = (6 — Os) Erf nee 2nhvt in which @ is the temperature at any point, 6 is the constant surface temperature, 9 is the initial temperature of the sphere, x is the depth below the surface, ¢ is the time which has elapsed since solidification, h? is the thermal diffusivity of average rock (that is, k/cp, k being the thermal conductivity, c the specific heat, and p the density). The expression Erf stands for the probability integral, Erf (x) being the equivalent of 2 oe i a e dé. dé Bo The t erat = dient at th face, | —— S, ca, e temperature-gradient at the surface Gi h Vat _ §R.J. Strutt, Proc. Roy. Soc. 77A: 475. 1906. 4 Jouy, Phil. Mag. 24: 694. 1906. DEC. 4, 1924 ADAMS: TEMPERATURES WITHIN THE EARTH 461 It remained for Holmes’ to make the bold step which reconciles in a satisfactory manner all of the factors involved. Instead of attempting to calculate the age of the Earth, and thence the interior temperatures, from the surface gradient, he started with the age of the Earth as de- termined by other means, and from that datum calculated the total amount of radioactive material in the Earth and thence the present temperatures at various depths. Probably the most satisfactory estimate of the age of the Earth is based on the ratio of lead to uranium in various rocks, from which it appears that the oldest rocks were formed more than one thousand million years ago. If, with Holmes, we assume that the Earth has been cooling as a solid body for 1.6. thousand million years, it can be shown that the total amount of radioactive material in the Earth is that which would be contained in a layer 10 to 20 km. thick and of the same uranium- and thorium- content as found in ordinary granites. The relative importance of the heat generated by radioactive disintegration is thus determined, and therefore if only the “initial”? temperature of. the cooling sphere were known, the problem of the Earth’s interior temperatures would be solved. Some calculations have been made by Holmes,® and a curve of tem- perature versus depth is given by Jeffreys. So much depends on the initial conditions, however, that it seems worth while to re-examine the factors which determine the cooling of the primitive Earth, and on the basis of the most reasonable starting point to calculate the tem- peratures at depths of a few hundred kilometers. THE “INITIAL”? DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE IN THE EARTH In order to determine the conditions existing at the time the Earth began to cool according to the laws for a solid sphere, and in particular to fix upon the most probable initial surface temperature and tempera- ture-gradient, it is necessary to consider how the Earth was formed. There now seems little doubt that this planet, in common with the other planets of the solar system, was generated by tidal disruption of the sun by the close approach of another star. But whether we accept the Planetismal Hypothesis in approximately its original form, or whether we incline toward the modified theories of Jeans’ or of Jeffreys,* the facts of geology apparently demand that the Earth at 5 A. Houmes, Geol. Mag. VI, 2: 60-71, 102-112. 1915; 3: 265-74. 1916. 6 A. Hoxmss, loc. cit.; H. Jerrreys, The Earth, chap. VI. 1924. 7 J. H. Juans, Problems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics. 1919. §H, Jerrreys, The Harth, pp. 16-35, 1924. 462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20 some time in its history was covered with a molten layer of considerable - thickness; and since at the moment we are concerned with the tem- peratures at depths of only a few hundred kilometers, it will suit the present purpose to deal with a molten sphere at a very high tempera- ture and to consider the manner of its cooling. The factors which determine the “initial” condition of the Earth. Cool- ing, at first, would be almost entirely by convection and would be very rapid. The surface layer, being at a high temperature, would lose heat rapidly by radiation, and the cooler, and hence denser, material would sink and be replaced by fresh, hot liquid. But convection, no matter how rapid, and even if the cooling at the surface were temproarily stopped, would not cause the temperatures to become the same at various depths. A convective equilibrium’ would be attained, and the temperature would increase with depth according to a simple relation, !° involving principally the lexpansion coefficient and the specific heat. From the available data for silicates, it appears that the temperature- gradient during the period of convective cooling was something less than 1°C. per kilometer depth. As the Earth continued to cool, convection, and the consequent rapid cooling, would be terminated by one of two circumstances. Either (1) the liquid would solidify (7.e. crystallize), or (2) at a suffi- ciently low temperature it would become so viscous that it could no longer circulate readily. The melting-points of ordinary silicates in- crease with pressure and hence with depth. The rate of in- crease may be calculated from the latent heat of fusion and the volume change when melting takes place, that is, the difference in specific gravities of solid and liquid.!!_ The increase of melting-point with depth has been placed by various investigators at 2.5 to 5°C per km. How much this rate changes under great pressures is unknown, but for moderate depths we may let the straight line marked M in figure 1 represent the melting-point depth relation. 9° Cf. THomson and Tait, op. cit., p. 481. 10 The relation between temperature and pressure for a fluid in convective equilibrium ‘cide a! : : ; : is aaa ——? in which T is the absolute temperature, p is the pressure, @ is the coefficient P Cp of expansion, and c, is the specific heat at constant pressure. It may be noted that this same relation determines the temperature of the air at various heights above the surface of the Earth—at least in that part of the atmosphere in which convection takes place. = OU IMIND 11 The relation is the well-known Clausius-Clapeyron equation: Buea Pp T is the absolute temperature, p is the pressure, Ah is the latent heat of fusion, and Av is the difference in specific volumes of solid and liquid. in which pec. 4, 1924 ADAMS: TEMPERATURES WITHIN THE EARTH 463 Before considering how this variation of melting-point influenced the conditions under which the Earth first began to cool as a solid body, let us consider how the other factor, viscosity, varies with depth. From measurements on the extrusion of marine glue, Barus” found that the viscosity bore a logarithmic relation to the temperature, that is, log» = A — Bt (1) n being the viscosity, t the temperature, and A and B constants. The recent measurements of Washburn, Shelton, and Libman! and of English" on various glasses over a large range of temperatures show that although the simple logarithmic relation does not apply at the higher temperatures, yet at the lower temperatures, where the viscosity is great, it fits with considerable accuracy. Thus for a soda-lime glass: containing essentially 75 SiO2, 14 Na.O, and 11 CaO, equation (1) is sufficiently accurate when the viscosity is higher than about 10’, that is, for temperatures from about 800° down to 550°, which was the lowest temperature at which measurements could be made. It is probable that the variation of viscosity with pressure also follows a logarithmic relation. Barus found that his results for marine glue under various pressures could be represented by the equation: log n = A’ + B’p (2) in which A’ and B’ are constants. The measurements by Hyde on lubricating oils under pressures up to 1200 atmospheres satisfy this equation with fair accuracy. Now if B’ be independent of t, and if B be independent of p, we have a very simple expression for the slope of the lines of constant viscosity (isogons). From equations (1) and (2) we have: dt B’ (a) THB 8) from which it follows that a straight line, such as VV in figure 1, may represent the way in which the temperature must vary with the depth in order that a given viscosity may be maintained. The deter- mination of the slope of this line requires data on the viscosity of silicates at high pressures. In the absence of such data, we must 2 C. Barus, Am. Journ. Sci. (3) 45: 87-96. 1893. 13H. W. WasHpurn, G. R. SHELTON and EH. E. Lipman, The viscosities and surface tensions of the soda-lime-silica glasses at high temperatures. Bull. Univ. of Ill. 21: No. 33, 1924. 14S. Enexisy, Journ. Soc. Glass Techn. 7:25. 1923;8:205. 1924. 15 J. H. Hype, Proc. Roy. Soc. London 97: 240. 1920. 464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20 content ourselves with the supposition that (5) is of the same order Pen of magnitude for various viscous liquids. For marine glue the measure- ments of Barus give B’/B = 0.0048. For petroleum oils we have from Hyde’s data, B’ = 0.0014, but although the viscosity of these oils at room temperatures and higher has been thoroughly investigated, there are no data for the effect. of temperature in the region in which the viscosity is very great and in which equation (1) would be expected to apply. However, from the results of Lane and Dean" it is probable that B is greater than 0.03, from which it follows that B’/B is less than 0.047. If, for liquid silicates the value of B’/B is of the same order of magnitude as for the above substances, then we may conclude (from admittedly slender evidence) that molten rock must be heated from 1° to 10° for each kilometer depth in order to maintain the same viscosity. It is very interesting that the three kinds of equilibrium that come into play during the early cooling of the Harth—involving (1) con- vection, (2) melting-point and (3) viscosity—yield about the same temperature-gradient; thus, for (1) the gradient is a little less than 1° per kilometer; for (2) 2.5° to 5° per km.; and for (8) probably 1° to 10° per km: Is the interior crystalline or vitreous? In the early stages of cooling the downward increase of temperature is determined almost entirely by the gradient for convective equilibrium. Referring to Fig. 1 let the dotted lines numbered 1 to 6 represent the temperatures in the molten outer part of the Earth at six successive epochs. These lines are straight except near the surface at a time just before complete solidification, when convection will be restricted and the superficial temperature will be lower than normal. The line MM is the melting- point line, and VV is the line indicating for each depth the temperature below which the viscosity is so great that convection is inappreciable. Two important cases may be distinguished: (a) in which the slope of MM is greater than that of VV, and (b) in which VV has the greater slope, so that the two lines cross at the depth D. In case (a) the con- vective cooling is terminated by crystallization at all depths, except possibly near the surface, but in case (b), before the true freezing- point is atteined, the material at depths below D has become too viscous to circulate. Hence at these depths the liquid does not cool enough to crystallize but remains vitreous, while the material at 16 fF. W. Lane and E. W. Dean, Journ. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 16: 905-911. 1924. pEC. 4, 1924 ADAMS: TEMPERATURES WITHIN THE EARTH 465 lesser depths than D is crystalline. In case (b), then, the Earth would consist of a layer of crystalline rocks of thickness D, and below this there would be non-crystalline or glassy silicates. In the present state of our knowledge of the physical properties of silicates under combined high pressures and temperatures it would appear to be impossible to decide between these two cases. Yet a _ certain amount of light is shed on the question through consideration of the fact that down to considerable depths the Earth is highly elastic to forces whose duration is measured by days or even months. If we calculate the cooling which has taken place at these great depths!’ since the time of solidification, we can form a rough idea as to whether the lowering of temperature is sufficient to enable the glassy material to exhibit the requisite rigidity. Taking the age of the Earth as 1600 million years, the diffusivity as 0.007, and the original gradient as 4° per km., we find that at 600 km. the cooling would have been 180°, and at 1000 km. only 77°. Now the viscosity of an ordinary soda- lime glass'* at 800° is such (one thousand million times that of water) that convection would surely be neglible, and yet at 500° it yields appreciably to stresses whose duration is only a few minutes. Hence this glass, from the time when convection was inoperative until the time when a high rigidity was apparent, would be required to cool ‘7 This is a wholly different problem from the one with which this paper principally deals, namely, the actual temperatures at relatively small depths. For the cooling at great depths the problem to be solved is the cooling of a sphere (curvature not neg- lected), with constant surface temperature equal to zero and with an initial temperature which varies linearly with the depth, that is, 0 = 0. + 6(R —r). Here, @ is the tem- perature at any distance r from the center, 0 is the initial surface temperature, R is the radius of the Earth, and b is a constant. The solution, which may be obtained by substituting in the general equation (No. 40 on page 133 of An introduction to the mathe- matical theory of heat conduction, Ingersoll and Zobel) is as follows: @ = 09 ¢, + bR ¢2. mo 74 Its 1 , mar esi aE ili ae r on rag linet sin R m= m= o 8 R il (2m—1)arr ad = ok > —~Q@m—12F.:, 2m lar $2 7 Pr @m lie? oe R m= 1 ; ee : 2h? t in which F is written for ut Re At depths greater than 600 km. radioactive heat would have no appreciable effect on the cooling, and may therefore be neglected for the purposes to which this equation is applied. 18 Containing essentially 75 SiO., 14 Na.O and 11 CaO. 466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20 more than 300°. Other commercial glasses, such as those made from baryta, zine oxide, and silica with a little boric acid but no alkali, have a shorter ‘‘setting”’ range, but it is improbable that any known glass will require less than 200° drop in temperature to convert it from a liquid which could show appreciable convection into a “‘solid”’ which would be elastic toward stresses of moderate duration. The cooling at 600 km. (180°) is nearly the requisite amount, but the cool- ing at 1000 km. depth (77°) is inadequate. TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE DEPTH -DEPTH (a) (b) Fig. 1. Diagram to indicate conditions which determined the temperatures during the cooling of the molten outer part of the Earth. The line MM shows the freezing point of the rock at various depths, the line VV the temperature at which the molten material, at various depths, would become too viscous to circulate by convection. In (a) VV has a lesser slope than MM, and in (b) a greater slope. The dotted lines show the tempera- tures arising from free convection in the liquid layer. For case (a), the convection is terminated by erystallization at all depths (except very near the surface); but in case (b) the material at great depths remains glassy. This cooling depends on the age of the Earth, on the diffusivity and on the initial temperature gradient, and it increases with each of these factors. The figure for the age of the Earth can not be increased very much above the value given, and the diffusivity of the deep-seated basic magma, can not be much higher than 0.007 but it is of course possible that the initial gradient is considerably higher than the value taken. Moreover, we must admit important geologic evidence as to DEC. 4, 1924 ADAMS: TEMPERATURES WITHIN THE EARTH 467 the existence of deep-seated liquid layers; but although the question must still await a definite answer, it seems probable that a large part, at least, of the upper two thousand kilometers of the Earth is crystal- line. This conception, however, does not exclude the existence, com- paratively near the surface, of considerable masses of liquid or glassy material even in late geologic times. Moreover, the central portion of the Earth, that is, the material at depths below 2000 km., may be non-crystalline. But, be that as it may, the immediate object of this note is not to inquire too deeply into these matters, but rather to esti- mate the original thermal condition of the outermost one or two thousand kilometers as a basis for calculating the present tempera- tures at moderate depths; and it is sufficient for the present to assume an initial gradient corresponding to the melting-point line. We may use ‘this as our starting-point, with reasonable assurance that even if it is viscosity and not crystallization which determined the tem- peratures in the newly “solidified” Earth, the initial thermal gradient would be of the same order of magnitude. The initial temperatures near the surface. Based on the preceding remarks, the simplest picture of juvenile Earth is as follows: The primitive molten magma, consisting almost entirely of magnesium iron silicates!® with very small amounts of other ingredients such as alkali, lime, alumina, and water, began to crystallize at considerable depth, producing peridotite, which contained less of the minor con- stituents than the liquid phase. As crystallization proceeded, the minor constituents, including water, were concentrated to a greater and greater extent in the remaining liquid. Finally, when the liquid layer had been reduced to a thickness of 100 km. or less, it may be supposed to have become sufficiently rich in alkali, lime, and alumina to correspond in composition to a typical diabase. As cooling con- tinued, further crystallization at the bottom of the liquid layer would take place, but at this time other important factors would enter. The surface of the liquid would always be a little colder than the tem- perature corresponding to straight-forward convective equilibrium, as indicated by the curvature, near the surface, of the dotted lines in figure 1. Thus, in this last stage of solidification, incrustation of the surface would go on simultaneously with the freezing at the bottom of the liquid layer, until finally, by the sinking of the heavier solid 19 By comparison of the elastic constants of various rocks under high pressure with the values of the elastic constants of the material in the interior of the Earth as deduced from seismologic data, it is almost certain that the silicate portion of the Earth at depths greater than about 60 km. has the composition of an ultrabasic rock. 468 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20 through the lighter liquid, the honeycombed solid and liquid structure ‘postulated by Thomson and Tait?® would be formed. Moreover, it is probable that somewhere between the outer crust and the deep- seated solidified material there would be liquid layers of great extent and thickness. We may conclude, then, that whether the Earth at a depth of several hundred kilometers be now crystalline or whether TEMPERATURE DEG. CG ed ed foe eo ea E al iat Sal DEPTH KILOMETERS Fig. 2. The heavy line indicates the most probable temperatures at various depths down to 300 km. (180 miles). The ‘initial’? temperature is shown by the line NLK, but the line SLK leads to substantially the same result, because the present tempera- tures of the Karth are independent of the original temperatures in the upper 100 km. it be glassy, in either case there would be ample opportunity for the existence of large bodies of liquid beneath the outer crust and relatively near the surface. As regards the temperatures near the surface at the time of initial solidification, it is plain that continued crystallization would, on the average, lead to a still further concentration of the ‘‘minor’ con- 20 THOMPSON and Tart, op. cit., p. 484. DEC. 4, 1924 ADAMS: TEMPERATURES WITHIN THE EARTH 469 stituents in the liquid until finally it had the composition of a granite. The freezing-point of the liquid would thus be lowered by an increasing amount as the era of practically complete solidification approached. It is altogether probable that the ‘initial’? temperature of the Earth, that is, the temperature immediately after convective cooling had ceased to play its role, was. approximately as indicated by the line NLK in figure 2. At great depths this line merely represents the melting-point of peridotite at varieus pressures or depths, while near the surface it gives expression to the fact that there is‘an additional lowering of the melting-point due to the increasing amounts of “‘minor’’ constituents in the liquid. PROBABLE TEMPERATURES IN UPPER 300 KILOMETERS From the initial temperature distribution based on the above dis- cussion we may now proceed to calculate the present-day tempera- tures at moderate depths. For the age of the Earth we shall take 1.6 < 10° years,-or 5 X 101 seconds; for the melting-point of peridotite, 1400°C; and for the increase of the melting-point with depth, 0.00004° per centimeter of 4° per kilometer.22 This defines the line LK of figure 2. The exact position of the line NL is much more difficult to determine, but fortunately it so happens that when we write down the equation for the temperatures ensuing from the initial distribution NLK, and calculate the temperatures at various depths,?* we find substantially the same temperatures as if the starting point had been straight line SLK. Thus, on account of the very great age of the Earth, the temperatures at various depths within the Earth are unaffected by any reasonable variation of the initial temperatures in the upper 100 kilometers. ‘The present temperatures depend almost entirely on the original temperatures at considerable depths. 21 See N. L. Bowen, The later stages of the evolution of the igneous rocks, Journ. Geol. 23, Supplement to no. 8, 1923, and in particular, pp. 66 to 75. 22 'This is believed to be the most appropriate value for an ultrabasicrock. Itis based on a latent heat of 100 cal./g. and a volume change on melting of 0.04 em?/g. 23'The line NLK is represented by the equation: 0 = 0) + mx — (69.—6@’o)e™§ in which @ is the temperature at any depth xz, 4) and 6’ are the temperatures at S and N respectively, m is the slope of the line SLK and b is another constant. The solution for this case differs from equation (4) by the addition, on the right hand side, of the term: 00 — Oo" _ ca oe7 Cle he = Erc (y1 — \) — e * Erc Gas in which y; = bh-yt. With b equal to 0.03 x 10-5, this term is unimportant after an elapsed time of 100,000,000 years, and practically negligible after 300,000,000 years. A470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20 The solution for the cooling of a body, the surface of which is main- tained at the constant temperature, zero, and which contains radio- active matter is as follows:% A A — ar pome+(n—-)\mtn+ 2 (1-6 ) ev” ems Ere (y — ))— e“™ Erc (vy + »)} (4) a 2 OP We The initial temperature is equal to 6, + mz, where 8, is the temperature of S in figure 2, m is the slope of the line SK, and x is the depth. The amount of radioactive material is supposed to vary exponentially” with the depth, that is, at any depth heat produced per cm? per second is Ae-«*. where A is the amount of heat produced in the surface layer and ais aconstant. In equation (4) k is the thermal conductivity and h2 is the thermal diffusivity, \ stands for 7/2h vt, and y for ah Vt. If we differentiate this equation with respect to x and put x equal to zero, we have, to a sufficient approximation: Se A (0 eee A (5) aaynun THEW \O ta igenpih aaa. Bae Since (dé/dx),, m and 6, are given, equation (5) can be used to calcu- late a, the constant which determines the distribution of radioactive material. The first step in the calculation of temperatures is to assign values toh and k. Now, the large variation in initial temperatures near the surface was a difficulty easily circumvented, but another and more serious difficulty arises from the fact that the conductivity of the salic rocks of the superficial layer is different from that of the femic rocks in the interior. It would be difficult to construct an equation to rep- resent the temperatures in a region of varying conductivity, but we may take advantage of the fact that near the surface the temperature is determined by the physical properties of granite, and that in the interior the temperatures are nearly the same as if the granite were 4 Ingersoll and Zobel, An introduction to the mathematical theory of heat conduction, equation 85, p. 95, 1913. In this solution the curvature of the Earth’s surface is neg- lected—a procedure which is justifiable for the calculation of temperatures at moderate depths. 2 ie Erf \ is written UNE e*"d6 and Ere (y — d) for 1 — Erf (y — 2). ay re) °° Any other assumption which makes the radioactivity decrease with depth gives nearly the same result. pEc. 4, 1924 ADAMS: TEMPERATURES WITHIN THE EARTH 471 not present. We therefore calculate two curves, one for salic rocks and one for femic rocks, and, by a somewhat arbitrary transition- curve, pass from one to the other in the region of supposedly variable composition. For the conductivities () of salic and femic rocks, giving most weight to the measurements of Stadler’® and less weight to the numerous other determinations, let us take 0.007 and 0.0055, respectively. Combining this with the densities 2.8 and 3.3, and the specific heat 0.25 for both kinds of rocks, we have 0.010 for the diffusivity (h?) of surface rock, and 0.0067 for the deep-seated material. For the superficial thermal gradient (d6/dxz), we have the careful measurements of Van Orstrand?’ in a number of borings in the United States. The: gradient in the deeper parts averages about 0.00032° per cm., or 32° per kilometer. Now, the tendency is probably to underestimate rather than to overestimate the true superficial gradi- ent, and we shall take 0.00035 as the value of (d@/dz), in salic rocks. Furthermore, since for the same amount of heat passing through different materials the gradient is inversely proportional to the con- ductivity, we shall take ae x 0.00035, or 0.00045 for (d6/dz), in the femic rocks. By equation (5) the value of a turns out to be 0.5 x 10~° from the constants for both salic and femic rocks. This, it may be noted, means that the total amount of radioactive material in the Earth corresponds to a layer 20 km. thick and of the same content of radioactive material as the ordinary rocks found at the surface. From the constants, as given, the two curves for salic and femic rocks were calculated by equation (4). These two curves (light lines), together with the final temperature-curve (heavy line) are shown in Fig. 2, which also shows (dotted lines) the supposed initial tem- perature distribution in the Earth. It may be seen that according to this diagram the temperatures at moderate depths are much lower than have often been supposed. Thus, at 100 km. the temperature is 1300°, while by extrapolation of the superficial gradient it would be over 3000°. 26 G. StaDueER, Dissertation, Berlin, 1889. See also, Landolt-Bérnstein-Meyerhoffer, Phys.-chem. Tab., (5th ed.) II: 1295-8. 1923, and Karu Scuuuz, Fortschr. Mineral. Krist. Petrog. 9: 221-411. 1924. 27 See Waite and VAN ORSTRAND, Bull. W. Va. Geol. Survey, 1918, See also, N. H. Darton, Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, no. 701, 1920; and R. A. Daly, Am. Journ. Sci. 5: 354. 1923. 472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20 Finally, it should be emphasized that the temperatures of figure 2 apply primarily to continental regions, and represent merely the aver- age thermal condition at various depths; the possibility of locally higher temperatures is not excluded. SUMMARY In order to calculate the temperatures within the Earth it is neces- sary to determine the initial temperature-distribution, that is, the therma! condition at the time the Earth began to cool as a solid body. Then—as pointed out by Holmes—from the age of the Earth as fixed by the lead-uranium ratio in the oldest known rocks, from the present thermal gradient at the surface, and from the known amount of radio- active elements in superficial rocks the temperatures within the Earth can be calculated, due allowance being made for the heat produced by radioactive disintegration. The present calculation extends to 300 km. depth and is based on an initial temperature-distribution arising from the crystallization, from the bottom upwards, of the primitive magma, which is believed to consist almost entirely of iron-magnesium silicates, corresponding to a peridotite rock. It is shown that if the material at great depths is not crystalline, but glassy, then the initial thermal condition would have been approximately the same. It is also shown that the initial temperature in the upper 50 or 100 km. could have no effect on the present-day temperatures—the temperatures at moderate depths are determined almost entirely by the original temperature at depths greater than 100 km. The temperature curve here given makes no pretense of finality, but it may be a useful guide in discussions involving the deeper parts of the Earth’s crust. ENTOMOLOGY .—The subfamilies, tribes, and genera of American Culicidae. Harrison G. Dyar and Raymonp C. SHANNON, U. 8. National Museum (Communicated by S. A. RoHWER.) The Culicidae are a homogeneous group of insects presenting, par- ticularly in the adult stage, a paucity of characters, so that their classification, on a natural basis, has been exceedingly difficult. A natural grouping for the family was finally effected by a study! based principally on larval characters. Characters mainly genitalic were also 1 Dyar and Knas; Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc. 14: 170. 1906. pEC. 4, 1924 DYAR AND SHANNON: AMERICAN CULICIDAE 473 used for the adults and the subgroups were thereby correlated with those recognized in the larval stage. However, keys based on ex- ternal adult characters were difficult and rather unsatisfactory. Gradually our knowledge of the external, generic, tribal, and sub- family characters of the adults has increased. Recent publications by Edwards add important characters, and studies made by the present authors have revealed more. In view of this, it appears worth while to publish a revised synopsis of the subfamilies, tribes, and genera of the American Culicidae. The characters here used are based primarily on the American forms. The keys to the genera of adult mosquitoes given in F. W. Ed- wards’ publications, A revision of the mosquitoes of the Palearctic Re- gion (1921) and A synopsis of adult oriental Culicine, including Mega- rhinine and Sabethine, mosquitoes (1922), include many excellent characters based on the distribution of the setae in the adult. The use of these characters, while bringing about very little change in the status of the genera as already established, frequently proves very helpful as a further means of defining the genera. However, their use is limited, and apparently does not furnish the means for a natural classification throughout. The spiracular setae, which Edwards con- siders the most important for taxonomic purposes, are sporadic in their occurrence. These occur in Megarhinus, Anopheles, Uranotaenia, Culiseta, Psorophora, and the Sabethini except Limatus, and are absent in Culex, Mansonia, Aédes, Haemagogus, Orthopodomyta, Aédeomyia, and Limatus. Obviously this would be an unnatural grouping. This indicates the necessity of using the setal characters w th caution, as Edwards has done, especially as other sets of setae are still less reliable. The pronotal (proepimeral) setae in some instances are unreliable even for specific purposes; but Matheson? on the strength of this character would raise the subgenus Janthinosoma to generic rank and include in it all the species of Psorophora possessing pronotal setae. He believed that P. howardii, which has pronotal setae, should be transferred to Janthinosoma. However, howardii is a typical Psorophora, even in the restricted sense, and accordingly the presence or absence of pronotal setae fails here to have generic value. As a matter of fact, this character proves too variable even for specific purposes, for in the species ciliata, upon which Matheson bases his observations, they are present or absent. A similar condition occurs in [sostomyia; pronotal setae are present in certain species and absent in others. 2 Canad. Ent. 56: 160. 474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20 Edwards has divided the genus Mansonia (Taeniorhynchus) into | two groups, Coquilletttdia, with the postspiracular setae absent, and Mansonia (Taentorhynchus) + Mansonides, with these setae present. LATERAL VIEW OF THE THORAX OF CHARACTERISTIC GENERA OF CULCIDAE Fig. 1. Uranotaenia. 1, Pronotum (proepimeron of Edwards); 2, spiracular sclerite and setae; 3, mesopleural (bears the postspiracular setae if present); 4, stenopleura; 5, mesepimeron; 6, lateral sclerite of metasternum; A, B, C, fore, mid, and hind coxae. Fig. 2. Joblotta. Fig. 3. Eucorethra. Fig. 4. Dizxa. He places the American species (fasciolatus, nigricans, arribalzagae, justamansonia, ?hypocindynia, ?albicosta) in Mansonia on account of the presence of these setae. Based on genitalic and scale characters pec. 4, 1924 DYAR AND SHANNON: AMERICAN CULICIDAE 475 of the adult there are also two groups, though the American species above mentioned belong to Coquilletiidia and not to Mansonia. This forms an unnatural association as these American species are more nearly allied to Coquillettidia than to Mansonia in general character- istics. They can be accommodated by the erection of a fourth sub- genus, but the setal character by itself is seen to be of less than sub- generic value. The character of the lateral metasternite in reference to the hind coxa, here used to separate the Megarhinini and Sabethini from the other mosquitoes, is constant for the American forms, and for this reason the Sabethini have been maintained as a tribe apart from the Culicini. The generic names are here used in the same sense as in the Mono- graph? by Howard, Dyar and. Knab, except in cases of subsequent changes. The Chaoborinae (Corethrinae) and Dixinae, which are now gener- ally regarded as true Culicidae, have been included in the key. For- merly they were usually omitted from the family because of the non- biting habits and mouthparts. The wing venation is the outstanding feature of all Culicidae, which, in its essential elements, is homogenous throughout the family and is not duplicated in other Diptera. The family may be characterized as follows: Antennae fifteen to sixteen jointed; ocelli absent; mesonotum without “V’’-shaped suture; wing with ten longitudinal veins reaching the margin which are: Sc, Ri, Re, Rs, Rass, Mise, M3, Cur, Cus and 2d A. The radial sector branches from the radius basad of r-m cross- vein; second basal cell present; discal cell absent; anal cell widening toward wing margin; one anal vein present. SUBFAMILIES OF CULICIDAE Al. Eyes reniform; flagellum 13-jointed; proboscis extending far beyond clypeus; mesosternum ridged; sternopleura not divided by transverse suture (except Uranotaenini); lateral sclerite of metasternum triangu- lar, in line with (Megarhinini, Sabethini) or below (Uranotaenini, Anophelini, Culicini), the base of hind coxa; wings scaled, hind margin with fringe of scales; Rs forking far before tip of Sc; upper squama bare GQiE GUA ECG Le Ba Shae eo ee ec ae ne oa tee mn a SET Ges Culicinae. A2. Eyes more or less emarginated on mesal line; flagellum 13-jointed; proboscis extending very short distance beyond clypeus; mesosternum without ridge; sternopleura divided by transverse suture; lateral sclerite of metasternum much reduced, not triangular; wings with hair-like scales, hind margin with fringe of scales; Rs forking far before tip of Se; Uppersauamiancilaa ted: see very aise. Fit. LOCUSTS tye Chaoborinae. 3 The mosquitoes of North and Central America and the West Indies. 1912. 476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20 A3. Eyes not emarginated, nearly circular in outline; flagellum 14-jointed; proboscis not extending beyond clypeus; mesosternum without ridge; sternopleura nearly divided by a median transverse suture; lateral sclerite of metasternum much reduced, not triangular; wings with only inconspicuous hairs on veins, hind margin with fringe of sparse hairs; Rs forking approximately oepon te tip of Sc; upper squama monoligtcd. ee ee Dixinae. KEY TO THE GENERA OF AMERICAN CULICIDAE Al. Proboscis extending far beyond clypeus:.......... Subfamily Culzcinae. Bl. Base of hind coxa in line with upper margin of lateral metasternal sclerite; upper squama incompletely ciliated to bare; spiracular setae not absent when pronotal setae are present; (exclude Haemagogus, Culicini, by: spiracular setae absent; proepimeral setae pres- CIN ese eo etd CAC eee ee ar ee Na Oca ears Se a Series A. Cl. Clypeus much broader than long; scutellar post margin evenly rounded; a spurious vein in Cu; cell; squama not ciliated; post motalvsetae absentia sos.+ oe sees. anes ak M&GARHININI, Megarhinus. C2. Clypeus at least as long as broad; scutellum trilobed; no spuricus vein in Cu; cell; post notal setae present; abdomen usually com- pressed and: with few-setae.: 2:5 4. = oe cede See ae SABETHINI. D1. No pronotal setae (lobes widely separated, see Tsostomyia espint). El. No prealar setae. Bie No propleural setae! ..5... hye eee ee Sabethes. 2 eropleural-setaempresenty ales ean Sabethordes. E2. Prealar setae present. 3) No spiracularisetaetrt Aoki. Sh eee ee ee Limatus. F4. Spiracular setae present. G1. Lower sternopleurals distinctly below upper margin of lateral metasternal sclerite. H1. Wing scales especially the outstanding scales on bases of Re and TReibrosds 308... e Se ee Miamyia. HD... Wane scalesmmarnowy. o.ci yew a eae tee Wyeomyia. G2. Lower sternopleurals, extending as far as, usually above, upper margin of lateral metasternal sclerite. H83. Wing: scales narrow (rare). 22/0) TA Be Menolepis. EA... Wing scales broaden... <2 tues eee Prosopolepis. D2. Pronotal setae present (except Isostomyia espint). K3. Clypeus without setae. F5. Lower sterhopleurals distinctly below upper margin of lateral metasternal sclerite; palpi very small in both SORES. | eran (itll bookie oh Leek ee bly reece SUS hg ee eine Isostomyia. 6. Lower sternopleurals extending above upper margin of lateral metasternal sclerite; palpi not small......... Goeldia. HAY Clypeus Setose.. oho ee ee J oblotia. B2. Base of hind coxa distinctly below upper margin of lateral metasternal sclerite; postnotum rarely setose; abdomen rarely compressed and with reduced setae. (The Sabethid-like genus Haemagogus is retained here on basis of absence of spiracular setae and presence of prono- talsetaip): so. ocikiwikell: dees iewne) Ue perear Soares Series B. C3. Scutellum trilobed with marginal setae only on the lobes. pEC. 4, 1924 DYAR AND SHANNON: AMERICAN CULICIDAE 477 D3. Anal vein extending well beyond fork of cubitus; wings villose; upper squama ciliated (partially so in Haemagogus and Carrol- GG} at cis CAA CRM IATA MR QED eat a Ea sea met. ob Slee cay Meio E CULICINI. Ed. Prescutellar setae absent; wings narrower than width of thorax; postspiracular‘setae absent. ......-.:...-.-een- Haemagogus. E6. Prescutellar setae present; wings broader than width of thorax. F7. Post spiracular setae present. G3. Spiracular setae absent. H5. Wing scales mostly narrow, or when broad (rare), setae are present on upper side of base of first vein... . Aédes. H6. Wing scales broad; setae absent on upper side of base of first vein. (See Mansonia.) G4. Spiracular setae present, sometimes small..... Psorophora. F8. Post spiracular setae absent. G5. Lower side of base of first vein distinctly pilose; spiracu- NATE SetAC ORESEIG hen Echoes AS Acton ae Re CE: Culiseta. G6. Lower side of base of first vein scaly or bare; spiracular setae absent. H7. No setae on upper side of base of first vein; wing scales broad, black and pale mixed (all black in some species of Mansonia which have post spiracular setae). Ii. No mid-mesepimeral setae; fourth - tarsal joint of fore tarsus somewhat thickened, as broad as long, OrAbronder:. .cumisheay) is ae ies, ane Orthopodomyia. 12. Mid-mesepimeral setae present; fourth fore tarsal joint longer than broad. Jl. Post marginal wing scales longer than width of anal cell; antennal joints but little longer than | ON OV2K0 Large NER OMe rae MR we Wau a eo a Adéomyia. J2. Post marginal wing scales shorter than width of anal cell; antennal joints much longer than ToTO aan are CCl. ic. 5 cin. cold ania ei ca eee Mansonia. H8. Setae present on upper side of base of first vein; wing scales mostly narrow, dark colored. I3. Mid-mesepimeral setae numerous............. Lutzia. 14. Mid-mesepimeral setae 0-3. J3. Antenna much longer than length of proboscis. Deinocerites. J4. Antenna approximating length of proboscis. . .Culex. D4. Anal vein ending opposite or basad of cubital fork; squamae not ciliate; wings without villi. URANOTAENINI, Uranotaenia. C4. Scutellum crescent-shaped, with marginal setae evenly distrib- Ube ye? SAE eee PES SN ed ALY iin Fae P Wad ANOPHELINI, Anopheles. A2. Proboscis not elongate, extending but little beyond clypeus. B3. Radial sector forking far before tip of subcosta; wings with hair- like scales; hind margin with fringe of scales. .Subfamily Chaoborinae. C5. Anal vein ending basad of cubital fork................ Eucorethra. C6. Anal vein ending beyond fork of cubitus. D5. Basitarsal joint shorter than following joint........... Corethra. D6. Basitarsal joint longer than following joint. 478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20) E7. Tip of Ri much nearer tip of RethantoSe........... Chaoborus. E8. Tip of Ri much nearer tip of Sc than to Re.......... Corethrella. B4. Radial sector forking approximately opposite tip of subcosta; wings. with only inconspicuou shairs on veins, hind margin with fringe of SATS VATS: Wale a leak chews ee RTT aI, GR ey Subfamily Dizinae, Dixa. Subfamily CULICINAE. Series A. Series A contains the tribes Megarhinini and Sabethini. The grouping apparently is not a natural one and for this reason no name is proposed. The species are all day-fliers which probably accounts for the brilhant metallic colors of the scales and their extensive development, which in turn has brought about a decrease in the setae. The position of the lateral metasternal sclerite and absence of squamal cilia may be due to similar causes. Tribe MEGARHININI. The American species of this tribe are all contained inthe genus Megarhinus. This group in many respects is the most peculiar of the Culicinae. It possesses many striking characters which set it well apart from all other genera. It is interesting to compare a female of this non-bloodsucking group with the female of such a strong biter as Psorophora ciliata. In Psorophora there is a chitinous collar-like development from the lower part of the head which, with the clypeus, surrounds the base of the proboscis. It is completely absent in Megarhinus and apparently absent in all non-biting Culicinae. Tribe SABETHINI. The Sabethini are among the most recent of the Culicidae and the most highly specialized in respect to vestiture and structure, yet apparently derived separately from a point low in the phylogeny, not improbably in the general vicinity of Megarhinus, which we associate in the same series on other charac- ters. The Joblotia group is the least specialized of the Sabethini and in this group we find the male genital structures resemble not only those of Megar- hinus, but also the lower genera of the Culicine series, Bancroftia and Culiseta. There is a correspondingly high degree of specialization in the life history, many of them being adapted to very peculiar habitats, such as aerial brome- lias, in their immature stages, yet again, the specialization apparently origi- nated from a point low in phylogeny, and the original Sabethine was doubt- less a tree-hole breeder, as is the case with the lowest members of the Culicine series. The Sabethes Group. In Sabethes and Sabethoides the scale vestiture has been carried to the high- est development, with a corresponding decrease of setae, that has been attained in the American Culicidae. A few exceptions are found in Limatus. The scales are mostly shining bluish black with violet and greenish reflec- tions. The pleurae are more or less silvery, while the abdominal sternum has white scales, and certain species have white scales on the legs. All mesonotal setae are absent except those on the post alar calli and the anterior margin; the prealar, pronotal and propleural (present in Sabethozdes) are likewise absent, while the sternopleural setae are lacking except for the lowermost ones, and the mesepimeral setae are confined to a tuft on the upper posterior corner; squamal margins bare; abdomen compressed, almost DEC. 4, 1924 DYAR AND SHANNON: AMERICAN CULICIDAE 479 devoid of setae except on first tergite and terminal segments; wings narrower than width of thorax, with broad scales; second anal (axillary) cell broader than length of hind marginal fringe. Genus Sabethes Robineau-Desvoidy. Sabethes Robineau-Desvoidy, Mém. Soc. d’hist. Nat. Paris 83: 411. 1827. Characters for defining Sabethes are: propleural without setae; fore femur shorter than middle one; mid tibia with greatly developed, outstanding scales; hind leg elongate, its tarsus nearly three times as long as tibia. Genus Sabethoides Theobald. Sabethoides Theobald, Mon. Culic. 3: 328. 1903. Sabethinus Lutz in Bourroul, Mosq. do Brazil 48, 57. 1904. This genus differs from Sabethes mainly by the presence of lower propleural setae; front femur as long as the middle one; absence of ‘‘paddles’’ on mid tibia. The senior author was of the opinion‘ that Sabethes and Sabethoides were of not more than subgeneric value, and this view may yet obtain. However, in correspondence with the characters as here used, it seems best to give them full generic rank. Genus Limatus Theobald. Limatus Theobald, Mon. Culic. 2: 349. 1901. Lemmamyia Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 140. 1919. Inmatus is a small group of brilliantly colored mosquitoes. The vestiture is composed of dense flat and appressed scales, with greatly variegated metallic colors, black, purple, golden, silvery, green, dark blue and reddish bronze. Mesonotum with setae only on anterior margin and post alar calli; spiracular and sternopleural setae present; prealar, propleural and tuft of mesepimeral setae present; wings as broad as thorax; wing scales broad; axillary cell but little broader than length of hind marginal fringe; hind tarsus with a single claw. The tip of the anal vein in some species ends opposite the cubitai fork, as in Uranotaenia. Inimatus divides into two subgenera on the characters of the male hypo- pygium as follows: Side piece short and unspecialized; clasper with two arms, one semiartic- Pulaterandopposedgropmnerother 50: 15 ia eel ace Limatus. Side piece angled, with a spine and large tuft of hairs at base; clasper CApliateminGishimerlveaivided. 5.8 a. oe eee Lemmamyia. Limatus contains durhami Theob. and paranensis Theob., possibly but varieties of one species. Lemmamyia contains asullepta Theob. and secu ome rene B.-W. & B., possibly but varieties of one species. The Wyeomyia Group. This is a large group of species of unusual difficulty to classify. Usually only one genus, Wyeomyia, is recognized, but a large number of subgenera are in use. An attempt has been made here to divide Wyeomyvza into four groups having generic rank on the basis of the pleural setae and wing scales. Genus Wyeomyia Theobald. Wyeomyia Theob., Mon. Culic. 2: 267. 1901. Phoniomyia Theob., Mon. Culic. 3: 311. 1903. 4TIns. Ins. Mens. 12:97. 1924. 480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20° Pentemyia Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 122. 1919. Diphalangarpe Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 126. 1919. Dyarina Bonne-Wepster and Bonne, Ins. Ins. Mens. 9:6. 1921. Phyllozomyia Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 12: 112. 1924. Wyeomyia may be defined: Mesonotum with setae on anterior margin, on lateral margins, on post alar calli and with or without prescutellar setae; the spiracular, propleural and prealar setae present; sternopleura with setae only on lowermost portion; wing a little broader than thorax; wing scales. narrow; second anal cell as broad or slightly broader than hind marginal fringe; abdomen with few setae except on first tergite and apically. The following subgenera may be recognized on the characters of the male hypopygium: Al. Clasper with capitate tip, a short arm on either side, in a few species. absorbed into the head. B1. Stem of clasper short and stout............. Phyllozomyia Dyar. B2. Stem of clasper long and slender............. Wyeomyta Theob. A2. Clasper with 3 arms, which are separate and without capitate ‘tip. B3. The 3 arms approximate, 2 erect, 1 at right angles Pentemyia Dyar. B4. The 3 arms long and widely separated...... Dyarina B.-W. & B. Phyllozomyia contains the species smithiz Coq., vanduzeet D. & K. bahama. D. & K. and chrysomus D. & K. Wyeomyia contains pertinans Will., abebela D. & K., melanopus Dyar, quasiluteoventralis Theob., telestica D. & K., ? oblita Theob.,? celaenocephala D. & K., scotinomus D. & Ke simmsi D. & K. , camptocomma Dyar., mitchellat Theob. and guatemala D. & i Pentemyra contains bromeliarum D. & K. Dyarina contains lassalli B.-W. & B.,? pallidoventer Theob. and leontiniae Brethes. (Menolepis) culebrae Dyar falls into Wyeomyia and may be the female of melanopus Dyar in case the slight postnotal scaling proves to be sporadic. It is not present in the single male of melanopus before us. Genus Miamyia Dyar. Phoniomyia Theo., Mon. Culic. 3:311. 1903. Miamyia Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 116. 1919. Cleobonnea Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 105. 1919. Dodecamyia Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 138. 1919. Shropshirea Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 10: 97. 1922. The chief difference to be noted between Miamyia and Wyeomyia is that in the former the wing scales are broad, and narrow in the latter. The subgenera of J/iamyia separate as follows: Al. Clasper with 3 short arms and a fourth downturned one; tenth ster- nite produced with tuft of spines or long hairs; lateral angles of 8th Sepment TOUNGIN, PROGUCEO 2 oF x oc cs oie se eee Miamyia Dyar. A2. Clasper varied but otherwise; tenth sternite normal; angles of 8th segment not produced. Bl. Clasper with 3 or 4 similar arms, one of them triangularly WAdEHIET.... | AaERORERTE Lp eT ee Eee ee Cleobonnea Dyar. B2. Clasper with the arms irregular and unlike, a tuft of hair from near apex Of Side "plete. 2 s.9 Scce act eee Shropshirea Dyar. B3. Clasper simple, without branches............ Dodecamyia Dyar. pDEc. 4, 1924 DYAR AND SHANNON: AMERICAN CULICIDAE 481 Miamyia contains: codiocampa D. &-K., serrata Theob. and hosautus DD. & K. Cleobonnea contains: occulta B.-W. & B., ?argenteorostris B.-W. & B. and negrensis G. & EK. Shropshirea contains: ypsipola Dyar. Dodecamyia contains: aphobema Dyar (wing scales broadly ligulate), bodkint Edw., ?longirostris Theob. (if this species actually falls here, the subgeneric name must be changed to Phoniomyia Theob.), splendida B.-W. & B., ?iriznzdadensis Theob., ?quasilongirostris Theob., ?roucouwyana B.-W. & B., ?grenadensis Edw. The senior author proposed to unite clasoleuca D. & K., grenadensis Edw. and roucouyana B.-W. & B. as one species (Ins. Ins. Mens., XII, 109, 1924); but according to the setal characters clasoleuca and roucouyana must be separated; grenadensis is not before us. Genus Prosopolepis Lutz. Prosopolepis Lutz, Imp. Med. 312. 1905. Dinomyia Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7:117. 1919. Triamyia Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 120. 1919. Heliconiamyia Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 123. 1919. Decamyia Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 135. 1919. Hystatomyia Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 140. 1919. Calladimyia Dyar, Ins. Ins. Mens. 7: 151. 1919. Prosopolepis, as here defined, differs from Wyeomyia by having the lower sternopleural setae extending upwards as far as, or above, the dorsal margin of the lateral metasternal sclerite, and broad wing scales. In addition the wings in some species are comparatively larger with a broader second anal cell; the metanotum may be scaly (Hunicemyia); the clypeus may be scaly (Prosopolepis) and in certain species of Hystatomyia and Prosopolepis the number of spiracular setae are reduced to one or two. A number of species have 1-3 squamal setae. Prosopolepis divides into the following subgenera on the characters of the male hypopygium: Al. Clasper much complicated and branched................. Dinomyia. A2. Clasper not much complicated, not over 3-branched. Bl. Clasper short-stemmed, the division reaching near base Prosopolepis. B2. Clasper long-stemmed. C1. Clasper with a short branch near mid stem........... Triamyia. C2. Clasper with expansions and arms terminal or simple. D1. Clasper with three distinct separated arms at tip Heliconiamyia. D2. Clasper with 3 arms short and capitate El. 3 setae near base of side piece normal......... Calladimyia. E2. 2 of these 3 setae separated and modified........ Decamyia. D3. Clasper with long stem and expanded, irregular tip Eunicemyia. D4. Clasper simple or triangularly expanded at tip. K3. Angles of side pieces greatly produced, the clasper subter- TEUTT Deep enters ere, ee TIES RRR aS Hystatomyza. l4, Side pieces normal, subspherical, clasper terminal J anicemyia. 482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20 Dinomyia contains: phroso H. D. & K., mystes Dyar. Prosopolepis contains: confusus Lutz, flu B.-W. & B., jocosa D. & K. and prolepidis D. & K., but the male of the genotype is unknown, the characters being taken from prolepidis. Triamyia contains: aporonoma D. & K., personata Lutz. Helioconiamyia contains: chalcocephala D. & K. Calladimyia contains: melanocephala D. & K. Decamyia contains: ulocoma Theob., pseudopecten D. & K., eloisa H., D. & K Eunicemyia n. subgen., contains: albosquamata B.-W. & B. subgenotype and ?hemisognosta D. & K. Hystatomyia contains: intonca D. & K., circumcincta D. & K., coenonus H. D. & K., lamellata B.-W. & B. and autocratica D. & K. Janicemyia n. subgen. contains: clasoleuca D. & K. subgenotype. Genus Menolepis Lutz. Menolepis Lutz (Bourroul) Mosq. do Brazil 67. 1904. This genus contains only a single species, lewcostigma Lutz. The eyes are fairly well separated; the spiracular sclerite is densely scaly and only one seta is present; postnotum has a large patch of white scales; the wing scales are narrow and the upper squama has two setae. The male is unknown to us. We are unable to place the following species: luteoventralis Theobald (genotype of Dendromyia Theob.), bourrouli Peryasst, arthrostiqgma Peryasstt and flavifacies Edwards. The Joblotia Group. The genera Isostomyia, Goeldia, and Joblotia form a rather generalized group of Sabethini. The scale development and reduction of setae is not as extensive, while the wings are comparatively larger and squamal setae are usually present; the eyes are contiguous, and the male palpi are elongate and fairly long in the female (very small in both sexes of Isostomyia). One to four pronotal setae are usually present. The eyes are more or less separated in Wyeomyia, et al. (practically contiguous in Prosopolepis prolepidis D. & K.), and the prothoracic lobes are more approximated in the Wyeomyia group than in the Joblotia group, although J. homotina D. & K. has them somewhat approximated. Genus Isostomyia Coquillett. Isostomyia Coquillet, Class. Mosq. 16. 1906. This genus includes perturbans Williston (genotype), homotina D. & K., espini Martini, and possibly Dendr omyia paranensis Brethes. It is separated from Goeldia by the small palpi in both sexes; and the sternopleura setae being distinctly below the upper margin of the lateral metasternal sclerite. The “pronotal setae are absent in espini and paranensis; in homotina the second anal cell is broader than the length of the hind marginal fringe, in espini the cell is slightly narrower and in paranensis it is about equal to the length of the fringe. Genus Goeldia Theobald. Goeldia Theobald, Mon. Culic. 3: 330. 1903. The genus Goeldia is characterized by the presence of pronotal setae, widely separated prothoracic lobes, contiguous eyes; clypeus without setae; sternopleural setae extending above the upper margin of lateral metasternal pEC. 4, 1924 DYAR AND SHANNON: AMERICAN CULICIDAE 433 sclerite; palpi of female as long as or longer than width of head; palpi of male nearly as long as proboscis. The species included are: fluviatilis Theob. (genotype), longipes Fabr., lampropus H. D. & K., leucopus D. & K., rapax D. & K., lunata Theob. palladoventer Lutz, trichopus Dyar, vonplessent D, & K. See also B.-W. & B. (ins. Ins. Mens. 10: 38. 1922), whose table of species includes also Ispstomyia. G. fluviatilis has the pronotal setae on the anterior portion of the pronotal sclerites. The thorax of vonplessenit presents peculiar features. It appears to be unusually elongated, from above appearing nearly three times as long as wide; in side view it is subquadrate instead of the usual wedge-shape; the roots of the wings instead of being directly above the hind coxae, are placed well behind them. Genus Joblotia Blanchard. Joblotia Blanchard, Comp. Rend. Soc. Biol. 53: 1046. 1901. The setose clypeus of Joblotia is a character peculiar to this genus. Series B. In this series of tribes and genera the base of the hind coxa is distinctly below the line of the upper margin of the lateral metasternal sclerite, except certain species of Haemagogus; pronotal (proepimeral) setae usually present; back of head usually with narrow erect scales (exceptions in Uranotaenia, Haemagogus, and certain species of Aédes and Culex); body scales usually sparse and rarely with metallic colors; upper squama ciliated (except Urano- taenia, and partly so in A aemagogus and Carrollia); postnotum rarely with setae. All of the known ees as well as the obnoxious species occur in this series. Tribe CuLicini The tribe Culicini contains two well marked groups, Aédes group and Culex group, with a number of intermediate genera. The shape of the female abdomen frequently offers a more ready means towards generic diagnosis than other characters used in the key. In the Aédes group, Psorophora, Aédes, and Haemagogus, the tip of the abdomen tends to be pointed, with the cerci exserted. Usually the other genera, Culex, Lutzia, Deinocerites, Mansonia Aédeomyia, Orthopodomyia, and Culiseta have the tip of the abdomen markedly blunted. Carrollia, subgenus of Culex, has the abdomen strongly compressed. The Aédes group has the eyes separated on the lower side of the head; in the Culex group they are contiguous; in the other genera the eyes are nearly touching below. The Culex group, Culex, Lutzza, and Deino- cerites as recorded by Edwards, have distinct pulvilli. ae palpi of the females of Culicini are distinctly shortened, usually small Genus Haemagogus Williston. Haemagogus WTHLSton Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 271. 1896. Stegoconops Lutz, Imprensa Medica 83. 1905. Haemagogus is remarkable for its most striking resemblance to the Sabe- thini, particularly the Sabethes group. Nearly all of the peculiarly Sabethine characters are duplicated in one or more species of Haemagogus and on the basis of external adult characters it can hardly be differentiated. The extensive scale development with the resultant decrease of setae and the coloration is practically the same as in Sabethoides; likewise the prothora- 484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 20 cic lobes are closely approximated, the metanotum frequently bears setae, the base of the hind coxae in some species is in line with the upper margin of the lateral metasternal sclerite, and the squamae are incompletely ciliated. The main character by which Haemagogus is separated from the Sabethini is that the pronotal (proepimeral) setae are present while the spiracular setae are absent. Other characters are the more elongate head, narrower wings and shorter legs. Stegoconops is retained as a subgenus of 16s aemagogus and may sjeninallly have to be raised to generic rank. Haemagogus leucomelas Lutz, on the basis of setal characters, postnotal and prescutellar setae present, must be referred to Aédes. It represents a close intermediate stage between the two genera. As the name leucomelas: is preoccupied the new name Aedes leucocelaenus is proposed for it. Genus Aédes Meigen. Aédes Meigen, Syst. Beschr. bek. Eur. zweifl. Ins. 1:13. 1818. The generic diagnosis for Aédes remains as given in the Monograph (H. D. & K.) with the additions: pronotal and postspiracular setae present; spiracular setae absent; mesonotal setae rarely reduced; wing scales narrow, rarely broad, when broad, the base of the radius, upper surface, has well developed setae. Genus Psorophora Robineau-Desvoidy. Psorophora Robineau-Desvoidy, Mem. Soc. Hist. Nat. Paris 3: 412. 1827. Setal characters of generic significance are: pronotal setae present or absent; spiracular setae present, sometimes small in Janthinosoma; postnotal setae present. Genus Culiseta Felt. Culiseta Felt, N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 79, 391c. 1904. The presence ai a peculiar character, base of subcostal, on lower surface, with distinct pile, makes this a well defined genus. In addition pronotal and spiracular setae (usually only one in melanurus Coq.) are present, the: post spiraculars absent. Genus Orthopodomyia Theobald. Orthopodomyia Theobald, Entomologist 37: 236. 1904. Pronotals present; spiraculars and post spiraculars absent; prealars usually several, a single stout one in fascipes Coquillett; antenna longer than length of proboscis, the joints much longer than broad; fourth tarsal joint of fore tarsus distinctly shorter than fifth joint; wing scales broad, bicolored; base of radius without setae. Genus Aédeomyia Theobald. Aédeomyia Theobald, Journ. Trop. Med. 4: 235. 1901. Pronotals present; spiraculars and post spiraculars absent; antenna shorter than length of proboscis, the joints but little broader than long; wings densely scaled, scales broad and tricolored; hind marginal scale fringe longer than width of 2nd anal cell. Genus Mansonia Blanchard. Mansonia Blanchard, C. R. Soe. Biol. 54: 1331. 1902. It is particularly difficult to segregate the species of Mansonia as a unit in a key. sca vckboee vecine reece $6.00* Demi-month ly numbers. : sh... 2 eiele kg tana set gies 9 nie ale eee aaron ta alee eae .25 Monthly numbers. «:.'.. :'s oie nis saw elahgey ares = eoniks/eleatnace Sia e as ie ah aa -50 Remittances should be made payable to “Washington Academy of Sciences,’’ and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C. European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges—The JourNat does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. fs a iy ete Sea's, a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 14 DrcremBer 19, 1924 No. 21 ZOOLOGY.—A comparatiwe study of the most ancient and the recent marine faunas. Austin H. CiarK, U. 8. National Museum. The earliest aquatic fauna that we know, that of the Cambrian rocks, was in its broader aspects singularly similar to the aquatic fauna of the present day. Every one of the numerous component species falls at once within a definite phylum as outlined by recent types, and in a definite class within that phylum. Many of the species can be recognized as members of families still existing, while a few can be assigned even to recent genera. This can only mean one thing, that as far back as Cambrian time animal evolution, broadly speaking, had already reached the plane it occupies today. In the ages intervening between the Cambrian and the present time the emphasis has shifted back and forth from one type to another within the phyla, classes, or families, leaving the broader aspects of the animal world unchanged. The variations from horizon to horizon probably result not so much from any evolutionary development of the animals concerned as from physical alterations in environment favoring now one type or subtype, now another. Until the physical and chemical condi- tions under which the creatures lived and the mechanical stresses they were forced to meet are better understood in relation to animal forms in general it will not be possible to draw any satisfactory evo- lutionary lines. In Cambrian times crustaceans were represented by phyllopods, trilobites, and merostomes; among the echinoderms there were cri- noids, cystideans, and elasipod holothurians; chetognaths, brachio- pods, and graptolites were present; of the annelids we know poly- noids, nereids, gephyreans, and Tomopteris-like forms; of the mol- lusks pteropods and gastropods; and there were sea-anemones and other ccelenterates, and sponges. 487 488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 21 As a supplement to this varied Cambrian fauna we know from the Ozarkian rocks cephalopods and pelecypods, and from the Ordo- vician polyzoans, echinoids, brittle-stars, starfishes, and fishes. There is no evidence that these were not also present in the Cambrian. The significance of this imposing list of Ordovician and pre-Ordo- vician animals becomes more evident if we contemplate the missing animal types, which are the following: the ctenophores, flatworms and roundworms, rotifers and gastrotrichas, priapulids and sipun- culids, heteropods, archiannelid, oligochete, myzostomid, hirudinid, and onychophorid worms, nemerteans, phronids, insects, pterobran- chiates, balanoglossids, tunicates, and vertebrates except for fishes. Other than the insects and the vertebrates, primarily terrestrial, all of these various types are soft bodied creatures which can not reason- ably be expected to occur as fossils; they could only be preserved by the merest accident. Occurring together in the rocks and therefore presumably having lived under approximately identical conditions are phyllopods and trilobites, merostomes, cystideans, and elasipod holothurians, chetog- naths, annelids of the Yomopteris, polynoid, nereid, and gephyrean types, brachiopods, gastropods, sponges, and sea-anemones. It is scarcely to be doubted that all the other forms also existed under similar conditions. It is most interesting that of all the numerous types of animals known from Cambrian rocks only a single major type, the graptolites, and two minor types, the trilobites and the cystideans, with the addition of a third, the merostomes, if we can not consider the king- crabs as their recent representatives, have become extinct. But the numerous types found associated in the Cambrian to Ordovician rocks no longer live together. A segregation has taken place so that now groups of them occur in very definite regions. All of the recent phyllopods are non-marine, though some occur in very saline water. Exclusively marine are the pelagic chetognaths and Tomopteris-. like worms, the abyssal stalked crinoids and elasipod holothurians, the littoral to abyssal echinoids, brittle-stars and starfishes, brachio- pods, sea-anemones, cephalopods, and polynoid and gephyrean and practically all nereid worms. Only the pelecypods, gastropods, sponges, and polyzoans are found both in the sea and in fresh water, and of these only a few groups, more or less distinctive, live in the latter. pEc. 19, 1924 CLARK: MARINE FAUNAS 489 In order to explain the segregation of these various types as they are represented at the present day the common features in each group must be first determined. Differences in salinity evidently have nothing to do with it, for phyllopods exist not only in fresh water, but in water with a much higher salinity than the present oceans, though they are never marine. The question of food seem also to be of slight significance, for in the fresh waters of the present day there are vast hordes of insects, obvious intrusions from the land, supported by food of the same nature that in the sea supports a large array of littoral types absent from fresh water. The exclusively non-marine types are conspicuously feeble; they ~ have a short larval or preadult stage and highly resistent eggs capable of withstanding a wide range of conditions. The pelagic marine types, relatively large, are poor swimmers, and have a prolonged helpless larval stage. The exclusively abyssal marine types are weak and fragile, unable to swim, or at least swim well, and have a helpless larval stage. The animals of the marine littoral extending downward for various depths are either attached or burrowing, or able to cling firmly to other objects; with very few exceptions their young are helpless drifters. The animals occurring in both fresh water and the sea are attached or burrowing, good crawlers, or good swimmers. They differ from the animals of the marine littoral only in having more varied younger stages, their fresh water representatives lacking a prolonged helpless larval period and developing from origins apparent in the marine types various peculiarities, enabling them to travel or to be carried overland. To put this in another way, of the various types of animals repre- sented in the Cambrian to Ordovician seas only those which live attached, or burrow in the mud, or are good crawlers or swimmers, and in addition have adaptable larval stages or asexual methods of reproduction, have been able to maintain themselves in the sea and also in fresh waters. Helpless drifting young preyent animals of medium or of large size from persisting in fresh water, though in the sea they may occur from the littoral to the abysses. If the adults are also helpless drifters, a pelagic marine life is the only kind of existence possible at present. If the adults are feeble bottom livers, they can only occur in the abysses. If the adults are feeble but the young are capable of transportation overland, they can exist in fresh water in temporary pools or elsewhere where they will be Safe from their enemies. 490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 21 The segregation at the present time of the numerous types found living all together in the Cambrian thus seems to be dependent on certain physical factors which differentiate the sea from ponds and lakes and rivers. The most important one is size. The present bodies of still fresh water are too-small to support large and slow breeding drifting ani- mals with helpless drifting young, and therefore also such animals as feed on these. The larger ponds and lakes abound in plank- ton, but the planktonic animals are all small to minute, and rapid breeders. Contrasting the present with the past we see in Cambrian rocks living apparently as littoral types various weak and feeble animals now confined to those regions of the sea where no motion of the waves exists. This suggests in Cambrian times the absence of a surf line on the shores, or at any rate absence of such gales and storms as are frequent at the present day. It is possible to explain the shrinkage of the epicontinental seas and the appearance of a surf barrier in terms of the assumed differ- ence between the Cambrian and the recent seas. The evidence seems conclusive that in the past the seas were much less salt than at the present day. All through the ages the water from the rains percolating through the ground and collecting in rivers running to the sea has been carrying to the latter the salts which it has taken from the land, while in its evaporation from the surface of the sea to fall again upon the land as rain it has left the salts behind. Undoubtedly there have been from time to time considerable addi- tions to the amount of water on the surface of the earth; but, generally speaking, there is no reason for supposing that the sea has not been gradually increasing in salinity throughout the ages. An increase in the amount of salts dissolved in water diminishes the vapor pressure. Thus the saltier the sea the less will be the evaporation from its surface, and hence the greater the proportion of the earth’s water held permanently in the ocean basins as compared to the water in the lakes and ponds and rivers, and to the water vapor in the air. If the present oceans were of fresh water their surface would be far below the present level, and numerous land connections would appear by which a general interchange of faunas now unconnected would be possible. pDEc. 19, 1924 HITCHCOCK: PSEUDOCHAETOCHLOA 491 This water taken from the sea would greatly increase the lake and marsh areas on the land, and at the same time result in more or less extensively blanketing the earth with clouds. An extensive envelope of clouds about the earth would have two most important conse- quences. In the first place the sun’s heat would be far more equably distributed. There would be no frigid poles nor superheated tropic zone. Hot and cold regions would be small and localized, and would occur only where the sun shone through the clouds. In the second place, an equality of temperature on the earth’s surface, or even a fair approximation to it, coupled with fresh water seas, would mean a minimum of atmospheric circulation, and a general state of calm unbroken by storms such as we know today. Wave action would be very slight and there would be no destructive surf line. Ocean currents would be very slow. The difference between the fauna of the oldest rocks and the fauna of the recent seas on close examination seems to be not so much a real difference in the animal types themselves as an apparent dif- ference resulting from (1) more extensive land connections; (2) more equable distribution of the sun’s heat; (3) more tranquil conditions, on land and in the sea; and (4) more extensive epicontinental waters. These four factors are capable of very simple explanation, in large part if not indeed entirely, on the basis of the ever increasing salti- ness of the sea. BOTANY.—Pseudochaetochloa, a new genus of grasses from Australia. A. 8. Hitrcucocx, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. Recently a fine collection of grasses was received from Mr. W. M. Carne, botanist of the Department of Agriculture of Western Aus- tralia. The plants were collected mostly in western and northwest- ern Australia. Many species were not previously represented in the National Herbarium. Among the specimens was one which could not be identified with any described species and possessed characters which did not agree with those of any genus as now delim- ited. It appears best to recognize the species as the type of a new genus rather than extend the characters of Chaetochloa (Setaria), to which it is allied. In Chaetochloa, a large genus of Paniceae, found in all the warmer regions of the earth, the spikelet is in the main like that of Panicum, but the inflorescence is interspersed with sterile branches or bristles. The fertile floret in Chaetochloa, Pan- icum, and their relatives, is indurate, differing distinctly from the sterile floret with its membranaceous nerved lemma, and the palea 492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 21 is enclosed all around the edges by the inturned margin of the fertile lemma. Thus the fertile floret is a little box enclosing the caryopsis, and this box does not open even in germination, the base of the plantlet pushing its way through the lower part of the box. In Pennisetum the fertile floret is like the sterile and the palea is not tightly enclosed. In Pennisetum and Cenchrus there are sterile branches in the inflorescence but these are gathered in a clus- ter below each spikelet or group of spikelets. In Cenchrus the whole cluster forms a bur (sandbur) and is deciduous from the main axis. In Pennisetum the cluster is also deciduous but is too soft to be called a bur. In the new genus described below the bristles are as in Chae- tochloa but the spikelet is as in Pennisetum. But the whole branch is deciduous from the main axis. Pseudochaetochloa Hitche., gen. nov. Spikelets as in Panicum, 2-flowered, the lower floret sterile but well developed; sterile and fertile lemmas membranaceous, similar in size, shape, and texture, acute; a single bristle subtending many of the spikelets as in Chaetochloa. Type species, P. australiensis Hitche. Pseudochaetochloa australiensis Hitchc., sp. nov. Perennial; culms erect from a decumbent base, glabrous, slightly scabrous below the panicle, 40 to 60 cm. tall; sheaths glabrous; ligule a dense ring of hairs about 1 mm. long; blades narrow, erect, those of the innovations scaberulous, involute, filiform, 15 to 25 em. long, flexuous, those of the culm flat, as much as 4 mm. wide, scaberulous, narrowed at base, attenuate at apex, as much as 25 cm. long; panicle erect, narrow, rather dense, about 10 cm. long, the axis scabrous; branches as much as 1 cm. long, deflexed at maturity and finally deciduous from the main axis; pedicels mostly less than 1 mm. long, the branchlets bearing below some of the spikelets a splender, antrorsely scaberulous bristle 2 to 5 mm. long; spikelets 5 to 6 mm. long, pale, glabrous, lanceolate; first glume 2 mm. long, obtuse, 3- nerved; second glume about 2.5 mm. long, acutish, 3-nerved; sterile lemma membranaceous like the glumes, acuminate, 5-nerved, the palea nearly as long; fertile lemma similar to the sterile, slightly longer, slightly more pointed, 5-nerved, the palea nearly as long. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,172,752, collected at Devil’s Pass, Napier Range, Kimberley Division, Western Australia, May, 1905, by W. V. Fitzgerald (no. 600). The plant has the aspect of a species of Chaetochloa. The only specimen Seen is rather meager, having only two panicles, one young, the other mature but with spikelets only on the lower half, the branches having been shed from the upper part of the axis. In the spikelets examined no stamens were found in the sterile floret but the well-developed palea would indicate that this floret may be normally staminate. pEc. 19, 1924 SWANTON: THE FACTOR OF DIFFERENCE 493 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY .—The factor of difference. JOHN R. Swanton, Bureau of American Ethnology. At the present time our evolution-dominated anthropological and biological studies invariably emphasize resemblances. In tracing the evolution of a cultural object or an animal or plant organism those factors are first enumerated which agree, the impression being left in the reader’s mind that object or organism b is simply a, plus a disturbing element too small to require much consideration. In discussing organic evolution similar factors in a and 0 are first treated, then the apparently unimportant changes called fluctuations, then Mendelian characters derived from ancestral forms, and, last of all, mutations, which, when positive, involve the introduction of factors entirely new. Since this method of approach is from the known to the unknown, it is justified on general scientific principles, but in the monotonous repetition of this one method there is a tendency to throw the student’s view of the entire subject out of focus. Dif- ferences between two objects or organisms in a series are minimized to such an extent that one is apt to forget that, however slight such differences appear to be, were it not for them there would be no evolution. Under such conditions, it is well worth one’s while to try the ex- periment of an exactly contrary approach. In the first place is the outstanding fact just noted that without mutations, or their equiva- lent, there would have been no evolution, and if from an evolutionary series we take away progressively each mutation we have nothing left at the end except the inorganic basis. In other words, any organism is equivalent to the sum of past mutations. This does not mean that organisms not separated by recognizable mutations are therefore identical in every respect except the possession of dis- tinct individualities. Evidence rather points to the conclusion that no two organisms are ever precisely alike. Probably if they were precisely alike there would be no distinction of individuality. Leo Loeb says: “We must assume that every individual of a certain species differs in a definite chemical way from every other of that species, and that in its chemical constitution an animal of one species differs still more from an animal of another. Every cell of the body has a chemical character in common with every other cell of that body and also in common with the body fluids; and this particular chemical group differs from that of every other individual of the species and to a still greater degree from that of any individual of another group or species. . 494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 21 “Tt has been possible to demonstrate by experimental methods that there are fine chemical differences not only between different species and between different individuals of the same species, but also between different sets of families which constitute a strain, for certain chemical characters differ- entiate them from other strains of the same species. It has been shown, for instance, that white mice bred in Europe differ chemically from white mice bred in America, although the appearance of both strains may be identical.’’! More might be quoted to the same effect, but, indeed, the most’ striking proof of this is one which any reader may apply himself. Among human beings father and son or mother and daughter may resemble each other so closely that a comparative anatomist would find an almost perfect part for part correspondence between them; in the case of “identical”? twins resemblances are still more striking. Yet this does not prevent each of the two individuals concerned from having a feeling of absolute independence, from living his or her own life with entire disregard of the life of the other, and even allowing the very existence of the other to drop wholly out of mind. Osborn denominates? as saltations major, suddenly introduced changes between organisms. But there appears to be no sharp line of division between a change so denominated and all other changes from one organism to another. Why, then, might we not extend the term saltation to include all changes since all do in fact appear suddenly with the birth and growth of each separate organism? In- stead of viewing evolution as a process which is mainly continuous but varied by occasional mutations or saltations, we might regard it as a series of saltations linked together and in some measure deter- mined genetically. This may also be aligned with the fact that the basal, inorganic world is atomic and not absolutely continuous. Having resolved matter into molecules and then into atoms, science has in recent years gone beyond and resolved atoms into electrons. Precedent would suggest, therefore, that if further resolution is accomplished it will again be into certain definite entities and not into a continuum. If there is a real utility in looking at plant and animal life from the point of view of their differences, it becomes more pronounced when we consider anthropology in its cultural aspects, a considera- tion to which the preceding discussion is merely preliminary. Prof. KE. B. Tylor, ‘‘the father of anthropology,” speaks of cultural evolu- tion thus: 1 Scientific Monthly. 3: 209-226. 1916; quoted in Osborn, The origin and evolution of life, p. 252. New York, 1917. 2 The origin and the evolution of life, pp. 140, 252. pEc. 19, 1924 SWANTON: THE FACTOR OF DIFFERENCE 495 “Tt being shown that the details of culture are capable of being classified in a great number of ethnographic groups of arts, beliefs, customs, and the rest, the consideration comes next how far the facts arranged in these groups are produced by evolution from one another. It need hardly be pointed out that the groups in question, though held together each by a — common character, are by no means accurately defined. To take up again the natural history illustration, it may be said that they are species which tend to run widely into varieties. And when it comes to the question what relation some of these groups bear to others, it is plain that the student of the habits of mankind has a great advantage over the student of the species of plants and animals. Among naturalists it is an open question whether a theory of development from species to species is a record of transitions which actually took place, or a mere ideal scheme serviceable in the classification of species whose origin was really independent. But among ethnographers there is no such question as to the possibility of species of implements or habits or beliefs being developed one out of another, for development in culture is recognized by our most familiar knowledge. Mechanical invention supplies apt examples of the kind of development which affects civilization at large. In the history of firearms, the clumsy wheel-lock, in which a notched steel wheel was turned by a handle against the flint till a spark caught the priming, led to the invention of the more serviceable flint-lock, of which a few still hang in the kitchens of our farm-houses, for the boys to shoot small birds with at Christmas; the flint-lock in time passed by an obvious modification into the percussion- lock, which is just now changing its old-fashioned arrangement to be adapted from muzzle-loading to breech-loading. The mediaeval astrolabe passed into the quadrant, now discarded in its turn by the seaman, who uses the more delicate sextant, and so it is through the history of one art and instrument after another.’ Tylor thus draws the closest parallel between cultural evolution and biological evolution and congratulates the student of the former on the greater certainty with which his evolutionary threads may be followed. However, there is one important difference to be noted between the two, viz. that biological evolution is an evolution in organisms, or at least in characters associated with organisms, while cultural evolution is an evolution in ideas or concepts. To take the instances cited by Tylor himself, the wheel-lock gun did not literally give birth to the flint-lock, the flint-lock to the percussion-lock, and the latter to the breech-loader. The astrolabe did not give birth to the quadrant and the quadrant to the sextant. Each is an arrange- ment of materials placed in a particular form not by any power which it itself possesses but by the human mind. It is not necessary even that there should be biological succession on the part of the inventors, for while different inventions in a series have usually originated with distinct individuals separated somewhat from each other in time, it is quite possible, as sometimes happens, 3H. B. Tytor; Primitive culture 1: 14-15. New York, 1877. 496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 21 that one mind should give birth successively to a number of inven- tions in the same series. A given concept e may be explained in one of three ways: (1) as . the sum of preéxisting concepts a, b, c, d; (2) as preéxisting concepts plus some new element 2; or (3) as an entirely new element, i.e., identical with z. The first explanation, which may be expressed in the form a+bt+ctd=e, is at least not of universal application because in progressive evolu- tionary series entirely new elements make their appearance. In the examples cited by Tylor the wheel-lock gun, the percussion-lock gun, the flint-lock gun, the astrolabe, quadrant, and sextant contain such novel elements. That the substances in which they were objectively expressed and the physical and mechanical laws observed in making them were already in existence does not enter into the argument, for if we take the ground that nothing is to be considered new that has already existed in potency, nothing is new and our whole discussion is fruitless. The second hypothesis as to the origin or e may be shown thus: at+ob+ct+dt+2z=e. Of course a, b, c, and d are merely samples of the indefinite number of concepts that may have entered into or paved the way tox. But, after all, is it correct to speak of a, 6, c, d, etc. as entering into e? We know that the object to which e corresponds contains elements to which those earlier concepts gave birth, but that is not the same as saying that those concepts enter into the present one. For one thing, we know that e may be reached in a number of different ways, sometimes through an independent series of concepts, a’, b’, c’, d’, while sometimes they may be entertained in a different order, as a, c, b, d, etc. This view is also strengthened by the consideration that when we explain an object to another in order ‘‘to communicate the conception” to him we do not ordinarily lead his mind over the course pursued by the minds which produced it but explain it to him as a present unit. Even if we concede that concept e is com- pound we must at the same time admit that the element which gives it independent existence, the soul of it, so to speak, is the new factor x. And though there appears to be a concept composed entirely of preéxisting concepts, one to which the formulaa +b +c+d=e DEc. 19, 1924 SWANTON: THE FACTOR OF DIFFERENCE 497 might seem to apply, we discover that in the device of bringing these several elements together we actually have a new factor, and there- fore our argument extends to such cases also. Therefore, since each concept in an evolutionary series, either as a whole or as to its essential feature, is independent of every other, the factor of difference in cultural evolution is of the first importance, more important if anything than in biology. The cause of this is not far to seek and may readily be explained by consideration of a single simple custom of every day experience, the removal of the hat as a token of reverence or respect. Tylor suggests that this item of etiquette originated with mediaeval knights who were wont to take off their helmets in similar situations. Per- haps this explains why we perform that particular act rather than some other, but it does not explain why we perform the act. We perform the act from a feeling of reverence or respect, or because we desire it thought that we entertain reverence or respect. If one were to say that he removes his hat because his ancestor took off his helmet, he might equally well affirm that he rides in an automobile because his ancestor traveled on a sledge, that he crosses bodies of water in plank boats because his ancestor crossed them on logs, that he makes sketches, has laws, constitutions, and religious beliefs because his ancestor performed similar acts or had similar institutions and ideas. Indeed, to follow the thought of certain early anthropologists like Herbert Spencer, one might suppose that man lived for the sole purpose of imitating his ancestors. Every concept, whether it involves something wholly uew or follows closely a preceding concept, is the expression of a present desire; it is the child, not merely of its own age but of its own moment, and the original element which it contains is that which is most character- istic of it. It uses the material which it finds “ready to hand,” the preéxisting concepts, to assist its expression but essentially it is— however abhorrent the words to scientific ears—a “‘special creation.” Possibly it is worth considering whether something similar might not be said of the organisms and characters which, in biology, corre- spond to cultural concepts. 498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 14, No. 21 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. Atrrep Hutse Brooks, Chief Alaskan Geologist of the U. S. Geologi- cal Survey, died at Washington Nov. 22. Dr. Brooks was born at Ann Arbor, Mich., July 18, 1871. Huis boyhood was spent in Newburgh, N. Y., where he received his early education at a private school. He early acquired a taste for geology from his father, Thomas Benton Brooks, noted mining engineer and State Geologist of Michigan, and went abroad to study at Stuttgart and Munich, Germany, before he was graduated at Harvard University in 1894. Later he took post-graduate studies at the University of Paris. He has since received the honorary degree of doctor of science from Colgate University. He was appointed assistant geologist in the U. 8. Geological Survey in 1894, having spent several preceding seasons in temporary field work in the Appa- lachians and in Michigan under Professor Pumpelly and others. In 1898 he began work in Alaska and in 1903 was appointed geologist in charge of the Division of Alaskan Mineral Resources. In 1911 he was appointed vice chairman of the Alaskan Railway Commission. During the World War he served in France as Lieutenant Colonel and Chief Geologist of the A. E. F. He was later attached to the Peace Commission in its investigation of the resources of the Central Powers. He has been awarded the Malte-Brun gold medal of the Geographical Society of France and the Daly gold medal of the American Geographical Society. Dr. Brooks was president of the Geological Society of Washington in 1911 and president of the Washington Academy of Sciences in 1921. He was also a member of the Geological Society of America, Association of American Geographers, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Mining and Metallurgical Society, American Institute of Mining Engineers, Société Belge de Geologie, Explorers’ Club, and National Geographic Society. He was the author of many important papers on Alaskan geography and geology and on other geologic subjects. Dr. ALEXANDER Wermorge, biologist in the Biological Survey, has been appointed Superintendent of the National Zoological Park, succeeding NrEp HOLuisTerR, who died recently. During his connection with the Survey Dr. Wetmore conducted numerous investigations in ornithology and mam- malogy, directing, in 1923, the U. 8. 8. “Tanager” expedition in general scientific exploration of islands of the Pacific. The Petrologists’ Club met at the home of F. E. Wricut on November 18. Program: L. H. Apams, Temperatures at moderate depths within the Earth; H. 8. Wasuineton, Chemical composition of the Earth as a whole; C. 8. Ross and E. V. Suannon, Bentonite and related minerals. Mr. H. T. Epwarps, of the office of Fiber Plant Inaeeeeaniods in the Bureau of Plant Industry, sailed from San Francisco, November 29, for Manila, where he will be engaged during the next six months, in cooperation with the Philippine Bureau of Agriculture, in encouraging the more general Se of euurgyed methods in producing, cleaning, and packing abaca, maguey, and sisal. Dr. N. H. Darton, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, has returned to Wash- ington after a two months trip to determine the geologic history of the ruins of the archaic temple of Cuicuilco in the Pedregal lava 12 miles south of Mexico City. The investigation was made under the auspices of the National Geographic Society, which is cooperating with the Mexican Governmentin excavating the ruins. INDEX TO VOLUME 14 A ft denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated Society. A § indicates an item published under the head Scientific Notes and News. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Biological Society of Washington. Botanical Society of Washington. Entomological Society of Washington. Geological Society of Washington. Philosophical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 59, 223, 393, 456. Proceedings: 74. Proceedings: 180, 202. Proceedings: 50, 160, 373. Proceedings: 116, 216, 345. AUTHOR INDEX Apams, L. H. Iron, distribution of, in meteorites and in the Earth. 333. — t+Temperature, calculation of, on the thermodynamic scale. 347. — Temperatures at moderate depths within the Earth. 459. AuBricut, H. M. {Wild life protection in Yellowstone National Park, prog- Tessin. 227. Aupricu, J. M. {Braula coeca Nitzsch in Maryland apiaries. 181. AuLEN, E. T. {Hot springs of the Lassen National Park. 55. Auten, S. J. M. {X-rays, passage of, through matter, and the atomic struc- ture of commercial materials. 220. AMARAL, AFRANIO DO. South American snakes, new genus [Barbourina] and species of, contained in the United States National Museum. 200. Auvuut, J. P. 7{Solar eclipse of 1923, effect of, onthe Earth’s magnetic field. 218. BaILey, VERNON. {Grasshopper mouse, an insect-eating rodent, some habits of. 224. tHoarding habits of mammals in relation to disposition and social in- stincts. 227. Bau, E.D. tMigratory habits of insects in aridregions. 456. Bartscu, Pauu. {Cerion breeding ex- periments, additional facts concern- Lig e225. Bassuer, R. S. {Sinkhole structure in central Tennessee. 374. BasstpeR, R. 8. fTennessee, oscillation of the Central Basin of, in Ordovician time and its economic bearing. 56. Baver, L. A. {Solar activity and atmos- pheric electricity, correlations be- tween. 301. Berry, E. W. Fossil swamp deposit at the Walker Hotel site; Connecticut Avenue and DeSales Street, Wash- ington, D.C. Organic remains, other than diatoms, from the excavation. 12: Buake, 8S. F. New plants from Central and South America. 284. — Five new plants from Venezuela. 452. Bonn, Frank. {Painting of the metallic feathers of birds, reproduction in, with exhibition of paintings of hummingbirds. 61. Bovine, A. G. ‘‘Triungulin’’, historical development of the term. 203. Bowren, N. L. Mullite, a silicate of alumina. 183. Bow1s, W. On the size of the block of the earth’s crust which may be independ- ently in isostatic equilibrium, 355. +Geodetie measurements, use of, in detecting horizontal and _ vertical earth movements. 219. Brapy, M. K. {Salamanders of the Dis- trict of Columbia. 227. BraMuetTe, M.N. {Chert in the Oneota Dolomite, origin of. 55. 499 500 Brown, J. 8S. {Coastal ground water. 50. Burzuer, E. W. Thermal conductivity of refractories, determination of, 147. CamPBELL, M.R. fAirplane photographs in geologic mapping, value of. 163. Capps, 8S. R. {An early Tertiary placer deposit in Alaska. 378. Catucart, 8. H. {Major structural fea- tures of some western Nevada ranges. 376. CaupEtL, A. N. Grylloblatta, notes on, with description of a new species. 369. CuHasr, AaGnes. Actachne, a_ cleisto- gamous grass of the high Andes. 364. — Panicum, new species of, found in alfalfaseed. 343. CuarK, A. H. {Animal flight. 396. — Marine faunas, comparative study of the most ancient and the recent. 487. Cruark,W.M. Life without oxygen. 123. Coss, N. A. . {Two blue jays—Jack and Jill—and their home life. 395. Cocuran, D. M. Typhlops lumbricalis and related forms. 174. CockERELL, T. D. A. Snails of the genus Succinea from the Maritime Province of Siberia. 366. Couns, W. D. {Mineral waters, falla- cles regarding. 54. Coox, O. F. }tDomestication of plants in Peru. 228. — Spined millipeds [Hylomidae] from Central China, new family of. 103. Covert, R. N. j{Newstandard anemom- eter. 302. Covituz, F. V. {Grossularia echinella, a new species of gooseberry from Flor- ida. 394. — j{Rhododendron mentsin. 74. Curtis, H. L. {Camera for photograph- ing projectiles in flight. 216. Dati, W. H. Nuclear characters in the classification of marine gastropods, on the value of. 177. Davis, W.M. {Gilbert’s theory of lacco- culture, experi- liths. 375. tOceanic problems related to coral reefs. 348. , AUTHOR INDEX Day, A. L. fHot springs of the Lassen National Park. 55. Diuter, J. S. Surface fusion of recent lavas. 54. Dossin, C. E. tLance-Fox hills contact in eastern Montana and the Dakotas. 165. — ftlLebo member of the Fort Union, correlation of, with Cannonball mem- ber of the Lance. 165. Dosroscxy, I. D. North American bird parasites of the genus Protocalliphora. 247, Drypren, H. L. {Pressure of the wind. 121. Dyar, H. G. Thaumalidae (Orphne- philidae) (Diptera), American species of. 432. — Subfamilies, tribes, and genera of American Culicidae. 472. Epy, J. B. {Carbonization of some Col- orado coals by igneous intrusion. 376. Ecxuarpt, EH. A. {Radio acoustic posi- tion determination, method of. 350. Emerson, 8. H. Do balanced lethals explain the Oenothera problem? 277. Frereuson, H. G. {Major structural fea- tures of some western Nevada ranges. 376. Frercuson, S. P. mometer. 352. FosHaG, W. F. Chlorophoenicite, a new mineral from Franklin Furnace, New Jersey. 362. Gacr, R. B. Chlorophoenicite, a new mineral from Franklin Furnace, New Jersey. 362. GitmorE, C. W. {Dinosaur National Monument and its fossils. 381. GisH, O. H. fEarth-currents at the Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, sys- tem for recording. 120. GoutpMan, E. A. Two new kangaroo rats from Arizona. 372. GREELEY, W. B. {Relation of National Forest management to wild life. 59. Grece, W. R. {Free air temperatures and wind directions, relations be- tween. 221. Greic, J. W. Mullite, a silicate of alum- ina. 183. Hau, M. C. {Lesions due to the bite of the wheel-bug, Arilus cristatus. 204. tNew standard ane- AUTHOR INDEX Haut, R. E. Sodium chloride solutions, densities and specific volumes of, at 25°. 167. Hanp, I. F. {Dust content of the atmos- phere, investigation of. 217. Hann, R. M. Polymorphic forms and thermotropie properties of Schiff’s bases derived from 3-methoxy-4- hydroxy-5-iodo-benzaldehyde. 79. Hay, O. P. On the geological age of the Walker Hotel swamp deposit, in Washington, D. C., and on the origin and the ages of the Coastal Plain terraces in general. 255. — {Vertebrates in the Pleistocene of North America, distribution of. 394. Hecrx, N. H. {Velocity of sound in sea water. 349. HeinricnH, Cart. North American Eucos- minae, notes and new species (Lepi- doptera). 385. Hersey, M.D. Thermal conductivity of refractories, determination of. 147. Hewett, D. F. j{Dolomitization near Goodsprings, Nevada. 164. Hert, P. R. {Gravitational anisotropy in crystals. 118. {Newtonian constant of gravitation, history of the determination of. 347. Hitcucockx, A. 8. {Biological Society, how to aid the. 395. — j{Botanizing in Ecuador. 395. — Pseudochaetochloa, a new genus of grasses from Australia. 491. — jScientific attitude, remarks on the. 395. — jTropical biological station in the Panama Canal Zone, proposed. 75. Hopeson, C. V. {Structural improve- ments in modern micrometer theo- dolites. 221. Houuicx, ArtHur. {Fossil flora of the West Indies, review of the. 58. Howarp, L. O. {Europe, a recent trip to. 181. —— {European centers, a recent visit to certain. 59. {Importing foreign parasites of introduced injurious insects. 227. Jaccer, T. A. {Hawaiian volcanoes. 374, — {Tokyo earthquake. 375. 501 Jounston, H. F. jAtmospheric-electric observations during the recent total solar eclipse. 217. Jupson, L. V. Geodetic base line tapes, some recent results obtained in stand- ardization of. 340. tInternational Bureau of Weights and Measures, work of the. 118. Invar base line tapes, notes on the graduation of. 342. Kertser, M. {Radio acoustic position de- termination, method of. 350. Kitiie, E. P. tBotanical exploration in Colombia. 395. —— Passiflora, new species of, from tropical America. 108. — Tacsonia, notes on. 212. Kuraz, Rupotr. {Seed control in Czecho- slovakia. 74. LaForer, Laurence. Fossil swamp de- posit at the Walker Hotel site, Con- necticut Avenue and DeSales Street, Washington, D. C. The geographic and historical evidence. 33. Lronarp, E. C. New plants from the Dominican Republic. 413. Loomis, H. F. Spined millipeds [Hylo- midae] from Central China, new family of. 1038. Lorxa, A. J. fIrreversibility—cosmic and microcosmic. 352. Mann, ALBERT. Fossil swamp deposit at the Walker Hotel site, Connecticut Avenue and DeSales Street, Washing- ton, D. C. Diatom deposit found in the excavation. 26. Marsu, C. D. {Relation of poisonous plants to milk-sickness in man and animals. 225. : Martues, F. E. tHanging side valleys of the Yosemite and the San Joaquin canyon. 379. — {Production of steps in canyons by selective glacial quarrying. 57. Maxon, W. R. Haiti, new or critical fernsfrom. 86. — Hispaniola ferns, further notes on. 195. — Jamesonia, two new species of. 72. — West Indian ferns, new. 139. Meccers, W. F. Spectrum regularities for scandium and yttrium. 419. 502 Meccers, W. F. Vanadium multiplets and Zeeman Effect. 151. — Columbium, regularities in the arc spectrum of. 442. Meisincer, C. LeR. {Barometric re- ductions in the plateau region of western United States. 222. Merwin, H. E. tEffect of fine grinding on the density of quartz. 117. — {Hydrated sulphates of magnesia in hot springs, note on the. 382. Miser, H.D. {New areal geologic map of Oklahoma. 382. Moon, Cartes. {Electrically trolled micrometers. 345. Morsz, W. J. tSoybean, abroad and at home. 75. OxsERHOLsER, H. C. Descriptions of new Treronidae and other non-passerine birds from the East Indies. 294. Pace, B. L. Geodetic base line tapes, some recent results obtained on standardization of. 340. — JInvar base line tapes, notes on the graduation of. 342. Peters, O. 8. {Electric telemeters, new developments in. 346. Peters, W. J. ftApproximate astronom- ical locations around a base station by use of wireless. 122. Piper, C. V. Genus Oxyrhynchus Bran- degee. 46. New genus of Leguminosae [Ley- cephyllum]. 363. Pirtrer. H. Newor little known Melas- tomataceae from Venezuela and Pan- ama,II. 447. Reep, C. A. jfGlimpses of economic trees and plants of China. 76. Rersipg, J. B., Jr. tLance-Fox hills contact in eastern Montana and the Dakotas. 165. Reeves, Franx. {Thrust faulting, dis- tant peripheral zone of, in flat-lying beds around the Bearpaw Mountain intrusion, Montana. 52. Rice, C. 8. 7{Pockets of high pressure gas in coal mines, origin of. 164. Ricu, W. H. jSalmon in the Alaska Peninsula region, migration of. 397. Rouwer, 8. A. Notesonand descriptions of some sawflies from Japan. 213. con- AUTHOR INDEX RussEtL, Pauw. Identification of the commonly cultivated species of Cu- curbita by means of seed characters. 265. SaFrorD, W. E. j{Economic plants as indicators of the origin and migration of. primitive races. 223. Scorretp, C.§. Measuring the potential alkalinity of irrigated soils. 192. Service, J. H. {Velocity of sound in sea water. 349. Serre, O. E. jfConservation studies on California sardines. 394. Suannon, E. YV. Iron-cobalt bearing gersdorfite in Idaho, an occurrence of. 275. SHannon, R. C. North American bird parasites of the genus Protocalliphora. 247. Subfamilies, tribes, and genera of American Culicidae. 472. —— Thaumalidae (Orphnephilidae) (Diptera), American species of. 432. Smita, A. W. tMeasurement of low re- sistances by the Wheatstone Bridge. 116. Smitu, E. F. Old age, some thoughts on. 231. Snoperass, R. E. fInsect musicians, their music and their instruments. 202. Snyper, T. E. New Prorhinotermes from Panama. 48. Sosman, R. B. {Effect of fine grinding on the density of quartz. 117. Speck, F.G. Possible Siouan identity of the words recorded from Francisco of Chicora on the South Carolina coast. 303. Sranputey, P. C. Forchammeria, the ge- nus. 269. — Salvador, new species of plants from, part III. 93; part IV. 238. Srearns, H. T. {Igneous geology of the Mud Lake Basin, Idaho. 380. SrrjnEcGER, LronHarp. New Chinese lizard of the genus Humeces. 383. Stites, C. W. j{Bacteria, underground movement of. 60. Swanton, J.R. The factor of difference. 493. SUBJECT INDEX Txuom, W. T., Jr. jtLebo member of the Fort Union, correlation of, with Cannonball member of the Lance. 165. Tuompson, D. G. fDesert playas, some features of. 56. Tonporr, F. A. {Seismogram and its interpretation. 347. TuckerMAN, L. B. {New optical lever system. 119. VaucHan, T. W. Oceanography in its relations to other earth sciences. 307. WALKER, Bryant. Ferrissia from lower California, new species of, 430. Watters, F. M., Jr. Arce spectrum of cobalt, regularitiesin the. 407. Wasuineton, H.S. Iron, distribution of, in meteorites and in the Earth. 333. — Radial distribution of certain ele- ments in the Earth. 485. WENNER, F. {Measurement of low resis- tances by. the Wheatstone Bridge. 116. 503 Wentwortn, C. K. Fossil swamp de- posit at the Walker Hotel site, Con- necticut Avenue and DeSales Street, Washington, D. C. Formations ex- posed in the excavation. 1. Wetmore, A. ftWake Island, visit of a naturalist to. 226. Wuerry, E. T. Active acidity of soils. 207. Wuitst, G. F. fInsect diseases. 180. Wooprine, W. P. j;Tectonic features of the Republic of Haiti and their bear- ing on the geologic history of the West Indies. 58. Wricut, F. E. Spherical triangles, straight line chart for the solution of. 399. — Stereoscopic photography in geo- logic field work. 68. Wycxorr, R. W. G. 7{Gallium, metallic, X-ray diffraction of. 121. Zizs, E.G. Mullite, asilicate of alumina. 183. SUBJECT INDEX Agricultural Chemistry. Active acidity of soils. E. T. WHERRy. 207. Measuring the potential alkalinity of irrigated soils. C.S.Scorretp. 192. Anthropology. Factor of difference, the. J.R. Swanton. 493. §Man’s origin, and Man’s physical and physiological characteristics, lecture courses on. 458. §National Geographic exploration at Pueblo Bonito, New Mexico. 458. See also Hthnology. Astronomy. tApproximate astronomical locations around a base station by use of wireless. W. J. Peters. 122. ytAtmospheric-electric observations dur- ing the recent total solar eclipse. H. F. Jounston. 217. {Solar eclipse of 1923, effect of, on the Earth’s magnetic field. J. P. Autr. 218. Biology. +tBacteria, underground move- ment of. C.W.Stites. 60. {Biological Society, how to aid the. S. Hitcucock. 395. Europe, a recent trip to. L. O. How- ARD. 181. JaX centers, recent visit to L. O. Howard. 59. W. M. Crarx. {European certain. Life without oxygen. 11233, {National Forest management, rela- tion of, to wild life. W. B. GREELEY. 59. {Tropical biological station in the Pan- ama Canal Zone, proposed. A. 8. Hircucock. 75. {Wake Island, visit of a naturalist to. A.WetTMoRE. 226. ake {Wild life protection in Yellowstone National Park, progress in. H. M. ALBRIGHT, 227, See also Botany, Zoology. Botany. Achiachne, a cleistogamous grass of the high Andes. AGNES CHASE. 364. Central and South America, new plants from. 8. F.Buaxe. 284. {China, Glimpses of economic trees and plants of. C.A.ReEEp. 76. tColombia, botanical exploration in. E. P. Kiuurp. 395. {Domestication of plants in Peru. F. Coox. 228. O. e 504 Botany (Continued) Dominican Republic, new plants from the. E.C, Lzonarp. 413. {Economic plants as indicators of the origin and migrations of primitive races. W.E.SAFForD. 223. jEcuador, botanizing in. A. 8. Hitcu- cock. 395. §Flora of Washington and vicinity, supplement to the. 228. Forchammeria, the genus. P. C. Stanp- LEY. 269. {Grossularia echinella, a new species of gooseberry from Florida. F. V. CovILLE. 394. Haiti, new or critical ferns from. W. R. Maxon. 86. Hispaniola ferns, further notes on. W. R. Maxon, 195. Identification of the commonly culti- vated species of Cucurbita by means of seed characters. Paut RussEuu. 265. Jamesonia, two new species of. W. R. Maxon. 72. Leguminosae, new genus of, [Leyce- phyllum]. C.V.Preer. 363. Melastomataceae, new or little known, from Venezuela and Panama, II. H. PirTier. 447. Oxyrhynchus Brandegee, genus. Pieper. 46. Panicum, new species of, found in alfalfa seed. Acnrs CHASE. 343. Passiflora, new species of, from tropical America. E. P. Kizure. 108. {Poisonous plants, relation of, to milk- sickness in man and animals, C. D. Marsh. 225, Pseudochaetochloa, a new genus of grasses from Australia. A. §. HircHcocx. ° 491. TRhododendron culture, experiments in. F. V. Covitur. 74. §Rock expedition to China for Arnold Aboretum. 418. Salvador, new species of plants from. P. C. Sranptey. Part III, 93; part IV, 238. Cay. tSeed control in Czechoslovakia. Ru- DOLPH Kuraz. 74. - }Soybean, abroad and at home. W. J. Morse. 75. Tacsonia, noteson. E.P.Kinurp. 212. SUBJECT INDEX West Indian ferns, new. W.R. Maxon, 139. Venezuela, five new plants from. S. F.Buaxe. 452. See also Biology, Genetics, Paleobotany. Chemistry. Active acidity of soils. E. T. WHERRY. 207. {Hot springs of the Lassen National Park. A. L. Day and E. T. AtLuen. 55. {Hydrated sulphates of magnesia in hot springs, note onthe. H. E. Merwin. 382. Life without oxygen. W. M. Cuarkx. 123. Measuring the potential alkalinity of irrigated soils. C.S.Scorrenp. 192. tMineral waters, fallacies regarding. W.D.Couttns. 54. Schiff’s bases, polymorphic forms and thermotropic properties of, derived from 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy-5-iodo- benzaldehyde. R. M. Hann. 79. Sodium chloride solutions, densities and specific volumes of, at 25°. R. E. Hau. 167. Conservation. {Relation of National For- est management to wild life. W. B. GREELEY. 59. TWild life protection in Yellowstone National Park, progress in. H. M. ALBRIGHT. 227. Crystallography. {Gravitational aniso- tropy in crystals. P. R. Heyy. 118. Entomology. Bird parasites, North Ameri- ean, of the genus Protocalliphora. R. C. SHannon and I. D. Dosroscxy. 247. {Braula coeca Nitzsch in Maryland apiaries. J. M. Aupricu. 181. Culicidae, American, subfamilies, tribes, and genera of. H. G. Dyarand R. C. SHANNON. 472. Eucosminae, North American, notes and new species’ (Lepidoptera). CARL HEINRICH. 385. Grylloblatta, notes on, with description of a new species. A. N. CAuDELL. 369. {Importing foreign parasites of intro- duced injurious insects. L. O. How- ARD. 227. SUBJECT INDEX Entomology (Continued) {Insect musicians, their music and their instruments. R.E.Snoparass. 202. tInsect diseases. G. F. Wurtz. 180. {Lesions due to the bite of the wheel- bug, Artlus cristatus (Hemiptera; Reduviidae). M.C. Hat. 204. {Migratory habits of insects in arid regions. H. D. Batu. 456. Prorhinotermes, new, from Panama. T. E.SnypER. 48. Sawflies from Japan, notes on and de- scriptions of some. S. A. RoHwER. 218. Thaumalidae, American species of, (Orphnephilidae) (Diptera). H. G. Dyar and R. C. SHANNON. 482. tTriungulin’”’, historical development of the term. A. G. B6vine. 203. Ethnology. {Economic plants as indica- tors of the origin and migrations of primitive races. W. E. Sarrorp. D2. §Marsh expedition to the Chucunaque Valley of Panama. 100. §National Geographic exploration at Pueblo Bonito, New Mexico. 458. Possible Siouan, identity of the words recorded from Francisco of Chicora on the South Carolina coast. F. G. Speck. 303. General Science. {International Bureau of Weights and Measures, work of the. L. V. Jupson. 118. §Library of the Imperial University of Tokyo, request for donation of scien- tific publications to the. 146. Old age, some thoughts on. Smita. 231. — 7Scientific attitude, remarks on the. A.S. Hircucock. 395. §Third Pan American Scientific Con- gress at Lima, Peru, announcement of. 182. §University of Voronesh, Russia. 205. Genetics. {Cerion breeding experiments, additional facts concerning. Pau BARTSCH. 225. Do balanced lethals explain the Oeno- thera problem? S. H. Emerson. 277. Geodesy. {Geodetic measurements, use of, in detecting horizontal and vertical earth movements. W. Bowir. 219. 13h 16 Geology. 505 On the size of the block of the earth’s crust which may be independently in isostatic equilibrium. W. Bowte. 355. See also Physics. {Carbonization of some Col- orado coals by igneous intrusion. Je BabiBye a odoe {Central Basin of Tennessee, oscillation of, in Ordovician time and its eco- nomic bearing. R.S. Bassuer. 56. {Coastal ground water. J. S. Brown. 50. {Dinosaur National Monument and its fossils. C. W.Gri~mMore. 381. {Dolomitization near Goodsprings, Ne- vada. D. F. Hewnrr. 164. {Gas in coal mines, origin of pockets of high pressure. G. 8S. Rice. 164. tGeologic mapping, value of airplane photographs in. M. R. Camppe.u. 163. {Haiti, tectonic features of the Republic of, and their bearing on the geologic history of the West Indies. W. P. Wooprine. 58. {Hanging side valleys of the Yosemite and the San Joaquin canyon. F. H. Matrues. 379. {Hawaiian volcanoes. T. A. JAGGER. 374. {Hot springs of the Lassen National Park. A. L. Day and E. T. ALLEN. aoe {Hydrated sulphates of magnesia in hot springs, note onthe. H. E. Merwin. 382. tIgneous geology of the Mud Lake Ba- sin, Idaho. H. T. Stearns. 380. {Laccoliths, Gilbert’s theory of. W.M. Davis. 375. {Lance-Fox hills contact in eastern Montana and the Dakotas. C. E. Dopsin and J. B. Reesipn, Jr. 165. {Lavas, surface fusion of recent. J. S. DitueR. 54. {Lebo member of the Fort Union, cor- relation of the, with Cannonball mem- ber of the Lance. W. T. THom, Jr. and C. E. Dopsin. 165. {Mineral waters, fallacies regarding. W. D. Couuins. 54. {Oceanic problems related to coral reefs. W.M. Davis. 348. 506 Geology (Continued) Oceanography in its relations to other earth sciences. T. W. VAUGHAN. 307. tOklahoma, new areal geologic map of. H. D. Miser. 382. {tOneota Dolomite, origin of the chert in the. M. N. BRAMLETTE. 55. §Petrologist’s Club, annual excursion ofeye 273: {Placer deposit in Alaska, an early Tertiary. S. R. Capps. 373. {Playas, some features of desert. THompson. 56. {Sinkhole structure in central Ten- nessee. R. 8. Bassuer. 374. {Steps, production of, in canyons by se- lective glacial quarrying. F. E. Martrues. 57. {Stereoscopic photography in geologic field work. F. E. Wricur. 63. {Thrust-faulting, distant peripheral zone of, in flat-lying beds around the Bearpaw Mountain intrusion, Mon- tana. FRANK Reeves. 52. Vertebrates, distribution of, in the Pleistocene of North America. O. P. Hay. 394. Walker Hotel swamp deposit, on the geologic age of the, in Washington, D. C., and on the origin and the ages of the Coastal Plain terraces in gen- eral. (0) Play. 255. Walker Hotel site, fossil swamp deposit at the, Connecticut Avenue and De- Sales Street, Washington, D. C. For- mations exposed in the excavation. C. K. Wentworru. 1. Organic re- mains, other than diatoms, from the excavation. E. W. Berry. 12. Dia- tom deposit found in the excavation. ALBERT Mann. 26. Geographic and historical evidence. LAURENCE LaForee. 33. TWestern Nevada ranges, major struc- tural features of some. H. G. FER- Guson and 8. H. Catucart. 376. Geophysics. tAtmospheric-electric obser- vations during the recent total solar eclipse. H. F. Jonnston. 217. jEarth-currents, system for recording, at the Watheroo Magnetic Observa- tory. O. H. Gisu. 120. DG. SUBJECT INDEX Iron, distribution of, in meteorites and in the Earth. L. H. Apams and H. 8. WASHINGTON. 333. Radial distribution of certain elements in the Earth. H. S. WasHineTon. 435. {Solar eclipse of 1923, effect of the, on the earth’s magnetic field. J. P. Avr. 218. Temperatures at moderate depths with- in the Earth. L..H. Apams. 459. See also Geology. Horticulture. {China, glimpses of eco- nomic trees and plants of. C. A. REED. 76. +Peru, domestication of plants in. O. F. Coox. 228, tRhododendron culture, in. F.V.Covitur. 74. §Rock expedition to China for Arnold Arboretum. 418. See also Botany. Ichthyology. {California sardines, conser- vationstudieson. O.E.SretTrre. 394. tSalmon, migration of, in the Alaska Peninsula region. W.H.Ricu. 397. Mammalogy. jtGrasshopper mouse, an insect-eating rodent, some habits of the. VERNON BAILEY. 224. tHoarding habits of mammals in relation to disposition and social instincts. VERNON BattEy. 227. {Kangaroo rats from Arizona, two new. experiments E. A. GOLDMAN. 372. See also Zoology. Mathematics. Spherical triangles, straight line chart for the solution of. F. E. Wricur. 399. Meteorology. tAnemometer, new stand- ard. S. P. Fereusson and R. N. CovERT. 352. Barometric reductions in the plateau region of western United States. C. LER. MEISINGER. 222. jDust content of the atmosphere, in- vestigation of the. I. F. Hann. 217. {Free air temperatures and wind direc- tions, relations between. W. R. GREGG. 221. {Pressure of the wind. H. L. DrypEn. IDPALE Mineralogy. Chlorophoenicite, a new mineral from Franklin Furnace, New SUBJECT INDEX Mineralogy (Continued) Jersey (Preliminary description). W. F, FosHac and R. B. Gace. 362. Tron-cobalt bearing gersdorffite in Idaho, occurrence of. EH. V. SHan- NON. 275. Mullite, a silicate of alumina. N. L. Bowen, J. W. Grete, and E. G. Zrzs. 183. Necrology. §Banr, J. L., 354. Baytor, J. B.,354. Brooks, A. H., 498. Cot- onna, B. A., 182. Hoxuister, Neb, 458. Luptow, Ciara S., 418. Met- stncEeR, C. L., 454. MErNDENHALL, pe e205 NmvrnEne Ree. 166. Omori, Fusakicui, 229. WiILLIAM- son, E. D., 42. Witson, WooprRow, 101. Woopwarp, R. S., 354. Optics. tNew optical lever system. L. B. TucKkERMAN. 119. Ornithology. Painting of the metallic features of birds, reproduction in, with exhibition of paintings of hum- ming-birds. FRANK Bonp. 61. Treronidae and other non-passerine birds from the East Indies, descrip- tions of new. H. C. OBERHOLSER. 294. {Iwo blue jays—Jack and Jill—and their home life. N. A. Cops. 395. §Yunnan and Szechuen provinces, - China, collection of birds in, by J. F. Rock. 354. See also Zoology. Paleobotany. {¥ossil flora of the West Indies, review of the. ARTHUR HOL- Lick. 58. Paleontology. t+tDinosaur National Monu- ment and its fossils. C. W. GILMorE. 381. 7Vertebrates, distribution of, in the Pleistocene of North America. O. P. Hay. 394. Walker Hotel site, fossil swamp deposit at the, Connecticut Avenue and De- Sales Street, Washington, D. C. Or- ganic remains, other than diatoms, from the excavation. E. W. Brrry. 12. Diatom deposit found in the ex- cavation. ALBERT MANN. 26. Pathology. {Lesions due to the bite of the wheel-bug, Arilus cristatus (Hemiptera; Reduviidae). M. C. EVADE. 204% 507 {Poisonous plants, relation of, to milk- sickness in man and animals. C. D. MarsH. 225. Petrology. tDolomitization near Good- springs, Nevada. D. F. Hewert, 164. {Lavas, surface fusion of recent. Dinter. 54. tOneota Dolomite, origin of the chert inthe. M.N. Bramurrte. 55. §Petrologist’s Club, annual excursion of, to rutile and soapstone localities in Virginia. 273. See also Geology. Photography. {Camera for photograph- ing projectiles in flight. H. L. Curtis. 216. tGeologic mapping, value of airplane photographs in. M. R. CampsBeE tu. 163. Geological field work, stereoscopic pho- tography in. F.E. Wricut. 63. Physical Chemistry. Sodium chloride so- lutions, densities and specific vol- umes of, at 25°. R. E. Haru. 167. Physics. §Bureau of Standards lectures. 78, 146, 228, 398. {Gallium, X-ray diffraction of metallic. R. W.G. Wyckxorr. 121. Geodetic base line tapes, recent results obtained in standardization of. L. V. Jupson and B. L. Paar. 340. Invar base line tapes, notes on the graduation of. L. V. Jupson and B. J.S. L. Page. 342. {Irreversibility—cosmic and _ micro- cosmic. A. J. LorKa. 352. {Newtonian constant of gravitation, history of the determination of the. P.R. Heyy. 347. (Quartz, effect of fine grinding on the density of. R. B. Sosman and H. E. Merwin. 117. {Radio acoustic position determination, method of. E. A. EckHarpt and M. Keiser. 350. {Solar activity and atmospheric elec- tricity, correlations between. L. A. Bauer. 351. tSound, velocity of, in sea water. N. H. Heck and J. H. Service. 349. {Temperature, calculation of, on the thermodynamic scale. L. H. Apams. 347. 508 SUBJECT INDEX Physics (Continued) Thermal conductivity of refractories, determination of. M. D. Hersry and E. W. Butzuter. 147. {Wheatstone Bridge, measurement of low resistances by the. F. WENNER and A. W. Situ. 116. {X-rays, passage of, through matter, and the atomic structure of commer- cial materials. S. J. M. AtLumn. 220. See also Geophysics, Meteorology, Optics, Spectroscopy. Scientific Notesand News. 62,78, 100, 146, 166, 182, 205, 228, 254, 273, 306, 353, 397, 418, 457, 498. Seismology. tSeismogram and its inter- pretation. F. A. Tonporr. 347. {Tokyo earthquake. T. A. JagGER. 375. Spectroscopy. Cobalt, regularities in the are spectrum of. F. M. Watters, Jr. 407. Columbium, regularities in the arc spectrum of. W. F. Mracerrs. 442. Scandium and yttrium, spectrum regu- larities for. W. F. Meaeers. 419. Vanadium multiplets and Zeeman Ef- fect. W. F. Mrccers. 151. Technology. Anemometer, new standard. S. P. Fereusson and R. N. Covert. 352. Electric telemeters, new developments in. O.S. Perers. 346. Micrometer theodolites, structural im- provements in modern. C. V. Hope- SON. 221. Micrometers, electrically controlled. Cuartes Moon. 345. Zoology. {Animal flight. A. H. Cuarkx. 396. {California sardines, conservation stud- ieson. O.E.Snrre. 394. Ferrissia, new species of, from Lower California. Bryant WALKER. 480. {Grasshopper mouse, an insect-eating rodent, some habits of the. VERNON BatLny. 224. ‘ Kangaroo rats from Arizona, two new. E. A. GOLDMAN, 372. Lizard, new Chinese, of the genus Eumeces. LEONHARD STEJNEGER. 383. jMammals, hoarding habits of, in re- lation to disposition and social in- stincts. VERNON Battny. 227. Marine faunas, comparative study of the most ancient and the recent. A. H. Cuarx. 487. Nuclear characters, on the value of, in the classification of marine gastro- pods. W. H. Daun. 177. {Salamanders of the District of Colum- bia. M. K. Brapy. 227. {Salmon in the Alaska Peninsula region, migration of. W.H.Ricu. 397. Snails of the genus Succinea from the Maritime Province of Siberia. T. D. A. CocKERELL. 366. South American snakes contained in the United States National Museum, new genus [Barbourina] and species of. AFRANIO DO AMARAL. 200. Spined millipeds [Hylomidae] from Cen- tral China, new family of. O. F. Coox and H. F. Loomis. 1038. Typhlops lumbricalis and related forms. D.M. Cocuran. 174. See also Biology, Genetics, Ornithology, Paleontology. ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES* Saturday, December 20. The Biological Society. . The Helminthological Society. Saturday, January 3. The Biological Society. * The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. PROGRAMS ANN OUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL Saturday, November 22. The Biological Society. Program: JosnpH GRINNELL, Berkeley, California: Faunal changes now taking place in California. Harry V. Haruan: The plains and hills of Punjab and Kashmir. Tuesday, December 2. The Botanical Society. Program: Harry V. Haran: The agriculture of North Africa. P. J. ANDERSON, Plant Pathologist, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station: Fighting tobacco wildfire in New England. Thursday, December 4. The Entomological Society. Program: Wm. Scuaus: Mimicry and the Entomological Society of London. S. A. RonweER, Notes and exhibition of specimens. : Saturday, December 6. The Biological Society. Program: Annual meeting, election of officers. Saturday, December 13. The Philosophical Society. Program: Annual meeting, reports of officers and election. H. N. Hecx: Application of force diagrams to compass compensation. Tuesday, December 16. Tur Acapemy, The Archaeological Society, The Anthropolog- ical Society (joint meeting). Program: Count Byron Kuun Dr Prorox: Carthage excavations, 1924, and the dead cities of the Sahara. CONTENTS OnIGINAL oa art ae —Pseudochaetochloa, a new genus of grasses from wh stra HITCHCOCK ...... +. +02 00s eset ee eset eee eee eee Cultural Anthropology.—The factor of difference. ScrmyT1Fic Notes AND Newel. cd Caen ae i . INDEX ae Aa Procetdaes, .. 01, , 0b. 5 fucsevamececegee lee. | etl aa te name POPOMOTOM IGOR |S. 5 4/4. wiaie «ose citejere eke os as eR CUTUCECG TS Ca cle) a rn el ne eens ENE OS LUNE OSE A Saal ¢ a OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY — i ; President: ArTHUR L. Day, Geophysical Laboratory. i - Corresponding suede Francis B. i ee eebiae of S Standar det A 1 Li J 7 / : S . @& ol a om + Ae a igs aii an° a Sinnnhpanannnal Dod mal af maar’ Ana Aap AA ‘ } a4 ~ ay me ae ‘ ‘4 1th ame : eon . ~ mennha. Ns Pea ar art Dee Cale ene filel te Welal Paeaaan Pe hed, if ; May BN rin NA QARy 2 , JP, - TUTTE Beall pea NASA AnAaE eye ve a p Sb Ashen Ut! wA snes iter PETIT iti ms RuaRAN an &% at A Datel al Pr Fea ae Troyer tt r A Bell antag, -SSRREE a aa R Yeti Ly Pie —~A aay \ oA mannaNAL a } eta ‘ na’ , AANAY nuaredhirite WPener... oss, ei cos AA AAA a, aaa 5S ~ \ no C8 ds Be een sa>il! = TELL TL ‘| ree” la na) ae | | : eal ete T PH EEN SOE 8 : _ostteiaceteil 4 BPeee tt LLU TTT TT ae eee mf Men y- B'a:, “a AA: NR Ladin TY kai? Mandi en Tan aa é PAL a8 PR ETL Lay tag gabonten ~ {u hiner i = t Atacand ns: ane tg . a ay aN Adela lol i win aaana® a - a4 ee ~~ “ . p pil fy Ps as r A ee \-@ Reee- res = Pe yy areh a > J | "1 Vad % 1 ¢ pee. 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